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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

VOLUME THE SEVENTH.

(second series.)

JANUARY TO JUNE, MDCCCXLIII.

LONDON:

OFFICE, 24, NORFOLK STREET, STRAND.

MAY BE IIXD BY OKDER THROUGH ALL BOOKbELLERS.

LONDON: '

PRINTED BY JOSEPH ROGERSON,

24, NOUFOIKSTnEl.T, STIiAND.

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HE FARMER^S MAGAZINE.

JANUARY, 1843.

No. 1.— Vol, VII.]

[Secoixd Series.

PLATE I.

PORTRAIT OF THE LATE EARL OF LEICESTER.

PLATE II.

FAULCONER.

Faukoucr is the property of Mr. Botterill Johnson, of Frodinghambridge, near Driffield, Yorkshire;
lie is a beautiful grey, rising five years old, stands full sixteen hands higli, with superior action, and was
got by F'alcon, dam by Admiral, grandam by Peerless, great grandam by Greek, great great grandam by
Mr. Pickering's noted yellow Horse, of Willerby. Falcon was by Interpreter, dam Miss Newton, the dam
of Merlin, Buzzard, ice, by Del|)liini ; her dam Tipple Cyder, by King Fergus, Sylvia, by Young Marsk ;
out of Ferret, by a brother to Silvio, Regains, &c. Admiral was got by General Benefit, his dam by Mr.
Goodlass's noted horse Old Turk, grandam Mr. Lamplugh's Old Volunteer, great grandam Mr. Sawden's
old horse, of Lund ; great great grandam by Mr. Dunsley's celebrated Horse. In 1837, Fanlconer's dam
won the prize and sweepstakes at Beverley, as the best coaching marc, and within the last three months
her worthy owner, Mr. Windass, of Beverley Park, refused a large sum for her. In 1838, Faulconer
obtained the premium at Beverley, as the best coaching foal, and in 1841, at Burlington, for the best
coaching stallion, with a sweepstakes at Beverley. In the same year, at the Yorkshire show, which was
open to all England, he carried off the first prize in his class, although he had numerous competitors
of nfreat merit.

MEMOIR OF THE LATE EARL
OF LEICESTER.

By Cutiibert \V. Joiinsox, Esq., F. R.S.

It is a good sign of the present daj', and indeed it
has almost universally been so in the best and
brightest periods of England's eventful history,
that her children are ever ready to do impartial jus-
tice to the dead. The grave with them closes over
all strife; the breath of party violence, of envy,
and of ambition is heard no more ; the good ac-
tions of the departed are then chiefly and gratefully
remembered. And this meed of approbation has
in all ages been with more than ordinary readiness
awarded to those who have in any way contributed
to the better, the more profitable, cultivation of the
earth.

Of the first of such a class of England's bene-
factors, must ever be placed the name of the
subject of this memoir; a beautifully engraved

OLD SERIES.}

portrait of whom, by W. H. Davis, embellishes
the first page of our magazine for the present
month.

The Right Honourable Thomas William Coke,
Earl of Leicester, of Holkham, in the county of
Norfolk, and Viscount Coke, was born on the 4tli
of May, 1752 ; the son of Wenman Roberts, Esq.,
who assumed the name and arms of the Coke
family on succeeding to their estates, by the death
of his maternal uncle, Thomas Coke, Earl of Lei-
cester.

Of the ancestors of such a man, the farmer will
be glad to hear all that diligent research can dis-
cover. He was descended from the great lawyer,
Sir Edward Coke, who was twice married, and had
by his first wife, Bridget Paston, of Huntingfield,
in Suffolk, ten children — seven sons and three
daughters. Of the daughters : 1st. — Elizabeth*, died

* " Here lyethe the Bodye of Elizabeth CooLe,
Daughter to Edward Cooke and Bridget his Wyfe,
B [A'o. l.— VOL. Xrill.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

iu her infancy -iiid.— Ann, who \v;is baptised
at lluntiiigfifkl, JNliircli 7th, 1584, married
Ralpl), son and licir of Sir Thomas Sadler, the
grandson of Sir Ralph Sadler, chancellor of the
duchy of Lancaster; she died without issue
{Chauncey's Hertfordshire, vol. 2. p. 180J. 3rd. —
Bridget, married \Villiam, son and heir of Sir "\'in-
cent Skinner (Collins, vol. 4, /;. 353j. Of the sons :
1st. — Edward, baptized at Hunting-field, Dec. 5,
loSS, died an infant, ind. — Robert, baptized at
Huntingfield, Oct. 3, 1587 ; received the honour of
knightbood ; he married Theophila, daughter of Tho-
mas Lord Berkeley, by whom he had no issue. lie
died July 19, 10-58, aged 67 ( Monument in Epsom
Church). Through this Robert Coke, the London
library of Sir Edward Coke came into the posses-
sion of the Berkeley family ; and was by George, the
fourteenth Earl Berkelej', presented, inl680, to the
corporation of Sion College, in Loudon. 3rd. — Ar-
thur, baptized at Huntingfield, March 7th, 1688, who
married Elizabeth, daughter and heiress of Sir
George Walgrave, by whom he had four daughters.*
4th. — John, baptized at Huntingfield, March 4,
1590, who was seated at Holkham ; he married
Meriel, the daughter of Anthony Wheateley, Esq.,
by whom he had six sons and nine daugliters.f
The estate, however, descended to his youngest son
John, and he dying unmarried, the property de-
scended to the heirs of Henry Coke ( Collins, vol.
4, 2^' 155). 5th. — Henry, who was baptized at
Huntingfield, August 30, 1592, was seated at Thur-
rington, in Norfolk. He was elected member of
Parliament iu 1G23 for Wycomb, twice in 1G25 for
the same borough, and in 1640 for Dimwich ( Willis
Not. Pari. vol. 2, p. 187, 198, 208, 28G;, He mar-
ried Margaret, daughter to and heiress of Edward
Lovelace, Esq., by whom he had a son, Richard,
who espoused Mary, daughter of Sir John Rous,
Bart., by whom he had a son, Robert, who suc-
ceeded, on the death of John Coke, to the Holkham
estates, and the greatest part of Sir Edward Coke's
property (Monument in Titleshall Church). This
Robert Coke married Lady Ann Osborn, daughter
of Thomas Duke of Leeds, by whom he had only
one son, Edward. Robert Coke died January
16, 1679, in the twenty-ninth year of his age ; and

who deceased the 11 Da3-e of November, in the
yeare of our Lord 1586" — is inscribed on a flat
stone with a brass plate, before the altar of Hun-
tingfield Church, in Suffolk.

* Epitaph iu BramfielJ Church, in Suffolk.

-f- In the chapel on the south side of Holkham
Church is a marble monument, on which is in-
scribed— "To the reviving memory of William
Wheateley, Esq., and Martha Skinner, his wife ; and
Anthony Wheateley, Esq., and Ann Armiger, his
•wife; and also of Meriel Coke, late wife of John
Coke, of Holkham, in the county of Norfolk, Esq.,
the fourth son of the Right Honourable Sir Edward
Coke, Kniiiht, late chief judge of the court of
Common Pleas, and afterwards Chief Judge of the
King's Bench, &;c., &:c., &:c. Her loving husband,
John Coke, Esq., to whom shn bore six sons and
nine daughters, and lyeth here buried, erected this
to her memory. She died the fourth of July, 1636.

In tbechancelof the same church is a grave-stone,
on which is engraved — " In memory of John Coke,
Esq., fourth son of Sir Edward Coke, &;c., &:c., who
married Meriel, daughter of Anthony Wheateley,
Esq., of Hill Hall, in Norfolk (BlomJichVs History
of Norfolk, vol. 0,p.ilO).

was buried at Titleshall, where there is a monument
to his memory. His son Edward married Carey,
daughter of Sir John Newton, of Gloucestershire ;
he died on the 13th of April, 1707, and his widow
soon afterwards ; they had three sons and two
daughters — 1, Thomas ; 2, Edward, who died at his
scat at Longford in August, 1733, unmarried.

It was on this Mr. Edward Coke's behalf, that
the celebrated Sarah Duchess of Marlborough pre-
tended to have been oftered six thousand pounds for
a peerage, " And how easy and inofifensive a thing,"
says the Duchess, " would that have been at that
time! for he was a gentleman, of an estate equal
to the title desired, and was grandson to the Duke
of Leeds, and in that interest which hitherto car-
ried all before it at court {Account of her own con-
duct, 346)." But dying, as before stated, unmarried,
he left his estate to his youngest brot'aer Robert.

This Robert Coke was Vice Chamberlain to Queen
Caroline, and married in June, 1733, Lady Jane,
daughter and co-heir of Philip Duke of Wharton,
and relict of John Holt, Esq., of Redgrave, in Suf-
folk.

The daughters were : 1st. — Carey, who marrred
Sir Marmaduke Wyville, Bart., of Burton Constable,
in Yorkshire ; and 2nd., Anne, married to Major
Philip Roberts, of the second Life Guards.

Thomas Coke, Esq., however, their elder brother,
succeeded to the family estates ; he was made
Knight of the Bath in May, 1725; in 1728, Lord
Lovel, of Minster Lovel, in Oxfordshire ; and in
1747, Viscount Coke, and Earl of Leicester.

He married in July, 1718, Lady Margaret Tufton,
one of the daughters and co-heiresses of Thomas
Earl of Thanet, to whom George the II. confirmed
her right of descent to the Barony of Cliftbrd ; by
this lady he had a son, Edward, who married Lady
Mary Campbell, daughter of Field Marshal the
Duke of Argyle, and died at Greenwich, iu the life
time of his parents, without issue.

Tlie magnificent seat of Holkham, by far the
finest mansion in the East of England, was erected
under the direction of this Lord Leicester; who,
when he had finished his work, placed an inscrip-
tion over the hall door, where it still remains, to
inform the spectator that the ground on which he
erected the house, he had found a barren waste.

6th. — Clement, the sixth son of Sir Edward Coke,
who was baptized at Huntingfield, September 4,
1694, married Sarah, daughter of Alexander Red-
dicke, by whom he had two sons and two daughters ;
his descendants were all extinct in 1727.

He represented the borough of Heydon, in 1614
( Willis Not. Pari, vol. 2, p. 169, 170), and com-
mitted himself by using some rather rash expres-
sions, which the Government of Charles the First
sorely resented.*

* His monument is in the Temple Church, with
this inscription : — " Here resteth the body of Cle-
ment Coke, of Langford, in the county of Derby,
Esq., youngest son of Sir Edward Coke, Knight,
late Chief Justice of England ; and of Bridget
his wife, daughter and co-heir of John Paston,
of Paston, in the county of Norfolk, Esquire. —
This Clement married Sarah, daughter and co-
heir of Alexander Redickc, of Uedicke, in the
county of Lancasler ; and of (Jatherine, his wife,
sole daughter and lieir of Humjdiry Dethick, of
Nevval, in the county of Derby, Esq. ; and had issue
by the said Sarah, living at his death, Edivard, Ro-
bert, Bridget,;dud Avise. lie in the Inner Temple,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

7 til. — Thomas, the youngest son of Sir Edv.aril
Coke, died young.

By his second wife, Lady Ilatton, Sir Edward
Coke liad two daughters. 1st. — Elizabeth, who
died unmarried. 2nd. — Frances, who married Sir
Jolm Villiers, Ijrother of Villiors Duke of Buelving-
ham, and afterwards created Viscount Parbeck,but
by whom, according to a decision of the House of
Lords, she had no children.

On the death of Lord Leicester, in 1759, the
Ivuldoni of Leicester, ice, became extinct, but his
estates devolved upon his nephew, Wenman Ro-
berts, Esq. (the sou of Lord Leicester's sister Ann),
wlio, as we have before observed, assumed the name
of Coke, and died in 177G. He married Elizabeth
Cliumberlaynr, and had by her — 1st, Thomas
William, his heir ; 2nd, Edward ; and two daugh-
ters.

On his death, in 1776, he was succeeded by
the subject of this paper, Thomas William
Coke, afterwards, as we have already seen, created
Earl of Leicester ; who married first, Jane,
daughter of James Dutton, Esq., of the county of
Dorset, by whom, who died in June, 1800, he had
tJirec daughters, ^iz. : — 1st, Jane Elizabeth, who
married first in 179G, to Charles Nevison "S'iscount
Andover, who was killed by the bursting of a fowl-
ing piece, in 1800 ; secondly, in 1806, to Vice-
Admiral Sir Henry Digby, by whom she had issue
— 1st, Edward; 2nd, Kenelm ; 3rd, Jane, married
in 1824, to Lord Ellenborough, but which marriage
was dissolved in 1830. 2nd. — Ann Margaret, mar-
ried in 179-4 to Viscount Anson, by whom she had,
with several other children, the present Earl of
Lichfield. 3rd. — Elizabeth Wilhelmina, married in
1822 to John Spencer Stanhope, Esq., of Cannon
Hall, in Yorkshire.

Mrs. Coke died June 2, 1800; and after remain-
ing a widower for more than twenty-one years, Mr.
Coke, in February, 1822, married secondly, Lady
Ann Amelia Keppcl, daughter of the present Earl
of Albemarle, and had issue — Thomas William, now
Earl of Leicester, born December 26th, 1822; Ed-
ward Keppel, born August 20th, 1824; Henry John,
born January 3rd, 1827 ; Wenman Clarence Wal-
pole, born July 13th, 1828; Margaret Sophia,
March 7 th. 1832.

Thomas William Coke, the subject of this me-
moir, upon losing his father in 1776, was immediately
chosen to succeed him as the representative in Par-
liament for the county of Norfolk ; again elected in
17uO, he was an unsuccessful candidate in 1784,
but was again returned in 1790,1796, and 1802;
was declared not duly elected by a committee of
the House of Commons, after the general election of
1806, but was again returned in 1807, and in every
succeeding election until 1632, when he declined to
oifer himself again. In 1837 he was created a peer.
With his political history we have little to do in this
work ; he never suffered political feeling to interfere
with either his personal friendship, or his noble
agricultural pursuits, and we have no intention of
departing from so excellent an example. He spoke
himself of his own Parliamentary career, when in
1833 he had retired from the representation of his
native county, without self-flattery or bitterness,
and with no attempts at an eloquence which he never

being a Fellow of the House, christianly and com-
fortably in his flourishing age yielded up h'n soul to
tie Almighty, the three and twentieth of May,
A.D. 1629."— Stowe's London, 703.

l)ossessed ; when he said, " When I first oftcred my-
self for this county, I did so with great reluctance,
for I had no wish to come into Parliament. 1 was
no orator, no politician. I was young, and just
returned from abroad, aud my own pursuits (if I
could apjieal to the ladies), were nnieh more eon-
genial to my feelings. But I was much solicited by
Sir Harbord Ilarbord, Sir E. Astley, and Mr. Fel-
lowes, of Shottisham, who said, and said truly, that
I owed it to my father's memory, to Sir E. Astley,
who had just stood a severe contest, aud that if I
did not stand a tory would come in. At the men-
tion of a tory coming in, gentlemen, my blood
chilled all over me from head to foot, and I came
forward. I was desired to write one letter to
George Earl of Orford, which I did, and I well
remember the answer : ' Houghton and Holkham
have always been united in the bonds of friendship,
let it ever be so.' Soon after I met the noble Earl,
who said, 'I can never support you again, you
always clog the wheels of Government.' This was
not very pleasant. I had not been in the House of
Commons more than two months, when Charles
Tompson said to me one day, ' If Mr. Coke is in-
clined for a Peerage, I will mention it.' Soon after
this the Duke of Portland wrote to me, and said
that the King allowed them to inake three Peers,
and I should be the first if I liked.' I immediately
went to London, to Burlington House, and called
on the noble Duke, and told him I was astonished
that he should think I would desert Mr. Fox, and
that so great was my regard for him, that so long
as I lived I would ever support him." This will
give the reader a fair idea of the late Lord Leices-
ter's politics. He seemed to be in that respect ever
straightforward and uncompromising, and if he dirt
now and then, in some of his after-dinner addresses,
betray a want of taste in culling his expressions of
contempt, he did it without intending to hurt the
feelings of any one. Leaving, therefore, the reader
to judge of Lord Leicester's political tenets by his
own feelings, we turn to his great and successful
agricultural eft'orts, which have redounded so much
to his honour, and which will in all probability be
remembered with gratitude by all the cultivators of
England as long as farming shall be held to be the
best and noblest support of the land of our birth.
Some of the chief results of the late Lord Leices-
ter's attempts to improve his extensive Norfolk
estates has been sketched by Lord Spencer (Journi
Roy. Ag. Soc. v. ii. p. I) ; and what he has done so
well, it is needless to attempt to give in other lan-
guage. From that paper we learn that at the time
Lord Leicester came into the possession of his estates,
in 1776, " the whole district around Holkham was
unenclosed, and the cultivation of the most mise-
rable descriptiou : the course of cropping, as long
as the land would produce anything, was three
white crops in succession, and then broadcast tur-
nips ; no manure was purchased, and very little,
aud that of no value, was produced on the farm.
The sheep were of the old Norfolk breed, and, with
the exception of a few milch cows, there were no
cattle kept upon any of the farms." Chance, which
has often paid to it honours very undeserved, had,
however, it seems, much influence in making Lord
Leicester a farmer. It is, it seems, entirely to the
obstinacy of a farmer of the old school that England
is indebted for the improvements which emanated
from the great agricultural school of Holkham.
" It happened," continues Lord Spencer, " that the
lease of a large part of the land which now forms

B 2

TllK FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Ilolkham Pari: \va? witliin two ytais of its cxpini-
f ion. In till' lease iirevioiis to the one then cui-rent
this land luul been let at Is. tid. per acre; in the
then current lease it had been raised to 3s. Lord
Leicester otiered to tlie tenant to renew it at os. ;
but Mr. Brett, the tenant, who deserves to have his
name recorded I'or the great good he unintention-
ally did to his country, refused to give so much for
the land ; upon which Lord Leicester determined
to take it into his own hands. The real origin,
therefore, of the great imi)rovement of this district
was, that Mr. Brett refused to give Us. an acre for
land which now, under an improved system of cul-
tivation, usually produces nearly four ((uarters of
wheat per acre; for nothing would have been much
more improbable than that Lord Leicester — then an
extremely young man, fond of and excelling in field
sports, with ajirincely fortune — should have applied
liimself to the detailed management of a larm, had
he not ])cen compelled to take this tract of land
into his own hands by the refusal of Mr. Brett to
accept the terms which were offered to him. But,
having taken the farm into his own hands, he soon
found, as every man who applies himself to agri-
culture will find, the high interest of the pursuit :
his taste was formed, the habits of his life accom-
modated themselves to it, and, applying the whole
energy of his mind to tlie collection and dissemi-
nation of all the knowledge which he could derive
from practical and scientiiie fanners, he at length
effected the great improvements which, while they
were a source of continual happiness to liimself,
produced the most incalculable benefits to his coun-
try.

The lease having thus expired in 1778, Lord
Leicester commenced farming. Ke was, however,
necessarily ignorant of any of the knowledge neces-
sary to conduct the management of a farm ; but he
took the only means which could give him tlie in-
formation he required — he began at once to collect
around him practical men, and invited to his house
annually a party of farmers, at first only from the
neighbouring districts. At these meetings agricul-
tural subjects were discussed ; Lord Leicester's
farm was examined, and his management of it
either criticised or approved ; and, by thus receiv-
ing information, and again communicating it to
others, not only did Lord Leicester himself arrive
at the knowledge of agricultural management, but
the practical men who attended these meetings left
fticra better informed than they came. In the
course of time, the friends of Lord Leicester came
from a distance to attend them, and ultimately,
from such a small beginning, came the far-famed
Holkham Sheep-shearing, which was annually long
the great centre of agricultural attraction ; until at
last they became too great and too expensive to be
longer continued. They had, besides, accomplished
all the benefits that Lord Leicester originally anti-
cipated from the repeated visits to one district of
so great an assemblage of accomplished practical
farmers.

But lie did not confine his researches to his own
immediate neighbourhood : he was the friend and
correspondent of all the great farmers of his time —
of such men as Francis Duke of Bedford, Sir John
Sinclair, Robert Bakewell, INIatthew and George
Cullcy,and Arthur ^'ouiig. In 1784, Young visited
Ilolkiiani, and imljlished some of his observations
(AniKils of AijrlcuUure, v. ii , p. 35.y. Lord
Leicester's farm then consisted, it seems, of about
3,000 acres— £2,000 rent.

400 Acres of Platation.

400 " Sainfoin.

500 " Turnips.

;300 " Barley.

130 " Oats.

30 " Wheat.

40 " Peas.

800 Norfolk Ewes.

100 of Bakewell's breed of Sheep.

(iOO Wethers.

120 Fat Oxen.
12 Working Oxen.
30 Cows.
8 Carters and Servants.
40 Labourers.
It is evident that Lord Leicester had already
succeeded in improving the enterprise and skill of
the old race of Norfolk farmers ; for Young adds,
" Mr. Coke resides in the midst of the best hus-
bandry in Norfolk." Young was again in Holkham
October 20, 17.92. (Annals, v. xix. p. 441.)
Lord Leicester communicated to Young (Annals,
t\ XV. p. oS6) an account of the ponds he had
caused to be made at Holkham, for the conve-
nience of watering sheej) and cattle.

The celebrated farmer, J. Boys, of Betshanger, in
Kent, and J. Ellman, of Glynde, in Sussex, were at
Holkham in July, 1792 ; and Boys describes, in a
very laudatory way, in his published " Minutes,"
all that he saw there. (Annals, vol. xix. ]J. 118.)

The first Mrs. Coke was evidently al.so very par-
tial to fartning ; for Boys observes, " While Mr.
Coke attended to receive his rents from a great
number of tenants, it being audit day, Mrs. Coke
rode with us neaily thirty miles. It is impossible
to describe either the j)leasure we enjoyed in this
morning's ride, or the agreeable sur))rise in meeting
with an amiable lady in high life so well acquainted
with agriculture, and so condescending as to attend
two farmers out of Kent and Sussex a whole morn-
ing, to show them some Norfolk farms. Wliat im-
provements,'" he adds, " would be made in this
country if one-half of the gentry of landed pro-
perty understood and delighted in agriculture like
this worthy family !" Boys noticed, with the quick
eye of a farmer, the advantages of tlie Holkham
agriculture, and speaks with pleasure of "immense
fields of barley," " very great crops, and perfectly
clean, on land naturally poor ; " " the house, a
palace of the first rate."

Y'oung describes very briefly (Amials, v. xxix.
p. 149) the Annual Sheep-shearing at Holkham, in
1797. And more at length, that of June 20, 1803
(Annals, v. xl. p. G04), he says — " The district,
though long famous for its husbandry, has been
greatly improved in the last ten or twelve years; cind
it is much deserving of notice, that this is also the
period of the existence of Ilolkham Sheep-shearings,
aff"ording reason for the obvious conclusion, that the
spirit of improvement, so nearly allied to the renun-
ciation of prejudices, has arisen in consequence of
the conversation promoted at these meetings, of the
emulation excited by premiums, and of the cer-
tainty that no exertions in experimental agriculture
made by the tenantry of an extensive county, will
be overlooked by the pervading eye, or neglected
by the munificence, of the great patron of Norfolk
imjjrovemcnts."

At this meeting there attended, amongst others,
the Uuke of Bedford, Sir Joseph Banks, Sir Hum-
phrey Davy, John Ctilley, Aitluir Young, Edmund
Cartwright, and about three or four hundred other

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

gentlemen. " As one of tlio first consoqiiencos,"
contiimcs Lord Spencer," of the discussions at, tliose
iTieetiiigs, Lord Leicester adopted a somewhat im-
proved course of cropping- j instead of growing
three white crops in succession, he only grew two,
and kept the land in jiasture for two years in every
course. This change appears grudiially to have
improved the land ; and I find, from the old ac-
counts of the farm, that wheat was first sown upon
it in 17t^7 (according to Arthur Yonn?, ante it was
grown in 1784). This improved course of cropping,
though quite essential, was not of itself sufficient to
enable him to grow wheat. The land, naturally
very weak, was still more impoverished by the ex-
hausting treatment it had received. In order to
got it into better condition, it was aI)solute]y neces-
sary greatly to increase the number of live stock
which had hitherto been kept upon it; but the pro-
duction for them was so small, that it was impos-
sible at first to adopt this mode of improvement to
any great degree. The first thing to be done was
the purchase of manure. Another much more
ctlective source of fertility was adapted, and to a
much greater decree than it had been hitherto.
Tlie surface soil of the whole district is a very light
sand, l)nt nearly throughout it, at various depths,
there is a stratum of rich marl. Pits were opened,
and the marl dug out and laid ujion the surface ; this
not only increased its fertility, but gave to the soil
the solidity wliich is essential to the growth of
wheat, by such means, clover and other artificial
grasses were raised, and the power obtained of keep-
ing more live stock. The only live stock then kept
were the Norfolk sheep — theie were no cattle. At
first, Lord Leicester made no alteration ; but he
adopted IMr. Bakewell's Leicester breed of long-
liorncd cattle. When, however, some time after-
wards, he found that the Norfolk sheep weie a very
unprofitable sort, he tried the new Leicesters — a
variety of sheep but ill calculated to succeed on the
soils of Holkham. He at last found that the South-
downs were the best breed of sheep he could adopt.
He made, however, many careful, long-continued
comparative trials before he finally resolved upon
the change. So late as the Sheep shearing of 1812,
Leicester and Norfolk sheep were kci)t at Holk-
ham • since then, only the Southdowns have been
kept. He tried, but only for a short period, the
Merinos. He was a decided friend to the Devon
breed of cattle, with which he replaced the lou"--
horned variety."

Vrhen Lord Leicester had jiroved, by his own
practice, that wheat might be jirofitably grown, he
endeavoured to persuade the neighbouring farmers
to follow his example ; but it was nine years before
any of them did so. At last the late i^Ir. Overman,
■whose skill and ability are well known, made the
attempt with perfect success ; and from that time
the old system fell into disrepute, and the present
Norfolk agriculture gradually replaced it.

But many difficnlties and contentions, many
arguments and restraining covenants, had to be
emjdoyed before this very desirable consummation
could "be effected— although, at first the tenantry
were only restrained from taking more than two
white crops in succession. At last, however, he sue •
ceeded. " The effect of even this alteration,'' con-
tinues Lord Sjjencer, " was such that it proved how
disadvantageous to all parties the old system had
been ; and upon the late Mr. Overman taking a
farm of Lord Leicester, he was allowed to draw the
covenants of his own lease himself; he then in-

serted the modern improved course of cropping,
well known as the best adapted to light turnip
lands. This lease has been the model on which
Lord Leicester's leases have since been drawn —
making, of course, any changes which the peculiar
nature of each farm may require. The tenants
make no difficulty now about agreeing to adopt the
coveuiints inserted in their leases, for the able and
skilful f^irmersof his estates know full well that the
course of husbandry thus enforced, whilst it is the
most advantageous fur the improvement of the
property of their landlord, is the most profitable
for themselves."

Such, then, is a very rapid sketch of the great
agricultural efforts of the late Thomas William
Coke, Eail of Leicester — such were his enlightened
views — such the labours he encountered in the ser-
vice of agriculture : works which were only closed
by his death, which happened on the 30th of June,
184-2, when he was in the 91 st year of his age.*
And, as it has been truly remarked in another place
Omd with this summary of the efforts of the great
" Coke of Norfolk" we conclude this brief review
of his life), it is impossible for such a man as this
to depart, as he has recently done, full of years and
honour, without carrying with him the farmers'
grateful remembrance; for the benefit of his a?
first unaided exertions— his triumphs over the poo'.t
drifting sands of Norfolk — were not confined to the
tenants of his own princely estates, but they were
felt to the remotest corners of the island. He, too,
was not the farmer who confined his views to the im-
mediate profits which even bad farming, the most ex-
ecrable rotation of crops, at fiist affords ; he took
a wider, a nobler position — he laboured, and he ex-
erted himself successfully too, to increase the per-
manent fci-tility of the soil ; he effected this excel-
lent object, not only by improved rotations of
crops, but by the application of marl and clay, by
the judicious use of artificial organic manures ; and
by the adojjtion of a more numerous and a more
profitable description of live stock, he banished
the old race of profitless Norfolk sheep. He ex-
cited the more general use of the drill ; and, by
such and other improvements, he at last succeeded in
growing tlie wheat crop in an extensive portion of
Norfolk, where wheat had never before been grown.
Lord Leicester, too, had the wisdom to conclude
that the interest of the landlord and the tenant
were too closely united to be readily separated. He
granted, therefore, leases of a liberal nature and ex-
tent, and burthened the cultivators of his estates
with but few restraining covenants ; for these, he
well knew, while they retard the exertions of the
good farmer, but seldom improve the farming of

* We have not a/tempted to follow in detail all the
great agricultural im[irovemenls which Lord Leices-
ter either originated or supported. The use of arti-
ficial manures, such as bones, gvpsum, rape rake,
the use of dung in a fresher siate (Com. to Board of
.'IgricitUtire, vol. vi. p. 366); ih« use of the drin,
and the manure drill also; the drilling turnips on
ridges; the use of mangel-wuizel ; the moie genera
introduction of green crops — of improved agricul-
tural implements; and of many other modern im-
provements, were all supported by Lord Leicester's
influence and example. He infused, too, into the
niiiids of all those with whom he iissociatt^d the ad-
vantages to be derived by the farmers from coming
into collision with men of science, and with the cul-
tivators of distant districts ; nnd on all occasions ea-
deavoured to acquire and diffuse knowled;:e.

G

THE FAllMEirS MAGAZINE.

the l)igottecl ami the indolent.* That his nohle
agricultural oflbrts were appreciated in his lifetime,
both at home and abroad, the crowds who annually
attended his great sheep-shearings sufficiently at-
tested ; and now that he has departed, in his good
old age and full of honour, we rejoice to see, by
the just and graceful tribute which the agricultu-
rists of his country are about erecting to his me-
mory, that they are not willing that his great ser-
vices, or the gratitude of his brother farmers, should
be allowed long to remain nnrecorded. — Johnson's
Life of Sb- Edward Coke, Gentleman's Magazine,
Lord Spencer's Sketch, Johnson and Shato's Far-
mers' Almanac for 1843,

ON THE PRINCIPLES OF DRAIN-
ING, AND THEIR PRACTICAL
APPLICATION.

TO THR EDITOR OF THE FARMF.r's MAGAZINE.

Sir, — In a leiteron this subject, inserted, in your
journal for May last, I dwelt on the necessity of
examining the subsoil before we determine on the
plan to be followed ; and on reading again the
former letter to which I then referred, am inclined,
under the impression that good may come by
drawing tbe attention of others at this period, to
explain more fully my opinions on the theory of
draining. In the several treatises it has fallen to
my lot to read (and I have read but few for some
years, except the different articles that have ap-
peared in your journal,) 1 have seen little analysis
of its principles, or search into the physical laws of
nature as they act on and control our operations.
In attempting the following discussion, I am aware
of the difficulty of the task ; aware that when we
enter into an examination of one of the principles
of nature, we find a wonderful combination of
matter acting in the universal scheme, that should
occupy our attention ere wo arrive at any con-
clusion. But this is not perhaps strictly applicable
to the comparatively confined view I purpose taking
of the subject; and did I enter on it with an idea
of embracing one half of the argument necessary
for the development of the properties relating to
it, I should have a very false view of my own
powers. In short, as oppoi tunities have occurred of
dispelling a doubt, or correcting an error, by seek-
ing aid from a few popular works on science that
have come to hand, I have availed myself of them
— of the pleasure of comparing practice with theory ;
hence emanate the following observations, and
without such confirmation I should not be san-
guine enough to make the attempt. With me, the
general mode has been reversed — the theory has
been subsequent to the practice ; and when we can
bring the known natural laws to bear on, to jus-
tify the plans we follow, we have reason to feel
convinced of their correctness. We have sought

* He was nobly consistent, even to the last ; for,
a short time before Lis decease, he called around
him his numerous tenantry, and oflered to renew all
their then running leases for twenty-one years. — As
it is very prohable that this imperfect memoir may
be published in a separate and enlarged form, its
author would ho obliged by suggestions and correc-
tions.

the only test, the only guide by which we can
hope to arrive at the truth ; and if we err, the in-
ference drawn from eifjcts, the judgment is in
fault ; dei)rived of such guide, whatever be the
pursuit, thongh by experience we may hit the right
mode, we shall ever be liable to err : and surely if
there is one agricultural question more worthy
than another of our labour to establish a system
based on unerring principles, it is this. However
much the method may require changing as cir-
cumstances may change, it needs no demonstration
that as certain natural laws are ever in action,
certain plans of draining modelled by, and adapted
to those laws, must constitute a true system. On
any given soil there can be but one perfect mode
of operation. Although, as mentioned in my last
letter, I am convinced there is no chance of ar-
riving at any definite plan on a subject giving
so wide a scope for the differences of opinion, yet
the more we can bring into question the principles
as a point on which we can rest our views, the
nearer we are likely to attain to it.

As the following remarks will more exclusively
apply to the draining of those lands where the
water does not rise in the form of springs, but is
diffused through a considerable extent of soil — and
we are well aware that water is constantly passing
through the deeper strata of the earth, connected
with, and flowing from and to the surface —
it seems suthcient for my purpose that 1 only take
a superficial view of the soil, noticing the effects
of gravitation and capillary attraction on the water
passing through it. I will first then briefly ex-
amine the nature and jnoperties of water, and its
action subservient to the above powers, leaving
the consideration of the soil, the physical pro-
perties of which it will be necessary to notice when
I come to the application.

AVater is to all so well known that it seems
superfious to describe it, but it is requisite some of
its properties should he well considered. It is a
perfectly homogeneous fluid, and so small are the
particles of which it is composed, that no one has,
even with the best microscope, been able to discover
the least vaiiaiion of structure. '' It is equally di-
visible in all directions, and it offers no resistance
but the resistance of gravity, unless in consequence
of the action of something else.'' The hardness and
minuteness of its particles, and its nearly incom-
pressible nature, have been beautifully shewn. " A
globe made of gold was filled with water, and closed
so accurately that none of it could escape : the globe
was then put into a press and a little flattened at
the sides, the consequence of which was that the
water came through the fine pores of the golden
globe, and stood upon its surface like drops of dew."
In steam, when by heat the particles have become
more divided, we can form some idea of their
minuteness. " Steam is an invisible elastic fluid,
like common air, and possessed of similar mechani-
cal properties. We arc, it is true, in the habit of
associating a smoky appearance with steam, be-
cause we generally observe it when it is beginning
to be condensed, as when it escapes, for instance,
from the spout of a teakettle ; hut when perfectly
formed it is quite invisible, and it only becomes
visible when it escapes into the air, and suff^'rs in-
cipient condensation." Water is about 815 times
heavier than common air.

Wc have perpetual instances of the nitvaction tf
grai:itatii»i or irvdviiu in the falling of bodies to the
earth ; but when we api)ly this term to water rising
to the surface of the earth, wc seemingly utter a

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

paradox ; yet it is strictly correct, as " fluids press
equally in all direciions — upwards, downwards,
aslant, or lateially.''

" The descent of a solid by gravitation is a power
to the full extent of its weight or quantity of mat-
ter, the same as the descent of a liquid ; hut the
solid is a dead power ; the liquid in a certain sense
a living one ;" never resting till the whole of its
upper surface exposed to the air is horizontal.
Hence we have what is termed the hydrostatical
paradox, " that any quantity of water, however
small, may be made to balance and support any
quantity, however large." " For inst;ince, ifanarrow
vessel, say only one inch in section, is connected
with one ever so wide, by means of a pipe at the
bottom of both, water will stand at an c(iual height
in the two vessels ; and if an additional ])Ound of
water is poured into the narrow one, it will raise as
many pounds in the wide as there are inches in its
section, until the water again comes to the same
height iu both. This is not only true, but if a tube
which admits a liquid to pass freely be made strong
enough and of sufficient height, and the iovver end
of it communicate with the under part of a vessel
full of the same, or any other liquid, and having no
means of escape, a very small quantity of liquid
poured into the tube will exert so much pressure
as to burst the vessel. Thus a pipe an inch in
diameter, and a mile high, contains about 3(J cubic
feet, or nearly a ton of v.ater, and this water presses
on the inch of base with the force of a ton. Now
if such a pipe is supposed to be a perpendicular
fissure in a mountain, and to terminate belo.v iu a
cavern which has no outlet, and which presents
towards the weak side of the mountain an extent
of thirty yards in length and ten yards in height,
the pressure tending to burst the mountain will be
very great— namely, 259,000 tons ; a pressure which
it would take a strong mass of mountain to resist.*
The pressure then of water and other fluids differs
from their weight ; the weight is according to the
quantity, but the pressuie is according to the
perpendicular height.''

\Vater and all liquids that wet the surfaces of
solids rise in the openings of tbera by what is called
caplllanj attraction, so called from its causing the
visible rise of fluids in tubes of very small
bore. " Thus, if a tube with a capillary bore of
one-fiftieth of an inch, be dipped at one end into a
glass of water, the water rises to about two inches
and a half. It also takes place between flat sur-
faces of any extent, so that they are near to each
other and the edges of both in the liquid; and the
rise is great in proportion to the smallness of the
aperture, for it ascends in all instances till the

* I am indebted for this and several other quo-
tations to a very useful little book, " Readings in
Science," published by the Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge ; indeed, the greater part of
the above observations under the head of hydrosta-
tics may be considered as extracts either from that
book, or from the works of Dr. Olinthus Gregory
and ilr, Brande; and Ihaveaffixed the usual marks
to all passages copied lerhaiim, or nearly so, as a
coafirniation of their correctness. I might perhaps
have made a more indiscriminate use of these known
truths without confining myself to the words of
others, but I should then have deprive! them of their
influence. What I have sought is to place them in
a plain unvarnished manner before your readers, with
all the authority tlie names mentioned must neces-
sarily confer on them.

weight of the quantity of liquid in the opening
balances, or is equal to the attraction of the sur-
face to which it adheres." If two plates of glass
are so held that on one side their edges touch,
leaving them a little open at the other, so as to
form an acute angle with each other, and the
lower edges dipped into coloured water, it will be
seen to rise between them in the form of a curve
(a hyperbola), rising highest where the space be-
tween them is least. The rising of fluids in sponges
and many species of stones, "clay stones that
appear perfectly solid," and the distribution of the
juices of plants, are familiar instances. " Capillary
attraction as it acts only between surface and sur-
face, cannot act further than those surfaces extend;
it does not produce a current through a tube even
under the most favourable circumstances, unless
it is assisted by gravitation, and as when it acts
upwards it acts contrary to gravitation, and over-
comes, but does not destroy the tendency in the
liquid to gravitate, it must then act at some disad-
vantage. Thus whatever effect it may have in
raising moisture within the earth as high as the
surface, it never can make that moisture flow
out in a spring or rise in a jet. These must
always be produced by hydrostatical pressure;
cither the pressure of a " head" of water above
the orifice, or the pressure of strata heavier than
water upon the yielding stratum in which the wa-
ter is contained." To those who may think I
have thus far treated the subject too scientifically,
dwelt longer on the above properties of water than
was requisite, I would repeat, unless these pro-
perties are known fand they are very simple j), we
want our guide in draining, and our operations
must to a certain extent be without foundation ;
we shall have experience alone to direct us, which
must be extensive indeed to embrace all soils and
circumstances without some theoretical know-
ledge. My fear is that I have taken too wide a
view to be able to do it justice ; that in catching at
the leading points for the sake of conciseness, I
have left out much that should be inserted.

If in a wet piece of land we dig a drain* or ditch
from three to four feet deep, we invariably find
the water flowing from the sides and bottom of our
cut, varying in proportion and generally increas-
ing in the size and diminishing in the frequency of
the jets, as we increase the depth ; the upper por-
tion of the soil being more divided from cultiva-
tion, atmospheric influence, and the effects of
animal and vegetable life, the water passes as
through a filter; but when from changes in the
subsoil, which are more or less generally present,
and the continual flowing of water through the
same channels as we get deeper the tubular cavi-
ties are frequently very evident, the water ap-
pearing in undulating lines according to the
variation of the subsoil. We may, I believe, to a
certain extent apply this to the most adhesive
soils, as well as to those of a light nature ; for
although (here are some lands in theirnatural state
so extremely retentive as to be almost impervious
to water, they will become pervious when
thoroughly drained. The soil, if it is of an ad-
hesive description, is too often looked upon as a
mass impenetrable by water. When undrained

* In this letter a drain is supposed to be a con-
duit or pipe; the earth moved in digging it being
returned and laid closely on the materials used, the
water being only allowed to reach it by filtering
through the soil.

s

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

heavy land is viewed, from which, at least in wet
times, all the water that falls on it runs off, or in
walking across it one is neailj^ mired, or after
digging a hole the water stands in it level or
nearly wiiL the surface, it is at once concluded
the soil is so close that no water can penetrate it;
but this is certainly an erroneous conclusion, it is
already saturated, and every drop that is added is
more than it can contain. What are the different
gradations of hardness, softness and mire caused
by t every one is aware they are but the different
degrees of wetness. Do we find a soil except the
most porous that does not partake of these changes?
No clod is so hard and close but the water
will enter; and the reason is obvious. Soils are
formed of numberless minute j)articles, which vary
in size (and not to enter into an analysis it will be
sufficient for my purpose to say), the coarser con-
stitute the sandy, and the finer the adhesive
and clays. These particles are kept together by
adhesive attraction, water, their own weight, and
atmospheric pressure, thus forming a mass the
union of which is affected by every change; heat,
air, and water, have the power of dividing them,
of breaking their adhesion, their solidity being
but a closer contact. But admitting the most ad-
hesive clays would be from the fineness of their par-
ticles, their power of absorbing and retaining wa-
ter, impervious; and tliat the atmos[)hcric influ-
ence would be too superficial to materially afl'ect
their porosity, we have — to which I have already
alluded — animals and vegetables in action creating
tubular cavities in every direction. It is true the
one cannot act in a soil thoroughly saturated with
water, before it is drained, but the other docs ;
however wet it may be, some plants will
vegetate and strike their roots deeper into the soil
than many perhaps are aware of. In very
dry times, even the wettest undrained land (of the
description here referred to), cleaves to a consi-
derable depth from the loss of moisture, admitting
the roots in seeking water to penetrate with little
obstruction. Here then we have cavities formed
which in arable land, from the constant change of
plants and the consequent decay of the roots, be-
come perpetual— as one is abstracted by the new
root, another is opened by the decay of the old ;
but if these changes of plants did not take place,
from what we see of the nature of water vac can-
not think when the root has penetrated the water
will be obstructed. Again, supposing on some of
the most stiff clays the above causes do not act to
a sufficient depth to cause filtration; that from its
extreme retentive power, its ])Osition to receive a
supply of water, the want of tillage &c.,the soil is
never in a state to admit their action, yet as soon
as we have drained and tilled it will be, at least I
never saw a soil that would not. 'i he radical
change effected in the texture of the soil by drain-
ing and cultivation is far too little regarded in
general. On well drained clays or heavy lands the
first drought will cause numberless fissures to
open, which, to a certain extent, I believe, remain
permanently efficient for the admission of water
to the drains. If we dig into such land after being
once thoroughly dried, we shall be able to trace
the fissures, which, if not still partially open, will,
on arable land, be found lined with a sediment
brought down from the surface. When the earth
is again wetted by rain the clefts are filled w ith
water, the weight of which counteracts the expan-
sion of the earth, the water being nearly or quite
half as heavy as the earth ; and we must bear in

mind that the pressure, particularly if in contact
with a body of water in the drain, will be very
different from its weight, and no doubt from
the friction of its motion from permanent
filtrating tubes into the drain: of this, those who
have witnessed the effects, who have seen how
quickly the water passes into a deep drain
after heavy rains, can have, I think, little
doubt. * And further, in all the above sup-
positions I have not a\ailed myself of the
courses for the water formed by the change of the
layers, which will generally be found present to a
greattr or less extent even in the stiffest clays,
formed perhaps in some instances by the agency
of water. Tliis, though placed last, is one of the
facts that I principally rely on for the sujiiiort of
iny argument on clays ; were these changes want-
ing, the drainage of some of these soils would be
very difficult. f

Assuming, then, that every soil is or will be-
come permeable to water, and that the interstices
passing in every direction, branching into and
from each other, form a set of tubes, only being
disn'Mted by any change tlmt may be present in
the soil, the object must be to place our drains at
such a depth as to prevent the earth being filled
with water sufficiently high to injure vegetation.

In the general views taken of drainir.g, the ten-
dency of water to rise to the surface either by gra-
vitation or ca])illary atiraction has been too little
regarded, and a want of attention to this fact has,
I believe, been the c^iuse of many errors with re-
spect to dcjith, ei|tially apparent in the very deep
as in the shallow drain. In the deep drain (of
from 4j to 5^ or (! feet) the view has been to cut
ofi'and sink to that depth the whole of the super-
fluous water in the soil ; and this in many soils,
from their porosity, has answered the purpose,
though even then most probably not r.ecessarj',
and if less deep would have answered better ; but
in other soils the cliange of measures between the
drains has completely fruitraled the object. In
the case of a drain being placed in a wrong direc-
tion, it is not unnsnal to sec the surface wet
within a few feet of the drain, and that directly
over it perfectly dry, the water in the soil being di-
vided by sonic retentive measure that runs parallel
with the drain. :|; In the shallow drain (of from

* I walked across a field in July last, which a
few years since was, from being always saturated
wi'li water, quite wr rthless. It is a heavy alluvial
soil on a mixed subsoil ; it was clelt from the dry wea-
ther to the depth of at least 18 inches. 'I'his field is
now one of the best on the farm. It has been fre-
(]uently flooded since it was drained, but the water
will not remain on it any length of time, so com-
pletely is the filtering property of the soil brought
into action by drainage.

f I have seen some deep blue alluvial clay in
which these changes of soil have not been present,
that when drained cleft to such an extent as to form
permanent fissures ; the laud being pasture they
were not filled uj) by cultivation. I have not seen
the field I allude to for some years, but the fissures
no doubt are very evident now. 'J'hey remained
for many years through the wettest times, only
contracting and expanding with any extreme
changes.

X This, to prevent misconstruction, requires per-
haps a little explanation. I here deem the measures
of clay as bars to the circulation of the water in tiie
soil, although I have before assumed clayey lands to

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

9

18 to 24 inches") we do not cut at a sufficient depth
the interstices of the soil to prevent its flowint; to
tlie surface between onr drains, unless tliej' are
very closelv laid : we lose the effect of gravity in
its downward course, and leave it an unini-
])eded action, as before, towards the surface.
Many are advocates for the shallow drain on
lieavy land, under the impression that on such
l.uul it is •' top water" alone they liave to contend
with — tliat, from the course of the soil, no water
can pass from below to the surface. But it should
be borne in mind, the smaller the cavities of the
soil are, ibe higher tlie water will rise unassisted
by gravitation ; the greater the apparent impedi-
ment (until the soil is quite impervious), the
easier the passage. It is worthy of notice, too,
that the more tenacious tlie soil i-, tlie greater is
i;s affinity for water, which, until it is saturated,
will probably materially atfect the passing of water
through its pores. i'lie arguments I have al-
ready used perhaps sufficiently explain my oiiinion
on this head ; but believing it to be one of the
errors most fatal to the efficient drainage of the
country, I w ish to be explicit. Jhat there may be
instances of " top water'' only before the soil is
opened, I admit ; but, as before mentioned, I have
never yet seen a soil that would remain imper-
vious. Looking- at the fluidity and the weight of
water, tlic extreme minuteness of its particles,
their attraction for each other and for the soil, it
is not probable tliat the surface can be long wet if
the subsoil be not also wet, or that the surface
should be dry if the subsoil be saturated, unless
there is a " pan" or bed of closely cohering earth
betwixt the surface and the subsoil, produced by
constantly ploughing at one depth in wet seasons ;
and this is, I think, one of the greatest and most
common evils ori stiff soils : it does not, of course,
affect my argument, as it is remediable by the
subsoil plough, which always should bo used on
these soils after draining, 'ibis forms a strong ar-
gument in favour of the deeper drain ; the shallow
drain can never be safe for any length of time
where subsoiling is practised. However much it
may differ from what either practice or theory
yield to my perception, I do not seek to dejireciate
the value of the shallow drain, for I have seen
much good produced by it; but to represent its in-
feriority to the deeper drain, both as regards the
effect ])roduced and its durability — to assert my
conviction that we have the means of depri\ing
the whole soil to a greater depth of the super-
abundant water, and giving it the ])ower of fdtra-
tion necessa-y for vegetation, for the proper and
sufficient reception and nourishment of the roots
of plants. If we dig up a plant of corn (cither
wheat or beans) growing on an open soil conge-

be pervious. This may seein paradoxical, but in this
case practice has been my guide : and if we comjiare
the one with the other, I think we shall find less ana-
logy existing between them than at first sight may :ip-
])ear. Id both cases I have allowed ihem to be im-
pervious before draining, and as regards clayey
soils, I 'nave nut considered them as formed entirely
of clay, having — with the exception of now and then
a peculiar instance — aUvavs found a change of soil
as observed. The chief difference I believe to he
this : the clay land properly drained is deprived of
its surplus water ; whilst the clay bars, in the c;ise
of a drain being placed in a wrong direction, are still
supplied, remaining exactly in the same state as
before.

nial to its growth, we shall find its roots, if we
cautiously trace them, very deep. I'ut on ibis
jioiiitit is needless to dwell, every one being aware
that the deeper the soil is unclosed the better, if
it have a sufficient supjily of water ; and this must
always be the case on all land re(jiiiring draining,
unless it is carried to an extreme and useless ex-
tent. It affords a reason lor the productive nature
of many ^oils after being drained — by the constant
admission of air through the drains the soil is
gradually and permanently opened, if projerly
treated afterwards. The percolation of water
from the surface carrying down the minute nutri-
tive matter to the roots of i)lants after showers,
the capillary action of the water in the soil toward
the surface in very dry weather, are benefits of
great moment ; with their aid, any tillage, any
manure we may ajiply, will not fail to have its
full effect, and without their existence in some de-
gree it is almost superfluous to add its action will
be always doubtful. In the frequent shallow drain
system, these benefits are in a great measure lost ;
there is no difficulty by the frequency of the drains
in drying the surface, but the results are un-
doubtedly very different, and will generally be
evident to the experienced eye during any extreme
changes. We make the soil immediately in con-
tact with the drains too dry, and deprive it of the
power of obtaining sufficient moisture during
great droughts by capillary attraction ; any corn
growing directly over them will, from their unna-
tural dryness, be in danger, or the roots may pene-
trate them in search of water forming obstructions.
Tlie mole too, as these drains will always cease run-
ning in very dry weather, will be found a trouble-
some enemy, from wdiich the deeper drain is quite
free.* It may be supposed, looking to the power of

* It may form an objection with some against mv
deductions that 1 have failed to prove any particular
depth to be the best. These observations mav be
looked on as mere genevali/.ing, without any directly
practical apjjlication. I have sought to make them as
much so as the light in which tlie subjtct is viewed
would allow. It is but an ondeavour to illustrate princi-
ples on which our operations in practice must depend.
In a former letter, when my remarks were confined to
the draining of a particular description of soil, I
named S and 3.', feet, having found those depthsan-
swer Well ; the latter, I believe, is generally prefer-
able. Taking a wider scope, I should say from 3
to 4 fret; but as the operaiive causes of wetness
and their remedies are in obedience to the laws of
matter, cur operations to^obtain their full effect must,
of course, vary with the nature of the soil and the
changes of the stnita that m;iy be present in the sub-
soil. Every drainer has probably his nostrum — his
vision becomes contracted to one particular focus,
and it is not easy to change his sight ; for this,
as regards the depth of the drain, I think there is
some reason, having found the depths named effec-
tual. But it would be presumptive, without taking
into consideration every point bearing on the ques-
tion, to say thev are under all circumstances the best.
Still I flatter myself the deductions diawn, or that
may be drawn from a more close and searching ex-
amination, will be found in favour of those d.»pths —
will tend to prove the neccs:5ity of all soils being un-
closed to the depth of from three to four feet, and
that any greater depth is not needful for the perfect
growth of any of our agricultural (iroductions ; and
farther, that a much greater depth will on some soils
be found ineffectual, and on others injurious.

10

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

capillary attraction, we cannot reduce the water in
the soil to the level of our th'uiiis, and this is in
part no douht correct ; but it is equally true that \vc
prevent the power of gravitation acting above
that depth, and capillary attraction alone will not
create much superabundant surface water; the
])ariiclesof water, as before shown, must be first
set in motion by gravitation from below; at any
rate there must l)e a continual supply, cither stag-
nant or iu motion. When we have cut tnr drain
we have severed the orifices of the soil, and as
those orifices aie parts of a series of cavities run-
ning in every direction, perpendicular, horizontal,
and oblique, we give the water to the distance at
which the drain acts a fresh action ; wo inverse it
so long as there is sufficient left in the soil to act
by its gravity, or until the superfluous water is
carried off. The drain may be considered tlie nu-
cleus around which as a centre the drained por-
tions of earth extend in semicircles, until from the
distance at which the water in ihecavaties is acted
on by the drain the eflect ceases, each circle be-
coming less affected as they diverge from the
centre, dependant on the resisting tenacity of
the soil.

To many whose views differ from mine these
observations may seem positive and dictatorial ; in
inferring causes from effects I have confidently
expressed my opinions, but I would not be under-
stood to assume that my inferences are infallible.
I hope some of your readers may be inhiced to
look more closely to the subject, to scrutinize these
conclusions ; and if they differ from their own,
unless they can confute them, to give them the
only true test— a practical trial : when, I am con-
vinced, if judiciously done, they will have added
a main link to he chain of operation, by which
they can hope to contend against tliese trying
times. I am. Sir, your obedient servant,

Dec. 8. Agp.icultor.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.

DR. L. PLAYFAIR's LECTURES ON THE AP-
PLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PHY-
SIOLOGY TO THE GRAZING AND FATTEN-
ING OF CATTLE.

(from the gardeners' chronicle.)
Evening Meeting, Dec. Tth. — The Duke of Rich-
mond having briefly introduced Dr. Lyon Playfair,
the latter gentleman commenced his lecture. He
stated that tlie object of the lecture was to point out
iu what manner the principles of physiology, espe-
cially those which had been lately deveIo])ed by ihe
chemical researches of Liebig, might be applied to the
grazing and fattening of cattle. In the first ))hice,
he should endeavour to give a clear conception of what
the principles of physiology were, that were involved
in the feeding and growth of animals, ^'egetables,
in thtir growth, deiive all their food from the mineral
kingdom, principally from the air, which had been
ealled a gaseous mineral ; whilst animals derived their
jirincipal nutriment directly from the vegetable king-
dom. Vegetables eft'ected many chemical changes
in the food they took uj), animals Cevw Gluten and
albumen are the nutrient principles of j)lan!s, and in
chemical composition they are identical with the
albumen of the while of an pgg', of the muscl« of an
ox, or the blood of a sheep. By identity was not
meant similarity, but positively the same thing. The

albumen of blood, of muscle, find of an egg differed
in physical but not in cbemicalcharacters. The com-
jjosition of these substances, as analysed by various
chemists from the animal and vegetable kingdom, as
seen in the following table, prove their identity.

Gluten.

Boussin-

gault.

54-2

7a

14-

24-4

Cuibou
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Oxygen

Casein Albumen.
Scherer. Jones.

54-
7-1
I. 5- 6
23-2

55-

7-
15-9
22-1

Ox blood
Playfair.

15-72
22-59

Ox-flesh.
Playfair.

5412
7-89
15-72
22-3

These analysis do not differ more than the analysis of the
samesubstance. Plants, in fact, contain within them
the flesh of animals, and all the animal organization
does in nutrition, is to put this flesh in the right place.
But animals take up wiili their food o her constituents
of plants, vv-hich contain no nitrogen ; such are starch,
sugar, gum, &c. These are not nutritive jirinciples ;
they do net assist in making the llesh of animals ;
and when animals are fed on these alone, they die.
But animals possess a certain degree of heat, and
their bodies have generally a temperature above that
of the atmosphere — about 100" of Fahrenheit's ther-
mometer. Whence then comes the heat? From the
burning of the sugar, starch, gum, iS<.c. The air that
animals expire is cai-bonic acid, the ver^ gas that is
produced by the burning of wood or charcoal in a
fire. Charcoal is carbon, and anin.als take in daily a
large quantity of carbon in their food. It is the
burning or combustion of this substance in the bodv
that produces animal heat. In hot countries, animals
on this account take less carbon. The food of the
ICast Indian contains only about 11 per cent, of car-
bon ; wliilit that of the Greenlander contains 70 per
cent. The depraved taste of the Greenlander, who
drinks train-oil and eats tallow-candles by the dozen,
miglit be pitied or wondered at ; but it is necessary
to his healthy existence. Another reason for ani-
mals acquiring carbonaceous food in cold climates is,
that the air is more condensed, and the same measure
contained a greater quantity of oxygen ; that gas
being the agent which, by uniting witii the carbon
and forming carbonic acid, gave out the heat. Strong
exercise also demands a large supply of carbona-
ceous food, on account of the oxygen taken in during
the hard breathing thus produced. Oxygen, when
once taken in to the system, never escapes uncon
bined, and would destroy the whole fabric of the body
unless a fresh supply ot material was given. Clothes,
by keeping in animal heat, rendered less carbona-
ceous food necessary, in order to keep the body up to
its proper temperature. The following table exhi-
bits the principles of food necessary for the two
great processes of life — nutrition and respiration: —

Elements of Nuirition.

Elements

of Respiration.

Vegetable Fibrine

Fat

„ Albumen

Starch

Casein

Gum

Animal Fleih

Sugar

Blood

Wine

Spirits

Beer

If it were not for some power or force within the
animal fabric, it would soon become a prey to the
chemical action of oxygen. The force that willi-
stands this action is vitality — a principle indepen-
dent of the mind, and which constantly opposes the
dostructivo chemical laws to wliich the body is
subject. Disease is tlie leinjiorary ascendancy of the
chemical over the vital force. Death is the
victory of the chemical force. A dead body exposed

rilE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

11

to tbe action of oxygeu is soon resolved into its
primitive elements — carbon, iiydrogen.un'l nitrogen,
ia tbe t'orni of carbonic acid, ammonia, and water;
and these are tbe elp.n.i'nts i'rom which plants again
prepare materials lor tbe living body. These re-
marks will explain many facts known to the agricul-
turist, and will assist him in insuring" more cer-
tainly many of the objects of his labours. It is very
well known that cattle do not fatten so well in cold
weather as in hot. 'I'ho reason is this : — The fat is
a higblv-carboniseJ substance, i'ormed by the
animal from its carbonaceous tooJ. In cold weather,
ihs carbon in this food is consumed in keeping uj)
tlie heat of the animal, which is at that season more
rapidly carried off. This is also illustrated in an
ex|)eriment made by Lord Ducie at Whitfield. One
hundred slieep were jjlaced in a shed, and ate 20lbs.
of Swedes each per day ; another hundred were
))laced in the open air, and ate '25 lbs. of Swedes per
day — yet at the end of a certain period tbe sheep
which were protected, although thej' had a fifth Itss
food, weighed .'5 lbs. a head more than the unpro-
tected sheep. The reason of this is obvious: the
exposed sheep had their carbonaceous food con-
sumed in keeping up tlieir animal heat, ^\^arnlth is
thus seen to be an equivalent for food. 'I'his is also
illustrated by tbe fact, that two hives of bees do not
consume so much honey when together as when se-
I)arate, on account of the warmth being greater ; and
tliey have less occasion for consuming the honey,
which is tiieir fuel. Cattle, for the same reason,
thrive much better when kept warm, than when ex-
posed to the cold. The cause of animals getiing fat
is, that they take in more carbonaceous food than
they lequire for pioducing animal heat ; the conse-
quence is, that it is deposited in the cellular tissue
in the form of fat. Fat is an unnatural production,
an<l its accumulation is not necessary for securing
the her.lth of thft body, ^Vhen stored up, however,
it will serve the body for keeping up its animal
heat, and by this means itslife, till it is all consumed.
An instance is related of a fat pis; having been kept
without food for 160 days, having been kept alive
by its own fat. Another element necessary to
be taken into consideralio;i in the fattening of
animals is motion or exercise. Every action of
the body — nay, every thought of tbe mind, is atten-
'rSd with ch>imical change; a portion of the deposited
tissues are thus being constantly consumed. It is
on this account that wlien animals are fattened, they
are kept quiet and still. Tbe cruel practice of fat-
tening geese by nailing their feet to the floor, and of
cooping pigeons and ciiickcns before they are killed,
arises from a knowledge of this fact. VVhen prizes
were given by our agricultural societies for fat, and
not for symmetry, animals were strictly prevented
from taking any exercise at all. Mr. Childers found
that sheep which were kept warm and quiet
fattened much f.ister than those that were
allowed the open air and action. It is very
difficult; to fatten sheep and oxen in July,
on account of the flies, which stinging them, keep
them in a state of constant motion. The Cornish
miners, on account of the laborious nature of their
occuiiations, consume more food than labourers with
lighter work. During the late riots in Lancashire
the poor unemployed operatives found out that exer-
cise and cold made them hungry ; accordingly,
they kept quiet in bed, and heaped upon themselves
all the covering they could find.

the climate not allowing the escape of much heat
from the body, they are obliged to take in by exor-
cise the oxygen of the air, in order to destroy the
carbon whicli would otherwise accumulate in the
system, and produce liver disease. In the Scotch
prisons, the ()uannty of food given to the prisoners
is regulated by the kind of work on which the pri-
soners are engaged, the haidest workers having the
most food. Tlie reason of the flesii of the stag be-
coming i)utrid shortly after its death arises from the
quantity of oxygen which it takes into its system
during the hard breathing of the chase. A hunted
hare, "for tbe same reason, is as tender as one that
has been ke[it for a fortnight after being shot. The
reason is the same. In both cases, the action of the
oxygen on the flesh produces approaching decom])o-
sition — in the one quickly, in tbe other slowly. Ba-
con, on the same principle, was at one time rendered
more delicate by whipping the pig to death, Epi-
leptic fits produce great emaciation, on account of
the violent action to which they expose the body.
Lord Ducie has performed some experiments highly
illustrative of the foregoing genend principles, and
which also indicated what might be expected from
their apjiHcation to the practice of grazing, 1st ex-
])eriment, — Five sheep were fed in the open air be-
tween the 21st of November and the 1st of Decem-
ber ; they consumed 901bs. of food per day, the
temperature of the atmosphere being about 4 P. At
the end of this time they weighed 21bs. less than
when first exi>osed. 2nd experiment. — Five sheep
were placed under a shed and allowed to run about,
at a temperature of 49° ; they consumed at first
82lbs. offood per day, then 76lbs., and at the end
of tlie time had increased in weight 2olb3. 3rd ex-
])eriment. — Five sheep were placed in same shed as
in the last experiment, but not allowed to take any
exercise; they ate at first 64lbs. of food per day,
then 581bs., and increased in weight oOlbs. 4th ex-
periment.— Five sheep were kept quiet and covered,
and in the dark ; they ate oolbs, a day, and were
increased 8lbs. These experiments prove very sa-
tisfactorily the influence of warmth and motion on
thd fattening of cattle, and are still going on.

Dr. Playfair then stated that be should proceed to
examine the different kinds of food of cattle. The
food of cattle is of two kinds — azotised and un-
azotised — with or without nitrogen. The following
table gives the analysis cf various kinds of food of
cattle in their fresh state : —

lbs

100 Peas

,, Beans ....

,, Lentels ....

,, Oats

„ Oatmeal. . . .

,, Barley Meal

., Hay

,, Wheat Straw

,, Turnips . . .

,, Swedes ....

,, Mangel Wurzel

„ White Carrot

,, Potatoes , , ,

,, Red Beet .,.

,, Linseed Cake

,, Bran

Englishmen

the East Indies are obliged to take a great deal of A glance at this t&hle would enable a person to es-

exercise, because they will insist on eating and timate the value of the articles as diet. 'J'hus every

drinking hi-hly-carbonizcd foods; and the heat of lOO tons of turnips contained 90 tons of water. But

12

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the value of the inorganic find organic miilters wliicli
these foods coril-.iined differed. Tlius Rlr. Ilhnni
states that 100 lbs. of liav were equal to o39 lbs. of
mangel wurzel. Itwould be seen bv the table that
that quantity of liaj' contained 7(>lb«. of organic
mvitler, whilst the mangel wurzel cot.tained only ^54•
lbs. One result of feeding animals on foods con-
taining much water is, tiiat the water abstracts from
the animal a large quantity of heat for the purpose of
bringing it up to the temperature of the !)ody, and in
ibis way a loss of niateiial took ])lace. Tije mode
jiroposed by Sir ]Iiiin[>hrey Daw of ascertaining the
nutritive ])roperlies of plants, by mechanically se-
])arating tiie gluten, is unsusceptible of accuracy.
'J'he more accurate way is to ascertain the quantity
of nitrogen, which being multiplied by 6-2, will
give the quantity (.r albumen contained in any
given specimen of food. J'he following is a table nf
the ecpiivalent value of several kinds of food, with
reference to the formation of muscle and fut; the
albumen indicating the muscle-forming principle ; the
unazolised matters indicating the fat forming prin-
ciple : —

Tlie analysis in this table are partly tlie result of Df.
riuyfair aud Boussingault's analysis, and partly Dr.
Piayfair's own analysis. I'hc albumen series indi-
cate the flesh-forming principles, and the unnzotised
series indicate the fat-forming principles. By com-
piling this table with the former, it will at once
be seen which foods contain not only the greatest
quantity of organic matter, but what proportion of
this organic matter is nutritive and which is fat
tening ; or that which furnishes living tissue and
that which furnishes combustible material. In cold
weather those foods should be given which contained
the largest ])roduction of unazotised matters, in order
to sustain the heat of ihe body. I'hus it will be seen
tliat potatoes are good for fattening, but bi I for flesli-
ening. Linseed cake contains a greatdeal of fattening
matter, and but littlenutritive matter ; hence, barley-
meal, which contains a gooddeal of albumen, may
be advantageously mixed with it. Dumas a
French chemist, states that the principle of fat
exist in vegetables, as in hay and maize, and that
like albumen, it is deposited in the tissues
unchanged. But Liebig legards fat as trans-
formed sugar, starch, gum, iS:c., which lias un-
dergone a change in the process of digestion, i'his
is why linseed cake is fattening: all the oil is
squeezed out of the seed, but the seed-coat, which
contains a great deal of gum, and the starch of the
seed is left, and these are fattening principles. 'J lie
oxygen introduced by respiration into the lungs is
destined for tlie destruction of carbonaceous matter,
l)Ul there is a provision made for taking it into the
.stomach with the food, and this is dime with the
saliva. The saliva is always full of bubbles, which
are air-bubbles, which cirry Ihe oxygen ol the at-
mosphere into the stomach wiili the food. The ob-

ject of rumination in animals is the more perfect
mixing of the fond with the oxygen of the air. This
is why chafl' should not be cut so short for ruminating
as for non-ruminating animals, as the shorter the
chaff is the less it is ruminated, and the less oxygen
it gets. Chaff is cut one inch for the ox, half an
inch for the sheep, and a quarter for the horse.
Some miglit, in consequence of this, suppose that
cutting food is, then, of little use; but when it 's
considered that rumination is a strong exercise, or
that an animal will not be eating more food that
is ruminating, it will e:'.sily be seen how cutting
facilitates fattening. In order that food may be pro-
perly ruminate 1, it requires a certain amount of
consistency and bulk : hence all watery foods, as
turnips and mangel wurzel, should be mixed with
straw. The oiiinion is very correct, that an animal
''cannot chew its food without straw." An im-
portant inorganic constituent of the food is salt, it
is a chloride of sodium. Whilst the chlorine goes
to form the gastric juice, which is so important an
agent in digestion, the soda goes to form the bile,
which is a compound of soda. The bile is, in fact,
a secondary combin.ition, by which the carbonaceous
inatttr is brought in contact with the oxygen, in
order to be burnt. It is thus that common salt be-
comes so important and necessary an article of diet.
In the series of changes by which the oxygen of the
air is brought in contact with the carbonaceous
matters in the body, iron plays an important part,
and is hence one of the neces«ai-y ingredients of
animal food. There are two oxides of iron, the ])er-
oxide, and the protoxide; the first containing a large
(]uantitv of oxygen, the second a smaller quantity ;
tlie first, on being introduced into the blood, gives
up a portion of its oxygen to the carbonaceous n^a-
terial of the bile, carbonic acid and ])rotoxide of
iron being formed ; these twounite, forming a carbo-
nate of the ])rotoxide of iron, which, on being car-
ried to the lungs, gives off its carbonic acid, and the
protoxide of iron absorbing the oxygen brought into
the lungs by respiratiDU, forms again a peroxide,
which again goes into the circulation, and meeting
with carbonticeous matters of the bile, unites with
them and produces again and again the same series
of changes. The small quantity, then, of inorganic
ingredients in the food performs very important
functions; and in the absence of them, animals
would die. In the next lecture the various con-
ditions of fattening cattle will be more fully con-
sidered. The Duke of Richmond proposed a vote
of thanks to Dr. Playfair for his very able lecture,
which was seconded by Earl Spencer, and was
warmly responded to by the meeting.

EvF.MNG Mr.ETiNG, Dcc. 8tb. — The Duke of
Richmond in the Chair. — Dr. I. yon Playfair com-
menced his second lecture. He stated that in the
last lecture he had examined the nature of the food
of animals; in this evening's lecture the [irocess
of growth and fattening in animals would be more
particularly considered. The health of an animal
depends on the sui)|)ly of nutriment being equal to
the waste that is going on in the body, ricalthj'
adult animals weigh as much at the end as at the
beginning of the year, and this depended on their
having had enough food to supply the waste going
on in the system. In young and growinganimals it
is somewhat different ; they require more supply
than there is waste, because their bodies are con-
stantly increasing in size. When animals are first
horn, the functions of organic life arc chiefly per-
formed. Respiration is at this time more active
than in the adnlt. Nutrition is also more active.

THE FAllMI'irS MAGAZINI

13

The fooii that nature supijlics animals with at this
jicrioil of llicir lil'c is well adapted to assist those
i'linttions. In the milk of animals is found niuo-
geniscd matter for develoijing the system, and car-
bonised matter for supplying animal heat. The
following is an analysis of the milk of a woman, a
cow, and an ass, made by Dr. Playfair.

Woman. Cow. Ass.

Casein ... 1-5 4-0 1!)

Butter ... 4-4 46 1-3

Sugar . . . ;V7 ;•(•!{ ()-3

Ashes , . . O-.-) ()•(; —

Water . . . 880 890 90 5

The casein is the nitrogcnis^ed principle which af-
fords nutriment to the muscular and other tissues.
This is in gieatest quantity in the cow. The but-
ter aiul suL'iir are the combustible materials which
by their combustion supply heat to the body. The
ashes consist of phosphate of lime and common
salt, both of which materials are necessary for the
hcahhy function of the body. Thus, in milk we
Lave nil that is necessary for the growth of the
body, and it is the type and representative of all food ;
for unless food contain the principles of milk, it is
not fitted for the purposes of the body. Casein is
the principle of cheese. In its ordinary state, as
niade for the food of man, cheese contains both
casein and butter. The stomachs of young ani-
mals are not adapted for separating the nitro-
genous ])rinciples from food, and the casein of milk
is supplied to them ready separated. In the young
ruminant, as the calf, the three first stomachs into
which the food of the adcdt animals enter before it
is digested are not used at all. Tlic milk passes at
once into the fourth stomach. Hence the ne-
cessity of weaning these animals gradually, in or-
der tliat their stomachs may be fully able to pre-
pare the raw food for digestion. All food for
weaning children, also, should be prepared on the
model of milic, changing the rela'.ions of the nitro-
genised to the carbonaceous materials only as cir-
cuTnstances require. In the milk of tlie cow the
carbonised materials are as two to one, hut in the
food of adult animals they are as %ix to one. The
large quantity of casein in milk is required for the
rapid development of the body; the butter, a highly-
carbonised material, is required for supporting a
large amount of animal heat. It is, consequently,
a had thing to feed calves on skim-milk, as the
butter and casein have been removed, in the shape
of cream. Earl Spencer, who is very successful
in weaning his calves, feeds them first with new
milk, then with skim-milk and meal, the meal
supplying the necessary azotised and unazotised
materials (azote and azotised arc synonymous
terms with nitrogen and nitrogenised). In feed-
ing young animals, as well as young children, they
should have good food, and there should be no
stinting them as to quantity. That farmer will lose
in the end who thinks to save his milk by stinting
his calves. Artificial food is sometimes made and
used as a substitute for milk. The Duke of Nor-
thumberland employs a mixture of treacle and oil-
cake, bruised flax, and hay. The fruit of Legumi-
no=se contains casein; hence we may inf r that
peas and beans would be good food for calves.
The difl'erence between casein and albumen is,
that the former is much more soluble than the lat-
ter, and probably on tliat account more adapted
for young animals. Beans and peas are known to
be good things for growing pigs, v^hilst barley-meal
is good for fattening them. In the growth of young

animals, as well as the fattening of adult ones, all
cxjinsurc to cold should ho as much as possible
avoided. Cold diminishes the vitality of the body,
and whatever diminishes vitality gives a prepon-
derance to chemical action in the body, and injury
of some kind is the result. Exercise is also ne-
cessary for the rearing- of young animals, although
it should be avoided in fattening. In order to
develop the calf and the lamb, they should be al-
lowed plenty of exercise ; but in fattening another
object is to be gained. All motion consumes some-
thing in the bodv, therefore motion is so much
loss ot material in the fastening an animal. In the
same manner, ex[)osure to cold, as was proved by
the experiments repeated in the lajt lecture, was a
])osiiive loss in the fatiening of animals. Stall-
feeding is benclicial, both on account of warmth
and quietude. The jjrimary cause of all this waste
is the supply of oxygen ; whatever increases the
supply of oxygen increases the waste of the body,
and the necessity for sui)i)ly. Fatting animals arc
otieii kept in the dark. Darkness favours sleej),
and sleep quietude. It was thus that darkness was
favourable to fattening. A case was related of a
pig that was jilaced in a box in the dark, and the
sides stuck full of pins, to prevent the animal
moving in any manner, and the animal quickly got
fat. The fattening of ortolans in Italy illusirated
this point. The ortolan is a bird that takes its
food at dawn of day, and the breeders of
these birds take advantage of this, and shutting
them up in a dark room, they contrive to
let in the light four or five times a day, and to
snj)ply the birds with jdenty of food. The birds,
at every admission of liglit, thinking the time is
come to eat, take their usual quantity of food, and
on the light being withdrawn they fall asleep, and
in this manner they rapidly get very fat. Sleepy,
good-natured pigs fatten fast ; but active pigs, as
the Irish, never get fit at all. A question may
still arise as to whether it is better to feed animals
in stables or small yards. The manure of the
latter is stated to be better, and there is no doubt
of this, but then the gain of the manure is lost in
the fattening of the animal. Manures will also
vary in value, according to the food animals take.
The manure furnished from cattle eating turnips
was nothing like the value of the manure furnished
by cattle eating linseed-cake. Feeding cows for
the dairy was a subject worthy great attention.
In the first place, it seemed necessary to supply
cows with food containing potassa. Potassa con-
verted albumen into casein — that is, it made it
soluble — and soluble albumen is casein, and casein
is the most important constituent of milk. It
might he a question as to whether casein was in-
troduced directly into the blood from the food, or
whether it might not be the result of the destruc-
tion of the already formed tissues. Animals fed in
the open air gave milk with more casein than ani-
mals fed in dose places. Thelecturer found more
casein in the milk given in the evening after the
cows were out all day, than in milk given in the
morning after the cows had been standing all
night. The tissues are consumed by exercise, and
thus yield the casein. Parturition makes a great
demand on the ])owers of the system, and I3ra-
connot found that the milk of a cow directly after
calving cmtained 15 per cent, of casein — a much
larger proportion than ordinary. The alkalies, set
free by motion, convert the albumen into casein.
The butter in milk is not introduced, as Dumas
asserts, with the food. It is formed from the starch

14

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

that exists in tlic foud. The only change necessary
to convert starch into fat is the abstraction of
oxygen. The sugar of milk is a peculiar com-
pouml ; it consists of starcli, with two ])roportions
of water. The state of the mind affects the secre-
tion of milk. In women, anger, sorrow, and
anxiety affect their milk so much, that children
sutler very much, or even die, from the effects of
])artaking of it. For the same reasons, cows should
he kept free from all kinds of irritation. When at
a distance, tiiey should he allowed to walk to the
iiiilking-place at their own pnee, and never he
driven. E.xercise is bad for the butter. Where
much e-xercise is allowed, the produce of butter is
small ; this arises from the oxygen consuming the
carbonaceous muterial that would otherwise be
secreted in the milk in the form of butter. In
summer, flies torment cows in the day, and they
do not yield so much butter. This may be reme-
died by sending the cows into the field at night,
and keeping thein at home in the day ; but this
must only be done in summer, as it would be a
bad system during cold nights. Stall-fed cows
produce most butter ; and where butter is the
object, cows should be turned into the richest pas-
tures. With regard to the pastures for producing
casein, or cheese, there is a very general impres-
sion that poor land is best adapted for producing
cheese. In general, in cheese districts the pas-
tures are poor. It is, perhaps, the exercise which
the animals take on poor land, in order to obtain
food, that (for reasons before stated) deve-
lopes the casein in the milk. Stall-fed cows yield
much less casein than those fed in pastures. Cows
that arc required to yield cheese should not be
kept poor, hut it is desirable that they should have
to travel some way for their food. Some foods
that animals eat flavour their milk, as Swedish
turnips : buttercups colour it. Many plants may
affect cows when taken with their food. The lec-
turer, a short time since, was in company u ith Dr.
Daubeney and Dr. Buckland, in Somersetshire,
where they met with a farmer, who stated, as a
singular fact, that be had two pastures, the one of
which, when he turned his cows in, they became
purged ; and the other, when he turned them in,
produced constipation. The farmer could not ac-
count for this ; but Dr. Daubeney, on examining
the fields, found that the one which purged the
cows contained a large quantity of purging flax
(Linum catharticum) with the grass, whilst the
other contained an equal abundance of the common
tormentil, or septfoil (Potentilla Tormentilla), a
very astringent plant, which at once accounted for
their peculiar action. In Scotland, they procure
good milk from stall-fed cows, by feeding tLem
upon malt refuse and bean and pea meal, and
giving them beer to drink. The malt refuse sup-
plies the materials for butter and sugar, the beans
and peas the casein, whilst the beer keeps up tlie
animal heat. Water would carry off the heat,
besides acting injuriously by dissolving the blood
globules.

The principles of chemistry will also enable us to
assign the causes, and in some measure to prevent
the occurrence, of diseases among cattle. What is
called consumption, rot, foot-rot, .^'C, in cattle, arises
from a slow combustion or destruction of their tis-
sucs,by the agency of oxygen. 'I'hc same process goes
on in vegetables ; and it ix well known that this pro-
cess can be communicated from one vegetable to
another, as from an apple to an orange, &c., and
decaying vegetable matter will communicate this

process to an animal. These diseases always occur
amongst animals closely kept where there is much
decaying vegetable matter about. Animals exposed
to draughts do nottake these diseases ; the draught
carries off' the decaying ferment. When this pro-
cess is established in the intestines, it produces
diarrhoea, and this probably arises from animals
consuming bad food, lied water and black water
arise from the same disease extending to the kid-
neys. Rot in the feet comes on from the same
cause. It always occurs at that season of the year
when vegetable decomposition is greatest, and oc-
curs to the greatest extent where animals are
obhged to tread on decaying vegetable matter.
The treatment of these diseases should be by anti-
putrcscent materials, such as chlorine and the
empyrcumatic oils, &e. These will disinfect the
stalls or sheds where animals are kept.

Dr. Playfair then stated that he had a few obser-
vations to make on the character of the internal
and external structure of the organs of animals, in
order to arrive at a knowledge of them as indica-
tions of their capacitj- for fattening and reaching
an early maturity. These observations he wished
to be put to the test of experiment, as he was
avi'are that some of them were opposed to ge-
nerally received views. First, with regard to
internal structure, which was the most important.
It was generally considered that animals with
large chests fattened best, and it was supposed
that all animals with broad round chests had
large lungs. But this is not the case. Sheep
have round chests and small lungs. Horses have
narrow chests and large lungs. Southdown sheep
have narrower chests than Leicester sheep, yet
they have the largest lungs. 'J"he Leicester shecj)
are known to fatten soonest. He spoke here of
the aboriginal breeds of these animals. He had
asked butchers, and they were unanimously of
opinion that the fiittest cattle had small lungs and
small livers. Now this was a necessary conse-
quence of the preceding princii)les. Where most
oxygen was taken into the system, there would
there be the greatest destruction of carbon,
and consequently less carbonaceous material
deposited in the form of fat. If two pigs
had the same quantity of food, and one had lungs
of double the capacity of the other, that pig
would only appropriate half as much of its food in
the form of fat. Milk with much butter in it was
known to be produced by cows with small lungs.
The same held good w-ith regard to the livery where
there was a large liver, there would be a large se-
cretion of bile, and a large destruction of carbona-
ceous matter. If two animals ate GOlbs. of food,
and one secreted 371bs. of bile, and the other only
SOlbs., the food that was not formed into bile would
be converted into fat ; hence the gain on the animal
with a small liver. With regard to external signs,
small bones indicated a delicacy of constitution,
smallness of lungs and liver, and a tendency to fat-
ten rapidly; whilst large bones indicated just the
contrary. The " mellow" feel of an animal depend-
ed on the resiliency of the cellular tissue of the ani-
mal, the tissue in which the fat is deposited. When
there is much mellowness, it arises from the blood
being easily pressed from one part of the cellular
tissue to another, and indicates a susceptibility to
fattening. The reason why animals get more rapidly
fat at the end of their feeding-season is, that the fat
accumulating in the abdomen presses upon the dia-
phragm and abdominal muscles, and thus prevents
the more complete action of the lungs, and consc-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

15

qiuntly tliu (k's(nictii>n of the carbonaceous mate-
rial by the inliiilalioii of oxyiieii. The fat also prc-
\ciifs; thu oxygen being absorbed by the skin, and
diminishes by its pressure the capacity also of the
liver, and thus slso adds to the fattening process.
Large ears indicate a general coarseness of bone and
nuisele, and the same condition of lungs and liver,
and are (lius indicative of a small capacity for
fattening, Tliere were other indications which might
be referred to, but the lecturer hoped these hints
would be sufHcientto set enquiry afloat on a very
important subject. He apologised for what he con-
sidcred,the incomplete evidence he had brought for-
ward to establish some of his views, but stated he
had experiments in progress which he hoped would
throw morCjlight on many of the more obscure points
to which he had alluded. Lord Spencer proposed
a vote of thanks to Dr. Playfair for his lectures,
and stated how much gratified he had been in lis-
tening to them. He hoped agriculturists would sec
from these lectures the great benefit likely to accrue
to them from a knowledge of the principles of the
science of ])hysiology and chemistry. Mr. I'usey
seconded the motion. JJr. Playfair, in returning
thanks, stated that he had drawn up a series of
statistical tables for circidation amongst butchers,
for tlie purpose of gaining information on the inter-
nal structure of the animals which they slaugh-
tered.

SCOTCH AND ENGLISH
FARMING.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Sir, — Having in the last number of your maga-
zine published a letter of mine, which had ap-
l)eared in the Manchester Guardian, you will perhaps
do me the favour of inserting the following as a
sequel to the last, in your next number.

In my last letter, on Scotch and English farm-
ing, there was one circumstance which 1 only
glanced at, I now wish to put that part of the
subject in its proper light, as Mr. Greg in his
letter has not said a word upon it, in spenking of
the rents paid by the Lothian farmers ; and yet it
is of great importance in making a comparison.
The quality rf soil, and the nature of the climate,
must be taken into account; also the public bur-
dens upon the land, of which the Scotch farmers
are exempt.

In this parish, sixteen miles from Liverpool
and Manchester, there are very few acres equal in
quality to tbousands 1 have seen in the Lothians.
The rent here, for land of average quality, will be
50s. per Scotch acre : and in addition to this, the
tenant would have to pay for land-tax, 8d. ; church-
rate, 5d.; poor-rate, 5s.; highway-rate, 2s.; tithe,
4s. 8d. per Scotch acre— total, including rent 31.
2s. 'Jd. per acre. Now, I will venture to say, that
such land would not let in the Lothians, sixteen
miles from Edinburgh, for more than SI. per acre.
1 will give the case of a farm seven miles from
Manchester ; part of it was a bog not many years
ago, the remainder is a light blackish soil.

The rent is 65s. per Scotch acre ; the titlic and
other burdens on an average, 15s.— total 80s. per
acre ; soil nothing to compare with the average of
the Lothians, but is in a good climate for Lan-
cashire. Tenant cultivates 30 acres of potatoes
every year, average produce, 15 tons ; last year

it was IG tons, and tliis year will be nearer 18 tons
per Scotch acre. Wheat averages at ■ least six
quarters. His cxi)ences will be more than 4/ per
cent., on account of the quantity of dung he pur-
chases, which he has to cart seven miles. He also
gives the land alight dressing of marl once in seven
years. I feel very much surprised that a man of
Mr. Greg's penetriition and business habits, should,
in giving the rent of land in a district, entirely
overlook the qualitii of the soil, the climate, at\d the
burdens upon it. I know little of either the rent
of land or public burdens in the South of England,
I am comparing Lancashire and Cheshire with the
Lothians.

It will be seen that when all things arc con-
sidered, we Lancashire farmers pay as respectable
rents as the Lothian farmers ; but in profits, and
irrcyularity of living, it seems wcfrfll short of them.
I have said we have much to learn, and I hope we
shall continue to learn. l\Iy object in writing is,
fair pliy, because greater credit is given to our
Northern brethren lor their management than is
due to them. I do not know that there has been one
who has come to farm upon his own account in
Lancashire, but who has had to give up ; and nearly
all those who have come to farm for gentlemen,
have at the commencement of their undertaking,
ploughed up fine old meadow ojid 2>(i.sture, which
have given them fine crop?, and by this means,
got their names agoing for good farmers with all
superficial thinkers, and those fi/«oraM^ of agricul-
ture. If an Englishman had done the same, in
several instances I am aware of, their masters
would have discharged them, and perhaps sent
them to the lunatic asylum. Now, I am no
advocate for great breadths of old meadows or
pastures, where arable cultivation is carried
on to a considerable extent. I do not, there-
fore, blame the Scotch bailiffs for this, I only
wish to show that this has been the means
of getting them a name for raising good crops at
less expence than we Lancashire farmers ; but 1
shall say this, that a very considerable portion of
this county (Lancashire) will never, from soil,
climate, and other local circumstances, raise so
much clear monesj as when under grass from one-
third to three-fourths of its time, and in some situ-
ations in permanent grass. To be constantly
under the plough, like the Lothians, would neither
answer for the land, the landlord, nor the tenant,
particularly in the Eastern division of the county.

The Lothian farmers, who have gone into Ayr-
shire, have found that the same system could not
answer there.

I am, Sir, yours respectfully,
Wimvicf:, Dec.l6ih. W. Rotiiwell.

We are informed that the trial of implements
made at the meeting of the Richmond Agricultu-
ral Society, aliliough not so complete as could be
wished, has nevertheless been so successful as to
induce the President, Mr. Jaques, to make ar-
rangements for a trial at the meeting next
year, to last a week or eight days. In
Q\-(]cv to enable tlio Committee of the Society
to make the necessary provision of horses and
other matters, it will be Iiighly desirable liial the
manufacturers and exhibitors intending to send
implements for liial at the next meeting of the
Society should give timely notice to Mr. Jaques.

m

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

BATH AND WEST OF ENGLAND
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

'I'lie Bat!) Agricultural Society bold tiieir annual
e.xhibition and meeting on Tuesday, Dec. 13.

'J'lie Marquis of Lansdowne, tbe president of the
societv, having been called to the chair, the oidinary
business of tlie meeting was then gone tlirough — the
election of officers, &c. I'he premiums for the vari-
ous descrijitions of stocl(, &;c., were also awarded.
Tlie most important business of the meeting then
ensued, which was the report of the committee ap-
]>ointed to experimentalize upon Daniell's patent
manure.

'Jhe report stated, that having been appointed to
inspect and report on the eftects produced by
JJanicH's patent manure upon a piece of arable liuid
belonging to Mr, William Miles, M. P., at Kings-
weslon, and also upon some meadow lands at High
Lyttleton, on Captain Scobeli's farm, they had ob-
tained from those gentlemen the manner in which
they had applied the manure. In June last the com-
mittee weie convened to examine the meadow the
property of Captain Scobell, ujion which Daniell's
and various other manures had been used. I'hey
first saw that marked A. on the paper appended to
the report. A few s^^■aths had been cut across it, so
that the several cora[)artments were intersected, but
the greater portion of the grass was then standing.
The crop genurally on tlie parts not manured, as
well as on those that were, v.-as above the average
cro])s for tlie season. On No. 2, whicli was covered
with earth only, they could (lerceive but slight im-
provement as compared with No. 3, which had no
manure of any sort upon it. The increasa of crop
was somewhat larger on No. 8, which had been ma-
nured with lime and earth ; and a still greater im-
])rovement was jiroduced en No. 7 , which had been
manured with stable dung; but, either from the season
or some other cause, neither of the three mentioned
manun-s had effected the decided improvement
wijich might have been expected. Perhaps this
might in part have arisen from their having been put
on late in the season. In No. 4 and 6, on which the
patent manure had been applied, there was no per-
ceptible difference from Nos. 3 and 5, on which no
manure bad been put. In the field marked C, the
crop of hay was cut, and in swaths, but there did
not appear any difference in those parts which iiad
iiad Daniell's patent manure a])plied and tliose which
had not. The grass field B, which was all clay
land, was llien standing, but Daniell's manure had
jiroduced no visible effect, and it was impossible to
judge which was the part that had been covered by
it. The committee reported tliat they had several
times since seen the fields, and could not mark any
improvement from the patent manure. The last time
they saw them was on the I'iili instant, and the part
on which earth and lime had been applied appeared
most green and chsest fed.

G. T. ScOBLLL,
'i'. MOLLOWAY,

J. Gray,

WlI.LfAM S. WaITE.

The committee also reported that, in July last,
they proceeded to inspect tbe ariiblc land of JMr.
Miles, of Kingsweston-park, on whicli Daniell's
patent manure had been used. It was a field of 14
acres, au'l lad been sown with wheat, about two
acres only of which remained, the rest having been
ploughed up. Tbe crop was deficient. T'le wheat

on that part not ploughed up was very inferior, and
so much so, that judging from it they thought JMr.
Miles was justified in destroying the wheat. He
had sown carrots, mangel-wurzel, &cc., which did
not appear in luxuriant growth, except a root here
and there. In the field next adjoining, separated
by a hedge, a crop of wheat was standing, thick,
well-eared, and a good average crop. In conclud-
ing their report the committee stated their unani-
mous opinion that Daniell's manure had failed to
produce those beneficial results they expected to
have witnessed ; but whether any peculiarity of the
season, the nature of the soil, or other causes of
whicli they bad no knowledge, had counteracted its
fertilizing quality, they could not tell. They re-
commended that a trial should be made in the ensu-
ing year ujion soils and in situations different, it re*
mained, too, to be proved, now that the land on
which the committee reported was more fully im-
pregnated with the manure, whether it would not
produce more favourable results next 3'Gar.

The committee added that a ridge in the field at
Mr. Miles's was sown without manure, and did not
produce a better crop.

After the report had been read, Mr. Miles ad-
dressed the meeting in support of it.

Mr. Bi-AKic, of Warminsier, a practical and well-
known ngriciillurist, statedthat a friend of his had tried
loo bushels of the patent manure on a field of turnips,
xipoa a part of which abo he had tried bone-du^t, and
the result was, thqt he gave the greatest preference to
the patent manure. lie had himself tried it on a field
of uheat, a part of which v^as manured with other
manure; finding some p;irt of the wheat looking very
unhealthy, he had used some of the patent manure, and
the result had been most beneficial, as, although that
part ot'Hhe « heal had been sown five weeks after the
oiher, it vi'as ripe within three or four days of the other.
Mr. Bennett, tilso, than whom no man was more accu-
rate and c.ireful in his mode of agriculture, had tried
150 bushels of it on Swedes, a portion of which same
field was rannured with bone-du*t, guano, and other
manures, and be expressed himself highly =atiified with
the effects of the bone dust and the patent manure,
and that lie firmly believed them to be far superior lo
all other manures. Indeed, he (Mr. Blake) thought
that its being a vegetable and bituminous con po'sitioa
must prove its being highly calculated for manure.
Soot, which was a manure that had never failed, owed
its results entirely to its bituminous composition, and
every body knew that vegetable matter in a state of
decay was equally excellent. This manure, therefore,
being eompo-eil of decayed wood and gas tar, united
bo'h those properties. He must, however, at the ^ame
time say that, although he had known it to be most
successful in many instances, there were aI*o instances
of failure.

Captain Scocell also slated many instances of the
results of the manure, some of which were successful,
and others not.

Mr. G. Wehb Halt, could btar testimony to its
effects, having tried .500 bushels of it in vaiiousvvays,
and sometimes under the most unfavourable circum-
stances. He had ever fuund it successful, andthouglit
the instances of failure were to be attributed to its not
having been sufficiently diffused over the land, as it wa^?
of too caustic a nature to be applied in a concentrated
slate. J^ast year had been a reason of drought, whicli
accounted for its failure on grass lands, as it was of that
volatile character, thai unless washed in by rain its
volalile parts were swept away. It was a manure whicli
was intended to be difl'u?ed, and not applied to the land
by means of the drill.

After various other observations, the report wa?
ordered to be leccived, printed, and circulated through-
out England.
The meeting then broke up.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

17

KEEPING BONE-DUST AND
RAPE -CAKE.

UY MR. JAMES IIAI.KETT, MANAGER OF THE rERTII-
SHIRE ACRiCULTCRAL COMPANY, PERTH.

(From the Quarterltf Journal of Agriculture.)

1( bones are crushed, eitlier in a green or damp
state, and the dust allowed to lie in a heap together,
it is certain to heat, and a violent fermentation will
take place, in a shorter or longer term, according
to the quantity of moisture and the temperature at
the time ; but, in general, it will be at the hottest
from the fifth to the eighth day, after which it will
cool gradually. On this being the case, a diminu-
tion of bulk takes place ; but this does not appear
very perceptible until the mass is measured over,
■when, if measured before, it will now be found to
come far short. This is well known ; but as I find
there is much misapprehension amongst farmers in
regard to this phenomenon, and the proper manner
of keeping hoih boue-dust and rape-dust, I think a
few words on the subject may not be unacceptable.

That bone dust, however dry, will heat more or
less immediately after crushing, is a fact, which
every one at all conversant with its nature will
readily allow ; but I find that the effects of the heating
on the quality of the manure, is looked upon in very
different lights by different people. Some request
me to send them the newest ground bone-dust wc
have. From this 1 infer, they are of the opinion,
that the dust which has been some time crushed is
deteriorated in quality, or, in other words, is not so
strong, and has lost part of its strength. Others,
again ask the very oldest we have, and in some
cases, come themselves to see if they can discover
any old stock about the premises to be supplied
from. The former of these customers state, that
they never have good turnips but from fresh bone-
dust ; the other, that the best turnips they ever
had were with old bone-dust. Both instances may
be true ; but, at the same time, it may also be true,
that both from season and management, may have
the best crop of turnips they ever had with the
worst bone-dust they ever used. As far as such
experience goes, it asserts nothing in solving the
question, which is its best state for raising a crop ?
but I Lave found them so wedded to their opinions,
that it was vain to urge them to make a trial of any
other.

That a change docs take place in the value of the
commodity on being heated, I shall endeavour to
show, as also that after being heated, it is a better
bargain for the buyer than the seller. Suppose,
then, from a parcel of good bones, although a lit-
tle damp, 1 000 bushels of bone-dust are made
in February, and put past by the crusher, the
weight of the same being 471b. per bushel. This
is allowed to lie and heat, and cool again, until the
middle of Maj', when another 1000 bushels are
crushed from the same parcel, and the weigljt of
this is also found to be 471b. ; thus, the two parcels
were equal when crushed. May being sowing time,
both are sold to the consumers as tbey arc ; but,
on the first being reweigbed, it will be found to be
about 491b. per bushel ; and consequently, instead
of 1000 bushels in the Leap, there will only be
about 9fi0. I have here made but little allowance
for evaporation, for although it will be considerable,
it is not the principal cause of the dust increasing
in weight per bushel, and decreasing in measure °
but by the heating it has become more friable, and

the sharp points breaking off have allowed it to
come closer together in the bushel. From this it
is obvious that the buyer of the old crnshed dust
gets 4!)lb. for the same money the buyer of the
fresh dust gets 471b. for, being 4 per cent., and it
will often be found much more. And I cannot allow
tbat heating deteriorates the dust; for being an
active agent in decomposition, it has already partly
prepared the manure as food of the plants to which
it is to be applied, and on its being incorporated
with the soil it will conse<iuently act more promptly.
From this, I think, it will appear that old crushed
dust is the best bargain for the consumer ; but the
crusher, if he crushes before it is wanted, will lose
in a corresponding degree, unless he charges more
for it.

However, it often happens that it is in the pur-
chaser's power to procure old dust, that has
remained unsold on the previous season ; which,
if it have been long crushed and heated, will appear
either of a blue or yellow tint, and, on examining
it with a microscope, will be found full of mites.
It may also be possible to purchase dust imme-
diately after the season is over at such a price as
will more than remunerate him for the outlay of
cash before next season. In either case it may be
necessary to keep it by him for a length of time.
On this being the case, when he gets it, he should
put it on a dry floor, as a damp one rots it away
very fast ; it will heat again, but not so hot as at
first, and every time it is turned about it will re-
heat, which is occasioned by the re-arrangement
of the particles and the admission of air into th(?>
mass. It should never be kept in bags, as it wil
destroy them in a very short time. It is injurious
to boarded floors, both above and below it, but
especially to the one above it, as the heat going off
at the top condenses on the under side of the floor
and rots it. When spread thin on the floor it will
not heat so much as when thick ; but it should
never be kept near horses nor cattle, especially the
former, as they evince great dislike to its smell, for
it will be found that, otherwise a quiet horse, if
brought near it, becomes restive and troublesome.

If dust be got new from the mill in the sowing
season, and in a fresh state, and it he desirable to
give it a good heat (which I would strongly re-
commend,) that can be easily done in a very short
time. Take either sifted coal ashes, or the best
earth you can get, a bushel for every two of bones,
and mix them together, adding as much water as
will make the whole damp. Turn the mass several
times over until well incorporated, then leave it in
a heap, and in forty-eight hours you will have it as
hot as you cannot hold your hand in it. But in fol-
lowing the foregoing receipt, take care not to put
more water than makes the heap merely damp, for
if it is saturated, you will defeat your purpose for
a length of time ; and although it will heat with
much more ashes or earth amongst it, I would not
recommend more, as it will then not dry effectually,
and great difficulty will be experienced in getting
it to pass through the sowing-machine.

I shall now make a few observations on keeping
rape-cakes and dust. There are no rape-cakes
made in the quarter from which I write— all being
imported from the Continent. There is great va-
riety in the appearance of the cakes imported into
this country. What we consider the best is of a
yellowish green colour when new made, but they
become darker on being long kept. On the receipt
of a cargo of cakes they should be put into a ware-
house in a dry day, on a dry clay or strong deaj

C

18

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

floor (for except by their weight they will do wood
no harm,) and neatly built close up, clear of the
walls, in case they should draw damp from them ;
and, as little, and especially damp, air as possible
should be admitted into the a])artment, as it is the
cause of their becoming mouldy and losing their
light colour. Should the cakes have been new
made they will heat a little ; but in general, after
the sweat they have had in the ship this will not be
great, and if there is any apprehension of heat, the
small dust of the cargo which has the strongest
tendency to occasion it should be kept by itself.

It is always necessary for the dealer, and often
for the consumer, to have a quantity of rape in the
shape of dust by them, in which case I would here
reprobate a practice I have seen of flinging it down
in a corner of a cart or turnip shed, where pigs dig
and fowls scratch amongst it, and where it is exposed
to the moisture of the air. However dry it may
appear, and however dry it may be kept, on its
being put somewhat thick together, sooner or later
3t will heat. When very dry I have known it
three weeks, or even a month, before it would heat;
but if damp, it will do so in a short time, and then
it will get hotter and hotter, until in the middle of
the heap will be found large lumps actually burnt as
black as soot, and which, on being broken down,
are not easily distinguishable from coal cinders.
This is a state in which carelessness may easily
put it, and it should be avoided, for although I am
not chemist enough to state what change has taken
place in it, lam afraid its utility is much impaired.
To avoid this, it ought to be examined now and
then, not merely on the outside, but by digging a
hole into the middle, and when heat is discovered
the heap should be turned carefully over, and this
should be repeated now and then ; and although
you may not manage to keep heat entirely away,
you will prevent it being to strong as to burn the
dust into the state I have described.

From what has been said, it will appear that my
views are, that those who buy old bone-dust get a
better bargain than those who buy new ; that heat-
ing improves bone-dust, and therefore what is fresh
ground ought to be heated before being used ; that
those who buy rape-dust should have it new crush-
ed, and that heating impairs its qualities.

MANURES.

At the Preston Agricultural Meeting, on the 1st
of October, the Chairman, R. Townlev Parker,
Esq., in the course of the evening, said — " He had
himself made some experiments with the guano
manure, which had been strongly recommended
to him, a portion of which he had used on pasture,
and another on meadow land. The guano was ap-
plied on April 28, and the land was of a stiff
nature. The quantity of land was eight acres, and
the guano was used after the rate of '^ cwt. to the
statute acre. The effect of the application was
almost immediately perceptible in the altered ap-
pearance of the land, and the fondness of the cattle
for the grass was astonishing ; indeed it was
almost impossible to keep them from it. He had
also made an experiment on five acres, by using
guano mixed with charcoal dust, after the rate of
2i cwt. to the statute acre, which seemed to give
an impulse to nature, and caused the grass to be
very forward. The cost of the guano was ids. per

cwt., carriage Is. 6d., spreading it Is., making it
altogether £2 10s. 6d. for the quantity applied to
each statute acre. The crop answered every ex-
pectation, both in quantity and quality ; indeed it
exceeded all that the mowers had ever before
witnessed. He had made an experiment in the
same field with well-rotted farm-yard manure, of
which he had used 30 tons per statute acre, but
he found that the result of the guano application
was the more satisfactory one. He must, how-
ever, observe, that as the grasses raised by guano
were evidently of a much more succulent nature
than those produced from farm-yard manure, so it
is essentially necessary that the greater pains
should be taken in making the hay, and a some-
what longer period allowed for the operation,
oihei'wise great danger will exist of the stack
firing, as he had found by experience in his own
case. The effect of guano to pasture land seemed
equally beneficial as to meadows. With respect to
the use of guano for other descriptions of crops,
he had heard it spoken of and recommended ; but
not having tested, he was not able to acquaint the
meeting with any results fi om his own experience."

Mr. OuTHWAiTE, then at the request of the
Chairman, made a few observations on the satisfac-
tory results he had witnessed from the use of rape
dust as a manure, especially for corn. He had also
derived great advantage from the bone manure for
turnip crops, and he had likewise tried the nitrate
of soda. He, however, preferred the rape dust
before the nitrate of soda for corn, for he found
that the latter, although a very active stimulant,
was evidently not so permanent in its effects as
the former.

Mr. Wilson Ffhance begged to say that he could
confirm Mr. O.'s statement, as to the utility of
rape dust, from his own experience. He bad pro-
cured two tons of it, which he put upon black
land for potatoes. The field was before a very
poor one, and would not have yielded more than
two loads from the statute acre, but after applying
a manuring of rape dust, at the rate of 14 cwt. to
the statute acre, it produced a most magnificent
crop, amounting to 150 loads, from the customary
acre of seven yards to the rood. This was followed
with spring wheat and clover, without additional
manure, and the crop was a beautiful one — 24
bushels on an acre. He got 4 tons of this manure
for potatoes and turnips, and he had also used
guano and farm-yard manure ; and he felt, that
although the advantages of rape dust were great,
as he had experienced, he must be allowed to say,
that both it and farm-yard manure were surpassed
by guano, as applied to turnips, for it forced the
growth more rapidly, and enabled them to take
the mildew the sooner. The cost of the rape dust
was £7 10s. per ton, of which he used 14 cwt. to
the acre, so that the whole cost would not be much
less than £G per acre. Of guano he applied 3 cwt.
to the acre, the cost of which was l6s. per cwt.,
and carriage 4s,, making together 20s., from which
it appeared that guano manure could be used at
one half the cost of rape dust.

Mr. TuRELFALL ucxt rosc to address the meet-
ing, in order to answer an observation made by
Mr. Outhwaitc, on the questionable advantage of
adopting spade labour, especially in its inapplica-
bility to large farms, and proceeded by saying, —
I think it a fortunate circumstance that I hap-
pened to be in the room when our friend from a
distance made his remarks respecting a neighbour of
his having dug some land as an experiment for grow-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

19

ing corn,;in(] foil iid the results so very unsatisfactory.
I am not acquainted with the neighbourhood from
whence he comes, nor has he tohl us the nature of
the soil upon which the experiment was made — it
might he very different from that upon which
mine was made, the particulars of which I gave
at Lytbam ; but in addition to that case, I am pre-
pared to prove that there is great advantage in
amount of produce for succeeding years, wheio the
spade has been employed in clay soil. For instance,
in the year 1839, 1 dug part of alield which had been
oats from ley, and planted it with i)otatoes, which
were taken early to market, and replanted with
Swedish turnips ; after which it was, in the same
year, sown with wheat. I prepared apart of the
same field for Swedish turnips in drill with the
plough, and the remainder of the field was ploughed
in the ordinary way for oats. In 1840 the drill
turnip ground was sown with oats, and also with
clover and rye-grass, along with the dug ground
in wheat. In 1811 the dug ground bore a much
heavier crop of clover, &c., than the other. In
1S42 both lots were sown with oats, prepared by
the plough, but the land which bad been dug in
1839 had, in appearance, at least a third heavier
crop. That portion which was sown with oats in
1839, was dng for Swedish turnips in 1840 ; in 1841
jiianted with potatoes by once ploughing, without
manure, and in 1842 sown with oats without ma-
nure, and the produce from appearance was twice
as much as that part which had never been dug.
These arc the results of my experiments upon a clay
soil, and I have no reason to suppose but that the
same results would follow the efforts of any other
person upon a similar soil (Cheers).

Mr. AViLsoN Ffrance made a few observations
])reparatory to introducing to the meeting the
following letter, the subject of which he deemed of
much importance to agriculturists.

SUBSOILING.

IMPORTANT to THE FARMERS OF KERRY.

To the Editor of the Kerry Evening Post.

Dear Sir, — I hasten to lay before the farmers
of this county, through the medium of your
journal, the following important details in con-
nection wiih the subject of subsoiling, to which my
attention was directed, during our assizes, by
David T. Wilson, Esq., of Belvoir; and in doing so
I shall freely make use of the published account of
that gentleman's very satisfactory experiment,
which is in some places fuller than the memoranda
with which he had the kindess to furnish me.

It is a well known axiom in agriculture, that the
deeper the soil is the more favourable will it be for
the purposes of cultivation. To produce this de-
sideratum, several plans have been adopted either
by the thorough trenching with the spade, or by
the use of the subsoil plough.

Kow, the subsoil plough requires, in the first
place, capital to try it— great skill to guide it— at
least four horses to work it, and a soil not greatly
obstructed by stones in which to use it. If used
in winter, you work it in short days and bad
weather. If in summer, your land is idle duiing
the process. You loosen the subsoil, but it is not
exposed to the atmosphere for a sufficient time to
reap any benefit from its influence. Lastly, what-
ever the advantages of the subsoil plough, it is
altogether beyond the reach of the cottier, and

within that of very few of our ordinary classes of
farmers.

As to trenching, unless when the land is idle, it
cannot be resorted to. Winter is, therefore, the
time generally chosen for the operation, and little
can be done in short wet days. It is a tedious and
expensive process, especially if performed in win-
ter, at'.d it must be finished off at once. The cost
of labour is consequently spread over a number of
years, and, of course, is felt to press more heavily
on the pocket of the farmer. For these reasons,
but very few of our cottiers, or even of our gentry
and farmers, have courage enough to begin to
trench.

It occurred to Mr. Wilson that the deepening of
the soil, which is the object contemplated in the
use of the subsoil plough, and in that of trenching,
could be more easily and more cheaply effected,
particularly in those moist mountain lands, where
it has been customary to till the ground in the way
of ridge or furrows, to take off the superabundant
moisture. Mr. Wilson's plan then is this —

He proposes by means of wide, diago7ial, and
sloping furroivs , to loosen subsoil — without capital,
without skill, and with very little labour.

1st. — As to the saving of capital, states Mr-
Wilson, I only use a light crowbar and spade.

2ndly.— As to skill, the use of those imple-
ments require none, or but very little.

Next.— As to labour; I form my ridges diago-
nally, sloping along at one side, and not downthe
incline of each field. I make them four feet wide,
and the furrows two feet inside (they maybe made
even two feet and a half v.'here the soil is very
thinj. In the process of tilling, whether for po-
tatoes or corn, every particle of good soil being
taken from the furrow in order to deepen it as
much as possible, as well as to increase the depth,
of surface on the ridge, I commence loosening the
subsoil in the furrows to the depth of from eight
to ten inches. The spade performs the work ad-
mirably well in the ordinary description of stiff,
white, or yellow clay ; but the crowbar is required
for hard, adhesive gravel, and the operation is
somewhat slow.

The second year, split the ridge, running the
two-foot furrow in the centre, the furrow of the
first year forming the centre of the ridge of the
second year. The same process is followed as be-
fore, and thus the subsoil of two-thirds of a field
is loosened in two years ; the remaining third, con-
sisting of bars (if I may so term them) of only one
foot in breath.

The third year, I opened furrow drains, of 15
or 20 feet apart, 30 inches deep, and running di-
rectly down the incline; the farrows which I had
previouslg loosened inclining toivards them, the bars
or portions voi loosened, acting as conductors in
draiving off the tvater.

Tbe advantages of this system, in addition to
those already stated, are that of loosening the sub-
.soil while the land is bearing me a crop. That
crop, though covering a lesser space of ground
than it would cover according to the usual mode
of culture, giving a decided increase in produce,
in consequence of the increased depth of surface.
I spread the period of operation over two or
three years, during which time the furrows answer
the purpose of drains.

The work is performed in long days, at the idle
time of the year, after the potatoes are tilled, and
till hay-making commences, on the mornings of

c 2

20

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

liay-making, and after harvest, before the potato-
digging commences.

The subsoil, taking the time before and after
loosening, is exposed to the atmosphere altogether
for a period of six or seven months. Several acres
will be in process at the same time. And, above
all, the plan is so simple and attended with so little
expencc, that it comes within the power of the
poorest cottier t» carry it into effect.

In order to explain more fully the practical
working of the sj'stem, and to show its cost, writes
the very intelligent gentleman who drew up the
narrative of the experiment lately tried at Belvoir,
the assembled gentlemen aiid agricnlturists f and
many of the latter were scientific Scotchmen, con-
nected with the different estates in the eastern di-
vision of the county Clave) were brought to a
field which had been tilled diagonally, and com-
partments of four statute perches each were
marked off', and men drawn indiscrin)inately from
other work, were formed into squads of four each
—each squad being supplied res|)ectively with
either spades, crowbars, or picks, and they were
set to loosen the subsoil of the furrows, being di-
rected at the same time to use no greater exertion
than they were accustomed to use on ordinary
occasions. The first set of four men, with their
spades, furnished their compartment in 25 minutes.
Those with the crowbars were next done, and
lastly, those with the picks, but the difference of
time vyas not material. A second trial was made,
in a different part of the demesne, where it was
supposed that the subsoil was more tenacious.
Here, the spades took 33 minutes, the
crowbars 36 minutes, and the picks 45 minutes.
In this trial it was evident that on such land the
picks were unsuited for this kind of work ; and
besides, the men, in using these tools, had to
trample down the moved ground as they proceeded
backwards with their work. The superiority of
the spades being fully admitted, it was then sug-
gested that a third trial should be made with the
spades alone ; and as some of the agriculturists
thought that the bottom of the furrow was not left
sufficiently even, in the former trials, to allow the
water to pass freely into the drains. This squad
of men, four in number, were directed to dig out
the subsoil with an even bottom, and they com-
pleted the two perches allotted to them in 13
minutes ; an evident improvement on the first and
second trials, which could only be attributed to
the experience they had now acquired. 'i he two
gentlemen who remained to watch the execution
of this last wort, had no hesitation in giving their
opinion that it could have been done by task work
in nearly half the time. But suppose the average
to be 15 minutes, in a subsoil with a hard indu-
rated crust it might take longer. I'his would be
2 perches per hour for one man, or 20 perches for
the day of 10 hours. Twenty perches being half
a rood, multiplied by eight, will give 160 perches
or 1 statute acre. Thus, it will take eight days for
one man to finish one acre of the first year's sub-
soiling, which, at 8d. a day, the wages of the
locality, will come to 5s. Id. ; and the price of
executing the furrows of the second year being 5s.
4d. more, will make a total of 10s. "Sd, as the ex-
])cnce of subsoiling one statute acre. In Scotland
this operation costs about 30s, per acre ; so that,
between the exjjcnce of a subsoil plough, and the
cost of a team of from four to six horses to draw
it, which horses and jjloughmen must have had
previous training to enable them to accomplish

this s])ecies of work, few, even opulent farmers, in
this country, could be induced to try this im-
provement.

With respect to the upright drains, Mr. Wilson
prefers that they should be madeof stcne, with flat
covering, as affording a more easy entrance to the
water from the diagonal furrows ; and he recom-
mends that they should not be closed up till the
water shall have had time to filter clearly through
the bottoms of the furrows, to prevent any deposit
of mould in the drains. During the deepening of
the furrows, all stones that may present them-
selves are collected and placed in heaps at the
top or bottom of the field, exactly opposite the
lines marked out for the drains.

Mr. Wilson did not make any estimate of the
expencc of those drains, but in a late account of
some subsoil draining in Scotland, the total expen-
diture was set down at 30s. ; so that when it is
taken into account that manual labour is so much
cheaper in this country, we may set down the cost
of the drains under the Wilson system at little more
than half.

Trusting that these compilations will be found
sufficiently explicit, I have only to observe in con-
clusion, that a diagram of Mr. Wilson's plan, which
that intelligent and benevolent gentleman permitted
me to copy, is at present in the hands of Mr. John
M'Gowan, Nelson-street, the very eminent engineer.
I am, dear Sir, fjilhfully yours,

James R. Eagar.

Tralee, Strand-street, Aug. 5, 1842.

At the meeting of the East Norfolk Agricultural
Society, on the 13th of September, Lord AVodk-
iiousE, in an excellent speech, remarked that,
proud as he was to see the exhibition of that day,
yet it should be recollected that fine as those ani-
mals were, they were kept more as vehicles of
manure — the sheep were nothing more than a dung
cart, and were as economical, in fact cheaper than
having to purchase manure. But then every one
present knew that what was })roduced from the
farm-yard was the best; and, although many dis-
coveries had been made, still nothing was equal to
the manure from the yard. It was, however, not
to be denied, that some assistance was wanted. He
remembered an anecdote of an old farmer, who,
upon being told of the great improvements made
by Mr. Coke, said, " give me muck ; 1 do not care
about squire Coke :" and Mr. Coke was I believe of
the same opinion. There was no doubt that muck
was the main ingredient, but under the present
state it was necessary to obtaii! a great addition :
if their object was to produce greater crops, and
exclude the foreigners, which he feared they never
should be able to do, their land must be much
better farmed. With regard to additional manure,
for that they must look to the great chemists of tiic
day, who had done their part ; they must look to
Sir. H. Davy, and read with careful attention the
work of I'rofessor Liebig. If they followed the
instructions of these great men, they could not fail
to increase their produce. llv. did not pretend to
be an experienced agriculturist, but from the ex-
perience he had, he thought that next to the pro-
duce of the yard, came bone manure. But Professor
Leibig had rcconmiended a mixture of sulphuric
acid and bone manure. He had tried this, and was
trying it at this moment, but he could not see any
difVciencc between that and the common manure ;
and if the crop comes to perfection, the bone ma-

THE FARMER'S iMAGAZlNE.

21

nure and sulphuiio acid will not be less expensive
and nioic economical. 'J'here were two descrip-
tions'of ngriciilturists — one who are by their skill
and industry daily increasing their great wealth,
and will ulti-nately arrive at the highest position ;
and others who like myself, left-shoulder farmers.
The industrious farmer is a far different ])erson —
lie labours incessantly from morn till eve, and
jjasses many a sleepless night iti considering his
plans. We left-shoulder men make the experi-
ments. ]f they succeed, they are adopted ; if not,
they laugh at us. But it was important to have
sucli experiments tried.

At the Liverpool meeting, Samuel Sandasii,
Esq., one of the \^ice-presidents, observed that the
.**ecretary had saidsomething about guano, and if any
gentleman here would give the results of some ex-
periments, he would be glad to hear him. lie had
tried it himself, and bail made notes of the results,
which he would s^ive if required, although they
might appear ifisigniticant as compared with others
in the room. The fir-t time he made use of guano
was in rows of ])eas, but very few apiieared above
ground. He tried the same in three rows of car-
rots, lie put one pound of it in one row, two
pounds in another, and three pounds in the third.
The carrots with one pound came up very well,
those with two pounds still less, and with the
three pounds none at all. He also tried it witb
turnips. He put in the first four drills 90 yards by
each ten pounds of guano at the bottom of the drill,
without manure. He then covered it over and
sowed the turnips, and it appeared to be a very
promising good crop. In the second four drills be
put the manure on the top of the drill, and mi.xed
the seed with it. It nearly destroyed the seed.
On the third four drills he put five pounds of guano
at the bottom of the drills along with some ma-
nure, and that was the best croi^ of all. After
giving some results with respect to potatoes, which
were inaudible, he said that he had tried it for
wheat, and the ground on which guano was used
produced liiiJlbs., whilst the same quantity of land
manured in the ordinary way produced only 3241bs.
He said guano was a veijf valuable manure, if
properly uniierstood and properly aj)plied, but it
required great caution.

The Chairman asked if thei-e was any gentleman
present who would give the results of guano. He
was sure the company would be glad to hear him.

R. Neilson', Esq., said he was induced to try
guano for wheat. He bad a piece of land of ten
statute acres, which he worked up with guano.
Out of the ten acres seven were entirely destroyed
by the strength of the manure, and the other three
were preserved in consequence of iiis not putting
so much of the manure on. These had produced
a very fine crop, some of which bad been shown
that day, and that from a wheat that was not large
in the head. He tried the guuno wilh mangel
wurzel, and found ihat four or live cvvt. of it were
as good as twenty tons of the farm-yard manure.
It was decidedly an advantageous manure for
cheapness, if it were properly introduced into the
soil, but he did not think it would answer well for
top dressing- It ought to be mixed i.p with the
manure and harrowed in. With turnips it had the
same effect. Wherever the seed was in contact
with the guai»o, or put into the drill where the
guano was sprinkled on it, it destroyed it. The
heat of the manure was so powerful that it ought

(o be harrowed into the land, and remain some
short lime for the soil to absorb the virus of the
manure before the seed went in. He had made a
mixture of charcoal guano and farm-yard manure,
and he found that answered the best. He believed
guano was a decidedly valuable introduction into
this country, and of great benefit to the farmer,
even if he was obliged to repeat it year after year.
The expense was slight, and the convenience of put-
ting it in was obvious. It had only to be more gene-
rally tried to be more generally used (Applause).

Mr. CRACKENTiioiiiT., as an instance of bigoted
prejudice, remarked that he might as well attempt
to persuade his neighbours at Eastham, to manure
their ground with turtle soup as witb guano {much
lavf/hter). They say their fathers and grandfathers
never did so, nor would they ; but he had seen
some fields of turnips in his neighbourhootl
sprinkled with it, and they were not equal to his
own (hear, liear). Forty tons to the acre had been
spoken of by the Chairman as an extraordinary
quantity, but he had never had less than from
thirty-five to forty (hear). For this he had to show
a silver tea-i)Ot, a silver sugar basin, a silver cream
jug, and prizes of 5/., (i/., and 21. ; therefore ho
thought that he was no loser, and that his example
might encourage others to do the same {liear).

At the West Suflblk Agricultural Association
Meeting, on the 30th of September, Mr. Shillito
said the agriculturists j)resent had been called
upon to state, as far as they could, what they con-
sidered to be the best mode of cultivating their
lands, and he would touch upon the question of
manure. He would begin by slating what he had
done on the farm he occupied under the Marquess
of Bristol. If he were asked what natural manure
was best for land, he believed he should be borne
out by the opinion of men of the first ability and
l)ractice in his reply, that no inaimre was so sub-
stantial and sound as that made from fat animals ;
but if he were asked what was best as an artificial
manure, he mustanswer thatin his idea that would
depend principally on the soils. On his Barrow
soil lie had never found from bones the advantage
there should be for the outlay and expense ; he
thought there was not the staple in the land to make
them beneficial. He was induced to use it in con-
sequence of some observations of a practical farmer
from Lincolnshire, who thought it would suit his
land, as it had been found very advantageous on
the U'olds of that county. He boned 50 acres last
year, but it failed in producing the result he ex-
pected, and he had since tried it on various parts
of the farm with no better success. With oil and
rape cake he had been more fortunate both on
turnips and wheat. If he were asked which was
the best crop to apply it to, he should say he would
sooner use it to wheat than turnips, and his reason
was this : — At the time the wheat was put in
the earth was moist, and the rape-cake had better
effect at that season of the year than when applied
to turnip land, if it happeiied to be dry. He was
not going to destroy the bone crusher, for he had
tried bones on a diti'erent sort of occupation, peat
fen land ; and he had also observed the result of
them when a[)plied by his neighbours on such
land, particularly on that farmed by Mr. Paine, of
Risby. That gentleman used it for coleseed, and
bad as fine a piece of coleseed as he could wish lo
see. He tried it himself, and boned on his Fen
Farm 33 acres for coleseed, using 10 bushels i-er

22

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

acre, in rows 15 inclies asunder, and he thouglit
he might challenge the county to produce 33 such
acres of coleseed on land which 40 years ago did
not c»)St f)/. per acre ; indeed he did not know if it
was not better than he wished, for he thought he
should have to mow oflf the top before it was fed
off. Next year, instead of ten bushels, he should
put on only seven, and he then thought it would
be sufficient to feed off.

Mr. Gednev condemned the use of artificial
manures, as when a man bought them he was apt
to become a lazy fanner, and to forget what he had
at liome which would do much better. He was
not much of a light-land farmer, but if bones an-
swered anywhere he was sure they answered on a
light soil. His friend, Mr. Shillito, thought ten
bushels too much, and that seven were enough ;
he (Mr. Gedney) was sure that none at all were
sufficient for that land for profit — the very small
quantity applied, 7 bushels per acre, could not
avail in producing any great return. He believed
that in this country, if they wished to benefit the
soil, it must be done at great cost — with a little
they could not do a great deal, but with a great
deal they might do a little.

Mr. Shillito said he should be happy to shew
Mr. Gedney the result of the coleseed being boned,
and this he could easily do, as he desired his men
to leave a stetch without any, and it could be
plainly perceived where it was put on. Where it
•was boned, the coleseed was two feet and a half high,
where no bones were it was not a foot high. He
thought therefore that he had good grounds for
his calculation, that if he put tlie coleseed at 18
inches and 7 bushels per acre it would be sufficient.

At the recent meeting of the Essex Agricultural
Society, Mr. Palmer, M. P., in acknowledging his
health which had been drank, observed that he
had done what little he could to promote the in-
terest of agriculture in this district, and he would
appeal to Mr. Philby and other gentlemen to whom
he had stated some little experiments he made, 18
months ago, as (o the effect of different kinds of
manure and stimulants on the land. He tried dif-
ferent sorts of manure on a piece of grass land, and
a piece of arable. On the arable land he put sti-
mulants, such as saltpetre, soda, and such like
things ; and the first year it appeared to have a
great effect on the crop, but in the following year
he could find no benefit from it. His land was of
a strong description, and when he applied chalk or
lime, whether on arable or pasture, he saw no
benefit arising from it the first year, but the se-
cond year both arable and pasture so treated showed
a great advantage over every other part. He took
the same average value per acre, viz., 2.5s. for salt-
petre and soda, and the cartage of chalk being
heavy, the same for that.

At the Waltham meeting, on the 26th of Sep-
tember, Mr. T. Beaslev, Vice-president, made the
following observations : — In the system of agricul-
ture that prevailed, he always experienced surprise
at the waste of manure which he observed in almost
every quarter ; the waste of tLis ingredient he felt
convinced was equal to the amount of the artificial
manure that they purchased at such expence. In
riding through villages after heavy showers, they
must have perceived that every gutter was filled
with liquid manure. He thought that no farmer

alive to his own interests, and sensible of his
responsibility, ought to delay a week in construct-
ing a reservoir for the collection of liquid manure.
He was about to hazard a bold saying ; but in his
opinion what might be produced by the wasted
manure, it it was only properly taken care of and
judiciously applied, would pay the interest of the
national debt. Mr. Beasley added, that he did
not allude to the waste in farm- yards only ; hut to
that in large towns, in addition thereto. He had
another observation to make respecting lime. It
was frequently lying two or three months in small
heaps, to be saturated with wet, and lose all its
stimulating qualities ; he would urge them to use
it as soon as possible after it was brought from the
kiln. Me mentioned these things for their con-
sideration, because every farmer was bound not to
leave a stone unturned in order to make the soil
yield as much as it possibly could ; to mate two
blades of grass and two ears of corn grow where
but one grew before, and two oxen be bred where
but one was previously fattened. This was a duty
incumbent upon all.

New Kind of Manure. — Count Hompesch, a
Belgian gentleman, has taken out a patent for the
preparation of a manure more powerful and cheaper
than any yet invented. His plan is said to consist
in fixing all the volatile parts of night-soil and
other such substances by means of the ashes of
the oolitic shale of Portland. The shale is em-
ployed, in the first place, as a source from which
oil, turpentine, and other substances are extracted ;
the residue goes to the preparation of the manure,
which is said to be converted somewhere on the
Isle of Dogs, and sold in a dry state, in the form
of bricks. As the materials to be thus employed
are inexhaustible, and at present almost valueless,
it is expected that the preparation of the fertilizer
in question will become a matter of great national
imi)ortance. As people have become too wise to
wonder at sugar being made from old rags, so will
they be equally prepared to hear that oil, and
tallow, and soap, are to be fabricated from the
hardened mud of the coal mines ; for such is
" shale."

ROSS FARMERS' CLUB.

The usual annual meeting of this society took
place on Thursday , the 27th Oct., on which
occasion their ploughing match came off in a field
of clover ley on tie BoUin estate, within a mile of
the town.

Twenty-one competitors made their appearance
on the ground by half-past nine o'clock, all appear-
ing like true and sturdy ploughmen resolved to
win the several prizes offered by the society. Mr.
Price, the hon. secretary, having previously al-
lotted out the half-acre quantities, which they
were to plough in three hours, and having assem-
bled the com[)etitors, each drew his number, which
being placed on his hat, he proceeded with his
l)lough and pair of horses to the coircsponding
number marked on pegs placed in the ground
against each lot. The signal having been given
for starting, away they went, " whistling o'er the
lea." The sun shining forth in its autumnal
glory, with the numerous assemblage of spectators,
presented a most lively and interesting scene.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

23

The judges, Messrs. Riulgo, Maifcll, and Wenlcli,
having arrived on the ground on the completion
of the work, and carefully examining- the several
performances, iiliimately awarded the society's
premiums as under : — ,

No. 6. — Mr. A. Dowie, Llangarren, owner ; T.
Matthews, ploughman, 2h. :34m., 21. 10s.

No. 10. — Mr. H. Higgins, Fawley, owner ; W.
Howells, ploughman, 2h. 57ni., 1/. 10s.

No. 13.— Mr. T. Phelps, Sellack, owner; J.
Lewis, ploughman, 2h. 25m:, II.

No. 1. — .Mr. B. Street, Llangarren, owner ;
W. Phillips, ploughman, 2h. 30m., 15s.

No. 11.— Mr. T. Woodhall, The Bollin, owner;
H. Rudge, ploughman, 2h. 12m., 10s.
And to the unsuccessful candidates, 2s. (id. each.

An iron two-wheel plough, of modern construc-
tion, belonging to Mr. Higgins, of Fawley, and a
single wheel DP plough, peculiar for its construc-
tion, and for which the makers (Barrett and Co.,
of Reading) received the Royal English Agricul-
tural Society's prize at Liverpool, as the " lightest
in draught," belonging to Mr. Price, of Benhall,
were much admired on the ground.

The society afterwards sat down to an excellent
dinner, laid out in their room at the New Inn, the
display of which, and the excellent wines, were
much admired by about 45 or 50 of the most in-
fluential agriculturists of the neighbourhood, in-
cluding a fair sprinkling of the respectable inhabi-
tants of the town. Henry Chillingwortb, Esq., of
Grendon Court, the president of the year, assisted
by Thomas Woodhall, Esq., as vice-president, con-
ducted the routine of toasts in the most able and
eloquent manner.

After the usual toasts of " The Queen," " Prince
Albert and the Prince of Wales," " The Queen
Dowager and the rest of the Royal Family," the
President gave, amidst much applause, " Lord
Ashburton, the Patron of the Society;" " The Mem-
bers of the County, who had so handsomely come
forward to render the society their countenance
and support;" " The Royal English Agricultural
Society ;" " The Herefordshire Agricultural So-
ciety." Among the toasts given of several gentle-
men residing in the neighbourhood of Ross, who
had lent their aid and support in furthering the
objects of the society, we noticed those of " K.
Evans, Esq., of the Hill ;" " S. W. Compton, Epq.,
of Walford ;" " Thomas Brooke, Esq., of Pencraig
Court;" " William Bridgman, jun., Esq., of ^\ es-
ton;" "John S. Collins, Esq.;" " William Hooper,
Esq. ;" <' The Rev. T. P. Symonds, of Pengethley,"
as well as other members of the club.

The President gave the following toast : —
'' Success and utility to the Ross Farmers' Club,"
introducing it and enlarging on it in the most able
and enlightened manner, and which was received
with the most deafening applause. The next toast
drunk, " Henry Chillingworth, Esq., the Presi-
dent," was received with the warmest plaudits,
who fully responded to it, assuring the society of
his earnest and hearty desire for the well-being
and prosperity of the institution, in whose power
it was, if properly supported, of conferring the
greatest advantage on the agricultural community
of the neighbourhood, and particularly on the de-
serving, sober, and industrious labourers. The
President then gave " Earl Somers, the Friend
and Supporter of Agriculture," after which he
read the award of the committee, of the premiums
to agricultural labourers, &c., as follows :—

" To the married labourer in Liisbiuulry who has
brought np tlie greatest nuaibcr of children without
parochial assistance, with a general good character."
A premium to Edward Morgan, recommended bv the
Rev. T. P. Symonds, as having reared nine children,
and worked on his farm for ton and a half years, 11.

To tlie second .in this class. A premium of I5s.,
awarded to John Burford, recommended by Mr.
Wm. Jones of Baysham, for liaving reared a family
of eight children, and living in his service thirty-five
years.

To the third in this class. A premium of 10s. to
Richard Davies, recommended by Mr Thomas
Woodhall, of the Bollin, for having reared six chil-
dren, and haying been in his employ twelve years.

" To the farm labourer who has been employed by
bis master the longest period." A premium of 1/. was
awarded to Michael Cole, recommended by Mr. W.
Jones of Baysham, for having lived in his father's
service and his own for a period of fifty-one years
without interruption.

To the second in this class. A premium of 1/.
was awarded to Tbos. Matthews, recommended by
Mr. F. Rootes, of Weston, for having lived without
intermission in his grandfather's and his own service
for twenty-five years.

To the third in this class. A premium of 10s. to
Thomas Taylor, recommended by Mr. Timothy
Marfell, as having lived in his service thirty-seven
years. This premium would have been greater, but
Mr. Marfell not being a member of the club, the com-
mittee'could not consistently allow the man to become
a competitor.

" To the waggoner who has lived the longest
period in his present service." A premium of 21.
was awarded to Thomas Roberts, recommended by
Mr. Wm. Jones of Baysham, for a servitude in that
capacity of twenty-five years.

To the second in this class. A premium of 1/.
was awarded to Wm. Caton, recommended also by
Mr. Wm. Jones, for having lived in his employ on
another farm a period of thirteen years.

To the third in this class. A premium of 10s. to
Joseph Williams, recommended by Mr. Thomas
Williams, of Llaugarren, for a servitude of thirty-
three years. The latter premium would have been
higher had Mr. Thomas Williams been a member of
the club, but the excellent character given to the
candidate induced the committee to notice it.

" To the woman who has done the most out-door
work on any farm annually, and is still employed."
A premium of 1/. was awarded to Elizabeth Hus-
bands, recommended by Henry Chillingworth, Esq.,
for having worked on his farm ten years.

To the second in this class. A premium of lOs.
was awarded to Jane Morgan, recommended by Mr.
Wm. Price, of Benhall, for having worked on his
farm, in theemploy of his predecessor and himself, a
period of twelve years.

" To the female servant in husbandry who caa
produce the most satisfactory character for long ser-
vitude, and general good conduct. No candidates.

To the second in this class. No candidates.

" To the shepherd, who has reared the greatest
number of lambs, &c." Lord Ashburton's premium
oi'oL ; T. B. M. Baskerville, Esq's, premium of 2/. ;
and the society's premium of 11. to the third best in
this class, will be awarded at Midsummer next.

The Chairman then gave, " The owners of the
teams whose ploughmen had gained the pre-
miums," which was followed by the toast of " The
honest and industrious Labourers." Then sue-

24

TEIE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ceeded the toast of "Thomas Woodhall, Esq..
the excellent Vice-president, and thanks to him for
his ground for the ploughing match, and also for
the unbounded hospitality shown by him on the
occasion." " Mr. Price, of Benhall, the indefa-
tigable Secretary and Treasurer to the society ;
and thanks to him for his unabated zeal and un-
wearied exertions for the welfare of the societv ;"'
both of which toasts were warmly greeted, and
were responded to at some length by those gentle-
men.

Next followed "The Judges of the Ploughing;"
" Henry Burgum, Esq.," "Mr. Henry Iliggins,"
'• and Mr. Thomas Phelps/' who proposed to offer
a sovereign each, as a joint premium, to be
awarded at the next meeting to the maker of the
best constructed plough. " The Committee," one
of whom announced that the society would give a
second premium in this class. " Mr. Samuel Ed-
wards, of Foxhall;" " Mr. John Jones, of Pennox-
ton ;" "Mr. Carey Cocks, and the other gentle-
men who gave premiums at the last annual
meeting ;" " The Ladies," &c., &c.

The remarks and observations made by the se-
veral speakers during the evening, evinced the
great practical utility of these societies ; and we
have no doubt that the most eminent success will
attend their useful labours. After having enjoyed
an evening of the most friendly intercourse and
social feeling, the party separated delighted \Aith
the pleasures of the day.

PROBUS FARMERS' CLUB.

Horses and Oxen.

At a meeting of the members of this Society, on
Saturday, November 19, an interesting paper, on
the comparative advantages in the employment of
Jiorses and oxen in farming work, was brought before
their notice. The importance of this subject occa-
sioned a large attendance of members, it being
obvious to every practical farmer, that the cost of
labour in an arable farm amounts to a much more
considerable sum than the rent, and any improve-
ment that might be suggested by the lecturer would
be deemed of considerable importance. He first
alluded to the antiquity of the ox as a beast of
burden, and shewed byrefeience to ancient his-
tory, that he was employed long before the horse.
The earliest record we have of the ox is in the
sacred volume— where we are informed, that " Ju-
bal son of Lemecb, was the father of such as dwell
in tents and of such as have cattle. The inference
to be drawn from this is, that the ox was early do-
mesticated, and that until that took place, all
efforts of tillage must have been insignificant.
Alluding to the comparative merits of the ox and
horse, as beasts of labour for agricultural purposes,
he said, that this was a disputed subject, and the
opinions on either side were conflicting — one party
contending that horses are getting too much into
use, to the exclusion of the ox, and that the farm-
ers are injuring themselves by employing them,
as they would by the by discover, when they find

a lot of old horses on their farms fit only for the
kennel ; whilst the opi)osite party affirm, that oxen
should never be worked, and only kept for the
purpose of feeding, and that the horse was better
adapted for all agricultural purposes, and would
accomplish the requisite work faster and cheaper.
To arrive at something like the truth between
these conflicting opinions, the author submitted
the following calculations to the club, by which it
will be perceived that the advantage is considerable
on the side of horses. — He first considered the
difference between the cost of two horses and four
oxen, as proposed at the Gloucester Farmers'
Club, by Mr. Stokes — thus supposing 4 oxen equal
to the work of 2 well fed horses. Each ox to have
per day for the winter half year 1§ cwt. of Swede
turnips at Cd. per cwt — !)d. ; 2 quarts of corn, 2(1. ;
straw, Id.; which would make Is. per day. The
summer half-year, the cattle to have good grass,
and 2 quarts of corn each, at the cost of Gs. per
week.

Thus: Keep of 4 oxen for 2G £. s. d. £. s. d.
weeks, at Is. per day each,
in winter 36 8 0

Keep of ditto during the sum-
mer, for 2G weeks, at fis. per
week 31 40

Amount of 1 year's interest on
4 oxen, at 13/. each 2 12 0

70 4 0
Deduct for the improve-
ment on 4 oxen, for 1
year, 21. each. 8 0 0— C2 4 0

Keep of 2 horses , 52 16 0

9 8 0
This method of keeping oxen the Lecturer dis-
approved of, and besides, he questioned very much
the capability of four oxen, even with the high keep,
to do the work of two good horses ; and the plan
he proposed as a fair trial between horses and oxen,
would be, to match 6 oxen against 2 horses tejit
in the following manner. In the winter weeks to
be allowed l cwt. of Swede turnips each per da}'-,
at 6d. ; 2 quarts of corn, 2d.; straw, 2d. ; which
would amount to lOd. per day each, and in sum-
mer good grass at 5s. per week.

Thus : Keep (i oxen 26 weeks in winter, £. s. d.

at lOd. ])er day each 45 10 0

Keep of ditto 26 summer weeks, each 5s.

per week 39 0 0

One year's interest on 6 oxen, at 13Z. each 3 18 0

88 8 0
Deduct for the improvement of the

Cattle 2/. 10s. each, during the year 15 0 0

73 8 0
The horses, he calculates, would cost to
keej) in good working condition 9s. per
week each, throughout the year, which

would amount to 46 16 0

The year's interest on two horses, valu-
ing them at 20Z. each 2 0 0

To wear and tear of the two horses at 2/.

per each 4 0 0

52 16 0

Balance in favour of horses £20 12 0

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

25

But even taking the extreme case of the Glou-
cester Farmers' Club, that of matching 4 oxen
against 2 horses, the difference would still be in
favour of horses, aniouniing to \)l. 8s. per year.
Although he said the balance from the above
accounts is so much in favour of horses, he would
by no means exclude oxen altogether from farms
where more than one team is kept. In busy sea-
sons they are a most desirable auxiliary to the
horse team, and when no longer wanted might be
fettcned, and sold to the butcher.

This opinion was coincided in by the members
of the club. In the course of the debate which
ensued after the paper was read, tlie age and breed
of both horses and oxen, the cost of uiaintenance,
and the presumed value of horses and oxen, with
their gear when jiuttoworlc, and their value at the
close of the comparison, as well as the comparative
fuimbcr of oxen or horses which would be re-
quired to do the same work, were each separately
discussed.

[As truth is best struck out by the collision of
opposite opinions, and advocates are generally
disposed to give undue weight to their arguments,
and to strain their conclusions, we give as an
opposite view of the same subject, the substance
of a discussion which took place last week, at the
Westfirle Farmers' Club, in Sussex, at which John
Ellman, Esq., a member of the Smitbfield club,
presided. At this meeting the following estimate
was given of the comparative cost of the ox and
the horse, furnished, as it was stated, by a farmer
of greut c.Nperience.

Cost of one horse per year. £. s. d.

Prime cost of a horse three years old .... 30 00
Keep, shoeing, attendance, harness, &c.,
for 10 years, at 25/. per j'ear .250 0 0

280 0 0
Deduct value of horse at 13 years of age 10 0 0

270 0 0
Cost of one horse annually 27 0 0

Cost of one pair of oxen per year.

Prime cost of one pair of three-year old

oxen 30 0

Keep, &c., five years, at IG/. per year. .. . 80 0 0

110 0 0

Deduct value of oxen at eight years old .. 40 0 0

70
14

0 0
0 0

Cost of one pair of oxen annually . .

Tlius it will be seen that there is a decided ad-
vantage of 13/. per annum, in favour of a pair of
oxen. It should be remarked that it is a general
calculation in Sussex, that the labour of one horse
is equal to that of a pair of oxen, although for
heavy draughts experience has proved that the
power of one horse is very inferior to two oxen ;
and the author of the " Annals of Agriculture,"
has given evidence that one ox for a steady draught
is equal to a horse. An instance was quoted at
this meeting of a bull having shown superior
strength to three horses, and it was maiutained by
the meeting that pairs of oxen from four to seven
years old were more than equal to single horses.

It was complained at this meeting, and the

Chairman joined in the complaint, that the Smith-
field committee excluded working oxen from com-
petition, by offering no ])rize for oxen above five
years old. Tbis regulation, it was stated, was
framed by the breeders of short-horns. On some
farms, it was observed, it is better to keep horses ;
on others, both horses and oxen ; and on some,
oxen alone can i)roiitably do the work. The beef
of the working oxen was said to be superior tu any
other : at eight years old it was at perfection.

A member stated that the light soils in his parish
could not he cultivated without oxen. He used 14
oxen, and the keep to support them last winter was
only two acres of cabbage, one acre of Swedes,
foiu- tons of hay, with oat straw, and he worked
12 of them daily to the end of the year. The ma-
nure from them was suHicientfor 11 acres.

A nother meinber stated, that on heavy soils oxen
ought to be used as an auxiliary force for the pre-
paration of the barley season, carrying out dung,
and upon any emergency when extra ])0wer
was required. His experience showed him that a
pair of oxen could draw heavier weights than one
horse ; and in ploughing they were steadier at the
draught. By using oxen as an auxiliary force, a
farmer was enabled to avail himself of the proper
seasons, and when he no longer needed his yokes,
the cattle were improving in value, and adding
largely to the manure heap. In all these con-
siderations they are more valuable than horses.

It was stated that stall-feeding in summer was
advantageous. The gentleman making this state-
ment said he had kept his oxen last summer upon
cut lucerne and grass, as also his dai: y of 13 cows,
and he did not think they had eaten ten tons of
hay for the past three years. Of the capabilities
of oxen, it was satisfactorily proved that steady
draught oxen were superior to horses, and that
six oxen would, if carefully driven at first, plough
an acre of ground as quickly as three horses. In-
stances were mentioned of such a yoke having
ploughed an acre in 3h. 20m., and two yokes of
oxen having done their acre each day; but it was
shown that to work oxen in the same manner as
horses constantly would be unprofitable, as the loss
of flesh would be considerable. Several other
points pertaining to the subject engaged the atten-
tion of the meeting some time longer, and after
having canvassed the whole, it came to the follow-
ing resolutions : —

" That it is the opinion of this meeting that the
working of oxen on most soils is advantageous, and-
on light soils far preferable to that of horses.
That copies of the calculations of the relative ex-
pence of horses and oxen be sent to the secretary
of the Sinithfield Club."

\Ve think it right to assist the judgment of our
agricultural readers, by placing, the opinions of
the Cornish and Sussex, the Probus and Westfirle
farmers, thus in opposition.]

CARROTS IN A SANDY SOIL.

TO TUE FDITOR OF THE DUMFBIES-SHIRE AND GAI.LO-
\\\\ UERALD.

Sir, — A " Durufries-shire Farmer," some weeks
ago, complained in the Mark-Lane Express that, " for
culiuary purposes, he has, for several successive

26

THE FARMERS MAGAZINE,

years," attempted to grow carrots in bis garden, in
"a fine sandy soil,'' witLout success; that" at first
they grow very rapidly, till tbey have attained the
thickness of a goose quill, and then tho leaves begin
to droop," and he finds " the root all run through
with a sinall white worm, about the thickness of a
common pin," lie desires to be informed of the best
way to prevent this " worming."

As no answer has appeared in lheM«j7i-L(ine, as I
feel for my neighbour in his long want of good holcli
patch, and think it unnecessary to write him by the
London post while your columns are open to every
subject connected with agricultural science, you will
favour me by oti'ering him a few hints.

He states a strong case, yet I have occasion to
know that it is not uncommon, and I deem it con-
nected with some very important questions in the
science of vegetation. If what he complains of can be
obviated, an important stage will be gained not only
in the growth of carrots, but also in the successful
culture of other culinary vegetables, and even of
some field crops.

Tlie soil of his garden is a fine sand (a soil unfa-
vourable to the retention of ammonia), and it has
probably been often manured with dung, limed, and
long used only for green crops. Such a soil, so
treated, especially in alow or sheltered situation, is
extremely apt to have an excess of nitrogenous mat-
ter which genders worms, gives a strong and bad
flavour to cabbages, colowort, turnips, and most ve-
getables, and either injures the flavour and tender-
ness of carrots, or leaves them a prey to vermin.

Nitrogenous matter in a sandy soil yields chiefly
nitrates ; and as far as observations have been made,
nitrates tend chiefly to the formation of woody-fibre.
They rapidly stimulate growth for a time, but as they
are unfavourable to the production of sugar, they
bring forward carrots or red-beet in an unhealthy
state, and soon leave the.Ta a prey to worms. Such
plants, if not destroyed by vermin, will be found to
have cleft roots, and to be hard, woody, and ill-fla-
voured.

Hence, to give my neighbour good carrots from his
garden, two objects require attention ; the vermin
must be got rid of, and the soil needs to be improved,
either by removing the excess of nitrates, or by sup-
plying what their excess renders deficient in a
sandy soil.

Fortunately, the substance chiefly wanting in the
soil is the best agent for destroying worms ; I mean
ammonia. If my neighbour has access to the ammoni-
acal liquor of the gas works, he will find its repeated
use in spring of much value ; if he has not, the urine
either of the stable or of the chamber will in part sup-
ply its place. It must be used stale, and either diluted
with water, or put on during rain. Besides car-
bonate of ammonia, urine contains various other
salts of high value in vegetation.

But the continued use of urine alone will, after a
few seasons, aggravate the evil which it at first re-
medied ; nitrates and vermin will abound more than
ever. Substances must be used which act upon and
retard the formation of nitric acid. Of these I know
none equal to soot. It contains creosote, capnoraone,
and other substances, which at once check the for-
mation of nitrates, and banish vermes from the soil.
It also contains sulphate of ammonia and gypsum.
Hence gardeners have found it a very valuable ma-
nure.

The spirit of tar has been found effectually to re-
move the worms ; and perhaps a compost of common
wood-tar, carefully mixed in soil, would both remove

the worms, and, by its absorbent power, improve
the flavour of the carrots. Tar is more antiseptic than
soot is, and I have found that it powerfully absorbs
the gases given off in putrefaction, and hohh them
till brouglit in contact with caustic alkalies. In ab-
sorbent power it seems much to resemble carbon,
and, as it is cheap, I have often thought it may be-
come a valuable auxiliary to our manures. There
can be little doubt of its absorbing those gases which
give a bad flavour to many culinar}' vegetables on
sandy soils. There is no risk of its being taken up
by the roots ; and if it were, it would only give them
the virtues of tar-water, a medicine deseivedly ex-
tolled bv the Bishop of Cloyne and others.

But all this is only doctoring a bad subject. The
soil is radically deficient. There is little hope of
raising an uninterrupted succession of healthy well-
flavoured green crops from a fine sandy soil. Car-
rots, indeed, prefer a sandy soil ; but then it is only
while the soil \3 fresh, not, after it has been converted
into a nitre-bed. Hence gardeners find the value of
bringing up an inch of fresh subsoil as often as the
plot is trenched. But 1 have never seen culinary
vegetables long cultivated with success in soils
where clay was not present. A portion of red clay
is indispensable. One inch will do more for my
neighbour's soil than all the drugs in the pharma-
copoeia. Red clay, after sufiicient exposure to the
air, first absorbs ammonia, and then gradually com-
bines with it, forming salts little washed ofl'byrain,
as they are but sparingly soluble in water. The
eflfect of this is pointed out in the popular phrases,
" a rich clay," and " a hungry sand." The former re-
tains ammonia and other manures, and slowly gives
them ofFas needed by plants ; hence clay soils, in field-
labour, gradually accumulate riches, and require lime
occasionally to aid in the evolution of their ammonia.
Sandy soils, on the contrary, cannot retain ammonia ;
it is washed from them by rain ; hence they are poor
and hungry, and, iu the farmer's phrase, " can stand
but little lime."

The successful use of clay requires a little ma-
nagement, as I knew a farmer who lost four ci ops by
laying a heavy dose, just dug from the pit, on
sandy soil in spviny, and working it in immediately.
The clay should be laid on in October or November,
equally, spread and broken into small lumps by the
spade. The dressing should be only about an inch
thick. Thus exposed to the rains and frosts of win-
ter, it gradually falls into a fine powder, which will
have been partly washed into the sandy soil by Can-
dlemas. It should then be dug in and well mixed
when the soil and clay are damp, but not wet. The
iron in the clay strongly attracts oxygen, and by
this procedure it will soon be peroxidated. The
soil will now be in a much better state for retaining
the ammonia, and quality of culinary vegetables will
be much improved. Where the subsoil is open,
this dressing should be renewed in seven or ten
years, as the clay is gradually washed down.

For carrots it probably requires no other manures
except the urine. Potash and phosphoric acid are,
most likely, deficient in the soil ; if so, the ashes of
burnt couch (especially from a clayey soil ), or wood-
aslies, are suitable. Neither farm nor street manure,
nor coal ashes, should be used ; either of these will
increase the disease complained of. A weak solution
of common black soap, or even " soap-suds," may
be valuable ; or the beautiful gem — guano.

My scroll is not finished, but Homer sleeps, and
1 shall close. Sir, your obedient servant, G,

Dumfries-shire, 2lst Oclober, 1842.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

27

ON LEASES.

TO THE EDITOlt OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — My attention having been directed to the
appeal you made to your Scottish readers in your
journal of the lOih October last, 1 have thrown to-
gether a few facts on the subject of leases and rents,
being such as have passed under my own observa-
tion, or have obtained on authentic information ; and
if you judge them worthy of insertion, they are quite
at vour service.

Farms in Scotland have from time immemorial
been held on leases j and a tenant at will is an ano-
maly quite unknown.

Leases were formerly granted for a much longer
period than they are at present — many being for
fifty-seven years, with continuation of the contin-
gency of a life selectedUowards the close of the fifty-
seven years ; so that in some instances leases have
extended to a full century. Several of these leases
are yet unterminnted. At present, however, leases
are granted for nineteen years, but these nineteen
years leases are frequently renewed, so tliat the same
farm is often held by one family for several succes-
sive generations.

The renewal of these leases is effected in this way :
— sometime before the expiry of the lease, the tenant
is requested to make an offer for a new one; and
should his offer prove nearly eiiual to the ascertained
value of the farm, the lease is at once renewed.
Should the tenant's oft'er be considered below the
value of the land, he receives notice that the farm is
to be advertised. This does not, however, exclude
him from again making an offer, even the same offer
as before; and it not unfrequently turns out to be the
preferable one, and his lease is renewed. We know
individuals who in this way have held successively
three such leases, and have entered upon a fourth.
The following are the most common courses in wliicli
farms fall to be advertised to be let by tender, namely
— the insolvency of a tenant ; the death of a tenant,
who leaves no family to mourn him, ot whose family
are settled in other farms, or in another line ; the
advanced age of a tenant, who is circumstanced as
to family as in the last case, who therefore declines
to enter upon a neiv lease ; when a tenant has been
so successful as to have been able to purchase a
farm, and wishing to occupy his own land, therefore
declines renewing his lease, a circumstance that has
sometimes occurred in Scotland ; and when the
landlord is a ward, bis guardians sometimes feel it
their duty, for their own protection, to advertize what
farms may fall to be let. When from any of these
causes a farm is to be let by tender, a day is fixed for
receiving tenders.

In the meanwhile, intending competitors — for in
such cases there is always a keen competition — in-
spect the farm, examine its capability of improvement,
calculate the expense of these improvem.ents,
and the probability of a return for the outlay ; cor-
respond with the landlord or his land-agent regard-
ing the sum to be allowed at commencement of the
lease for improvement or erection of farm house and
offices, draining and fences, regarding the rotation of
crops, the quantity of land for turnips, the old and
young grass to be obtained at entry, and left at the
expiry of the lease. On the day appointed, the ten-
ders are opened, examined, and compared, the cha-
racter and qualifications of the competitors carefully
considered. The highest tender is frequently not
accepted. So much for the practice of letting farms
by tender.

The only cases that have come under our own ob-
servation, or that we can learn, in which farms have
been put up to public auction, either in the Lothians
or in any cultivated district in Scotland , are corpo-
ration lands, farms, or entailed estates vrhen under
the management of assignees, and particularly farms
on lease, with a power of granting sub-leases. Oc-
casionally too old rich pasture lands, in the landlord's ■
enclosures, wlien he himself does not keep an agri-
cultural establishment, are let by public auction
for two or more crops, to be again laid down in
grass.

Rents were long ago always paid in produce, of
which there are in many parts of Scotland monu-
ments still standing in the shape of huge old grana-
ries, in which the produce was stored till the land-
lords could find a market for it.

In some districts the landlord, when he let a
farm, also let the rent produce to other parties at a
fixed price during the currency of the lease. It is
easy to see that this was a cumbrous mode of pro-
ceeding, and about a century ago it began to fall into
disuse, and a fixed money rent became the gene-
ral rule, and continued so down to the year 1819 or
thereabout. Farmers who had taken leases toward
the cnnclusion of the French war and the downfall
of Bonaparte, began to grumble at their high rents,
when they found, with all the bolstering up of
corn laws the war jirices could not be realised, and
as a remedy proposed a corn rent — to meet their
views. The existing leases were very generally
converted into a corn rent, part wheat, barley, and
oats, but chiefly wheat, and new leases began to be
granted in the same way. The corn was not, how-
ever, as in olden times paid in kind, but at the aver-
age price of the respective county for the year.
Even this mode has not proved so satisfactory to the
tenant as was at first expected ; for he now finds
that in these years when the crop is deficient and
prices consequently Ijigh, he has the highest rent to
pay, while he has the least produce to pay it with.
A new mode of paying rent has, therefore, lately
been gradually coming into use, being partly a
money rent and partly grain— and a new element
has recently been introduced even into this mode,
namely — so much money and so much grain,
not at the average price of the year, but as
ascertained by the average of seven or some other
number of years previous to the commencement of
the lease. Now it is easy to see that this mode,
while nominally in part a corn rent, is in reality a
fixed- money rent — evidentlvadmitting that a money
rent is after all the best rent for the tenant.

As to the propriety of granting leases, our opinion,
or that of any individual however distinguished,
would in Scotland have no influence in abolishino-
the practice. Tenants at will is, as already stated,
an anomaly altogether unknown in the Lothians or
any cultivated district of Scotland ; and the state of
agriculture, at followed on those farms hold under
the contingency of a life, is sufficient to satisfy any
proprietor of the folly of tenants holding land with-
out a lease. Nor would any tenant enter upon a
farm without the security of a lease. The large capi-
tal he must lay out in improving and stocking a
farm, amounting in many instances to thousands of
pounds, entirely forbids the practice. I'he only
wonder in Scotland is, that tenants can he found to
farm land icithout leases. Had it not been for the
practice of granting leases, and even long leases,
Scotland had still been a tangled wilderness or a
stagnant morass. I remain, Sir,

Nov. 8. A Looker-on in the Lothians.

28

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

AGRICULTURAL IMPROVE-
MENTS.

ON LEASES AND LETTINd OF FARMS IN

SCOTLAND.

(rnoM Till! isANNiiii OF ulster).

It is calculated that tbe imports of vvbeat iluiing
184',^ will reach to tliree miUwiis of (juarters, and the
cost at the ports of shipment will not be under six
niillion pounds. There is eveiy ))rob;ibility that
other grains will be imported to the value of fwo
viiUioii pounds, and the cost of foreign cattle and
provisions brought in under the new tarift' will not
be less than one million. A sum of money amounting
to nine million, and eiiuivalent to nearly one-fifth of
our exports, is thus paid for produce that might
have been, with good management, raised at home.
This fact alone suffices to explain the paralysed state
of industry and commerce. I'nder the law, as it
exists at present, we have not the slightest reason
to expect that our manufactures will be taken in
exchange for tbe corn required; and if that were
certain, it would still be foolish to exchange linens
for corn that could be produced at home. We en-
tirely coincide with those who consider freedom of
trade a most desirable object ; but the Government
have done nothing to secure it, and ParliauieiU did
not offer them any powers on that subject. Until
our diplomatists are enabled at once to offer discri-
minating duties in favour of the produce of nations
whose rulers are willing to deal with us, it is unne-
cessary to expect any realization of those dreams of
future activity and prosperity that were based on
" free trade.''

The exports of gold for foreign grain might ere
now have turned the attention of agriculturists to
the necessity of active measures to increase their
produce. The wheat districts of England and Ire-
land yield a less return per acre than tliose of Scot-
land. This fact can only be accounted for on the
supposition that the farms in Scotland are better
managed than those of England or Ireland ; and the
question immediately arises, from whatcause springs
this superiority of management? The answer, we
believe, will be found in the nature and length of
leases. The Scottish farmers have been deeply in-
debted to the example set tliein by many land-
owners in that country, and to the information
afforded by the Highland Society, but infinitely
more to the encouragement afforded by long leases.
The class of farmers who will improve a district
must be prudent men, and no prudent man will lay out
money on tbe fields of another [)erson, without an
opportunity being secured him of drawing it in
again. Several landowners seem to consider it an
imputation on their persoiril honour, or the honour
of their family, to require leases, 'fhey are men
evidently misplaced in tbe world. They live be-
yond their times by a generation or two. Men re-
quire security at every step they take in those dege-
nerate commercial days — that is, at every stop
affecting so intimately their own comfort, and that
of their family, as the investment of tiieir entire
capital. There is certiunly no rellection cast u])on
the honour and integrity of any man, or of any
family, in recjuiriiig a lease. If it wore possible that
landlords could live for an assured period, or that
estates would continually remain in the same family,
there might be some pretext for the insinuation.
That, however, is impossible; and if it were not,
there are few racn so wedded to their " family

lionour'' as to speak positively for posterity, although
they may stand firm on the ancestral portion of the
matter.

There are really no means of improving the agri-
culture of England and Ireland to that extent which
is necessary to enable them to produce an amount of
grain equivalent to the demands of the population,
that do not include " fixed tenures" asindispensable
to their operation. We are, therefore, glad to ob-
serve that the leading agricultural journals advocate
this change with great earnestness. There have
recently a])])eared several very able articles on this
subject in tho Mark-lane Express, which is probably
the highest authority on agricultural subjects. In
one of these ai tides we find the following extract
from a speech at an agricultural dinner by the Mar-
quis of Salisbury : —

"The JVIarquis of Salisbury, who presided at the
meeting of the Herts Agricultural Society, said — The
idea of niaetecn years' leas-es had been particularly
pressed on the alteniou of those present. He could
inform them that, though it was the case to grant leases
for this period in JMid-Lolhiun, no sooner had the leases
expired thau tliey were put up by auction, to fetch the
highest price, or by public tender to the high-
est bidder. If this plan suited any one as a tenant, it
did not suit his ideas as a landlord."

Upon this the editor of the Express has the fol-
lowing remarks : —

" Now, upon this point, we will not contradict the
statement of the noble earl, although we (eel eonfideiit
we might do so with propriety, as we are couviaced
that he ij niistakcn ; but we shall feel extremely ob-
liged if some of our Scottish readers will iaiorm us if it
be true that it is the general practice in Wid-Lothian to
let farms by auction or tender to the highest bidder.
We know that in this country charity lands, corporation
lands, and in some instances private estates, are let by
auction ; and the consequence is, that they are uni-
formly the worst cultivated in the district in whicli they
may happen to be,"

We can givethe Express some information on this
subject. A very considerable number of the farms
in the Lothians, and elsewhere in Scotland, are let
in the manner desciibed. The proportion is proba-
bly equal to one-third of the entire number ; and we
should think it is increasing. Some of the English
landlords might object to this plan of forming agree-
ments regarding the cultivation of their land ; but
their neighbours in Scotland find it very convenient,
and we cannot suppose that a better plan could be
devised, Tiie terms, with regard to crojiping, on
which the lease will be given, are fully described ;
and the tenant contracts to fulfil them, in addition
to the payment of a given rent. The system, in-
deed, is very extensively adopted in this country,
and 110 inconvenience arises from it. A holder is
not bound to accept the highest offer made to him ;
and, ])racticall3', we believe, he very rarely closes
with the person offering the highest rent, but, more
frequently with the man from whose skill and capi-
tal there is reason to anticipate that his farm will he
fairly treated. We do not, however, perceive that
tiie slightest weight is attached to the objection
made by the noble martiuis. He would not be bound
to bring his farm into the market at the expiry of a
lease. He might renew it without informing the
public that there had ever been a break in the
agreement. It is necessarily no part of this system
that fauns should he lirought into the market. In
Scotland, if a jierson is desirous of renewing bis
lease, unless political considerations interfere — and
that in late years has been too frequently the case —
he generally experiences no difficulty. It is sup-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

29

posed by otlieis tliat he is the best juilgo of its value,
and man}' huullords are begiimirip; to perceive that
the most [irolitable tenants do not always often tlie
highest rent.

There will be found much difficulty in altering ex-
isting practices in this respect ; but, if the farming so-
cieties would take the subject under their conside-
ration, we liave little doul)t that tiiey would ulti-
mately be successful, 'liiey will be materially as-
sisted by the fact tliat, without some immediate im-
provements in agriculture, the rents of many districts
must bo reduced. Notwithstanding many state-
ments to the contrary, there can be no doubt tliat the
value of stock, under the operation of the new tariff,
will be gradually lowered. Some persons state that
the quantity hitherto imported is very small; but
they forget that a small quantity of extra goods
thrown upon the market may cause a very great re-
duction in the value of any article. It has yet, how-
ever, to be proved that the quantity of cattle and
cured provisions imported from foreign countries
will be small. In the spring months of this season
it was not anticipated that the British market would
be opened for foreign cattle; and it cannot be rea-
sonably supposed that any preparation was made to
meet the autumnal demand. 'I he business of 1843
and 1811 wdl very probably find the foreign dealers
more prepared to meet it, and we observe that se-
veral new steamers are to be placed upon the pas-
sage betwixt Hull or London and Denmark, b^^
which it may be inferred that the shipowners antici-
pate importations from that quarter.

ON SEED WHEAT, AS AFFECTED
BY SOIL AND RIPENESS.

TO THE EDITOK OF THE WEST BDITON.

Sir, — An author can gain but little attention with
out a critic, — and a poor critic is better than none ;
and wljetlier he praise or blame, the result is just
the same, because people thus judge, — if a work is
worth criticism, it is worth reading. And in these
days of diffused knowledge, all people read and judge
for themselves, except, indeed, party religionists,
and party politicians, who, of course, read nothing
but what is stamped with the jn-ohatum est of their
leaders.

But what has all this to do with seed wheat? Let
usjustsee. Mr. J. Prideaux has written about it,
and I am very desirous that farmers should read and
understand what he writes. I have, myself, paid
some attention to seed corn and seed patatoes in my
day, and have always found a change from one dis-
trict to another advantageous, especially irotn worse
soil to better. I have also observed what INIr. P.
fetches out of" Sprengel,^' ihdi ', Seedcoiii should con-
tain much starch and little ffluten." Glutinous wheft
is not so good for seed as starchy wheat. The latter
IS lair and whitel to the eye ; the former brownish and
waxy. Perhaps the difference is attributable to
different degrees of ripeness, rather than diversity
of soil. In light dry wheat soils, and in warm si-
tuations, the grain ripens sooner and more rapidly
than on heavier and richer soils more elevated and
exposed. Observant farmers have ascertained that
it is for their profit to reap wheat in its mood, because,
if left to get dead ripe, it does not weigh so well. It
gains in starch and whiteness, but loses in gluten.

The fact is now well known, that the riper the corn
is, the quicker it will vegetate. There is great risk,
therefore, attending very ripe corn in wet harvests ;
such corn sjirouts, while corn nearly ripe, but not
quite so, remains sound and good. Soil, no doubt,
has something to do in the matter ; but how can
fanners know anvthing about " phiisphates" and
" suliiJiatCiV This is to them unintelligible Greek.
They know something about lime, it is true, but not
half so much as they ought to know, for they now
use it indiscriminately on all sorts of soils.

I wish all chemists who write on these subjects
were practical farmers, for then they would be able
to explain their hard words in such terms as farmers
understand ; and it is also much to be wished
that all farmers were chemists to a certain extent,
because a little cliemical knowledge is of great prac-
tical advantage to a farmer. A little, or even a good
deal of what is often called learning and scholar-
ship, may be dangerous and vain ; but not so know-
ledge— ever so little of sound, useful knowledge, is
beneficial to the lowest and meanest of the peo-
ple.

I know an inquisitive and reading farmer, who
took it into his head that sand, which he and his
neighbours had been in the habit of using for ma-
nure, especially for wheat, whs useless, and there-
fore the carriage of it labour throvvn away. But he
■was not so rash and foolish as to discontinue its use
before he had convinced himself by a fair trial.
And this be did. He had a very poor piece of land
about four or five acres, spaded and burnt for wheat.
The field was oblong in sliape. The greater part of
it he sanded at the rate of ten cart-loads an acre.
On one broad stripe across the middle he put no
sand ; and on another such stripe adjoining lie put a
double quantity, that is to say, he sanded it at the
rate of twenty cart-loads an acre. Hear the re-
sult:—

There was scarcely any wheat at all on the part
without sand ; on all the rest of the down-park —
for such it was — there was a very fair crop of red
wheat. But it was not better where sanded at the
rate of twenty loads an acre, than where it had only
ten. The unsanded spot is visible to (bis day, (after
a lapse of sevenyears,) being almost bare af grass.

Perhaps IMr. P. will have the kindness to ex-
plain this phenomenon, and tell how it is that the
beautiful yellow shelly sand, beyond a given quan-
tity, was thrown away. I believe it is very much
the same with lime as with shell)' sand. We far-
mers, who have "practice"' without "science,"
want to know something about " pntass, magnesia,
sulphates, and phosphates," but these words convey little
or no meaning or mformation to our minds. A know-
ledge of mere bard words can avail us but little-
what we want is a knowledge of the things which they
signify. I hope Mr. P. will still go on writing about
these interesting matters, explaining them in vulvar
phrase as well as can be — and none can do this better
than be — and I will come along after him, calling
attention to his valuable labours, and, if need be,
pointingout his faults. The worst is, sir, there are
no fees for either of us, wo can hope to get nothing
but our labour for our pains. But lam reminded that
man was not born to live entirely for himself, but
for the good of the public — the community in which
his lot is cast ; and besides this, there is a pleasure
in communicating to others the little knowledge
which we ourselves have acquired.

I remain, Sir, yours, &c.
November lit, 1842, An Old FAimzK.

30

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

CULTIVATION OF TURNIPS.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — la your paper of the 7thinst., I observe
one of your correspondents putting certain queries
in reference to Mr. Scougall's mode of raising tur-
nips. It so happens that although I linow nothing
of Mr. S., and until a late publication of yours
heard no more of his experiment than if he had
lived in the planet Jupiter ; but that as I have been
raising turnips on the same plan (not upon first-
rate turnip soil, but upon laud the very opposite) I
deem it not out of place to give you an account of
my experiment — not in opposition to Mr. S., but in
confirmation of the advantages to be derived
hi certain situations fi'om this new method of
working.

I would beg, then, to state that the greater part
of the land 1 farm is a stiff" retentive loam upon a
clay subsoil, not at all adapted for raising green
crops when wrought in the old way, as the hercu-
lean labour which such land requires to bring it to a
proper state of pulverisation, either for potatoes or
turnips, exhausts the moisture so much in dry sea-
sons that there can be no vegetation ; at least, this
is my experience during the 10 years I have been
tenant of Pifler Mill, and half crops don't do
well when rents are so high as in our neighbour-
hood.

After the experience I have had, and the difficul-
ties I had to contend with in| working such land —
evidently not adapted for green crop, particularly
for turnip husbandry, when wrought in the old
way — I resolved to try if nature would not heli3 me
if wrought in some other way.

The crop upon the field (one of the stiffest I have)
I experimented upon was tai'es, which were cut
green ; so soon as they were removed from the
ground, I cross-ploughed the field with deep fur-
row. It was then well wrought with the grubber
and liarrows, and early in the month of October
the field was single-drilled at twenty-eight inches
apart, but owing to the season, was prevented
putting on the dung until the end of December and
beginning of January, at which time we carted it
into the drills.

The manure was nearly of the same kind as our
police manure, which principally consists of ashes
from coal, with a proportion of night soil, &c., &c.,
of which we gave about forty single horse carts per
Scotch acre; it (i.e. the manure) was then covered in
by splitting the drills with the common plough, and in
this state, rough as it was, it lay until the end of
March, when the drills were found almost as soft
and fine as a piece of garden ground from the action
of the frost. The field was rather foul, and at this
period we gave the drills adoublc turnoftbeharrows,
gathered off" the weeds with the hand, run down
between the drills with a single horse-grubber, and
again set up the drills with the double-moulded
plough ; the same operation was performed just be-
fore sowing, for the purpose of kcejiing the annuals,
with which we are troubled, in checlc. The field
was then sown on the 15th May with green top yel-
low, and the remainder with white globe on the
25th and 26th of same month.

This is therefore the way in which I went to
work, and which I fouiul mere child's play com-
pared with the old way. But what is of far more im-
portance, in the month of September I found the
crop infinitely better than any crop I have raised
in former years, aud quite superior to some I had

wrought in spring this year, weighing about forty
tons per Scotch acre, including tops ; and while,
almost without exception, the whole turnips in the
neighbourhood were much injured by mildew, these
were nearly free, although sown much earlier than
we are accustomed to sow.

The field was dunged 5 years back, but has been
twice top-dressed with soot to the extent of 10 bags
of 4 bushels each per acre since it was changed.

I may add, in conclusion, that although the plan
was never heard of in this neighbourhood until this
year, a number of our best farmers are adopting it
to some extent; and I am making ten acres
this year instead of seven acres, which I had last
year.

I have thus, Sir, stated at greater length than I
intended when I sat down to write you my
views of the plan I have adopted; and if it shall
meet with your approbation, and be found of as
much balm to the country as I think it is, I shall
rejoice in subscribing myself,

Your most humble servant,
Peter Thompson.

Piffer Mill, Liberlon, ]\Ud Loihian, Nov. 10.

ARTIFICIAL, OR STRONG PORT-
ABLE MANURES.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE WEST BRITON.

Sir , — I have many times been gratified in observing
Mr. J. Prideaux's endeavours to instruct farmers;
but the great difficulty is to induce them to read and
learn. In some things, they are regular Tories.
They like old customs, however absurd, aud, con-
sequently, have great aversion to change ; and their
veneration for the wisdom of their ancestors is such,
that as their fathers and grandfathers did, so do they.
They all profess to know the value of dung as ma-
nure, and yet take little or no care to make the most
of it. To be sure, the farm-yards are in general
miserably constructed, with the cattle houses so
scattered and inconveniently placed, that it is most
difficult to bring all the dung together into one com-
mon saucerlike pit, according to Mr.P.'s excellent
plan. The waste occasioned by having a little heap
of dung here, aud another there, is incalculable. If
Mr. P.'s simple plan, involving only a little more
than ordinary labour, were adopted anil carefully
acted upon, farmers' dung heaps would be bigger
and better than they usually are.

Having said this much in commendation of Mr.
P.'s laudable aim, I must now notice one little sen-
tence, which has an evident tendency to cherish a
prejudice ah-eady too prevalent among our west
country farmers. Strong artificial manures are with
many of them in low repute; and yet there are num-
berless farms that never can be improved to any
considerable extent without the use of them. It is
with regret, therefore, that I find Mr. P. writing this
sentence : — " T/iCi/ generally force orforn-ard thecivp,
nilhoiit doing much lo enrich 'the soUwilh humus ;" and
marking it, too, with italics, to indicate, as it would
seem, that he attached to it more than ordinary im-
portance. Why, prejudiced and ignorant fanners
have said the same thing, after their fashion, over
and over, " How," say they, " ken a leetle crame

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

31

o' bone dest, or zlche leek trade theek'n and improve
tbe Ipnd !" And thus tlie}' despise what they ought
to test by experiment.

Farmers are proverbially a prejudiced and unrea-
soning race; reflecting but Itttle on tho connexion
of causes and eftects, so that it is no great wonder
that they overlook the advantages of a large crop
[iroduced by the application of a very small quan-
tity of strong- manure. But it is strange that your
scientific correspondent should not perceive them,
seeing there are few more shrewd and acute reasoners
than he. " It produces a good crop, but does not
do much to enrich the soil." This is little better
than nonsense, and, therefore, utterly unworthy of
Mr. J. Prideaux. This logic must be tried a little.
A good crop of vegetable matter, turnips to wit, if
properly managed, does much to enrich the soil
upon which it grows. A very small quantity of
strong artificial manure will produce a good crop of
turnips ; therefore, a small quantity of strong arti-
ficial manure will enrich the soil. No deduction
can be clearer than this. It is true, the artificial
manure itself does not directly enrich tbe land, but
it produces that which does enrich it, namely, a
good crop of turnips ; and, according to a good old
maxim, " the cause of the cause, is the cause of the
thing caused." Once more. The land is enriched,
the turnips make tbe dung for enriching it, and the
artificial manure produces the turnips. How this
view of the matter escaped JMr. P. I know not;
however, some good will probably result from it, in
that it has afforded me an opportunity and a motive to
excite attention to his instructive and useful writ-
ings. And I trust it may also put him more on his
guard against setting down anything having the
slightest tendency to encourage the prejudices of a
notoriously prejudiced class.

Artificial manures have already done much, and
there is no doubt that in conjunction with thorough
draining they will yet effect much more. Ladies
apply bone dust to their flower pots — they are co-
vered with flowers. Gardeners apply it to their
onion beds — they are covered with onions. Farmers
apply it to their arish fallows, and, lo ! thev are co-
vered with turnips. And turnips so cultivated are
hoed and kept clean from weeds at half the ordinary
expense. Stall-dung begets weeds, especially in
wet seasons. Besides, the dung may be applied to
tbe thin land for corn with much advantage, im-
proving the grain, and at the same time enriching
the soil. Whatever a farmer forgets, he ought to
hear this always in mind — that whatever manure
increases the weight of his crops, must ultimately,
with good management, improve his land. The
dropping and rotting of the leaves of a good crop of
turnips adds to tbe humus of the soil, and thereby
improves its condition. A heavy crop of turnips is
generally followed by a good crop of barley and
seeds; and these being consumed on tbe land by all
sorts of stock, will still further increase the humus
by which the soil is enriched.

Humus is rotten, or, as chemists call it, decomposed
vegetable substance, and the more of this is applied
to the soil the richer it will become. But Mr. P.
can treat this subject scientifically (which I cannot)
and otherwise much more ably than I, who am but
an old farmer; and I therefore cheerfully leave it to
him, apologizing for pi-esuming to criticise, and at
the same time thanking him heartily for his able
writings for tbe instruction of farmers, for we all
need it more or less, whether great or small ; and
I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

Oct, 1, 1842. An Old FARaEK.

REPORT

OF THE INSPECTORS OF FARMS AND CROPS TO THE
LIVERPOOL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY AT THEIR
RECENT MEETING.

The following is the substance of the report
made to the committee by Mes"?rs. Robertson and
Pemberton, the inspectors of farms and crops : —

Having already reported to the committee and
other members of the society who have attended
this meeting, the various particulars required from
lis as to the crops and cultivations of those farms,
the occupiers of which are candidates for the so-
ciety's prizes, it now remains to us to make a few
remarks upon the state and progress of agricul-
ture in the district generally. In doing so, wc
would first acknowledge the goodness of Divine
Providence in graciously giving us a season so fa-
vourable for all the operations of the farmer, and
such as we do not remember to have had for the
last sixteen years. Corn has been better ripened
than usual, and the gathering accomplished earlier,
the harvest being, with few exceptions, completed
by the second week in September. The prospect
of having good bread must be a subject of thank-
fulness, not only to the farmer, but to every mem-
ber of the community.

Your inspectors have pleasure in stating that the
wuler-drnbung of land continues on the increase,
and although much has already been done, and is
now doing, very much still remains to be done.
The establishment of draining tile manufactories
in various parts of the district, and the moderate
price at which tiles may now be purchased, are
great inducements both to landowners and occu-
piers to continue this system of improvement.
Draining with broken stones, and with cinders, is
also carried on to a great extent, more particularly
in situations where these materials are easily ob-
tained, and answers remarkably well. The advan-
tage of draining is felt in another way. Being ge-
nerally done during the winter months, it affords
employment for labourers at a time when the far-
mer would probably have nothing else for them to
do, thereby rendering a great service to the poor
man's family, and probably keeping them from the
parish. Men of experience are engaged upon some
estates solely for the purpose of superintending
the draining. The landlord in these cases pays the
whole expence, and charges the tenants what he
considers a fair per centage on the outlay. The
practice is much to be commended. W'& believe
the noble patron of this society was the first to
begin it in this neighbourhood. The new system
of cutting the drains in a longitudinal direction,
as recommended by Mr. Smith, of Deanston, in
Scotland, seems to be obtaining favour. A portion
of the work of excavating can be performed by the
plough, and a consequent saving of expense ef-
fected.

The siihsoU-plough has been so little used in the
district of this society, that your inspectors can-
not report either fnvourably or otherwise of its
effects at present.

The claimants upon large farms are more nu-
merous this year than usual, and the management
and cultivation of the land is of a very superior
order ; very different, indeed, to what it was when
the Liverpool Agricultural Society was first es-
tablished.

The marling of land is less frequently met with
than formerly, other manures of a lighter charac-

32

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tcr being prcfeircd. An ol.jection has also been
started in some placcf5, and not without good
ground, that the permanent damage done by making
pits is, in some instances, equal to the temporary
benefit conferred on the soil by the application of
marl.

In the laying doicn of land to grass we observe
great improvement, both in the ploughing and
preparation of the surface, and also in the descrip-
tion of the seeds sown.

Bescrvolrs for the reception of dung tcater are
becoming more general, and many of them are pro-
ving useful adjuncts to tbe farmer's other means
of improvement.

In the jilanting of new hedges your inspectors
regret to say little progress is making— at the same
time they are well aware there are many places in
the district where they are much required, and
would, if made, prove a great convenience, if not
an ultimate saving. One great obstacle to the far-
mer undertaking much of this work is, the ex-
pence of protecting the young quicksets, which
require to be fenced with rails or hurdles for at
least four or five years after planting.

The cutting and laying of hedges is not so much
practised, nor so well done, as miglit be wished.
The prize given by the Right Honourable Lord
Lilford, to whom tbe society is much indebted,
has not always been claimed ; and when it has,
the competitors have never been numerous. His
lordship's agent, Mr. Selby, of Atherton, having a
desire to see the work performed more scientifi-
cally, has sent for an experienced man from North-
amptonshire, who has already cut and laid a con-
siderable length of fencing in a first-rate manner.

The crojis of vheat have generally proved thin
upon the ground this year, which is chiefly attri-
butable to the unfavourable weather in October
and November when the seed was sown : the
grain, however, is finer and better than usual,
and, we think, upon the whole, the yield will not
be less than what is generally described as an
average crop. Oafs are also a good sample, but
we do not calculate on more than an average quan-
tity. Barley we consider much better, although
but little is grown in tiiis district. Beans are mo-
derately well podded and a fair average crop.

The second eroj) of clover h good, and the wca-
tl- er has, fortunately, proved fine for gathering it,
which has rarely been the case of late years. It is
hoped this croj) will make up in some measure
for the farmer's deficient hay crop.

Potatoes have grown very luxuriantly this
year and are likely to prove better in quality and
greater in quantity than usual; yet some little rot
is preceptible.

From what your inspectors have seen this season
mangel vmrzel is becoming less cultivated, and
yet it must be acknowledged there is no green
crop succeeds belter upon jieat soils.

The growth of Swedish turnips is very much on
the increase; nearly all the early potatoe ground
is now planted with this valuable root as a second
crop, the greatest part of which have been trans-
planted from the seed bed.

An unusual quantity of land is also sown with
this and other kinds of turnips, and we think the
qunntiiy produced in the district of this society is
more than quadrupled since the establishment of
the society in 1830. The mildew has, unfortu-
nately, made its appearance, and the crops will
consequently, be more or less deteriorated.

Having only met with the application of the new

manure Guano, in a few instances, and that only in
this year, your inspectors are notable to speak de-
cidedly of the permanent good which is likely to
be effected by it. Appearances are at present in
its favour. It is doubtful, however, whether it
will ever be extensively used, unless it can be ob-
tained at a more moderate price than what it has
hitherto been sold at.

LIME AS A FERTILISER.

(to the editor of the west BRITON.)

Sir, — I omitted in my last on bone-dust, the re-
action of the ammonia produced, on the phosphate
of lime : this produces, in the damp soil, carbo-
nate of lime and phosj)hate of ammonia — tbe
latter a very soluble salt, entering readily into the
sap, and acting both by its acid and alkali.

" A young farmer" will allow for my hesitating
to send this last week, after occupying so much of
your previous number. The use of lime is perhaps
the most important problem of agricultural che-
mistry. That it is not yet clearly explained, even by
the multitude of known facts and experiments re-
lating to it, will be a reason for diflidence in our
conclusions ; but by no means for discouragement .
in our research. On the contrary, the more ob-
scure and the more important to understand, tbe
greater the call for diligent investigation.

The arguments, ^yro. and co7i., are of course too
extensive for communications of this kind, and may
exercise the logic of your correspondent and his
associates : the leading facts and inferences con-
cisely stated will be quite long enough for your
columns, and give the reader a more perspicuous
view of the question.

The first step of the enquiry how lime acts, is to
ascertain ^vhat it does.

A. It enters into the composition of plants, and
of course of the soils on which they grow.

Lime in 10001b. each of

straw and Tops

"^^erago "1 S-6 14-9 7-G 4,1 80

whilst we add to the soil 100 to 200 imperial bush-
els per acre, or more, with evident advantage.
See below Cl).

B. It tends to loosen clays, and render them
drier ; whilst on light sandy soils, it produces a
binding and moistening efiect (!)). Wet, stifi", and
humus soils requiring much larger quantities than
light soils containing little humus (2).

C. It corrects acid and hurtful ingredients in
the soil ; kills worms, insects, and some weeds
and germs (7^; must not, therefore, be brought
into contact with corn and other seeds in quantity
sufficient to endanger their germination. Lime-
water is said to kill grass ("), and it acts waste-
fully (2) upon dung, unless first well mixed in
with the soil.

I). It converts heath and moss into ])asturc ;
renders herbage closer, firmer, more palatable and
nutritious ; and is said to prevent the rot and foot
rot in sheep feeding on such herbage (1,2, .'?, 7).

E. In arable, it increases the crops (1, 2, 3, 5),
and ripens them earlier (8).

F. Produces heavy crops in some cases where

riieat.

I5arlc'y

Oats.

Potatoes.

Turnipp.

1

11

0-9

0-3

0-81bs.

i>

5

1-5

13

(i

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

33

dung will not (I, 2, 8), but not many such crops in
succession (4) .

G. Gives better ear and grain than dung alone,
and never lays the corn (10).

H. In too large proportion to mould or dung re-
duces fertility, drying up the plant; lime and dung
must be applied alternately (4).

I. Renders humus, See, soluble and effective,
thus exciting rich soils and exhausting poor ones
i'2, 3, 4).

K. Excites heavy clays and sour inoulds, pro-
ducing better crops, as well in quality as in quan-
tity (6, 7, 8).

Besides many effects of less importance, refer-
able to tlie same principles, and perhaps others
N» hicb I may have failed to recollect or refer to.

From these observations, compared with its
known chemical properties, we infer that lime

Feeds the Plant.

1. Directly in supplying the quantity of lime
necessary for its healthy growth ; which, however,
is so small a proportion (see AJ of the quantity
beneticially employed, that we must look for other
more extensive efiects.

2. ludirect'ij by acidifying humus (5), and ren-
dering it soluble ; and by promoting the decompo-
sition of dead roots, and other organic matters (F)
generating soluble compounds, and fertilizing gases
(C) as carbonic acid, ammonia,, and some others,
most of which are taken up by the moisture of the
aoil.and enter the sap by the roots, with thehumate
of lime and other soluble organic matters produced ;
thus supplying the plant with organic ingredients.

3. Also indirectly, by decomposing the insoluble
alkaline silicates, and some other salts; thus giv-
ing them the solubility requisite for being taken up
by ihe roots, and supplying the sap with alkalies
and other requisite inorganic matters.

■I. Of course, by thus bringing all these sub-
stances into use, it must gradually exhaust them,
unless replaced ; hence the danger of overliming.
Without humus, and probably nitrogen, lime seems
to dry up the plant.

5. Further indirectly, its alkalescent property,
disposing the soil to absorb oxygen, thus acidifies,
besides the humus and carbonaceous matters ;
also nitrogen (producing nitrates), which not only
enters into the plant, but powerfully promotes its ap-
l)ropriation ot other organic elements, both from
the sap and from ttie air. This effect of lime is,
however, very slow, unless under particular cir-
cumstances.

Acts on the Soil.

6. Thoroughly pervading it (when properly ap-
plied), its slaking quality making it easy to spread
and mix, and it-i solubility in water dili'using it
generally. Even the carbonate of lime is soluble
in the water of the soil, by aid of the carbonic
acid generated there, or brought down by the rain
and dew. By this solubility it is gradually washed
down by the rains, &:c., and of course lost to the
soil in course of years.

7. Its alkalescent property destroys hurtful in-
gredients, neutralising acids, and decomposing salts
of iron, manganese, and alumina (C), rendering
the oxides insoluble, and subjecting them to per-
oxidation, when they are rather useful than other-
wise ; while the acids, generally sulphuric, phos-
phoric, or humic, combining with the lime, produce
well known fertilisers, gypsum, bone earth, &c.
Its solubility also enables it to follow and kill

some worms, insects, weeds, and germs; of course
it may also kill or damage our seeds and young
plants, if incautiously a])plicd.

8. Its strong chemical affinities thus inducing a
variety of combinations and decompositions, liable
again to changes from wet and dry, heat and cold,
keep the soil in continual chemical activity, evol-
ving electricity, one of the most active promoters
of vegetation. The rich verdure following a
thunder storm is well known. These electrical re
actions of the soil i)robably contribute, with the
drying tendency of the lime (11) to forward th«
ripening.

{). All these results are produced the most effec-
tively by lime in its caustic state: its activity
diminishing in proportion as it absorbs carbonic
acid, but the property of loosening stiff soils (B)
continues when it is quite saturated and mild.

10. Lime is said to increase the ear, and never to
lay the corn (G), but it appears to dry it up where
organic manures are deficient (II) ; this is a re-
markable distinction from the nitroyenous ferti-
lisers, which, in excess, produce a deep green,
rank vegetation, running to leaf and straw, pro-
ducing little ear, and laying before harvest. Thus
they appear to correct each other. The examina-
tion of this difference is not the least interesting
part of our present enquiry.

Nitrogen (in its general fertilizing compound —
ammonia) promotes vital transformations in the
sap ; hence rapid appropriation of organic ele-
ments, and secretion of vegetable constituents ;
the plant becomes deep green, and grows luxu-
riantly.

Lime seems to produce re-actions in the soil~-
supplying the sap with inorganic as well as organic
ingredients where it enters tlie root ; but not ex-
citing the vital transformations in the leaf, &c.
Hence it will not produce rank vegetation, but
hardens the straw, and sends up materials for the
rain.

Hence, if the ammonia (or nitrogen) is in ex-
cess, the straw runs up deep green and soft — if
the lime be in excess, pale and hard, or even dry,
from over dosing with mineral constituents. But
when both are present in due proportions, with
the other requisite ingredients, lu.^uriance in
growth, and firmness of texture are cowned with,
heavy ears. This brings us back to the question
in my lust — What is it to limit tlie quantity of our
manures, a)id the consequent production, when they are
applied in due proportions to iheir respective functions?
Twelve quarters of wheat have been grown upon an acre;
where lies the improbahdily of such a produce becoming
not eitnwrdinary? Lime we have plenty, for ages;
and thousands of tons of ammoniacal matters are
yearly washed away in sewerage.

I am, sir, &c.,

Plymouth, Nov. 9th, 1842. J. PrideAUX.

PRICES OF CATTLE AND LIVE
STOCK IN THE OLDEN TIMES.

From Bishop Fleetwood's Chronicom Preciosum,
we draw the following curious particulars as to the
prices of stock, &c., in England in the olden time:
— In King Ina's laws, which were made betwixt
7ri and /'y? (A. D.), it is said that an ewe with
her lamb, is worth Is. till thirteen nights after Eas.

34

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ter. About ibe 3'ear 906 a palfrey was sold at 10s;
In the Senatus Coiisulta de Mouticolis, in the time of
King Elhelred, about ibe year 1000, if a horse be
lost, the compens uion must be 30s. ; a mare or colt
of a year old, 203. ; a mule or young ass, at 12s. ; an
ox atoOd.; a cow, 2-kl. ; a swine, 8d. ; a sheep,
Is.; a goat at lid. (Note, that this is Saxon mo-
ney, 3d, to the shilling, and 48s. to tbe pound^. In
the laws of Henry I., cap. 76, forty sheep are valued
at 1i. About the year 1145, the tenants of a place
was to pay yearly 20s., or seven oxeneacb worth 3s.
la 1185, the tenant of Sbireborn are by custom to
pay either 2d. cr four bens, wbich tbey will. And
bj' the custom of Belesball they are to have a ram or
ad. (In tbe preface to King Athelstaa's laws, a ram
was at 4d). In or about 1217, when the king came
to Hedhourn, the camemrioiis (receiver of rents^ of
St. Albaa's lost three good horses, two asses, and a
good new cart ; all of which were wortb at least 50s.
About 1232, tbe abbot of St. Alban's going a jour-
ney, and attended with six esquires on horseback,
agrees, that if the horses (hired ones) die on tbe
way, be will give for each horse, 10s.; and ibe
horses are to be strong and handsome. In 1280, a
swan was valued at 3s. 4d.; s duck at Id. In 1298,
at Scarborough, Yorkshire, tbe price of an ox was
6s. 8d. ; acow, 5s.; aheifer, 2s.; and a sheep, Id.
In 1299 was made an act of common council for
prices of victuals to be sold at London, by consent
of the king and the nobility ; and, as to poultry, it
was as follows : — A fat cock, l^d. ; two pullets,
l^d.; a fat capon, 2^d. ; a goose, 4d. ; a mallard,
Igd.; a partridg'e, l^d.; a pheasant, 4d. ; a heron,
6d. ; a plover. Id. ; a swan, 3s. ; a crane, Is. ; two
woodcocks, Ijd. A fat lamb from Christmas to
Shrovetide, Is. 4d. ; for all tbe year after, 4d. In
1302, in London, the price of a bull was 7s. 4d; a
cow, 6s. ; a " fat rauttun," Is. ; a ewe sheep, 8d. ;
a capon, 2d. ; a cock or hen, l^d.

Amongst other purchases for the feast which Ralph
de Eorne, prior of St. Augustine's, Canterbury, made
on his installation day (in which it appears that he
paid very great rates for manj' portions of his bill of
fare, considering tbe times) we find tbe following :
—30 ox carcases, 27/. or 18s. each ; 100 hogs, 16/.
or 3s. Sjd. each ; 200 " muttons," 30/. or os. each ;
1000 geese, 16/. or about 3|d. each ; 500 capons and
hens, 6/. 5s. or 3d. each; 473 pullets, 31. 14s. or
Ijd. each ; 200 pigs, 51. or 6d. each ; 24 swans, 7/.
or 53. lOd. each ; 600 rabbits, 15/. or 6d. each
('there is some mistake here) ; 16 shields of brawn,
SI. OS. or 4s. Of d. each ; 9,600 eggs, 4/. 10s. or about
9 for a penny.

In 1314, according to Stow, the prices fixed by
parliament were : — A stalled, or corn-fed ox, 11.
4s.; a grass-fed ox, 16s.; a fat stalled cow, 12s.;
an ordinary cow, 10s. ; a fat mutton, unshorn (corn
fed). Is. 8d. ; a fat goose in tbe city, 3d., but every-
where else, 2^d.; a fat capon in the city, 2jd., else-
where, 2d.; a fat hen in the city, Ijd., elsewhere,
Id. ; 2 chickens in tbe city l^d., elsewhere, Id. ; in
tbe city 3, elsewhere 4, pigeons for Id.; in tbe city
20, elsewhere 24, eggs for Id. But, notwithstand-
ing this act of parliament, things could not be pur-
chased at these rates ; for people would not bring
tbem to market (and that is a thing that parliaments
cannot remedy), and so the king was fain to revoke
the former act, and leave people to sell as they
could ("for a trade will do as it can, and never be
forced one way or ether. ^ — [Bishop Fleetwood
would have made a good free trader in our days.]

In 1326, 12 hens were sold at Is. 6d.; the cock
and 13 hens, at Is. 7d. Eight " porkers" and a half,

at 15s. ; a cock at Id. and 3 hens 4Jd. In 1336, a
fat ox, 6s. 8d. ; a fat sheep, 6d. to 8d. ; six pigeons
for Id. ; a fat goose, ^d. ; a pig, Id. In 1243, oxen,
8s. each ; in 1344, a cow, 5s.

In 1348, H. Knighton, who lived at Leicester,
says, that in the pestilence things were sold for al-
most nothing. A horse, worth 40s., was sold for
6s. 8d.; a good fat ox at 4s. ; a cow, Is.; a heifer
or steer, 6d. ; a fat mutton, 4d. ; an ewe, 3d.; a
Iamb, 2d. ; a hog, 5d.; a stone of wool, 9d. In 1349,
a fat ox was sold in London for 6s. 8d. In 1361,
two hens for a penny ; in 1363, a widow is to pay
four hens or 4d. in money, and 12 hogs were va-
lued at 183. or Is. 6d. each.

In 1407, in a computus relating to the prior and
canons of Burcester, Oxfordshire, the price paid for
a cow is stated at 7s. — for the calf of that cow. Is.
8d. ; for the calf of a cow that was somewhat weak,
Is. ; for five calves, 10s. 8d. or rearly 2s. l^d. each ;
for a cow and her calf, 7s. 6d. ; two oxen, 1/. 6s.
8d.; one ox, lis. 6d,, a calf, Is. 7d. In 1473, a
ram, 8d. In 1 425, a colt, 8s. ; five ox bides, 12s. ;
two cow hides, 2s. 7d.; three cow hides, 4s. 8d. ;
16 calf skins, 2s. ; 21 lambs, 4s.; 38 sheep skins,
of two years old, 9s. ; 23 tods of pure wool, 10/. 18s.
6d. or 9s. 6d. the tod ; 20 pullets. Is. 8d. ; a quarter
of an ox, to salt. Is. 4d. ; for a bay horse, for the
prior's stable. If. 6s. 8d ; two colts, 93.; eight
woodcocks, for a present, Is. In 1426, five oxen
were appraised at 3s. 4d. each ; six cows at
2s. 8d. each ; three horses at 3s. each. In 1444,
six calves, 2s. each ; eight porkers, 3s. each without
the bead ; 40 geese, 3d. each : 31 dozen pigeons,
at 45d. per dozen ; others at 5|d. and 6d. per do-
zen; an ox, 1/. lis. 8d.; eight cygnets or young
swans, 3s. each ; a flitch of bacon, is. 4d. ; four oxen
(probably young and lean^, I3s. each; two plough
oxen, 1/. 3s. In 1445, 24 bullocks and heifers, at
5s. per head. In 1449, 15 sheep at 2s. 5^d. each ;
seven bogs at Is. ll^d. each.

" In 1533 (says Stow) it was enacted that butch-
ers should sell their beef and mutton by weight;
beef for a halfpenny the pound, and mutton for three
farthings; wbich being devised for the gre.it com-
modity (accommodation^ of tbe realm (as it was
thought^, has proved far otherwise. For at that
time (1553) fat oven were sold for 26s. 8d. ; fat we-
thers for 3s. 4d. ; fat calves for tbe like price ; a fat
lamb for 12d. The butchers of London sold penny
pieces of beef, for tbe relief of the poor; every piece
2^1b. and sometimes 31b. for a penny : and 13, some-
times 14 of these pieces for 12d. ; mutton, 8d. the
qr. ; and a cwt. of beef for 4s. 8d. AVhat price it
bath grown to since it needeth not to be set down.
At this time also, and not before, were foreign
butchers (butchers not apprenticed in or living in
London) permitted to sell their flesh in Leadenfeall
market of London." In 1538, a good sheep, 2s.
lOd.

In 1574, beef, at Lammas (August), so dear that
a stone came to Is. lOd. In 1595, a hen's egg, Id . ;
or at best three eggs for 2d.

Otueii Articles of Food, &c.
In the bill of fare for the installation feast above
mentioned, in 1306, we find tbe following articles
and prices; — Malt, 6s. per qr. ; wax, 6^d. per lb.;
almonds, l^d. per lb. ; salt, nine summas for 10s.
In 1313 and 1316, malt was 13s. 4d. per qr. ; salt,
1/. 15s. per qr. ; good ale per lagenam (flaggon or
gallon), 2d. the better sort 3d.— and the be^it, 4d.
The viler ale at Id. In 1423, for a cade of red her-
rings, (7 10 herrings in tbe cade ), 8s. ; a frail of figs.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

35

.Js, 4(1.; 121b, raisins, Is. id. In 1410, malt, iSs.
per qr. ; bay salt, Is. per bush.

In 1444, malt was 43. per qr.'; for 26 warp of ling
was paid 11. 10s. 4d.; for 100 stock-fisb, 17s. Gd. ;
for aburrel of herrings ((.e., 30 gallons fu) I v packed) ,
1/. In 144.5, ale, I'id. per gallon; for 3,000 red
herrings, 1/. lis In 1411!, a cade of red herrings,
r>s. 8d. ; a barrel of white, 9s. 3d. In 144'.', a cado
of red herrings, (is. ; a barrel of white herrings, 10s.
3d. In 1451, ale, l|d. ])er gallon; a cade of red
herrings, 7s. 4d.; a barrel of white herrings, 13s.
6d. In 14ji3, ale, l^d.per gallon ; cade of red her-
rings, 7s. 6d. ; four score white herrings, Is. In
14.57, ale. Id. per gallon; a cade of red herrings,
fis. !.id.; 92 white herrings, Is.

In the 5lst year of Henry III. it was determined
by authority tliat, when a quarter of barley was sold
at 'is,, then ale might be atVorded four quarts for Id.
And when barley was sold at 2s. 6d. per qr., then
ale was to be seven quarts for 2d.; and so to in-
crease and decrease after the rate of 6d. per quarter.
But uo rules can always hold for trade (says Bishop
I'leetwoodJ, as you may see by comparing the jjrico
of barley and ale in these and other accounts. In
1459, ale 2d. the gallon ; red herrings, 7s. lO^d. the
cade; 92 white herrings, Is. In 1460, ale. Id. the
gallon; red herrings, 7s. the cade; 192 white her-
rings for id. lu 1416, bay salt, very dear, 24s. the
qr. : in 1494, very cheap, 43. the qr.' In 1495, white
herrings, OS. 4d. per barrel. In 1469, bay salt, 2s.
8d. per qr. In 1504, ale of London (per pipe or
butt of 126 gallons,) 1/. 10s., or nearly 3d. per gal-
lon ; ale of Cauterbury, i;. 5s. ; beer, li 3s. 4d. In
1551, malt was Ss. Id. per qr. ; from 1553 to 1557,
5s.; but before harvest, in 1557, it had reached the
price of 21. 4s. per qr. ; after harvest it fell to 6s. 8d.
in London, 4s. 8d. in the country. In 1561, it was
D<. again. In 1574, provisions so dear tliat five her-
rings sold for 2d., bay salt (never before so dear),
63. per bushel. In 1595, sweet butter, 7d. per lb. In
1598, pepper, 8.s. per lb., raisins, 6d.

REPORT ON THE EXHIBITION
OF IMPLEMENTS AT THE BRIS-
TOL MEETING IN 1842.

(FROM THE JOUllNALOFTHE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL

SOCJETY.)

fConclnded.)

Subsoil pulverizers. — The collections of most of
the larger machine-makers contained specimens
of subsoil ploughs, efficiently constructed after
well known models. Uf these it is unnecessary
to make particular mention. Three implements
of this class were selected for trial, which dc'
serve special notice.

The Honourable M. \V. B. Nugent, of Higham
Grange, near Hinckley, Leicestershire, exhibited
an implement of his own invention, which may
be correctly termed a subsoil pulverizer, as its ob-
ject is to undermine, break, and stir the subsoil,
without raising it to the surface, which latter is
the specific function of the plough. These two
operations are distinct in their intent and nature ;
it would appear, therefore, to be more correct to
designate the implements used for the two pur-
poses by distinct and appropriate names. Mr.

Nugent's subsoil pulverizer consists of several
strong curved coulters or teeth, so fixed to the
beam of the implement as to work under the
soil at unequal depths, and at distances varying
from each other both in length and breadth.
Thus, the mass to bo broken up is not opposed to
the action of a single blade, as in the common
.subsoil i)lough, but is cut and disturbed by the
successive action of several blades, which pene-
trate, loosen, and move the soil to the respective
depths at which they may be set to act ; for which
])urpose, and to suit various soils, each tine is
made adjustable. The implement submitted to
trial, which was the first yet constructed, had
four blades operating in succession, at six, nine,
twelve, and sixteen inches in depth, moving, pul-
verizing, and incorporating the soil to that depth,
and to about twelve inches in the transverse sec-
tion. It is furnished with two leading, and two
hind or trailing wheels, for the following pur-
poses : — First, for assisting in the regulation of
the depth stirred ; second, to travel the imple-
ment ; third, to raise the teeth out of the ground
at the end of a bout. Much ingenuity and good
workmanship were displayed in bringing about
these ends, and in accomplishing, by the hand,
and at the will of the holder, an instantaneous
change in the working depth of the blades.

Some of the mechanical details of this implement
were not in a complete state, and its action,
therefore, not so certain and perfect as is desi-
rable ; but the judges had no hesitation in award-
ing a prize to the inventor, as the quality of the
work done seemed to them to justify the correct-
ness of the jjrinciples which had guided him in
the construction of an important implement; and
its defects did not appear to be other than might
readily be rectified by a skilful mechanic, aided
by the light of further experience in its use.

Mr. Pusey's plough, which has received the
name of the " Charlbury Subsoil," was also tried.
It is a common wheel plough, having a single
tine or stirrer attached to its hinder part, wliich
descends a few inches below the sole, and is in-
tended to loosen the soil in its track, deepening,
and to a limited extent pulverizing, the stratum
beneath. This modification of a subsoil pul-
verizer has the advantage of simplicity and cheap-
ness, and the combination may be usefully em-
ployed on light soils, and by farmers possessing
only a limited command of team.*

Trenchinff and Subsoil Plougli, — To Mr. Law, of
Shettleston, near Glasgow, a prize was awarded
for a trenching and subsoil plough combined.
This implement performed its work very satisfac-
torily, with a team of six horses, trenching in one
direction, and subsoiling in the returning one. A
trenching furrow having been cut, the mould-
board or wrest is turned up out of the way, by
means of the same simple mechanism as is adapted
to Smith's (or Wilkie's) turnwrest plough. The
implement is then reversed, put into the furrow,
and the operation of subsoiling proceeds without
unyoking the team. The trenching or deep
ploughing operation is performed on the left-hand
side of the implement; and the spur or bar for
breaking up the subsoil is placed, in returning,
on the right-hand side; consequently, the force is
applied on the same side as that on which the
furrow-slice has been turned ; and it seems rca-

* See a woodcut of this plough in the Journal of
the Society, vol. iii., part i., p. 106.

i) 2

36

THE FARRIER'S MAGAZINE.

sonabic to conclude that the resistance to ho
oveicoine must be less against soil ahead)'
loosened than if working againsr the unbroken
mass of the land side, as in Armstrong's trenching
and subsoil plough. A leading wheel rcgiilales
the depth desired, by shifting up or down, so that
a furrow may be trenched from eight inches to

fourteen incljes in depth, and the subsoiling
cftecteil, proportionably, to tlic extent of t^vcnty
inches below the surface of the field.

Surface PIouf//iti.— The following table registers
the results of experiments made on a variety ot
l)!oughs, at the trial ground, on Mr "Webb Hall's
farm : —

Experiments on the Draught of Ploughs.

Makers' Names.

Howard

Mason

>>

»>

Brayton

Sanders & Williams

Carson

]\Iason

Barrett & Co

JIuckvale

Earl of Ducie. . ..

Howard

Brayton

Carson

Merrett

Law

Wilkie

Residence.

Bedford

Grafton, near Alcesler
Warwickshire

■}

Carlisle . . . •

Bedford

Warminster

Grafton

Reading

Over Norton, Oxon.. ,

Ulev

Bed'ford

Carlisle

Warminster

J Appleadon,near
\ Newent, Gloucestersh.
r Shettleston, near
\ Glasgow

Uddingston, ditto .. •<

With i-espect to the excellence of the work done
by these ploughs, as well as lightness of draught,
the palm of merit is unquestionably due to Mr.
Howards two-wheel implement, the furrow-bot-
tom being left cleaner and flatter, the slice better
turned and placed, and the depth more evenly
maintained, than by any other of the competing
ploughs. The dynamometer exhibited a peculiar
steadiness of movement and uniformity of draught
in this plough; and the same qualities were dis-
tinguishable as belonging, in a superior degree, to
all the wheel, compared with the swing, ploughs.
The remark made in recording the experiments at
Liverpool, viz., that the weight of soil actually
raised by the wheel-ploughs was in every case
greater than that turned over by the swings,
is equally applicable on the present occasion, in-
asmuch as all the swing-ploughs leaned more or
less to the land side, and did not maintain so even
and horizontal a bearing on the sole as the wheel-
ploughs. The two kinds of plough from the same
workshop, of which there were three different
pairs in the field, manifested these qualities in
every case. Two better i)loughs than Mr. Bray-
ton's have rarely been put into the ground, and
they were held by an experienced and skilful
ploughman of Mr. Falkner's, of Fairfield, near
Liverpool ; but the work of his one-wheel was
decidedly superior to that of his swing plough,
though the draught of both was alike. The same
may be said of the performance of Mr. Carson's
and Mr. Howards implements; and it is worthy
of note, that the resistance of Mr. Howard's two-

foot or
floatei
swing

Depth, Width,
inches, inches.

22 i Prize
26 Prize

30

30

28
30
32
60
60

36

26
26
28

32

32

36
44

With two knives.

Ditto, with skim

coulter.

Double furrow.
Ditto.

Turnwrest.

Prize.

Turnwrest.

wheel was less than that of his swing plough by
four stones, the latter equaling a new and very
elegantlv constructed swing plough from the work-
shop of "the Eiirl of Ducie, to whom the prize was
adjudged, as the quality of the work done by the
latter was considered to be superior, in a slight
degree, to that of the other ploughs of this class.

Surface puheriziiH/ plovfjh.— The judges have to
report, in addition to the trials of these well
known varieties, the performance of an implement
constructed by Mr. Mason, of Grafton, Warwick-
shire, which, as a common wheel plough, did ex-
cellent work ; but its peculiarity consists in the
addition of pulverizing knives attached to move-
able bars or rods, extending beyond the end of
the mouldboard. These knives are used in suit-
able soils for cutting off the angular summit of the
furrow-slice just raised, and dividing it into two,
or if requisite, into three portions. Having as-
certained the draught of this plough in its ordinary
state (see woodcut, fig. 1), one of the knives, a,
was put in work to about the depth of two inches
below the surface of the slice; and then a second
knife, acting at a somewhat greater depth below
the upper one. Under these conditions the dyna-
mometer exhibited an increase of draught ot four
stones, or a little more than fifteen per cent. I'he
skim-coulter, b, was then set down to the depth of
about an inch ; this did not appear to cause any in-
crease of resistance.

The woodcut shows the plough in perspective,
with sufficient accuracy to illustrate the position
of the knives, when out of work, and the simple

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

B7

arrangements for holding them andadjiuting their
depth of cut. Iheir shape is as drawn, hut it will
he understood that, when at work, their curved

cutting edge is presented, at an angle more or less
acute, to the furrow-slice, which is divided hori-
zontally, in the plane of the plough's path.

Fig. 1.

The character of the soil upon which the trials
were made was tliat of a sandy loam in a good
mellow state, a crop of strong clover having been
cut from it on the preceding day. I he appearance-
given to the surface of the ploughed Ian I by tlie
action of the knives was th-.it of a well-harrowed
field, the soil being left loose and pulverized
nearly to the depth turned up. The action of the
]ilou^;h was in no respect deranged by that of the
sliccrs ; it " swam fair" on the furrow bottom,
leaving it clean and flat, and required so little
skill in guidance, that Mr. John Stokes, of Paiint-
ley Court, the exhibitor, who held the plough,
frequently left it free for a long space to follow
the horses. It possessed, therefore, like other
well constructed wheel- ploughs, those properties
approaching to self-action and government, which
must be acknowledged to be no less essential to
the perfection of an agricultural implement than
to the steam-engine, the lathe, and machinery of
all descriptions. It has been noticed that tlie great
amount of pulverization effected by this simple
combination of two knives vsith the common
plough was obtained at the coinj aratively slight
additional cost of fifteen per cent, of animal force ;
the whole draught of the plough, in this state,
not exceeding that of several other good ploughs
in the same soil, and being within the comjjass of
the power of two horses. The judges were of
opinion that the soil operated upon was as well
pulverized by this single process, and to as great
a depth, as if first ploughed and then harrosved ;
and they trust that subsequent experience may
justify the e.\])ecialions formed on the ground,
that, by means of this remarkably simple com-
bination, no unimportant economy and advan-
tage may accrue to the farmer in pulverizing
turnip and other soils preparatory to drilling the
seed.

Fig. 2, drawn to a scale of one inch to the foot,
represents the tail-part of the plough, and showis
the knives a a in their working position. A.
furrow -slice, six inches deep by ten inches wide,
would, if composed of perfectly coherent and
elastic materials, assume the shape shown in sec-
tion at c. Such, however, never is nor can be the
case in practice with soil of any description. 1 he
slice of earth ojierated iii)on by a plough, whilst
being raised from its horizontal bed, and forced
into its new and oblique position by the torsion
of the mouldboard, is irregularly extended, and
much loosened or brolien, owing to the imperfect
cohesion of its particles, and to the absence of
elasticity. Tt would, therefore, appear that the
instant seized, and the place chosen, for assisting
in the further disintegration of the slice by the
action of the knives, are precisely those when its
existing condition permits the greatest amount of
pulverization to be effected, and with the least;
expenditure of power. The crumbling effect pro-
duced by severing each slice in detail, before it is
pressed by the succeeding slices ii\to a compact
mass, and left to dry and harden, is analogous to
the manipulations of the gardener, who bruises
and pulveiizes each spadeful! of earth as he throws
it up from the trench, and thus spares himself
nmch subsequent toil, and his work much injury,
by diminishing the after labouring and trampling
on its suifacc to fit it for seed. The state in
which the soil is left by this plough is attempted
to be delineated at d\ but it is evident that the
degree of pulverization obtained will necessarily
vary according to the greater or less friability of
the particular soil acted upon, and according to its
condition at the time of ploughing. Upon these
circumstances depend both the figure of the
furrow-slice c, and the extent of its dismember-
ment effected by the knives.

Fig. 2.

38

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Mr. Slopes, who has continually iised this
jilniigh sinco IBii!), in soils varying as to tenacity,
from liglit saiiil to stiihborii clay, describes the
ai)pearancc produced by the action of the knives
on itiff aiJhesice soils to be that of a well spade-dug
field, only that the work is more evenly and
better performed, and that a sufficiently fine tilth
is obtained, even on such soils, for the reception
of seed to be drilled, without the use of the
harrow, and with tlie further advautnge of avoid-
ing the poaching and trampling incident to it.
The harrow is, unquestionably, the rudest and
least efficient of all agricultural implements, and a
promise seems at length to be held out that, in
the preparation of land for subsequent drill hus-
bandry, its use may be occasionally dispensed
■with ; nor does it seem unreasonable to expect that
a single ploughing, with the knives, may, on some
soils, save the time and cost of a second plougli-
ing.*

Douhle-furrow and turnwrest ploughs. — The two
double-furrow ploughs, the draught of which is
recorded in the foregoing table were not in jierfect
trim for work. It is much to be desired tliat on
future occasions the exhibitors of these imple-
ments, which are so much approved in certain
districts, and on particular soils, would take the
precaution to have them sent to tlje ground pre-
viously well set, and be provided with holders ac-
customed to their management. Others were
also tried, but their drauglit was not taken, owing
to the want of these precautions. The Society's
prize was not awarded for these, or for the turn-
wrest ploughs. Two of the latter kind were tried
— the one made by Mr. Huckvale, the other by
Mr. Wilkie — but neither of them were in a condi-
tion to satisfy the judges that a correct decision
on their merits or draught could be arrived at.
Mr. Wilkie was not present, on account of illness.
Ploughs of other kinds were also submitted to
trial, but nothing worthy of note was elicited.

Draining and pai'ing ploughs. — The premium
offered for an open-furrow draining-plough was
not adjudged. The show-yard contained one im-
plement only of this kind, by Mr. .Jamss Comins,
of South Molton, which was not tried. Mr. John-
son, of Leicester, exhibited Mr. Glover's excellent
turf and stubble paring-plough, rewarded at Li-
verpool, which the judges were pleased to learn
has met with the encouragement it merits.

In concluding these comments, the judges must
express their consciousness that, owing to the in-
sufficient time allotted for examining minutely so
extensive an assortment of implements, they may
have overlooked, or omitted the mention of,
ineritorous productions. Some implements, not
rewarded, may also have been esteemed by visi-
tors equal or superior in excellence to tho3c which
carried prizes ; and it is requisite to state that, for
reasons unexplained and undiscovered, the show-
yard contained numerous implements which were
not entered for competition : of these, therefore
no note was taken, as they did not pass under the
observation of the judges.

Observations on ploughs. — Much useful instruc-
tion may be drawn from the cxjierinicnts on the
di-aught of ploughs, and on the quality of the work
performed, now annually made at the instance of
the society. The mean resistance of the live wheel-

ploughs registered in the foregoing list vvas .'>86
jjounds, whilst that of the six swing-jjloughs was
420 ])0unds, being a diflerence of nearly 9 per
cent, in favour of the wheel-ploughs ; and the dif-
ference in the resistance of the best implement of
the two kinds was 18 per cent, in favour of the
wheel-plough.* It may also be safely affirmed
that the quality of the performance in the same
soil, by the respective ploughs, and under like
circumstances of depth, width of slice cut, &c., is
as the lightness of draught, i.e. in favour of the
plough of least resistance.

On this occasion the judges took the precaution,
after the trials, to suspend weights to the dyna-
momelcf, in order to verify the accuracy of its
graduation, and to ascertdin if any change had
taken place in its indications during the expe-
riments. The instrument was found to have
given strictly correct results throughout the range
of thedraughts noted. It is also proper to state
that the ploughs, after being got into trim, were
successively brought to the same part of the field,
and the indication of the force was recorded at
the time of each plough's passage tbrough similar
soil, the pace being as nearly as possible alike in
every case. The nature and form of the field
selected for the purpose compelled the judges — at a
considerable loss of time — to adopt this plan, as
the quality of the soil varied materially in different
parts, and the sharp slope of tlie ground in some
parts of it would have rendered the experiments
nugatory if the force of draught had not been
taken pretty nearly in one locality.

An analysis and comparison ofthe results obtained
at Liverpool, and Bristol, discloses facts of no
slight importance to the agriculturist and plough-
wright. The difference between the mean draught
of the wheel and swing ploughs at the former
trial was 17 per cent, in favour of the wheel
plough, and there was an equality in this respect
between the best implements of each kind. At
Bristol one maker, Mr. Howard, of Bedford, pro-
duced a wheel-plough which beat his own swing
by 18 per cent., the latter being equal to the
best on the ground. At Liverpool, the diff'erence
between the maximum and minimum resistance
of the jdough wa? nearly 43 per cent., whilst at
Bristol it amounted to 63J per cent.; in both
cases in favour of the wheel-ploughs. Whatever
may be the cause of this enormous irregularity
and disparity in the force required to perform
work indentically similar, it is apparent that the
expenditure of animal power, and its cost to the
farmer, arc altogether dependant on the im-
plement he employs, and proportional to the
iorce used ; also, that in the single opera-
tion of ploughing, he is frequently con-
suming at least one-half more power than is ne-
cessary to perform his Vv-ork. The elementary re-
sistance of any given sort of soil is a constant
quantity, and the skdl ofthe pkughwrigtit should
be exercised in the endeavour to diminish, to its
minimum amount, the excess of force employed to
move the implement over and above that which is
absolutely requisite to divide, under-cut, raise,
and lay the furrow-slice ; all which operations are
implied under the technical ])hrase ploughing. It
is evident that, at Bristol, the. difterencc between
the extremes of draught required in the same soil
by wheel-ploughs, and by those of the swing

* For additional information respecting
vention, see the end of this Report, p. 40.

this in-

* The draught of the double-furrow and turnwrest
ploughs is not included in this esiimate.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

39

kind, was equivalent to a loss of power hy the for-
mer of 36 per cent., and by the latter of .{8 per
cent. ; and it resulted that a force not greater
than 22 stones really sufficed to perform the same
amount of work, or to produce the same useful ef-
fect, asa force of:V2 andevenof .if; stones, exerted hy
the same horses on other ploughs ! '1 lie pro-
blem remains to be solved— by how much the least
force used exceeds the resistance naturally and
necessarily opposed to it ? Its solution rests with
the machine maker, and it -will be found in the
application of sound mechanical principles to the
structuro of the implement, when combined with
a true Knowledge of the nature and amount of the
several resistances to be overcome.

The following particulars of the weight and di-
mensions of some of the principal parts of the
wheel and swing ploughs submitted to trial have
been obligingly furnished by the makers, at the
request of the judges, who think that a record of
them may, at least, present useful matter of study
to the enlightened mechanic, and possibly induce

him to experiment, extensively and carefully, on
the effects arising from any change of these pro-
portions as regards resistance and quality of work.
He will, at the same time, be naturally led to in-
vestigate the influence produced by the line and
angle of draught, as well as by the length and
twist of the mould board, and other properties
which cannot be conveniently given in a table.
'J'he philosopher may meditate on these matters,
as questions of interesting research ; but the me-
chanician nione can arrive, though observation,
experiment, and practical skill, at the constrnction
of a perfect plough. A rich harvest of fame and
l)ro(it awnits his labours ; he may now work in
confident security that the productions of his
genius and industry will no longer — like the pul-
verizing plough — risk interment and oblivion in
some corner of a secluded jiarish : thesociety offers
him a fair and honourable field for the display of
his labours, and its hand is open to encourage, re-
ward, and proclaim them ;— >

M.iker's Xames.

Howard

Mason , . . ,

Brayton

Sanders and Williams

Carson

Huckvale

Earl of Ducie

Howard . .

Brayton

Carson

Merrett

Law

VVilkie

Number

of
Wlieels

Swing
do.
do.

do.

do.
do.
do.

Leiig-th

from point

to heel.

Inches.
35

3G
38 i
29

33
30

3^
36

Width

at

the iieel

Inches.

10

n

6

6J
101
9
8
9
6

2

6n,

0 /

10

9h
8

7

Greatest

width of

Share.

Inches.
8

6§
G
9

6|
6i

Lbs.
2^0
252
196
245

193

150
161
137
142

174

148
170

230

* Moveable.
ft The cutting angle of the fhare is given by these two column;.

The judges trust that the importance of this
subject will be a sufficient excuse for the space
devoted to it; they feel it to be their province
and duty to elicit, for the information of the so-
ciety, all such truths as the experiments commit-
ted to their management may develope ; and they
do not hesitate to express their conviction that, if
arrangeiTients could be made at futi:re meetings
for a still greater extension of the time and means
allotted to the trial of field implements, previous
to the declaration of prizes, the zeal of construc-
tors would be greatly encouraged, and the objects
of the society more rapidly and surely promoted.
The experience acquired by their having acted on
several similar occasions induces them also to re-
commend that exhibitors be invited, as a condition
of trial, to send their ploughs and machines in the
best state foi work, so as on future occasions to
save the time of the judges, and to evolve more
correct and useful results. It is evident that the
actmg parts of an implement put into the ground
for the first time, or recently painted, are in a most
unfavourable condition to fulfil one at least of the
purposes of a trial, viz. the determination of its
draught ; and it is possible that the best implement

may be in the worst trim for work. It is requisite
too that the maker, or some authorised and suffi-
cient representative should be present to manage
his own implement. Several implements, the oc-
ular inspection of which gave promise of novel
merit, remained untried, or very imperfectly tried,
at Bristol ; whereas others, equally novel, had
their principal qualifications and advantages suffi-
ciently ascertained for the judges to report upon
with satisfaction to themselves and to the inven-
tors.

The justice of these remarks will be appreciated
by all who witnessed the skilful management of
Mason's plough by Mr. John Stokes, and the per-
severance of the Hon. Mr. Nugent in bringing his
untried subsoil-pulverizer into such working con-
dition as to enable the judges to prognosticate
favourably of its future efficiency. If the trials
had produced no other result than that of directing
the attention of the Society to these two imple-
ments in jiarticular — of the merits of which no
sound opinion could have been formed had they
not been jjraeticalli/ ascertained in the field — no
inconsiderable advantage will have been derived ;
but it is a matter of regret to the judges that they

40

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

were unable to cany out to a much greater extent,
and with greater precision, the objects of the So-
ciety in instituting tliese annual tests of the ad-
vance made in the science of agricultural mecha-
nism. JosiAU Parkkr.

George Legard.

R. S. Graburn.

Note on the Pulverizing Plough.

The following particulars of the history, use,
and experience of tliese slicing-knives have been
obligingly communicated to the judges by Mr.
John Stokes of Pauntley Court, near Newent,
farmer ; by Mr. Allen Stokes, eivil engineer, of
Harvington, near Evesham ; and by Thomas
Brown, Esq., a magistrate of the county of War-
wich, residing upon and farming his own estate at
Kinwarton, near Alcester. Tlie statement of
these gentlemen is corroborated by JNIr. William
Mason, the maker of the plough exhibited at
Bristol.

The knives were invented by Mr. Brown, who
employed the father of Mason, a blacksmith, to
fit them to a plough about twenty years ago. Mr.
Brown originally placed one knife vertically, and
another horizontally ; but, finding the latter posi-
tion to be most effective, he has continued to ap-
ply them in that form only ; in which practice he
has been followed by all who have since adopted
them. Mr. William Mason at that time lived with
his father, but afterwards engaged with a farmer
as au agricultural labourer; and in his service
acquired much skill as a ploughman, before set-
tling himself at Grafton as a blacksmith and
ploughwright.

In 1839 Mr. Allen Stokes altered the general
form of the plough, which Mason was then in the
habit of constructing ; and, particularly, for the
purpose of providing for the proper adaptation
an d adjustment of Mr. Brown's knives, 'i'he first
of these improved pulverizing ploughs was sent
by Mr Allen Stokes, in 1839, to his kinsman Mr.
John Stokes, of Pauntley Court, whose farm con-
tains between 300 and 400 acres of arable land
("rented of Osmon Ricardo, Esq.), and consists of
turnip and barley soil, with a portion of wheat
and bean land.

Mr. Brown states, from his long experience of
the knives, that they are particularly useful in
pulverizing his adhesive and very dithcult soil, as
they save the harrowing, and thereby avoid the
poaching of the horses' feet ; that he last year
ploughed with them a two years' old turf, and
drilled wheat upon it without previous harrow-
ing, using only a one-horse harrow to cover the
seed. Mr. John Stokes also observes that stiff clay
land is not left cloddy by the action of the knives,
but will be found, in many cases, fit for receiving
the seed as they leave it. He agrees with Mr.
Brown that when the land is ploughed in an un-
kind state, perhaps one of the knives only may
be found to work well ; and, when the soil has
been much trampled upon in wet weather, as on
headlands, they will not work at all. In a mellow,
friable soil, it is the practice to place the knives
near to the extremity of the mouldboard, so as
to catch and divide the slice as it falls over ; but
in a stiff soil it is found more advantageous to set
them father off so as to make their cut just after
the slice has taken its bed ; also, that the most
perfect pulverization is obtained by turning over
the slice much more obliqtiely than is customary,

and even to reverse it as nearly as possible. l\fr.
Brown says, " I generally plough 8 inches deep
and 10 inches wide with the knives. I now in-
variably use the horses in line in my stiff soil;
nothing is so prejudicial as their treading out of
the furrow. I have fully and fairly tried the horses
abreast, but could not plough so well ; the horses
were worked too hard, and their tram])ling was
very injurious." Mr. John Stokes uses the horses
in both ways, according to the quality of soil, and
the strength required. Both the Messrs. Stokes
and Mr. Brown state their opinion that the advan-
tage of the two-wheel plough, when using the
knives, is so self evident, that there can be no
question as to its superiority over the swing-
plough, for that purpose. Mr. John Stokes has
applied them to a one-wheel plough, and it worked
pretty well, but required holding : whereas, he
observes, " the two-wheel ploughs, furnished with
the knives and well set, require no guidance, and
will go without a holder." ^Vhen it is thought
desirable to reverse the furrow-slice completely,
Mr. Brown is in the habit of using only the upper
knife horizontally, and he applies a lower one in a
vertical position (as shown by the dotted line e. in
fig. 2) so as to cut off about an inch or more of the
inner or lower edge of tiae furrow slice just turned,
to allow room i'or the succeeding slice to fall flat
over, or nearly so ; and, under these circumstances,
the ploughs shallower and wider.

With respect to tlie economy per acre arising from
this process, JMr. Brown observes, that he has no
account of the cost of the old system of ploughing
and Ijarrowing on his estate, having abandoned it for
so long a period, ffe expresses himself as so con-
vinced of tlje important saving and superior woilc
effected by the use of the knives, tliat he employs
them throughout his farms, and for every kind of
crop. Several farmers in the neighbourhood of
Grafton, who had been in the habit of using Mason's
ploughs, have sent them to him to he altered to this
new patern.

TILE DRAINING AND TURNIP
HUSBANDRY.

On Wednesday, the 10th November last, a din-
ner was given by Lady Bassett, at Bennetts, to
those of her tenantry in the parish of Whitstone,
who acting upon her advice had extended their cul-
tivation of turnips. What adds much to the inte-
rest of this meeting is, that it also celebrates the
commencement of a new era in the agriculture of
the district, us on that day, previous to the dinner,
furrow draining with tile was fully commenced un-
der the superintendence of Mr. JPeters, her lady-
ship's agriculturist.

Edward Sheaum, Esq., Stratton, Lady Bas-
.set's agent in this district, was in the chair. After the
usual loyal toasts the chairman on i)roposing the
health of Lady Bassett, said, it was under circum-
stances of no ordinary character, that they had
met together. AV'hile this meeting was meant as a
mark (d"ap])robation of the conduct of the tenantry
who had so readily seconded Lady Basset's views
of introducing improvement, they must also feel
that there was something higher than mere perso-
nal interest attached to it. They might fairly say
they were met to celebrate the first introduction of
furrow and tile draining in the hundred of Stratton,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

41

and a new system founded upon tliat first founda-
tion stone of all permanent Improvement, in a dis-
trict where draining- was wanted as much, if not
more, than in any district of the kingdom. The re-
sult he would not venture to predict; that must be
best known to those who had seen it carried into
effect elsewhere ; but if he were to judge from what
lie had seen of it on his own land, he had no doubt
it would be most astonishing. He last year furiow-
drained a field, and had it now in a state of prepa-
ration for a crop of Swedish turnips. If two years
ago he had proposed putting that field into turnips,
it would have been reckoned madness, but from its
altered appearance since it was drained, he had no
doubt of success ; indeed it was now evident, that
with proper management, this district was as capa-
ble of growing turnips as any other. He would ask
Mr. Colville whether he would have believed five
years ago that such crops of turnips could have
been grown on Foxhall. Mr. Colville said, that
twelve months ago he would not have believed any
man who said that it was possible, as he now had
tlie finest turnips he ever saw; many of them were
very large. One he had seen that day was 2 feet
7i inches round, and weighed about 12 pounds
without the stems. Mr. Coles, of Bennetts, con-
fessed that he had been afraid to venture with the
tillage of so many turnips, as he did not consider
his land was adajjted for them, and even if tliey
should succeed, he did not see how he could get
them used, but Lady Bassett and Mr. Peters had
got him prevailed u])on to give it a trial, and he did
not repent it. He found so much advantage from
the turni|)S for his bullocks, that instead of not get-
ting them used, his six acres would be little enough.
Mr. A'eal, of Olce, stated that although the field in
which he had his turnips was as stubborn land as
any in the neighbourhood, yet the turnips were a
good crop, and from his success in that field, he
would not be afraid of growing them on any of his
land.

Mr. Peters complimented the tenants present
on the maimer in which they hud managed their
turnip crop. If it was considered that they had
five times as many turnips this year as ever they
previously had, and that they had put them in
upon a plan to them entirely new, was it to be won-
dered at if in some instances the management was
not perfect ; but really the cultivation of some of
them was excellent. Mr. Colville's at Foxhall
would do no discredit to any district ; and as for
Mr. Coles, of Bennetts, he (Mr. Peters) was proud
of the manner in which he had acte<l, after hesitat-
ing so much at first, ^^'hcn once Mr. Coles had put
his hand to the plough, he did not look back. He
was glad to hear from every one of them that they
were gratified with the trial they had made, and
had ail expressed a determination to extend their
operations next year. He could assure them of a
continuance of that encouragement from Lady Bas-
set which they had this year expeiicnced. After a
good deal of consideration, Lady Basset had set on
a draining tile manufactory, and they had this day
seen a sample of the mode of draining it was jiro-
posed to adopt. Her ladyship had in this not only
conferred a boon on them, her own tenants, but
had set an example in the district, which he was
glad to learn from their friend, Rlr. Shearm, was
likely to be extensively followed by other great
landed proprietors. It was hoped that the tile ma-
nufactory would be so extended next season, as not
only to supply the demand on these estates, but
also to allow others to test on their own properties

the utility of thorough draining, which lie had no
doubt would soon entirely alter the features of the
country.

Mr. SiiExVH Ji begged to assure the tenantry of the
great interest Lady Basset took in their welfare.
Her ladyship was fully alive to the difilculties under
which the farmers now lalioured, but she also en-
tertained the opinion, that there was still to be found
in improved management what was calculated to
turn the scale in their favour. With a determina-
tion therefore to assist in bringing about such im-
provements, she now comes forward to go hand
in hand with them in the expence of setting about
it. 'Ihe farm buildings, and the mode of making
and managing manure in this district, are found
much fault with, and no doubt justly ; but Mr.
Shearm said, that he had authority from Lady
Basset to tell tliem, that so soon as they showed
themselves ready and willing to adopt improved
management, she would erect the necessary build-
ings and farm yards for them. Mr. Shearm also
stated that lie was so well pleased with the result of
what Lady Basset had done for her tenants, that he
was resolved to carry out the system to the fullest
extent wherever he could have the opportunity of
doing so. He begged of the tenants to pay every
attention, and learn of their friend Mr. Peters what
they could, and he hoped that by doing so, although
they were far behind their northern neighbours in
the morning, they might overtake them before the
noon of agriculture can be said to have arrived. It
was rather unfortunate for them that Mr. Pe-
ters resided at such a distance, which made his
visits far between, but he trusted that on the
completion of arrangements now in contempla-
tion this would be remedied. — Cornirall Roynl
Gazette.

APPLICATION OF SCIENCE TO
AGRICULTURE.

EXPERIMENTS.

The impression has been gaining ground for some
time, and Las now become pretty generally prevalent,
that considerable advantage will result from the ap-
plication of chemical science to agriculture. The
p:;ience of agriculture is indeed closely allied to that
of chemistry ; every nlant is a laboratory, and a
single leaf, i)v uecoin|ios.ing carbonic acid, proves
iiseU' to be a more jiowerCul chemical agent than a
galvanic battery. By tlie aid of chemistry we are
enabled to learn tbu composition both of the soil and
of the plants which it produces; and iVoin the com-
position of the latter, we can see what are the sub-
stances necessary for their nourishment, and from
that of the former, vvberever it has been accurately
ascertained, it has always, been found that the abund-
ance or deficiency of these substances assimilated
by plants, is an exact indication of its natural pro-
ductiveness or sterility. A soil, however, contain-
ing manif of tlie elements nccessaiy for the pro iuc-
lion of vegetables may he barren, on account of
the absence or deficiency of on>' or more of the ele-
ments, t|je presence of w hich is indispensably neces-
sary for the production of luxuriant vegetation.
And it is on sucli a soil that opportunity is afforded
to the agriculturist to display Jiis skill. On exa-
mining, again, the common manures, we find the
same agreement subsisting between their composi-
tion also, and thai of the plants for the production of

42

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

•which the}' are known (o be efficient ; or, in other
Tvorch, the elements contained in the manure sup-
plied to the soil, lire found in the plants which that
manure a'dsin producing. For example, it is known
that phosphate of magnesia is contviined in large
quantity in jiotati.es, and accordingly it has been
found th;it phosphoric acid (supplied by means of
bones or bran), and sulphate of magnesin (Epsom
saltsj are most valuable manures for increasing the
l)roduce of this root. 'J'he manures hitherto most
generally used in agriculture have been putrescent
animal excrements, and vegetable matter; and the
composition of these substances demonstrates how
lulinirably they are suited for the purpose. But, as
they cannot always be obtained in sufficient abund-
ance for the i)>irposes of the agriculturist, it is evi-
dent that he may supplement the deficiency by the
use of other substances containing the same ele-
ments. It may be possible too, to procure in this
manner the elements of manure in so concentrated
and portable a form, and at so cheap a rate, as to
enable the cultivator of the soil to obtain a much
greater value of produce, in proportion to the sum
of money expended for manure, than he has hitherto
realized. And that this is possible will not be
doubted by any one who has studied the chemistry
of nature. It is a point of grent importance in the
application of manure, that it be put into the soil in
the state most suitable fur being assimilated by the
roots of plants. This remark is peculiarly applica-
ble to the use of bones as a manure. Bunes, if put
into the soil without being properly reduced, may
remain in it for a long period without being decom-
posed. The bones of antediluvian animals have re-
mained in some soils for thousands of years almost
unchanged. The exclusion of air and moisture
tends to prevent their decay. They may be pre-
served for a long period even in a moist soil, pro-
vided they are surrounded by a tenacious substance
preventing the access of rain and air; and in all
cases vphen they are not reduced the exterior surface
protects the interior (which is morcgelatinousj front
decay, lience, perhaps, wc may see a reason whv
bones have generally been found comparatively in-
efficient as a manure on stiff clay soils. It may be
inferred, then, that a given quantity of bones v.-ill
be much more serviceable as a manure when they
are put into the soil in a state suital-le for assimila-
tion, than when they are returned to it in a very
rough and imperfectly reduced state ; and esperi"-
ence has shown that such is the case. It was stated
in a report for the North East of Scotland, which
appeared in the 3Iark Lane Express in the month of
December last, that a solution of bor.es in sulpliuric
acid (the manner of preparing which the writer there
explained, and for which see also Liebig's Organic
Chemiilrii, p. 173, 2nd cd.) had been tried on a
small scale, as a more economical and effective mode
of supplying phosphate of lime to plants, than the
common way of using crushed bones. This solution
of bones has been used this season— and by some
individuals in this district pretty extensively— as a
manure for turnips. It has generally been used
along with one-half tho usual quantity of duno- ;
and this is undoubtedly the way in which it is ap-
plied with most advanlage. l''ron) its application in
this manner, at the raio of 80 or 50 lbs. (of bones)
per Scotch acre (l-l'til ac. imp), very good crops of
turnips have been obtained — cro])S fully eijual to
those raised by an application of the same quantity
of dung along with 10 or 12 bushels of bones put
into the soil in the common way. The advantages,
therefore, that have thus been obtained are certainly,

in a pecuniary point of view, of great import-
ance ; a saving in t!ie expense of manure of at least
1/. 5s. per acre having been eflected. The amount
saved on a field of 3.) acres would thus be 43/. I5s.
And this, be it observed, is not calculation founded
on mere theory : a saving of greater amount than
the above sum lias actually been effected by some
individuals this season. The bone solution has also
been applied abne ; but only on a small scale by
way of experiment, 'i'he results thus obtained ap-
pear to be somewhat contradictory. In ail cases,
however, and even by an application of so small a
quantity as from GO to 80 lbs. of bones per Scotch
acre, the most luxuriant growth was jiroduced dur-
ing the earlier purt of the season ; the turnips came
up beautifully, were sooner ready for the hoe than
those manured with dung and " drill" bones, and
advanced rapidly for a considerable time; but
in some cases in which the manure was applied in
small quantity, and perhaps also not very well
prepared, its effects failed during the latter part of
the season. A good crop has, in some cases, been
produced by an application of 160 lbs. of bones
(digested in the requisite quantity of acid), per
Scotch acre ; but, from some other experiments^
it doss not appear that this quantity can be impli-
citly relied on for the production of a crop on
poor soils. From the quantity of phosphoric acid
found in the grain and straw usually produced on
an acre, it has been calculated that 8r)lbs.of bones,
properly prepared for assimilation, would be a suf-
ficient quantity to apply to a Scotch acre, for sup-
plying phosphates to three successive crops of
oats, turnips, clover, &c. ; but it does not appear
that this holds good in practice. The bone solution,
when used alone, ought, we think, to be applied at
the rate of 300 or 3501bs. jier acre. It has never
failed — so far as the writer of this is aware — when
applied in such a quantity, properly prepared, to
produce a most abundant crop.

We repeat, however, that we prefer applying it
along with a certain quantity of dung, because
some ammonia, which, as well as phosphate of
lime, is necessary to plants, is thereby afforded. It
is is certain that bones, in whatever way they are
applied, owe their beneficial effects chiefly to the
phosphate of lime, which they contain to the
amount of 51 per cent. (Berzelius) ; but at the
same time it cannot be doubted but that, when
bones are applied in the usual way, at the rale of
20 or 25 bushels per acre, the nitrogen of the gela-
tine which tliey contain must exert a very benefi-
cial effect on plants. IJoncs, in a dry state, con-
tain .')3 per cent, of gelatine, and if we allow that
gelatine contains (according to the analysis of Gay,
Lussac, and Thenard) 16.[) per cent, of nitrogen,
then 20 bushels or 1,000 of bones will give 551bs.
of nitrogen, or about (illbs. of ammonia. And
though this quantity cannot be all evolved for a
considerable time, yet, as the deconjposition of the
bones proceeds, jucr)'/ of it will be gradually elimi-
nated and become available for the promotion of
vegetation. By the action of sulphuric acid on
bones a ivperpJiosphate of lime is produced, and
this salt being soluble — as all the superphosphates
arc — is in the state most suitable for assimilation.
Phosphate of lime and nitrogen in the form of
ammonia, seem to be the chief requisites in ma-
nure for almoit every siiecics of plants (])hosphoric
acid has been found in every plant hitherto ex-
amined) ; and the question therefore occurs — how
can these substances be procured in the greatest
abundance, and at the cheapest rate .' Bones arc

THE FARMER'S iMAGAZINE.

43

tbc only source, at present known, from which we
can obtain phospliate of lime in an\' considerable
quantity. Jt isindeed reported — and Dr. Daubeny
is at present, or was lately engaged in investigating
ths truth of the report — that native phosphate of
lime {pJiotpliorlte or apatite) is to be found in
Estremaduvain Spain ; and, if such shall he found
t.) be the case, tliis substance, so valuable as a
niamne, may yet come to be procured at a much
cheaper rate than it has hitherto been. Ammonia,
however, can be procured much nearer home,
though indeed it seems to bo much more highly
valued by some, when brought in the shape of
guano from the farthest coast* of America. Agri-
culturists have the means of procuring ammonia
within thiir own reach, if they could be persuaded
more generally to avail themselves of it. But
though it certainly might be thought that advan-
t ige would be taken of our own in the first place,
there is no reason why wc should not purchase as
niuch'more as we can. Nor do we mean to say that
(jnano is not a most valuable manure, containing
as it does — besides 30 per cent, of salts of am-
monia (which would give about 7 or 8 per cent, of
the free alkali) — 14 per cent, of phosphate of lime
(^'olcke^s analysis). Its com])osition, therefore,
and its beneficial effects as a manure, afford a proof
of what we have stated above in reference to the
value of phosphate of lime and ammonia. But to
return. 'l"he chief sources from v>hich ammonia
may be obtained are animal and vegetable sub-
stances in a state of decay, and the urine of ani-
mals; and it is from the latter source more espe-
cially, that farmers have an opportunity of pro-
curing it in great abundance. Human urine, after
the conversion of all the urea, by putrefaction, into
carbonate of ammonia, contains at the lowest esti-
mate, 201bs. of ammonia in 100 gallons of urine;
or nearly as much as is contained in SOOlbs. of
guano. "When it is considered," to use the words
of Dr. Liebig, " that with every pound of ammo-
nia which evaporates a loss of 601bs. of corn is
sustained, and that with every pound of urine a
pound of wheat might be produced, the indifference
with whicii these liquid excrements are regarded
is quite incoinpiehensible." Besides ammonia
urine contains phosphates and potash. The urine
of other animals contains abjut one-fourth of the
quaiuiiy of ammonia found in human urine. It is
evident therefore, that, if the urine from cow-
houses, &c., instead of being allowed to run to
waste and its ammonia to evaporate, were collected
in a tank or reservoir, constructed for the pur-
pose, and properly managed by fixing its ammonia,
which might be very convenienily done by mixing
it, after being sufficiently putrefied, with a compost
to which a considerable quantity of the solution of
bones in sulphuric acid had been previously added,
it would form a most valuable manure obtained at
a very cheap rate. Such a compost would besides
be a very convenient mode of applying the bone
solution; and it svould be rendered still more va-
luable— more especially if it were to be applied as
a manure for potatoes or grain— by the addition of
a small quantity of sulphate of magnesia, which
may be had at 1.3s. or 14s. per cwt. Sulphuric
acid (oil of vitriol), gypsum or chloride of calcium
may also be used for fising the volatile carbonate
of ammonia' obtained from urine. H.

Ythaiiside, Aberdeenshire, Dec. 1.

GENERAL DRAINAGE AND DIS-
TRIBUTION OF WATER.

Sir, — In your editorial remarks of the 24th ulf,
j'ou pass some just encomiums upon the proi)Ositiou
of J\lr. Blacker for draining the wet lands of the
United Kingdom by means of assistance in funds
from (government, [laving given much attention to
the matter of general diainngc, 1 trust you will allow
nie to draw your attention to a proposition I have
taken some pains to place before tiie agricultural
public, and which it is mv intention to explain
fully before the committee of the approaching ses-
sion, should the opportunity be afforded me. It ap-
]iears to me to be much inoro feasible than the pro-
ject of Mr. Blacker, and should it so appear to you,
I hope to gain your advocacy to promote discussion
on the subject. It is certain that the next session
will see the passing of a Sewerage Act for towns
(upon the sanatory reports), and will be also the
advent of some general DrainageBiW for the lands of
England. Although we cannot hope to see a com-
])ulsory measure for draining the whole of the clay
hmds, it is perfectly feasible for the Legislature to
iDiite ihe two objects nf drainage pf lands, uilh sewerage
of towns by the making oi main drains along the val-
leys where waters congregate on the surface, so as
to put it in the jiower of landowners and occupiers
to drain their lands when they have the mea)is and hy
degrees, at the same time thatthese main drains or re-
ceivers may be made the vehicle (as conduits), of
transporting the refuse of towns into the country
for manure.

The passing of the act for the drainage of lands
in Ireland, and improving the navigation and water-
power in connexion with such drainage, is evidence
that the prejudice which has so long delayed the
success of that measure has at length given way,
and the principle that the loishes of the majoriiy
should he binding on the minority is now admitted
in the matter of drainage, as well as in local im-
provements, such as inclosures, tithe commuta-
tion, and parochial management.

A general drainage act for Great Britain would ef-
fect improvements even more beneficial than those
which will result to Ireland from the measure rela-
ting to that country ; for the necessary works being
less expensive, they would receive the ready con-
currence of landowners. Although we have not
in Britain, in proportion to extent of surface, so
much waste land to reclaim as they Lavein Ireland,
we have many millions of acres of wet lands under
the plough, as well as a considerable portion of bog
and marsh lands. These, by the clearing of outfalls,
would directly become capable of subordinate drain-
age, and be rendered, by means of recent chemical
discoveries, which are inapplicable to them in their
present state, susceptible of increased culture.

Professor Johnston, in his ''Elements of Agricul-
tural Chemistry and Geology," and other writers,
have declared that we must look to our clay land.?
for the most profitable increase of our corn produce ;
and since our clay lands are also our best wheat
lands, the inclination of the whole agricultural com-
munity must coincide with that opinion, especially
as the deficiency in wheat is greater than in other
corn (the produce of the lighter lands), and we
must necessarily be desirous, in a national point of
view, of making that deficiency good.

Our annual produce is less than the demand by 1 J
million of quarters, and we require for seed nearly
as much more, making about three millions, which, at
the average of the last 14 years (viz,, 58s, per qr.),

44

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

gives between eight and nine millions of pounds
sterling pnid for foreign corn. Apart from the
benefit to be derived from the increase of produce,
which would not be less, on an average, than one
quarter of iin acre to the land cropped with wheat,
we must consider the effect of general drainage on
the health of the population and cattle of the coun-
try. fSeelNIr. Chadwick's report for the Sanatory
Condition of the Labouring Population. )

Upon the jjracticabilitv of reducing the sewerage
of towns, and the drainage of lands, to one system
of arrangement, there may be a difference of opinion,
if, in combination with that system, a care is to be
taken of the refuse of the towns, for application as
manure to land ; still I hope you will consider the
proposition with attention and inquiry. I have
entered somewhat at length into this subject in the
pamphlet published a i'uv,' months back, and now
enclosed, and I find that in Mr. Chadwick's Re-
port Calready alluded to), pages 302, et seq., 392
and 39:^, he brings corroborative testimony in sup-
port of tiie proposition. Although of opinion that
land and towix drainage, with the preservation
of the refuse of the latter is a feasible pro-
ject, I look more to the profitable use of
tlie drainage, and surface icaiers, than I do
to the iinprurcment of the lands drained. I
feel assured, from observation, that by a judicious
arrangement of a network of mains along the Vid-
leys of thd country, not only might the [jernicious
waters which now stagnate on the surface, but tiie
waters emitied from hill-side springs, which escape
unheeded into the lower water-coursi s, be caught
and concentiated, but might be advantageou^lv
applied and rc-applied in irrigation and augmenta-
tion of inferior mill-streams, and in originating a
motive-power for the establishing new mills, wor-
king of mines, &c. There are many instances on
record where on private estates, this use of drain-
age waters has been carried out, but that case which
approaches nearest to the object of the present
proposition is the case of Lord Ilatherton's improve-
ment on his Teddesley May estate. There, drain-
age of a large tract of land, irrigation of a consider-
able portion of meadow, and the use of the drain
water as a motive power, are all effected in one
scheme. It is described by Mr. Burke, in his
pamphlet, "OnDiaining, Irrigating, and Subsoil
Ploughing," and has been corroborated by his lord-
ship in a lette)' addressed to me.

'J'he different mining districts of Wales, Corn-
wall, and Scotlanct, afford abund;int proof's of the
economy of water power over steam, where the
water is iramedi.itely attainable — and the increasing
consumption of coal supplies a reason for attention
to any power which may be used as a substitute.

I have seen, within the last few months at the old
Lanercost mines, near Lostwitiel, in Cornwall,
rather an uncommon instance of the economy ef
water power. A small stream, into which the wa-
ters of a few springs have been collected from the
adjoining hill, conveys to this mine a sufliciency of
water to work l.S wheels of different diumeters and
for different uses. The water brought home and deli-
vered to the highest wheel is equal to 60 horse power ;
but, by being re-applied, over and over again, to
wheels lower down the hill, it jjroduces in all a
force of ;)7fi horse power.

Another singular fact will serve to elucidate the
feasibility of connecting drainage with the appli-
cation of surface waters.

Mr. Dickenson, an extensive paper-malier, living
near Watford, and having paper-mills on the river

Colne, resorts fothe following expedient to ascertain
with what quantity of paper he may contract to sup-
jjly his customers, (in the hills in the neighbour-
hood of his mills, he has fixed a gauge buried in the
ground a little depth below the surface. By consul-
ting this gauge he is enabled to compute the amount
of rain which finds its loay Into the earth during
the lointer season, and tohich must he again emit-
ted before it can he decreased by evaporation.
Experience has proved to him that, with this index,
he can precisely ascertain the influx of tributary
water which the river Colne, whereby his mills are
worked, will receive. 'J'his statement was made at
the Institution of Civil Engineers by i\ir. Clutter-
buck, and substantiated by Mr. Dickenson him-
self.

'J"he above remarks I have had copied, so that I
may place before you a few points which, I hope,
will induce you to peruse the pamphlet enclosed,
and to give the proposition your best consideration.

I am obliged by your notice of it in the Journal,
and should not intrude it again on your attention
were 1 not convinced tliat if the country was tra-
versed with a series of " mains,' so as to concentrate
the waters which are now injurious, all the expence
of constructing those mains would be repaid by the
profit to be derived from the use of the waters, as a
vehicle for the transit of town refuse — as a motive-
force for machinerij—as a supply for irrigating
— and as a partial remedy for present stagnation of
flood- water.

Would not any funds from Government be bet-
ter expended in the promotion of these combined
objects than in any woiks of drainage of rfe#flc/«Y^
parts of the country? It should be remembered,
that by draining ia unconnected districts the coun-
try vvill become a type of the confused state ot the
metropolitan sewerage. It can only be by unifor-
mity that the toll may he turned into good.

I have presumed to score a few passages in the
pamphlet (which was published before Mr. Chad-
laicli's Report), to which I beg your attention ; and
if you can oblige me by prominent mention of the
foregoing views, I shall be proud and happy to com-
municate at an)' future period.

I have not written this letter with a view to pub-
lication, but you are welcome to use it in any way
you please.

I am, Sir, &c. &ic.,

.T. Bailey Denton.

9, Gray's Inn square, Nov. 8, 1842.

P.S. I write from the Isle of Wight, and no one
can travel from London hence, but be struck irith
the leant of ovi falls.
— MarJi Lane Express.

LIQUID MANURES.— Writers and lecturers
on agricultural chemistry have long pointed out
the importance of liquid manures, and enforced the
benefits which would result to farmers by havin"
a tank in their fold-yards for the preservation of
this valuable liquid, but they have hitherto seemed
loath to move out of the old beaten track of their an-
cestors, and heeded not the advice. Mr. .Tohn
Milner, of Mindledale, near Kilham, has, however,
been the first to set the example to the Yorkshire
Wold farmers, by having a large tank made in his
fold-yard, with underground channels from every
available source, from whence any impregnated

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

45

liquid can be obtained. The sink of (lie kitchen, tlio
sfabUs,and every otbev place svberc ammoiinical and
otiier lliiids iire deposited, are made to conlributt^ to
this reservoir of liquid manure, so essential to lu-
xuriant \'eu:elable production. 'I bis liquid is said to
be an excellent manure for grass ; and cattle seem to
eat tbe cro[)s wbicli have been thus saturated, witb
tbe greatest relisb, and will even lick the manure
t'rom the grass. — Hull Packet'

ENGLISH AGRICULTURE.

BY MR. MAIN, CHELSEA.

(From the Qiiarterly Journal of Agriciilt7(re.)

In giving a sketch of tbe agriculture of England,
I can only notice tbe general principles, and a few of
tbe more prominent systems in actual operation. On
such an extent of country many diQ'eient kinds of
soil occur, and we invariably find that, whatever tbe
nature of tbe soil may be, whether clay or sand, or
any intermediate quality, that character fixes the
mode or system of farming which is followed
thereon.

The soils which are most commonly met with and
forming- the agricultural face of the kingdom, are al-
luvial, diluvial, or other formation, all deposited from
or by tbe action of water. The alluvial occurs in
valleys tbiougb which rivers flow ; tbe diluvial
forms tbe level and slopes of the more elevated
ground.

The alluvial soils are the richest portions of tbe
country, and whether as meadow, pasture, or arable,
yield tbe largest profits to the cultivator if dr}', for
some such soils are subject to occasional floods.
Still this kind of land is tbe highest rented, pays the
highest tithe ("except liop and other gardens), poor,
and all other county and parochial rales.

The diluvial deposites occupy by far tbe greatest
portion of the cultivated surface, and are very varia-
ble in character. In some places, an obdurate un-
manageable clay, in others, a light sandy gravel,
and these often occurring on the same farm.

English farms vary in size from fifty to five hun-
dred, or even to one thousand acres, 'J bey are
mostly divided into separate fields by thorn-hedge
and ditch-fences, the fields being larger or smaller
according to tbe size of the farm. Some farmers
keep the hedges low, and the ditches well scoured
out especially where they act as drains ; others scour
the ditches and remake, that i?, plash down the
hedge every seventh oreightli year. There are usu-
ally hedge- row timber trees or pollards in tbe hedges,
and which, though not necessary for the healthy
growth of corn, give a dressy appearance to the
country ; and as shelter are certainly beneficial to
live stock. In some parts, wood is the only fuel
made use of, and there the topping of pollard trees,
and fagots from the newly made hedges, are indis-
pensibleto the tenant. But the use of coal even for
culinary purposes in farm-houses is rapidly gaining
ground.

The occupiers of the smallest farms are only a
superior class of labourers ; and those of the large
holdings are an opulent and highly respectable body
of men. Among these the great graziers are pre-
eminent, being located on rich tracts of land the
most suitable for breeding and fattening all kinds of
cattle, and manufacturing vast quantities of butter,
cheese, bacon, end pork. Such farms require a great

capital to stock them at first; and great vigilance
and judgment to keep up a full and profitable store
of both flocks and herds.

A few farms are entirely arable, except perhaps an
orchard at tbe back of the homestead. 13ut tbe
greater number are of a mixed character, partly
grass and partly arable, the most desirable proportions
being one-third grass and the other two-thirds arable.
Such farms are mostly on the diluvial deposile, and
as already mentioned consist of various descrip-
tions of soil, and of course require every expedient
of agriculture to be practised ujion them. I shall
endeavour to give a detail of the business of a farm
of this mixed character, and which will include most
of the ])rocesses carried on by a great majority of
English farmers.

The rents vary from twelve shillings and sixpence
to forty shillings [)er acre ; the medium from twenty-
five to thirty shillings. To the rent must be added
about a fourth for tithes, whether taken in kind, or
paid by a composition in money ; and a similar addi-
tion to the rent mav be calculated on to pay poor and
church and county rates.

Some landlords grant no leases; but in case of
any expensive peimanent improvement being exe-
cuted by tbe tenant, the landlord generally pays one-
half the expense, or finds materials, the tenant doing
the labour. When leases are granted, they are what
are called runn'wr/ leases of five, ten, or fifteciu years,
or what is more common, seven, fourteen, or twenty-
one yes;rs, terminable at tbe end of any of those
periods at the option of the tenant. Sometimes tbe
landlord reserves to himself a similar option, or if
not, by certain restrictive clauses in the lease pro-
tective of his own interests, tbe infringement of
which annuls all (he conditions. The great fluctua-
tions to which the business of fanning has been
subject of late years has rendered the desire for
leases less strenuous than formerly ; and there seems
to be a mutual feeling between the contracting par-
ties to substitute equitable agreements instead of
expensive leases.

In whichever wav a farmer holds his farm, whe-
ther by lease or by agreement, one of the most com-
mon conditions is, that he shall J'arm or cuUhate the
land accordliiff to tlie custom of the coicntri/ : that he
shall sell no straw nor hay oft" the farm without
bringing on an equivalent in dung ; that he shall
mate no waste ; plough up no meadow without
being liable to pay a penalty of ten or twenty
pounds per acre ; and that he shall leave the farm
in as good condition as it was when he entered
upon it.

About fifty vears ago, and after the custom of sow-
ing turnips on the fallows, and grass seeds with
barley or oats, was introduced, tbe general custom
of the country was the Ji re-shift convse, namely, a
fallow dunged for turnips to be fed oft' by sheep;
next, barley with clover and rye-grass, or clover
alone. Next year the clover is mowed once or twice,
or mowed once in summer, and afterwards depas-
tured with store-sheep until about the first of Octo-
ber, when it is ploughed up and sown with wheat,
which is the crop of tbe fourth year ; a part of the
wheat-stubble is as early as possible dunged and
sown with winter tares to be cut green for the stable
in may and June, and the rest of the wheat stubble
is sowed with oats in the following spring, and is
the crop of the fifth and last year of the course.

This was tbe custom of the country at tbe time
above stated, and was invariably adhered to, any
deviation being considered ruinous. But it was a
system in some measure imposed on the farmers not

46

The FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

only by tlie mnnrlates of their landlords, but from
tbeii inability to l;eep a sufficiently numerous herd
of live stock, owing to their want of pasturage and
other green or dry forage. Thus limited in live
stock, they could not muster up in their yards, folds,
and hovels, more dress or manure than was barely
sufficient for one-fifth of their land annually. Not-
withstanding the staid and grave character of the
old farmers, they were not insensible to the loss
they sustained by being obliged to sow two white
crops consocutivel}', and those of tbem who could
afford to do so, lamented that they could not depart
from the old system, and banish oats entirely from
the course ; and by having turnips and other green
crops every fourth year, enable them to keep more
stock, and consequently get their land into belter
iieart by dressing it every fourth, instead of every
fifth year.

This improvement in the system of farming was
soon proved to be absolutely necessary ; and at the
instance of several of the most influential landlords,
many of the old trammels have been struck off, and
the four-shilt course has been adopted by ever}' one
who bad the will and the means of doing so.

As already noticed, these farms are of various
size; but whether large or small requires capital of
not less than Jifteen pounds per acre to stock them.
The establishment of a farm of one hundred acres
requires a team of four horses, a plough-man and
plough-boy, a cow-man or-shepherd, and a taskcr or
barn-man. The hedging, turnip-bowing, mowing
hay, mowing and reaping corn, thatching ricks, and
binding hay, is usually done by free labourers in the
neighbourhood. This is the usual establishment on
a farm of one hundred acres ; but it is found that
the larger the farm, the more economically is it ma-
naged. For instance a farm of four-hundred acres
may be carried on with three teams ; and on all
farms the teams are reduced from four to three horses
each, whether at p'ough or at cart, or waggon on the
road. Ploughing with a pair of horses abreast is
only introduced on light loamy or sandy soils, where
only a light kind of plough can be employed. But
on clayey gravels, and all heavy soils, the old Hert-
fordshire wheel-plough with an iron skeleton share,
weighing half a h<indred weight, is still used. One
aci'e per day is the usual task of a plough team,
whether done at one or two yokings. Ploughing
with oxen, or with oxen and one horse as a leader
is still the custom on the hilly parts of the west of
England; and has been tried b\- many amateur far-
mers in other parts; but it is a decreasing rather than
an increasing custono. On stony or flinty soils,
oxen are unprofitable beasts of draught.

There are a few general principles by which all
farmers are guided, wherever they may be placed, or
whatever the kind of soil they may occupy. First,
The land must be dry naturally, or rendered so by
artificial drainage. Second, That aration, whenever
performed, should be complete as to depth, perfect
disintegration by the plough, harrows, and roller,
and all this done only when the soil is sufficiently
dry. Thirdly that no root-weeds be allowed to usurp
and exhaust the land. Fourthly, That the various
crops should succeed each other in the most judici-
ous rotation ; and, fifthly, That the soil be liberally
supplied with the most suitable kinds of manure
to keep it constantly in heart.

I shall now detail the proceedings of an English
farmer as a tenant of a farm of a mixed character,
and following the live-shift rotation. Ho commences
fallowing his oat-stubble as soon in the autumn as
he can ; ploughing deeply, and striking up the

water furrows in order that the ground may lie as
dry as possible throughout the winter. In the spring
the first opportunity is taken to fill in the furrows by
going a [*(7i(t in each. The field is then ploughedathwart ;
and harrowed, especi.dly if the original autumn
furrows be still left in entire pieces, by the cross
ploughing, and bound together by couch or other
weeds. If many of these be harrowed out on the
surface they are collected by women rakers, burnt
or carried off. Some farniers never trouble them-
selves to burn or carry off weeds; but trust entirely
to the plough and the sun to kill them ; and this, I
have seen completel}' accomplished in dry seasons
on light soils. Another ]iloughing athwart is given
before the end of May, which brings the surface to
the same state it lay before the first cross ploughing
was given. The ground by this time being perfectly
loose and friable, the harrows are again put on, and
which generally bring any root-weeds to the sur-
face to be got rid of.

The nest operation is drawing out the field into
lands or ridges, and which are usually of eight steps
unless the soil is liable to hold moisture, when the
ridges are only four steps or less if very wet in
winter. Ploughmen pride themselves much in
drawing out a field accurately ; and there are some-
times very amusing contests among the neighbour-
ing ploughmen who shall most excel in this manoeu-
vre; because on the regular breadths of the lands
subsequent operations are more regularly per-
formed.

The dung is next carted on, and laid in heaps
along the middle of each land. Four horses, two
in shafts and two in traces, are employed : the latter
are shifted from the empty to the full cart alternately.
The carts are large, the wheels having six or nine
inch tires. From seven to twelve loads are laid on
each acre, immediately spread and ploughed under
the seed furrow.

The turnip seed (three lbs. to the acre) is sown
broadcast and harrowed in ; and if cloddy, rolled.
The plants appear on or about the fourth day after
sowing, and if the weather be favourable, and the
fiy keep off, they soon get into rough leaf ; when
they are considered safe. But if the fiy alight
upon the plants while in the seed-leaf they are soon
destroyed, and then the field must be reploughed
and sown again. This loss and extra labour often
happens more than once, sometimes thrice, before a
sufficient plant can be depended upon.

Soon as the turnip plants are sufficiently grown,
the hand-hoes are set on, and paid by the acre, at
the rate of six shillings for first going over, and two
shillings per acre for the second setting out; and
which finishes the culture of the crop. The
varieties usually sown are Swedes, Norfolk-whites,
and sometimes an acre or two of tankards. The
last are eaten off" first, as they are impatient of frost ;
and the first are reserved till late in the spring. An
acre of good turnips maintains five score of sheep
for one week, and on this as a rule, the flock are put
on turnips sooner or later according to their number
comi)ared with that of the acres of turnips, so
that they may last as long as they are wanted for the
flock.

Folding with common hurdles is generally begun
at the highest side of the field, not only that the
sheep may have, when not feeding, the dryest
lair, but also because the top of the field being
generally of inferior (]uality to the soil at the
bottom, is more benefited by the more frequent
reposing of the sheep upon it. There should
be a sufficient number of hurdles not only for

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

47

penning tbe flock on tbe spot to be eaten, but
enougb to be set round against tbe bedges to keep
oft' tbe sbeop from leaving Iheiv droppings in tbe
ditch, or on ibe bank.

Tbe flocks usually consist of couples, tliat is,
ewes and luinbs, and four or six tootbed wctbers.
The former Lave a fresh pen every day; and tbe
wethers follow after to eat tbe principal part of tbe
bulbs, which aie ])icked out of tbe ground, and
chopped in pieces for tliera. Tbe whole have occa-
sionally both hay and trough-meat either in the field
or in tlie sheep-bouse, on wet or stormy nights.
The entire flock, ewes, lambs, and wethers, are ull
intended for tbe butcher, and even if possible sold
before tbe turnips are ended. There is a great de-
mand for fat lamb about tbe festival of Easter ; and
every means are employed to pamjier and push them
forward for that season. The ewes and wethers are
gradually draughted oft' to market, eitiier before or
after tbey are shorn ; and if there be any " odds and
ends" left, they are added to tbe store flock.

In the autumn, and as soon as tbe farmer can
judge of the amount of his green and dry food for
sheep, he buys in bis forward ewes and wethers for
fattening. The ewes are commonly those of the
Dorset or Wiltshire breeds, which begin lambing
about tbe end of November ; and the wethers are
mostly Southdowns, if the land be of middling
quality ; or Lincolns or new Leicesters, if the
pasturage be plentiful and richi

Sheep have a good deal of attention bestowed upon
them at all seasons. The shepherd is generally a
steady and trusty servant, and well acquainted with
his business and charge. He acts as physician, sur-
geon, and butcher to tbe flock, shears and winds the
wool, all which he attends to with the assistance of a
boy and a dog. Sheep-shearing generally takes place
about the beginning of June. In most parishes
there is a gang of men called shearers, who on ap-
pointed days go from farm to farm, washing and
shearing tbe flocks. Tbey are paid at tbe rate of
about three shillings and sixpence per score, with
victuals and drink, ending with an abundant supper,
of which tbe other men on the farm, together with
their wives and families, are invited to partake. It
is a rural festival, and looked forward to and par-
taken of with high glee.

On some Isrge farms the business of suckling
house lambs is a laborious and important part of the
shepherd's duty. For this purpose a large commo-
dious lamb-bouse is erected, and near it an enclosed
yard surrounded by low sheds containing racks for
hay and green meat, and troughs for brewer's grains
for the ewes when their pastures are short. The
floor of the lamb-bouse is divided into several com-
partments for the convenience of keeping the difi'er-
ent classes of lambs apart, and also for keeping the
unsucked ewes from among those which have been
already sucked. Tbe most forward part of tbe ewes
begin dropping their lambs at iNIichaelmas, and are
kept in a pasture during the day, until half a score
or a score are dropped, when they are boused on
nights, and from which the lambs arc never allowed
to come out till they are lit for market. At s\s.
o'clock in tbe morning of the day after tbe lambs are
confined, their mothers are let out into tbe pastures;
and at eight o'clock, if there be any ewes which
have lost their lambs, these are brought into the
lamb-house, and held by the head till the lambs by
turns suck them dry. At twelve tbe mothers are
brought in (o their own lambs, and remain with
them for an hour, when they are again let out to
graze in the pasture. At four afternoon tbe ewes

having no lambs are again brought in to be held and
sucked dry, and at eight the mothers are let in and
pass the night with their lambs.

This mode of suckling is continued from year to
year, the fat lambs being sentoff as soon as ready, say
in about two months, and other ewes and lambs
taken in, so that the lambs are always proportioned
to the quantity of milk. Tiio price of house lamb
varies fr..m two to four guineas each, and in the
early spring, with good luck, it is a very profitable
business. Aluch depends on the conveniences of
buildings, pastures, &c., and on tbe skill and assi-
duity of the sliepherd in fattening house lamb, in
keeping the lambs healthy, and the ewes unex-
hausted by their wasting exercise-
While tlie lambs are confined, they are allowed
chalk to lick, both solid and in powder, in order to
prevent looseness and fever, and their house must
be always well littered with wheat-straw. They
are fond of having little bundles of the same to
nibble, soiKe little of which they eat; this, how-
ever, is more to amuse them than for anything else.
House lambs are neither castrated nor docked.

The business of fattening house lambs can only
be profitably carried on within a moderate distance
of London, or of fashionable watering-places.
Clieltenham is famous for l)Ouse lamb, and the
London market is mostly supplied from JMiddlesex
and the adjoining counties of Essex, Hertford,
Buckingham and Berks.

Proceeding with the routine of the five-shift
course, and keeping to the same field, the turnip
ground is begun to be prepared for barley and
seeds as soon as a sufiicient portion is cleared. This
is executed as follows : — The furrows (into which
an undue portion of the tail dress has collected
during the folding) are first opened out to scatter
the droppings more ecjually, and that they should
not be too deeply covered by the plough. The
ploughing is thea begun, but with a very shallow
furrow. Four inches is considered quite deep
enough, and for this reason, the tail dr-ss is all on
the surface; and were this buried too deep, neither
the barley nor seeds would receive that excitement
in the first stage of their life which this dress is
so well calculated to give, and, therefore, shallow
ploughing is preferred. If the soil by this first
ploughing turns up sufficiently dry and pulverized,
the barley, two-and-a-half or three bushels to the
acre, is sown broadcast, one cast before the first
tine of the harrows, and one cast after or behind
the harrows. A tine of the harrows, is going once
in a place, a bout is twice in a place, reversing the
movement. If the soil turns up cloddy, and can-
not be reduced by harrows and roller to a perfectly
fine state, it is ploughed agrJn and again till the
necessary fineness is obtained, for neither barley
nor seeds prosper unless both rise simultaneously.
The barley being sown and rolled down, the
grass-seeds are sown also broadcast as equally as
possible. This is done either by what is called
2)inc7ihit/, orhy r/ripivr/. The first is by taking up
as much seed as can be held between the thumb
and two fore-fingprs cf the right hand united, and
jerking it forcibly here and there at every fall of
the left foot, and not thrown downwards, but ob-
liquely up in the air, that it may he better scattered.
By griping, the hand is filled with all the fingers
close, the thumb used as a lid is raised at every
fall of the left foot, and here and there as before.
Each land or half-land is sown twice over, once
down and once up ; and if two sowers be employed,
they shift places at every turn. The seeds are

48

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

next tined-iii, and the whole is again rolled
smooth.

The proportions of seeds for an acre, are 61bs,
broad clover, 21bs. Dutch clover, '21bs. j-ellow
clover, and 3 half-pecks of rye-grass, all intimately
mixed together. Sometimes lOlbs. of broad clover
only are sown to the acre, and the next; time the
same field is similarly cultivated, the broad clover
is entirely omitted, the yellow and Dutch in
greater quantities being substituted. Sometimes
the common rye- grass is only sown when it is in-
tended to be thrashed for seed, or made into liay,
it being for either rack or manger meat the
heartiest of all other hay, if welt and quickly got
up, and not put into large ricks, for it beats
violentl}-.

Broad clover hay well got np is highly valued,
either for the rack, or cut into cbaff for the manger.
Brewers use it chiefly for their highly pampered
horses, but prefer that which has been sown very
thickly, because it being of weaker growth, is
easier drawn through the rounds of the rack by the
horses, than that which is grown thinly ; the
stems in the latter case being so very sub-
stantial and rigid, though when cut into chaff,
is little inferior to corn for working-horse keep.

During the growth of the barley, it requires but
little attention, no weeding being requisite; when
fully ripe, which happens between nine to twelve
weeks from the time of sowing, and when the ears
arc bent down, it is ready for the scythe, though
no corn can stand longer without damage than
barley. The earliest sown always turns" out the
heaviest in hand, consequently, fetches the highest
price if not discoloured.

Barley is generally ripe in the month of August.
It is mown with scythe and bow (a slender tough
rod having one end fixed to the heel of the scythe,
and the other end brought up in a bow and tied to
the middle) across the lands if the wind permits,
or as nearly so as possible. Laying the swathes
across, renders raking-in easy and regular, two
lands being raked towards the central furrow,
which is left clear and open for the carriage and
horses to pass along in loading. As the barley-
land is perfectly smooth, the scythe clears off every
particle of the straw, as well as the clover which
has sprang up along with it. This sometimes
forms a considerable portion of the swathe, and if
show ery weather sets in, retards the drying of the
barley, and often renders the grain dark in colour,
wiiich is a certain loss, for it cannot be too bright
in colour for malting. To gain this property it
should be bleached in the field after it is cut, by
turning it to the light of the sun, two or three
times before it is ricked, or carried to the barn.

Carrying barley in good condition is a desirable
afiair, and many farmers run the swathes into
wads to be immediately taken up, leaving the
rakiugs to begot together afteri\'ards by the horse
or heel rake. Barley straw, especially when mixed
with clover, is excellent fodder for store beasts in
the yards in winter.

Almost every farm has a barley-barn, into
which no other kind of corn is ever admitted, for
no kind of grain is so seriously deteriorated by
admixture with other kinds as is that of barley in-
tended for the maltster ; a single oat in a sack will
frighten away the most eager purchaser. Cockles,
so often seen in barley, are not half so much
dreaded in the sample as any kind of corn ; be-
sides the seeds of ibis weed are easily riddled out
by a properly construetcd brass wire sieve. Bar-

ley is thrashed either by the machine or flail, and
is cleaned up for market with very great care. A
good sanijjle should be bright in colour, round in
shape, with a wrinkled skin, and in weight, per
bushel, nearly ap])roaching that of wheat. From
four to five quarters to the acre is called a good crop.
Mowing costs about three shillings and sixpence
])er acre, more or less, according to the thickness
or quantity of clover on the crop. The barley
stubble is lightly depastured with sheep during the
autumn and winter, but withdrawn eirly in
spring.

Some farmers who wish for a heavy growth of
clover, and a moderate growth of the succeeding
crop of wheat, give their young clover a dressing
of dung, if to spare, if not, a dressing of coal-
ashe«, carted on and spread during the frost of
winter. Tliis certainly brings a heavy swathe,
both at the first and second cuttings of clover, and
being partly exhausted is not so apt to cause a too
rank crop of wheat, which circumstances requires
to be guarded against on land in high condition.

The young clover is cleared of stones or other
matters in the spring, rolled down, and shut up
for good about the 20th March. It is usually
ready for the scythe about the 20th June, sooner
(0 later according to the warmth of the season.
The rule is to cut when the clover is in fullest
bloom, and if rye-grass be among it, when this
last is in flower. Clover-hay is soon made if the
weather be favourable ; shaking u[) the butts of
the swathe in the second .day, and turning thern
on the third, in such way as that the whole leaves
and stalks are partly withered, it will be fit to
carry on the fifth day, if the swathes have been
carefully opened to admit sun and Mind. When
properly made, it should remain of a pale green
colour, and secured in small rather than in laige
ricks, lest it should heat too much, and so injure
both colour and quality. But a moderate degree
of heating in the rick is absolutely necessary, lor
unless this takes place, the hay is little better than
straw. This circumstance is not attended to so
much as it should he. Timid or indolent farmers
often allow their clover as well as mcadowhay to
lie too long in the field, both in swathes or in
cocks, before it is ricked, and though hay may be
carried too soon from not being withered enough,
or carried too soon after rain, yet in either case,
there is more ha}' spoiled by being taken up too
late than too soon. A fermentation from the sac-
charine quality of the hay, renders it particularly
palatable, as well as nourishing to cattle, and is a
very different thing from a heating occai-ioned by
too much moisture. When the first crop is carried,
and which nsuallj'' amounts to a ton or a ton and a
half to the acre, it is determined whether the field
shall be shut up for a second crop, or whether it
shall he depastured. Some people, and especially
amateur farmers and landlords, imagine it a down-
right robbery of the riches of the land to remove
two crops of clover in the same summer. But this,
like all other theoretical ideas, is a silly mistake.
All land in this country is much impoverished by
exposure to the summer sun ; but if constantly
shaded, even by the heaviest green croj), it is but
little deteriorated, as the succeeding crop of wheat
fully and visibly proves. It is thought that, if the
second crop be depastured, although by browsing
off the heibage the surface becomes exposed, yet, f
the taildress left by the sheep makes iq) for the
humid riches exhaled by the sun. But this is
never seen unless it happens to be a dripping

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

49

Minimer, when very little (lift'erencc can be oli-
scrvcd ill the wheat, whether grown on the once
or twice mown lea. The second cro]) turns out
about one ton to the acre, is interior to the first
crop in quality, and is generally cut into chatf for
the stable.

(To he ctinlinued.)

SIX LETTERS on the CURRENCY.

No. IV.

By a countryman.

"Hie vivimus ambitiosa,
Paupcrtate omnes."— Juv. Sat. iii., 182.

" The face of wealth in poverty «c wear."

TO THK EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Silt, — I Lave previously alluded to a letter wriiten
by the lale Sir Robert Peel, in 1826, to the two
Ileuses of Farliainent, and I will now make a fur-
ther quotation from it. He says — " Having been
long' and extensively engaged in commercial deal-
ings, 1 often witnessed a national embarrassment
arising from a defective and impure currency, which
resembled the present stagnation in trade ; and I
lament to observe that suffering and experience have
failed in this instance of producing their usual good
effects. In the enlarged scale of business carried on
by this country, embracing a great variety of pur-
suits, a reli;mce on a metallic circulation alone eier
did, and ct'flr will, fail us. Gold, though in itself
massy, often disappears in consequence of war or
speculation ; nay, the breath of rumour itself is
sufficient to disperse it. Our domestic concerns are
interrupted, and confidence lost, for want of an
ample and approved medium of traffic." In con-
firmation of tiie latter part of the above extract, I may
observe that, in consequence of the agitation at the
time the Reform Dill was carried, in 18.S2, tiiere was a
slight run upon the bank for gold, who paid away on
the Itth of May, in that year, 300,000 sovereigns.
In addition to the foregoing, I will here introduce
another high authority on this question, whoso
opinions are well entitled to attention — T allude to
the late Mr. Huskisson, who, in a discussion on the
corn laws, in 1826, says — " In considering the ob-
ject now before the House, it would be impossible
to legislate wisely, unless the cuvrencii, in which nre
the soul and elements of prices, should liave been first
disposed of ; and this reason, not less forcibly than
others, convinces me that the present period is
wholly unfitted for the discussion." Altermaking the
above quotation in his late pamphlet, ]\Ir. Enderby
says — " From these remarks, we have a ri.'ht to
assume that, notwithstanding the passing of the
Currency Bill of 18 19, Mr. Huskisson was far from
being satisfied that Parliament had arrived at a right
conclusion." Some persons have endeavoured to
throw much stigma upon the private countrv bankers,
with respect to their issues not being regulated by
the slate of the foreign exchanges (with which, by
the bye, they have about as much connection as
with the twelve signs of the Zodiac) ; but this subject
' has been so ably handled, and Mr. Samuel Jones
; Loyd's notions so completely controverted by \V .
B. Brodie, Esq., M.P. for Salisbury (and a banker in
thai city), in a pamphlet published in 1840, in the
shape of a letter to Sir Robert Peel, that I cannot do
I better than refer the reader to that document. He

estimates the issues of the country bankers at
11, 2.10,000/.; and Mr. Lealham reckons the number
of bankets in 1840 to be 1179, as under ; —

English Bankers 697

Scotch „ 262

Welch , 66

Irish , 154

In order to shew the great regularity of the coun-
try circulation, I will give the amount for the whole
count}' of Oxford, in December of each year from
1833 to 1840 (both inclusive), with the exception of
1840, in which the return is made in September, and
also the same particulars for the county of Es!»ex,
bdth purely agricultural counties (nine-tenihs of the
country circulation being confined to the several
agricultural counties of England and Wales) : —

OXFORDSHIRE.

1833.

1834.

1835.

18.36.

18.37.

1838.

1839.

1840.

204000

204000

212000

214000

203000

237000

227000

210000

ESSEX.

V2IJ00U0

208000

199000

219000 224000

265000

2U0OO0

239000

It may be as well to remark, that the above returns
are niade at a period of the year when they are
usually at the highest point ; the same returns for
July or August would probably shew a diminution
from the above amounts of several thousands. It is
a well-known fact to persons at all acquainted with
countrv banking, that there can be no over-issues, as
any attempt to do so would be fruitless, as the notes,
if attempted to be put into circulation beyond the
immediate locality of the bank from whence they
are isued, would be returned directly, either through
the London banks (where payable), or through some
neighbouring bank. The amount of a banker's cir-
culation is regulated principally h)' the prices of
corn and cattle ; if they rise in price, so does the
banker's circulation ; and if they J'afl, so does the
circulation. It seems almost incredible that so much
ignorance should exist as to the nature of country
banking amongst men of the highest standing, and
engaged in the most extensive mercantile concerns in
London ; in confirmation of which, I will refer to an
extraordinary fact stated by ]\Ir. Leatham, in his pam-
pldet,which was,"ihat a bank director of high standing,
who was also an eminent Russian merchant in London,
actually wrote down to him at AVakefield, to enquire
if countr)' bankers' notes circulated by endorsement
from hand to hand, similar to a bill of exchange !"
In my last letter I alluded to the panic of 1825-6,
which i)roduced such disasters through the whole
extent of the country ; and in connection with it
I v\ ill mention "one fact" which has recently come
to my knowledge, and which is said to be " worth a
thousand arguments," as shewing the dreadfully
ruinous effects of these periodical convul-.ions. An
honest, industrious man (well known to my infor-
mant) had accumulated a sum of 2000/., and a little
before the occurrence above alludetl to, he purchased
a small estate for 4000/., took up 2000/. on mortgage,
and with his own 2000/. completed the purchase.
The panic came on : the mortgagee required his
money, which the poor man was unable to pay ;
neither could he, at sucli a time, borrow it elsewhere,
nor sell the estate for more than half he had given
for it ; the consequence was, the mortgagee took it
for his debt ; the poor man was ruined, and obliged

■>0

TliK I'AIUMELl'S WACAZINE.

to bGcomc a da>i liihoiiiry,u\ whicli slate liy now con-
tinues, jnil thus reduced from a state of cojni'ort to
one of beggary, from circumstances over whicli lie
lirtd 7)0 control. This is only one amongst thousands
of instances which might donbtloss be brought for-
ward of a similar chaiacler.

T am, sir, yours respectfullv,

'Nov. ^6lk, 1842. " A COUNTRYMAX.

No. V.

SlE, — Notwitlistauding the "glorious news"
from the East, of the cessation of hostilities with
China and Aftghanistan, and the wide field for
commercial enterprise opened with the former
country, with its immense popidatloii, of nearly
four Imndred millions, rest assured wc shall not
reap a tithe of the great benefit and advantages
we otherwise should do, by the treaty witli the
" Celestial Emperor," unless our money laics are
at the same time altered, and the springs of in-
dustry once more loosened ; but if her Majesty's
minister am be prevailed iqwn to do this, then we
may reasonahly look forward once more to that
state of prosperity and comfort to which we have
so long been strangers. I have been much inte-
rested in perusing a small pamphlet, published in
1840, by Joali Mallinson, a manufacturer at Leeds,
entitled " A Letter to Merchants, Manufacturers,
and Operatives, suggested by the enquiries more
frequently made than answered — ' What is the
Cause of our Present Distress ? ' ?,nd ' What Avill
become of our Commerce, our Manufactures, and
our Work-people V " The following are some of
the facts, or fundamental principles, as recognised
by the author : —

1st. — That wealth is composed of industry, im-
pressible on all propertj', as lands, houses,
fisheries, cattle, hemp, wool, cloth, corn, ship-
ping, &c., &c.
'2nd. — That the power of creating wealth (com-
modities) infinitely exceeds the power of creat-
ing gold and silver, oi fixed denominations, to
represent and diffuse such commodities.
3rd. — That a gold and silver (metallic) standard
is with ourselves purely arbitrary and conven-
tional— as beads, tobacco, bits of cloth, or
shells, arc so with others.
4th. — That industr]/ and capital are both legally
and justly entitled to fair remuneration, in
order that taxes may be paid, as they ought to
be, out of profit, and not out of capital.
oth. — That money (purely considered as such) is
a l)are conventional representation, or sign of
xcealtli — the oil of the machine, the channel of
comfort, &c.
Gth. — That money is necessarily and usefully de-
preciated by taxation.
7 th. — That a highly-taxed community requires,
and can neither prosper nor pay taxes without,
a depreciated or expanded currency ; more
money being always required to represent
commodities which are taxed than if not taxed
at all.
8th. — That "price'' over depends very greatly
upon the quantity of circulating medium that
can be encouraged to exist, by means of a
healthful state of credit.

He goes on to say — in reply to his own question
as to the cause of the distress, whether it is attri-
butable to the corn laws or not — " The great ques-
tion by which the cotmtry is at present agitated, is

the repeal of our corn lawn, the advocates for
which are both nuuicrous and respectable ; and it
is due to many of them to add, perfectly honest in
their intentions, desiring thereby to promote trade,
and alleviate the existing distress. Who can, for a
moment, doubt the sincerity of Earl Fitzwilliam,
himself an extensive land pi'oprietor, in advocating
their repeal ? His motive can be none otherwise
than pure ; and one might be led to presume also,
that a ])erson of his lordship's intelligent mind had
carefully studied the question in all its bearings.
Other persons, however, equally honest, and as
sincerely desirous of obtaining relief as his lord-
ship, and who look upon the corn laws abstractedly
as a great evil, entertain very strong grounds of ob-
jection to their u7icondltional repeal — i. e., unless
other essentially necessary measures (viz., an ex-
j)ansion of the currency, by a renewal of the Bank
Restriction Act of 1797, a regraduatlon of our
metallic standard, and a reduction of all existing
burthens) be carried at one and the same time ;
hence the importance, and even complexity, of this
great question — Avhich ought to be judged of not
separately from, but in conjunction with, those of
the currency and taxation.

Let us go back to first principles (for it is well
sometimes to begin at the beginning), and ask if
those who pay taxes ought not to be protected in
such interests as will enable them to pay those
taxes. The answer must necessarily be in the affir-
mative. W^ell, then, the true basis of the corn laws
is to enable the agriculturists to pay their portiou
(say one-half) of the national burthens. Hence
their protective principle ; for it were worse than
Egyptian cruelty to place them (the agriculturists)
on a par, as to price, with untaxed foreigners, without
granting tliem at the same time a corresponding re-
duction in their burthens. Would these foreigners
accept of honourable terms of national co-partner-
ship, and take their share of our taxes and other
burthens, incurred to a great extent by subsidies to
them to fight their own battles ? I think not ; and
therefore they are not entitled to send their produce
to us unconditionally. Moreover, if it be a fact —
and it is usually stated as such — that above four-
fifths of our manufiiictures arc consumed by our
home trade, is it not a legitimate argument, in be-
half of the agricultural interests, that a measure
tending to their injury (and as a necessary conse-
quence to the injury of that important portion of
our trade, inasmuch as it would recoil back, and
that speedily, with a multiplied force, upon the
manufacturing interests), would be impolitic and
dangerous ? Mvl it were mere infatuation to be-
lieve that suclr injury would be compensated by a
great additioiial foreign trade : it is, in my humble
opinion, contrary to both reason and the nature of
things. That foreign states would supply us pleu-
tifully with their corn, there can be no doubt, so
long as they got paid for it ; but, with the exception
of America, little reliance could be jilaced on them
to take our goods in return.

That the total repeal of the corn laws would yield
to the exporting manufacturers temporary relief,
and enable America to pay off part of the debt
which she owes to them, may be admitted ; but the
result of such repeal, unaccompanied by the adop-
tion of those other measures before alluded to,
would be inevitable ruin to thousands and tens of
thousands of all classes connected with the land,
and be followed by aggravated sufferings of all
other classes, beyond the present moment, in a ten-

TIJK FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

51

fvltl fIcgKO. But, again, in oriltT tlial wc may de-
cide this ]ioiiit correctly, let lis look at America :
there they have no corn protective laws — there
they had, in 1839, as abundant a harvest as tlicy
were ever blest with — there tlicy had commerce,
and found the means to rebuild their fire-destroyed
city (New York) only a tew years since, and to pro-
ject railroads and other improvements to an almost
unlimited extent. But what is their present con-
dition ? Just the reverse of what it was only a
very short time ago — without credit, their com-
merce languid, their improvements suspended, their
stores " to let,'' and all but in absolute ruin ; and
l»erhaps that also awaiting them. Theii- corn laws
— for tiiej' have none — cannot be the cause of their
flistrcssj hut their circumstances press heavily, and
with increasing weight, upon the country, especi-
ally npoQ the exporting manufacturers : there will,
be little or no trade with them this year, and less
than heretofore for some years to come : confidence
is fled, and it is only by a course of the most prudent
proceeding, both on their part and ouis, that we
can be extricated from our perilous condition. In
the meantime our commerce is suffering, and we
repeat our enquiries — " "What is the grand cause of
our distress ? " and '' What will become of our
commerce, our manufactures, and our work-
people ? "

The foregoing remarks are so judiciously made,
so temperately written, and so much in accordance
with my own views on the subject, that at the risk
of tiring the i>atience of my readers, and trespas-
sing upon the columns of j-our valuable paper, I
have made much longer extracts than I at first in-
tended ; but I cannot well conclude my letter with-
out answering the above query in the words of the
author : " A crippled and inadequate legal cur-
rency, taken in conjunction with enormous taxa-
tion." He further remarks — " The currency laws
of America have laid her energies prostrate ; turned
' one of the finest and most rapidly-thriving coun-
tries on the face of the earth' suddenly from a state
of high prosperity, comfort, and contentment, into
that of ruin, of misery, and universal distrust ; "
affected the general commerce between the two
countries, En^^laud arid America, whose interests
are bound up together ; and with ourselves also
the main evil will be found in our present currency
laws, professing (and, as far as they are carried out,
compelling us) to pay money of sterling gold value,
which is an absolute impossibility, the relative
amount of the precious metals to the entire pro-
perty of the kingdom being only in the ratio of
about 1 per cent., and hence these absurd laws ex-
pose the whole community to the most terrific risks.
What is it, permit me to ask, which shackles the
operation of our banking system ? Is it not these
very currency laws? And if so, it is perfectly use-
less, therefore, to accuse either the Bank of Eng-
land or other banks, as some people do, of want of
liberaUty, and disregarding sound principle ; for
the principle of self-preservation conqjeU them to
act with the greatest precaution, inasmuch as, in
\ the event of a panic, they are the first to feel its
, cfiects— and the greater the amount of their issues,
' the greater the danger. Business and bankers,
however, are so blended up together, that in times
of prosperity, either real or apparent, the latter are
induced to afford to their customers all the assist-
ance they prudently can ; and in too many in-
stances, no doubt, joint-stock banks, in order to
procure a business, have encouraged speculation,

and so far exceeded the rule of prudence as to in-
jure or ruin themselves. \Vha(, I ask again, is the
result (and I put the question pointedly to our
merchants and manufacturers, who will very well
understand it) of our banking system being thus
shackled ? Periodical panics — loss of credit and
confidence — annihilation of hard-earned property —
bankruptcies — and starvation of our poor. And
what will be the sad sequel of these distressing
circumstances ? I answer, the first act of the
tragedy is before our eyes daily — a sight too painful
to witness : our operatives and aged men either
sweeping our streets in droves, as paupers (I both
pity and respect them), or begging their pittance
of bread from door to door — starving, as some of
them feelingly remark, in the midst of plenty.
But this is nothing, compared to the distress and
sorrow and suffering which are behind the scene,
accumulating every day and every hour (brooding
discontent and rebellion), and presenting to our
imaginations such a dark picture of the last acts of
the tragedy (unless a kind and gracious Providence
iuterfere in our behalf), as to appal the stoutest
hearts, and drive them from the shores of England,
that they may not behold the sad spectacle." Ear-
nestly recommending the httle work from which I
have made such copious extracts, to the attentive
perusal of the members of the Anti-Corn Law
League ; and, hoping it may have the effect of in-
ducing them to acjitatc for a repeal of the currency
instead of, or in conjuction with, the corn laws, I
remain, sir, yours respectfully,

Dec. 3. A COUNTRYJIAN.

No. VI.

Sir, — Ininy preceding letters I have endeavoured
to prove that much of the distress and commercial
embarrassment which have at various times afflicted
this nation during the last twenty years, have arisen
from our present system of currency, by having a
gold standard at a fi.ved instead of a fiuctuatiny
price ; and I find the following remarks on this
subject in a pawiphlet, written by Mr. Enderby iix
1837, entitled " Metallic Currency the cause of the
Money Crises in England and America." " It is
evident that the bank of England approve of the
foundation on which our monetary system is based,
viz., that gold should be the standard of value at
Zl. 17s. lO^d. per oz., and that all paper money
should be payable in that metal when demanded.
I grant they are by no means singular in this
opinion, for they have the majority of the nation
with them ; but it should not be forgotten that the
arguments adduced in its favourhave not been such
as to convince foreigners of the correctness of the
measure, for with the exception of the United States
of America (where it has been made a joint standard
with silver), 7io country save our own has fixed gold
as its standard."

I am glad to find by a "feeler" put forth in the
city article of the Times a few days ago, in the fol-
lowing terms — that Sir Robert Peel and his col-
leagues have it in contemplation to introduce some
important measure for the settlement of the " cur-
rency question ;" and I earnestly hope they may-
have the good sense to take the right course, or I
greatly fear " perilous times" are at hand, as there
is a point when the 2}''essure upon the productive
and industrious classes will become^w*^ e?idurance,
and which from present appearances cannot be far
distant J then woe be to our national debt of eigUt

E 2

52

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

lumdrerl millions ! for it is vtterly impossible tlic
enor/noui- aiiioitnt of our taxes can be paid, unless
the currency is exi)anded sufficiently to enable tlie
country to bear such heavy burdens. " An opinion
prevails pretty extensively among the monied in-
terest in the city that the approaching session of
Pailianient will bring forth some sweeping measure
for the final settlement of the currency question,
and for giving the best protection to the public that
the case M'ill admit, in regard to banking af-
fairs generally. This opinion is founded on a va-
riety of causes, but more especially these — that the
present system worlis as badly as possible ; that an
abundance of materials for a reform have been pro-
vided by the enquiries of various committees of
Parliament; that the Bank charter is at the dis-
posal of the government for an early termination,
if it is thought prudent to exercise that right ; and
finally, that Sir Robert Peel and his Ministry, being
relieved from all foreign embarrassments, will
possess the leisure and the ability to settle these
perplexing questions. The present charter of the
Eank of England dates from the 1st of August,
1834, and is for twenty-one years, but gives, by the
r)th clause, an option to the Government of putting
an end to the charter upon giving one year's notice
within six months after the expiration of ten years
fi'om the above d-ate ; and the charter might, conse-
quently, be reclaimed early in the year 1846; if
that period is passed over, the charter will go on to
the full term, expiring in 1855; after which, if no
new charter is entered into, the exclusive privileges
may be terminated at any time by giving a year's
notice. The concurrence of the Bank itself in any
new measure to be introduced is not impossible, as
means might be found to make it acceptable to that
corporation ; but the moi'c probable issue is, that
the Government would have opposition to encoun-
ter from that quarter, and therefore it will be wise
to be prepared for the worst that may happen, by
as early a commencement of operations as possible.
It will be at once courteous to the Bank and bene-
ficial to the jjublic to disclose, as soon as possible,
any policy that may be adopted towards that in-
stitution. The great objects which men of business
would desire to see attained are — such a regulation
of the currency as will prevent it ever being greatly
in excess or deficient in amount, and to make it
uniform in its character all over the United King-
dom.'" The following is an extract from a private
letter, written by an extensive iron master in Staf-
fordshire, a short time ago, in allusion to this im-
portant question : — " I believe that all the attempts
now making to save the nation will be fruitless,
unless the currency is put right at tlie same time. I
mean that the taxes cannot be paid, and the poor
man have employment with a gold standard as it
is at present." It may not be amiss here to cor-
rect an erroneous impression that seems very gene-
rally to prevail, that because money has been, and
still continues so abundant, in London, that the cur-
rency is expanded too mtich ; but the fact is, although
so plentiful in London, it is quite the reverse in the
country, and almost universal comjilaints prevail of
its scarcity in the various channels of trade and
commerce : as is a plethoric subject with a flow of
blood to the head (which ought to be circulating
through the body) so it is with money. The pe-
riodical panics an'l convulsions to which wo have
been so frc(iuently subjected since 181!), have
spread such ruin and dismay amongst caj)italists,
that they prefer employing their money in London
at 2 or 2i per cent., to embarking it in aiiy com-

mercial transactions; dcar-boaght experience having
taught many of lluMii that under owr present system
of currency, we are constantly subjected to a drain
for the precious metals, whenever the exchanges be-
come adverse to us, and to correct which the Bank
is compelled (in self defence) to co7itract ita circula-
tion, and thus loiccr the prices of all kinds oi mer-
chandize.

The remedies I have to propose for the removal
of the evils which luive so long afflicted us are the
following : — In the first place I would withdraw all
the gold now in circulation in sovereigns and half
sovereigns (and which, by the bye, would be gladly
dispensed with from the harassment, loss, and an-
noyance to which the holders have been for some
months subjected in consequence of the proclama-
tion issued as to their light weight) ; and I would
also call in all the 1/. notes in circulation in Ireland
and Scotland (which should be done gradually, by
issuing no more stamps), and in future have an
uniform circulation throughout the three kingdoms
instead of (as of late years has been the case) gold
in England, and 1/. notes in Scotland and Ireland.
I would recommend the vacancy to be sujiplied by
an issue of \l. notes by the government (or by the
Bank of England on its behalf), and which should
be payable equally with Bank of England notes for
all government taxes, excise, &c., &c. ; and in Lon-
don they should be payable either in gold or silver,
at the ojition of the liolders ; the gold to be taken at
the market price of the day, which should be fixed
by a committee of bullion merchants, and published
periodically in the London Gazette. 1 find tlie
price of gold from 1801 to 1819, generally varied
from 41. to i>l. per oz. (never under 4L), and in
1813 and 1814 was as high as al. Is. and 5/. 4s. per
oz. This would e^t'c^»ffW^ put a stop to the panics eunX
commercial convulsions caused by a drain for gold,
in case of an ftfifer^e state of the exchanges, when-
ever extensive importations of foreign corn take
place ; the price rislnrj at home, as well as at Paris
and Hamburg, and consequently making it more
profitable to export our manufactured goods instead
of gold. But even were it required, the bank would
always have an abundant supply, if the amount
now in circulation, in addition to its present stock,
were deposited in its coffers. I would next pre-
vent the great fluctuations in the value of money
at the bank, by restricting them for ever charging
more than .5 per cent., or less than 4 for discounts
and loans.

It is a well known fact that in 1839, whilst they
were charging six per cent, in London, they were
at the very same time discounting at three per cent,
for certain Joint Stock Banks who issued their notes.
As a precedent for this I may observe that the
Bank of France is compelled by a clause in her
charter not to discount at a higher rate than four
per cent., and has made a law for her own govern-
ment not to discount or make quarterlj' advances
below four per cent. The additional increase to
our paper circulation in the shape of one pound notes
would be but as " a drop in the bucket" when we
consider that the total annual produce of the soil
alone in this country is estimated at two hundred
millions pound (wheat constituting eightv-five
million pounds- of it) estimating the quantity at
twenty-Jive millions of quarters, and the price to
average G8s. the quarter. In addition to the fore-
going alterations I would suggest that something
like the following plan should be adopted, which
was proposed to the select committee of the House
of Commons in 1822, viz., " The application of one

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

53

million of Exchequer Bills to be employed through
the agency of government in buying up a certain
quantity of Britisli wheat to be placed in store."
I would recommend that in years when we have an
abundant harvest, and wlieat is reduced as low as 40s.
or4.js. per quarter, tliat government should advance
loans (tlirongh the Exchequer Loan Commissioners)
as was the case to tlic difl'erent poor law unions for
building tlieir poor liouses ; such advances to bo
made to the guardians of each union for the time
being (the union being responsible) in the purchase
of wheat to be placed in store, and whenever tlie
price i"ose to a certain sum, to be agreed upon, tlie
wheat to be brought out and sold, and the money
borrowed be repaid to the Excl)C(|uer Loan Com-
missioners with interest at four per cent. By these
means the farmer would be protected in years of
great abundance by finding a ready purchaser, and
in time of scarcity the poor would be benefited by
having the price kept down at a moderate amount
by the wheat in store being thrown upon the mar-
ket; it would also prevent our depending so much
upon foreign countries for a supply of the first ne-
cessary of life, and the parishes would also be re-
lieved from their poor-rates (to a certain extent)
by the profit on the wheat brought to market, and
just at a time too when they would otherwise
(from the high price of provisions) press heavily
upon them. In addition to all these advantages
the money would be advanced by government
under the most favourable circumstances as regards
the foreign exchanges, and would be repaid to them
at the very time tluy were adverse, and a con-
traction of tlie circulation miglit be thought de-
sirable. I also think considerable advantage would
arise by converting some portion of our public debt
into bonds, with coupons attaclied, for the divi-
dends, and payable at the various continental
cities, and to be used as a medium for regulating
the exchanges instead of gold, but my limits will
not allow of my enlarging upon this subject at the
present time.

After maturely considering these various sug-
gestions, I am decidedly ofoiiinion that if carried
out, we shall hear no more of Chartism, of
Socialism, of Wliiggism, of Radicalism, nor any
other ism. We sliould neither have occasion to send
out our population to New Zealand, to South
Australia, to Van Diemcn's Land, to Canada, or
elsewhere, but they would find plenty of emjjloy-
ment and good wages in their native land, and in-
stead of ministers devising all kinds of schemes to
raise the taxes of the country sufiicient to meet its
expenditure, the amount might bo readily raised,
and cheerfully paid, and the ubnoxlous income-tax
repealed, and we should have tlie happiness of
seeing our distressed country again restored to
prosperity and conrfort, and answering the vivid
description of the poet, who designates it as

" A lovely sjiot
For all that life can as-k,
Salubrious, mild ; its, hills are green,
Its meadows fertile, and to crown the whole
In one delighllul «ord, it is our iiorne,
Our native isle."

I beg, in conclusion, to return you my best
thanks, Jlr. Editor, for allowing me to trespass so
largely on your columns, and remain, yours respect-
full.v, A Countryman.

TESTIMONIAL TO W. SHAW, Esq.,

A Member of the Council op the " Royai. Ackicui.-
TUUAL Society," and Managing Director or the
" Farmers' Fire and Life Insurance Institution."

On Thursday, Dec. 8, a dinner of the subscribers
took pl.ice at the London Coffee-house, Ludgate-hill,
for the purjiose of presenting to William Shaw, Esq.
(late Secretary to, and one of the original promoters of,
llie Roval Agricultural Society of England, Editor of
the " Farmer's Magazine," &c.), " a public acknow-
ledgment from the Agriculturists of tbe United
Kingdom to that gentleman, for tbe zeal, the energy,
the talent, and the success, with which he Las long
laboured in the behalf of the science of agriculture,
and in su|)port of every effort for the diffusion of
knowledge amongst the cultivators of the soil." The
number of sub;jcribers was upwards of 500, and
amongst them were the names of the Dukes of
Iliclimoiid, Pvutliind, and Bedford; Earls Spencer,
Brownlow, Ducio, Gainsborough, St. Germains, and
'I'albot ; Maiquis of Downshire ; Viscount Camp-
deu ; Lords Leigh, I'ortman, Kayleigh, Ongle}-,
Huntingfield, Worsley, Torrington, Rodney, &c ,
&c. The testimonial consisted of a splendid silver
tea-service, a rich tureen, a beautiful cup, with a
salver bearing the following inscription: —

" Presented with other Plate

TO

WILLIAM SHAW, Esq.,

BY SEVERAL HUNDRED NOBLEMEN AND GENTLEMEN,

AS A TESTIMONY OF THE HIGH SENSE

THEY ENTERTAIN OF THE TALENTS, ZEAL, SUCCESS,

AND UNCOMPROMISING INTEGRITY

WITH WHICH HE HAS LONG LABOURED FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF THE BEST INTERESTS OF

AGRICULTURE, Dec. 8th, 1842.

There were isveral other articles, the whole
weighing about tJoO ounces. The plate was executed
by JNIessrs. Widdowson and Veale, of the Strand.
The chair was taken precisely at six o'clock by
FnANCis Pvji, l£sq., of tlie flazells, Biggleswade,
Beds. 'Jhere were in all about seventy gentlemen,
who sat down to a dinner which was served up in
a manner which did great credit to Mr. Lovegrove.
The cloth having been removed —

The Chairman proposed successively, " The
Queen," " Prince Albert and his Royal Highness
tbe Prince of Wales," and " The Queen Dowager
and the rest of the Royal Family," which were
dnuik with all tlie honours.

The Chairman tiien rose and said — It now be-
comes my duty, gentlemen, in reference to the next
toast I have the jdeasure to propose to you, to
attempt a few words at tbe commencement of my
undertaking, on the boldness with which 1 have
taken upon myself the duty I shall endeavour to dis-
charge oii this occasion. 1 have undertaken it with
some mibgivings as to my ability to express tbe
feelings I entertain towards the gentleman whose
health 1 have to propose to you (cheers). Gentle-
men, it is in order to show in some measure, how-
ever feeble, wliat a debt of gratitude the agricul-
turists of Great Britain are under to the gentleman
who sits on my right hand (cheers). It is neces-
sary for me to take a short review of the state of
agriculture of this country, not only in the present
time, but with respect to the advances that have
been made in the last half century, not only in agri-
culture itself, but tbe reform of the other great

54

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

brancbes of the industry and prosperity of.this great
country (chcovf). It is true that during a long
j>eriod of war — it is not for nie to say how long a
portion of the land in general of Great Biitain was
under the influence of this circumstance, which is
felt to this day (clieers) — during that period there
were the most tempting and high prices, called
" war prices,'' but more properly paper prices
(cheers), that for a long time governed the sale of
corn in this countr3\ It is quite unnecessary for me
to point out to you what has been the effect of those
prices, and what would be the effect if they still ob-
tained, in the peace, plenty, and happiness of this
country (cheers). Still a I'eturn to prices more like
what they have been in times of [leace would be far
preferable to those which, while they were pro-
ductive of prosperity for a time, did not enable us
to indulge in that long (liear). But, gentlemen,
■whatever may be the effect of war, or paper prices,
whatever amount of temporary prosperity they pro-
duced, there is in the future a brighter and better
state of things, which we all hail with unmingled
satisfaction, and that is the power and capability of
the soil of Great Britain (loud cheers). You will
recollect, gentlemen, under the state oi things I
Jiave alluded to, what was the position of the agri-
culture of this country with this gentleman in the
front as its champion (cheers). Agriculture may be
considered a science, a science worthy of the highest
class of intellect which this our favoured country
has produced (hear). That is the proud position
agriculture should now take (cheers), not to be cried
down as it has been, by other men, as if agricul-
turists could neither read nor write, and that all
they could do was to dig the soil, as their forefathers
before them, content with what Providence provided
from day to day and year to year (cheers). But
agriculture is a science, and should call to its aid all
those elements in science and art which have raised
commerce and manufactures to such a height as
almost to throw agriculture into the shade (cheers).
It is only by maintaining this most useful, most
ancient, and honourable science (which I may with
propriety I think call it), that this country can con-
tinue as great and as flourishing as it is at the present
time (cheers). It was said, and well said, in the hall
of Trinity College, Cambridge, at a meeting of the
Royal Agricultural Society, that " Rome was de-
stroyed by the decline of her agriculture." (Cheers).
That is a fact you will do well to attend to, and
there would be little advantage in reading the history
of those nations who have gone before us if we did
not benefit by their experience. (Hear, liear.) The
Royal Agricultural Society of England is competent
to do much to raise agriculture to the position it
ought and will attain ; and I know that it will not
only relieve those who are in necessity of advice,
but it will attempt to do what I trust it is perfectly
able to do — to allow nothing to supersede it, or pre-
vent its being established on a firm basis. ( Cheers.)
13ut there are other instruments at work, and we
are indebted to the gentleman on my right hand,
who, being the most uncompromising friend of
agriculture, makes so honourable, so able, and so
valuable an use of the instrument in his hands.
(Loud cheers.) It is to the press of this country we
are indebted. It is one of our greatest blessings
(Cheers ). It isonly through the application of science
and intelligence, and its general distribution, that we
can avoid falling into degradation, and through
which we may hope to bold up onr heads, and by
the blessing of Providence, who has blessed us with
many advantages, become the greatest nation on the

face of the earth. (Cheers). It is by taking agri-
culture as the basis of national prosperity, and by the
application of science and skill and intellect, that
we can alone keep pace with other countries, or
maintain the jjower and the position we now enjoy
in the world, and continue a flourishing and pros-
perous country. (^Clieers) 1 have lately seen a
pamphlet which tells us that all we have to do is to
take a lesson irom the agriculture of Scotland, who
holds a more exalted position with regard to her
agriculture than we do. But these are points not
necessary for me to discuss at the present moment:
it will be for my friend here to my right to use the
instruments in his power to bring forward questions
of that sort affecting agriculture before the public.
(Hear.) It is through the discussion of important
questions of this sort that agriculture can be
fairly brought forward, and I am quite sure that
while the subject is in his hands, and under his able
guidance, its full importance will he maintained
(Cheers). It was therefore under this conviction
that I readily undertook to be a co-operator, in the
position I have undertaken, iu presenting to Mr.
Shaw this handsome but ineft'ectual testimony of our
gratitude which I see before me. I hope that he
will long live in the enjoyment of the good opinion
of all friends of agriculture, and that he long may
live an useful and active member of society, acting
upon the principles which he has so ably main-
tained. (Loud cheers.) I now, in your names, beg
that he will receive this humble tribute of gratitude
which I with the most thankful and grateful feelings
present to him. I propose his health with three
times three. (The toast was drunk amid loud ap-
plause.)

Mr. SuAw rose to return thanks, and was received
with applause. He said : Mr. Chairman and Gen-
tlemen— In your cause, or in any good cause,
I trust; that neither exertion nor readiness to act,
nor perseverance will be wanting in me. But wlien
1 feel myself in the extremely awkward position of
having to treat on such a subject as that upon which
I have been called uj)on to rise, the difficulty of my
position is not a little increased on account of the
marked kindness with which you individually have
been pleased to favour me. I feel most sensibly
my utter incapacity to respond to your kindness,
and the kindness of those other gentlemen who have
been pleased to pay me this mark ot respect. 1 say
I feel utterly incompetent to at all express the
grateful feelings I entertain towards you all fClieersJ.
If from any circumstances I have chanced to be so
placed, that by means in my hand, or through any
previous information I may have obtained, I have
been at all instrumental in promoting that interest,
which has been so well and so properly described
by your chairman as the foundation of our national
prosperit)', it is to me an ample return (CheersJ.
But when I perceive that you have evinced such a
kindly feeling, expressed in the warmest manner,
and when 1 lind names in the list of gentlemen who
have thus complimented me extending from Dum-
fiies in the North to the Land's End, 1 scarcely
know how to believe that I am placed in such a proud
position. I feel, as every man must feel, that the
proudest moment of his life is this, when such a
mark of respect is paid to him by his fellow citi-
zens, and by those with whom he stands on an equal
footing in the intercourse of life (Cheers). To return
my thanks to you in the way I could wish, is wholly
out of the question. I have indeed, I must ad-
mit, done something towards creating attention,
or causing additional attention, to be directed to

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

55

agriculture (Cheers). I would not for one instant
assunie to myself anything" wliicli 1 did not think
right; but so far as regards that great Society to
which your chairman has alluded, I take credit to
myself in this, that in the year 1831, having the
means in my IianJs, I first began to agitate the ques-
tion of its establisliment, and 1 never ceased when
the opportunity offered to bring it before the public
notice, pressing it repeatedly on those who bad it in
their power to bring it forward, and ceasing not
until 1 had effectually prevailed on them to do that
wliich 1 never had the vanity to suppose I could
ever have effected singl)'. (Clieers). There is ano-
ther institution, to wliich 1 am particularly attached,
and so long as I shall have the power, I shall never
lose sight upon fitting occasions to press upon the
farmers of this country, lljat however great may be the
advantage agriculture will derive from the " union
of science with practice," in the existence of the
" Royal Agricultural Society" (cheers), that there is
no machinery that can he put in motion which will
be so effective in working out the improvement of
the mind, and in advancing the practical knowledge
of agriculture as Farmers' Clubs (Cheers). I be-
lieve their real merits are as yet but little under-
stood ; and I trust that no opportunity will be
suffered to pass, by those who have the means of
aiding the fornaation of F;irmers' Clubs, of doing all
in their power, of using their utmost exertions to
induce each to meet the other, to commune with each
other, and to confer together in the discussion of
those subjects which bear upon the practice of their
occupation ; being convinced, as I am, that immense,
that great benefit to the whole countrv may be
achieved by means of these institutions (Cheers).
It would ill become me to occupv your time, but I
cannot sit down without repeating that it is not in
my power adequately to return my thanks for this
proud public mark of your approbation. I can only
say that I hope hereafter to be grateful ; and that so
long as my eyes shall, from time to time, meet any
one of those articles you have so kindly presented to
me, it will create a fresh stimulus in me to go on still
forward ; knowing that in receiving that handsome
present I have incurred a debt (no, 7io^, wliich it
will never be in my power to repay (no, and cheers) ;
but by perseverance in endeavouring to promote
your Interest, which I hope I shall never lose sight
of so long as it shall please God to give me strength
of mind and body (Cheers.) That is the only
return I can hope to make to you for your kindness
— kindness which lias made such an impressioii on
me as will never be eradicated while I live. May
happiness and prosperity attend you and yours; and
may the cloud, which seems to hang over us just
now, pass speedily away ; and by your exertion,
your ingenuity, your talent, your industry, and your
lierseverauce in sound English principles, may not
only agriculture prosper, but this our dear native
land be placed in that high position which your
chairman has so eloquently described. (Lnud
cheering).

The CnAiioiAX next proposed "The Royal
Agricultural Society of England," coupling with it
the health of one of its distinguished members;
Colonel Le Couteur (Clieers).

Col, Le Couteur, in returning thanks for the
unexpected honour thus conferred upon him, and
the great society with which he was connected,
stated that his only object in being present on this
occasion was to join his voice in giving praise to
that gentleman who so well deserved praise, Mr.
Shaw (Cheers). Living at a distance from the

jMetropolis, he ever looked with interest for the
journal with which that gentleman is connected,
and turned over its pages with pleasure, because he
saw that every interest of this great society was
advocated. (Hear). He had watched that paper
— the Mark Lane Express — and had seen on every
occasion that Mr. Shaw had not used his power as
some portions of the press had done, for
particular purposes, but invariably for the best
interests of the country, taking all sides of a
question, and fairly placing it before the
public. — (cheers) — leaving the public to form their
own judgment thereon (Cheers). It was therefore
to liim (Col. le Couteur) most gratifying to see that
the farmers throughout the country, from the north
and the south, had come forward to present to that
gentleman the truly elegant testimonial now before
him, and he was truly happy to have been one to
join in that presentation (Cheers). In acknow-
ledging the toast on behalf of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society, it would be fulsome to speak in its
praise, because they were all before him members
of that Society, as well as hiiuselr". He rejoiced to
see this great country at peace. He confessed that
he was one ot those who looked with extraordinary
alarm a very short time ago, to the great measures
passed: lately, for equalizing the burthens on the
different classes of the country, but he knew that he
^\as addressing those who would rejoice to bear, in
common with the rest of their fellow citizens, the
burthens of the state (Cheers), lie rejoiced, as
every one must rejoice, that peace with the great
empire of China had been perfected, and that the
portals of the greatest nation in the world had been
thrown open to our manufactures. It was impossi-
ble to conceive adequately, the immense, the ama-
zing benefits which would flow into this country
from its amicable communion in commercial inter-
course with so great a nation as that. Could any one
conceive the effect of the intercourse of 300,000,000
Chinese widi the 25,000,000 of beings in this
country 1 It was as if every one of us was required
to supply the wants o( tueke Chinese. He felt con-
vinced that we should no longer feel the burthens
under which this country had so long laboured.
He would ask, what had been the cause of the great
wealth and happiness of China but agriculture'?
(Cheers.) China was a nation of farmers, who were
literally occupied in nothing but the cultivation of
the soil. 'J'hey were beyond a doubt a free, a great,
and an independent people, although we called them
barbarians, and they returned us the compliment
(Cheers and Laughter). He was exceedingly
proud to belong to the society which had been just
honoured in so marked a manner, and he felt ex-
ceedingly obliged at having had the opportunity of
expressing his gratitude to a gentleman who had
done so much to promote the interests of that
society (Cheers).

TheCHAiKMAN then proposed "Success to the
Smithfield Club," coupling with it the name of its
indefatigable honorary secretary, Mr. Humphrey
Gibbs (Cheers).

Mr. Gibbs, in returning thanks for the toast,
stated that the present state of the institution with
which his name had been connected was one of in-
creasing excellence. The present exhibition, he
thought, would speak for itself (Cheers).

IMr. Shaw then rose and said, he was truly happy
in being permitted to propose the toast he was now
about to introduce; first, because it afforded him
an opportunity of expressing his gratitude to the
chairman for lii^ kindness in taking the chair oa

58

THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE.

this occasion (cheers) ; and, secondly, because lie
knew there was not an individual who could be
selected, who was more worthy of every marii of
respect than his friend in the chair {Cheers). He
could assure all present, that as regarded himself
individually, nothing afforded him greater and
liigher satisfaction than when he learned that
Mr. Pym had consented to take the chair on
this occasion (Cheers). He would say unhesi-
tatingly that, having mixed with many in the
divers ranks in which he chanced to move, and
knowing what he did of Mr. Pym— knowing his
circumstances and his position, there was no one
more deservedly respected than that gentleman,
(Cheers). All knew the kindness of his manner
and the urbanity of his general demeanour in
every position in which he was placed — whether as
a neighbour, a landlord, a magistrate, or as a
private individual (Cheers). Knowing this, he
would repeat that there was not an individual
whom he could have wished to preside on this occa-
sion in preference to the gentleman who now graced
it (Cheers). In order to learn that gentleman's cha-
racter or reputation it was only necessary to go
into his own neighbourhood, and he (Mr. Shaw)
would challenge any man to select another who
stood higher in his own neighbourhood and in his
own county than did Mr. Pym (Cheers). With-
out offering any further observations, he would
call upon all assembled to drink long life, health,
happiness, and prosperity to him. (Applause).

The CiiAiUMAN briefly returned thanks, and
then proposed " The healths of the Vice-chairmen
and R. Westbrook Baker, Esq."

Mr. Baker, in returning thanks, expressed the
gratification he felt at being present on an occasion
like this — to do honour to their friend, Mr. Shaw —
for their friend they must all call him — a real
working good friend to agriculture (Cheers).
During the few years he had had the honour of
knowing Mr. Shaw, he would say, that he never
met with a man more determined to do that which
he was able to do, combining with that determination
great zeal, great energy, and a most powerful
mind, and also good bodily strength (Cheers). He
begged to bear his testimony to what Mr. Sliaw had
said with respect to farmers' clubs, aud he was sure
that if they were established in the various parts of
Englanfl, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, they woukl be
generally taken up, and carried into tlie most distant
parts, and would ultimately b ing about tiuly prac-
tical good (Cheers).

Toast — " The Lancliords of England, and tlie health
of Henry John Adeane, Esq."

Mr. Adeank, in responding to this toast, wished more
of the landlords of England had been present on this
occaiion (cheers), in order to testify to Mr. Sh.-iw the
sense of their gratitude, which must be deep in the ex-
treme, lie trusted the time was not far distant, when
the tenantry of this country would receive whut they
expected, and what their circumsiances called for —
sympathy from their landlords (Cheers), lie con-
sidered that a liberal landlord made liherai tenants,
and that on the other hand, liberality on the part of
the tenantry begat a like hberality in the landlord
(Cheers). There was a connection between landlord
and tenant which, for the interest of both, should be
indissoluble, and whatever injured the one, the other
must suffer (Hear J. It was true, as had been said,
they were both in one boat. Their interests were united,
and it was a merciful Providence that had knitted them
together :'o closely, that if one suffered, that suffering
must be extended to the other (Cheers.)

Toast— "The Provincial Ag;ricultural Societies of
England, and the health of R. M. Jaques, E'*q."

Mr. Jaques returned thanks, and expressed the gra-
tification he felt at being indebted to Mr. Shaw for the
honour of responding to this toast, as it was through
that gentleman that he first became connected with any
provincial agricuHural society in this country. He
only wished the testimonial to Mr. Shaw had been a
thousand times more valuable, because he was satisfied
that Mr. Shaw had rendered great benefit to the whole
community. (Cheers). With respect to the agricul-
tural societies, and the principles upon whicii they were
conducted, he thought they were rather loo much con-
fined to exiiibilions of stock. He thought that one of
the important objects of such societies was that of bring-
ing fanners more together, and more into communion.
Last year the Richmond society expended in the purchase
of agiiculural implements one hundred guineas, and the
amount of imiilements sold at the show was one thousand
pound* (Cheers). The same society intended during the
coming year to have a trial of implements that would
extend from ten to fourteen day*, and he hoped that ex-
perience would enable them to discover something that
may be of benefit to all agriculturists.

Toast—" Farmers' clubs, Kud the health of J. Beadel,
Esq."

Mr. Bj-adel returned thanks in the name of the
farmers' clubs and for himself, and with reference to the
important object of showing the practical utility of far-
mers' clubs, he adverted to what might be done by im-
proving the modes of cultivation, and of increasing
the productiveness of the soil, and also theinr poilanceof
diminishing the expencc of production by obtaining
larger crops from tlie land. The question was how to
do that '! and this question he thought might be answered
by the adoption of a plan practised by himself, namely,
spade husbandry, by which a labourer could earn 12s,
6d. per week. This plan he particularly recommended
at the present time, when there are so many out of em-
ploy. It was true that the support .of the surplus
populatiofl fell very heavy upon the tenant farmer, but
nothing could be worse than that they should be diiven
for relief to the unions (Cheers). Nothing, he was
persuaded, could keep them out of the unions but pro-
viding them with laiiour, and that might be accom-
plished by adopting the mode pointed out by him —
spade husbandry. Something must be done to give
the honest, steady, and industrious labourers a fair
amount of labour, and a fair remuneration for that
labour. This might be accomplished without any ad-
ditional expence to the farmer, if instead of keeping
eight horses he kept only two (Cheers).

Toast — " The Tenantry of Great Britain, and the
health of Mr. S. Jonas."

Mr. Jonas, in responding to thetoa*t,hopedit would
never be necessary for the Briti-h farmers to adopt the
plan just alluded to. He hoped that the manufacturing
mterest of this country would ever be allied to the agri-
cultural intei'est, and that the farmers of this country
would never be called u).on to relieve the poor labour-
ers on their estates by cultivating the land by spade
husbandry. It was only by confidence being restored
to the farmers of England that they could be induced
to exert their energies (cheers), and nothing would in-
duce them to do that but an anxious and confident
hope, and a film reliance that their application would
be answered by an adequate return for their capital and
labour (Cheers).

Toast -" i he Highland and Agricultural Society of
Scotland, and the health of Mr. Welherall."
Mr. Wetherall returned thanks.
Toast— " The Royal Agricultural Improvement So-
ciety of Ireland, and the health of W. F. Hobbs, Esq.
( Three tunes three).

Mr. I louBS returned thanks, 'i'he Royal Agi'icultu-
ral Sociuly of Ireland had done mucii to improve the
cultivuiion of the soil of that country, and he felt per-
suaded that with the assistance and co-operation of
difteieut societies, the cultivation of that country would
be greatly improved. He believed that Ireland was ca-
pable of increasing its productions to a very great ex-
tent, and that the spiiit of the landed proprietors was

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

57

taalamouut to tlie capabilities of the soil, from the uoi-
yersal desire manifesied in all parts of that counly for
imiHoveineut. I'he next meetiuj; of the Irish Society
was /ixfil to take place at Belfast, and he felt persutided
that if the Eng'Hsli farmers would go over to attend
that meeling, they would be highly gratified, and not
only confer a bein til upon Ireland, but also upon them-
selves. Jle fully concurred in the observations niwde
by ihe chairjnan leipecting the presentation of the
plate to Mr. Shaw, and he was glad tosee among the
listof subscribers to that testimonial some of the first
Mgriculturists in the kingdom — among the leading-
nobility and landed proprietors, and also practical fai--
niers. lie was quite sure the testimonial was not equi-
valent to the services iVIr. Shaw had renderetl lo the
science of agriculture (c/ieer.s), and he was highly de-
seriing of «11 that could be given to him. He (Mr.
llobbs) had watched hiin narrowly tor a number of
years past, he had worked wiih hira.and he had always
lound liim the staunch, the unflinching, and the zealous
advocate of ihe inleiests of the farmers ol this country
(cheers); and he was sure that the farmers of England
would ever respect him for the exertions he had made
(Clieers).

Toast— "Thfi Bi'itish Agricultural Labourers, and
the health of Mr. Hutley, of Essex."
Mr. HuTLEv (of Witham) returned thanks.
Toast—'* The Treasurers of the Fund, and Culhbert
W. Johnson, Esq."
Mr. Johnson returned thanks.
Toast— "'Ihe Conuiiittee, and the health of James
Dean, Esq."

Mr. DiiAN returned thanks for the honour done to the
commitiee and to him?elf, and expressed the gratifica-
tion he had expeiienc^-'d at being placed in a position to
assist in doing honour lo Mr. Shaw, who had done so
much to advance British agriculture.

1 oast—" Agriculture, Alanufactures, and Commerce,
and the health of J;imt;S Allen llansome, Esq."

Mr. Ransomk returned thanks in a long and very
eloquent speech, which was received with loud and
well-merited applause.

[We regret extremely that our niporter should have
neglected to take noies of Mr. Rausome's address, and
in which regret we shall be joined by all who heard it,
A more truly eloquent speech, li aught with sound
principles, in reference to the great interests of " Agii-
culture, Manufaciure>, and Commerce," was never
•leMyeied.-Eo. Al.L. E.]

"'lire health and happiness of Mrs. Shaw."
Mr. SiiAw returned thanks, and tlie chairman having
vacated the chair, the party broke up.

During the evening ilie following song, entitled
" The Altar, the Cottage, and the Throne," written by
Mr. Thomas Hudson, and composed by Mr. N. J.
Spoill, was sung with great efiect : —

Let other countries boast of skies

Of a^ure bright and clear,
To England's praise I raise nay lays,

My country ever dear.

England ! beauty's birth place,

Land of freedom stasds alone.
Her strength is in the Altar,

The Cottage, and the Throne.

The altar— fraught with blessed words —

Our solace and our stay
In infancy, througji childhood,

Up to manhood's latest day.

The altar, where man plights his vows,

Calls woman hist his own ;
So blessed be the Altar,

The Cottage, aad the Throne.

England I beauty's birth place,

Land of freedom stands alone ;
Her strength is in the Altar,

The Cottage, and the liirone.

The Cottage, where pure rustic love

Ai d laljour are combined,
Maids with health— the finest wealth.

Their innocence of mind.

Where sons of toil, they till the soil,
And when to manhood grown.

Stand up! dtfend the Altar,
'J'he Cottaye, and the 'Ihione.

The Throne 1 and where in all Ihe wot Id

Can Auch a sight be seen.
As reigning in her people's hearts,

Our young and lovely Queen 'i

Old England still will favoured be,

With blessings stand alone,
Whilst all revere the Altar,

'J'he Cottage, and the l hrone.

England ! beauty's birth place.
Land of Freedom stands alone ;

Ilerstiength is in the Altar,
The Cottage, and the 1 hrone.

THE SMITHFIELD CLUB SHOW.

The past week lias, as usual, been full of inte-
rest to those farmers who have visited the metro-
polis—the exhibition of the Smithfieid Club, and
the annual meeting of the Royal Agriculluial So-
ciety, being the objects commanding attention, and
of the proceedings at both of which wo give full
reports. The stock exhibited in competition for llie
jjtizes of the Smithfieid Club was good, but in our
opinion not so good as we have seen. Of the
nineteen oxen and cows to which prizes were
awarded eight v\ ere Short-horns, eight Herefords,
one Long-liorn, and two Cross-bred. As regards
the number of prizes, the Short-horns and Here-
fords stand even ; but the Ilerefords carried off
tlie^/r.s^ prizes in classes 1, 2, 3, and 4, and the
Short-horns in 9 and 10 only. The gold medal, it
will be seen, was awarded to a Short-horn ex-
hibited by Mr. Maxwell. This animal was bred
by Sir Charles Tempest, of Broughton Hall,
Yorkshire, who is considered to have the best
breed of short-horns in the kingdom. It was pur-
chased of that gentleman in 1836, by Mr. Max-
well, of Kveringham Park, near Pocklinglon, in
Ihe same county, and only stalled for feeding in
February last. It gained the first prize at°tlie
York agricultural meeting, in August last, and its
sisler beast was recently sold to Sir Anthony Buller,
for 150 guineas. Mr. Thomas Umbers, of Wap-
penbury, maintained his position as a Leicester
breeder of sheep, carrying oflT the gold medal,
Mr. Cirantham and Mr. Samuel Webb were
successful competitors for Soulhdowns, The oe-
neral arrangements were excellent, and do mtjch
credit to Mr. Gibbs, the honorary secretary, and to
the stewards. The Tin/es newspaper, not usually
wont to exhibit much interest in agricultural mat-
ters, thus speaks of the show-yard and the ar-
rangements:—

" The removal of the Smithfieid Show from the dirty
yard in Goswell-slieet— in which for so many years it
■was a nuisance, to the space beneath the Baker-street
Bazjiar, where there is ample accommodation and every

58

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

facility for the numerous classes of oxen, sheep, and
pig-:, has been a great step towards an improvement in
the public knowledge of all that relates to the bi'eeding
and fattening of tlie animals on which the public sub-i^t.
"J'here is now a belter understanding- on tiiese subjects
than there was a few years ago, and people do not go
so niucli to stare at a fat bullock or a pletlioric pig as a
wonder, as to form a correct notion of the value of the
system by which oxen, pigs, and sheep are brought to
the state of perfection — to use the term by courtesy,
which they exhibit. There is every facility afforded at
the Baker street Bazaar for the public to see and judge
for themselves ; and as everything is conducted in the
best manner at this exhibition, and the place is as clean
as the most fa?iidiL)us can desire, every body wdl do
well to g(i and see the Smithfield Show. Indeed it is
almost a duty for all to go and see the result of the in-
dustry of British farmers, breeders, and agriculturists,
now that so much has been said about tariffs, corn-laws,
and so forth."

The exhibition of impieiiienls, of various kinds
of seeds, tools, &c., was very huge; of the former
Messrs. Garrett and Son, ofLeiston Works,
Suffolk, exhibited a great variety. They have
devoted much time and attention to the improve-
ment of agricultural machinery, and their efforts
have been productive of great good. Tiieir " Drill
for General Purposes" performs in one process
the manuring and seeding the land ; the manure
and corn may be deposited together doum tlie
same coiiduclors, or ihrougli separate coulters,
rakes being ]-»rovided to cover the manure with
a small portion of mould upon which the seed
is deposited: the seed-box accompanying this
drill is adapted to sow at the same time with
spring corn and manure, or may be used as
a separate implement for grass seeds, broad-
cast, or turnips and mangold wurtzel in rows,
either with or witiiout manure. By a pa-
tented iinprovement they have made a very
desirable alteration in depositing coarse and
damp manures. Their " Turnip and Manure
Drill" has each lever made lo swing inde-
pendently of the other, so that the man fol-
lowing the drill is always able to keep the de-
positing coulters on the tops of the ridges: there
are also affixed to this drill cast iron rolls for pro-
])(.'rly forming irregularly ploughed ridges.

The Iron Patent Horse Hoe is an implement
of the greatest importance, combining simplicity
with effectiveness, and we hope to see tlie
ideas of tiie patentees fully carried out in
establishing this as a principal impleinenl in
agriculture. One of their Thrasliing Alacliines is
so made as to thrash Wheat without injuring the
straw in the slightest degree. We cannot give a full
description of each particular implement. Their
exhibition was one which does infinite credit to the
manufacturers, comprising many other varieties of
driiU besides those described. Lever Drag Rakes,
Clod Crushers, Iron Field Rolls, Chaff-cutting
Engines, Dressing and Winnowit)g Machines,
Ilay-making Machines, Turnip-cutlers, Cake-
crushers for cattle and manure, Subsoil, Swing,
Wheel and Ridge Ploughs, and many other im-
plements of iTiinor importance.

In viewing the agricultural implements His
Royal Iliglwiess Prince Albeit particularly no-
ticed a very neat mode! of a Patent Clod-crushing

Roller, and also the model of a newly invented
Steamer, for the general purpose of steaming food
for cattle, invented by Mr. Crosskill, who ex-
plained ilic simplicity and efficiency of tlieir con-
struction to his Royal iiighness. This new in-
vention obtained a prize at the Bristol Meeting
of the Royal Agricultural Society.

Mr. Grant, of Stamford, exhibited his Patent
Steerage Lever Horse Hoe, wliicii obtained a prize
at Peterborough, in October last.

i\Iessrs. Barrett, Exall, and Andrews, of Reading,
exliibited their improved Gorse-cutting Machine
and several of their Ploughs, which are already
well known in the agricullural world.

Messrs. Cottam exhibited an improved One
Row Drill for manure and seed.

Mr. Hornsby exhibited his Drill for General
Purposes, for drilling corn, seeds, and manure,
for which the prize of £'25 was awarded to him at
tiie meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society at
Liverpool, July 1841, and £30 at Bristol, July,
1842.

Mr. Cooch, an improved Winnowing machine.

Mr. Edmunds, Banbury, an Improved Turnip-
cutting Machine, for beasts and sheep, and also
his patent Land-pressor.

The Uley Cultivator, or Ducie's Drag, which
gained the first prize of the Royal Agricultural
Society, held at Liverpool, in 1841; and also of
the Yorkshire Society, held at Hull, in 1841,
was also shewn.

The Tweeddale Drain Tiie Macliine was ex-
hibited at work.

Messrs. Howard, of Bedford, exliibited their
Patent Improved Plough and Harrows.

Messrs. Wed lake, of Hornchurch, Essex, liad
an excellent assortment of agricultural imple-
ments. Among which we noticed a newly in-
vented Turnip-cutter, whicii answers a twofold
purpose; it cuts the turnips in regular strips for
sheep, and by reversing the handle cuts thin slices
for beasts. An iron Cane Top or Chaff-cuttmg
Machine on a very improved plan, made so that
the frames can be easily taken to pieces, and put
in the box, which forms a packing case. A
wrought iron Plough, made for exportation, very
light, and so constructed that the draught is very
easy, and can be packed in a small compass. A
Subsoil Plough, which by means of a screw can
be elevated or lowered as required. Also a variety
of Ploughs, Chaff-cutters, Oil and Rape-cake
Cutters, and other improved agricultural im-
plements.

Amongst the various implements exhibited was
a Sheep Dipping Apparatus, invented by Mr.
Thomas Bigg, of No. 15, Crawford-street, I'ort-
man-square, London, the well known proprietor
of the " Com])Osition" for the destruction of all
verrnin obnoxious to liiat valuable animal, the sheep.
The above apparatus obtained Prizes both at the
Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland,
and at the Yorkshire Agricultural Society's meet-
ings, 1841.

Messrs. Thomas filbbs and Co., the seedsmen to
the llonourablo Boards of Agriciiltnre of England
and Sweden, had the nin(<t splendid sliow of roots,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

59

Sec, fhat we ever recollect to have seen, nnd not-
withstaiuling the superioi-ity of tlieir stand on for-
mer years, we consider this display one of the
finest we ever witnessed. It would be nsclcss for
us to endeavour to enumerate the various articles
of importance to agriculturists which we saw, but
our attention was attracted by their turnips. Tire
Swedes, in particular, grown by his Grace the Duke
of Bedford, Sec, from seed sent to his grace by
these gentlemen, were remarkable for their beauti-
ful form, and small top, and at the same time pos-
sessing the quality of size in its highest perfection.
We think that no person interested in farming
pursuits could fail to admire the fineness of top in
( iibbs'a Swedish turnips.

TJie large white Belgian 'carrots, some of which
were ticketed as being grown by Jonas Webb, Esq.,
of Babraham, from Messrs. Gibbs's seed, were very
ilne; and one, as grown by Mr. Kendall, at Wind-
sor, weighed 1-tlbs. We understood from the at-
tendants at the stand that carrot seed is extremely
scarce this year.

The enormous size of their mangold wurzel ap-
peared to attract much attention ; some weighed
upwards of 351b3., and the Globe mangel wurzel
SOlbs.

Thomas Gibbs and Co. also exhibited specimens
of the various natural grass from which they select
in forming their mixtures, in which department the
gentlemen have been so celebrated for many years.

Mr. Skirving, of Liverpoo!, exhibited a splendid
show of liis well known Swedes, staled to have
been raised with the Guano manure alone.

Messrs. George Gibbs and Co., had an inlerest-
iiig exhibition of Roots and other agiicultiiral pro-
duce, especially a Turnip they call " the Ash-
croft Swede," particularly large, and appeared of
excellent quality. The variety called " Payne's
Kentish Green Crown Swede," were very hand-
some. Their Mangel Wuizel, Kohl Rabi, and
Cattle Cabbage, grown by Samuel ('ravvley, Esq.,
of .Stockwood Park, were beautiful specimens.
They also sliowed samples in grain and ear of a
new Fiench Seeiling Wheat, selected by that emi-
nent agricultural experimentalist, M. Vilmorain, of
Paris, now growing by Ileniy Cox, Esq. The
Belgian White Carrol Roots, grown by Benjamin
Curry, Esq., of EUham Park, were of wonderful
size.

Mr. Matson, of Wingham, exhibited specimens
of long red iNIangel, yellow and red Globe, not
of large size, but of excellent symmetry. Also
his Matsonian purple top Swede, green top
Swede, white and green Globe. We noticed a
green Globe Turnip, vveigliing about four pounds
only, that seemed to be a very beautifully formed
root.

Mr. Benjamin Edginglon, of 2, Duke-street,
Southwark, exhibited Models and Drawings of his
temporary Pavilions and Marquees. We noticed
a beautiful one which represented the saloon where
the 'lueen partook of a dejeune, as the guest of
Eord (jlenlyon, at Dunkeld. He also exhibited
Ilick-Cloths, Tents, Sacks, Ilorse-Clolhs, Sheep-
Nets, Royal Standard, Union .lack, and red En-
sign in silk and bunting, improved waterproof
dressed Cloths, &c., &c. — Mark Lane Express.

ANNIVERSARY DINNER OF THE
SMITHFIELD CLUB.

The forty-second annual dinner of this society
was held, on Friday, Dee. U, at the Freemason's
Tavern, Great Queen Street. Tlie chair was as
on former occJisions occupied by the noble presi-
dent of the club, the Earl Spencer. Among the
distinguished patrons of the agricultural and farming
interest present, we noticed his grace the Duke of
Richmond, Earl Ducic, Baron Monteagle, the lion.
Col. Spencer, the Hon. Mr. Littleton, the Hon.
Mr. Wilson, the Hon. Mr. Nugent, Mr. Pusey,
M.P., Mr. Bennett, M.P., Mr. I-. Pym, &c.

Tlie company although not C[uite so numerous as
we have witnessed in previous years, yet included
several of the most eminent graziers and success-
ful breeders of cattle in the country.

The health of the Queen, the Queen Dowager,
Prince Albert, the Prince of Wales, and the rest
of the Royal Family, having been successively
drunk,

The Chairman rose to propose " success to the
Smithfield Club." The noble lord stated that he
had always been in the liabit of prefacing the toast
he was about to propose with a few observations,
and, with their permission, he would do so on this
occasion. The present was not quite so full a
meeting as he had had the pleasure of witnessing
on previous occasions, although he must say the
cattle show t f the day had been bettor than any he
had ever seen before. The number of animals ex~
hibited had been much greater than usual, and
although certainly there had been, as there always
would be, some rubbish among them, yet upon the
whole he had never seen better animals in the
yard. He had no hesitation in saying that he re-
collected shows in Smithfield in which first prizes
would have been gained by seven or eight of the
animals now in the second and third classes ; and
if that was not evidence of a good exhibition in the
present year, he really did not know what was. The
show was, some few years ago, held in a miserable,
uncomfortable yard ; but now, after three or four
years' experience, not only had the breed of cattle
been greatly improved, but the convenience and
comfort of those wlio attended the show had been
most extensively studied (Hear, hear.) There
certainly were at tins year's exhibition some ani-
mals not quite so good as he could have wished to
see ; the fault could not be stated to be want of
size, although perhaps in some quarters there might
have been a little more attention to the improve-
ment of tlie quality. He thought that gentlemen
ought to attend a little more to this matter, and
not merely endeavour to produce animals of great
weight and size. Mere size was an improper and
unfair test in such a society as the present ; a cer-
tain degree of size undoubtedly was requisite, but
bulk alone was not what they ought to look to.
Many of the company, he had no doubt, had heard
some lectures lately upon this subject; at present
those lectures were merely theoretical, but he
hoped they would soon lead to practical results.
The farmers must look to the most economical
mode of feeding, as by that means alone they
would be enabled to supply the markets with the
cheapest food. Many of the animals in the show-
yard were rather too tat for persons of ordinary
taste. It was, however, qiute a mistake for per-

60

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

sons to say, " Oh ! what is the use of bringing such
fat animals to the market?'' Wliy, undoubtedly
these beasts were not brought to the show as speci-
mens of what might be done with the individual
animals at considerable expense of feeding, but as a
test of what might be done with that description of
animals by ordinary feeding'. There were animals
wliicli he would defy any grazier in England to
bring into such a condition as would render it
worth their while to bring them to market. Such
animals were utterly unprofitable to the grazier to
breed ; but the animals which tliey required were
those which if they were well fed would yield an
adequate return to the farmer, and not those which
if the utmost trouble and ex] ense were bestowed in
the improvement of the breed, would nevertheless
remain unprofitable both to grazier and butcher.
Having made these remarks, he would beg leave to
propose, " Success to the Smithfield Club."

The toast was drunk with loud applause.

The noble Chairman then proceeded to the more
immediate business of the evening — the distribu-
tion of the prizes which were awarded to the suc-
cessful candidates. They were as follows : —

OXEN.

Class I. — Oxen or Steers, of any breed, under five
years of age, viithout restriciioa as to feeding-, yet the
kind or kinds of food must be certified.

No. 11.— Mr. William Woodward, of Bieedons Nor-
ton, near Tewkesbury, a 4 years asid 6 mouths old irn-
proved slioithorned Ox, bred by himself, and fed on
hay, cabbage, Sv\ei.li^h turnips, barley meal, pea meal,
sras.s, green clover', and linseed cake. 'I'ravelled to
the show by van 5 miles, and by railway 143 nn!es.
Third prize 10^.

No. 18.— Mr. R. W. Baker, of Cottesmore, near
Stamford, a 3 year and 9 months old shorthorned
Steer, bred by hiruself, and led on oilcake, beau flour,
oatmeal, and vegetable*, 'i'ravelled to the show by van
30 miles, and by railway 105 m.les. TJie second prize
of 15?.

No. 20,— Mr. Thomas L, Meire, of Cound Arbor,
near Shrewsbury, a 3 years and 11 J months old Here-
ford Ox, bred by him.'ell, and fed on grass, hay, turnips,
carrois, grains, barley and pea meal, and oilcake. Tra-
velled to the show on loot 3 mdes, by cart 7 miles, by
bjat 50 miles, and by railway 100 miles. The first
prize of 20/.

Class II. — Oxen or Steers, of any breed, under 6
years of age, weight 90 stone and upwards, that shall
not h'Ave liad cake, corn, meal, seeds, grain?, or dis-
tillers' wash, during twelve months previous to the
1st of August, 1842.

No. 32.— Mr. Simuel Bennett, of Bickering's Park,
near Woburn, a 4 years and 9 months oid improved
shorthorned Ox, bred by himself, and fed on 16 bushels
of bean meal, 65i,lb<. of cake, turnips, carrois, and man-
go! Iwurlzcl. Travelled to the show on foot 1 mile,
and by waggon and radway 45 miles. The second prize
of 20/.

No. 35.— Sir William Wake, Bart., of Courteen Hall,
near Northampton, a 4 years and 10 months old Here-
ford Ox, bred by Mr. Perry, of Monklanu, near Leo-
minster, and fed on l,200lbi. of cake, 2 bu'hels of
bean meal, grass, hay, turnipA, and raangoldwurtzel.
Travelled to the show by railway 60 miles. The first
prize of 30/.

No. 41.— Mr. John Slingsby, of Moiton Hall, near
Manchester, a 4 years and 9 ni mths old cross Ayrshire
Ox, bre<l by Mr. Stirling, of Keir, near Dunblane, and
fed on 441lbs. of cake,253lb5. of corn, and gra*s. Tra-
velled to the show on foot 3^ miles, and by railway 210
miles. The third prize of 10/.

Class 111. — Oxen or Steers, of any breed, under 5
years of age, under 100 stone and above 70 stone

weight, that shall not have had cake, corn, meal,
seeds, grains, or distillers' wash, during 12 months
previous to the Ut of August, 1842.

No. 47.— Mr. Chamberlain, of Desford, near Leices-
ter, a 4 years and 8 months old Hereford Ox, bred by
himself, and led on 6961bs.of cake,330lbs. of pea meal,
grass, hay, and green vegei-ables. 'Liavelled to the show
on foot 10 miles, and by railway 102 miles. 'The second
prize of 10/.

No. 50.— Mr. John Manning, of Harpole, near
Northampton, a 4 years and 6 months old Hereford
Steer, bred by I\Ir. Josiah Dean, of Abbey Dare, Here-
fordshire, and fed on SOOlbs.of cake, 4 bushels of bean
meal, grass, hay, and turnips. 'Travelled to the show
on loot 7 miles, and by railway 70 miles. The ftrit
I)rize of 15/.

Class tV.— Oxen or Steers, of any breed, not exceed-
ing 41 years of age, under 85 stone weight, that shall
not have had cake, corn, meal, seed<, grains, or dis-
tillers' wash during 12 months previous to the 1st of
August, 1842.

No. 56.— Mr. George Payne, of Milton Keynes, near
Newport Pagnell, a 3 years and 6 months old Hereford
Steer, bied by Mr. Downes, of Medley Park, near Lud-
low, Shropshire, and fed on 250lbs. of cake, hay, and
Swedes. Travelled to the show on foot 6 miles, and by
railway 48 miles. The second prize of 5/.

No. 61.— Mr. E. Bouvere, of Dalapre Abbey, near
Northampton, a 3 years and 7 monilii old Hereford
Steer, bred Mr. John Meire, of Uchington, and fed on
742lbj. of cake, 2 bushels of oats in meal, grass, hay,
mangold-wurtzel, and Swedes. Travelled to the show
by van 4 miles, and by railway 60 miles. 'The first prize
of 10/.

Class \^— Oxen or Sieers, of any breed, under 43
years of age, under SO stone weight, without restric-
tion:^ as to feeding, yet the kind or kinds of food
must be jpecilied.

No. 67. — Mr. 'Thomas Bridge, of Buttsbury, near
Ingatestone, a 3 years and 7 months old Hereford Steer,
bred by Mr. Hall, and fed on grass, lucerne, Swedes,
oilcake, and a little bean and barley meal. 'Travelled
to the show by van 26 miles. 'The first prize.

Class VL— Oxen or Steers, of the Scotch or Welsh
breed, of any age, above 70 stone weight, that shall
not have had cake, corn, meal, seeds, grains, or dis-
tillers' wash, during 12 months previous to the 1st of
August, 1842.

No. 71.— Mr. John Manning, of Harpole, near North-
ampton, an upwards of 5 years old Scotch Ox, fed on
grass, turnips, SOOlbs. of cake, and 3 bushels of bean-
meal. Travelled to the show on foot 7 miles, and by
railway 70 miles. 'The first prize of 10/.

Class VH.- Oxen or Steers, of the Scotch or Welsh
breed, of any age, under 70 stone weight, that shall
not have had cake, corn, meal, seeds, grains, or dis-
tillers' wa^h, during 12 months previous to the 1st of
August, 1842.
Withheld for want of merit.

Class VHI. — Fattened Cows or Heifers, under 5
years of age. Freeinartins and Spayed Heifers are
not qup lifted.

No. 74. — Mr. George Ellis, of Hatfield Peverell,
near Withain, a 3 years and 6 months old Hereford
Heifer, bred by himself, and fed on mangold-wurtzel,
Swedes, lare-mcal, and hay. 'Travelled to the show by
van 40 miles. The second prize of 10/.

No. 70. — Mr. Robert Burgess, of Cotgrove Place,
near Nottingham, a 4 years and 3 mouths old Durham
Heifer, bred by himself, and fed on grass, oilcake, tur-
nips, cabbages, and beau flour. 'Travelled to the show
on foot 6 miles, and by railway 126 miles. The third
prize of 5/.

No. 77. —Sir George Phillips Bart., of Weston House,

THE FAllMER'S MAGAZINE.

Gl

Chip|)in;^Norlon, a 4 years and 2 monlhs old cross-
bi-cd Jli'iter (Sculchand J)urhiuii), bred by himself,
:iud fad on Swedes, common turuips.cako, linseed, be^u
uad bailey flour. Travelled to the show by van 40
miles, and by railwity 56 railes. The first prize of
20/.

Class IX. — Fattened Cows, of 5 years old and uii-
wards. Freemarlins and Spayed Heilers are not
qualified.

No. 9.— The Right Hon. Earl Spencer, of Wiicton,
near Bawtry , a 7 years and 7 months old Durham Cow,
bred by his lordship, iind fed on hay, Swedes, barley
and bean meal, and oilcake. Travelled to the show by
van 22 miles, and by railway 180 miles. Tlic second
prize of 5/.

No. S2. — iMr. William C. Maxwell, of Everingham
J'ark, near Pocklmgton, a 6 years and 8 months old
shortliorned Cow, bred by SirChas.R. TempeU, Bart.,
of Broughton Hall, Skiplon,and fed on grass, hay, bean
and barley meal, c.xke, Swedes, and mangold wurtzel.
Travelled to the sliow by van 16 miles, and by railway
219 miles. The first prize of 20Z., and gold medal to
the breeder.

Class X. — Fattened Cows, of 5 years old and up-
wards, that shall have had at least two live calves, at
separate births.

No. 86.— Mr. W. Harbridge, of Brookend House,
near Morton in Marsh, a 12 years and 8 month* old
loiighorned Cow, bred by himself, and fed on hay, bar-
ley and bean meal, and oilcake. Travelled to the show
by van 35 miles, and by railway 50 miles. The second
prize of 5/.

No. 88.— The Right Honourable the Earl of Hard-
wicke, of Wimpole, a 10 years and 11 months olil Dur-
ham Cow, bred by his lordship, and fed on oilcake, bean
meal, raangold-wurtzel aud hay. Travelled to the show
by van 46 mile?. The first prize of 15/.

EXTRA STOCK— CATTt>E.

No. 97. — Mr. James Watson, of Waldby, near South
Cave, a.i years and 9 months old shorihorned Ox, bied
liy himself, and fed on linseed cake and bean wieal.
Travelled to the show by railway 241 miles. Silver
medal.

SHEEP.

Class XI. — Longwoolled fat Wether Sheep, 1 year
old, that have never had cake, corn, meal, seeds, or
pulse.

No. 101.— Mr. T. Twitchell, of Willlngton, near
Bedford, a pen of Leicester wethers, 20 months old,
bred by himself. Second prize of 5/.

No. 107. — Mr. Thomas Umbers, of Wappcnbury,
near Leamington, a pen of longwoolled weth rs, 21
months old, bred by himself. The first prize of 20/.

Class XH.— Longwoolled fat weiher Sl;eep, 1 year
old, under S stone weight, that have never had cake,
corn, meal, seeds, or pube.

No. 114.— Mr. Thomas Umbers, of Wappenbury,
near Leamington Spa, a pen of longwoolled wethers, 21
months old, bred by himself. The prize of 10/.

Class XIII. — Longwoolled fat wether Sheep, 1 year
old, without restrictions as to feeding.

No. 115. — Mr. William Sandy, of Holme Pierrepont,
near Nottingham, a pen of Leicester wethers, 21 months
old, bred by himself. The first prize of 20/. and the gold
medal.

No. 126.— His Grace the Duke of Bedford, of Wo-
Itura Abbey, a pen oi Leicester wethers, 20 months
old, bred by his grace. The second prize of 5/.

EXTRA stock— long WOOLLED SHEEP.

No, 134. — Mr. .7. S. Burgess, of Holme Pierrepont,
a long-woolled wether, about 32 months old, bred by
himself. The silver medal.

Class XIV. — Shortwoollcd fat wether Sheep, 1 year
old, without restrictions as to lecling.

No. 14G.— Mr, Grantham, of Stoneham, near Lcwcs,
a pen of Southdown wethers, 20 months old, bred by
himself. The first prize of lol.

No. 147.— Mr. Samuel Webb, of Babraham, near
Carabridgp,, a pen of Southdown wethers, 20 months
old, bred by himself. The second prize ol 5/.

Class XV.— Shortwoollcd fat wether Sheep, I year
old, under 8 stone weight, without restrictions as to
feeding.
No. 1-52. — Mr. Samuel Webb, of Babiaham, near

Caiubridge, a pen of Southdown weihera, 20 months

old, bred by himself. The prize of 10/.

Class XVI. — Shortwoolled fat weiher Sheep, 2 years
old, without re^trictions as to feeding.

No. 1.59.— Mr, Graniham, of Stoneham, near Lewes,
a pen of Soutlidow n wethers, 32 months old, bred by
himself. The first prize of 20/.

No. 160.— Mr. Samuel Webb, of Babraham, near
Cambiidge, a pen of Southdown wethers, 32 months
old, bred by himself. The second piize of 5/.

EXTRA stock — SHORT- WOOLLED SHEEP.

No. 171.— Mr. E. G. Barnard, M. P., of Gojfield
Hall, near Halstead, a Southdown wether, 32 months
old, bred by himself. The silver medal.

PIGS.

Class XVII.— Pigs ef any breed.

No.',173. — Mr. W. Hobmnn,of Ewell, near Epsom, a
pen of Neapolitan Pigs, 26 week< old, bred by himself,
and fed on peas and fine middlings (no milkj. The
second prize of 5/,

No. 179. — Mr. John Buckley, of Normanton Hill, a
pen of cross Warwickshire and Neapolitan Pigs, 31
weeks and 3 days old, bred by himself, and fed on
barley meal and a little bean meal. The first prize of
10/.

extra stock— pigs.

No. 183.— Mr. William Jarrett, of 77, Raiclifle-high-
way, an Essex Pig, 33 weeks old, bred by himself, and
fed on fine middlings, barley meal, and peas— brought
up by hand. The silver medal.

The tct^l amount of money expended in prizes ex-
ceeds 400 guineas.

The show is considered to be the best since 18.39,
in which year some very remarkable animals were ex-
hibited. In the two classes which include Scotch and
Irish oxen, there appears to have been less competition
than usual, and in one of Ihein both prizes are withheld
through want of merit.

The exhibition, wliieh was strictly private on 'J'ues*
day, was open to the public on Wednesday morning;
and his Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge vi-iltd
it at an early hour, when Eirl Spencer, the president,
and several of the vice-presidents, weie in attend-
ance.

The following gentlemen undertook the office for cattle
and long-woolled sheep :— Mr. Hewett,of Dodlorn.near
Weedon, Oxon ; Mr. Druce, of Ensham, near Oxford ;
and Mr. Buckley, sen ,ot Normanton-hill, Notts. For
shortwoolled »heep and pigs : —Mr. Arckoll, of Lang-
ley, near Eastbourne, Sussex ; Mr. II. Emery, of Hur-
ston-place, Brighton ; and Mr. John King, Devon-
shire-place, Brighton.

The judges were selected by the stewards from the
members of the club at an early hour in the morning,
each steward appointing one.

The judges have hiiherto been selected from among
the most celebrated breeders of stoek; but at the annual
meeting held on Wednesday, Mr. Giblelt, of Bond-street,
proposed that in luture one of the three for each class
shall be a butcher.

62

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

SMITHFIELD CHRISTMAS
CATTLE MARKET.

Monday, December 12il).

i liis being the clay appointed for the holding of the
Great Ciuistrnas Market, we had at a very early hour
a large iittenilance ol butchers und graziers from almost
ail ])rirts of England, with an extensive number of the
former residing in the metropolis ; hence, vs might
be conceived, the greatest animation and bustle was
apparent. Contrary to gener.i! expectation, the supply
of Beasts derived from our grazing distiicts was much
more superior than that brought forward for a series of
years past ; indeed, we may venture to obsierve that
there were not 50 forming it in any way beneath the mid-
dle quality, hence it elicited the surprise and approbation
of all present, and reflectGd great credit upon the skill
and enterprise of the ajricultural community. The
competition between the Hereford, Devon, Durliam,
and Short-horned breeders was so extremely keen, ihat
we scarcely know how, in the spirit of strict fairness,
to award the palm to either in particuUir. However,
for weight, size, and symmetry— including of
coLiise actual value— we niig-ht, we consider,
stale that the Herefords (except in the instance
of the Scots which we shall have occasion to particula-
rize below) were, as a whole, triumphant — embracing,
as they did, some of the most wonderful animals we ever
saw exhibited for sale in this market. Decidedly the
best of this truly excellent breed were broug-ht forward
by Mr. Rowland, of Creslow, who had on offer about
40, estimated to weigh nearly 200 st., and for which 40Z.
each was asked, for the average of the drove. We next
come to the ])evons, which, tliough not quite so exten-
sive in numerical strength, as at the corresponding mar-
ket day last year, vvell sustained iheir long-established
fame ; yet, generally speaking, their weight was not
quite so great as on that occasion. There were about
400 splendid pure Durhams, consigned to various
salesmen, and which were fully as good as in many
preceding seasons. As to the Shorthorns, thefe were
more than usually prime, and those offering by Mr.
Robert Morgan, the properly of Mr. Goodall, ol Deep-
ing Fen, and Messrs. Thomas and Wiseman, of Hol-
beach, Lincolnshire— which gentlemen sent, also, some
veiy prime Herefords— were certainly the best, and pro-
duced high figures: while they were surrounded
by crowds of people during the day. The Scots next
command attention, and notwithstanding we received
very few really good ones from Scotland, those ex-
tiibited by Mr. Vorley, and owned by Messrs. J. and
II. Ruyner, of the Isle of Ely, Cambridgeshire, (10 in
number) were scarcely ever equalled^ much less excelled.
These surprising creatures, vdiich were estimated to
weigh nearly 120 stones, were considered to be worth
quite 32/. per head, which will at once show that we
have not overrated them. Messrs. Gurricr and Maid-
well, as also several others, had excellent shows of
Beasts ; in fact, to do justice to this admirable collection
ol stock, brought together, as will be conceded, under
disadvantageous circumstances, would be impossible.
As to the numbers, these were considerably less than
latt season, yet fully adequate to meet the wants of (he
buyers. At the commencement of the market, they
purchased slowly ; but, as the day advanced, the bid-
dings became more spirited, and we are happy in being
enabled to intimate that an advance in the quotations
of beef, of from 2d. to 4d. per 81bs., was firmly
established, and a good clearance v/as efifected, pre-
viously to the conclusion of the market. To pre-
vent any misunderstanding, at a lime so important as
this is, we beg to state that the highest general quota-
tions for beef were from Is. 4d. to 4s. 8d. per 8lbs.,
though of course some cases could be named in which
from 4s. to 5s. per 8lbs. were obtained ; but as these
figures were not those ruling, as an average, we deem it
proper to omit them from our tabular statement. This
we deem a matter of positive necessity to mention, as
•we fiad some statements givinig higher rates for the

sencral Iransaclion*; in the maikct than arc warranted
by the actual trade.

The numbers of sheep were rather more than those la--t
year, and quite an unusual improvement was observed
in their quality and condition. Downs, though rather
scarce, were very good, and we must say that that de-
scription of sheep, together with the Lincolns, Leices-
ters, Kenls, and Somersets, excited our admiration ;
and we cannot pass unnoticed sbout 40 Downs
and polled sheep in Mr. John Weall's pens,
sent to that gentleman by E. F, Whittingstall,
Esq., of Langley-Berry, Hertfordshire. For weight,
size and shaj)e, wo should say the polled descriptions
certainly exceeded those ever shown in this market ; and
we have no hesitation whatever in staling that, had they
been shown in the yard of the Smithfield Club, they
would have carried off the prizes offered by that society.
Some of the^e extraordmary sheep weighed upwards of
lliirty sl.oiics, and for which 5/.5s. each were demanded.
The mutton trade was somewhat renovated, and the
currency had an upward tendency, say of from id. to 4d.
per Bibs. ; the Downs reaching, without much appa-
rent difficulty, 4s. 6d. per 8ibs. Calves came freely to
hand, and were disposed of at last Friday's rise of 2d.
per Sibs. The Pork trade was tolerably steady, at fully,
but at nothing quotable beyoml, late rates.

From Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, JVorthampton-
shire, and Warwickshire, we received 2,800 short horns,
runts, and Herefords ; from Norfolk, Suffolk, E'-sex,
and Cambridgeshiie, 320 Scots, homebreds, runts, &c. ;
from our Western and Midland districts, 700 Devons,
Durhams, runts, Herefords, and Irish beasts : from other
parts of England, 250 Herefords, runts, &c.; from Scot-
land, by steamers, 170 horned and polled Scots ; from
Ireland, SO beasts ; the remainder of the supply being
made up by the stall feeders, &c., in the neighbour-
hood of London.

Not a single fresh head of stock was on offer from
abroad, there being only a very rough Hamburgh
beast received via Hull. The imports, as will be seen
by the annexed returns, have been small indeed.

From Gehjiany.

Beasts. Cows. Sheep. Pigs.

London 5 2 — —

Hull 30 8 —

Totalfor the week. 35 10 ■— —

Previously this year.l 121 33l 284 52

Grand Total 11 56 341 284 52

FuoM Holland.
Beasts. Cows. Sheep. Pig?.

London 7 3 — —

Hull _____

Total for the week. 7 3 — —

Previously this year. 584 197 — 20

Grand Total 591 200 — 20

From Si'ain.

Beasts. Cow*. Sheep.

London 12 — —

Southampton 20 — —

W^cek's arrival 32 — —

Previously this year 726 85 230

Grand total 758 85 230

From France.

Beasts. Cows. Sheep.

Southampton 10 2 —

Hull 8 1 —

Week's arrival 18 3 —

Previously this year 350 32 140

Grand Total 368 35 UO

THE rARMEE'S MAGAZINK.

63

It has bien inlmialtd llwil iiupoilatinns liavc taken
plnca for. our market I'lom CHlcutUi and llie Caiiadas ;
but wc beg most t!i*tiuctly to iutima'.c to our readers
that no rtcijipts whatever have come to band here from
thoje distant parts ; tlie cows named ia some of the
reports having merely belonged to the owners of vessels
lor the l>etter acco:iimodatioa of their passengers.

Per 81b?. to sink the olTals.
s. d. s. d., 8. d. s. d.
Coarse and Inferior Prime coarse wool-
Beasts 3 2 3 4 led Slieep 4 0 4 4

Second quality do. 3 6 3 10 PrinieSontli Uowii4 4 4 0

Prime lar'ie Oxen 4 0 4 2 Large coarscCalves:J 10 4 3

Prime Scots, &e.. 4 4 4 8 Prime small ilo .,4 4 4 G

Coarse and Interior Large Koss 3 10 4 4

Sheep 3 4 3 6 Neatsraall Porkers 4 6 4 8

Second quality do. 3 8 3 10 Lambs 0 0 0 0

Suckling Calves, 16s. to 31s., and quarter
old Store Pifcs, I63. to 20s. each. — Beast?., 4,541 ;
Sheep, -23,380; Calves, 160 ; Pigs, 408.

Friday, Dec. 9. — Beasts, 722; Cows, 133;
Sheep, 3,070; Calves, 183; Pigs 3 15.

A STATEMENT and COMPARISON of the SUP-
PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, e-vhibitcd
and sold iu Smithfield Cattle Market, on
iMonday, Dec. 13, 1841, and this day, Mondav,
Dec. 12, 1842.

AtperSlbs.to sink the offals,

Dec. 1?, 1841. Dec. 12, 1S42-

s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.

Coarse &inferiorBeasts3 4to3 8 .. 5 2 3 4

Second quality do 3 10 4 0 .. 3 6 3 10

Prime large Oxen 4 2 4 8 . . 4 0 4 2

Prime Scots, &c 410 5 0,. 4 4 4 8

Coarse & inferior Sheep 34 36. .34 36

Second quality do 3 8 3 10 . 3 8 3 lO

Prime coarse woolleddo. 4 0 4 4.40 44
Prime Southdown do. ,4 6 5 0.. 4 4 4 6
Large coarse Calves ..4 6 5 0.. 3 10 4 2

Prime small ditto 52 56. ,44 46

Large Hogs 46 50. .3 10 44

Neat small Porker? ,,52 54.. 46 48

SUPPLIES.

Dee. 13, ISU. DuC 12, 1842.

Beasts 6,334 4,541

Sheep 20,020 25,380

Calves 89 160

Pigs 419 408

GENERAL MEETING OF THE
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SO-
CIETY OF ENGLAND.

On Saturday, Dec. 10, the General Meeting of this
Society was held at the rooms, 12, Hanover-square,
and it is highly gratifying to us to state that the at-
tendance of members was numerous, and that the
\yhole proceedings passed off viitb great satisfac-
tion to all present; amongst whom were — His
Grace the Duke of Richmond, W. F. Hobbs, T. R.
Barker, W. Smart, C. J, Smart, P, Pusey, M,P.,
S. Druce, Earl Spencer, H, Boys, R. Hodgkinson,
sen,, J. Gandern, W. Adcock, M. H. Slmttles-
worth, R. Boys, J. Clover, J. Dean, H. Manning,
C. Hillyard, F. Pym, W. B. Wingate, ,1. Beck,
W. W. Page, C. .Mdermsn, .T. Hind, C, Tawnev,
J, A. Ransome, W. M. Norris, W. Torr, jun., W.
Richardson, H. Paget, B, Almack, G. Fownes,
Col. Challon"r, J. Gedney, R. Arkwright, Sir R, P.
Jodrell, Bart., T. B, Saunders, R, Bromley, J, Brom-
ley, C. W. Hoskyns,H, Fowler, R, Beman, Rev. C.

T. .lames, W. Lync, II. Handley, .f. Slack, H.Blan-
cbard, J. Somerset, M.D., Rev. I), (iwilt, K, Hos-
kyn, M.P., J. Burgess, \V. Pickering, F. Neame,
H. Brookraan, \V. Astbury, II. Sadler,.!. Walter, J.
Beasley, R. Groom, T. Umbers, J. Kinder, AV. R,
Lawford, Professor Sewell,\V,P. Gaskell,T. Mount,
T. W. Granger, J. Gamble, J. H. W. Jones, J.
Round, M.P., E. Divett, M.P., T. Knight, R. W.
Baker, J. W. Bury, J. Dadds, sen., W. R.Browne,
J. Browne, J. C. Clark, T. Beale, J. Goulil, R. F.
Shawe, W. Hall, J. Hcdding, W. Beckford, E.
Beck, E. K. .farvis, R. Rig;', E. IMatson, jun., W.
Walter, C. Murton, H. Cobb, R. Cobb, G. Kilby,
H. Dickinson, W. Beck, J. Houghton, Dr. L. Play-
fair, J. H. Turner, S. Grantham, E. E. Dawson, E.
Tull, T, Bennett, T. Wells, P. Barnes, J. Mee, R.
Herbert, G. V. Harcourt, M.P., &c.

His Grace the Duke of Biciimom) jjaving taken
the Chair, said, I have been requested by Lord
Hardwicke to make an excuse for his non-attendance
here to-day, his Lordship being engaged elsewhere
upon important business ; hence I take the chair for
him on the present occasion.

The noble Duke then called upon the Secretary
(iNlr. Hudson) to read the report of the Society's
proceedings for the past year, which was as
follows : —

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

The society having now obtained an amount of nearly
6,500 members, and excited throughout the kingdom,
and even in distant colonies of the empiie, a lively in-
terest in the prosecution and success of agricultural
improvement, it has become a suitable subject of inquiry
at the present moment, to ascertain in what manner
and to what extent its labours have tended effectively
to disseminate a knowledge of improved systems and
carefully tested practices of modern husbandry, and to
advance in their turn, by experiment, observation, and
sound deduction, the standard of correctness in our
general principles of agricultural reasoning.

This important task has been undertaken and accom-
pUihed by Mr. Pusey ; and in the portion of the journal
distributed within these few weeks among themembers,
your former president has given to the pgricultural
world a distinct and most interesting survey of the suc-
cessful mode in wiiich the objects of the society have
slowly, but steadily and effectively, developed them-
selves during th^t brief period of its history. That
contribution to your journal will be regarded as a most
important document by the numerous members into
whose hands it ha?, in the ordinary course of circulation,
already found its way; and while it supplies to the
council a ready exposition of the steady progress of the
.society in its career ofuselulness, it affords to the mem-
bers at large a sali.-:factory assurance of the important
results which must ultimately be obtained in the prose-
cution of its national objects.

The council have to record with great satisfaction
the successful issue of the annual country meeting of
the society at Bristol. The distinguished reception
given to the deputation by Mr. Phippea, at the termi-
nation of his mayoralty, and his subsequent co-opera-
tion, as a member of the local committee, during the
preparations for the meeting, at once established that
perfect cordiality betwei^n the citizens of Bristol and the
racmbsrs of the society, which the no less liberal,
zealoiis, and hospitable co-operation of Lis successor,
Mr, Franklyn, contributed to maintain. To Mr.
Franklyn, as chief mngiitrate of the City of Bristol, the
society were indebted for every attention, and especially
for the excellent arrangements, made under his authority
and that of the high slierifiF, magistrates, and corporation,
in maintaining the public order of the place, and in
consulting the convenience ami safely of the members
who attended the meeting. The best thanks of the
society have already been givea to both of these gen-
tlemen.

64

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Mr. Hantlley, as your president, conveyed also at tlie
time the thanks of the society to Mr. M'Adain, tlie
c'oairmiin, and to the membeis of the Victoria com-
mittee, (or the gratuitous use of tlio spacious ami com-
modious rooms in which the olKcial business of the
meeting- was transacted, and the council dinner took
place ; to Mr. Adams, the owner of the site of the
show-yard ; to the Bristol Institution, for the use of
their theatre, in which Mr. Smith, of Deanston, de-
livered his valuable lecture on draining', to the mi-mbers
of the society ; and to the Commercial-rooms' com-
mittee, the Steam-ship Company, the directors of the
Clifton suspension bridge, the restry of St. Mary,
Redcliif, and the other public bodies who gratuitously
threw open to the free access and inspection of the
members whatever they respectively posses.'-ed of
general interest. The council telt equally under obli-
j^ation, at the same time, to the Society of Merchant
Venturers, Mr. Ireland Clayfield, I\Irs. Worsley, and
other iudividuals, who had liberally offered to the society
the free occupati-jn and di?posal of thtir land. To
Mr, Miles .is the chairman, and to the local oommitlee,
the society were indebted for the excellent local arrang-e-
raentsof the period. The registrations of lodgings by
Mr. Webb Hall, contributed essentially to the conve-
nience of the members who attended the meeting ; and
the devotion of lime and energies so cheerfully given
by Mr. ftlarmont, the secretary of the local commiitee,
to the cause of the society, and the nuraeraus surveys
and plans of proposed and adopted sites for the purposes
of the meeting, including a detailed plan of the Victoria
Ground;, drawn to a large scale, constituted an amount
of invaluable service, which the council most thank-
fully acknowledge.

In addition to the splendid exhibition of Devon cattle
an'l other stock at the meeting, and an exhibition of the
greatest variety of new agricultural implements hitherto
made on any similar occasion, of which an elaborate
report has been drawn up by the judges and printed in
the journal, the numerous assemblage of persons inter-
ested in agriculture from every part of the kingdom,
contributed to render the meeting of a highly iniereU-
ing character. The presence of his Royal Highness the
Duke of Cambridge as a governor, and of the lion.
Henry Everett, as an honorary member, and thuir lively
participation in the proceedings of the meeting, were
circumstances which, in many national points of view,
added a peculiar interest to the occasion.

The council have received from the deputation to the
town of Derby a favourable report of the various sites
inspected as suitable for the purposes of the show-yard,
pavdion, official-rooms, and lecture, to which they were
conducted by the mayor, Mr. Culville, the chairman,
and the members of the local committee ; aud they have
announced in the prize sheet, w hich has been extensively
advertised in the public papers in that neighbourhood,
as well as in the London agiicultural papers, that the
principal day of the show is fixed for Thursday, the
13th of July, and that all certificates will be required to
be lodged with the Secretary by the Isl of June preced-
ing. The council beg to call the attention of the
members of the Society to this rule, they having
decided that in no case whatever ,^hall any certificate
be received after thai. date.

The council have, since their last report, passed a
resolution atl'ecting the order of their meetings, and
defining the character of the busines to be transacted
at ihem ; limiting to the first Wednesday in every
month, at which any governors can be present, the
deliberations and resolutions on the strict official details
of the Society's business, and throwing open to the
meetings held on the three other Wednesdays of the
month the presentation and discussion of communications
on subjects of agricultural interest, all members of the
society being allowed the privilege of attending thesjc
last-mentioned weekly meetings of the council.

At the close of the session in August la?t, the council
confided to Mr. Dean, as honorary director of the
works, the arrangements required for adaiiting the
various pfirts of the society's house to the several object-i

and purposes decided ujion by I hem at their former meet-
ings. To this important task, Mr. Dean, forming a quo-
rum of the house committee, with the friendly co- opera-
tion of iMr. Burke and Mr. Gibbs, has devoted himsell
during the late autumnal vacatio.i ; and with a success
and amount of time and exertion which fully entitle him
to the best acknowledgments of the society. Mr, Dean
has presented to the council his detailed reports of the
progress of the woris, and has explained at length the
various objects to which each department of his plan is
adapted.

Mr. Dean hasarrnng:ed the basement of the house
a« a depository for the display of such implements and
other objects as the council may think fit to exhibit.
On the first floor, in addition to the council and com-
mittee rooms, a libiary and reading room, open to
members, has been provi ltd, in which it is intends d to
form a standard collection of ihe best works on agricul-
tural science and practice, and to take in, as tlity ap-
pear, the various English and foreign periodicals of an
agrieultaial character, and where cases have already
been fitted up fiT the exhibition of Ihe collections of
wheat, grasses, wool, and other objects of permanent
interest. The remainder of the house comprises the
secretary's apartinents, the porter's hall, antl dwelling
room, the secretary's and clerks' room<=, and the various
offices connected with the establishment; all of which
have been fitted up with the greatest attention to the
comfort and convenience of the several pariie^to whom
they apply, and, at the same time, with a due regard to
judicious economy in the outlay.

The council have resolved not to give the prixe to any
of the samples of seed wheat selected at the Liverpool
Meeting, and tried during the past season, with other
varieties commonly grown in the respective neighbour-
hoods where the trials have been made, and of which
the results are given in the last part ol the Journal.

The council have to report to the general meeting
the following adjudicalion of the prizes for the essays
aud reports of experiments in the present year: —

To Barugh Almnck, late of Bishop Burton, in Ihe
East Riding of the county of York, and now of No. 11 ,
(jrcat George-street, Westminster, and 23, Alexander-
square, Bromplon — the prize of 20 sovereigns, for the
best report of experiments on the drill husbandry of
turnips.

To Andrew Leighton, of Chelveston, near Higham
Ferrers, Northamptonshire — the prize of 20 sovereigns,
for the best account of the natural history, anatomy,
habits, and economy of the wire-room, and the best
means of protection agai(i>t its ravage?.

To the Rev. \A'illiani Lewis Rham, i\l,A., Vicar of
Winkfield, near Bracknell, Berkshire —liie jirize of 20
sovereigns, for the best essay on the mechanical pro-
perties of the plough.

'I'o John Barton, of East Leigh, near Emsworlh,
Hampshire — the prize of 20 sovereigns, for the best
account of the rotations of crops suited lorlii.'ht lands.

To George Fownes, doctor of philosophy in the uni-
versity of Giessen, and chemical lecturer in the Medical
School of the Charing-cross Hospital — the prize of 20
sovereigns for the best e^say on the food of plants.

The Council have further to report that no essays
were sent in to compete for the prize of 15 sovereigns,
offered by Ihe Society for the best account of the varie-
ties of wheat suited to dilTerent soils, nor any es^^ay of
sufficient merit on the making of cheese. They have re-
ceived from the judges appointed to consider the merits
of the essays competing for the gold medal offered by
the Society tor the best account on record of the prog-
nostics of natural signs of changes in the weather, their
report on the relative merit of the es-ays on this sub-
ject, and, in accordance with the conditions of that
prize, the Council have placed copies of the selected
essays in the hands of IMr. Morton, jun., of the Whit-
field Example Farm, for the iiurpose of a twelvemonth's
accurate and extensive trial of the practical value and
g( neral correctness of the rules laid down by the re-
spective writers of these essays, as indicating the figns
of such changes of weather.

THE FAlllNIER'S MAGAZINE.

0-5

Tlic council, ia pursuance of the comliiion* of the
prize of 10 sovercig-ns tor an accoiiDt of the best raode
of curing: butter ibr future consumption, and for (ire-
servation in loreign countrie-, liavu had thi^ various
samples *ent in by the coiiiputitors, submitted to the
examination and jud-rnmnt of two eminent dairymen of
the meiropoiij, who have decided, after a very careful
examination, ihat tiie whole of the samples of l)utter
competing for the society's prize are of very inferior
quality, and utterly Avorthless as proofs of any eiKcient
modes having: been employed o( curing the butter for
luture con>umption.

The essays for the prize of 20 sovereigns, for the best
account of the rotations of crops suited for heavy lands,
have received the most careful examination and scrutiny
of the jud^-es in tliat department, without however
agreeing- in their decision on the particular es>ay mo'-t
worthy of the prize. The council have accordingly
appoin ed another member of the society to act as
umpire on the comparative merits of the tv>-o contending
essays, each of wliicli has on this occasion been selected
by tlie judges respectively as the best.

i he Council have placed the names of the Hon. Henry
Everett, the American minister, of Dr. Playfair, the
translator of Dr. I.iebig's Organic Chemistry applied to
Agriculture, and of ftJ.r. Edward Solly, jun., Lecturer
oa Agricultural Chemistry to the Horticultural Society
of London, on the liit of the honorary members of the
society ; and they acknowledged witli their best thanks
the valuable service D.-. Playfair has rendered to the
society in delivering befoi'e the members, at their pre-
sent December meeting, two lectures on the important
subject of the application of the principles of physiology
to the fattening of cattle. — liy order of the council,

Loudon, Dec. 10, 1842. Ja.mes Hudson, Sec.

The noble Ciiairiian, after the Report Lad been
gone ihrougb, read the following statement of the
Society's funds for the period therein named : —

Sr.JTEMENT OF ACCOUNTS FltOM JaNUARY Ir-T TO

June 30rH, inxlusive, 1842.

RECEIPTS. £ S. d.

B.ilance in the hands of the banker?, Jan.

1st, 1842 1028 12 2

Balance in the hands of the Secretary,

Jan. 1st, 1812 23 13 10

Half-year's dividend on £4,700, new 3^

per cents 82 5 0

Half-year's dividend on £1,000, 3^ p'.r

cent, licdiiced Annuities 17 lO 0

Amount of subscriptions and compor-itions 3277 5 0
Sale of Journals 110 18 6

£4540 4 6

PAV.MLNTS. £ S. d.

Peinianent ch-trges 399 10 0

Establisliincot :iS4 6 2

Expenses of Journal 790 1 1

Postage and carriage 28 14 6

Advertisements and miscellaneous pay-
ments 256 3 0

Country meeting*' accounts fio is 6

Cambridge prize to executor of the late

Mr. Putltnd 15 0 0

Purchase of Slock 1000 0 0

Balance in the hands of the banker?,

June ;iOth, 1842 1587 12 1

B;il.ince in the hands of the Secretary,

June 30lh, 1842 12 19 2

£4540 4 G
The above was signed by the auditors, and the Duke
of Richmond imimated if any gentleman then present
had any question to put, he should be glad to answer
it, and thai the ledgers would be open to the inspection
of all parties after the meeting was over.

Earl Si'ENCtri said, in oHering myself to the notice
of the meeting, I have to i)ropose a vote of thanks to

the gentlemen who formed the Judges at the meeting
at Bristol, {Cheers.) Theirs was an onerous duty,
and our thanks should, I think, be specially olFered to
them for the skill they exhibited, and the satisfaction
they afforded in dischtirge of the task which devolved
upon them. (Cheers.) I wish now to say something
of the prospects of this society, which arc, 1 am truly
glad to say, favourable in every respect but, one. This
institution has extended itsell over the country, and is
exciting a great interest amongst all those engaged in
agriculture. {Cheers.) We have men of great s^cience
connected with us, and who have done their utmost n\
support of that admirable science. (Loud cliecrs.)
But there is one drav<rback to all ; I menu the
amount of arrears in subscriptions, which, it
will be perceived, is not diminishing. This may
be attributed to a great number of causes, but
not to any disinclination of members to pay
the amounts due to the society ; neither am I appre-
hensive that any serious deticit will be apparent in the
end. There are, it strikes me, many parties who are
not aware of the facilities aflorded them, by which
money may be transmitted to us; yet 1 should say
that it does require the exertions of every member to
amend this state of things. And, 1 am quite of opinion,
there are individuals in various counties who could
greatly assist us in this matter. 'J'here is one reinedy I
would propose, that is, the necessity of members being
made acquaintetl with the most simple way in which
they could pay their subscriptions. I had not before
heard the detailed statement of this report of the
arrears, but it strikes me that, €is we have nearly
6,500 members, only 3,000 of whom have paid, the
readiest mode that could be suggested is, to pay by
po<,t-office order. If any, now present, should meet with
thofe who have not paid, they might make this sugges-
tion to thera. 'i'his is the only objection I see, which,
if allowed to go on, will be fatal. I have so often ex-
pressed my opinions upon the advantages of this society,
that it would be unnecessary for me to dwell upon thern
now at any length ; I shall merely conclude by pro-
posing a vote of thaiiks to the judges.

F. Pym, Esq., seconded the motion of the noble
Earl. He considered there were two ways of getting
over the difKculties mentioned by Earl Spencer. One
of them, it was true, involved expense— that of having
collectors in different counties, who, for 6d. in the
pound, would be gl.d to collect the subscriptions; the
other was for members themselves to collect. Mr.
Pym concluded by observing that, were the latter plan
adopted, he would uuelertake to collect, with very little
trouble to himself, nearly the whole amounts due in the
county of Bedford. (Clieers.)

Colonel Cfalloxer next rose and said: — From
what Lord Spencer has said, I feel myself bound,
after having been in the finance chair, to give as
clear a statement as possible of the matter touching
the arrears of subscriptions. Up to the 1st of
January, 1842, there were 3,277 remaining un-
paid. The proportion to arrears and composition,
we have pretty accurately discovered ; but how far we
shall have to put the full determination of the Council
into efi'ect is rather difficult to determine. I should
propose, then, that a much further investment should
take plaee. We have now 102 Life Governors, which,
at 50^ each, produces 5,100/.: we have, also, 367 Life
Members, yielding, at lOL, 3,760/.— making a total of
8,860/., which sum, I think, ought to be invested. Last
year, we purchased 1,000/. stock, and we have now in
the funds 6,700/. It is, therefore, very evident that
we ought to have Lad out more money at interest ; but
the reason is the amount of arrear, which appears on
the sheet 1 now hold in my hand. Your arrears at the
same time in 1838, were 30/., I)ut which have since
been reduced to 7/., which amount vvas, it is conceived,
owing by persons who are dead, consequently, not
likely to be recovered. At the same period in 1839,
they were 106/. ,■ in 1840, 264/.: in 1841, 1,10B/. ;
then, if you take the arrears witli thi^aud the preceding
years, they will be found 2,315/.— altogether in three

F

60

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

years l,714/.-making a total of 5,151/. A gentle-
man !n(l said that a Committee should have been
formed to collect the arrears, by which they would
have been secured. A collector would, in my judg-
ment, have grreat difficulties to surmount, and no satis,
factory result could be looked forward to, I agree
with Lord Speccer, that individual members as collec-
tors would be useful ; so would also be a county-list. In
taking leave of the financial chair, I have to return
thanks ta the Committee; while I shall be most happy
at all times to give this society every assistance in my
power (cheers).

Mr. PusEY said he had great pleasure in ofifering his
best thanks to Dr. Playfair, who had given them two
able lectures relative to agriculture {cheers). He (iS'Ir.
Pusey) did not think that hardly any person was in a
position to offer any new feature in agriculture ; yet he
bad rauc!i gratilication in offering Ins tribute of praise
to cne whom he hoped had opened a road which might
prove valuable to him at no distant day (cheers). He
therefore proposed that the thanks of the meeting be
given to Dr. Playfair for his talented exertions.

The motion having been put from the chair, and
carried unanimously,

The Duke of Richmond, addressing Dr. Playfair,
said— I have great pleasure in conveying to you the
thanks of tl-iis meeting. I join with it in the hope that
future events may tend to your advantage (applause).

Mr. Handley having proposed a vote of thanks to
the Duke of Richmond for his able conduct in the
chair, his grace replied by stating that he did not think
any merit was due to him, as he there enjoyed a com-
plete sinecure. But he agreed that this Society rau-t
prove of great benefit to agriculture, and coa?equently
to the country at large (cheers).

The meeting was then declared dissolved.

At a Monthly Council held on Wednesday, the 7th of
December— present, his Grace the Duke of Richmond,
K.G., in the chair. Earl of Hardwicke, Earl of Ducie,
Hon. Captain Spencer, Sir Hungerford Hoakyns, Bart.,
Colonel Austen, Thomas Raymond Barker, Esq.,
Colonel Challoner, C. R. Colville, Esq., M. P., James
Dean, Esq,, Henry Handley, Esq., W. G. Hayter, Esq.,
M.P., C. Hillyard, Esq., W. Fisher Hobbs, Esq.,
Samuel Jonas, Esq., George Kimberley, Esq., John
Kinder, Esq., Philip Pusey, Esq., M.P., W.Woods
Page, Esq., Dr. Lyon Playfair, William Shaw, Esq.,
John ViUiers Shelley, Esq., Rev. J. R. Smythies, Pro-
fessor Sewell, Professor Solly, Charles Stokes, Esq.,
and H. S. Thompson, Esq. —

Colonel John Le Couteur, Viscount of the Island of
Jersey, and B. T. Brandreth Gibbs, Esq., of Haif-
moon -street, Piccadilly, and the Lodge, Old Brompton,
were elected Governors, and the following gentlemen
Members of the Society :— Thomas Holme Maude,
Blawith Cottage, Cartmell, Lancashire ; James Har-
rison, Crimble, Rochdale, Lancashire ; Samuel Holker
Haslam, Greenside Cottage, Milnlhorpe, Westmore-
land ; Daniel Robert Scratton, Mittoa Hall, Southend,
Essex ; A. Thomas Edwards, Colchester, Essex ; Cap-
tain Williatn Jones, Glanbrane, Neath, Glamorgan-
shire ; Alfred Henry Cherry, Clapham, Surrey ; Edwin
East, Streatham, Surrey; William Bealtie Booth,
Carclew, Pcnrjn, Cornw;ill,

Colonel Challoner presented the Report of the
Finance Commiitee, and Mr. Dean that of the House
Committee, which were respectively confirmed. On
the motion of Mr. Hayter, M.P., it v/as resolved, that
it be referred to the Finance Commiitee to suggest the
mode which, in their opiuioB, i^ most advisable for the
purpose of colleclin;? the subscripdons in arrear; and
to report to the Monthly Council in February next.

On the motion of Mr. Handley, it was resolved, that
the replies received to the letter addressed by him, at
the request of the Council, to the members in arrear of
their subscription, be referred to a committee, consisting
of Mr. Shaw, Mr, Hayter, and Mr. Dean, with a re-

quest that they would report the result of their exami-
nation to the IMonthly Council in February.

It was resolved that all Books, &c., borrowed from
the Society by any of the Members, should be returned,
for the purpose of completing the Catalogue of the
Library.

The Draught of the Report to the General Meeting
was laid before the Council, and referred to the Journal
Committee.

Mr. Handley laid before the Council a report of his
cumniunicatioii with the Cliairraan of the Great West-
ern Railway, when he was requested to form, with Earl
Spencer and Mr. Pu'ey, l\LP., a deputation to confer
vvitli the Chairman and Directors of that Company on
the subject of the complaints made in reference to the
Railway charges at the period of the Bristol Meeting.

iMr. Handley also laid before the Council his report
on the schedule of Prizes to be offered for Agricultural
Implements at the Meeting at Derby ; when the
Council having proceeded through the list of the
various prizes proposed in that department, appointed
a committee, consisting of Mr. Handley, Mr. Barker,
]>ord Ducie, and Mr. Shaw, to arrange and direct the
publication of the General Prize Sheet and forms of
Certificate for the ensuing Country Meeting.

Colonel Challoner presented the Report of the Mem-
bers of the General Derby Committee, who had visited
that town as a deputation on the 15th of November
last, by direction of the Council, for the purpose of in-
specting and rcporling on the most suitable sites for the
various objects of the meeting. This report was adopted
by the Council, and reterred to the General Derby
Committee for the discussion of its details, and such
communication as they may require with the Local
Committee in reference to them.

On the motion of IMr. Handley, Mr. Piwkes, C. E.,
was authorised to purchase for the Society, before the
inceting at Derby, two standard dynamometers, each
of different range of draught respectively, for greater
and less resistance, to be reserved for the purpose of
the trial of implements.

Mr. Gibbs gave notices of motion for the Monthl
Council in February on points connected with the an-
nouncement (by means of a printed card) of the dates
of meeting to the members of the Council, the rale of
advertizing in the Journal, and the mode of its beicg
printed.

The list of new committees to come into operation
on the 1st of January, under the new bye-law, was dis-
cussed and settled.

The following communications and presents were
received : —

Sir Francis Mackenzie, Bart,, a letter to the Earl of
Hardwicke, on a fair trial of the comparative merits of
the various ploughs now in use throughout Great Bri-
tain.

Miss Rlolesworth : An ear and sample of barley
raised from corns found amongst Turkish Wheat.
It had ripened nearly a fortnight before the Chevalier
in the same field. It was grown on loam : subsoil,
yellowish, sandy clay, under-drained. Miss Moles-
worth expressed her willingness to place at the disposal
of the Society a portion of tlie seed, should it be thought
worth growing where its lipening a fortnight earlier
than the Chevalier would be an advantage.

JNliss Smedley : Specimens of wheat.

Sir Harry Verney, Bart. : A specimen of the Hope-
tounoat.

Mr. Henry Price : Specimen of a prolific wheat
found growing in a garden in Kent.

Mr. Hollist: Specimen of Talavera wheat grown in
Sussex.

Sir Charles Morgan, Bart. : Samples of cloth made
from the wool of the black mountain sheep of South
Wales, made up without any process of dyeing.

Professor Lindley : Roots of the Bassano Beet, a
sort of mangel-wurzel with turnip-like roots, from the
north of Italy, probably a trial on land that will not
carry mangel-wurzel.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

67

Mr. Ornuby Gore, M.P., and Mr, Fisher Hobbs :
Specimens of turnip'.

Mr. J. F. Teacey : Regulntlous and premiums of
the Winchcomb Furmers' Club.

The Duke of Richmond : Two impressions of a lilho-
,?r;iphic viuw of the Pavilion and Great Dinner of the
Ili^jhliind and Agricultural Society at Edinburgh.

Mr, Edv\-ard Dixon : A n impression of the portrait of
IMr, John Price, by F. Tatham, of Winchester.

Mr. Davis : A framed and coloured print of the Duke
of Bedford's Prize Herefordshire Bull at the Cambridge
I\Iee!infr.
Mr. Thompson : Specimen of a draining tile.
Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland — the
Quarterly Journal ; Mr. Shaw— the Farmer's Maga-
zine ; Mr, Youalt— the ^'eterinarian; ftlarlin Doyle—
Cyclopse.lia of Husbandry ; IMr. Stephen — Book of the
Farm.

The Council then adjourned to Saturday the 10th of
Decen;bcr; when there were present the Duke of
Richmond, in the chair, Earl Spencer, Thomas Ray-
mond Barker, Djq., James Dean, Esq., C. Ililiyard,
Esq , W. Fisher Hobb?, Esq., Philip Pusey, Esq.,
M.P., Francis Pym.Esq., andH. S. Thompson, Esq.
John Bell Crompton, Esq., iMayor of Derby, was
elected a member of the Derby Local Committee.

Mr. Pusey laid before the Council the schedule of
Implement Prizes, wiiicli was adopted and ordered
to be advertised in the usual ajriu-ulturnl pajiers.

Tlie report of the Council to the jjeneral meeting was
received from the Journal Committee, and adopted.

The Judges of the samples competing for the prize
offered by the Society lor cured butter, transmitted
the report of their examinutio.i of the several jars, when
tiie Council decided that no prize should be awarded
to any of the samples, but that a compensation of 9d.
per lb., as the estimated original market price of the
butter when made, should be allowed to each of the
parties who had com.neted.

'J'he Council then adjourned over the Christmas re-
cess to the first Wednesday in February.

AN EXAMPLE TO LANDLORDS.— At a rent-
day of G. C. Courlhope, Esq., of Willegh, near 'i'ice-
hurst, that liberal gentleman made a deduction of 20
per cent, from the rents of his tenants, who had com-
plained of the great depression wliieh existed, and ob-
served that s-hould the times not be more promising on
the next occasion he would be willing to act accord-
ingly. The farmer's labourers in the vicinity are raising
a labour rate amongst themselves to keep them from
going into the union. — Morning Ihrald.

RFDUCTION OF RENTS.-Lady De Mauley,
at the audit held at Paulett on Tuesday se'nnight,
kindly authorized her steward to return to her tenants
20/. per cent, out of their respective rents. This con-
siderate lady is the owner of very cx'ensive property in
and around Pawlcit, including the fertile district of the
Pawlelt Hams ; and has also very large possessions in
Dorset and Gloucestershire, throughout which, the
same generous manifestation will no doubt be e.xtended.
Taunton Courier,

PvFNTS. — Francis Phillips, Esq., the proprietor of
the Abbey Cwmhyr Estates, in consideration of the re-
duced prices of landed stocks and distressing pressure
under which the farmers at present are labouring, has
proposed, as an encouragement to his tenants, to re-
duce, at his next Christmas rent meeting, the rent* due
at JMichaelmas next, ten percent. This privilege his
tenants who quit at Lady-day next will enjoy, as well
as tho-e that continue for the future.— i/ere/orrf Times.
We are happy to find that several of the landlords in
Norfolk have postponed their audits, in consequence of
the distressed state of agiicnlture, and wistiiui' to give
their suffering tenantry a chance of obtaining a better
price for their corn, rather than compel them to sell out
at the present ruinous prices. We trust and hope the
Suffolk gentry will be actuated by the same good feeling,
which we are sure will be highly appreciated by the
occupiers.— Jpsaif/i Journal.

DRAINAGE OF LAND AND
TOWNS.

TO THE EDITOR Or THE TAUMEr's MAOAZtNE.

fScfi Advertisement. J

Sir, — The object of the advertisement, is to call
attention to a publication now in progress — on the
drainage of lands and towns— upon which I am de-
sirous of laying an outline before your readers, and
will, therefore, refer to the several articles in the
order in which they appear in the advertisement.

Strafford Marshes. — These marshes were inun-
dated to a serious extent in January in the last
year, occasioned by a sudden thaw after a long
frost and heavy snow, and a very high tide ; and
again in October, occasioned principally by an ex-
traordinary high tide; also in November, from long
continued rains and a high tide. So injurious were
these floods to the occupiers of land in the marshes,
and of houses in the village of Stratford, that seve-
ral of the inhabitants really imagined that, from
some neglect or something worse on the part of the
marsh jury and bailiff, these unusually severe vi-
sitations had alone arisen; and, acting upon that
belief, early in the last year got up a memorial as-
suming as facts things quite impossible, never once
glancing at the true cause of the evils ; and so sa-
tisfied were the memorialists that they would be
able to prove every word in their memorial to be true,
that they printed and circulated it, employed coun-
sel to support the allegations contained in it, and
during two long days, of nine hours each, battled
their case before J. B. Bosanquet, Esq., (in the
chair) Sir J. Henry Pelley, Bart., and eight other
commissioners, with an ardour and an earnestness
quite extraordinary. Mr. Turner (a very rising soli-
citor) and myself, on the behalf of the marsh
jury and bailiff, printed and circulated a reply
to the allegations contained in the memorial, toge-
ther with a report which I had drawn up,
from my professional as from my local
knowledge of the circumstances which had
mainly contributed to, if they had not wholly
produced, the floods in question. In that report
I have said — " I am convinced that the evils
complained of in the memorial had their origin
in causes far different from those stated ; which
causes neither the marsh jury, the bailiff, nor the
commissioners themselves could have averted, nor
can in future avert without more extensive powers
than it appears they now possess ; these causes be-
ing the insufficiency of the present rivers to convey
away the flood waters arising from the drainage of
the land on each side of the valley of the Lea for
agricultural purposes ; from the interruption of the
free flow of the waters by the embankments of
the Eastern Counties and Northern and Eastern
railways, and from the deep cuttings in the marshes
on each side of the railways for the pm-pose of raising
the roadway, those cuttings conveying the flood
waters with greater rapidity to the Thames than
heretofore; hence the necessity for widening and
deepening the ancient brooks and rivers wdiere prac-
ticable, and where not practicable liy the forma-
tion of new channels of outlet, and by those means
only can serious inundations ever be prevented."

In the Stratford case almost every allegation of
the memorialists was disproved to the satisfaction of
the commissioners, and to a large assemblage of
persons, brought together from very distant places,
30 important was the enquiry considered. One

F 2

68

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

very importanf, fact was mentioned by the cliairnian
towairls tlie close of tlie first day's enquiry, well
deserving the serious consideration of philosojihers
and men of science. " lie would," he said, "just
mention that, from some reason or other, the tides
have been higher of late years than formerly. In
1810 the greatest flood was 2 feet 5 inches above the
Trinity standard; between that time and 1814, 2
feet 7 inches ; in 1815, 2 feet ; in 1824, 3 feet; and
on this occasion, in 1841, the tide rose no less than
3 feet 4 inches above the Trinity standard : from
which the memorialists would see that there were
other causes for the evil beyond those alleged by
them."

I refer in the advertisement to a report on the
drainage of South Holland, undertaken by me at the
instance of a noble duke, the late Right Honourable
Sir Joseph Banks, Bart., and several oilier iioble-
meu and gentlemen, to show that my attention has
been called to the draining of land from a very
distant period. The last considerable drainage car-
ried into effect by me was in a parish in Hunting-
donshire, partly fen and partly high land. As a
land-agent I have ever considered draining to be
the first step towards improvement, and to the land-
owner and tenant farmer, paramount, in ])oint of
advantage, over all other agricultural improvements,
and as regards the health of the neighbourhood, of
the very highest importance.

Why Mr. Handley's bill did not pass I cannot
quite understand; its objects were such as every
landowner must acknowledge to be just and neces-
sary. Perhaps it would have better suited the taste
of the aristocracy had it been an enabling and not
a directing bill ; with that change in its construc-
tion I have no doubt it would pass if again brought
forward ; and if, after some experience, it should
be found to require enlarged and stronger powers,
an amended bill might supply the defect.

Mr. Pusey's bill shared a better fate, although,
practically, little advantage has yet arisen from it.
Still it is a good point to start anew from, and I will
hope that in anothersession of Parliament an amen-
ded bill will be introduced, taking away or modi-
fying the power of the Court of Chancery to interfere,
giving the jurisdiction to the Judges of Assize when
on the circuit in the several counties; or, what pro-
bably would be better, converting the present
Tithe Commissioners, whose labours are drawing
towards a close, into a permanent Drainage
Commission, with the requisite powers to ena-
ble them to deal with the whole subject.
I hope also, that the provisions of the bill will
be extended to the estates of corporations, ecclesi-
astical as well as civil, since no property is so
badly managed as to drainage as are corporation
lands generally.

The next matter in the advertisement relates to a
subject of great and serious moment to the country
at large, that of giving power to the surveyors of the
highways to cleanse and deepen water-courses from
their head or source to some main brook or
river, the first great step to thorough -draining; nor
does there appear to be any solid objection to that
power being given to surveyors of highways which
might not be urged with equal reason against allow-
ing those officers to scour, cleanse, and deepen
not only the ditches and drains which are on the
sides of the public highways, but those also which
are within the adjoining fields, if the ditches happen
to be on the field side of the fences.

Those powers, it will be remembered, Avere iirgt

given to surveyors by the present General Highway
Act, and have, as I know from exi^erience, been
attended with very beneficial results. But that would
not be the only advantage of such an extended jiro-
vision. Hundreds of labourers would get employ-
ment from the landowners or their tenants in these
eleansings and deepenings during the winter season,
upon finding that the surveyors had the power of
ordering the work to be performed, and of charging
the landowner or occupier of the land with a portion
of the expense. ^lany a good labourer would then
get work who now, alas ! seeks relief at the union
workhouse. As a guardian in a union of parishes,
partly town, but chiefly agricultural, having a po-
pulation little short of sixty thousand souls, it dis-
tresses me to witness week by week the claims
of honest industrious men and their families famish-
ing from the want of food, the guardians having no
power to assist them further than offering relief to
them in the house — to them a prison; because, when
there, shut out from the world, who enquires for the
poor man ? who thinks of fetching him back to his
home — once a home — some ten or twelve miles ofl',
to do a day's work? It is not practicable to do so ;
there he pines away his strength. And when he
fruits the house, as the spring returns, broken-
hearted and bowed down to the earth, his cottage
and his furniture gone, he becomes good for but
little, and his children — if he has children — from
being made paupers in their younger days, remain
paupers all their lives ! His wife too, from mixing
with the other inmates, many of them of the most
vicious description, soon loses all self-respect, be-
comes idle, slothful, and careless, regardless of what
may happen next — a burthen to herself, to the
parish, and all about her.

Still, I am bound to say, I cannot blame the law,
or the commissioners, or the guardians — at least not
the guardians of the Edmonton Union. They
would gladly adopt any means which the law will
allow, of giving beneficial emjiloyment to all able-
bodied labourers who apply for relief, if it were in
their power to do so, and would hail any measure
to which the legislature might give effect, that
should have for its object the providing of beneficial
employment for them.

That beneficial employment for a large number
of agricultural labourers would result from I'cn-
dering those provisions of the General Highway
Act which relate to the appointing of district
surveyors compulsory, it is impoisible to doubt,
particularly if the districts should be made co-
extensive with the several Unions appointed for the
relief of the poor; the guardians being authorized to
make such appointments, and the district sur-
veyors having such powers given to them as would
enable them to scour, cleanse, deepen, widen, and
extend all sewers, drains, and watercourses from
their head or source to the nearest brook or other
outlet within their respective districts.

^^■hen the Right Hon. the Speaker of the House
of Comnmns, and a noble Duke, distinguished as
the friends of agriculture and of the industrious la-
bouring classes, were engaged in carrying the Gen-
eral Highway Bill througli ]iarliament, I had the
honour of attending them upon several occasions,
in reference to that Bill; when it was distinctly
understood, that if the clauses which enabled the
rate-payers to form parishes into districts for the
l)urpose of appointing efficient paid surveyors
should not be taken advantage of by parishes, it
would be lor parliament to amend the Act, by in-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

69

troducing clauses of a compulsory character, aucl
such other ameuilnients as experience might sug-
gest. The experience of live years has shown that
few, if any, parishes have formed such districts, and
therefore it is that I venture to hope tliat tlic uohle
Duke will think the time has arrived when a
compulsory measure may l)e iutrodiicod into par-
liament with tlie greatest advantage to the country.
The drainage of towns is the last item in the ad-
vertisement.

For illustration I have selected a densely popu-
lated neigiihourhood, probahly the worst drained
town district iu the kingdom, viz., the parishes of
Whitechajjel, Spitalfields, and Bethnal-green,
situated north-eastward of, and adjoining to, the
city of London, between Whitechaptl road on the
south-east, Bishopsgate- street and the High-
street, Shoreditch, on the west, Hackney-road
on the uorth, and Victoria-park, now in the
course of formation, on tlie east. Between White-
chapel and low-water mark in the old river Lea,
at Old Ford, the ftxil in the ground is very consi-
derable, quite sufficient to effectually drain the
district in question, and terminating in a situation
most favourable for receiving, filtering, and pre-
serving of the soil, issuing from the jiroposed
great sewer for agricultural purposes.

In the advertisement I have given a general out-
line of the direction in which I would recommend
the sewer to be carried, viz., through a line of streets
to commence at the termination of the street now
in progress at Spitalticlds church, and proceeding
thence to the new Victoria-])ark, also in progress,
thence through the park and across the higli-
road leading from Mile-end and Bow, through
Old Ford to Hackney, thence across the marshes
below Old Ford ; tlure to terminate in a series of
ponds, the foul water to be filtered by means of
sluices easy of construction, leaving the soil in a
solid state, for removal by barge or otherwise, in the
direction of demand for agricultural purposes, pro-
ducing, beyond all doubt, thousanils of tons of the
finest manure yearly, and the filtered water, full of
ammonia, might be conveyed into tlie marshes
below Stratford, to irrigate the land to a large
extent. Nor can it be doubted that a continuation
of the road, after passing through the Victoria-
park, across the marshes (about half a mile in ex-
tent) in the direction of the village of Stratford,
terminating near to the new church, and to the sta-
tions of tire Eastern Counties and Northern and
Eastern Railways, would have a most beneficial ten-
dency, not only in promoting a direct com-
munication between the eastern and north-
ern counties with the Victoria i>atk, the
City, the Regent's-park, and the west end of
the town genersdjy, but would inciease the
value of property in those directions to an extent of
which but a very faint idea can at this time be
formed. Nor would the continuation of the new
street, now in progress, to Spitalfiehls-chnrch, in
the direction of Sliort ditch-church, and following
the present line of street by Hoxton-square to the
City-road, be less beneficial than tlie one last des-
cribed, because avoiding a narrow and most incon-
venient portion of street, which is between the ter-
minus of the Eastern Counties and Northern and
Eastern Railways and Shoreditch church ; besides
which, it is nu>re tlian probable that at no very
fUstant period a market for butcher's mcat,pordtry,
fish, roots, vegetables and fruits, upon an extensive
scale, will be formed at or near to the terminus of

the railways in Shoreditch, in the stead of the
present Spitalfields market; which is much too
small and inconvenient for the amount of the traffic
carrying on, and would also be a means of getting
rid of a great nuisance in the narrow part of the
street l)etween the said terminus and Shoreditch-
ehurch. Such a market as that proposed
would greatly increase the traffic on the railways,
and would be beneficial to the farmers of Essex,
Suffolk, Norfolk, Lincolnshire, and to the in-
habitants of the neighbourhood of the market
generally.

Since" I first published an outline of the plan
herein described, a commission has been appointed
by Her Majesty the Queen, to inquire into the
drainage and other considerable improvements of
which London and its neighbourhood is susceptible;
to those commissioners my labours will be sub-
mitted, in full confidence that they will have that
attention which may be due to their mcrits,if any —
and I require no more. J- Dean,

Tottenham, Dec. 21.

FARMER'S CLUB HOUSE.

A meeting of tlie provisional committee, formed
for the purpose of considerinp; the propriety of
establishing a Farmer's Club House in London,
was heltl pursuant to notice, on Thursday, Dec. 1.
About sixteen members of the Committee at-
tended. There were also several gentlemen pie-
scnt who took an interest in the subject, but wiio
weie not members of ilie Committee. Tlie chair
was taken by John Hudson, Esq., of Castleacre,
Norfolk. The object of the meeting having been
stated, a lengthened discussion look place in re-
ference to the amount of entrance fee and annual
subscription, and also as to the localiiy in which a
clubhouse should be situated, 50 as to meet the
convenience of farmers visiting the metropolis,
and much useful information upon the subject was
elicited. There was not the slightest difference of
opinion on the advantage of establishing a Far-
mer's Club House. Some of the members were
desirous of having a high entrance fee, with a view
to form a fund for erecting a building at some fu-
ture period ; but the more general feeling appeared
to be that both tlie entrance fee and the subscrip-
tion should be kept as low as possible. l{e.solu-
tioris were agreed upon, and the Committee broke
up. Un Friday morning another meeting was
held, and two resolutions were passed, first —
" That it was highly desirable that a club house
should be established, the members to pay an en-
trance fep, and an annual subscription." And,
secondly— •" That the Provisional Committee
be requested to give their best attention to
the subject, to prepare a prospectus, and adopt
such means as they may deem best calculated to
ensure the success of the object." We are given
to understand that the Committee will go actively
to work without delay, and that it will not be long
befor*; we shall be enabled to announce the pros-
liectus. In the inean time any suggestions upon
the subject will be acceptable to the Committee.—
i\/</?7i Lune. Ei press.

70

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE PROPOSED FARMERS' CLUB
IN LONDON.

" UuiOQ is strength."

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPIIESS.

Sir, — Tlie above proverb I wish to see tbe agri-
culturists more generally adopt ; for, though few or
none will deny its truth, yet our acts do not seem
to imply that wo wished to be strong, or believed in
its efficacy. Doubtless some may say we have made
g'reat progress of late towards union, in assembling
at county agricultural meetings, and at the great
Royal Agricultural Society; and that our being scat-
tered over the whole face of the country prevents
our uniting, as townsmen may do who are all hud-
dled together, and maj-^ be assembled at any time
by the ring of a bell, or such like. But if we can-
not be so easily called together, we can unite in
petitioning, when our common interest is assailed ;
could all subscribe something to promote our gene-
ral interest, if needed ; could all patronise the Far-
mers' Club-houses in London.

It cannot be denied that we should be a powerful
body if united, and should tiien be able to stand
against our common enemy, the Anti-corn Law
League, who were met together the other week, and
giving from fifty to three hundred pounds each
towards demolishing the little protection we now
have on corn. It is owing entirely to union that
they are become such a powerful body : by union
they can make what laws they like, and take from
us whatever protection best pleases them ; and by
disunion we are unable to stand against them, for
the good of ourselves and the agricultural popula-
tion. I know not how it can be said of the manu-
facturers that they are a more distressed people
than the agriculturists, when they subscribe their
hundreds of pounds— which I know would be quite
out of the power of the farmers to do— thereby
shewing that they have more money to proclaim
their poverty than we have to maintain our present
situation.

All should now unite in patronising the Farmers'
Club-house in London, for the many social and
other advantages it possesses. There we could
easily meet, since railroads are so common, for
adopting measures to relieve our distress, or peti-
tion for the removal of grievances : it would be the
agricultural focus. I fear many farmers will plead
that they are very seldom in London ; but if they
were never there, they had better subscribe the
trifle it would require— for since we have such ener-
getic neighbours in the north striving hard for re-
peal of import duties, we must stir too, and make
small sacrifices to preserve the little we have, and
prevent our whole stock in trade from being seized
for debt and taxes. A Fakmer.

Dec. 20.

AGRICULTURAL QUERIES.

Sir,-- Would you be kind enough to ask some of
your scientific correspondents to answer you the fol-
lowing questions. I farm a magnesian limestone larm
in the following course .-—turnips manured with
twelve 3 horse cart loads of rotten manure per acre;
barley, seeds pastured ; wheat drilled with .5 cwt.
of rape dust per acre. The turnips are always eaten
on the ground with sheep where grown. What is
the quantity of organic and inorganic mntter taken

off by each crop? and what is the quantity of tliose
matters returned by the n^.anure and rape dust, as
well as by the droppings of tlie sheep whilst eating
the turnips and seeds, aud by the rotting of the
roots of the clover and seeds ploughed in for
wheat ?

Say my crops are — turnips, 20 tons; barley, 33
bush. ; wheat, 27 bush, per acre.

The answering of the above queries will greatly
oblige, yours, C. C.

Sir, — I should feel much obliged to any one of
your readers that could inform me what is the pre-
vailing colour of the Ayrshire breed of cattle, and
their peculiar qualities? and at what price some
of the best breeds could be procured for, say, two
years old in calf? An early reply in your paper will
oblige, sir, your obedient servant,

Dec. 14. A Constant Reader.

Sin, — I would feel under an obligation if any of
your correspondents would favour me with the most
expeditious and (ffeclive, and at the same time, eco-
nomical method of reducing couclito manure ; and
if the}' can give me tbe analysis of the manure so
made, it would be an aduitionnl obligation.

I have an opportunity of obtaining a considerable
quantitv of the top and branches of the fir tree, prin-
cipally larch, the ashes of which I wish to put upon
my land ; perhaps some of your chemico-agricultu-
tural friends will oblige me by stating their compo-
sition, and the most rational mode of applying them
as a fertilizer.

I am, your obedient servant,

Tees\C(tter-s\de, Dec, 12. A Goth.

ANSWER TO QUERIES.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — Your journal of the 7th November came to
hand this evening. In it I observe aletter subscribed
" A North Country Farmer," containing several
queries in I'egard to the experiment in turnip hus-
bandry inserted in your number for the 24th Octo-
ber last.

As this experiment was merely a repetition of a
former one reported and minutely described in your
journal for the 30th December 1839, 1 might simply
refer " A North Country Farmer" to it, only as-
suring him that in the late instance there was no
variation from the practice previously reported. By
perusing that former communication he will also
find that a heavier crop is not the only, or even the
most important, advantage resulting from complete
autumn tillage ; that it renders the farmer almost
independent as regards the state of the weather at
the period of sowing, while the land will be in a
higher state of preparation than he can bring it to
by any possible spring tillage.

That "A North Country Farmer" may have no
room to complain that I evade his questions, I shall
give answers to tiiein all, though perhaps not in the
order in which he puts them ; only pre-
mising that if he would be kind enough
to reconsider the paper on which his queries are
founded, and reflect that it is simply to report the
comjiarative advantage as to quantity of crop, he
may be led to perceive that the only question ap-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

71

plieal)le to the case is the fiuantity and quality of
the manure appHort to both portions of the field.

The field on wliich the late cxperiincnt was made
had lain at least fifty years in grass and pastured.
For the purpose of draining and otlicr improvements
it was broke up in the autumn of 1838. In 1839 a
crop of oats was taken ; in 1840 a erop, partly tur-
nips, beans, and potatoes — both the last without
applying any manure; in 184:1 the whole was
cropped with wheat ; and in 1842 turnips. Farm-
yard manure was used on both portions of the field,
carted direct from the close, and immediately applied
to the drills. jVo means were employed to aseer--
tain the exact quantity ; for having always a good
supply, a liberal allowance is generally given.

Jioth portions of the field were equally treatedasto

quantity andquality. Before sowing the autumn pre-
pared portion, a brush harrow, as in 1839, was passed
along the drills to destroy any annuals that had ve-
getated, and a double-moulded plough was employed
to lay up any portion of the soil that had fallen
down. The spring prepared portion was ploughed
from stubble the previous November, and the drills
made up immediately before sowing. The practice
on this farm was formerly to have the width of
drills 28 inches ; but farther experience seems to
shew that 30 inches is preferable, and from 12 to 15
inches betwixt plant and plant. The weight re-
ported included both bulbs and stems.

I am. Sir, yours most respectfully,

James Scougali-.
Bulgoue, East Lothian, Nov. 30.

AGRICULTURAL REPORT.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR
DECEMBER.

In laying before our readers a general review of
agricultural affairs of the month, we will, in the
first place, direct their attention to the atmospheric
influences. That they have been, on the whole,
favourable to vegetation no doubt can be enter-
tained, yet the young wheat plants have stood in
need of a few sharp frosts to check premature
exuberance. It is, however, gratifying to learn
that they are exhibiting, in almost all parts of
England, a very flourisliing and vigorous appear-
ance, and bid fair for good forthcoming crops.
From the month's commencement until its close
scarcely a day elapsed without rain having fallen,
yet the actual amount, in the aggregate, has not
exceeded that at the corresponding period of some
past years. On the 22nd and 25th the weather be-
came seasonably cold, and thin ice was produced ;
but with these exceptions it has proved extremely
mild, tlie barometer having stood uraisually high.

The exertions of the agricultural body have, we
have great pleasure in stating, been crowned with
complete success in the process of committing
the seed to the soil, and it is admitted by all
that a finer period for that purpose has not
been recollected since 1836. Thus far iratters
are cheering, but when we compare the value of
the produce on hand with that of last yc:.r, we
perceive much cause for despondency ; and, not-
withstanding some persons engaged in farming
appear to be locking forward to an improved state
of things bearing immediately upon their inter-
ests, we regret thtit we cannot lead ourselves to
the same conclusion. Now it will be conceded
that supply has much influence upon the ruling
prices. Although partial failures of the wheat
crop in this country have been apparent, we arc
firmly convinced that the actual yield was neaily
adequate to meet every want until the conclusion
of next harvest, unless, indeed, it should prove
a late one. Add to this the immense imports of
foreign corn, and we shall find a surplus on hand.
We have all along contended, and still contend,
that the quotations of corn must rule low,
especially as relates to wheat, and the cor-
rectness of our assertions has been fully
borne_ out by passing events. It is true, large
quantities of wheat of foreign produce have gone
into consumption during the last two months, yet
the quantities in warehouse are still large, they

amounting to nearly a million and a half of quar-
ters, and both holders and speculators appear to
be impressed with the belief that the spring mar-
kets will be anything but brisk ; however, the
transactions at the various shipping ports up the
Baltic, Black Sea, and Mediterranean, for forward
delivery, have been limited in the extreme.

A fewer number of really inferior samples of
wheat offering at Mark Lane and elsewhere has
been scarcely ever noticed ; and the same observa-
tion may be applied to most other kinds of grain.
The averages have again ruled extremely low, and
any alteration in the duties for some time henceis
wholly out of the question.

The potato crop has been more than usually
large, with quality seldom surpassed, much less
equalled. Tlie process of raising it has occupied
much of the time of the farm labourers, and
the receipts at the various markets have been,
very large. This, together with the abun-
dance of green vegetables, has caused the de-
mand for all descriptions to rule heavy at very
low rates of currency— the very best York reds
have sold with difiicufty at 60s. per ton. Onlj^ one
or two small cargoes have arrived in London from
Ireland, and from Holland and Fiance about 70
tons have been received. The latter being of a
very inferior description, have produced only from
203. to 30s. per ton.

Owing to the absence of moisture in August,
the growth of turnips has proved small. On some
of the light soils, scarcely half a crop has been
procured, with a considerable deficiency on the
heavy ones; the graziers have, therefore, found it
necessary to use more cake, carrots, bay, &c., for
their stock, which has fared tolerably well. As
to the epidemic, this has again made its appear-
ance, though not with its accustomed virulence,
in some of our northern and midland grazing dis-
tricts, and great losses have been sustained in the
transmission of the beasts and sheep to the dif-
ferent markets. We much hope that the Council
of the Royal Agricultural Society will continue
their spirited exertions to discover a remedy for
this scourge, for such we may with justice term it.

Throughout our provinces, the supplies of Wheat
offering direct from the farmers, have been, but
moderate, yet the demand has luled duli.^. The
finest descriptions of both red and white have
mostly sold at previous rates, but the middling and
inferior kinds have suffered a further decline.
For free foreign wheat, there appears to have been

72

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

a fair retail enquiry, and soinefew tliousaiid quar-
ters of homled have changed hands at Liveri)Ocd,
Hull, and Bristol, on speculation, at full (inoiations.
Barley has heen plentiful, and must be noted a
shade lower in [jiice. In malt, very little has been
liassing: nevertheless, its value has been sup-
ported. The oat trade has ruled dull in the face
of small receipts. Beans, peas, and flour heavy.
As regai'ds the importation of stock under the
new tariff, it has been of a very meagre chaiacter
during the whole of the month ; the principal ar-
rivals have been from Hamburgh and Spain. From
the former, we have received about 100 ; and from
the latter, 220 oxen and cows ; about one-third
lias been in good condition ; the remainder being
much beneath the middle (juality. Very few more
supplies of stock can now be received from Ger-
many or Holland until the spring, as most
of the ports and rivers are becoming frozen up.
From what we have been able to learn, some
very extensive receipts of good stock may lie then
expected— many of the f^utch, German, and Spa-
nish graziers having procured the aid of English
feeders. Since the present measure has passed
the legislature, the following arrivals have been
reported, and which may serve as a good guide to
those interested.

Beasts.
From Germany.. llOi

Spain .... 878

Holland .. 594

France .... 401

Totals . .

20(;4

Forming a grand total of .3502 head^ of different
kinds of stock. Very few of the beasts from either
Germany or Spain have realized a profit to their
owners ; while, in numerous instances, losses of
from 2/.. X,o'M. per head have been experienced.

According to our Scotch advices, the corn trade
has ruled heavy, yet no variation of moment has
taken place in the quotations, but they have cer-
tainly had a downward tendency. It is admitted
on all hands that the available supplies of giain are
extremely good. The i)Otato crop is represented as
very abunflant. Very dull accounts have reached
us from Ireland, whence the shipments of produce
to Enghmd, caused by the miserably low figures
ruling in our markets, have been small. Tiie "deli-
veries of corn at the diflcrent markets have heen
good, with prices on the decline.

The following is a monthly statement of the sup-
plies and prices of fat .stock, exhibited and sold in
Smithfield Cattle Market, since the date of our last
report.

The supplies of beasts have amounted to J l-,820 ;
of sheep, 120,400 ; of calves, 1,18'2; and of pigs,
2,412. Those quarters from which tlic arrivals cf
beasts came to hand were as follow : — Lincolnshire,
Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, &c.,7,100 sliort-
borns; Norfolk, Suffulk, Essex, and Camhiidgo-
sbire, 600 Scots and homebreds ; from our western
and midland districts, 3,000 Ilerefords, runts, l)ur-
Lams, Devons, and Irish beasts ; other parts of
England, 2,500 of v.iriou.s breeds; Scotland, by sea,
212 horned and polled Scots ; and from Ireland, via
Liverpool, 300 Irish beasts.

The quotations have ranged as follow .-—beef,
from 3s. 2d. to 4s. 6d.; mutton, 3s. 4d. to 43. (id. •
veal, 3s.8d. to 4s.8d.; and pork, 3s. 8d. to 4s. 8d.'
per 8lbs. to sink the offals. '

The general quality of the stock brought forward

has been more than usually good, indeed the col-
lection has exhibited some of the most extraordinary
animals both for sliajie and size we ever saw. For
liic prinu^ss (jualilies the demand has rided linn, at
full rales of curiencv ; and the value of the middling
and inferior kinds has been freely sujiported, with a
fiir attendance of buyers.

A STATEMENT and COMPARISON of the SUP-
PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibited
and sold iu SMixriFiELU Cattle Markkt, on
Monday, Dec. 27, 1841, and Monday, Uee. 26,
1842.

Al per 8lhs.to sink the offals.

Dec. 27, 1841. Dec. 26, 1842.

a. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.

Coarse &iaferiorBensts3 4 to 3 6 ,. .3 2 3 4

Second quality do 3 8 3 10 ., 3 C 3 10

Prime large Oxcu 40 42. .40 42

Prime Scots, &c 4 4 4 6 . . 4 4 4 0

Coarse & inferior Sheep 36 38. .34 36

Second quality do 3 10 4 0.38 3 lO

Primecoarse wooUeddo. 4 4 4 8 . 3 10 4 2
Prime Southdowa do.. 4 10 5 0 .. 4 4 4 6
Large coarse Calves ..5 2 5 6.. 3 10 4 2

Prime small ditto .5 8 CO. .44 46

Large Hogs 4 6 6 0..310 4 4

Neat small Porkers ,,52 54. .40 4 8

SUPPLIES.

Dec. 27, 1841. Dec. 20, li^4-2.

Beasts 1,809 1,522

Sheep 16,910 13,180

Calves 49 30

Pigs 219 149

L'p to Newgate and Leadenhall markets the re-
ceipts of slaughtered meat, since the commencement
of the month, have proved great, viz.: — about 470
carcases of beef, 2,400 ditto of mutton, 1,200 ditto
cf veal, and 2,."i00 ditto of pork. The general in-
quiry has continued steady, at the following prices :
— beef, from 3s. 2d. to 4s.; mutton, 3s.4d.to 4s.
2d.; veal, 3s. 8d. to4s. 6d.; and pork, 3s. 8d. to
4s. 6d., per 81bs. by the carcase.

CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE
FOR JANUARY.

At the commencement of a new year it will be
interesting to devote a few lines to the meteorology
of the one just concluded. The first circumstance
worthy of notice is the slate of the land in 1841, at
a period corresponding with the present. Then
the floods were abioad, and field and garden were
swamped with water. Now, though an ample
supply of rain has fallen since tlic end of November,
there is no super Unity — every concomitant is equally
pi'opitious to the gardener and farmer. The year
1842 has indeed, upon the whole, been beautiful,
marked with singular coincidences, productive
of great fertility in some degree, hoACver affected
by opposing phenomena. Every month of the
year has witnessed two distinct periods of great
elevation aiul considerable depression of the baro-
meter (unless we cxcc])t March, which in every
respect was of an irregular and fluctuating cha-
racter). The mercury was generally high in the
early days of the month, and again about the I5th ;
the second and fourth weeks were the periods of
depression; but the existing weather did not cor-
respond with the indications, though it alternated
very seasonably. December has been pecidiarly
fine and temperate to the present time, and so
warm and sunny were the 13th, 14th, and 15th

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

73

days, that the season resembled that of a <!:enial
April. Xo frosts, and few foj^s have occurred, and
vegetation is bonmiful. I he north-cast winds
liavc produced little cold, and many geraniums
remain nnatVected. Thus the anticii)ations ofearli/
severity have been negatived, and winter is at least
curtailed.

The great height of the mercury, coincident
with the turn of days, in a degree presages keen
weather, and warns tiie gardener to bo prepared
with every appliance of protection. The best co-
vering for ornamental shrubs — fuchsia, deutzia,
azalia, kalmia, (Ihina rose, &.C., &c. — is a deep
layer of half dccaved leaves, laid over the surface
of the ground : this material protects and en-
riches ; it also is congenial to all plants, and when
mixed with white sand, produces an excellent
substitute for bog-earth. The leaves of the shrub-
beries left on the ground, are too useful to be re-
moved ; and though deemed unsightly by many,
are extremely inotectivc.

Tiir. Operations ov tuk Vegetable Garden

]\Iust depend on the weather ; if the land be open'
and the weather mild, weedy ground can be im-
j)roved by pushing the spade so as to cut up thin
slices, and reversing the surface : thus the earth
between rows of plants will be made neat, without
disturbing any roots ; and the weeds being turned,
\\i]\ be exposed to the frost. \'acant plots can be
loiigh digged, and set up in ridges, and others
deeply trenched.

If the ground lie lockcd-up, dung and litter
should be wheeled to places which require enrich-
ment and protection.

The preparation of hot-beds and compost heaps
ought to be undertaken. The common hot-
bed for encumbers is made by collecting the re-
quired quantity of the best and freshest stable
dung of highly fed horses, heaping the whole, long
and short, together. 1 o this, one-third part of
wet fresh leaves is addt^d, forking and turning the
t\\o, parcel by parcel, till the whole be intimately
mixed. Heat will be generated in the heap. just in
proportion to the existing quantity of urine and
ammoniacal vapours will be liberated. In a few
days then the heap should be turned and mixed
with the fork a second time, and so soon as it shall
again acquire strength, thchot-b?d may be formed
find moulded over within the frames. 13angcr of
burning always exists in beds so constiuctcd;
therefoie, numerous substitutes for the common
bed and box-lights have been devised. None,
however, equal the pits of Mr. Patiick, gardener to
Colonel Vyse, of Stoke-green, Bucks, which we
shall take the liberty to describe, by referring to a
pa])cr written by that excellent gardener himself.

An excavation is first made in the ground, three
feet deep, ten feet \\ide, atul of any length to admit
of the extent of pits required. A 9-inch brick wall,
a little-sloping outwards, is then built all round
this space to support the earth, above v/hich it
rises a few inches. Mr. Patrick's range consists of
ly light< ; but he observes that G lights of such
))its will be sufficient for the supply of any moderate
family, from the beginning of January to the
middle of stimmer. The range of I'J lights begins
with a pit of two lights, and ends with the same ;
but the intervening length is divided into pits of
;■> lights each, and between each set is an open
space of 12 inches wide, so that three, six, or more
lights can be worked ns required, in succession.
The whole space within the 9-inch wall, and the

12-inch spaces between the ends of the pits, is at
first filled with hot dung, but the dung between the
ends when once jint in, is not to be turned like the
lining at front and back, because, as the pits are
jiigeon-holed, and without flues of the findx, ihf
roots of cucumber or melon plants will work
through, and rcct ive nourishment from the decayed
dung in the end openings. These end spaces are
also exceedingly serviceable in cold and damp
weather, as they afl'ord means to top all round with
fresh dung. The iitdividual ])its are narrow com-
pared with their length ; for, deducting two clear
feet at the bad; and front of the whole range, be-
tween the 9- inch wall and the exterior of the pits,
their breadth docs not exceed 4 feet t! inches out-
side mea'^urc. The outside wall of the pit is of
•1-inch brick-work, pigeon-holed all round. With-
in this is a brick on-cdge wall worked up solid,
excepting one row of pigeon-holes at the liottom,
left for drainage. 'J'his inner wall is hrought u\>
one course higher than the pigeon-holas in the
J-inch work, or outer wall ; and by covering the
cavity between this and the outer wall with a
double layer of plane, thin, (J-iiich tiles, a ilue is
formed at the back and front of each pit. The
tiles must be double, because the centre of each
tile which finishes the fine must be firmly bedded
over the joints of those first laid to make the flue
s'eam-tight. By this means a mild and genial
warmth (not a violent bottom heat) is circulated
among the plants and the soil they grow in.

For ciicvmber and viclon-c/roicbig, the pits are
filled entirely with mould to the height of the flues,
excepting about ti-inches of fresh turf, cbo|>ped to
pieces, and placed at the botiom as drainage.

The cavity between the pits and 9-inch wall is
filled, and renewed as required with hot-dung.

Onr own observation at various periods has
proved the correctness of the foregoing remarks ;
but it remains to say that, since Mr. Patrick has
applied the same erections to pine-growing, a
course of hot-water pipes has been added, which,
ill seasons of great severity, renders the pits per-
fectly secure and eftective. In the frost of 1838,
2'" hclow zero, succession jiines were kept growing
at 70°, being jilaced low in the pits, and the glasses
closely covered by straw and mats.

It must be observed that wherever cucumbers
and melons are grown, the pits are liUed with
mould ; and no material is more appropriate than the
earth of decayed cuuch-f/rass. But for pine-apple
])lants neither tanner's baric nor mould was intro-
duced ; but in lieu of either, a foot or eighteen inches
of litter manure was placed at bottom, merely to
support and embed the sides of the pots. '1 he pine
flourishes in the vapours emitted by this material ;
but Mr. Patrick disclaims fermenting bottom-hear,
relying for equability of temperature upon the action
of the flues, aided, if required, by that of the hot-
wafer pipe.

The structure above described comprises every
appliance of successful forcing in jiits ; but this is
not all, for bv it the farmer might avail himself of
those masses of fermenting manure which he has
ever at command, and efl'ect the double object of
husbanding that heat which is now expended in air,
and converting it to the useful purposes of forcing
the choicest fruits of the garden. It is surprising-
that persons who enjoy every possible advantage,
should so neglect their opportunities.

Sea-kail is now coming in. We hare on several
occasions alluded to the superiority of boarded
troogbs over pots. Every facility is thus provided

74

THE FARMER'S MAG2VZINE,

for ample growtli, cleanness, 'and protection. A row
of plants, raised from seed sown in April 1841, may
now be bearing bleached kail, sis or eight inches
bigli, and proportionably strong : we Lave known
several hundred^! cut from a row !^() feetlong. Ithti-
barb can also be blanched very early by similar
means, and thus be had in perfection till the fine
gigantic varietiea come in, naturally early, in April.
Sow more peas and be.ins ; scatter saw-dust over
the earlier rows that are up ; this material protects
from frost and slugs.

Fruit Depautment.

Do notbing in the way of planting, pruning, or
training, unless press of time requires such opera-
tions, because the season is dormant, and nothing is
gained ; February being in every respect favourable.
But as currant and gooseberry bushes are often in-
fested with moss, which disfigure the stems, tboy
sbould be dusted or dredged all over when the dew
or boar frost is on them, with powdery lime, or a
mixture of wood-ashes, lime, and a little soot. Tlie
ground between the trees may then be turned over, inch
deep, to give the surface a neat appearance. This
work ought, however, to have been done in Novem-
ber. Protect fig-trees with mats ; peach, nectarine,
and apiicot trees, with old flags or bunting.

Fruit-room. — Apples and pears keep wretchedly ;
so it is reported, and so we find it. A wet autumn
could not have been the actuating cause, ibr the
autumn of 1812 was arid compared with that of the
preceding year ; yet the fruits perish at the core
with great rapidity. Attention then must be paid
to the stores, for a decayed fruit is one in which not

only chemical decomposition is active, but whereon
parasite fungi soon fi.^ themselves, and taint all in
contact with them.

Sow, under frames, radishes, small salad, lettuce ;
also ])eas for transplanting. The latter are easily
raised in reversed strips of turf, or in narrow boxes,
laid on the floor of a warm vinery. Kidney beans
in pots, and strawberry-plants for early fruit, should
be introduced at successive periods. .

Early Vinery. — Keep the heat regularly active ;
70'' is not too much by day, and 63° by night. Two
opinions prevail as to moisture and air ; the latter
cannot be excluded if tiie glass laps be at all open ;
but vapour may be increased and diminished. If
long open cluster be required, much moisture and
strong heat at the time they show themselves will
induce rapid extension. If flavour of fruit be the
chief object, a dry house will promote it.

As the days increase, stimulate more and more
the plants in the hot-house, and top dress many of
those that begin to grow.

In the open Floiccr-garden little can be done.
Every attention to the neatness of walks and lawns is
proper, but it is futile to dig or plant. February is
more favourable, and even that is too soon for most
operatiors.

Small paddocks and orchard grass are much im-
proved by admitting sheep to eat the herbage close,
liie manure should be raked or bush-harrowed to
disperse it, and next month, or early in March,
nitrate of soda, mixed with ashes and fresh loam,
should bo scattered over the grass. 281bs. of the
lirst are sufficient for half an acre.

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE MONTH OF DECEMBER.

Another year has closed around us, and to the
agricultural interest thronghout the United King-
dom, circumstances have occurred during its pro-
gress of more than ordinary importance. That
degree of legislative protection to the property of
the farmer which heretofore had been uniformly
considered necessary to his prosperity, has now
been to a certain extent withdrawn ; the Minister
yielding to the principles of a false philosophy,
and substituting the dreams of theory for the long
and vvell established truths of practice. The alte-
ration in tlie value of the produce of the fields
which this most unnecessary, and in every respect
unfortunate, event has occasioned, is certainly
without parallel since the circulating medium was
altered from pajjer money to a metallic currency;
and \vc much i'car that the one will speedily be
found as truly inimical to the farmer's capital and
property a? the other was about fifteen years ago.
The new corn law has this season reduced the
value of grain of every description from ten to fif-
teen per cent, under the cost of its production ;
and in the value of live stock the farmer's property
has already been deteriorated by little less than
one-quarter of its value previous to the new
Custom flouse tariff of impoit duties becoming
the law of the land. We have yet to learn in what
way any interest within the British empire is to he
promoted by thus grossly injuring the proprietors
and the cultivators of the British soil ; nor can we

conceive how any class, within our society, can
flourish on the ruins of agricultural pursuits at
home. That the wages of the productive la-
bourers are regulated, and must continue to be re-
gulated, by the amount of money in general circu-
lation, is a self-evident truth, and that a free corn
trade with foreign nations can under no circum-
stances increase, but must decrease the amount of
money actually in circulation, is another axiom.
V\^hen our population is supplied with food of
home growth, it matters little what its nominal
value may be ; the money paid for it not being for
one moment abstracted from the amount of the
currency actually in circulation, but continuing to
give, in proportion to its abundance, adequate
wages to all the proiUictivc classes. The real hap-
piness and prosj)erity of the British and Irish
people are therefore linked, we may truly sa\',
with the soil on which they exisc, and to improve
the fields is to improve their condition in life.
Foreign connections must be, and are always un-
certain, and for the people of the United Kingdom
to place their trust in foreigners for ju-oper sup-
plies of the necessaries and luxuries of life is
neither more nor less than an act of political sui-
cide, 'i hat, in the present state of civilized so-
ciety, a barter trade is impossible, the experience
of all ages now perfectly establishes ; and in our
country the cxpeiicncc of the last five years should
have taught this truth to all, excepting to those

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

73

who have some selfish pecuniary views in promul-
gating free trade dcctrines, or are driven into
their adoption by bliiulfolded prejudices. Were
the doctiincs of the modern political economists
founded on anything resembling truth and soli-
dity, the virtually free foreign corn trade which
we have enjoyed now for five years, according to
their verbiage, should have long since produced,
at all events, a certain description of reciprocity in
trade Hinongst nations. During the last five years,
however, we have paid awaj', in cash alone, more
than thirty millions sterling to foreign land proprie-
tors in exchange (or foreign agricultural produce
imported into the United Kiugdom ibr home con-
sumption. Thiit not one sovereign of the money
thus remitted to foreigners for food has been sent
back here for the purchase of British goods, the
daily complaints made respecting the rapidly de-
clining state of our export trade to those foreign
communities from whom we have received these
large supplies of foreign produced food, affords but
too ample proof. This money is not at present giving,
and never will again give, productive employment
to any one class within the British Era[ ire. It is
far more patriotically employed at home by its pre-
sent proprietors. It is there partly embarked in the
iniprovemunt of German, Spanish, Russian, and
American agriculture, and partlv in increasing and
in improving manufactures amongst those nations.
This is rather a strange mode, but certainly not
more strange than true, of increasing and improving
cur manufactures at home by freedom in the corn
trade. It is the real cause, however, of one-half
the commercial and manufacturing distress which
Las latterly prevailed throughout the United King-
dom, and which can alone be removed by therevival
of agricultural prosperity. We have extended to
poor and to serf-labouring nations the right hand of
tellowship, and we are now giving them the means
to cut that right hand off. Already, through the
agency of that money which we have latterly re-
mitted to them in exchange for their agricultural
products, have we enabled them to increase so ma-
terially their manufacturing establishments, that it
h;is bec( me an absolute necessity, on the part of
these foreign states, to establish such tariffs of im-
port duties as to nearly prohibit British manufac-
tures from competing, on anything like reciprocal
terms, with their goods in their own markets of
consumption. In thus giving legal protection to
home industry, the different foreign governments
are showing tlie most profound wisdom, and are at
the sauie time also perfectly contradicting the policy
and theories of our modern political economists,
'i'he serfs of Poland and the boors of Germany do
not in general consume wheat, nor animal food of
any description, nor does their ve.'-y paltry reward
for labour enable them to clothe theniselves and their
families in British manufactured goods of even the
worst description ; and the slaves in Russia are not
placed in any better position, in as far as the use of
Biitish manufactures is concerned. The agricultu-
ral labourers in Poland are slaves in the true mean-
ing of the word. In that the largest wheat-produ-
cing kingdom on the continent of Europe, no middle
men exist betwixt the land proprietor and his serfs,
lenantry are nearly unknown, we may say, almost
in all those great wheat districts in America and Eu-
rope, from which we have, for several years past,
imported grain so very largely. The expence of its
production abroad is therefoi-e not augmented by
rent, tithes, and public taxes, as is the case in the
I'nited Kingdom, and a free corn trade, therefore,

betwixt us aud them can only be attended by throw-
ing manv of our fields out of cultivation altogether.
With our heavy national debt, and vi'ith public rates
of every denomination to jniy, we cannot compete
in price with foreign provision growers, even in our
own markets, and the consequences to us hereafter
it is easy enough to predict. For example, some
twenty years ago the manufacturers complained ofthe
heavy duty charged on foreign rape-seed, when im-
ported into this c^ountiy ; the ministry then hearkened
to these complaints, and reduced the rape-seed duty
to a nominal charge. Without effective legal pro-
tection, however, rape-seed cannot be grown in tliis
country, and in consequence of the reduction in
duty to which we now allude, many farmers, en-
gag-ed previously in rape-seed cultivution, were to-
tally ruined. To the manufacturers themselves,
however, this alteration in the rape-seed duties has
been even more prejudicial than it was at the time
to the British agriculturist, who ceased to grow this
article when he could not profitably cultivate it.
The trade, therefore, has, for years now, been com-
pelled to depend principally'on foreign supplies ;
and they being not equal to the necessary consump-
tion, prices have been, and now are, much dearer
than they ever were previous to tiie reduction of
that duty, which was then so absolutely necessary to
the successful cultivation of rape seed within the
United Kingdom. Similar causes universtdly pro-
duce similar consequences, and to withhold from
wheat producers that degree of legislative protec-
tion which is absolutely necessary to the success-
ful prosecution of their most national pursuits, must
eventually bo followed by some great national cala-
mity. The tillage of our fields will in many cases
be abandoned, and farther agricultural improvements
must also cease to be attempted. Thus, before we
experience, even for a dozen of years, the blessings
of cheap bread of foreign production, and the benefits
so much desired by all the cotton lords— of the wages
of labour being reduced even more in proportion
than the common necessaries of life may be, by the
existing corn law, and by the farther proposed free
trade alterations in other laws— a defie^iency in the
quantity ofthe common necessaries oflifemay begin
to be felt at home, and then, as rapeseed now
is, the value of all descriptions of grain and food
wdl be raised, and that too in a few years after-
wards, very far indeed beyond the then limited means
of the' consumers to pay. Indeed, then distress
may arise, and the means of applying a remedy to it
mav be withdrawn even from the legislature itself.
The Minister, therefore, we trust, will maturely
weigh the consequences before he yields to these
dogmas; for the only object which the master manu-
facturers have at j)iesent in view is, that reduction
in the weekly wages paid to their workmen which
cheap bread must eventually occasion, though this
selfish purpose cannot long serve them ; for, even
should t!ey reduce their workmen to the conditie)n
of Russian slaves and Polish serfs, they will still
find the coasts of America and of Europe bound
round with iron chains against the admission of their
goods to any extent into the great European and
American markets of consumption, for the larger
our imports of food may be from Europe and from
America, the greater wi'U be the quantity of goods
manufactured in those portions of the earth, for the
consumption of the inhabitants at home. Their
ao-ricultural produce consumed here must, however,
soon transfer our capital to them, and when wehave
no longer money to give, then indeed, and not till
then, tliey will cease to send us food. The opera-

7G

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

lives and artisans, however, know the intentions of
their masters too well, to place any confidence in
the purity of tlioir molivps. They are perfectly
aware that dearness and clieapness are entirely re-
lative terms, and arc governed by the means to pay ;
a pound weight of bread at one penny would be dear
enough to one man, and cheap enough to another,
even if residing in the same neigliboiivhood. The
value oT wages alone can regulate tliis circumstance,
and the people now are by far too much enlightened
not to comprehend this fact: they know the value
of money to them when it is abundantly in ciicula-
tion ; they know that then the wages paid for their
laf.our are fully equal to their expenditure, however
dear apparently provisions may be; tljey also are
perfectly aware that abundance of money in circu'a-
lion and abundance of foreign food in" the market
cannot exist at the same time in this country, and
that labour is scarce, and wages uniformly are low,
when the seasons prevent a plentiful growth ot pro-
visions at home. No schoolmaster is necessary to
impress on them these stlf-evident trutlis, for a free
corn tiade with ibreign nations, or a fixed duly on
its importation, never can increase tlio foreign' de-
mand here for their labour, but must materially de-
crease the consumption of manufactured goods in all
the home markets, which are by far the most valu-
able to them, both as to quantity and quality. It is
not necessary to point out to them that there must be
something wrong in the iloi^mas of the Ami-corn
law advocates, when, almost with tlie same breath,
they assert that, in the United Kingdom at present,
there exist more men than can he employed at
Lome, and, at the same time, recommend that I lie
cultivation of our fields shotdd be transferred
from our own su|ier-abundant population, as they
denominate it, to (ho tillage of foreign fields,
by foreign labourers. ITere is a contradiction
which none hut those possessed, not of coinnion
but of uncommon sense, can reconcile; for we pre-
sume that these gentlemen cannot well deny that
in the United Kingdom ujjwards of fifteen mil-
lions of acres of land are at present in a state of
perfect unproductiveness ; a gieat part of which
may, by labour, science, and capital, bo rendered
eminently useful to the British community, and
that, so long as a field so extensive exists for
employment, the population cannot be considered
redundant. The wealth of the nation may be
considerably increased by tbeeni])loyment of thou-
sands of laniilies in the conveisioii of these waste
lands into cultivated fields, for by labour of this
description the public will be benefited for ages
to come ; but when the unemployed jieople are
turned over to factories, their works endure only
so long as they are patronised by the fancies
of the day, and not one hour longer. They
then become almost valueless, and afford a
strong contrast to the labours of the agriculturist
when directed to land improvements. Legal pro-
tection is alone necessary, we repeat, to
render this empire perfectly independent of all
foreign nations for food. We possess in the
greatest abundance amongst ourselves means to
support, in the best manner too, more than double
our piesent jjopulation ; but agiicultnral im-
provctncnt is a plant of slow growth. In its in-
fancy it requires i)rotcction, and time, talent, and
capital, are all necessary to aid it in its growth
to maturity. When the Anti-corn law lecturers
began their orations, they asserted that cropjiing
lands should be converted into pasturage ; but our
late tariff having destroyed this their former

favourite argument, they now consider agricul-
tural improvement alone to be necessary to the
restoration of agricultural prosperity, by enabling
our farmers to undersell, in our markets, grain
of all descriptions of foreign production. Under
the beneficent protection of the late corn laws the
improvement in agriculture during the last twenty-
five years has, undoubtedly, been immense; and
it is impossible to calculate the increased produce
of grain fields during the last quarter of a century,
at less than one quarter above its previous amount.
Under corn laws equally protective, the progress
ill agricultural improvement, we doubt not, may
be much more extensive during the ensuing quai-
ter of a century than it was during the last,
because both science and capital are now
much increased ; but it is idle to fancy that
improvements can advance without legal pro-
tection to money embarked in them, and
without time to bring them to perfection.
The present corn law, and the altered tariff on the
imi)ortation of foreign provisions, therefore, we
strongly suspect will place a bar to further agricul-
tural improvement ; for in the article of wheat, for
instar.ce, it is impossible that our farmers can, under
the existing corn law, compete in our markets with
foreign wheat. On the subject of the new corn law,
we are surprised to find the London journal, the
Stuiidiinl, asijcrting- that neither our farmers nor our
land pro])rielors have as yet been injured, nor pro-
bably ever will be injured, by the alteration made
last year in the scale of import duty ; anil this emi-
nent journal founds its belief on the fact, that during
the last three months in IBoo wheat wi-.s many
.shillings per qr. cheai>er than it Las been during the
same jieriod in 1812, and that no complaint of losses
were made on the part of the farmers during the
former j)eiiod. 'I'he circumstances wore, however,
widely different in 180,") to what they now are. In
the former year the value of wheat was reduced by
the abundance of Jiritish-grown wheat sent into the
market for sale, ;ind quantity then made good to the
farmer the loss he sustained in prices. Far different
indeed, however, is the cause of the present depression
in wheat jirices. It most certainly has not been oc-
casioned by the weight of the farmer's supplies at
market, for during the last twenty years they never
were so trifling in their amount as they have been
since last harvest time, and therefore our farmers
Live not been paid this season in the same propor-
tion as they were in that of 1835. The depression
in prices has been solely occasioned, during the last
six months, by an immense supply of foreign wheat
having been piessed on ihe market for sale. In 1835
no foreign free wheat was in this country, and the
law then protected tlie British farmer from foreign
wheat in bond. Under the new corn law, however,
we must have an annual renewal of the influence of
foreign wheat in all our markets, and time will tlien
show whether rent and taxes can be paid, and the
farmer can be remunerated for his capital, science,
and lime embarked in agricultural pursuits and ini-
provemeiils, under the existing system. In the mean-
lime, if he be by law didy protected, he Las betier
prospects before him.

'J he young wheat plants are in a healthy state,
though ]ierliaps they are too luxuriant for the
season of the year. He has also a prospect of
obtairjing for bis wheat, during the next six
months, jirices nearer the cost of production than
those heretofore offered to Lim ; for an immense
quantity of foreign free wheat has latterly gone into
consumption, and the stocks remaining in granary

THE FARMER'S MAtlAZTNE.

11

are becoming weekly more modernle in tlieir quantity.
Still, however, we fear much thiit Inst vear's cro[)
cannot remunerate I'im for the espences of produc-
tion, anil that, therefore, either the laiidhokler or ihe
tenant must be injured by the late alterations in the
corn laws. The landlord, however, may aftbrd to
subsist on a reduced rental, and the tenant mav also
maintain himself and his family, even amidst the ruin
of his property embarked in agricultural pursuits ;
but there is still a moral consideration on which the
Anti-Corn Law Leaguers maintain the most pro-
found silence. 'I'hey never allude to the future con-
dition of the great massof the agriculiural population,
one half of whom, by these free corn trade measures,
must iueviiably be driven into the Union Houses, at
the expense of ti)e landed interest cliieliv ; and the
diminished wages paid to the other half for their
labour, must eventually place them almost ia the
position of the half-starved portion of the commu-
nity. The influence which these changes in our
Custom-hou-e duties may have on the public debt is
of inferior consequence, although eventually they
may lead to the adoption of i\Ir. Cobbeti's favourite
principle of an equitable adjustment being made in
the half-yearly dividends now paid on that debt.
The commercial information received from North
America since our last publication is dated on the
16th ult. in Boston, and on the 17lli of the same
month in Halifax. The contents of the letters are
not of much importance. The severity of the wea-
ther hail interrupted the communication with the
Canadas, and inland navigation had in many places
been obstructed by the same cause. Under these
circumstances the \yheat and Flour markets were
then dull, no business being practicable, excepting
for immediate consumption at home; but in the
United States the prospect of obtaining possession
of the British corn markets, through the medium
of our North American possessions, induced the
merchants and millers to hold their property at
prices too dear for our consumption, even after" the
pajmient of only colonial duties. It is thus an-
nually that the importers of foreign grain into the
United Kingdom for consumption, will be made the
scape-goats of foreign agricultural speculation, so
long as the present corn-bill is permitted to remain
in our statute book. The American consignees will
in future draw as largely as possible against their
AAlieat and Flour consignments, and should our
markets not answer their sanguine expectations, the
British consignees will be saddled with the loss.
This is the new American method of transacting
business, and no opportunity will be lost to take
advantage of the privileges conferred on her mer-
chants by the virtually free corn trade now esta-
blished betwixt us and them. This will be, how-
ever, a very minor evil, which we must submit to in
our future corn ti ade with the United States. It is
by quantity, much more than by price, that the
United Kingdom will be seriously injured by the
changes which we have made in our importation
duties. The growth of Wheat throughout the
Union was much larger last season than it had ever
been before, and the market which we liave now
opened for the consumption of American agricul-
tural produce must annually lead to increased im-
provement in American agricultural operations.
During the cold season, curing provisions of all
dcpcriptions suitable to our consumption was also
at these dates prosecuted to a considerable extent;
and in a few months hereafter we may, therefore,
c-xpect large supplies of American bacon, ham,

beef, and cheese, to the great benefit and comfort of
the Irish and British producers of similar articles.
The growth of live stock has licretofore been a most
important consideration, and the curing of provisions
has uniformly been a most profitable department
of industry to the Irish nation. The American
tariff of import duties on British manufactures,
suliiciently proves that by smuggling alone can they
be introduced to any extent into American con-
sumption ; and, therefore, it is utterly impossible to
conceive any benefit which the sacrifice of our
agricultural interest to that of foreign nations, can
confer on any class within her Majesty's dominions.
Our eastern dominions, and the friendly nations
throughout the Southern Ocean, are places much
better fitted for our manufacturing commerce than
North America now is, or ever can be. To this
(quarter our manufacturers should direct their iiiuli-
vided attention in future.

From the corn markets in the Black Sea, in the
Adriatic, and in the ]\Tedilerranean, the intelligence
received respecting the state of the corn trade since
our last publication, is entirely devoid of interest.
The leather had put a stop to business in the ports
throughout the Black Sea, and the absence of de-
mand had produced the same effect in those places
where trade was not interrupted by the elements.
During the season, very large shipments of Wheat
and of Beans had been made to the British islauds,
and the stocks, consequently, of old grain were by
no means abundant anywhere within those seas.
The loss on Wheat received here from the South of
Europe has been larger considerably than it would
have been had more attention been paid to quality.
The grain merchants in the lower ports are evidently
but little acquainted with the condition reiiuisite to
render Wheat shipments safe for prolonged voyages,
and several cargoes consequently arrived here
heated, and in the worst state possible. Should a
grain trade with the ports within these seas be per-
severed in by our merchants, the condition of the
cargoes should be inspected previous to the com-
mencement of the voyage, and a remedy may thus
be applied to evils of a sirailardescription in future.
But for the sake of British agriculture, we sincerely
trust that years may elapse before we have again any
necessity to look to this quarter for supplies of food.
The voyage is far too difficult to be safe for perish-
able articles, and seldom indeed has any profit been
derived by the merchants engaged in these opera-
tions.

The letters from the North of Jiuropc are dated
in due course of post, but the information which
they communicate is not of much consequence to
those engaged in the corn trade in this country.
The season for activity throughout all the markets
in the Baltic has closed ; and as no speculation
existed then in the corn trade, very little business
was transacted ; the \alue of Wheat remaining
much the same as we noted it in our last publica-
tion. The inland navigation having continued open
much longer than usual, the stocks on hand had been
considerably increased, particularly at Stettin; and
early in next season, when the rivers become again
navigable, the quantity of Wheat on sale was ex-
pected to be large. Prices, of course, will then be
regulated by the quotations from Mark-lane, and
during the summer months we shall again he inun-
dated with foreign Wheat, whether our wants require
it or not.

Should financial matters permit the Chancellor of
the Exchequer to draw the attention of the legisla-

78

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ture to tlie excise Iwvs during tlie ensuin«- session
of Parliiiracnt, very imporlaiU benefits inny be the
consequence to Ibe public in general, and naore par-
ticularly to tbo ]irodu.^ers and to the consumers of
manufactured barley. F.ast season our Custom-
Louse dutios were examined, and were very mate-
rially reduced in their amount. It is at present,
however, a matter of uncertaintj' whether tl)ese re-
ductions will be generally beneficial to the commu-
nity; but no doubt can be entertained that those
portions of the new Tariff which apply to agricul-
tural products are in the highest degree unjust to-
wards the agricultural interest at home. The farmer's
property, invested in live stock, has been deterio-
rated already very considerably by the alterations
which vrere made in our Custom-house duties last
year, and should some modifications not be made in
the public charge now imposed on the importation
from foreign states of live stock and of cured pro-
visions, the fall in the value of home-grown articles of
similar descriptions must still more seriously affect
the capital embarked by our farmer in the cultivation
and future improvement of the fields. It may, how-
ever, at all events, be hoped that the Ministers
wiil now turn their attention seriously to the duties
now collected on malt and on spirits manufactured
in England ; for they, in a very material degree,
aQect the growth of barley throughout the United
Kingdom, and likewise are injurious to the finances
of the empire, in as far as, by their outrageous ex-
travagance, they confine consumption to the lowest
point possible. Although, during the month of De-
cember, the supplies of barley in all the great
markets of consumption were certainly, for the sea-
son of the year, not unusually large, still they were
considerably larger than the maltsters and the distil-
lers required, and consequently sales of it were
difficult at gradually declining prices. The maltsters
naturally confine their malting operations to the pro-
bable consumption of malt during the year, and the
English distillers regulate their purchases of barley
by similar rules. The quantity of barley therefore
annually converted into malt is certainly not one-
half of the quantity which the consumption of beer
would require, if the malt duty was reduced to mo-
deration— for the present rate is much too hio-h to
permit the use of beer amongst the people beyond a
most miserable pittance to each individual within
the United Kingdom. At the existing malt duty,
four and a half millions sterling are not at present
paid into the Treasury from thissource of annual reve-
nue ; but were the duty only Is. per bushel, at least
ten millions of quarters of barley would be con-
verted into malt annually, and even this quantity
would furnish a very short allowance of beer when
divided amongst thirty millions of human beino-s,
J3y this modification of the malt duty, as we have
repeatedly shown, two millions of acres of land, at
present unproductive, miy be brought forward into
barley tillage; may add three millions sterling an-
nually to the rents of land ; may give a2;ricullural
employment to thousands of families now in a state
of want, and the profits which would flow from this
new channel of improvement would be much greater
than the expcnce attending the additional con-
sumption of beer amongst the industrious classes
ofsocietj. The revenue likewise would be materially
increased by the introduction of moderation into the
malt duty, and not one class in society could receive
even the slightest injury from tliis alteration. But
even should this proposed change in the malt duty
eventually be attended by a loss to tlie revenue, the
Chancellor of the Exchequer has a most legitimate

quarter at present, wherein any deficiency may be
made good. We now allude to the duties already
collected, and which, wo fear much, v^ill continue
to be collected, on foreign grain, cattle, and cured
provisions, when imported here for home consump-
tion. By this great alteration in our custom-bouse
duties the agricultural interest is the primary suf-
ferer, and it is therefore only fair and reasonable
that that portion of those duties wliich is raised on
the importation of foreign grain and foreign pro-
visions, should be applied to remedy the injuries
which land proprietors and their tenantry suffer from
this violent change in oiir long established institu-
tions. These duties will amount annually to from
one to two millions sterling, and annually now must
they be on the increase. The application of them
therefore to j,.the reduction of the malt and the
home-made spirit duties, is not only an act of com-
mon justice to our landed interest, but it must also
materially benefit the great mass of the working
classes throughout the United Kingdom; and on this
account we most seriously direct the attention of our
readers to the numerous advantages which must re-
sult from our proposed alterations in the malt duty
particularly, and likewise in that at present levied
on spirits manufactured in England, In this part of
the United Kingdom the spirit duty is upwards of
three hundred and fifty per cent, on the intrinsic value
of home-made spirits, and this high charge opens a
door to smuggling of that description which human
nature cannot resist. It opens a door to vice, which
can only be closed by its very material reduction.
It is the real origin of idleness and drnnkcnncss,
and any sacrifice on the part of the public revenue
itself, should be made to the removal of the evil
we now complain of. It is perfectly well ascer-
tained that more than one half of the spirits now
used in England, is the produce of the smugglers'
illegal trade; and that these spirits are of the
worst description. The importation of them is
ruinous in the extreme to the public morality, and
the consumption of them is destructive to the pub-
lic health. The character of British spirits, legally
manufactured, is the reverse of this. Like every
thing else, however, moderation in their use is
the true way to arrive at the virtue of temperance ;
and to reduce the heavy duty now levied on them to
5s. on each proof gallon would, in a great measure,
alter the habits of those who at i)rcsent are the
great consumers of foreign smuggled spirits. This
alteration would at least double the quantity of
wholesome British spirits at jiresent used in Eng-
land, for it would entirely suppress the use of
foreign delctcrioixs spirits, by rendering their
illegal importation no longer profitable to the
smuggler. To raise the duties now levied on
spirits manufactured in Scotland and in Ireland
to .5s. on each proof gallon, and to redncc the duty
in England to the same figure, would also ma-
terially improve the revenue ; at the same time
that it would decrease the quantity of ardent
spirits now annually consumed here, under the
existing most vicious systotn ; and eventually it
would lead the people into the ])eaccful habits of
moderation in their sjiirit consumption. The altera-
tion in the duties to which we now allude, would
likewise lead to a reduction of little under half a
million sterling annually in the sum now expended I
for the prevention of spirit smuggling into iMig- [
land alone; and to supply the markets throughout
England with Britisii-madc spirits instead of •
foreign smuggled spirits, as is the case at jjrescnt,
would open a market for the consumption of nearly i

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

79

half a million quarters of British grown barley,
in addition to the quantity now u?ed by the British
and Irish distillers annually. On every principle
therefore, either of morality or of national in-
terests, the duties now charged on home-made
spirits should be modified to meet the times, now
so pregnant with alterations in our internal insti-
tutions. A great deal is now said and written on
the spirit smuggling trade. The advocates of the
free trade principles attribute this nefarious cus-
tom to the high duties levied on foreign spirits in
this country, and they urge their reduction as the
means of putting an end to illicit spirit
importation into our markets of consumption.
AVith these doctrines, however, the experience of
facts prevents us from coinciding, for, in whole-
somcness, no spirits can be distilled from any article
epual in quality to the genuine extract of Sir John
Barleycorn, who, from his connection with our
landed interest, as well as from his own intrinsic
value, should certainly, in this country, be preferred
to any spirit of the age. To gain a high character
in this respect, is the highest ambition of the worthy
knight, but his good intentions are thwarted by the
laws of the excise.

Since our last publication the supplies of oats in
all our great markets of consumption have been
larger than the demand required, and, notwith-
standing the great superiority of the quality of last
year's growth over that of the preceding one, still
prices have been weekly on the decline. The ave-
rage now is only a shade above 17s. per quarter, a
price which must eventually put an end to the pro-
titable cultivation of this article throughout the
United Kingdom. To the landed interest in Ireland
this depressed state of the oat trade is in everyway
detrimental, and should some steps not be soon
adopted to remedy the evil, a stop must in a very
few years indeed be put to agricultural improvement
throughout the sister island. To sell Irish oats in
London, Glasgow, and Liverpool, at an average
price of 17s. per quarter, and to deduct tlie expences
of drying, shipping freight from the west coast
of Ireland to the British market, expences there of
commission, del credere, metage, insurance, and
numerous et ceteras, we fancy that even an Anti-
coru-law leaguer himself must admit that little can
remain to the farmer, for the payment of his rent
and the charges of production. In Great Britain, to
suppose that the farmers can continue oat cultiva-
tion under such prospects, would be indeed
an act nearly resembling absurdity ; and, as
we have asserted in a previous part of this
article, the certain consequence must end event-
ually in higher prices being paid to foreign nations
for oats than has been the case during the last
twenty years. The production of them probably
will within a few years, under the present system
of the corn-laws, become extremely limited indeed ;
and then, as in the case of the consumers of rape-
seed, the great body of the community will have
severe cause to regret that the ministers— yielding
to a false feeling of humanity— altered those laws
which protected internal industry of every descrip-
tion from the interference of foreign with British
agricultural produce in allour markets of consump-
tion. The corn-law offers at present no impediment
whatever to the importation of foreign oats into
our markets, even for immediate consumption.
From the oppositecoast on the continent, to all our
markets betwixt Cornwall and the north of Scot-
land, the oat freight is only Is. to Is. 3d. per qr.,
and as the best qualities are always from 4s. to 6s,

per qr. superior in value toour average prices, this
diflference in value will pay the import duty. In
the ensuing spring months very large supplies,
therefore, may be expected to arrive from the
continent, for prices can be there so regulated as
to render the trade profitable enough even at a far-
ther reduction of prices in our markets. These
oats will be imported by vessels under foreign flags,
and navigated by foreign seamen. This alteration
will transfer a j)art of our valuable coasting trade
to foreign shipi)ing — in as far as the Irish, Scotch,
and north of England oat carrying trade is con-
cerned— and the advantages promised to the agri-
cultural interest, to the Itritish ship-o.vner, and to
the British sailor for such great sacrifices, are the
chances of seeing the oat growers in the north of
Europe dressed in Manchester cotton, in Leeds
wool, and in other descriptions of British manu-
factures. For the chance of a little additional em-
ployment to the labourers in the manufacturing
districts, the property of the national debt itself
is to be hazarded, and the whole system of our in-
ternal polity is to be convulsed. That the evils
must come is a moral certainty, and that the good
can never come, moj'' with equal confidence be
depended on. So long as we have silver and gold
these foreign oats will be paid for in the precious
metals ; and this money, when once remitted to
the continent, will never return here. It will
thereafter be employed in foreign agricultural im-
provements, and in extended commercial and ma-
nufacturing operations amongst those states from
whom we receive supplies of foreign produce and
provisions. It is undoubtedly the duty of our Govern-
ment to attend to the wants of the jieople, and
to enable them to support themselves on the cheap-
est terms possible. J his good, however, can never
be obtained by transferring from our own field
labourers to those of foreign states the cultivation
of agricultural produce necessary to the general
support of our inhabitants J and we strongly fear,
therefore, that the truth may be discovered after
the time for applying a remedy to the evil has
passed away.

CURRENCY PER IMP. MEASURE.

Dec. 26.

Per Qr. Per Qr.

Vv'heat, Essex and Kent, red 46 52 54 White 50 54 68

Iiisti 46 48 Do 48 50

Old, red — — Do — —

Rye, old 32 — New.... 32 —

Bakley, Grinding 21 27 Malting 30 32 Clievalicr 33 34

Irish 21 23 Beie . 19 20 82

Malt, Sufiblk and Norfolli .... 56 58 Brown.. 50 54

Kingston and Ware .... 50 CO Chevalier GO —

Oats, Yorlssh. &Lincolnsh., feed 20 23 Potato., t'3 25

Yougliall and Cork blaclv 16 17 C0rk,whitcl8 10

DubUn 17 18 Westport 18 10

Waterford, white 17 18 19 Clack.. 10 17

Newry 20 21

Galwav 12 15

Scotcli feLMl 22 — Potato.. 21 24

Clonmel 18 19 20 LiraericKlS 19 21

Londonderry 18 19 Slico .. 18 19

Beans, Tick, new 30 32 Old.... 32 94

Peas, Grey 31 83 Maple.. 31 33

White 32 33 Boilers. .35 33

Seed, Rape —I. —I. Irish.. — /. —Z. per last.

Linseed, Baltic 49 46 Odessa 43

English Red Clover.... — — per cwt.

White ~

Mustard, White — 9 brown II 12 per bush.

Tares, old 23 30 new 33 40 per qr.

Flour, Town-made 43 45 Suffolk 34 — pr sk. of SSOIbs
Stockton and Norfolk, 35 —
FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND.

OATS.Biew 15 17 Feed... 12 H

B£AS3 18 24

80

THE rAUMKll'S MAGAZINE.

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

Week cnilins

Wheat. Barley. Oats. iRye. iBeaiis.l Pcai

Nov. 12th

19th

36tli

Dec. 3rd

10th

17th

Agiji'e^ate average
of the six weeks
which regulate.-
the duty

Duties payable
in Loiidnn till
Wednei^dLiynext
inclusive, and at
the Outports till
thearrivalof the
mail of that day
from London . .

Do. on grain frsm
British posses-
sions out of
Europe

27 11

28 1
28 1
27 9

■i7 1
26 5

2 0 1 Cl 1 0

1 0

COMPARATIVE PRICES of GRAIN.

WEEKLY AVERAGES hy
the Imp. Quarter, from the
Gazette, of Friday last,
Dec. 23ra, 1842.

9. d.

Wheat 40 10

Bablev 2G 5

Oats 17 2

Rye 28 11

Beans 29 10

P15A3 32 2

AVERAGES from the
pondins Gazette in
year, Friday, Dec
I84I.

Wheat

Barley

Oats

Rye

Heans

Peas

corres-
tho Uii-t
. 241h,

s. d.

C2 lo

HO 2

21 1

a 8

37 0

38 G

Account she-.vinj the Quantities of Corn, Grain, Mem,
and Flour, imported into tiie United Kingdom, in the
month ended the 5tli Dec, 1842 ; tlie (v>nantitii^^ upon
which Duties have been paid for Home Coiisunp-
tion durin<,' the same month, and the Quantities re-
maining' in Warehouse at the close tliereof.

„ . J ^ .-. Quantity en-' Quantity

Foreign Giam and. Quantity tered for remainingin
Flour. imported. Iconsumption. warehouse.

qrs.
Wheat, from British

Possessions 415

Peas, from do , 308

Indian Corn, do.... I 83

-SVlieat, foreign 53?01 3

Barley, do 531 2

Oats, do ! 2710 7

Rve, do ; —

Peas, do ' 122G 3

Beans, do I 8897 0

Indian Corn, do | 29G6 6

Buck Wheat, do. .. —

jcwts. qrs.lbs,
Flour and Meal from j

BritishPossessionsi 20355 3 23

Flour &;IVleal,foreign] 11432 3 9

ors. bush.

574 G
249 4

643 3
3849 C

2538
1735
2SG

qrs. bush.

866 3

446 5

1277 1

18556:5 0

60398 5

61042 4

1366 6

33457 0

82770 2

143)1 1

cwts. qrs. Ibs.cwts. qrs.lbt.

12922 1 13 21041 2 10
38 0 81 42265 1 21

STOCK OF (JR.\IN,&c., IM BOND, IN THE

PORT OF LONDON, ON THE 5th DEC.
Wheat. Parley. Oats. Beans. Peas. Rye. Flt)ur.
qrs. qis. qrs. qrs. qrs. qi s

85,937 12,330 35,134 26,652 0,124 —

Cloversced, 19,025 cwls.

cwts.

31,505

PRICES OF SEEDS.

Df.c. 26.
Linseed, English, sowing 43 56

Baltic — — crushing 42 4.; per qr.

Medlter. & Odessa 45 46

Coriander 1" 10 old 16 20percw'.

Mustard, brown, new ..10 11 white. 10 IC.Odp.bui-h.

Trefoil, new 18 22 old.... 12 16

Rapeseed, English new.. 31'. 33/. per ton.
Linseed Cakes, English., loi. to 10/. 10s.

Do. Foreign.. 7/. to 71. lOs.
Rapeseed Cakes 6/. 5s. lo O;, Os.

POTATO MARKET.

SOUTHWARK WATERSIDE, Dec. 26.

Per ton.
s. s.

York Reds 50 to 60

Scotch do. (from ves-
sels) 45 to 00

Do. do. (fi'oui store) 30 to 35

Devons 45 to 50

Kent, Essex, and

Per ton.
s. s.
Wi.sbeach Kidneys.. 40 lo 45
Jersey Vv'lutes (from

store)... 00;o 30

Jersey and Guernsey

Blues 40 to 45

Yorkshire Prince

Suflblk AVhitcs .. 40 to 45 1 Regents 45 to 50

WOOL MARKETS.

LIVERPOOL, Dec. 24.

s. d, s. d. s, d.

Laid Highland Wool, per 24 lbs.. 6 9 to 7 3

White do. do 9 3 10 0

Laid Crossed do.. unwashed.. 8 0 9 6

Do. washed do 8 6 11 0

Do. Cheviot unwashed do 8 6 10 0

Do. washed 12 0 15 6

White do. do 19 0 22 0

FOREIGN.
LEEDS, Dec. 23. — Although this isthesea'oaof the
year when business gtnorally is done on a more limited
scale, the transactions of the past week, though not
peihaps equal to the averac-e of the foitnight or tliiee
weeks previous, have nevertheless been fully as exlen^
sive as might reasonably have been expected, and prices
continue very steady.

PRICES OF MANURES.

Subjoined are the present prices of several sorts of
manure : —

Bone dust, 22s. to 23s. per qr.

Half-inch Bone, 21s. 6d. to 22s. per qr.

Rape Dust 11. Is. per ton.

Rape Cake, 6/. 10s. to 11 per ton.

Rags, 4/. to 4/. 10s. per Ion.

Graves, 5/. to 5/. lOs. per ton.

Gypsum, at tlie waterside, 35s. per ton; landed and

housed, 38i.to 42s. per ton, according to quantity.
Agricultural Salt, 34s. per ton.
Lance's Carbon, 12s. per qr.
Ditto Humus, 14s. per qr.
Soap Ashes, lOs. per ton.

I'oitteviu's Patent Disinfected Manure, 13s. 6d. per qr.
Poittevin's Highly Concentrated .Manure, SOs. per qr.
Nitrate of Soda, 22.?. 9d (duty paid) per cwt.
Nitrate Potash (saltpetre) 30s. per cwt.
Pelre Salt, 4s. per cwt.
Willcy Dust, 4/. 4s. per ton.
Urate, 5/. per ton.
Chic-fou, 2H. per cwt.

Daniell's new Bristol Manure, 13'. 4d. per qi'.
Hunt's new Fertilizer, 13s. 4d. per qr.
Grimwade's Preparation for Turnip Fly, 10s. 6d. per

packet, .sufficient for three acres.
Wolverhampton Compost (Alexander's), 12s. per qr.,

subject to cairiage to London, or forwarded from

Wolvethampton.
Guann, lOs. lo 14s. per cwt , according to quantity.
Potter's Artificial Guano, 15s. per cwt.
Dr. Daubciicy's Sulphate of Ammonia, 125. per cwt.
Muri.ite of Ammonia, 24-;. per cwt.
Aluiiatc of Lime, 12s. per cwt.
Clarke's Compost, 3/. 12s. 6d. per lihd,, sufficient for

three acres.
Wright's Alkalies, 28$. and 42s. per cwl.
Soda Ash, 20^.
Chloride I.iin ■, 28s per cwt.
Sulphuric Acid, 2^d. per lb.

Sulphur for Destroying Worm on Turnips, 16s. per cwt.
Hunt's Artificial Guano, 12/. per ton.

Printed by Joseph Rogersou, 24, Norfolk-street, Strand,
London.

4v I

THE FARMERS S MAGAZINE:

FEBRUARY, 1843.

No. 2.— Vol. VII.]

[Second Series.

PLATE I.

Our first plato represents a long-liorned Bull, which was exhibited at the Meeting of
the Roval AgricuUural SocietA',"lichl at Bristol, in July last, and gained a prize of
Twenty' Sovereigns, awarded fo the Hon. M. W. B. Nugent, of Higham Grange,
Hinchley, Leicester. The animal was bred by Mr. Horton, of Sherborne, "Warwick.

PLATE II.

6ETTING INTO A DIFFICULTY.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE
FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Sir, — The Essay on Ploughs, which I herewith
Rend yoii, though unsuccessful in obtaining a
Prize from the Royal Agricultural Society of
England, has been thought to contain some hints
to ploHgh-makers, which may be useful. If you
will therefore give it insertion in your next
Magazine, you will sincerely oblige

Tuf. AtTHOR.

Baiiihaiii, Kent, Jan. 17, 1843.

AN ESSAY ON THE MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF THK PLOUGH.

BY WILLIAM SMART, OF RAINHAM, IN KFNT.

In an attempt to investigate the merits of the
plough and its mechanical properties, it will not
be irrelevant, by way of preliminary, to enquire
what that implement is intended to perform.

And, as it will be readily allowed that the pre-
paration of land to receive seed, corn, &c., is the
main point, so it will as necessarily follow, that to
have the land properly and effectually ploughed is
a matter that ought to be fully understood.

Few things connected with the almost daily oc-
cupation of agriculturists can vary more than their
notions of good ploughing:. In some counties,
ploughing the land three or four inches deep, and
flapping it over nearly as flat ns the unploughed
lind, is considered well done ; in oihers, turning
the furrow three-fourths over, so that it may form
an angle with the field of about forty-five degrees,
is much admired ; while, in other instances,
ploughing from six to eight inches deep, and
turning the furrow completely over, so that the
share-mark is exposed quite at the (op, and the old

OLD SERIES.]

surface turned into the bottom, thus effecting an
entire change, is the only way to obtain the appro-
bation of ploughmen and farmers. The general
habits of ploughing in various counties may pro-
bably have great influence in forming these vari-
ous opinions ; the instruments employed being
such as have been handed down from former
times, without questioning their perfection, may
also add to these predilections. The ploughs iu
general use in Essex, Suffolk, and most of the
midland, western, and northern counties, and the
work they perform, may be instanced as furnish-
ing a practical comment upon the two first cases;
and that of the Kent or turnwrist on the latter,
by which to estimate the value of each. The
swing and wheel ploughs having fixed breasts —
the cutting and moving parts of which generally
measure about three feet in length, and in breadth
at the bottom or sole about nine inches, increas-
ing to about twelve at the upper part— may be
classed among those whose work satisfies the far-
mers in the two first cases, because the ploughs
are incapable, from their construction, of perform-
ing the work required by the last—the power to
effect which will greatly exceed that of the other
two, and will account for the difference of strength
applied.

It cannot be denied, for instance, that two fur-
rows of equal breadth, one six inches deep and the
other three, must vary in weight as two to one—
of course, a power varying in the same ratio will
be required to rr.ove it.

It is equally undeniable that, to turn a furrow
completely over requires a greater degree of force
than to leave it half or three-quarters turned. For
example, afurroxv nine inches wide,.9/.f deep, and
moved fifteen, may be calculated thus : 9x6 =
f)4 X 15 = 8l0 ; whereas, a furrow nine inches
wide, three deep, and moved twelve, will appear
thus ; 9 X 3 = 27 X 12 = 324. The compa-
G INo, 2.^V0L, XVIJI.

82

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

rative power required will be as 810 to 324, or 5 to
2. The importance of deciding what is efficient
ploiigliing will thus appear no very trifling matter.
This difference may appear to many greater than
they expected ; but every practical ploughman will
undcratand that a furrow ccnmothe turned properly
over, if the opening in which it is to turn be less
in extent than the deptli and breadth of the said
furrow added together.

It would be superfluous to show that a farrow,
ploughed six inches deep and turned quite over, is
preferable to one of half the depth and half the
turning; or that the more completely the stale or
surface earth is buried, and the greater portion of
fresh earth is brought to the surface (supposing it
to be of similar quality to that on the surface), in
a proportionate degree' will the fertility of the soil
be increased, and the seed-furrow improved.

If, therefore, three or four inches in depth, and
turning the furrow partly over, can be called effec-
tual ploughing, the foregoing calculation will shew
that if a power equal to iico horses be sufficient,
those persons who require their land to be moved
to a depth of from six to eight inches, and their
furrow turned comjjletely over, have to perform a
task which will require a comparative power equal
to that oi Jive horses, and an instrument so con-
structed as to accouiplish the work.

Much has been said, and much written, upon
lightness of draught as applied to ploughs, but
efficiency of work is the first consideration ; and,
if this efficiency be either unattainable or incom-
patible with lightness of draught, can it be desi-
rable to sacrifice the greater to the smaller advan-
tage ?

The construction of ploughs, and their mecha-
nical properties, have not been hitherto much
considered, neither have the capabilities of the
various sorts in use been shewn. It may be
doubted if the fixed breasts before referred to are
capalle of executing work in the most effectual
way? They have not the power, for instance, of
turning the land bottom upwards ; because, to
eflfect this, the plough must have a double action ;
and they have but a single one, of which more
hereafter. Having thus endeavoured to shew that
efficiency is the grand essential, I come now to
consider the mechanical properties of the plough,
under the several heads proposed by the Royal'
Agricultural Society of England.

First— The form of the cutting and moving parts
of the plough as affecting the work to be per-
formed on various soils.

Second- The form of the s.ame as afTccting the
draught.

Third— The true line of draught as derived from
the shape of the plough, and the structure of the
animals employed in drawing.

First— The form of the cutting and moving parts
of the plough should be that of the n-cdt/e ; and
as the power of the wedge is allowed to be accord-
ing to the angle which the inclination of its sides
presents, and equality of that angle throughout its
whole length : so of the plough. Should the fore
part of the wedge incline in a more acute angle
than the after part, though the friction may be
diminished in the first instance, it must be pro-
portionately increased at the latter ; the pressure
should be equal throughout the whole len-'th. A
specific opening is required with ploughs, because
the opening or excavation wliich the plough makes
mmf be sufficiently wide to receive the succeeding
furrow; and therefore what is gained by the small

angle at one point is counteracted by the required
greater angle at the other ; the land also having
by this inequality to pass a curved instead of a
straight line, will be more broken, and the friction
consequently much increased.

It has already been stated that a furrow six
inches deep and nine inches wide must be moved
fifteen, in order to obtain sufficient room to turn ;
should this be attempted with a plough whose cut-
ting and moving parts are only three feet in length,
the angle required to effect this will be twenty-four
degrees ; but should it be done by one of five feet
in length, the angle will be reduced to fourteen
and a-half degrees. The length of the cutting and
moving parts of a plough are of great importance,
itiasmuch as the angle is dependent upon it, as
well as the convenience of using it. Let theopen-
ing or excavation of the furrow be fifteen inches ;
the longer the cutting of the plough, the smaller
the angle required, and vice versa. Again, allow-
ing the axiom " the smaller the angle the greater
the power," as well as the greater facility of pass-
ing through the land, yet a medium length is most
desirable ; for, by carrying out the length to an
extreme, in order to obtain a small angle, the plough
may be rendered useless. A plough fifty feet long,
for instance, could not be conveniently employed.
Extreme shortness should likewise be avoided, as
the obtuscness of the angle will thereby be in-
creased, so as to render the difficulty of its passing
through the land very great.

Five feet in length, therefore, is proposed as the
most eligible, which will require an angle of four-
teen and a-half degrees without being inconvenient
in length. Should four feet be thought of, the
angle will be increased to eighteen and a-half
degrees; if three feet, twenty-four degrees , if two
feet, thirty-six degrees ; if of one foot, seventy-five
degrees ; and if a right angle, then it could not
possibly pass at all. See the annexed scale.

The various powers of these angles cannot be so
well ascertained by calculation in reference to
jdoughs as by the dynamometer, but they are cer-
tainly considerable. If the plough is formed with
a single action — such as those with fixed breasts
before referred to, having simply a lateral wedge —
it will not have sufficient power to turn the land,
but will merely push it aside. If it possess a double
wedge, or rather two wedges acting together,
one vertically the other laterally, then an cflfectual
turn can he given to the land which no other can
accomplish.

'J'hese observations will apply to all soils ; of
course the advantage will he more felt in adhesive
than in those of a more free character. Sandy
soils will pass any line which the breast or wrest
of aplough may bring in contact with it ; but those
which stick (or load, as the ploughmen term it)
will slip past a straight line with greater facility
than a curved one.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

83

Seconil :— The form of tlie same as effecting: the
draught.

The draught is effected in four ways ; first, by
the weight of the instrument; secondly, hy that of
the body to be removed ; thirdly, l)y the distance to
which that body has to be removed ; and. fourthly,
by the facility with which an instrument to effect
these objects can be made to pass through the
land.

rirst — The weight of the various instruments
differ too little to make a discussion upon them
necessary, further than to say there must le suffi-
cient substance in each to bear occasional high
pressure, unless it be thought necessary to keep a
greater number than is usually done, as light
ploughs for light work, and heavier for heavy
work'. But even in such a case, the difference of
dianglit is not so much affected by the weight of
the instrument as by the pressure to be over-
come.

Secondly. — The weight of the body to be re-
moved. The furrow can only vary in weii^htby the
\"uyitig depth, supposing it to bo always nine inches
wide. A furrow six inches deep must always, in the
same soil, be twice as hfavy as one of three only.
(n the report of several trials with ploughs given
by Philip Pusey, Esq , and published in the Jour-
iinl of' the Rinial A^ricitllural Socict)/, vol. i. part
iii. jjage 22!), the trial shows the varying weight
of the draught as the depth increased from five to
twelve inches, which strongly corroborates thishy-
pothesis; for though the weights therein set forth
do not increase in a regular and equal ratio with
tlie depth, yet the difference may be accounted for
in several ways without affecting the principle.
'J he following are copied from the report : —

of passing-, as may be escmpllfled by two angles,
thus —

Furrow nine inches wide.

Depth.

D-
10-
11-
21-

Draught
stones.

23

22

—2.5

.30

31

40

50

.50

It may be supposed that the two first results
have changed places ; for it cannot be easily ac-
counted for inany other way that six inches in depth
should be of less draught than five, or that the va-
riation of weight ill the three last should, liave
been exactly according to the report. Some ex-
iranccus cause may possibly have intervened to
produce such an inequality as ten stone between
ten and eleven inches, and perfect equality be-
tween eleven and twelve inches ; Ujon the whole,
however, seeing, that ten, eleven, and twelve ex-
actly double those of five, six, andseven,the esain-
plp given is a very stiong one.

Thirdly— The distance to which that body of
earth has to be removed has before been shown.
It must be equal to its breadth and thickne«s, and
thp draught will consequently be very nateiially
affected thereby ; it will also be increased by the
increase of depth, as the distance of removal must
go on increasing with the increase of depth.

Fourthly — The facility with which an instrument
can pass may be partly determined by the obstruc-
tions a furrow has to encounter while in the act

The angle with straight sides will surely pass with
greater facility than the one presenting several
projections; so a plough with straight sides will,
by the same rule, pass more freely than one whose
sides arc curved.

Thirdly — The true line of draught, as derived
from tlic shape of the plough, and from the struc-
ture of the animals employed in drawing.

The true line of draught to propel an instrument
possessing and displaying the properties of a wedge
with the least expense of labotir, may be proved by
the operation of the wedge itself, and the applica-
tion of the power that propels it ; if a wedge is
most effectually propelled when the power is ap-
plied in a perpendicular line with the intended pas-
sage of the wedge, so must it operate on the pleiigh
possessing the same property ; for instance, apply
the propelling power to a wedge in any other line,
and it is immediately forced into a new direction,
and that in proportion to the angle of the line in
which the propelling power approaches it. If a
beetle is made to descend perpendicularly upon .a
wedge which is placed at right angles with a log of
wood, and the log is placed in a true horizontal po-
sition, it is forced forward into tlie timber without
altering its direction ; but should the said beetle
fall thereon in any other line, the wedge will imme-
diately swerve from its first position, and its power
to open a passage will be deteriorated to an amount
equal in degree to the angle of incidence : so with
the plough. The line of draught which requires the
least labour, is that which approaclics nearest to
the parallel direction of the plough's passage,
t'ould the application of power be placed in the
same line as the cutting and moving parts of the
plough, or parallel thereto, it would require less la-
bour than when applied in an angular direction ;
but as that cannot be obtained by horse power, and
as no other is in general use, so tiie nearer tire true
line can be approached or obtained, the lighter the
draught.

The propelling power being derived from the
shoulders of horses, and the line of draught extend-
ing from thence through the axle to the heel of
the plough, will form an angle with the horizon
according to the height of the horses, and the dis-
tance at which their shoulders are placed from the
point of contact ; this ought to be preserved a right
line as much as may be (indeed all curved lines
should be avoided), which can be always regulated
by the height of the wheels. If they should be too
high, the line of draught will be elevated in the
centre, and the tendency will then be to lift the
heel of the plough, already under that lifting in-
fluence from the angular lino of draught; if they
should be too low, the tendency will be to lift them
from the ground, but as this tendency is rather de-

G 2

84

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

sirable in a small degree, because it assists the
plouglimen in canting them into tlie furrow, when
turning at the end, so it is a deviation less to be
avoided than the otlier. Supposing the length of
the plough from the heel to the axle to be seven
fee t, the line of draught attached to tlie heel
of tlie plough to be six inches from the sole,
and the axle of the wheels to be eighteen inches
Jiigh, the angle formed by the horizontal
and trne drauglit lines would be one of about
nine degrees : but as the height of the horse's shoul-
ders, from whence the power is derived, is about
forty-eight inches, and at a distance from the heel
of the plough of about fourteen feet, the angle of
the actual draught and horizontal lines will be
found to be one of fifteen degrees • this will depress
the draught line at the axle about eight inches,
which will serve to show that wheels of less than
three feet in height are not desirable.

Sliould it be necessary to use more than two
horses, the line of draught, by which the leading
liorse or horses is attached to the plough, will (from
the distant place they occupy) bring tlieir draught
into a right line from theheel of the plough through
the axle to their own shoulders. Tins tendency in
the plough to delve — occasioned partly by the an-
gular line of draught which gives the heel of it a
continual inclination to rise, and partly by the in-
clination of the buck and share — may be in a great
measure counteracted by placing the fore end of the
plough-beam on a rest or bolster, as much above
the line of draught as the horizontal line is below
it, so that the drauglit line will be about midway dl-

\\ae.

■pea*^

Horizontal line.

Draught line.

viding the angle formed by the inclination of the
beam and the horizon in its centre, and thus neu-
tralizing the tendency of the heel to rise, by the
depressing tendency of the draught upon tlie beam.

In swing ploughs this counteraction is left in the
hands of tlie ploughman, and is regulated eitlier by
his discretion or caprice ; in order to effect which tlie
cutting and moving parts of the plough are made
very short, and the handles very long, that the lever
(upon which principle they act) may give liini suffi-
cient control, whicli could not be obtained if the
handles were short, and tlie cutting and moving
parts of a more appropriate length.

Figure 1 in tlie annexed sketcli represents a turn-
wrest plough with the double wedge complete.

The buck E G has a vertical action, whereby the
farrow is raised on the edge, after being separated
from the main land by the coulter M, and from
the subsoil by tlie sliare E ; this process occupies
the first part of the plough ; the second or after
part is the lateral wedge, which is formed by the
•wrest C D, which then comes uito operation, and
completes the turn of the furrow, laying it bottom
upwards.

The shelve-wrests G K are intended to continue
the line of tlie buck as far as useful, but chiefly to
prevent the loose earth from falling over the fore
part of the wrest before it lias acquired its perpen-
dicular position, and has no otlier use, so that its
line being exact with tlie buck is not important ; be-
cause tlie furrow has ceased to pass up the first
wedge shortly after it has arrived where tiiey join
to it, rolling away over its side.

The rod bat N is intended to act as a lever in
removing tlie coulter from one side to the other;
from the left side of the share, which is its proper
place when the right wrest is extended, and which
maintains it in that position, by being hooked into
a catch, till the plough turns at tlie end of the
furrow, when it is shifted to the right side of the
share, when the wrest on the left side B D, ('figure
4), is puslied out, by that on the right side being
pushed in, and so on alternately till the field is
finished ; having, by means of tliis turn-wrest
plough, every inch of land turned over, and not one
open furrow left in the whole field, instead of
leaving a twelfth part of the said field unmoved, as
is the case with ploughs with fixed breasts, and an-
other twelfth left in open furrows.

Tlie chain O O, called the tow, is the draught
chain or line before described.

Figure 2. — The angle, which may be termed the
governing principle of the plough, every angle of
which, vertical or lateral, is upon the same scale.
It is five feet in length and fifteen inches at the
base, making an angle of fourteen and a half to
fifteen degrees. These dimensions have been fixed
on as the just medium between too great length of
plough and too great obtuseness of angle, as well as
from several trials, which have approved themselves
to the judgment of practical men.

The apex of the lateral wedge is the edge of the
coulter, and in the vertical tlie edge or plate of the
share. It will be easily seen in the lateral in figure
o, where the black mark ( | ), representing a section
of tlie coulter, completes the angle ABC upon the
scale of figure 2, the dotted lines converging to that
point from the ends of the wrests, B D and C D,
completing it.

Figure 3. — Section of a turn-wrest plough, cut
horizontally about nine inches from the bottom,
with two wrests, B D and C D, placed close to the
chep or sole. The fore part, E, is the chisel-point
or share, six inches wide and three long. It lies
quite plane at the bottom of the furrow, which it
cuts at the depth required, six or eight inches; and
which furrow, as the plough proceeds, passes
up the buck E G, or vertical wedge, till it is placed
on its edge, when the work of the first wedge is
done. The furrow being thus placed, figure 4, re-
presenting the wrest, B D, extended, and forming
tlie lateral wedge, begins to operate ; and as the
plough passes on pushes the furrow over, and com-
pletes the work. The spindle, B C, is that which being
connected by a pin with the ends of each wrest,
is made to slide through the plough; the holes in it
are used as stops, whicli by means of a small pin
prevent the extended wrest from receding by the
pressure of the furrow. The foremost ends of the
wrests are fastened to the sides of the chep or sole
by moveable joints, so that they can be raised or
lowered at pleasure, extended more or less as occa-
sion iiiay require, according to the depth of the
furrow, which is managed by using a longer or
shorter spindle, by which means the opening of the
furrow is extended or contracted at the pleasure of
the ploughman.

Figure 5, which has been already noticed, is the
counterpart of figure 4, having the extended wrest
C D on the opposite side, and its companion B D
close to the plougli.

Figures 6 and 7. — The two wrests separated from
the plough and viewed edgways, one for the right,
and the other for the left, side of the plough ; they
can, however, be placed on either side.

Figure 8.— A wrest four inches wide viewed flat-

TUEIFAIIMER'S MAGAZINE.

85

m
w

CD

o

Q

86

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ways ; this is intended tu be Usud wlicrc the kiid is
unbroken, as figure 0, six inches wide, is, where the
hind is loose, sucli as stirring- tallows, &c.

Figure 10. — The rod bat, an iron lever with a
hole for the coulter, which places the coulter on the
side of the share required ; this is eflected by having
tiie coulter hole in the beam sufficiently large to
allow the coulter to swing; and which is fixed to the
side required by the rod bat, being held in its place
by an iron catch.

Figure 11.— Collar and collar chains, P 1'. These
are used for the purpose of keeping the plough
steady. The chain is passed through a ring in tlic
tow, and hooked on the collar, which is made to fit
the plough beam, so that the inclination to land in
ploughing one furrow is made to coincide with that
on the other or return furrow. It has the further
etfect of making the plough compact, by rendering
it more like a single piece, by tying it together in a
firm manner ; this tying also gives the ploughman
complete command of the wheels when turning at
the end of each furrow, so that he can cant them
into their place with ease and at his pleasure.

It may here be observed, that the two wedges
have their lines cross each other without inter-
fering ; the lateral wedge, for instance, docs not
begin to act till the furrow has passed the vertical
onc) but immediately after it is raised on the edge
by the latter, the former begins to take effect, aiul
thus continues the motion in a rolling manner, in-
stead of pushing it away ; thus effecting the work
at the least expense of labour, in the same manner
as a piece of timber can be removed with greater
ease by rolling than by pushing.

The three sections of a field partly ploughed arc
given to show the process of cutting and turning,
by which the peculiarities of the turn-wrest plough
arc developed.

Sections of afield partly ploughed by a tiuii-wreil plough,
showing ihs various posilions xvliich tlie furrow obtaim
v,hile in the act of turning.

I

AB

-N /M._J

& e

a h c d. — The furrow last noticed is now to be
turned. The chisel-point E, figure b, enters the
line c d, cutting two-thirds of it next to c, called
the land side, and leaving one -third uncut next to
d; it is not desirable to cut the line c d in its
whole extent, because if entirely separated it would
be liable to slide away by the lateral* pressure hi
some degree, and so far diminish the opening too
much to" allow the entire turn to be effected : the
chisel point must also be equal on each side, in
consequence of its having to cut another furrow on
its return, and turn it on the reverse side.

The coulter M begins to cut the line a c, Vvhen the
chisel-point has entered two or three inchc:-, aiid
before the fuirow begins to rise up the buck. If it
should be placed farther back, it would allow the
buck to break up tlie furrow while attached to the
whole land, and not only cause the furrow to be
broken to pieces, but would increase the draught
greatly ; if put more forward, it would be placed in
the solid land, and could not be restrained from
grasping the land too freely ; if allowed to fly too
wide, it would also cut into the solid earth, so that
the share could not so easily raise tlie furrow, and
would moreover cause the plough to land too freely
—that is, the bevelled edge of the coulter would
draw away the plough, causing it to press too
eagerly after a larger furrow. If not sufliciently
wide, the plough would not land freely enough, and
would turn up some earih on the land side ; its proper
place is to make it meet exactly the two lines of
the wrests forming the apex of the angle. Having
the coulter thus in the right position, which is
very material, the separated furrow on the side a c
begins to rise up the inclined line of the buck E G,
as the plough proceeds, bringing down b to c,
when, having passed the vertical Avedge, and being
thereby set on its edge, as may be seen in section
2, wheVe rt i c (Zwiirbe observed in that position.
The wrest C D, which forms the lateral wedge,
then begitis to act, and rolls the furrow over,
bringing down a to g, and c over to/; the position
of the furrow abed is now completely reversed,
a b being at the bottom, and c d on the surface.
See section b.

Sections of a field partly ploughed ivith a fucd breast,
nine inches wide iil boiiom and twelve at the upper
part, of the depths of three, six, and nine inches, show
i}tg the different degrees of I aruins obtained at each
depth.

Section 1. — The part of the field A B is the whole
or unploughed land, six inches deep ; the part C. D,
the furrows as they lie after tiic process of i)lough-
ing is completed, being each turned completely
over. The roundness of their appearance is chiefly
caused by the corner of the furrow at d being
rubbed oil" in jjassing the wrest, unless the land be
very strong or clayey, in which case they retain
their square or anguhir shape. The side of the
furrow, /[/, is as it remains after the plough has
passed, leaving the opening, b dftj, iiftccn inches
wide, which is equal to the depth and breadth of a
furrow, the space required for the succeeding furrow
to turn in.

The rolling manner in which the furrows arc re-
moved, when in mellow land, has the cflect of
rubbing off the square corner d, so that the furrows
acquire a roundness in appearance, the matter
rubbed off falling under it, and thus prevents the
fitting in of the squares so as to make a scam be-
tween.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

87

It will now be necessary to show — as was inti-
Miateil ill tlie first i)art of this essay — the impossi-
bility of such work as is described above being
effected by the ploughs with fixed breasts, such as
are in general nse in the western, midland, and
northern coiyities, their dimensions being, as be-
fore stated, about three feet in length in the cutting
and moving part, and their breadth at the bottom
nine inches, increasing to twelve in the upper part ;
of course the opening between the ploughed and
unjiloughed land cannot exceed that extent.

Let a farrow nine inches wide and three deep be
attempted with such an instrument, and the fol-
lowing consequences must ensue : — the first motion
of the furrow, in order to turn, must be to raise it
on the edge, whi^h will occupy three of the nine
hiches of width (the extent of the opening), leaving
six only to receive the breadth of the furrow, which
is nine. See section 1, of a field ploughed. Again: —
Let the depth be increased to six inches, and the
first motion occupies six, leaving three only to re-
ceive nine. See section 2. But should the depth
be increased to nine inches, then the furrow on the
first motion will occupy the entire space ; and the
furrow must remain on its edge, or half turned,
there being no space left to receive a second move-
ment. See section 3.

The foregoing sketches of ploughing with a turn-
wrest and other ploughs, are supposed to be done
on clover leys, where the roots liold, or upon lands
v\ Inch from other causes are held together, so as to
constitute a whole furrow. In loose lands, suoh as
fallows, pea and bean stubbles, which have been
cultivated during the growing of the crops, and un-
dergone spuddling or scarifying since their removal,
so as to break to pieces the surface, and which are
perfectly clean, the difference of ploughing is less
apparent, and also less material. Lands in this
state, upon which full crops arc grown, are often
drilled, or sown upon after being creased ; and nu-
merous instances can be shown, where ploughing
under such circumstances is altogether omitted.

It may be answered that a fixed breast is not ne-
cessarily limited to nine incl)es in width at the
bottom, but can be set as wide as any other.
Should this be the case, the angle must be more ob-
tuse, which will give greater draught. Should the
length be increased, so as to allow the angle to re-
main the same, yet the fixed breasts necessarily
impose round ploughing, and the open furrows
thus left will be of very great extent, and the field
exccedinglj' uneven.

Doubtless the wish to mitigate this undesirable
appearance has induced farmers to use instruments
such as have been described (thougli but little ad-
vanced in science), chiefly from local habits, and
an indisposition to enter upon any new thing. An
unprejudiced trial will in all probability be made,
and the merits of each duly set forth, which may be
already anticipated. 'Ihe " turn-wrest plough"
will then be properly appreciated.

A very full meeting of the subscribers so the
Leicester Monument was held at Norwich, on
Saturday, January 21, when it was determined, by
a large majority, that the Monument should be
erected at Holkham. The sum now subscribed is

CHEMISTRY iVPPLIEO TO AGRI-
CULTURE.

(From the Annuls of Chynmlvii.)

The analysis of soils is often of great import»
ancc to tlic agriculturist, and in this particular he
has frecjuently to address himself to the thymist.
The iiistructious for undertaking such analyses
differ materially from each other. Of themselves
they are very simple and easily executed, if a
certaiu j)lan has been previously laid down for at-
taining the object in view. This object is two-
fold— viz. firstly, to know how much and what sub-
stances of organic origin, (that is to say, how
much humus) is contained in the soil ; and, se-
condly, with what disintegrated minerals the in-
organic part of the soil is mixed.

The answer to the first question falls entirely
within the cainpass of organic analysis. The soil
is dried in an oil-bath at 26^ F. : then treated —
in the apparatus figured p. 281 of the Anvah —
first with elher, then with alcohol, water, and so
on consecutively. By this process several different
matters are extracted from the soil ; but it is very
uncertain if any of them will be distinguished as
previously already known. We have not yet suffi-
ciently examined the products of the decomposition
of organic bodies to be able to execute this kind of
analysis in such a manner that we can finally de-
cide what products of decomposition the soil con-
tains. Tills exaniitiation, therefore, becomes diffi-
cult ; and yields, even if executed with precision,
not very valuable results, until we shall have pre-
viously made ourselves acquainted with these pro-
ducts of decomposition by a close examination of
them.

Two circumstanees respecting humus may be
positively ascertained, viz., 1st — its quantity ;
which is found out by burning a weighed quantity
of soil, after being dried at 266° F.,inan open
crucible, until all the combustible parts are de-
stroyed, when the loss shows the contents of orga-
nic matter; and, 2ndly, the azote therein con-
tained, which is ascertained by combustion, ac-
cording to the method of Varrentrapp and Will.
The results of these experiments are seldom of
much value; since the quality of humus in soils
varies according to the manure added, and as the
succeeding crops may absorb the several compo-
nents of each manure.

The inorganic components of the soil, again, arc
easily ascertained. An air-dried sample of the
soil being disintegrated as much as possible be-
tween the hands, is weighed, and sifted through a
tin-plate sieve, consisting of several plates suc-
ceeding each other, with less and lesser holes.
The sieve is then shaken, with the cover on, until
the mass is divided according to the dificrent size
of the holes in the different compartments of the
sieve, and each of these quantities is then weighed,
in order to give an idea of the different sizes of the
various ingredients.

Another air-dried sample is likewise weighed,
and then dried in the water-bath, until it ceases to
lose weight. A smaller portion of it is then
weighed, placed in a glass tube, which has been
closed at one extremity by fusion, and heated in
the oil-bath to 2()(»° F., until it ceases to lose
weight, after which the contents of water are found
by calculation. This satnple is heated to redness
in an open crucible until the whole of the carbon

88

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

is consumed, and the organic matter ot the whole
is found by a calculation based thereon.

Tlic greater portion of the sample is likewise
exactly weighed, put into a glass vessel, infused
with water, and then stirred with a quill. After
being left undisturbed for a few moments, all the
lighter ])arts arc skimmed oft', and the turbid
water [)oured through a muslin sieve into another
vessel, where it is allowed to stand for the purpose
of depositing. There remain on the sieve fibres of
roots, undecoin])osed portions of straw, stalks,
&c. This operation is repeated until the freshly
added water no longer becomes turbid by stirring.
The finally remaining residue is dried and weighed,
but not exposed to a red heat.

This residue is spread on paper, and, if required,
e.vamined with the aid of a compound microscope,
in case of the parts being very small. The prac-
ticed eye then detects the grains of those minerals,
the debris of which form the soil. Grains of trans-
parent quartz, milk-quartz, red and white field-
spar, scales of mica, lime, clay- slate, &c., are thus de-
tected, and have been obtained from such minerals
as are met with in the neighbourhood ; and this
easy examination is sufficient to elucidate of what
minerals the soil is composed — on which point
chymical analysis would not be able to give posi-
tive information. In proportion to the more finely
pulverised portions contained in soil from there-
cent formations of mountains, the greater is its
fertility, if mixed with the requisite manure. The
f?eZ»'(S of limestones, and different tertiary kinds of
aluminous slate, mixed to a certain extent with
quartzoze or granite sand, form the best mix-
tures.

From this residue the corbouate of lime (in
case of the same being contained therein) is eX'
traded by a mixture of one part of nitric acid and
100 parts of water, which are allowed to act on it
without heat. When the efl^ervescence has ceased,
although the liquor still reddens litmus paper, the
liquor is decanted, and the calcareous earth, after
being neutralised with caustic ammonia, is preci-
pitated therefrom by oxalate of ammonia. The
magnesian earth is then ascertained (if present) by
mixing the liquor in excess with carbonate of po-
tassa, and boiling it therewith.

The residue left undissolved by nitric acid is
washed, dried, weighed, and treated with concen-
trated muriatic acid. This solution is then further
treated in the way directed for analysing silicates,
which are soluble in muriatic acid- The muriatic
acid frequently disengages siliceous acid without
dissolving it. These are then extracted by boiling
the undissolved parts with a ley of carbonate of
soda. The undissolved residue is then weighed.
It is in general nothing but sand composed of
quartz or granite.

We now return to the parts left after being
skimmed. That portion which passed through the
muslin sieve is a mixture of decomposed organic
substances (humus), clay (aluminaj), and extremely
fine sand, which frequently contains siliceous
shells from infusoria. After Ijeingleft undisturbed
for an hour, the sand and humus have settled ; the
clay, however, still remains suspended, 'i'he water
is then decanted from the thick pap of clay,
and gradually evaporated to dryness in a weighed
bason or a crucible, after which the remaining
clay is dried by the application of a rather higher
degree of heat e. y., iu the oil-bath at 302° F., and
weighed.
The deposited mass beneath the pap of clay is

placed on a filter jireviously weighed. The turbid
Wiiter which passed during the washing of the mass
through the filter, together with the clay solution,
is exposed to evaporation. The filter, together
with all therein contained, is dried at 212" F.,
weighed, and burnt to ashes; after whi^h the resi-
due is examined under the microscope. It is then
further treated in the same way as above stated
for the coarser powder. — Berz.Lehv. d, Chimic, vol.
X. § 12;i.

FOURTH REPORT OF THE WREN-
THAM FARMERS' CLUB.

The committee of the Wrentham Farmers' Club,
in presenting this, their fourth annual report, beg
to observe they have examined the minutes re-
corded of the proceedings which have taken place at
the different meetings held during the past year;
and although they have to regret, that on some
(juestions, the amount of information obtained
has not been so extensive as could have been de-
sired (occasioned in some measure by the imper-
fect attendance given), still they consider it a duty
they owe to the members generally, to lay before
them, in as condensed a form as jjossiblc, the re-
sult of the discussions on those subjects which
have been brought under the notice of the club
accordingly.

At the first meeting of the present year, the
members present, proceeded to the considera-
tion of a rather important question, at that
period, " The best method of filling up the plant of
wheat, where a deficiency exists, and of which
there appeared great probability, in consequence
of the extreme wetness of the season." It was
observed, that where the deficiency did not
amount to the loss of more than one-half of the
plant, no material benefit would result by sowing
any additional seed, but that care should be taken
in keeping that which remained free from weeds
through the summer. Harrowing and rolling in
the spring were recommended in such a case;
and raking by hand, was also stated to have
been found very efficacious in destroying mtich of
the red -weed and other annuals, and causing the
plants to tiller more rapidly.

Where, however, the plant was so far deficient,
that re-sowing would appear indispensable, in or-
der to obtain a crop,' the best system was con-
sidered to be that of planting Talavera wheat, oi,
(in some cases) the same as sown in the autumn,
provided it be some time in February, or early in
March ; but at a later period than that, either
barley or oats was preferable : barley was allowed
to be the most advantageous, particularly on light
lands, as generally producing a heavier crop.
Diljbliug, and afterwards hand-raking in the seed,
was to be preferred to drdling, as by the latter
system, many of the plants would be destroyed,
and the seed would frequently be deposited where
not required. A resolution wasaftcrwards adopt-
ed, in accordance with llic above observations.

At the following meeting, a discussion took
place on "The best method of feeding and keeping
hoggets in the turiup season so as to prevent loss
from dropping." The member introducing the
question, who had, in former years, been a sufferer
to a great extent from the above cause, had re-
cently adopted the plan of drawing his turnips
two or three days previously to being used ; and he

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

89

was induced to believe the system liul proved
effectual, as, since having pursued it, lie had lost
none, on lands where in past seasons Iiis loss had
been very gica*. It was however objected, that
this system was not decidedly practicable, as it
could not be. generally adopted, particularly in
frosty weather ; and it was thought that as much
soil would lie eaten with the food when the tur-
nips were drawn previouslv, as there would be,
if allowed to remain in the ground. Another in-
stance was stated in which no losses liad occurred
for several years ; here the plan adopted was, that
of allowiiif^ the sheep to range ou stubbles or pas-
tures for a few hours during the day. Several
statements were afterwards made, in which the
evidence was so conflicting that no satisfactory
conclusion could be arrived at, as the same me-
thod of keeiiing had fiequently in different cases
produced entirely different results ; high keeping
had invariably been i)roductivc of the greatest
losses. The system of feeding in troughs had
also failed as a ])reveutive, as one member who
had receutly adopted it had lost a great number of
his hoggets. The prevailing opinion appeared to be,
that the principal cause of dropping proceeded
from an excess of fluid in the gall (commonly
called overflowing of the gall) pro. lucing scouring,
and causing the death of the animal in a very
short time. Not having the advantage of ])rofes-
gional assistance, and in the absence of sufficient
information on the subject, it was ultimately
agreed that the purport, of the foregoing observa-
tions be forwarded to the secretary of the Royal
.Agricultural Society, in order to be laid before the
council, hoping, that through their veterinarian
professor, some specific remedy may be pointed
out as a i)reventive.

Your committee here beg to acknowledge the
receipt of a communication afterwards received
from the secretary, stating that the subject had
been laid before the council, and referred by them
to the veterinary committee.

The next meeting was occupied in a discussion
with regard to "The merits of boiled barley for
the purpose of feeding cattle, as compared with
other kinds of artificial feeding." The member
who introduced this subject, stated he had been
induced to make use of boiled barley in conse-
quence of the inferiority of his root crop, and the
low price which that grain then realised in the mar-
ket. In an experiment he had been making with
two yards of bullocks, on linseed cake, pea-meal,
and pollard, he found that by substituting boiled
barley for the oi! cake (still giving the same pro-
portion of pea-meal and pollard), that they grazed
equally as well, with this great advantage, that
they did not consume so many roots by a bushel
per day (for each beast), as when feeding on oil
cake. He had also been feeding pigs with barley,
and considered it equally fattening.

Another member who had been giving it to
milch cows, was perfectly satisfied with its results,
as it affected a decided saving of his roots ; he con-
sidered it a very healthy food for young stock of
every description, but thought it rather slow fat-
tening. Others spoke in favour of its use as far
as thfcir observation.s had extended ; but the meet-
ing not being in possession of sufficient practical
experience on the subject, adopted the following
report in lieu of a resolution : —

Report—" From the observations which have
been elicited with regard to the use of boiled
barley, it appears that where the system has

been practised, it has been attended with suc-
cess, but having only been pursued by a few
members, it is not considered c.xiiedient to
adoi)t a specific resolution, but to urge the
projHicty of iiulividually proving its fatten-
ing i)roperties, even on a small scale, in or-
der that satisfactory conclusions may be ar-
rived at. One important feature deserving of
notice, connected with its use, appeared in the
saving of roots, as where boiled barley had
been given a less quantity was consumed.
With regard to the merits of boiled barley, as
a substitute for linseed cake, it is inferred
that the use of either the one or the other,
must be regulated by the comparative price
of each ; the low price of barley at the pre-
sent time operating in favour of its consump-
tion in lieu of oil cake or any other arti-
ficial."

The subject at the next meeting was on " The
management of wool." I'his question did not
elicit much discussion; it was observed, that in
order to obtain a good fleece, it is necessary sheep
should be kept in good condition, as by such
means, more wool is produced, and that of a bet-
ter staple. Much attention was considered re-
quisite to be i)aid to washing, so as to eradicate
all sand, and that from ten days to a fortnight, (ac-
cording to the condition of the animal) should
intervene between washing and shearing, during
which time the sheep should be kept as much as
possible from pits and sandy banks. It was re-
marked that but little difference was seldom
made by buyers in the value of wool of good qua-
lity, and that of any iirferior description.

In a subsequent discussion on "The cultivation
of white carrots," the opinion of the meeting
was as follows. : —

Resolved — "The land having been previously
well cleaned, should be ploughed up a good
depth, but it is not considered desirable to
manure for them at the time of sowing, as by
such a system the carrots generally become
fangy. The second or third week in April is
tlie best time for sowing; and about four
pounds of seed per acre are required, mixed
with a portion of sand or saw-dust, at the rate
of two bushels to five pounds of seed. Either
drilling or sowing can be pursued as circum-
stances may render desirable ; — if the land be
subject to annual weeds, drilling is to be pre-
ferred from the opportunity afforded of horse
hoeing, in which case, the rows should be
about twelve inches asunder.''

At the following meeting, the subject before the
club, was " The best method of rearing and im-
proving the breed of cattle." From what was
advanced on this question, it appeared desirable
(in order to check the system which had lately
prevailed, of buying in at a high price and selling
out at a low one) that more cattle should be reared
in the neighbourhood. An objection was urged
by some, that in following out this system, too
much stock of a particular description, would
have to be kept on a farm for a long period be-
fore making any return, and that the manure
made from such stock would not be so valuable,
neither would so much be produced. There was
nothing to recommend the Suffolk breed of cattle
but their milking properties. As regarded the
more preferable breeds, the Ayrshire was con-
sidered the most profitable for the purposes of a

90

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

daily, and the sliorthorn for grazing. It was
however, thought very desirable that greater at-
tention should be given to improving the present
breed, and the following resolution was therefore
adopted : —

Resolved — " That in endeavouring to improve
the present breed of cattle, the most impor-
tant stt-p appears in the selection of a male
animal of the hest description, and that a
cross from the Durham or Ayrshire hreed
would tend most to effect that object."

At the next meeting, a discussion took i)Iace,
with regard to "I'he best method of working or
malting summer-lands," in which the general
opinion appeared to be, that where the land is in-
tended for early roots, ploughing immediately
after harvest is almost indisi)eosab]e to the mak-
ing a good [fallow, as one earth at that season of
tlie year would be found more effectual in extir-
l)ating grass and other weeds than two or three
at any subsequent period. If the land be foul, or
much grass exist, scaling or ploughing without
the breast, was recommended in preference to
clean ploughing the fust time ; in either case it is
very desirable tbe previous crop of wbeatshouldbe
mowu, that the stubble be no impediment in the
way of cleaning.

The number of ploughings requisite would de-
pend much on the state of theland. One member
of much experience had observed that his turnips
where the best where only three earths were
given. This would ai)ply principally when a fal-
low is made in the jjrevious autumn, but even at
any time, if the land be clean and in good tilth,
frequent ploughings are not considered beneficial,
from having the effect of causing the moisture
necessary for vegetation to be absorbed, and thus
often jiroving detrimental to the root crop. It
was thought that the system of early ploughing
would be attended with some inconvenience on
light lands, as in many instances the stubbles
were required for sheep to range upon, but as far
as regards a. preparation for roots, it was generally
allowed to be decidedly the hest plan.

The meetings in harvest and the succeeding
month were but thinly attended, consequently no
discussion ensued ; but at the latter meeting, a
question of much usefulness, (at that particular
l)criod) arose, as to the " Best method of mending
maiden layers deficient in plant." It was ob-
served, that where the deficiency in a layer is con-
fined to spots, or is what is termed gappy, sowing
red suckling on such parts was the most advisable
plan ; but if the failure be the same in all parts
of the field, the best method appeared to be that
of drilling a portion of tares among what is still
remaining, in ridges at nine inches apart, and at
the rate of one bushel per acre. This latter sys-
tem was recommended by seveial experienced
members, v/ho had invariably derived more bene-
fit from pursuing it, than from any other.

At the last monthly meeting of the Club, after the
inspection of an excellent exhibition of roots, a dis-
cussion was entered into on the " Most approved
treatment of Cattle for grazing purposes." The iu-
troductr of the subject, stated, that his system was
to commence feeding with common turnips, after-
wards proceeding with ,Swedes, and beet, or carrots,
in the season to which each was more particularly
adapted for consumption, together with a small
quantity of corn or cake, which be increased as the

beasts improved in condition. This latter system
of giving artificial food from the connnenceinent Le
considered of much importance in grazing, as upon
a favourable beginning often dui)ended a successful
issue; and it was much more advautagjous to give a
small quantity for a lengthened period, than a large
quantity for a short time, or beginning when the
animal is in part fattened. He preferred giving arti-
ficial food the last thing at night, when, if loose in a
yard, they would feed more evenly ; others consi-
dered it more desirable to be given at intervals of
two or three times a day, as well as a portion of hay
or chaff. An occasional change of food was stated
to be beneficial to beasts in a forward state, as an
inducement to feed, and with regard to which, much
regularity and attention was necessary. The system
of giving an excess of food was particularly repro-
bated, as no more than a satisfying ijuantity should
be allowed at any one time. Tlie meeting adopted
the fullowing resolution: —

Resolved — "That the most approved system of
grazing appears to be that of commencing with
common turnips, and about four pounds of cake,
or a equivalent in corn, per day, for each beast,
and increasing tlie quantity- and quality of the
food, as the animals improved in condition."

In summing up this brief Report, your committee
would observe, that as the success of any society
will at all times depend on the support it receives
from the members of which it is composed, they
feel, therefore, that the thanks of the Club are justly
due to those gentlemen who have given regular at-
tendance, and by their observations tended to elu-
cidate such questions as have been brought before
them ; but at the same time, thpy would urge the
desirableness of prosecuting still further enquiries
on all agricultural subjects, instead of being con-
tented at remaining stationary, or as indeed doing so
would almost imply retrograding. They are aware
that success does not at all times crown the efl'orts
of the cultivator of the soil, as many unforeseen
events, over which he has no control, such as un-
favourable seasons, and sudden transition of prices,
often tend to paralize his energies, and which would
appear to be particularly the case at the present
period ; but it is not, however, on that account, that
there should be a relaxation in attempts at improve-
ments ; on the contrary, such circumstances call
for increased exertions, and should rather act as a
stimulant in the pursuit of a more extensive know-
ledge of agricultural affairs ; and they will only ob-
serve, in conclusion, that it is a duty incumbent on
all, as responsible and useful members of the com-
munity, to use those means, which an enlightened
judgment, and greater facilities of cultivation offer,
in endeavouring to increase the produce of the soil,
combined with a due regard to practicability and
individual circumstances; and having done so, trust
the issue to the unerring dispensations of Providence.
Ja.-mus IIiNiiiiSTON, Chairman.

CULLOMI'J'ON FAUMKRS' CLUB, 1813.-
SuRjLcrs roil Discussion. — I'cb. 4, Stall- Feeling —
Advantages of. March 5, Mangel Wurzel — Its cul-
ture, and advantages as a crop. April 1, Oats— Sorts
of, for produce, for feeding and straw. Relative
qualities of black and white oats. June 3, Turnips—
Their sorts and culture.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

91

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

.A Pheliminary to the I'ublic api'oin t-

JIEMT OF ANY AGIIICULTUKAL CiIEMIST.
TO TUB EDITOR OP THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Siu, — It is a circumstance of uuicli promise to
agriculture, that there seems to be growing iiji,
umong practical agriculturists, a disposition to
make the resources of science available to their art,
and more especially the resources of chemistry.
This is a disposition that ought to be encouraged.
Incalculable advantages, there is not the sightest
doubt, might be expected to arise to agriculture
iVom a iirudentand well-advised application of che-
mical principles ; but what I much fear is, that if
at the outset a wrong direction shall be taken by
agriculturists, not only must reasonable expecta-
tions of advantage be disappointed, but a disconr-
agenient to perseverance may be the result, and
thus, in the end, as much harm be done by nnad-
vised zeal, as must be endured under the downright
iuditl'orence of ignorance, indolence, and prejudice.

This ai)prehension has arisen from the considera-
tion of a very well-intentioned pi'oposal that has
been made by some agriculturists in Scotland, to
aj)point, by subscription, a competent chemist to be
employed by them in making such analysis, and in
giving such professional advice as the subscribers
throughout Scotland may require. It is because I
can hardly but think that the enlightened projectors
and subscribers to this project have not rightly ap-
])rehended the direction that should be given to
eflbrts, in order to make the science of chemistry
available to improvements in agriculture, that I
take the liberty of addressing you on the present
occasion.

A few observations may suffice to give an idea of
one important unsettled point in agricultural
science that chemistry alone can determine.

All the matter in any plant may be divided into
two kinds — the organic and the inorganic. The
organical parts of a plant may be partly dried
away, and the remainder may be entirely burnt off.
When the plant is thoroughly burnt, only a white
ash remains. This white ash is the inorganical
part.

The organic parts of a plant appear, from the che-
mical investigations that have been made, to be de-
rived either from the atmosphere itself, or from the
organical matter in the soil acted upon by the
atmosphere. The inorganical parts of a plant
arc admitted on all hands to be derived, not from
the atmosphere, but from the soil. Indeed, the
organical parts of a plant may be regarded as
essentially vegetable, the inorganical parts as es-
sentially mineral.

The mineral ingredients of a plant vary in kind
and in proportion, according to the nature of the
jilant ; but as to the kind and proportion of the
Hiijicral elements, chemists have as yet ascertained,
with accuracy, next to nothing. Yet, without such
information, of what use can chemical analysis be ?
Dift'erent plants no doubt require not only dif-
ferent proportions of mineral matter, but mineral
matter in part of a different kind. This is indeed
apparent from the circumstance that certain wild
plants abound in one description of geological dis-
tricts, and are totally Avanting in others. I will
take upon me to affirm that until the mineral
ingredients of a plant be ascertained with all the
accuracy that betits the agricultural importance
of the subject, even the chemist is not prepared to

do justice to the analysis of a soil. This will not
be easily comprehensible, cxcei)t by persons ex-
perienced in the business of chemical analysis ;
but this much must be obvious to every body, that
so long as the chemist docs not know what mineral
parts must pass from the soil into the plant, ao
long he is ignorant of the most essential mineral
parts to seek for and determine with accuracy ; and
neither the chemist nor any other man, supposing
liiin to have before him a much mori! unexceptiona-
ble analysis of a soil than is yet kn(nvu by chemists
ever to have been performed, can be preijarcd to
pronounce whether the soil abounds or is deficient
in those particular mineral elements that arc essen-
tial to the plants that are intended to be cultivated
in the soil. Ignorant as we are on a point so
fundamental and so essential, we may increase the
number of chemical analyses of soils as we please,
and we may even with truth account them of high
value ; but they can be valuable oidy as those things
were that sunk off Spithead, in the Royal George,
and had to remain at the bottom of the sea for two
or three generations before they could be recovered
for the use of mankind.

So long as the kind and proportion of the mine-
ral ingredients of plants remain thus undetermined,
of what use, allow me to ask, would the projected
appointment of a chemist be for the analysis of
soils ? and permit me to suggest for consideration,
whether the determination of the kind and propor-
tion of mineral elements be not an essential pre-
liminary step in order, not only to make such an
appointment as the projected one useful, but even
to make any single chemical analysis of a soil,
whensoever or wheresoever performed, of any avail
in the practice of agriculture.

I own I think the money subscribed would be
thrown away.

Should then nothing be done ? Should the
praise-worthy ardour of the projectors and sub-
scribers be repressed ? Should the stillness and
stagnation of ignorance and indolence remain
undisturbed ? By no means : but, as surely as that
without ploughing and sowing there can be no
reaping of corn, so surely the mere indolent ad-
mission, or the loudly pronounced conviction of the
necessity of scientific enquiry fV)r the serviceof agri-
culture, will not alone enable agricultui'ists to reap
the advantage that would be secured by the insti-
tution and completion of the contemplated investi-
gation.

By whom can such an enquiry be conducted ?
Certainly by no person but a scientific chemist,
and he would require to be one of nr) menu attain-
ment, industry, and conscientiousness. It is pro-
per to mention, because possibly such an idea
might not occur to agriculturists, that the encpiiry
suggested, although conducted by a competent
chemist, devoting to it the whole of his time, is of
such extent that it could not be accomplished in
so short a period as two years. Can the patrons
and friends of agricultural improvement expect
that any competent chemist will, of his own ac-
cord, undertake and satisfactorily perform an en-
quiry of such extent, although of such undoubted
importance to agriculturCj merely as a labour of
love ? Surely suclr an expectation cannot be rea-
sonably entertained. Few scientific chemists of
attainments adequate to such an undertaking can
command the time that would be necessary, and
assuredly the research, of incalculable importance
to agriculture although it be, holds out no promise
of chemical discovery, or of reputation such as

92

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

could induce a competent chemist to enter on the
investigation. I apprehend, accordingly, that no
full and satisfactory investigation of tlie mineral
ingredients of plants can be looked for from the
spontaneous labours of the only persons competent
to make the investigation.

Permit me then to submit for consideration,
whether the oft'er of a becoming remuneration for
a man of science, qualified for such an investiga-
tion, would not be an object worthy of some of the
great agricultural associations ?

Under this plan, one of two coui'ses might be
adopted : either a special chemist, British or for-
eign, of such scientific reputation as to afford ade-
quate security for the fidelity and the value of his
experiments, might be employed ; or an adequate
reward might be offered for the competition of all
chemists. The subject of the mineral components
of plants is so very wide, that it would appear ex-
pedient to limit the enquiry at the outset to the
mineral elements of certain specified plants. The
selection of the particular plants would have to be
made with the assistance of competent scientific
advice, and of course by such advice also would
the merits of the prize essays, in case of a compe-
tition, come to be determined.

It is not with the most distant view of taking
any part in such an investigation, or of offering
myself among the competitors, that I have been
induced to address you ; but solely from a desire
that no misdirection be given to efforts, such as I
cannot but approve of, and to intentions such as I
cannot but wish to promote.

Various other serious practical mistakes appear
to me to have been made in the formation of the
project that has given occasion to these remarks;
but, having already occupied so much space, I
must, for the present, delay further observations on
the project.

I am. Sir,

Your obedient servant,

A PROFESiSOR OF CHEMISTRY.

January l&th, 1843.

TO THE FARMERS OF SUFFOLK.

[This letter is equally valuable to, and demands the
attention of, the farmers of any other county as
well as of Sufiblk.— Ed. F.M.]

LETTER I.

(prom the bury post.)

(jEnti.emex. — As our county press has wished
me to believe that my late address to the Hadleigh
Farmer's Club, on the theory ofmanuring, contained
matter of interest to the agricidtural portion of their
readers, I venture to address myself to you in gene-
ral. You may remember that I did not profess to
point out anything new; and that I merely at-
tempted to draw a few inferences from recorded
facts and the opinions of others. My object was to
difliisc information for the sake of some who might
not be aware of the importance of a correct theoiy
of manuring, or might be unwilling to believe that
science can ever be expected to do much for the
improvcuieiit of practice. Two or three of my
practical friends have since then communicated
with mc on the subject ; and certain intiuiries and
expressions iu their letters have inclined mc to think

that if I were to put on paper a few remarks upon
some ])oints more or less connected with your im-
portant pursuit, I might probably stimulate some
among you to make further inquiry, by showing
you what it is that science wants you to attempt, in
order that she may be put into possession of a suffi-
cient number of positive facts for improving and
perfecting her theories. I am told that very few
practical farmers are sufliicicntly instructed to com-
prehend, or to profit by, the information which
science puts before them ; and in the excellent pub-
lication called the Gardener'^: Chronicle of this
week, (published Dec. 31,) I find a confirmation of
of this statement. " It is certain," says the editor,
" that among the aids which cultivators must now
look to with most anxiety is that of chemistry. It
is evident to all who understand the principles of
tillage, whether in gardens or fields, that the dear
old empirical rules of action are inadequate to the
wants of the world ; that if we are not to starve,
or be otherwise ruined, we must have more out of
the land than our fathers had ; and that the com-
mon modes of cultivation will not give us more.
This is as plain as the sun at noon-day. Under such
circumstances, what is it that we English do ? Why,
our agricultural associations talk of chemistry as a
fine thing — listen to lectures on chemistry, often,
we fear, without understanding them, and are con-
tented to rest there, &c. Tiie truth is, that English
education — including that of Cambridge and Ox-
ford, does not enable men to appreciate the value of
such inquiries.-'

Tbis misfortune of that incompetency of which the
editor here speaks is, tbat it not only disqualifies
persons for availing themselves of every important
discovery in science wLich may bear upon their
practice, but frequently most fatally misleads them
in their very desire to do so. In an account which
I published twenty years ago, of the geology of An-
glesea, 1 traced on the map a particular district
under the name of the " Coal-measures," applying
this term, in its strict geological meaning, to a par-
ticular series of our strata, in which the principal
coal fields of England are situate. But some zealous
speculators choose to fancy tbat coal must neces-
sarily be hid somewhere in a district with so inviting
a title ; and, consequently, very foolishly to throw
away their money in searching for it in places where
any geologist would have told them they might have
spared themselves the cost. I was informed that if
I had visited the island shortly afterwards 1 should
have run some risk of being ducked in the Menai.
Now, I have no desire to liave my nose rubbed in a
dunghill, if any one of you should so far either
chance to misinterpret me or to trust me so as to be
induced to put yourselves to fruitless expense. I
had rather find you all sceptical and over-scrupulous
than hasty and over-confident in adopting any sug-
gestion of mine. You must experiment for your-
selves ! If you do not, you may be^ fifty years in de-
termining some point of importance to you,
which might be settled in fifty montbb or in fifty
days.

I will tell an old college acquaintance and worthy
friend of mine tbat he m\Xi>\. disprove, ami not dispute
with me, Liebig's suggestion to add gypsum to your
dunghills, if you wish to retain that important but
invisible ingredient, ammonia — which is continually
escaping from them, and upon which plants mainly
rely for one of those elements absolutely essential to
their growth. Rly friend chooses to quiz me for
Iiaving drawn attention to Liebig's suggestion, as
though he did not value that tact which a knowledge

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

93

of natural science conferi5 upon her votaries for
making suggestions of this kind. Talk of our making-
comparative experiments (he thus writes to rae^,
and tlien tells us to mix gypsum in the manure heap !
In 1860 some such paragraph as this will appear : —
"So, the absurd practice of mixing gvpsum in our
manure hea|)S, for which no assignable reason can
be given, took its rise from an incidental hint given
by a learned professor now no more."

iNIy friend well understands how a mathematinil
education confers a power of comprehending a
variety of natural phenomena, in a way which no
popular view or exposition of them can possibly
supply ", and why should he refuse to an eminent
chemist the right of expecting that the suggestions
of his science should be fairly and fuliy tested I But I
know my friend's energy too well not to believe that ho
intends trying the necessary experiments for testing
Liebig's conjectures. In (act, he has just bought
some gypsum! Only I don't mean that he shall
Jiave all the credit to himself; and, therefore, 1 shall
challenge every farmer in Suffolk to compete with
him. If only fifty among you can be found willing
to accept the challenge, I shall hope to see the
scepticism of my friend set at rest, by proof or dis-
proof, I caie not which, within as many months as he
has suggested years for the possible duration of my
mortal career. My challenge is this —

The best comparative experiment for testing the valu^
of Liebig'x suggestion that Gypsum should be added to
nioniire heaps to fix the Ammonia. Tliis experiment to
he tried by every farmer in Suffolk who feels any interest
in the piogress of Agriculture.

The mode of trying the experiment should be as
follows : — Two dunghills are to be prepared, as
nearly alike in all respects as it is possible to make
them ; one with, and the other without, the addition
of gypsum. Two separate and equal portions of the
same field are to be manured witli these. I shall
say nothing about the respective quantities of the
materials, or the time thev are allowed to rot. A
little variety, among the numerous trials which I ex-
pect to hear of, will be useful, and indeed necessary,
to the speedy determination of the important problem
to he solved. Let the gypsum be sifted over the
several layers as they are deposited in one of the
heaps. 1 would suggest there should be about
enough to just cover the surface, without placing it
on very thick. The returns should give precise in-
formation of the following particulars, and any
others that may suggest themselves. I shall be
happy to report on them before this day twelve-
month ; and I will plead for the thanks of all the
agricultural societies in Suffolk being given to every
contributor : —

1. The quantity of straw used in each heap.

2. The quantity of animal excrement.

3. On what day each was begun.

4. On what day each was completed.

5. On what day they were carried and deposited
in the soil.

t). The number of loads, and weight of each.

7. The extent of land manured by each.

8. The quantity of gypsum used to one of the
dunghills.

N.B. — A comparatively small quantity is
all that can be required.

9. Any difference in the coming up and appear-
ance of the crops, on each piece of land.

10. When each arrived at maturity.
H. The precise amount of produce.

N.B, It is needles* to reply to this ques.

tion by guess or estimate. It must bo
svrered by the scales.

1?. Any peculiarity in the qualities of each pro-
duce.

Although these particulars may require nothing
more than an ordinary degree of intelligence, and a
little industry to note them, yet, if they are correctly
stated by about .)0 experimenters, without any at-
tempt to coax the results into accordance with pre-
vious notions and prejudices, they may determine a
very important problem in the present stale of a^-ri-
cultural science.

Your obedient servant,

J. S. IIf.nslow.

P.S. If the farmers of Suflolk consider an oc-
casional letter from me likely to be of service to
them, perhaps they will endeavour to prevail upon
the editors of the several journals thev may happen
to take in to copy from that one which I take in my-
self. The editors will not expect that I should fur-
nish more than one copy of AIS. ; and having ascer-
tained from the editor of my own paper that he is
willing to insert any communications of the sort, I
shall send them to him.

Hit chum Rectory, Jan. 7.

EXPERIMENTS IiV TURNIP GROWTNG.-

At the annual exhibition of the Sussex Express
Root Show which look place at Lewes, two samples
of Swede turnips among- the extra productions
were the subject of considerable inquiry — one was
grown by R. Gray, Esq.. at Barcombe, wiili bran as a
manure, the other by T. Richardson, Esq., in the same
parish, with oil as a manure. Both these experiments
seemed to have answered their purpose. Bran was
equal to yard manure, and oil had an evident effect in
keeping off the fly and nouri>hing- the root. We may
here remark that no manure can be applied advantage-
ously for turnips, unless there be pre'sent phosphorus
in some shape or other, for the turnip contains in itself
the chemical propertiesof carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen
as water, nitrogen, silicon, potassium, phosphorus in a
large degree, and a slight shade of sodium. In all cul-
tivated soils carbon is present in the shape of decayed
vegetation. Rain water contains oxygen and hydrogen.
Nitrogen is invariably present. Silicon, in the shape
of gravel or sand. Potajsium is found in all clays, but
phosphorus has generally to be brought to the land
incorporated with the manures applied. Fish oil con-
tains a large portion of phosporus, as does ;iIso brans
and hence may be traced the value of these two manure,
for turnips. It should be borne in mind that fish oil,
until it has undergone a chemical change, is injurious
to both seed and plant; it is consequently applied after
having been incorporated with wood ashes, in which
there is a quantity of potass; this immediately changes
the oil into soap, and the manure, therefore, actually is
soap, and not oil, when thrown upon the land. Where
wood ashes are not readily to be obtained, the oil mixed
with soda, dissolved in water, will produce the change
necessary for its becoming a useful and active manure,
and may then be incorporated with road scrapings, or
other materials, to fit it for drilling. To destroy the
rapacity of the grubs, no plan seems so effectual as
turning up the ground rough late in autumn, so that
it may be exposed well to the frost. Salt thrown
sparingly over also additionally cleanses ihe soil. Upon
stiff lands a winter fallow is a great sweetener, and
those who have trierl it for roots have ever been well
conripensated for their labour. To prevent the depre-
dations of the fly several plans have been ailopted,— dry
lime after a shower has been of great service, but nothing
has as yet been presented to public attention more ef-
fectual than spreading coal tar or gas ashes over the
land after sowing. The smell of the bitumen is so of'

94

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

fensive to the fly as lo wiinl off llifir attacks. An easy
melliod for applying this preventive is lo obtain coal
tar, and mix it wiili a solution oF sub carbonate of soda
(the common soda used in houshold affairs). A che-
mical combinaiion takes place, and tiie tenacity of the
tar is in a g'reat measure de^uoyed. JMix the tar so
prepared with road scraping's, ashes, or mould : let the
compost be turned over several times, and when well
incorporated it is ready lo be used, and may be spread
broadcast after the sowing- is completed. We may
intention that coal tar forms a leading- ingredient of one
of the patent manures, but as it does not contain phos-
phorus in any sliape, it possesses scarcely any other
value to the crop except protecting it from tiie ravages
of the fly. A* a manure for wheat or any other straw
crop its application lias been veiy advantageous. As
much public benefit is expected from the growth of
carrots, we may be excused for offering some observa-
tions upon its culture upon stiff clays. The land should
be ridged up in the latter end of October or November,
and being exposed lo the winter's frost, will be ready
early in the following year for the reception of the seed,
which should be sown as early as possible after Feb-
ruary. As there is at the present time a great deficiency
of agricultural work for the hibourer we can confidently
recommenil the farmer to employ spade husbandry in
preparing the ground for the crop. It will amply repay
the extra expense.— Sussex Express.

QUERIES

ANSWERED
PROPOSED.

BY CINClNNATUg.

OTHERS

Your correspondent '•' Economist," of York, in-
quires in p. 445 for December, " whether in sandy
or gravelly soils through which water percolates
freely, a portion of the subsoil may not be brought
into activity without the expense of drainin"?"
&c., &c.

Having been in the regular habit of using a
suhsoil-plough. many years before it came into
fashion, I can, from experience, answer decidedly
in the aftlrmativc. I have in several instances re-
inoved rushes and other water-plants, without any
drain being within 200 yards, by the following
easy and inexpensive mode of operation.

First, I plough up the pasture for oats ; on
mowing the oats they are immediately carted
away,* the land ploughed on the same or the
following day, and by attentively observing the
proper state of the soil, for a powerful drag and a
heavy iron roller, the soil is reduced into a proper
state for drills. After setting potatoes, or sowing
Swedes, or mangel-wurzel, 1 introduce the subsoil
plougli between each alternate drill. The effect is
beautiful ; as the plough advances the rising and
sinking of ilie summit of the drill on each side is
very perceptible ; three horses in a line draw the
plough about 11 inches below the bottom of the
previous furrow, which I find effectually disturbn
the crust of moor |)an, marl, .Svc, that obstructed
the uniform descent of rain to tlie roots of the crops,
compelling our best agricultural assistant (or
enemy, if we by neglect abuse the bounty of I'ro-
vidcnce), voter, to |)ass away through cracks,
fissures, worm-holes, &c., into an abyss of sand,
where it wends its way until it breaks out in some
lower level.

_ 1 have several fields in the farm on which I re-
side that a superficial observer would have con-

* As described in the Farmers^ Progress, No. 1,
fOr November, \d[V), p. 3l(j.

sidered it necessary to drain at a great expense;
they are now as dry as I would wish them, and
with less than one mile of drains where ten are
now almost universally recommended. I never
go to the expense of draining a field without dig-
ging a number of small pits ; if no water lodges in
those pits I make no drain in that part of the field ;
where water lodges I make several of those pits,
until I have ascertained the cause of the lodg-
ment of water. If the water proceed either from
a spring, or because it is confined by a stratum of
clay, I make one deep drain, or rather culvert of
large tile, stone, or brick, whichever costs the least,
to the nearest outlet : this done, I wait ivith pn-
tlence to see the effect of this deep drain. N^ot uti-
frequently, the little pits previously full of water
become perfectly dry— so far as they becoine dry
I save the exjjense of additional drains. Not nn-
frequentlj', pits within a few yards, or even feet of
the dee]) drain, retain water, whilst others 10, or
even 100 yards distant, are drained, piobably by
some connecting gravel bed, or fissure, acting as a
syi)bon : no matter what the cause, here again I
save the expenseof draining. 'Where water lodges
in the sliallow jjits near the deep drain, I know that
moor-pan, or clay, or other substance impervious
to water intervenes, requiring only a little common
sense and observation to remove it — a very small
drain, or the removal by spade liusbandr}' of a
knoll to some hollow place near at hand, I ha\'e
generally found a perfect cure. About half a score
years ago my attention was drawn to the low [)art
of a valuable meadow, so wet that we could cnly
turn cattle upon it in very dry weather. I soon
ascertained that there was no spring — it was
merely a basin receiving more than its own share
of rain; it was, howG\'ci-, an evil which must be
obviated. It wonld have cost me 10/. or 12L to
have conveyed the stagnant water to the nearest
outlet. After a little consideration I ordered my
labourers to dig a drain %tp the lull to carry off
the water from the lowest j)art of the meadow —
they looked aghast, but my orders must be obeyed.
I had some difficulty to preserve my gravity when
I gave those orders. The fact was that I had long
noticed a part of the field, 30 or 40 yards higher
up, much burnt in dry summers; by pitting the
place I found a bed of gravel — it was to this point
I directed my new drain, of course dee[)ening it as
1 proceeded. I began with tiles about 20 inches
below the surface ; when I got to the gravel the
drain was about 8 feet deep ; 1 there di.'g a deo)>
hole, filled it with clean riddled gravel, and thus at
an expense of less than .''lOs. I effected a perfect
cure.

As I shall, ere long, fulfil my promise given in
the Farmers' Mug. for September, p. 181, of nar-
rating the " Farmers' Progress," No. 9, on a more
extended scale of public utility, and on the im-
jiortant subject of draining a largo extent of moss
land, I shall confine my present observations to
the recommendation of caution as respects the
great expense of draining. If I am not much de-
ceived, enormous sums are now employed hijiidl-
cloiisly in draining. Mistake me not — until super-
fluous water be removed farming cannot answer,
but if twenty pounds be expended where five
pounds or a smaller sum will have equal effect, I
call it extravagance. If I am not mistaken, mil-
lions of the tiny tiles to be scen'in various parts of
the kingdom will, before 20 years are past, bo
found to be useless, or worse than useless, for
drains, when they cease to carry away superfluous

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

95

water, add to tlie evil, increasing the growth of
water-plants, and destroying those which supply
food to man and beast.*

I beg leave to add, that my observations apply
principally to hilly land where porous soils prevail.
Flat clay land I have only occasionally had to deal
with, but even on this description of land I have
found that a smaller number of deep drains left
open during dry weather, until the sides are parched
and cracked, with a well levelled culvert at tiie
bottom, and filled with stone, covered \\ith a re-
versed sod a foot from tlie surface, with short
minor spit drains, about 2 feet deep on the square,
and a narrow spit of about 8 inches at the bottom,
covered with turf or flat stone, emptying into
the culverts, equally effectual and less expensive
than more numerous parallel drains, laid with tile
or stone.

Tanks.

Several of your correspondents have enquired
as to the construction of tanks, and the ajjplication
of liquid manure. If the situation be low or flat, 1
have nothing to say ; but if the situation be so
elevated that the surface of the tank can be below
the drains from the farm buildings, and the bottom
of the tank be above the land to he irrigated, I beg
leave to refer them to tiie Farmers^ Magazine for
March, 1840, p. 174, for a description of the
simplest and best tank I ever saw, and to p. '.\?>l
for November, 1840, for the place, where it is to
be seen by any agriculturists who like to look be-
fore they leap.

Guano.

I shall look anxiously to the Farmers' Moffazine
for the next four months for information as to t'he
application of Guano ; not from jjarties interested
in the sale, or the result of small experiments, but
from practical farmers who will correctly and Im-
l)artially state what they have witnessed, be it
favourable or otherwise.

Though I allow no farm-yard manure to escape
or evaporate, some years must elapse before enough
can be provided to restore a large extent of land in
a distant estate, exhausted by repeated cropping
and great neglect ; therefore I resort to guano, and
I am desirous to know, not merely how to apply it
alone, hut in connexion with alluvial soil, soil from
decomposed clay slate, bog soil, clay, wood-ashes,
either with or without the ashes of bog and clay,
charcoal from the croppings of oak and other
timber. Of each of these I have an inexhaustible
supply; how to combine them, or any of them
with guano most advantageously for newly seeded
grass-land, old meadow land recently well drained,
lucerne, Italian rye- grass, barley, oats, Swedes,
turnips, ii mangel-wurzel, and carrots. Authentic
Information on any one of these numerous queries
1 shall be grateful for, and consider a point
gained.

iVIy present idea, if not better instructed, for grass
land is to mix guano with alluvial soil next Feb-
ruary, having at least si-t inches of soil outside, to
turn it over in March, adding about 3 bushels of
wood-ashes to 1 of guano j the tirst damp weather
without wind after 15th of April, to spread the
compost, aiming at IJ cwt. of guano per acre, and
bush-harrow to follow the first dry day ; a roller
when very dry.

* In improving two small farms that I purchased
several years ago, it cost me more money to search
out and take up numerous old drains, nearly all
choked up, than to drain the land effectually.

For Swedes, mangel, &c.— Having previously
got the land into fine condition, and having every-
thing ready, I think of sowing broadcast about ;',
cwt. to the acre of guano ; immediately plough
into 27-inch drills, spread 8 or 10 tons to the acre
(all I can afford) of farm-yard dung in the drills ;
upon the dung in the drills spread 3 or 4 tons to
the acre of wood-ashes, mixed with burnt clay
and bog that covered the wood wlien burning, to
exclude the air; stroke up with the double-breasted
plough, roll the top of the drills that the seed may
be near the manure; sow turnips with the drill,
mangel with the dibble, and finish by flattening
the outsides of the drills with the spade to prevent
evaporation.

'i'hough experienced in the improvement of land
in its various branches, and in the production of
hay and milk, I consider myself a novice in farm-
ing generally ; therefore I am sincerely desirous of
receiving instruction in the interesting science of
agriculture, ])artic;;larly as respects the applica-
tion and combination of manures with any one of
the soils above mentioned — viz., alluvial, bog, clay,
and decomposed clay-slate.

Charcoal.

I read in a hundred places of the excellence of
charcoal as a manure, of its affinity and retention
of ammonia, hut scarcely a word of the mode
of applying- it. A description, concise, intelligible,
of the quantity, the size to which it should be
ground, in short of anything practical as respects
charcoal, would, Itliink, be acceptable to many of
your readers ; it would be attentively and grate-
fully perused by

Your obliged humble servant,

Dec. 19, 1842. Cincinnatus.

Since writing the above, I have perused in
page () to 10 of your last number, witli pleasure
and instruction, Agricultor's perspicuous remarks
on the " Principles of Draining, &c." His lucid
explanation of a neglected, hut most important
principle of agriculture, capillary alfrac/ion, is,
in my humble opinion invaluable, and well worthy
the best attention of every gentleman desiious of
improving his landed property. And, I also
gratefully acknowledge the practical information
emanating from the Preston Agricultural Meeting,
in pages 18 and I'J of the same number; the clear,
concise, and well considered Rei)orts of that
Society, unmixed with trifles of mere local in-
terest, are doubly valuable for the information
they contain, and as an example to other agri-
cultui'al societies. ('.

Jan. 12, 1843.

FARMERS' CLUBS.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMERS* MAGAZINE.

Sir, — I concur with you that the advancement of
agriculture is greatly aided by ihe formation of Far-
mers' flubs throughout the length and breadth of
the land, as by their means any improvement in the
management of stock or the growing of crops, made
by a member of such flub, is no longer kept a pro-
found secret, hut is discussed in public, and if ap-
proved of, immediately adopted by the whole neigh-
bourhood ; thereby benefitting not only the farmers
themselves, but every class in the community. I
rf'gret such societies are as yet rsrely to be met with
in many parts of England ( I know of only one within

96

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the limits of the great agiicultural county of So-
merset, that of Bradford, near Taunton) ; and I
would call upon the farmers of tlie v\liole langdom
to come forward and establish clubs in every locality,
leminding tbem that.sincetbe protect! jn we so mucli
needed is now unhappily (in a great measure) with-
held from us by the alteration in the duties on the
importation of corn, cattle, and provisions, it requires
strenuous and increased individual and united exer-
tion for tlie British fnrmer to maintain that elevated
position be has hitherto held. I hail with pleasure
the time when every knot of villages shall possess its
farmers' club, calculated, as I ara convinced they
are, to enlighten the understanding of the agricul-
turist, and in so doing to disperse the mist of pre-
judice now unfortunately obscuring the path of too
many amongst us ; and certain am I that it is not
only the agriculturist who will benefit through the
dissemination of knowledge by these clubs, for if the
farmer can only increase his crop of wheat two
bushels per acre, price being regulated by the sup-
ply and demand, will not every class of the commu-
nity, more especially the half-starved operative, reap
an advantage in the reduction of the price of bread —
the first necessary of life'? Seeing tiien that so
many and great benefits will arise from the formation
and support of such institutions, why should the
farmers of England display such great apathy and
listlessuess in not coming forward at once in support
of so good a cause? Many, I am aware, who would
oladlv lend their aid, when once set on foot, are
from a want of education and general knowledge of
public business unfit to take an active part in the
formation of such societies ; then why do not the
clergy, tlie landlords, and the independent gentle-
men, who possess every requisite for such an un-
derlaking, nobly step forward, and by their example
stimulate others to exertion? I trust it is evident
that the cause of humanity calls upon them to assist
in the great undertaking, not only from the reduced
price of bread to the manufacturing operative, but,
from the increase of emjiloyment arising from an
improved system of farming, to the agricultural
labourer, whereby the poor- rales would be reduced,
crime would be lessened, and the morals of the lower
classes greatly improved ; and all this affected at the
expense of no individual interest whatever. Trust-
ing the subject will receive the consideration it
deserves, I remain, sir, yours respectfully,

A Tenant FARwrn.
East Somerset, Dec. 24, 1842.

ON BURNED CLAY AS A
MANURE.

TOTUF, FDITOn OF THF. FARMEIl's GAZRTTF.

Sir, — 1 shall feel obliged by your informing me,
through the medium of your truly useful paper, how
kilns should be constructed for burning clay ? and
will peat suit as fuel ?

Is common yellow clay suitable for burning, or
would a mixture of loam or calcareous earth be an
impiovement 1

Would the ashes produced he a good manure for
green crops ?

Would it he advisable to use il mixed with any
other ingredient ?

Any other information on the subject you will be
kind enough to impart, will be thankfully received
by Yours, A Fahmfh.

[To Construct tiif. Kh.n. — Let sods be cut, of
a convenient size to handle, say a foot wide and 18
inches in length; with these form a parallelogram
or " long square," let the walls be a couple of feet
thick, and tramped or beaten firmly together, and
raised at least three feet high ; the kiln should be so
situated that the wind may blow against one of its
sides ; the kiln may be from four to six yards long,
by three yards wide, and an aperture within one
yard of each end, and others at a distance of about
live feet from these, should be left in the side walls
when building them for the purpose of forming
drain-like openings across the kiln ; should there be
a likelihood of the wind changing so as to blow
against the end of the kiln, it is advisable to make
one of these drain-like openings from end to end in
the length of the kiln ; these funnels are to be built
also with sods. Some dry turf, such as is used for
fuel, is to be put into these funnels, and over it and
between the funnels well dried sods, or any other
combustible materials, are to be laid on to the depth
of a couple of feet over these sods, partially dried,
to the level of the walls of the kiln. These mate-
rials being set on fire, a powerful heat will be pro-
duced, quite capable of burning clay without pre-
viously drying it ; care, however, will be ne-
cessary to avoid throwing it on in too great a
(|uantity at once until the mass appears red, when a
large quantity may be thrown on. The sod walls
are to be raised as the heap rises, and as soon as it is
perceived by the strength of the smoke and the
glow of heat that the mass is ignited in all its parts,
the apertures may be closed up, and the kiln left to
become charred. Should appearances indicate a
likelihood of the fire being smothered, it will only
be necessary to opeu one or more of the funnels to
secure its acting. It is customary, as soon as a
sufficient quantity, say twenty cubic yards, has been
heaped on the fire, to cover it up closely with sods,
but this, although a good practice, we have found
not to be necessary. Clay only, and not loam or
earth of any kind, is suitable for burning. If the
land on which the burned or charred clay is to be
applied be deficient in calcareous matter, earth con-
taining it, being burned with the clay, would im-
prove it much. We have seen layers of finely
broken limestone completely burned in clay kilns.
We have seen excellent crops of turnips produced
on indilTerent land by the use of the ashes of clay-
kilns, and there can scarcely bo a better preparation
for rape. Farmers with whom we have conversed,
in the county IMonaghan, where the burning of clay
is general, have assured us tliat, but for the ma-
nure so produced, they could not raise crops of
either potatoes or corn, nor pay their rents, and they
assert that the land so treated, time out of mind, is
better now than formerly. As a considerable quan-
tity of the surface sods and earth are burned ever}'
time potatoes are planted, we cannot but doubt this
latter part of the assertion, and these lands being
peculiarly suited to the turnip husbandry, were that
crop once introduced, and its value fully tested,
burning would, we have no doubt, notwithstanding
the present notions of those who adopt it, soon be
given up. No doubt the action of the fire causes com-
binations capable of affording food to plants, still we
look upon burned clay rather in the light of an altera-
tive, as improving the texture of the soil by rendering
it more friable and permeable to moisture^ than as a
manure. We have seen composts formed of burned
clay, bog-stuff, and lime, and consider such mixtures
valuable.]

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

97

ON THK PROGRESS OF AGRICUL-
TURAL KNOWLEDGE DURING
THE LAST FOUR YEARS.

UY PH. PUSEV, M.P., r.R. AND G.S.

(From the Journnl of the Roiial AgriciiUiiral Socicti/.)

As four years have passed since our Society
was t'oimdrd for cxtoiKiinfj; the knowledge and im-
]»n)ving the practice of husbandry, it may not be
useless now to enquire how far, if at all, its working
has hitherto carried out the views of our founders.
Thougti we could not be fairly required to have
done much in so short a time, we certainly ought
to have (lone something, sirengthcned as we have
been hy the liearty aid of the English farmers.
We should be encouraged, 1 think, by knowing
what we have done, if indeed wo Lave succeeded
in anything; we shall be more likely to advance
farihpr, if we look at the difficulties we still have
to deal with ; and the best encouragement, per-
haps for active men, is the knowledge that they
have yet a great deal to do. The extension of
science may, however, mean two different things,
cither the spread of existing knowledge among a
wider number of persons — and this is a most im-
l)ortant object in our department; for if the best
practice of each different district would become
general in tlic country, a very great improvement in
farming would at once be effected — or it may mean
the discovery of principles hitherto entirely un-
known. In examining how far we have advanced in
either way the knowledge of farming, it may be con-
venient to begin with tlie soil itself, jiroceeding
afterwards from tillage and seed-time to harvest ;
and as no soil, however good, can yield what it
ought while it is drenched with water, we must
first consider drainage.

It is only seven years since we heard in England,
chiefly through the present Speaker of the House
of Commons, that a manufacturer in .Scotland, now
well known as Mr. Smith of Dcanston, had found
the means of making all land, however wet and
poor it might be, warm, sound, and fertile, and
tbat this change was brought about by two ])io-
ccsscs, thorough-draining and subsoil-ploughing.
His rule of draining was this : that we are nut to
endeavour merely to find out hidden springs, and
to cut tbcin through by a single drain, which in
some of our books appeared to be regarded as all
that was necessary; but that, as the whole surface
of retentive soihis rendered wet, not by accidental
springs, but by the rain, the whole surface of the
field must be made thoroughly dry by undcr-drains,
running throughout at equal distances ; any field,
he said, however wet, might be so dried, provided
these under-draius were cut sufficiently near to
each other. This was the princijde of thorough or
frequent draining asserted by Blr. Smith of Dcan-
ston, in 18:55; and this principle, which was then
new and startling, may now be regarded as firmly
established. But though it was liien so novel, I
have discovered accidentally that it has been long
jiractised to its fullest extent in one part of England.
1 do not speak of furrow-draining, which was well
I known in many districts, for the drains were not
, generally so deep nor so numerous as they are on
j the Dcanston system. Rut an old drill-man from
Suffolk having observed to mc, that if he were the
j tenant of a strong clay farm in this neighbourhood,
. he should drain the whole of it with drains cut 12
» feet apart and 3 feet in depth ; I wa^ struck with

this remark of an old man who had never read
the new system of drainage, yet described it as
carried to its utmost extent, lor drains coidd scarce™
ly be cut nearer or deci)cr. He told mc, on beitig
further questioned, that it was the method which
he had seen as a boy at his native place. Mr.
Allan Ilarisoine, at my request, inquired into the
matter, and informs me that forty years ago three
])ropcrtics, one of them Lord lluntingfield's, near
Yoxford, in Suffolk, were drained in this manner.
1 have reason to believe that the same effectual
mode of draining has long been practised in Essex,
so much so as to be called the Essex system even in
Scotland. Now, in proving that Mr. Smith's sys-
tem is not new, I do not lower his claims to our
thanks, for he jtrobably invented it also, and at all
events carried it out with an energy which made it
new in his hands ; but I tliink the fact of its pre-
vious j)ractice in Sufl'olk and Essex worth notice
for two reasons : one, that any new method, how-
ever highly recommended, must be received with
doubt as long as it continues new, and that conse-
quently the best praise by which any method can
be recommended to practical farmers is, not that it
is new, but on the contrary that it is old and tried ;
the other reason is this, that here was a jilan of
drainage which was regarded as novel, yet had been
employed and established for half a century at no
great distance from London ; and this is by no
means a singular jjroof how little the farmers in
one part of England knew, until lately, what the
others were doing.

All, however, who arc at all acquainted with.
imi)roved husbandry, are now agreed that on wet
land thorough-draining is to a farm what a foun-
dation is to a house, i'here is no doubt now what
ought to be done ; the difficulty is to find means
for doing it, since one third of England, I believe,
requires to be drained. It would be easy to bring
forward instances of great profit resulting from,
drainage ; and I may rtfer to the accounts of Sir
.Tames firalmm's operations at Nctherby,* and of
Lord Hatherton'sf at 'I'eddesley, where the water
which gushes out of the underground drains is
thrown over a watcr-whcel, thrashes the corn, and
does the other work of the barn ; still great re-
turns cannot be held out in all cases, yet every wet
farm ought to be drained. But the advantage of
draining is not to be measured merely by the addi-
tional bushels of corn that may be grown on an
acre ; though I believe five or six bushels of wheat
])er acre would be a fair estimate of the increase ;
for such land is usually tlirown up into very nar-
row ridges, perhaps 10 feet wide, and no corn grows
in the bare furrow, so that one-tenth of the land is
lost altogether ; the lower half of the ridge, too,
on each side of the furrow bears often only strag-
gling ears. Long tracts of such fields must have
been seen between Birmingham and Liverpool last
year by many of our members ; and it may be
useful for landowners to know that every arable
field whicli is laid up in ridges probably requires
more or less to be drained ; in fact these deep fur-
rows were devised by our ancestors for drying the
ridges piled up between them. An intrinsic ad-
vantage, however of draining is this, that the
character of the farm is changed. It is diflicult to
obtain a good tenant for a cold clay farm ; and I
am inclined to think thai some of these farms have

* .Tournal, vol.i. p.32.

t Ibid., vol. ii. p. 273, on the drainage of land ;
by J, F. Burke.

H

08

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

gone backwards in the last lit'ty years. On two
siicli farms, now in wretched condition, 1 found
it was in the memory of living ])ersons that
they had once borne far better crops. No long time
ago it was the clay lands that fed the country ; but
since the great chiingc eflFccted in light-land farm-
ing by turnip husbandry, every farmer wishes to
occupy what is called a stock-farm— a farm where
he can fold his sheep on the land at all seasons —
consequently the clay-farms have become less and
less popular; and, in some cases, have fallen into
inferior hands.* Nor can we be surprised at the
unpopularity of a wet farm, for its discomforts are
endless, as well as its losses. The acts of hus-
bandry are at all times liable to interruption by
excess of rain. The farmer does not know when
he can plough or sow; often his teams cannot go on
the land, so that the work to be done accumulates ;
yet when the favourable moment arrives, in which
all the work must be done at once, he requires more
horses for each plough than the light land farmer,
while he has less time for doing that work. In a
wet autumn he must sow his wheat too late ; per-
haps not sow it at all. If he does sow wheat, and
the rain continues, the seed sometimes rots in the
ground; or if it has come up well, winter soaks
the hollows thoroughly, if it docs not fill them, with
standing water ; and in spring, on each side of the
furrow, large blanks are seen in the crop.f

* A main reason why clay-Airms have, to a con-
siderable extent, fallen into " inferior hands" is the
circumstance that they are the only farms which, from
the moderate outlay required to enter, come within
the reach of a certain class. If, for instance, a farm-
ing servant or cottager, either by marriage, bequest,
or along course of industry, 'shall have become
possessed of a few hundred pounds, and desire to be
himself an occupier, he is debarred from entering
upon a grazing, a mixed, or a convertible farm, by
the capital necessary to purchase stock or artificial
manures ; but for a small clay-farm a team of horses
and a few implements are alone essential. He ploughs,
sows, and reaps, and converts his straw into what he
calls manure, by the mouths and feet of a few starved
calves or yearlings, mainly aided by the winter
rains, and then carts it on his land, little better than
rotted straw. No wonder the condition of small
clay-farms should be low. Yet, however dis-
agreeable the enumerated drawbacks to a clay- farm,
and I admit they are many, there is none more grate-
ful for capital expended, either in draining or manure.
Once drained, the art ofclay-farming consists in the
art of ploughing, and the art of making manure. If,
on the one hand, the clays could advantageously
spare their superfluous moisture to the thirsty, gra-
velly, or sandy soils ; on the other hand, they do not
burn like these under a summer sun, and, at all
events, carefully retain, until required by the crop,
whatever manure is put into them.— H. Handley.

* I have also heard from a farmer on a very stiff
clay, that the wetter the winter the more rain is re-
quired on such land by the wheat in the following
summer ; the more consequently it suffers in a season
of drought. The reason, I think, must be this, that
the water lodged in winter condenses the soil, de-
stroying the looseness which the plough had produced
in it, and thus rendering it when dry once more a
close clay, tlirough which the roots of the plant can-
not make their way, and which moderate summer
rains cannot jjonelrate; but this is not generally
applicable to clay lands.

In fact, a perpetual struggle is going on between
the ploughman with his horses on one side, who
endeavours to reduce this stubborn clay into mould,
and the rains which render it solid again. There are
some such farms, so hard in dry weather, so tough
in their best state of moderate moisture, so deep
and impassable in wet winters, so cold and back-
ward in spring — I have one such farm myself—
that farmers who are accustomed to warm, sound
land, fit at all times for stock and for labour, say
they would not occupy such ground free of rent.
No one who knows the efl'ect of thorough-drain-
ing can see without regret such farms, and the
starveling crops which they bear. If tha occupier
be a bad farmer, his own circumstances are prob-
ably in proportion to the poverty of his land ; if a
good one, half his excriions are lost, and he docs
not obtain the fair reward of his industry and
enterprise. If I were a working farmer, nothing
would induce me to enter on a cold wet farm,
unless there were a fair prospect of its being
drained, either with my own money under a long
lease, or with the aid of my landlord. Our Society
has wisely abstained from entering into questions
between landlords and tenants ; and I will there-
fore merely mention that sometimes in Scotland,
on a lease for nineteen years, the tenant pays for
the draining himself; sometimes the landlord finds
materials, and the tenant the labour, or the land-
lord pays for the whole, receiving interest for his
outlay. The landlord, however, may not find it
convenient to make heavy advances over a large
property; but, as Lord Stanley recommended, ho
may borrow the money for such a purpose. In
districts, indeed, where under-draining is still
unknown, the tenant may not be aware of
its advantage, and therefore may not meet his
views. In that case a few fields may be drained
at first, in order to prove the advantage ; or if a
poor wet farm should fall in, it may be taken in
hand aiid reclaimed, which is more useful and
more interesting for a country gentleman than to
occupy a farm ready made to his hands because it
is the one nearest his dwelling. 1 am sure a
strenuous effort ought to be made for attaining
this object. All cannot be done at oncc; but in
justice to our tenants, we ought to begin in
earnest, not regarding with indifference farms
poached with water, but considering the want of
drainage on any part of our property as a defect,
and in some degree a discredit. Every land-steward
should survey his employer's estate with this
special view, lay the result before his employer,
and suggest matured plans for drying the soil.

The best materials for draining are tiles : indeed,
where the fall is slight, the water does not flow
through broken stones ; and if the stones must be
brought from a distanc?, the labour of drawing
them is too heavy. Hitherto, however, the cost of
tiles has been a great check to their employment ;
but two years ago we discovered that while 40s.,
50s., and even 60s. per thousand were paid for
tiles in the south of England, Mr. Beart, of God-
manchester, five years before, had invented asimple
machine by which he had reduced the price of
tiles from lOs. to 22s. throughout Huntingdon-
shire. His statement was as follows : —

" The price of furrow-draining tiles has fluctuated
here from '20s. to 2-'s. per 1000; at these reduced
j)rices the consumption of tiles has increased greatly.
As a proof of that increased consumption, and of the
great quantity manufactured, it was publicly stated

THE FARMER'S MAGAZIN li.

99

at a I;i(e meuliiig' of agrlciillurists at lluntin^jiloii,
iliiit one teuiiiit-rarmer last yt'^r consurned .'I'JO 000
dr iii)ii)j;:-tiles. 1 wisb lo point out to tile-iualiors,
tliat wlieilier tlie iiiakiiig of tlrainitig-tiles be j)t'r~
foriiu'il by inacbineiyor by band-labour only, tbey niav
bo made at prices luucli below wliat tboy now cost
ill many parts of tbe couHtry, and llius pnable the
makers so to reduce ibe jn-ice of tiles tliat tlie con-
suin|>tion will auLjineiit as it bas in tbis county.
Though the profit on a single tbousnnd of tiles will
be less, still tbe quantity tboy would sell would bo
so increased that tbe jirofits of tbeir works would bo
largfer. 15v tbe introduction of niacbinerv, wbicb led
to the cbani^e of system in tbis county, a reduction of
l'>s. per 1000 was effected in one season, and dnriiig
the last Jive years the immbcr of tile-works lias been
doubled.^ '*

The price of tiles depends partly on that of the
coals used in burning them. Mr. Heart states that
in Huntingdonshire, where coals cost 23s. per ton,
tiles are sold for 22s. ; and that with one ton of
coals lie burns joOO tiles. AVhere coals then cost
16s., tiles would cost "iOs. ; and where 'Ms., 2()s.
I)cr thousand. At our Bristol jnceting a new tile-
machine was shown by Mr. Irving; it is i)raised
by our judges, and described in this journal by
Mr. Ford, whose estimate of the cost of labour in
tile-making agrees closely with Mr. Beart's. Lord
Twceddalc's most ingenious inachiiic is also now
reduced in size, soas to be worked by hand-labour.
'J'hose who wish to make tiles will determine for
themselves which is the best. Mr. Burko enter-
tains, and bas expressed in a notc,-f a decided

* See account of Mr. Beart's machine, Journal,
vol. ii. p. 93.

-f- The owners of all tile-macbines severally profess
theirs lo be tbe best. I am not personally interesteil
in any of them ; hut having written on tbe subject,
and not only made anxious inquiries regarding it,
but also practically examined several of tbe tiles in
dilTerent parts of the kingdom, I unequivocally state
that those made under tbe Tweeddale patent are
sujierior to all others ; for tbey are made at one ope-
ration, by the uniform power of machinery, tbe com-
]iression of which renders them more solid, and
consequently more durable, than tliose made by
hand. In saying Ibis, I have no wisb to detract from
tbe merit of Beart's invention ; but tbe so-called
" machine," though useful in tbe jireparation of the
clay, is, in fact, a mere tool, and goes no farther ;
the tile being actually made, as in every other case
(except the Tweeddale^, entirely by band. In com-
paring tbe price of tiles and soles, the length is seldom
named, and tbey are usually not longer than 12
inches : now tbe Tweeddale tiles are Jifteen inches,
wherefore, the number required by Beart's tiles, at
the closest distance of drainage, is '2410, whilst
those of the Tweeddale patent would only be 1952.
The price of the latter, as I learn from tbe patentees,
varies, according to tbe price of coals, from 2.5s. to
453. per thousand. The cost of draining an acre
could, therefore, never be much more than that of
Beart's, while tbe diflference, both in quality, labour
in laying down, and real usefulness, would be still
greater than in quantity.

It is false economy to drain land with inferior tiles.
Tbey may suit the object of a tenant who looks only
to the duration of bis lease ; but the owner of the
soil, who bas at heart bis own interest and that of
his heirs, should see that tbe work is done in the
most substantial and imperishable manner. Tiie
saving of a few shillings ia the price of the tiles is

opinion; but I need not enter into that question,
Whichcvev of the three be the best niacliine now,
there is no doubt that, seven years ago, Mr. Bcart
greatly reduced tlio jjricc of tiles in llunlingdon-
shirc. Here wc then paid oOs., and even (iOs. for
tiles; there Mr. Beart sold tiles of the same length

to him, therefore, not worth consideration ; and I
should imagine that landlords and trustees, when
raising money for that ]>urpose under the Drainage
Act, will be compelled by the Court of Chancery to
use the most efficient means in their power. Tbe
subjoined letter from the agent to the Tweeddale
patentees will afford all the necessary information
regarding- the price and formation of their tiles. — J.

FltliNCH BuilIiF.

" I understand that you want some information in
regard to the improvements recently patented in tbe
Tweeddale drain-tile and brick machinery, and as
those additions are of very great importance to agri-
culturists, as well as to tbe trade, I have much
pleasure in complying with your wish.

'' Tbe Tweeddale machinery, in its original state,
was intended to perform several functions in tbe
manufacture of bricks and tiles beyond what were
absolutely necessary in most cases. In considera-
tion of those objects it was indispensable to employ
great yioiccr to work the m-achines, and the expense
was consequently, perhaps, too heavy for general
adoption. On this account the company instituted a
series of experiments, ami at much outlay have
effected tbe important result of — 1st, a considerable
reduction in tbe price of tbe machinery ; 2nd, a vast
abatement in the patent dues on seignorage ; and,
ord, a diminution of power from that of horses down
to the labour of one man, or even a boy. Hence I
can coiilidently assure you that, in the essential points
of qiiaiitily, quality, and cheapness (length for length),
it is utterly impossible foranyotber existing machine
to compete fairly and successfully witb those of
this company. Among other advantages, I would
beg leave to mention that our machinery, as now-
arranged, may be profitably adapted to the very
smallest eslablisbraent ; that it may be worked by
one person as easily as a grindstone ; that it is port-
able ; and that bricks and tiles, of the best kind,
can be produced by ordinary labourers and boys.
You are probably aware that tiles and soles, of 10
and 12 inches in length, are often named in com-
parison of piice with ours, which are not only 15
inches long, but also of very superior quality. It
may indeed be some evidence of tbeir estimation in
the agricultural world to state that tbis year we have
made upwards of twenty millions of drainin g-tlles and
soles.

" I beg to enclose for your attention a short ac-
count of our machines, and tbe rates of seignorage
for tbeir use. I shall have much pleasure in show-
ing the band-machines at work to you or yourfriends
at any time, and to give any information as to tbe
cost of working them. I wish it to be understood
that we find no fault with any other tile-machine,
but claim only for our own that superiority which
we are certain it deserves. Tbe very great dura-
bility of our tiles, arising from the compression em-
ployed in their manufacture, may be the more readily
understood by comparing tbe weight of the common
tile with those made with the aid of the pressure
we employ. It will be found that common tiles
weigh about 35 cwt. per 1000 ; while those made
by us will weigh about 45 cwt. per 1000. Tbe
price of a hand tile-machine is 45/, ; and with it two

H 2

100

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

(I foot) and the same quality for 22s. : licic soles,
oiu'of wliu-h is required with every tile, cost 30.s. ;
there, from 8s. to lOs. So that, in fact, for the
same sum which the soles alone cost us here, the
Huntingdonshire farmer obtained the tiles info the
baryain. Yet the price of coals would justify a
difference of Is. only. If the Huntingdonshire
scale could be made universal, the hiujhest price of
one-foot tiles would be not fiOs., but 27s. per thou-
sand : and what has been done in that county for
seven years, being now known, ought to beimitated.
Indeed, if a landowner have a kiln of his own, he
may make tiles, as IMr. Beart does, for l.'js. ])cr
tiiousand : the machine costs only 12/., and can be
used by a conunon labourer ; as doubtless can Lord
'rwcedda!e'.s and Mr. Irving's. I will only add a short
estimate of the expense of tile-draining on the

Huntingdonshire scale of prices — in a district
where coals cost KJs., and tiles woidd sell, consc-
quenlly, at 20s., soles at lOs. 'Jhose who know
the necessity for draining « et land, the difficulty of
defraying the expense where hundreds or thou-
sands of acres require to he drained, and conse-
quently the importance of saving 4/. or 5<, per
acre in making laud dry, will agree, I think, that
if the manufacturers remember the names of men
who have imjjroved their machinery, Hargreaves
or Arkwriglu — even though their inventions may
have been long su])crscdcd — we must not forget
what we owe jMr. Beart for his, which is still
producing tiles at half cost. Ths fourth
column shows the outlay recjuircd for tiles at
the high standard — 50s. for tiles, and 30s. for
soles.

c

3ST or TnoiiovGu-DnAiNiNO One

AcnK AT Hunting DONSuiRE

PnicES.

'Distance

Length of

Num))er

Cost of Tiles

Reduced

Cost of making

Total

Ijctvvoen

Drains

of

and Soles at

Cost of Tiles

Drains at 3^<1.

lieiUiced Cost

Drains.

in 1 Acre.

Tiles.

high prices.

and Solos.

per Pole.

per Acre.

Fwt.

Furlongs.

s.

s.

5. d.

£ s. d.

66

1

660

iy.i

20

11 8

1 11 4

41

1.^

9'.)0

80

30

17 6

2 7 6

oo

2

1320

106

10

23 4

3 3 4

22

.3

1980

160

60

35 0

4. 15 0

16J

4

2640

'iu;

80

46 8

6 6 8

At this reduced price of tiles the cost of
thorough-drainage certainly no longer appears
formidable, for the greater jjortion of our land
which requires to be drained would be laid suffi-
ciently dry by drains cut at intervals of 44, 3,3, and
22 feet. 1 know many farms, the whole character

men and one boy can easily mate oOO perfectly-
formed draining-tiles, 15 inches long, per hour,

" riie following are the rates of seignorage charged
to licencees :

Per 1000.
s. d.
On any number up to 100,000, made in any

one season 1 o

Oa all beyond the lirst 100,000 up to 1.50,000,

made in the same season 0 11

On all beyond the first 150,000 up to 200,000,

made ni the same seasoif. 0 lO

On all beyond 200,000, made in the same

season 0 9

On soles for draining-tiles, one half the above rates."

* This calculation has been made by ascertaining
the expense of cutting one drain of 40 poles in
length ; the price of labour being usually calculated
per pole: and 40 poles or 1 furlong, are the length
of an acre when the breadth is 6b feet. If the \inc&
of labour or the cost of tiles be higher than is rated
in the table, an addition must of course be made to
the estimate for the single furlong; hut when the
cost of one furlong is ascertained, the expense of
draining at the different distances is easily seen.
J"or more detailed calculations see ]Mr. Stc|)l)ens's
" liook of the Farm,'' chap, 28. Some addition may
be reciuired for breakagu and for main drains. The
carriage of the tiles is not included because it is not
considerable, and would therefore be done by the
ordinary horses of the far/n.

and management of which would be permanently
changed by drains cut at 33 feet a[)art ; this could
be done for the very moderate cost of 3/. 3s. per
acre. The greatest number of drains that can
usually occur (I6j feet interval, or 4 fuilongs ])er
acre, cost only (>/. 6s. 1 must admit, however, that
on very strong laiui it may be necessary to fill in'
with stones over the tiles, which raises the cost
of workmanship from 3|d. to (id. per j)ole, that is,
from lis. 8(1. to 1/. per furlong, liut, if the
ground be sloping, broken stones may be used
alone, where they are to be found near at hand.
In many districts flat stones are common, which
may be set u[)right in the drain, so as to give tho
same free current as tiles, without their expense.
Mr. Holcomb states that he has used mere wedges
of peat,* which cost only 6s. per thon.^and, as
substitutes for tiles. The Duke of Kichinoiul
has also a[)plied peat, cut into the circular shape
of tiles, for the same jjurpose. There is a mc-thod
of draining grass-land called wedge or sod drain-
ing, fully described by JMr. Ilandley Brown in our
last number J in which the roof of the drain is sup-
ported by a mere wedge of tho natural turf. It is
exceedingly cheap, costing in Lincolnshire only
I8s. 6d. per acre, at an interval of about 30 feet.
1 think it must require a strong clay subsoil, as a
weak clay would hardly maintain an ojjen passage,
hut would jirobably silt in. It is, I believe, an old
])ractice in North Wiltshire, where such drains arc
executed atadcjjth of 20 inches for !)s. or lOs.thc
furlong, so that grass-land is tiierc drained at the
very narrow interval of 16^ feet for the trifling cx-

* Mr. I'ym, however, has found that some peat
drains he has matle in Bedfordshire have fallen in.
Tlie field is subject to floods, which had backed up
in the drains.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

101

pence of 2Z. per acre. Mr. Brown advocates the use
of these thoni-draiiis on arable land also, and states
that he has known tlieni draw well where the water
lias lain over tile-drains. Bnt in thorn-draining,
sooner or later, the whole work must be done
ag:iin. 'I'ile-diains are made once for ever, since
any occasional repairs would fall into the common
management of the (arm. Ills statement, how-
ever, that tile-diains will not draw on his land,
deserves great attention. I have seen the same
failure here in drains only 20 inches deep, on
some very strong land ; but the clay from the suli-
soil had been thrown back on tiie tiles in these
drains. In the next field, though the drains wcie
.'>0 inches dee[), yet being covered slightly with
stones, and tilled in with surface muuhl, they ran
well cvfn uftcr one strong snrniiicr rain. Sonic
higli authorities tell us that the clay should be
pressed down on the tile, and that no water should
jjenetratc the drain fioni above; bnt I must say on
this much-argncd (luostion.that [iraetice, I think,
is iigainst them. Still Mr. Hrown is no doubt
right in saving that there is some land in England
so extremely retentive of water, that there may he
a doubt whether it can be drained with tiles; and
as it is on such land that the cxpence of tiles is
licavy, from the necessary nearness of the drains,
it may he well to use the old system of filling with
thorns as has been long ])ractised in Suffolk. There
the drains arc cut to the full depth of .'iO inches, a
narrow ojien channel being left at the bottom in
tiie solid clay, a twisted rope of straw forming the
roof with thorns or heatii over it. This system
has been found to answer; and indeed on the
strongest clays apjiears to alTord more certainty
that the drains will run than the new plan of tile-
draining. They last sixteen years, and may he
completed for lOs. a furlong, so that (J furl ongs of
drains may be allowed to the acre— that is, the
drains maybe placed so near as even 11 feet to each
other, for the trifling expence of .{/. It appears to
me a fortunate circumstance that on those very
heavy soils where on the one hand the great num-
ber of drains which is necessary might raise the
expence of even cheap tiles beyond ordinary
mean-;, and on the other hand there is some doubt
whether tiles will draw off the water, we should
find an old cstahlishcd method of draining, which
certainly does draw off" the water, which is suited
particularly to stift' clays, because the stiffer the
clay the longer will an open channel underground
remain open, and which is so cheap as to bring
our estimates once more within a moderate com-
pass. On such land, therefore, 1 should recom-
mend thorn or wedge draining, because I think
many more farms will be drained at 'M. than at 10/.
per acre. The drain, I am told, is jdaced by the
side of the furrow, not under it, and is not trodden
in, as we might fear, on arable land. Not only,
however, do tiles and stones fail to act on some
very heavy land, but on such land, if under grass,
1 have been told that drainage when it has acted
has even been found injurious; and I mention
this because we ought not to shut our eyes to ob-
jections, and because nothing I believe has more
checked the advance of farming than the unwil-
lingness of eager improvers to admit that their
remedies can in any single instance be found to
fail. Still, with regard to draining, the exceptions,
if any, can he but few. Those large tracts of the
country which require drainage ra:i generally be
drained ea'^ily, and our Society has (Jone a great
service to the country by making known the means

of draining them with the best and most lasting
materials, acconiing to the (luntiiif^doiislMre me-
thod, chcaiiiy. Fnrtlier iedu(;tions of jiricc 1 know
arc in [irogress. if Lord J. Hay sfiould perfect
liis invention of concrete draining-tiles, another
large saving may be ellecled. But 1 trust that;
the coming winter will not pass by without a vigo-
rous commencement of under-draining throughout
the country ; for besides the henefit to the farm,
draitnng in its execution of course gives great
employment to the labourers, who may this year
be in much want of employment ; and even beyond
this temporary relief, every landowner who drains
and then breaks up with the plough 2."^ or ;iO acres
of indillerent jiasture, iirovides employment
throughout future years for an additional family.
A'fitwithslanding the covenants in old leases,
I buiieve that on many farms weak pastures
not worth more than 20s. an acre might he so
broken up after drainage, with advantage to
both owner and occupier, and that many village
families might be so founded.* At all events,
the necessity of draining is so certain, that
within the next ten years a large part of England
will probably be thorough-drained, ami at no dis-
tant day a soaked field will be as little tolerated
as mined barns or foul crops; bnt I am anxious
to see a great exertion made at once for this na-
tional object, and, if I have dwelt too long on the
matter, my excuse must be this — that it is vain lo
speak of good farming until we have land which
deserves to be farmed well. There can be no
profit in farming highly land on which stock docs
not thrive, and on which half the crop may be
drowned by one rainy week ; wet land is well
adapted for slovenly husbandry.

Before we leave wet land 1 ought to say one
word on subsoil ploughing, but the accounts of its
cfl'ects are as yet contradictoiy. It does not ap-
pear to suit very light soils, as it makes them too
loose, unless indeed there be a retentive subsoil
under them, near the surface; nor very strong
clays, •[• since these run together again. As it
should only be done after draining, we can
scarcely ascertain which of the two operations has
produced any improvement that may have arisen.
It seems, however, to do most good where the
subsoil is a mixture of rubble and clay ; and 1 have
beard of one farm of that nature, near Taunton,

* There arc also thousands of acres, perhaps mil-
ions, that are at present worse than lying waste,
causing whole districts to Jje unhealthy to man and
beast — acres that will not support a goose, or at best
a sheep, per acre ; some let to farmers at from 2s.
ftd. to 5s. ])er acre, all of which with little excep-
tion, if jiropcrly drained and well cultivated in a
regular course of alternate husbandry, would in-
crease in value from 150 to 300 per cent., forward
the harvest from 14 to 'iO days, improve the cli-
mate of the country, and add to the jiroduce in a
direct ratio to the higher value of the land. — Geo.

KiMDERLLY.

t There is great ambiguity in the term clay, as
used iu different districts ; sometimes, when a clay
is said lo have been reduced to mould by subsoil
ploughing, it turns out to he what those who live
upon a strong clay would not consider a clay. A
really strong clay when dry has no roughness or
grittiness which show the presence of sand, hut is
snmoth like soap, though extremely hard and diffi-
cult to break with the hand. If it contain lime it is
marl.

102

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

which liad hccn thorongh-draiiicJ without benefit,
biiton which ilie subsoil plough produced a laigeini-
luediate increase of croj). 'ibis was a red clay, and
it was on a red clay also that Mr. Thompson*
found subsoiling to have answered in Yorkshire.
It appears to answer best on those parts of the
country, the northern and western, where most
rain usn?illy falls. I would try it, however, after
draining, on any strong- land ; but the original
plough seems to me too iDulky in its undergrouiul
parts, as the thick iron sole on which it rests can
only be forced through the land by great exertion
of the cattle. t The implement siiown by .Mr. Nu-
gent at Bristol must stir the land as thoroughly
with its thin deep tines or teeth fixed in a frame-
work above ground. Where the subsoil is very
stony, a single tine will move it thoroughly. Sub-
soil ploughing, however, should be tried cau-
tiously, as in two instances — one a farm near Ex-
moor, in Somersetshire, where the subsoil is a wet
blue slate; the other a farm also with a stony
subsoil— it did permanent mischief. The trial,
however, can be easily made, as many common
ploughs, if the mouldboard be removed, will serve
as well as one made for the purpose. .Altogether,
though we must not speak too confidently of sub-
soil ploughing, I cannot but hope that we shall
probably have to thank Mr. Smith of Deanston
for this invention, as well as for the zeal and
ability by which he has succeeded in restoring the
ancient English practice of thorough-draining.

Hitherto we have considered only one defect of
land — too great cohesiveness, and consequent re-
tention of too much moisture. There is an oppo-
site fault, however, well known to farmers — too
great looseness. This fault may he seen on tracts
absolutely barren, as on Bagshot Heath, or on
fields muler culture, which are termed blowing
sands, because the surface-sand drifts in high
winds. In different degrees it is a common fault
in land, and shows itself by thinness of the corn-
crop, shortness of the straw and of the car. For-
merly, indeed, rye was grown on such land instead
of wheat. Folding with sheep, pressing and
shallow ploughing, diminish the evil, but do not
remedy it. The practice of our ancestors was to
cover such land with marl, which is usually a
strong clay, containing a great deal of lime. Marl
was said indeed to benelit the land at first, but to
injure it afterwards— to be " good for the father,
but bad for the son." This injury, however,
.irose, I believe, from improvidence; marl was
found to act without dung at first, and the fields
which had been marled were consequently tilled
without dung until their soil was completely ex-
hausted. It fell into disrepute, and many farmers
are perhaps not aware that it is still largely used
in England. I have been surprised to find, in the
successive numbers of our Journal, how often it
is mentioned casually by members of our Soci(;ty.
To take first the most striking example: the im-
provement of the late Lord Eeicester's i)ropcrty,
as described by Lord Spencer.+ I doubt if that lii-

* Journal, vol. ii., p. 30.

t See the Report of the Judges of Implements,
The mechanical construction of this ingenious inven-
tion will be improved, I believe, at Lord Ducie's
Iron-works. Mr. Gabell, of Crickhowell, works Iiis
single-tino subsoil plough 18 inches deep with two
horses. — Journal, vol. ii., p. 421. I have also found
my own answer the purpose. — Ibid, i., 43.'>.

+ Journal, vol. i., p. 1,

mcnted nobleman, with all hisenterprisc, could have
fed o.Ken where rabbits had previously browsed,
as was his just boast, unless those sandy commons
had first been made solid with marl. It is used
also largely in Bedfordshire on a yellow sand about
Wol)urn* The practice is general, I believe, in
Norfolk, and also in Suft'olk, where, at some re-
cent agricultural meeting, a prize was given to the
farmer who had drawn the largest quantity in one
year— and that quantity, if I am not mistaken, was
10,000 cart-loads. It is mentioned by Mr. Dug-
dalef as existing in Warwickshire ; and we have a
very good account of an entire farm which had
been marled, at Sheriff Hutton,i in Yorkshire.
Rlarl is commonly applied in Cheshire to light soils
at the rate of 128 cart-loads to the acre. § I have
had also specimens of marl so used sent from the New
Forest in Hampshire. The greatest improvement
of recent times, the apjilication of clay to ].>cat and
peaty sand in Lincolnshire and the wide district of
the fens, by which in one instance, a^wc learn
from Mr. Wingate,|| on laud which had been al-
most worthless, two white crops had been grown
every three years, one of them wheat, yielding 40
bushels per acre — an unexampled rotation, not used,
however, only when the land was fresh, but con-
tinued for eighteen years — this improvement,
which equals anything that has been done in Flan-
ders, is another instance of the same principle. It
is, therefore, important, to examine the facts ac-
curately : as yet, however, we have not the means.
The sub.%tance applied is sometimes called marl,
sometimes clay. Of the specimens I have received,
even those which were called clay, have generally
turned out to be marl, for they contained lime,
which constitutes the distinction. The difference,
however, is important, because marl is a much
rarer substance than clay ; and if lime be an indis-
pensable ingredient of clay fit for manure, many
districts of England must be cut off from this source
of improvement. I am inclined, however, to hope
that it is not indispensable. One specimen of the
Lincolnshire clay which I have examined certainly
was not a marl. -Again, the Flemings, as ]\Ir.
Rijanill informs us, have converted their sandy
desert into one of the most fertile districts of Eu-
rope by bringing up year after year 2 inches of
subsoil from trenches shifted each year, until they
reached a depth ot 2 feet. Their sands, I believe,
rest often ufion yellow clay, and their fields have
in some places the singuhu" appearance of light
sand on the surface, while water is standing in the
ditches 2 feet below. I do not think that the clay
of the Netherlands contains much lime. I have
met with an instance of a strong clay without lime
in Sufl'olk, which has been a])plied to a poor light
calcareous soil, and paid itself the first year in the
clover- crop.** Near Heading, too, the same effect
has been produced by the clay dug out from the
railway on a thin burning gravel- That clay is
certainly not a marl. \Vc have also a striking ac-
counttt in our last No. of the ap[)lication of blun
shale to a field of gravel and sand, on which dung

• Journal, vol. iii., p. 233.
t Ibid, vol. ii., p. 2n9.
t Ibid, vol. ii., p. 07.

<> Mr. Cuthbert Johnson on Fertilizers, p. 271.
II Journal, vol. ii. p. 408.
if Outlines of Flemish Husbandry.
** Prize F.ssay of East Suffolk Agriciiltnral Asso-
ciation, by Cajitain Alexander.
tt Journal, vol. iii. p. 161.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

103

and bones had equally failed to produce either tur-
nip? or barley, yet iJO cart-loads of this shale
brought on each acre 10 bushels of barley. Now
shale is clay half hardened into blue slate. 1 do
not know whether there was lime in the shale,
probably not ; but here is an answer to a ([uestion
sometimes asked when the admixture of soils is
proposed — Is clay better than dung ? The answer
is, Yes. For on very light land even dung will not
produce wlieat, but clay will ; and I may now give
a case in point, which happened this year on my
own land, a piece of barley, containing 12 acres,
the soil a poor, loose, peaty sand. When the blade
appeared, one-half of the piece looked green and
healthy, the other half yellow and sickly. On in-
quiry 1 found that to the thriving portion there had
been applied two slight dressings of strong clay
(not marl, for it had been examined), amounting
onlv to oO loads on the acre. 'J'iic boundary was
distinct. But in the middle of the sickly portion
was also a square patch of vigorous growth. Here
there had been a dunghill one year before. The
result at harvest was this, that on the clayed por-
tion there was a thick crop of good colour up to
the boundary, and even where a detached heap of
clay had been laid ; on the unclayed portion the
crop was thin, many of the plants having perished.
An acre of each was fairly selected and thrashed
separately. The unclayed acre yielded 34§ bushels
of barley, the clayed acre 4G bushels ; so that this
lasting improvement of the soil was paid in the
nrst year. Where the dunghill had been, the bar-
ley ripened prematurely, was of a dark brown co-
lour, and the seed was shrivelled. It is commonly
said by farmers on our burning land that the better
a field has been dressed in the previous winter, the
worse will the barley be in a hot summer ; and I
see that they are right. This amounts to the re-
mark of Mr. Handley, that dung will not benefit
land beyond a certain point — will produce not
wheat, but straw. It is, I believe, a fundamental
l)rinciple of agriculture, that each soil has a limit
beyond which manure cannot force it, and the
principle should never he lost eight of. I would
add another vide. Strengthen the soil itself
where you are able, and you raise that limit perma-
nently. Corn, especially wheat, requires solidity
in the soil. A principal cause of barrenness,* as
INIr. Rham has shown us, is the coarseness of its
particles — I suppose because the rootlets arc not
in contact with such soil. Marl, I believe, does
not act merely by its lime, but corrects this defect
by interposing finer particles in the soil. Clay
certainly acts in this way. But on this important
subject I hope that our practical members will
send statements of their experience, and specimens
for examination. It is remarkable that, among
the many analyses of soils reported by Dr. Liebig,
;dl the fine close sands are fertile, and the coarse
loose sands, with one exception only, are barren.
But though clay may act which is not marl,
and does not contain lime, there is no doubt
that the lime contained in marl is also
beneficial. In Mecklenburg sandy marlt is used as
well as clay marl. In thecounty of Suffolk there is
a loose rubble called craignow largely used by far-
mers as a dressing for land. The account of its
discovery, given in a prize-essay of the East Suf-

* Mr. Rham on tha Analysis of Soils.— Journal,
vol. i, p. 47.
t See Mr. Handley's paper in thiu number.

folk Agricultural Society, by Captain Alexander,
is so remarkable, that I will quote it at length : —

" I now come to the shelly deposit denominated
red craig : it consists of shell mi.\ed with sand and
gravel. It is barren in its own nature, and is there-
fore used, instead of gravel, to form garden-walks;
it contains much oxide of iron, and was first dis-
covered to be useful as a stimulus to soils over-
cliarged with sour, black, vegetable deposits, from the
following accident. A person was curling someofthis
craig for a garden-walk, and, in conveying it over a
black barren sod, the cart broke down and scattered -
the contents ; the driver, instead of collecting the
craig, spread it over the surface where it lay. The
field vvas after this prepared for turnips in the usual
way, and, much to ibe surprise of the occupier, there
was a good crop of full-sized turnips where the
craig had been cast, while the rest of the field
afl'orded only a miserable crop of stunted growth.
By this accident was the application of craig first
made efficient ; and it is almost impossible to calculate
tlie increase added to our agricultural produce by this
discoverii in the craig districts,"

Such is the origin of a widely-spread provincial
practice. On the same loose earth my own neigh-
bours have observed that, where limestone-rubble
has lain, or a road has passed, the turnips are
better, and they spread rubble upon such land.
Mr. Charnock* not only applies clay to sand, but
he adds, " I have attempted to improve my farm
by an admixture of soils, and have found it by fav
the most certain way of making permanent im-
provements. The calcareous (limestone) sand
here mentioned, which in the neighbourhood has
been considered perfectly poisonous to plants, I
have found, by mixing liberally with the soil, to
contribute to a considerable increase of my crop."

There is another ancient practice of the kind,
which I mentioned in a former nuraber-j — the ap-
plication of chalk brought up from pits dug 20
feet deep, on the chalk hills of Hampshire, and
wheeled over the land in barrows to the extent of
2000 bushels per acre ; but I was mistaken in call-
ing it an expensive operation, for the usual price
is wonderfully low, only 4.5s. per acre, and I be-
lieve I was also misinformed in stating that it is
useful where the soil contains chalk already. It is
remarkable that the red clay of these hills, though
very thin, and resting upon chalk which is pure
lime, contains, so far as I can ascertain, no lime at
all. Hence the chalk acts probably in two ways —
chemically by supplying the lime which was want-
ing ; mechanically by loosening the clay, for its
application renders these hills more mellow to
work with the plough. J Chalk, I find, is also used
largely on the wolds or chalk-hills of Yorkshire,
and there it is found to render loose soils more
firni.^ This is a very cheap mode of transposing

* Journal, vol.iii. p. 162.

f Ibid., vol. i. p. 1.

J Mr. Tliorpe's paper in the present number.

§ This opposite effect of chalk, in loosening Hamp-
shire soils and binding those of Yorkshire, may be
explained, I think, as follows : — The chalk, which
is lime, mi.^es with the Hampshire clay, and, ex-
panding in a different proportion during frost, shakes
the texture of the soil. On the Yorkshire soil it
falls also to powder, and this powder interposed be-
tween the coarse particles of soil gives compactness.
]\Ir. Schweizer, of Brighton, has also discovered
phosphate of lime in chalk.

104

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

soils; but on the coast of Esses, where chalking,
as Mr. C. Johnson* tells us, is largely ])ractisc(l, it
is hroiight by sea from Kent, and is applied at a
rate of from 10 to .'^0 tons per acre, the poor lands
requiring more than the rich ; and in the clay dis-
tricts of Windsor Forest the farmers sometimes
bring chalk a distance of 10 miles for the same
])urpose, at an expense, as Mr. Rhani lias told me
in his own case, of 8/. per acre. If it be carted
10 miles, where it cost SI., certainly not an a(;re of
the hills themselves on which the chalk will act
■should remain without it, where it can be spread
from wheel-barrows for little more than 21. 'J'he
f^balk-liills occupy a large tract in England, but
■whether the soil be generally so strong or so light
as to be benefitted by chalking I do not venture to
say; we want information on this i)oint also. I
have brought forward these cases of admixture of
s5oil, not imagining that a sudden transformation
of English soils can be effected at once, but in the
hope that, in districts where any such practice is
known to i<e beneficial, as on the fens of Lincoln-
shire or the hills of Hampshire, it may be applied
with increased spirit; that some of these practices,
as that of claying or marling, may turn out to be
useful in districts where they are not hitherto
know ; that men of science may explain the action
of these materials, and so some light be thrown on
the laws of vegetation ; and that ])osgibly, as in
the case of the overturned load of craig, practical
farmers, by observing any casual difference in the
verdure or growth of their crops — for nature or
chance are constantly making such experiments, if
our eyes were open to mark the effect, or our
minds to inquire for the causes — may be so fortu-
nate as to find some new application of the same
principle. There are many other cases in point,
such as the use of the honeycomb-stonet (the lava
of ancient volcanoes) as a manure in Devonshire
and Scotland, or of peat upon clay-landsj in Ger-
many and Sweden : those which have been men-
tioned are enough to show ihat in this, as in many
other matters of farming, our practice is in ad-
vance of our science.

(To he continued.)

ON THE CULTIVATION OF
LIGHT LANDS.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE rAUMER's MAGAZINE.

I observe that the Royal Agricultural Society
have offered a prize for the best essay on
the cultivation of light land, and also on the
management of farm yard manure ; and I dare say
there will be m-.iny deep and scientific papers sent
in to compete for them. Hut if you think this
worth a place in your magazine it is much at your
service. It is an account of the management of a
light land farm that has been in my occupation for
between thirty and forty years, and I believe the
mode of management may fairly be said to be ac-
cording to the best management of the j>resent
day, that is, in England. In Scotlaiul and the nortii
of England, some variations from the differencn
of climate, &c. may be perhaps niadc^with advan-
tage ; and if so, our northern neighbours know

* Mr. C. Johnson on Fertilizers, p. 'id.

+ Journal, vol. iii. p. '27.

X The present number, Mr. Handle) 's paper.

well how to make that variation. The farm con-
sists of 190 acres of light arable land, of about the
value of 20s. to 2.")s. an acre, tithe free, and about
100 acres of pasture and meadow. 1 began with the
four-course system, and an excellent one it is ;
but latterly I have varied from it a little, the land
being in a high state of cultivation, and instead of
the four-course, I farm it on a four and a half
course. It was 45 ai.ies of tiu'iiips, 45 ot barley,
22^ red and 22^ white clover, timothy, cock's foot
and trefoil, 45 acres of wheat, sowing a few acres
of tares on the turnip land — a bad plan, as the fal-
low is almost always imjicrfect after the tares, at
least on moderate land, and the crop of turnips
very inferior — and 10 acres of sainfoin. My pre-
sent ])lan is 40 acres of turnips, 40 of barley, 40
of seeds, 40 of wheat; (i acres of tares, 2 ncres of
peas, and 12 acres of oats — total, 20 acres after
tiie wheat ; after the red clover, 10 acres of sain-
foin and ;i acres of lucerne in one of the fields most
adapted to its growth. I'y this means there are
t) acres of tares, 4 sown in the antunui, 2 in the
spring; 2 acres of peas to start the pig feeding,
and 12 acres of oats to cut up for the farm horses,
which saves the farmer putting his hand into his
pocket and going to market to bnj' oats. The
turnips and seeds come twice in '.) ycais, instead of
8 ; and wheat is of most importance, the red clover
once in 'J instead of 8 years, by which and good
management it will generally stand.

First, TiiuNirs.

The land for fallows is of course ploughed be-
fore Christmas — the first time over, as deep as
possible, endeavouring every course to inciease the
depth of soil ; cross ploughed, &c.,<SlC., as all good
farmers know perfectly how it should be done.
One acre of potatoes jjlanted the lirst week in
May, and a certain portion of mangold wurzcl as
the farmer pleases, and as many Swedes as can be
well got in by the 10th of June. All after that
lime the best common white top, beginning to
sow the 20th of June and finishing by the 20th of
July; to be all well manured in ridges with the
best manure from cake-fed beasts, horses, and
pigs. If the manure will not hold out, the re-
maining white top to be drilled in with bones or
rape cake, and plenty of ashes on the flat, at 18
inches apart. The ridges 27 inches apart (all the
turnips drilled with ashes); this distance, 27 inches,
fits the cart wheels. Some persons sow their tur-
nips 20 inches apart, which equally suits the
wheels ; but I have never tried it, and I should
think the drills too narrow to be well horse-hoed.
The turnips, &c., to be well horse and hand-hoed.
The potatoes to be taken up at the usual time.
The mangold wurzel as soon as the wheat sov^ing
is finished and safely stowed away ; the Swedes to
follow, and all finished before the severe frosts are
expected ; a jiortion of the Swedes to be cut up
for the farm horses and beasts in the yards, and
the remainder cut up for the sheep in the field ; and
after trying many ways of storing, I know no bet-
ter way than that mentioned m the " Farmer's
Magazine" for July, 1842, p 42, by Col. Wood,
'J here cannot be too many ashes drilled in with
the turnips, and on sand land 1 liave twice used
salt, and with great advantage ; 10 bushels an
acre, at about 10(1. a bushel, harrowed in a day or
a few days before sowing the turnips. 1 have
this year a field of Nacres, ') well manured in ridges
and 4 drilled with bones andaslu's; a part of the ma-
nured was omitted, and 2 acres of boned ; it shows

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

105

nn tlie manured, hut on the honed most particularly
the turnips are of a different colour and twice as
good. Tlic heiielit to the crop I should conceive
arises from the salt retaining the moisture in the
land, and also acting iu some measure as a sti-
mulant or as a manure. One great advantage of
thus taking up the Swedes is, tliat tht^ laud is
Mi)( injured hy the drawing or exhausting the land
hy a growth in tlie spring, hnt is left in (]nite as
good a state for the following crops as iifier com-
mon turnips. All the turnips to he cut with
Ciardencr's cutter, as hy so doing three advantages
are sained — the turnips go much farther, the
sheep do much hotter, and it gives much employ-
ment to the lahourers and their children. All the
sheep have chaff, cut hay, or sainfoin, with a lit-
tle l)arley straw ; tlie fatting sheej) and the male,
provincially the Ucder lamhs, oil-cake with
their chaff'. liy this means the fatting sheeii
are soon ready for market, and the lleder lamhs
are in such forward eondititm that they sell at llie
highest price at the spring fairs, or are carried
torwaid with cake on tiieseetls or feeding pastures,
clipi)ed and sold fat in June; hy which another ad-
vantage is gained, that the pastures arc eased early
in tlu- summer. The sheep should he on turnips
in good time, that they may get well estahlished
hefore tlie wet weather sets in ; and giving the oil-
cake, I need scarcely say, leaves the land in the
hest state for the barley crop.

Barley.

Barley should he got in hy the end of March, if
j)o<sil)lp ; and to aecom|)lish that, I last year, on
eight acres of Swedes (the turnips having heen
previously drawn and heaped), whilst the sheep
were eating one four acres, I ploughed and sowed
the other four acres, and as soon as the first four
were finished, shifted the troughs on to the sown
land, and sowed the first fed off; hy which time
was gained in getting the field sown, and I think
the treading of the sown land did rather good than
harm both to the harley and see Is. I sow the
Clievalier, as I find it equals any sort in quantity.
1 do not find it more likely to he laid, and the price
averages considerably higher than any other. If
the groimd is hard, as it often is in spring, I use
the presser, ploughing across the ridges, which I
find answers e.xceedingly well ; so much so, that I
am inclined to think I shall sow most of my barley
with the jjresser, as last year I i)ressed part of a
field, and that part came up two or three days first,
and kept its superiority quite to harvest ; and there
is very Utile more labour, as it does not reqiure so
much harrowing; and after the presser the land is
left just as you could wish it.

Seeds.
20 acres of red clover and 20 acres of white ;
viz., 1 stone of white clover, /lbs. of trefoil, 31bs.
of timothy or cocksfoot, 3lhs. of rib grass, and
some parsley. The red to he mown for soiling and
for hay. Ihe second crop, what is not wanted for
soiling, to he fed off by the fatting sheep and
Ilcder lamhs when in flower. The white to be fed
by the ewes with twins, provincially double
couples and Heder lambs — giving them chaff and
linseed cake ; by which means the land is in the
xbest state for a crop of wheat ; the increased
quantity of herbage, ami the superior doing of the
sheep, about paying for the cake. A better plan
than putting on rape- cake at seed time, as the cost
then falls entirely on the wheal crop; and I think

the linseed plaii will produce a better croj) than
the rape cake. I have always until lately, follow-
ing Artliur Young's advice, kept my seeds nn-
stocked until the spiiiig, as they are injured ami
arc later in the sj)ringif hard stocked in the autumn,
but have now tried another i)lan to a ceitain ex-
tent. I have stocked them with huid)s at the rate
of one or one-and-a-half an acre for three weeks
or a month, before going to turnips, giving them
linseed cake and chaff. I find tlip seeds little in-
jured, i)crhaps as much hem fited hy the manure
from the oilcake as injured by the feeding. 'J'ho
lambs have done excellently, and I have uot lost
one since going on turnips to this date ( Nov. 2o).

Wlll'.AT.

The red (lover to he mainired with farm-yard
manure, and if you have not enough with rape
cake, soot, or pigeon manure, as the wlieat on the
red clover is to he folhjwed hy oats, i\(;., (he
white clover will re(|iiire no manure. The land to
be ploughed, presswl, and the wheat sown between
the 1st and the 20th of Octdlx'r us nearly as pos-
sible. 3 bushels an acre (hand-hoed in spring if
necessary), well harrowed in lhos|)iiug, 7lbs. of tre-
foil an acre, being first sown accordinj; to the plan
Tuentioned hy Sir .1. Sinclair, as pursued in the
Netherlands ; the expense of the trefoil is little,
and if it hits, which it generally'^docs, the keeping is
very useful for the flock in the autumn. I'he wheat
to be mown at harvest — a mode superior to reap-
ing, particularly on light lands, but also in almost
every case, as being cheaper, the straw better, and
iu a wet time infinitely siiiierior, as 1 myself ex-
perienced a few years ago. I had a ten acre field
half reai)ed, half mown, the weather showciy ; the
mown was carried uninjured three days before the
reaped ; the reaped three days later, and coiiside-
rahly grown.

Oats, Pi;as, and Tades.
4 acres of tares ])longhed, pressed, and sown
immediately after harvest ; 12 acres of oats the
end of February or Ix ginning of March ; and 2
acres of tares after barley sowing is finished.

Sainfoin.

Having natural meadow I have only 10 acres of
sainfoin, otherwise I should increase the quatitity,
as 1 am clear that it is one of the most jjrofitahle
crops on the farm. For on land of 2()s. value
you have a crop equal to the best meadow, and
this lasts for six or seven years. 1 am oidy sur-
prised that much more is not grown in the mid-
land counties on light land, as is the case in Kent
and in the southern counties. I can only account
for it from supposing that it has been tried, and
perhaps failed from improper managemmt, wltich
is, however, very simple. Sow the land in high
order after turnips with 3 bushels an acre of bar-
ley, 5 bushels of sainfoin seed, and 7lbs. of trefoil.
Tiie trefoil is only for the first year, to fill up the
crop before tiie saintbin gets strong, and then dies
away. The sainfoin seed should be clean as i)Os-
sible from grass isceds, and weeded from grass,
particularly oat grass, as much as it can the first
year ; after that, if there is any oat grass, send the
labourers over it with sharp scythes when it is in
flower, whieh will be hefore the sainfoin is in
flower, and let them mow off the heads of the oat
gi ass to prevent it from seeding, and hy degrees
smothering the sainfoin.

The eddish should not be stocked with sheep (it

106

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

is better with lambs only) later than the first of
November, as sheep Inter than that eat the heart
out, which shows itself earlv, and which eating
destroys the plant. ^Vhen it is going off tlie last
year, or last yeir but one, sow gypsum over it at
the rate of ti busliels an acre, as is the custom in
East Kent; the only thing is to get the right sort
of gypsum ; I have tried two sorts myself that were
absolute failures. But I believe the Eurnham
gypsum, near Bawtry, is the right sort for agricul-
tural ])uiposcs, having formerly tried it with suc-
cess, and mean to try it again,

Lucerne.

I have about three acres. It comes in before
the tares aiul led clover, and is always very use-
ful. I sow iOlbs. an acre broadcast, manure it
every year with farm-yard manure, or half the
land farm-yard manure and half gypsum alternate
years, and get three good cuttings.

Manuke.

i\Iy practice has been a very simple one, with
little trouble or expense — and that with n farmer
goes a great wny ;for we know very well that very
few like or will follow any new plan if attended
with either much trouble or expense, and turn
awiiy at once if you begin to talk about tanks, hy-
drogen, oxygen, &c., &c. I claiin no cre<lit for
the plan, for many farmers may, I dare say, follow
tlie same plan ; but many certainly do not. The
yards are moderately hollowed wlien empty ; they
are then covered with about six inches of earth,
and when that is covered with about a foot of
manure, which, when the yards are full in the
winter, will be in about a week or ten days,
cover it again lightly with earth from banks, road-
sides, or wherever it can be got, and so on alter-
nately until the yard is full, or it is led away. By
this management the earth is as it were lost in
the manure, but reaily comes out as so much ma-
nure, and the manure is iinproved — in fact, the
manure is increased in quantity and improved in
quality. At the proper time let it be carted to
the turnip fallows, thrown in a heap, well covered
down to keep the steam in it, and banked up at the
sides. It will want no turning, but will come out
forty-nine times in fifty in the best state for tur-
nips. This manure is made fiom the farin-
borses — which are never turned out winter or
summer, except on Sundays in summer, to please
the waggoner — pigs, and beasts fatting on oilcake.
All the straw is trod into manure, except a small
])art cut into chaff with the sainfoin and clover,
and a small quantity given to beasts for about a
month in the spring, with about six pounds of oil-
cake each, before they go into the feeding pastures.
And here I will take the liberty of giving this
advice to the young farmer — never to be afraid to
lay out his money in oilcake Clinsced). I ])ledge
myself it will return with interest ; his farm will
bo in high heart, and his crops will never disa])-
j)oint him. As to any new manures that are
found out, let him feel his way.

Nitrate of soda I have tried for three years. On
sand I have found it answer perfectly ; on other
land it has perhaps just about paid its way for
wheat and oats ; and so well on meadow, that I
shall go on with it.

Guano I tried this year on turnips. T drilled in
two cwt. an acre, with plenty of ashes, for Swedes —
not one came up. 1 then sowed the land with com-
mon turnips, and there is a moderate cro|). So it

has been with mc ; but a neighbour tried one cwt.
(and ashes) only for Swedes, and the crop is as
good as a well manured crop on each side of them.
1 have now tried an acre of wheat with two cwt.,
and one with one cwt. an acre — what will be the
result, we must wait until next harvest to see.

GVPSUM.

If I find the Burnham gypsum the right sort,
and that it answers on my land, I shall sow six
bushels an .acre over all my red clover annually.
April and the beginning of May is the usual time
for applying it, but I am inclined to try as an cx-
jieriment sowing some in autumn. The red clover
often looks beautiful all through the winter, but
dies away in the spring ; in that case sowing in
May would be useless. Perhaps applying it in the
autumn might prevent this; and if so it would be
invaluable, as securing a red clover crop.

In this statement I liave but little entered into
detail, as it would have made the pai)er too long,
and would have been unnecessary, as it is ad-
dressed to farmers. It is simply an outline which
any practical man can fill up. I believe the above
to be a good and profitable system, but I am not
bigotted, and shall look out for any improvements
that may be suggested in your Magazine, and also
to the prize essay on the management of light
land, that we shall soon expect to see in the
Royal Agricultural Society's Journal.

Nov. 20M, 1842. X.

ON THE ADVANTAGES OF A
SPECIFIC EDUCATION FOR
AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS.

Substance or an Address to the FAinrono and

CiRENCESTEIl FAItMEn's ClUB, DELIVERED THE

I'fTH OF November 1842, by Mr. 11. J. Brown,

I have undertaken to make a few remarks on the
subject of education : a subject, the importance of
which it is impossible to over-rate, and for this
reason — all other animals come into the world with
faculties that expand with their growth to individual
]ierfection ; man alone airives, and continues (if
left to himself), a perfectly helpless and ignorant
being. He could neither feed nor dress himself with-
out the benefit of instruction and example ; Lis
mind would be a blank, his voice would be inarti-
culate, indeed (if he survived^ he woidd be very
inferior to the lower animals. This is a fact that
should be kept always in view ; and is the real
foundation on which the necessity of education is
established. It would appear, at first sight, a great
neglect on the part of a benevolent Creator, that
man should be so circumstanced ; deeper considera-
tion will convince us, that it is the greatest proof of
His wis'ioni and love; for we shall discover that it
arises fiom His gracious design of advancing man
step by step, to a far higher destiny than the lower
animals ; even to almost indefinite jjerfection, and
endless life. For this purpose education begins with
the cradle, and only terminates (if it does terminate)
with the grave.

Education, though long neglected in this country,
ajipears now to obtain the attention it deserves ; but
there are facts which show, that it is still far from
being fully appreciated ; one is, the common remark,
that it may bo carried too far. It may be inappro-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

107

piiate, or bad, we allow ; but that a man can know
too much of what relates to the things around him,
or to his particular emplovment in life, it is not
eas}' to undeistand. Another proof of neglect is the
way it has been treated b}- government ; some small
amount is now doled out, but if appreciated as it
ought to be, the subject of the education of the mass
of the people, aud the arrangement of plans for its
success, would be considered by far the most im-
portant business of each session of parliament ; re-
ports from every district would be received aud
considered, and ample funds devoted to its support ;
it will be a happy day for England when the cost
of her school-masters exceeds that of her army. As
the public have shown neglect of the subject, 8o
Jiave societies and individuals. Happily the cause
of education has not been quite so treated abroad.
In Austria universal education is prescribed by au-
tliority; every village has a school. It is said that
a man who cannot read and write may not even
marry or obtain employ. Prussia and Saxony have
systems of public instruction ; every parish has a
school for elementary knowledge, connected with
schools for the higher branches ; and these are spe-
cimens of most of the continental nations. In nearly
all the states of America large funds are devoted to
tliis object ; affording the most favourable augury
of her future advancement. The state ot New York,
with a population of about two millions, in addition
to six colleges for the higher branches of learning,
expends one million of dollars annually on the sup-
port of common schools ; and of this sum 400,000
ddlars are raised by taxation. INIassachusetts, with
a population of 700,000, raises by taxes 1^0,000/.
per annum for the purpose of education ; these are
samples of the rest. In China universal education
lias existed for centuries ; it has been the moving
principle of her system. Every Chinese is educated ;
and, as there is no order of nobility by birtl), the
most intelligent and best educated are drawn from
the lower schools, and, step by step, are qualified
for the highest posts of government.

Some of the objections to education that we find
existing, may be traced to errors in the mode of
eflecting it ; too much importance having been given
to it merely as a means of intelleciual advancement;
but even to this extent, liie argunipnt that it tends
to diminish crime, is proved by the statistical re-
turns of our prisons. But education to produce per-
fectly satisfactory results, must not be so confined.
In carrying it out there are three principles in man
never to be lost sight of or neglected, commonly
called the heart, the head, and tlie hands ; in other
words, the affections, tlio understanding, and the
practice. Good affections are to be fostered, by
instruction in what is right, both by precept and
example, and by the practice of it ; and these prin-
ciples should be kej)t in view in every pursuit. How
diflkiilt to succeed in anything without the lovo of
it; how imperfect our endeavours without a know-
ledge of the best mode of effecting it; and how im-
possible to succeed without patient application of
that knowledge !

Having dwelt on the importance and nature of
education, we naturally come to the consideration
of the best mode of effecting it; this has been
jtroved to be by classes. Class education has the
advantage of grenter cheapness, and of being more
complete ('who present would not prefer a veteri-
nary surgeon to a common farrior ?). More means
can be collected and adapted to a distinct class of
])upils than to a general school ; the comparative
cost of expensive aids is in its favour, and there are

stimulants to the acciuirement of knowledge that
other bodies want, (^lass education in Great britain
has been almost entirely confined to divinity, physic,
and surgery; even the IJuko of \\'fcllington was
obliged to obtain his military education in Irancc.
Of late the army and navy, engineering, designing,
teaching, and singing, have their schools. /Ir/ri-
cutture is still irithoiit a public instil iition where it /s
taught. That such an institution is wanting there
are many proofs, chiefly the slowness with which
improvements have been adopted by the mass of
agriculturists, and that they have been chiefly made,
and first jiractised, by men of liberal education. As
proof of the former 1 may mention, that Jethro Tuli
showed the advantage of drill and borse-hoe culture
at the beginningof the last century, whereas in China
and Japan, it had been practiced from the earliest
times ; and yet it is only now becoming general.
The history is the same of the introduction of the
artificial grasses and roots, whilst the proper hus-
banding of them by stall feeding, &c., is, in these
parts, very little attended to, although practised for
ages in some countries. Frequent underground
draining, introduced afresh by IMr. Smith, of Dean-
stone, was ])ractised with success in Essex and
elsewhere fifty years ago. The names of Bedford,
Coke, Spencer, Uucie, Richmond, Sinclair, Morton,
Ellman, Davy, Liebig, Young, and IVIarsball, will
prove the advantage of a liberal education, even
when not so specific as it might be. If a higher
order of education had been awarded to the practi-
cal farmer, would the advance of agriculture have
depended so much on the more theoretical classes'?

There is no class of society to whom a good edu-
cation is so important as the agricultural, not with a
view to the wealth and resources of the country
alone, but also on account of its position. The
larger part of the pepulation must be very much de-
pendent on it for their character and advancement ;
its influence is almost omnipotentin the country dis-
tricts. How important, then, that it should receive
every possible advantage that a complete education
can give ! It is worthy of all the pains and ex-
pense that are necessary to effect this object. There
are circumstances in the position of the farmers of
England that remarkably adapt them for a superior
class education — their numbers, wealth, and fre-.
quent occasions of meeting. Once establish a higher
order of education amongst them, and it must of ne-
cessity be sustained. They would not acquire
knowledge merely as an accomplishment ; they have
daily use for all the practical knowledge they can
acquire ; tliere is scarcely a science that they have
not need of, which wo shall see if we take only a
rapid glanre at them. The knowledge of all that re-
lates to animals, both the useful and noxious — the
cattle and flocks that give nourishment to man ; the
birds, insects, &c,, that are injurious; their history,
or all that relates to their different species ; their
])hysiology, or what relates to their internal struc-
ture and functions ; their economy, or all that re-
lates to their increase, food, health, &:c. The same of
vegetables — the plants productive of food, the
weeds that impede the labours of husbandry, their
history or botany, their physiology, their economy ;
the sciences that relate to all inorganic substances ;
geology, or the knowledge of the strata of the earth
as they aff"ectthe surface soil, and have an influence
on cultivation ; chemistry, or the component ])arts
of the things around us — what causes their combi-
nation, or ])romotes their dissolution; a knowledge
of soils; of minerals; of the nature of heat and
light ; without which no product of the field comes

108

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

to perfection ; uhat lessens or increases tlieir action ;
of tlie subtle yet immense powers that act upon
and control mr.tter, generally so unobtrusive, yet
always in ojierative energy around us ; of elec-
tricity, and the otiier attractive and repulsive
forces; of physics, in relation to extension,
weiglit, solidity, mensuration, drawing-; of book-
keeping; all of constant use on a farm in cal-
culating and registering the results of exjieri-
nient and culture; of meclianics, and their practical
application to machinery; of the moving powers a[i-
plied to implements of husbandry, a subject of dailv
incrt^asing importance; of hydraulics, in reference
to ilraining and lifting of water and licjuid manures ;
of hydrostatics, as manifested in lh(^ solid, fluid,
and gaseous states of water, and their elVecton soil,
vegetation, health, and climate; of all that relates to
the alniosi)here, of such imjiortance to the farmer,
that after all means have been used, his success
dejiends on vveathei-; the finest crop may be de-
stroyed by a single storm of bail (an effect, in ltal>',
Siiid to be avoided by the use of electric conduc-
tors) ; the formation and character of clouds, and
iheir eflfccts ; of seasons; of temjierafure ; of wet
and dry air, and tlieir etlect on vegetation and ani-
mal life. 'J'lie science of the atmosphere is only just
receiving attention, observations are only now com-
mencing ; it is not at all improbable, at future j)eri-
ods, our knowledge will have so increased from
accurate and extended observations, that wo shall be
able to predict the nature of coming seasons; but
this jnobably will require observations to be taken,
not or.ly iu our own country and l''uroj)e, but con-
curreiilly in the extreme parts of the earth, and this
wjll be done when men become convinced of the
folly and wickedness of national jealousies, and all
combine iu furthering general science ami in ad-
vancing whatever will increase the happiness and
welfare of their fellow creatures.

Enough has been enumerated to show that a far-
mer had need know almost everything ; and yet no
public institution can be pointed out where in early
life ('the time for acquiring these sciences), be may
be instructed in them at a moderate cost ; not that
education will make every man a genius, or even a
discoverer of new facts; but we know not who has
the necessary qualifications until all are well edu-
cated— and by such an education as we have glanced
at, minds will be expanded, and ready to receive
and apply facts, by whomsoever discovered. We
know not what new grasses and vegetables are in
store for the use of uian. The Falkland islands have
been known for ages, but it was only the other day,
vvbrn they became the temporary residence of well-
instructed men belonging to (japtain Ross's exjie-
ditioii, that a grass was noticed that bids fair to be
u most useful addition to our present stock, as it is
said to flourish in marshy i^oils subject to the access
of sea water, and to be exceedingly palatable and
nourishing to horses and cattle; moreover, what a
blank and mystery must the world around bim be
to the mail who only knows things by the obvious
characters that address the sight and touch — to get
lid of such mental darkness would be alone a suffi-
cient reason for advancing our object.

Institutions for teaching agriculture theoretically,
and in some cases practically, exist in most of the
continental states of Europe ; in Prussia, I'javaria,
Wirtemburg, Austria, Hungary, Switzerland, and
Italy, they have long existed ; in France, at Cirig-
non, in the department of Seine and Oise, youths
are educated on a farm of .')()() or more acres of vari-
ous soils, stocked with sheep and cattle of diflerent

breeds ; it contains a botanical garden, nursery, or-
chard, &c. The instruction requires two years ; in
the first are taught the elements of mathematics
applied to meusuratirn, plans and levels, topography
and drawing; the principles of electricity, physics,
and chemistry; botany and vegetable physiology ap-
plied to cultivation and ]>lanting ; the (irst princi-
jiles of the veterinary art ; rational jirincijiles of
cultivating and farming ; of rural economy; of the
employment of capital, and managenunt of farms.
'I'he second year : the principles of husbandry aji-
|)lied to production and employment; mathematics
applied to mechanics; hydraulics; and the elements
of astronomy ; physics and chemistry applied to the
analysis of earths, waters, manures, iS;c. ; distilla-
tion and economv of I- eat; mineralogy, and geology J
the culture of the kitchen garden, orchard, woods,
&c. ; the knowledge of useful and destructive in-
sects ; architecture applied to rural buildings, in-
cluding drains, making mortar, lime, cement; the
laws of ])ro]ierty in land ; the princi[)les of health as
respects man and animals; practical experiments,
and the use of implements. Here we have a sufli-
ciently expansive course of study. Another large
establishment exists at Gran Jouen, in the depart-
ment of Loire Infereure, for practical and theoreti-
cal agriculture.

In our own kingdom a successful example has
been set in a quarter wheie vre should have least
expected it — in Ireland. At Temple IMovle, near
Loiidonderr\', a college has been established on a
farm of about 300 acres, which I will describe from
personal observation. That this experiment has
been made under the most unfavourable circum-
stances you will allow, when I state that the land is
on the slope of a hill with a north east exposure, and
that the soil is a clay of so tenacious a nature that
the farmer of the establishment stated, it wouhl
be improved by deep under-ground drains of only
one yard apart. The farm is sheltered by a belt of
trees, but there are no inclosures ; a single road
runs up the centre; st the lower part stand the
buildings, jiresenting a neat front, and wings that
enclose behinrl a spacious court; then succeed
stalls, &c. ; in front of the house the ground i* laid
out in a kitchen and botanic garden, where the va-
rious grasses, &c., are kept distinct. In 1840 there
were 70 ])upils of from fifteen to twenty years of
age, paying 10/. per annum, being chiefly the sons
of the neighbouring farmers ; half the number are in
class under a master and tutors, and half on the
farm under an intelligent Scotch fnrmer ; and a more
active, vigorous, yet intelligent body of young jicr-
sons I never saw. The farm with all its disad-
vantages was making a protltablerelurn, and though
of such natural sterility, the drained part was covered
with excellent crops of wheat, &c. This institution
has been in ojieration a dozen or more years, and
has turned out some hundreds of well informed
young men; some of whom have taken the situation
of bailifts with great credit to themselves and the
institution; and the testimoney of the suppoiters
and officers of the establishment was, that in
scarcely a single instance had they been disap-
pointed in the character of the young men who had
been instructed there. Mere we have almost an ex-
act model of what is wanted in England; a little
expansion to meet the larger scale of farms in this
country would make it complete. In China agri-
culture is considered of so much ini|)Ortaiice, that
the emperor himself holds the plough on one day in
the year to insure its l)Hing considered an honour-
able employment ; and the consequence is that the

THE FARMElt'S MAOAZlNIi.

100

Cliiiicsc have atlvrtnccil beyond otiicrs in lliis no-
ble iirt, so Huicli so, thai it is said, you may go
miles without meetino; with a single weed. Aflcr
this enumeration of what has been done elsewhere,
it does appear extraordinary th:it there should be a
total absence of any public school of npfriculture in
England, Let us do our part in endeavouring- to do
nwav with this deficiency, and agreeing that such
an institution is desirable, I willjust sketch outa
plan of one that will be adapted to our own dis-
trict. We must endeavour to commence well
and take advantapce of the experience of existing
institutions ; and by so doing, we shall probably
find that our object would be effected by a college
established on an example farm of from 300 to 500
acres, situated on a central part of the Cotswokl
Hills : the district for its support to be defined, not
by any artificial boundary, but by it? geological
formation; that is to say, the soils resting on the
volitic series of rocks, including the forest marble.
These would embrace a district of nearly oO miles
in length, from Bath to Camden, and a breadth de-
fined by tile vales of Severn and the '\\'arwickshirc
Avon on the one side, and of the Thames and AVilt-
shirc Avon on the other — leaving out the vale lands
of each river respectively. This would give scope
for an establishment for -00 pupils of 15 to 20 years
of age ; and it is probable that ,£20 per annum from
each — in addition to the produce of the farm — •
would defray the cxj^enditure. The estate might
be obtained on a long lease; the buildings to con-
sist of proper class and sleeping rooms, sufhcicut
stallage, and other farm buildings ; to be supplied
with a library, jihilosophical apparatus, &c. ; the
farm with the best description of stock of various
breeds, the best imjilemcnts, i:c. ; each pupil to be
half the day iu class, Icarniuc; the sciences applied
to agriculture — both theoretically and experimen-
tally, as have already been adverted to — and half
the day on the farm ; where, under a good farmer,
and with the example of a few picked labourers, he
will acquire such dexterity in the various operations
of husbandry, as will enable him in after life, not
merely to tell a labourer how he ought to work, but
to take a tool and shew him. lie will thus obtain
the respect of his men, and be able to appreciate
their work.

Another important advantage of part of the day
being spent inmanual labour, is the assistance it will
afford to moral training. I have no doubt you will
agree with me that moral training is of the greatest
im])ortance ; all present can judge of the conse-
rpiences of bringing a number of young jjcrsons of
this age together in one establishment without a
strict system of discipline. We do not wish to see
our sons intelligent only ; but, from their morals
and character, a credit to their class, and a blessing
to their country. This ol)ject will be very much
forwarded by such a portion of labour as shall still
leave sufficient time for mental culture ; thus bring-
ing into action two of our j)rinciples — the hand and
the head— and making both operate (as we hope)
on the heart.

Such a college would also be a fit place for the
annual exhibition of stock, for the trial of new im-
plements, of new manures, seeds, and systems of
husbandry on portions of the farm, and all without
extra expense.

We now come to an important question. How is
our object to be eflTccted, and at what cost ? Wc
may safely reckon that the sura requisite for the
buildings, stock, kc, will be from ten to twenty
thousand pounds ; and the best mode of raising this

sum would be by shares — .■^ay of .£20. If each
land-owiu;r in this extensive district wouhl subscribe
one share to every five hundred acres of bis estate,
and each tenant one to every three hundred to five
hundred acres he occujjies, we should have ample
funds ; each share might recommend a ])uiiil. It
has been suggested that such an institution should
originate with the Agricultural Society, or with
(iovernment. We shall find that the iiractical way
is to do our own business ourselves. We sliall thus
have an institution adapted to our wants. No one
situation will do for all England. AV'e hope that
every district, the vales, tlie chalk, the red sand,
&c. — that each will have its college. If one large
establishment was reared, wc may fear that it would
be a failure ; anything rather than the substantial
practical institution that will turn out — not the
finical gentleman, afraid of soiling his hands — but
intelligent, active, hardy young men — who will
maintain the substantial honest character of the
English yeoman, combined with all that modern
science and advancement, and carefid training and
moral and religious culture can do, to elevate them
to the station in the country that they ought to fill.
We are each of us the centre of some little circle.
Let us advance the cause by advocating it amongst
those wc know; and, with God's blessing, we may
hope that, ere long, the cry for the eHicicnt practical
education of the rising generation of farmers will
be so loud and general, that all difficulties will dis-
appear, and we shall have the hapi)iness of seeing
an agricultural college on the Cotswold Hills — a
model, we trust, for many others in the laud.

ON THE SUBSIDENCE OF THE
SAP IN TREES IN CONSEQUENCE
OF THE PRESENCE OF SHEEP.

(iROJI THE ANNALS 01' CIIYMISTUY.)

" L'Ecliodu Monde Savant" contains, in the num-
ber for the jOth of October, the following article: — •

" I\I. l5ouleil!e has written to us, in reference to
an article liaving for its title as above, and which
appeared in our journal of the 2jrd instant, by M.
Poiteau, — ' The inhabitants of the country," says
M, Bouteille, ' particularly the wood-cutters who
remove the bark from oak trf-es in forests, all know
that the neighbourhooil of a flock of sheep will hin-
der theni from pursuing tl)eir work, by preventing
the circulation of the sap, which renders it almost
impossible to decorticate the trees. This fact, so
worthy of exciting the attention of physiologists,
has never been studied. iNlany instances of this
singular ))henoinenon have been noticed by different
journals, but thev have never given th<! least expla-
nation thereof.' M. Bouteille complain^, and with
some reason, that tbey never sought to render an
account of it.

" M. Rasjiail inserted, in the Rt'formalcur of
November '2.5th, 183J?, the following article : —

" ' Fascination de la seve des arbrcs ;
Riez en, niais ensuite verififz.'

" ' We find, in a number of the Annals of the
Society of Agriculture of Charente, an opinion that
we scarcely dared to announce, until it had gone the
round of all the country papers.

" ' The author asserts, that the presence of a
flock of sheep suffices to arrest the course of the

110

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

sap of (letS, wliiclj causes, accortliii}!: lo the author,
the h;iik so to adliere to the vvooil, that the harkiiij;
is thereby reuilered most diflicult. \Vhnt should be
the cause of this fascination! We are ignorant.'

" ]\I. Raspail afterwards published h's \'ep:ctablo
Physiolojjy, and the second edition of his Organic
Chemistry, but these works contain nothing on the
subject.

" M. Bouteille demands that the Academy should
institute a commission to study the subject. IIo
tljinlfs th.it if the air be analysed, so as to ascertain
the priiici[)les it contains, particularly at that period
ot the year when the sheep are still covered ivitii
their thick fleece, impregnated with a large quantity
of greasy matter, this latter will be found to give
out much ammonia to the atmosphere, which may bo
perceived at some distance from the flock. M.
f5outeille attributes to this odour the c:iuse of tlie
phenomenon in question, but he does not account
for the manner in which it acts. It is more than
jirobahle that M. Bouteille is in error ; the ammo-
niacal cxlialations would only assist vegetation.

"M. Maleysie goes much farther than M. Bou-
teille ; for he believes that the neighbourhood of a
flock is opposed to the growth of young trees, — an
opinion which is partaken by most cultivators. The
only harm that sheep can commit is to rub the bark
from the young plant, which thereby perishes. AVe
must, then, seek elsewhere for the cause of this sin-
gular phenomenon."

[We would suggest, for the consideration of our
contemporary, that if the air adjoining the forest be
analysed at the time when the neighljourhood of
sheep is simultaneous with the arrest of the sap,
such air will ()e found to ho very deficient in culoric,
which not only prevents the flow of sap, l)ut excites
the instinct of the flock to seek the shelter of neigh-
bouring trees. — Eu.J

CULTIVATION OF TURNIPS.

Sir, — In my last letter I pointed out some of the
advantages experienced by me in working heavy
land intended for turnips in the autumn, instead of
doing so in the spring, as we have been accustomed
doing, not only in very much lessening the labour of
jiulverisation, but doing so far more effectively than
it is possible to do in the old way of working.

But there are other advantages than these, which
I shall state as shortly as possible, and which will
appear very obvious to most agriculturists not
wedded to the practice of their grandfathers — for
this is the great obstacle to all improvements, not
only in agriculture, but in every other science — they
canna liefdshed, as we say in Scotland. Sir H. Da-
vy has long ago laid it down as a maxim, to be as
seldom departed from as possible, never to allow
manure to lay in farm-yards and dunghills until it
becomes decomposed and almost useless from the
evolution of the various gases, that a large portion
of the most valuable properties of the manure is
thereby lost, not only to the farmer but to the coun-
try— so much so, that he states it as his opinion that
one-third and sometimes a half of the manure is lost
by allowing it to be too much decomposed. It is
true that a very serious objection has again and
again been started, by stating: tlie impossibility of
using rough dung, particularly for turnip husbandry,

which most unquestionably works very fcjul ; but
here you will observe the objections are obviated by
working the land, and putting in the dung in the
fall instead of in the months of May and June, when
the weatlier is generally so warm and dry — indeed
tlie rougher the dung is, the better when thus ap-
])lied. By so doing a great deal of manure which
would otherwise lie in tbe courts and farm-yards all
winter going to waste, would be applied to the land
with the greatest possible advantage, not only in a
jiecuiiiary jioint of view (i.e., less dung will serve),
hut the land by its numerous absorbing vessels will
imbibe the ammonia, &c., from the dung in the pro-
cess of decomposition, and is then in a better stale
of preparation for the deposition of the seed than
when sown imraediatclv above smoking hot dung
and litter moisture; tiiereby generating in many sea-
sons the fly ftngers-and-toes, mildew, &c., with a
number of other evils which turnip husbandry has
to contend with.

There is still another advantage to be derived
from autumn dunged land, intended for turnips the
following' year, which is well ada])ted for all far-
mers, but more especially to those who are far from
dung, or have to depend altogether upon what they
make themselves, which is to give them land, say from
lb to 20 tons of farm yard or other dung per acre in
the drills, in the fall of the year, as described in my
i'ormer letter, and from four to six bushels of pre-
pared bones along with the seed at sowing, and, if
partly eat on the land with sheep, particularly if the
land is light, will ])ut it in first rate order for any
ordinary rotation of crops. Tlse best way to use the
bones, or whatever stimulant is used, is to dibble
them in with the hand, at nine or ten inches apart
on the top of the drill alter being rolled, which can
he done by a man and two girls, for about 2s. 6d.
per Scotch acre, (a machine has been made by a
person, in the neighbourhood of Stirling, for doing
this work, and for which a premium was awarded
to l)im by the Highland Agricultural Society) and
will be found a far more effective mode of using any
of our new manures, than by scattering them on the
surface or on the tO]) of the drill, as is the ]n'acticc
in many parts of the country. The seed is thus jdaced
in immediate contact, not with hot dung, hut with
one or other of the stimulants used ; the young
plants, so soon as there is a braird, reaping the whole
advantage (i e., the stimulating qualities of the ma-
nure) whatever may be used — whether it be bones,
guano, rape-dust, or nitrate — while, if run into the
whole length of the drill, there is a positive loss
of manure being pushed away from the plant
when it most needs nourishment b}' the hoc in
singling, and is thereby of comparatively little
use to the turnips, but rather has a tendency to
encourage the growth of weeds between the drills,
which, in wet seasons, aro sufficiently trouble-
some without receiving a premium to grow.

There is another advantage — and though last not
least — and it is this : that b}^ this means a great deal
of turnips, which are now a very important crop to the
country, might be giown to the great advantage of
the farmer uistead of bare fallow, and would enable
many, not only to increase the quantity of manure,
by enabling them to fatten more stock, but put those
into far bettor condition for the butcher than they
are able otherwise to do when their land is not na-
turally adapted for turnip husbandry.

I am, sir, your most obedient servant,

I'ijf'er Mill, Nov. 26. Tbter Tiicmson.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Ill

ENGLISH AGRICULTURE.

liY nili. niAlN, CHELSEA.

(From lite Quarterly Journal of Agriculture.)

(Concluded)
If the second crop of clover is off in good time, the
lea is hard stoclied to cat up every green leaf before
the ploughs are introduced. The ploughing is done
with much care to lay the ridges in the best form
for throwing oft" surface-water. Between the end
of September and the r2th of October is said to he
ibe best season for sowing wheat. The seed is
prepared for sowing by being steeped in brine
t'rom eight o'clock in the evening till five o'clock-
next morning. While in the steep it is frequently
stirred, and every thing that floats is carefully
skimmed off. The brine is made strong enough to
lloat an egg. At every farm-house there are a
couple of tubs kept for this purpose ; a large one
to hold a sack of wheat, and as much brine as will
servo to cover it. This large tub has a tap at bot-
tom at which the brine is let oft' — the wheat being
kept back by a tap-wisp. When the wheat
is sufficiently drained, it is turned out on a
paved floor ; and quicklime is sifted over
it and turned backwards and forwards until every
grain is coated with lime ; it is then formed into a
heap and covered with sacks till it is wanted on the
field. There are many different ways of preparing
seed-wheat, all of which are practised for the pur-
pose of freeing the seed from the sporules of the
fungi, called smut, and mildew, rust, or blight. The
spori or seeds of those diseases are supposed to be
killed by the brine and caustic quality of the quick-
lime. It cannot be doubted that such preparation
is partly, though not entirely, eflectual ; and cer-
tainly a dressing of lime to wheat-land is a preven-
tive of smut.

If the summer has been shower)', slugs most likely
will be prevalent, and to prevent their motions in the
soil, a pressure follows the plough, and closes the
creases between the furrows, and presses closely
down the furrows themselves before the seed (two
and a-lialf bushels to the acre) is sown ; and then
harrowing twice or thrice in a place finishes the
work. If no pressure be used — and especially if
the ground works light and dry — the land is, in such
circumstances, well trodden down with a flock of
sheep driven repeatedly over till the surface remains
smooth and firm ; and this not only to obstruct the
motions of the slugs, but to prevent an uncommon
birth of seed-weeds, charlock, and poppy, in the
spring.

The field, if inclined to wetness, has every furrow
struck up, and every water-furrow scoured out, and
the whole smoothed and levelled with the spade.
Thus the wheat field is left to nature until the
spring, when sometimes the harrows are usefully
employed to roughen a compacted surface, and after-
wards rolled to produce a concussion of the bed in
which the coro«aZ roots are spreading themselves.
And if any top-dressing has been provided it is
now thrown over, especially on such spots where
the wheat is thin or weakest.

Soon after this the weeders with their paddles go
over the field, cutting or pulling up every dock,
thistle, or other noxious weed they can eradicate by
such means ; and which weeding is, if necessary,
continued till the wheat is two feet high.

Wheat harvest usually begins in the last week in
July, and is often finished in a fortnight. It is mostly
reaped by some few of the constant men, aided by a

few others called imnulis men ; these are extra bands
taken on to assist getting in the harvest, whether it
continues three or six weeks. A fixed price for the
harvest is previously agreed upon, varying from three
pounds ten shillings to five pounds, besides beer,
four or five pints (EnglislO of which are allowed
per day, but no food. Some farmers allow food also,
in which case the harvest wages are much less.
Sometimes reaping is wholly done by extra hands,
who are paid by the acre, charging from ten to twenty
shillings, but without either beer or food. I have
had a fair standing crop reaped for eight shillings
per aero; and after a wet and ^vindy time had paid
twenty-four shillings for a like bulk of crop ; tlio
reapers earning less money at the latter than at the
former rate.

Tlie wheat is bound either by single or double
bands— that is, by one length of the straw instead of
two lengths united below the ears. The first are
necessarily small sheaves, which are soon ready for
housing ; the second are often too large, and require
more field room ; though the latter is mostly prac-
tised. Scotch ihcarers peiietraic as far as J.incohi-
shire occasionally, and from thence work their way
homewards. Irish reapers arc plentiful in the west
and southern counties, and are mostly employed by
the largest farmers.

Wheat is generally housed, but it is no misfortune
if a rick or two be required to be set in the rick-
yard. They are mostly set ou stone or metal stad-
dles, with either octagonal or square frames.

The yield of wheat in this country varies from
sixteen to forty bushels per acre, with from one and
a half to two loads of trussed straw. The grain is
gradually thrashed with the flail ; and to thrash and
clean a sack, and bind the straw in trusses of 40lbs.
each with two bands, is the daily task of one man ;
which, besides laying a fresh flooring for the next
morning, he finishes about three o'clock in the after-
noon, after which hour he is not called on to do any
work, except in hay-time and harvest.

About an acre, more or less, of the wheat-stubble
is, as soon after the wheat is carried as possible,
dunged, ploughed, and sown with winter tares; and
the rest of the stubble is fallowed up preparatory to
being sown with oats in the spring.

As soon in that season as the ground is suffi-
ciently dry the field is again ploughed, sown, and
harrowed. The quantity of seed— from four to
six bushels per acre ;, the kinds, either common
white, black Poland, black or white Tartarian, or
small black. In March or April the oat field is
rolled, in which state it remains till harvest.

Oats are mown with scythe and cradle, or with
a bow only. The crops are seldom heavy, unless
on very rich ground, or when the ground has been
liberally dressed for the crop, in which case it
must be reaped and bound in sheaves. But ordi-
nary crops are sometimes so short and light, that
a good cradle-mower ^vill cut down four or more
acres per day, for \yhich he is paid at least half a
crowB per acre. After lying in swathe for a few
days, they arc raked in, carted to the barn or rick,
like barley ; and, when flail-thrashed, the tasker
must clean two sacks per day, tie up the straw in
bundles, and remove it to the cribs or straw -
house.

'I'he oat crop thus cleared off, and which usually
yields from four to ten quarters per acre, is the
last of the five-shift rotation, when the same pro-
ceedings and course of cropping is recommenced,
as has been already detailed.
The defects of this system of cultivation arc, as

112

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

already sa'ul, having two white cio[)s togrtlicr, too
iiiaiiv raised for sale, and tou few green I'rops for
home consumption. (Jonseciucntly, a sufficient
number of live slock cannot be kept to make dress
enough to keep the land in heart, and thereby
increase tlie general fertility of the farm ; and
yet, notwitlistanding the defects and positive lo-^s
sustained by an adherence to this system, many
extensive farms on the diluvial formation are still
conducted according to this irrational custom : nay
more, many tenants are compelled by the terms of
their lease=, or agreements, to follow this system,
and no other !

But within the last twenty years, a change has
been gradually taking place, by introducing what is
called the Norfolk or foitr-sh'ift rotation ; and
whicli is merely by throwing oats out of the rota-
tion, which allows fallowing for turnips and other
green crops every fourth instead of every filth
year. This prevents the accumulation of weeds,
which always ap[)ear among the oats — renders
fallowing an easier [iroccss, and the succeeding
crops more abundant, in consequence of a more
numerous head of live stock being kept and fed
for sale. RJore jjasturcs have been laid down ,-
drilling the crops instead of broadcasting has been
adopted ; and improved implements of several
kinds, and for various purposes, have been in-
vented and introduced Into the business of farm-
ing.

These improvements were partially begun fifty
years ago, and fully carried out at Holkham, \Vo-
buru Abbey, and at many other places ; so that
both the practice and knowledge of agricultiu'e
have been widely diiTuscd by imitating tlie exam-
ples set by the noble owners of the above-named
places, under the superinteiulence of Mr. Blaikie,
at Holkham, and of the late JMcssrs. Wilson and
Sinclair at Woburn. To these eminent practical
and botanicid agriculturists have succeeded a nume-
rous class of their pupils and followers, who are
disseminating their opinions and practices far and
wide. So that it may be truly said that agricul-
ture is making rapid strides towards all practical
perfection in the central counties of I'^ngland,
where it has hitiierto been beliind both the northern
and eastern counties. In furtherance of this pro-
gressive improvement, the Royal English Agricul-
tural Society, with the extensive induence of its
members, will greatly contribute to reform what
is still amiss or inex|)edient in the leasing of
firms, as well as in recommending the best prac-
tices.

'llie soil of the Duke of Bedford's farms in the
vicinity of Woburn is a line sandy loatn, chiefly
aral)le ; it was, and 1 believe still is, managed
under the following course of cropping j namely,
1. 'I'urnips, on a tlungetl fallow, sown in drills
twenty-seven inches apart; 2. ISarley, with broad
cliver ; .'). Clover, cither soiled with shec]) or
made into hay ; 4. Wheat, sown on a stale furiow,
well harrowed down, and in drills nine inches
apart ; o. Turnips, as before ; (i. Barley, with
clover and trefoil ; 7. Clover, &c., depastured
with slicep ; 8. Pease, drilled ; and !'. Wheat,
which ends the course.

The turnip ground is prepared with much la-
bour, thoroughly and repeatedly ploughed until it
is (juite pulverized, as well as cleared of root-
weeds. The drills are first opened by a double-
breasted plough ; the dung is then carted on, and
spread along the bottom of the drills, and the
ridgi s between are split right and left to cover the

dung, and over which the seed is drilled. The in-
tervals are stirred by horsehi'e, and the [jlants are
set out with the hand-hoe.

The crop is partly drawn for feeding cattle, ami
partly eaten with sheep ; each intermediate low
being drawn for the former purpose. Along with
the turnii) crop, No. 5, as much ground is sown
with winter tares as will suffice for cutting grceu
in IMay; and which ground in afterwards sown
with turnips.

In the execution of this course of cropping there
is one particular which may be noticed ; it is, in
ploughing the leys a skim-coulter is always used.
This addition to the jjlougii lays the clover, stub-
ble, and weeds in the bottom of the opan furrow,
to be completel}' buried by the next slice. The
same is done for the ])ea crop, which gets the
roots of the clover out of the way of the drill-
shares. From two to three bushels are sown, are
kept clean by horse and hand hoes, and are fit to
reap or pick in July, with a hook in each hand of
the reaijcr, one to hold up the straw, and the other
wielded horizontally to separate itfrom the ground.
The crop is then rolled into small wadsorbundlcs,
and require turning once or twice before being
ricked.

In this country peas are a precarious crop, be-
ing subject to bo attacked by the aphides in dry
summers, and often exposed to frequent showeis
in .Inly, either of which casualties are fatal to the
crop. On heavy clayey soils peas do better ; llicir
rank growth on such land, otfcnds the aphiiles,
and rrpening later in August escape the July
rains.

In the above course peas occur only once in nine
years, and wheat only twice, which, from the high
condition of the land, is not considered too often ;
and as broad clover is only sown and mown once,
there is no fear of sickening the soil with it.

As there is always an opportunity of having a
two-year old ley, or a portion of worn-out pas-
ture to break up, such i>ortions of the farm arc in-
variably apjjropriatcd to the pi-oduction of oais.
When old pastures arc broken u[) in order to be
laid down again with the bi'St glasses, the groutui
under^'oes the following course of culture and
cropping. The sward is ploughed in December,
and when mellowed by the frost, is well harrowed
and sown with five bushels of the Polish variety
to the acre. The crop is heavy, and though cut
with the scyihe is afterwartls bound in sheaves —
the yield eight or nine quarters per acre. The oat
stubble is ploughed soon after harvest, an<l imme-
diately harrowed, in which slate it remains till the
beginning of November, when it is ploughed a
second time, laying the lauds as high in the mid-
dle as can be done. Soon as spring weatlier in-
vites, the field is again harrowed and sown with
beans iti drills twcnty-.-,even inches apart, retiuiring
three bushels to the acre. The growing croji is
kept clean by the horse and hand hoes ; the crop
is reaped, and bound in sheaves, yielding about 40
bushels to the acre. Soon as the beans are oil,
the ground is scarified by a powerful implement
going as deep as the plough. If the scarifier brings
any weeds to the surface, they are picked oil", and
then the land is in order to be ploughed and kowu
with wheat in October. The seed is drilleil at
twelve inch intervals ; this distance being found
l)est for autumn sowing.

The wheat stubble is injmediately begun to he
prcpnrcd for turnips cultivated as before detailed ;
and these, when consumed, arc followed by barley,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

113

and sown with permanent grasses to form tlic new
meadow.

If a field, intended lo receive a similar i)rocess
of conversion to arable, and reconversion into
meadow, be inferior in (juality, the succession of
crops is somewhat different — as follows : — 1st,
oats ; 2nd, turnips ; 3rd, Barley ; 4 th, clover for
soiling or hay ; 5th, wheat; (5th, turnips; "tli,
barley and seeds, for permanent pasture.

Grass-land, if sufficiently extensive, is divided
into any number of equal portions, and mowed in
rotation; that portion to be mowed always re-
ceiving a dressing of good rotten dung in the win-
ter previous. By this management no part is im-
poverished by cutting too frequently; and when
cut for hay, the crop is always abundant, usually
yielding from one and a-half to two and a-half tons
to the acre.

Hay-making is well understood, and well per-
formed in England. It is indeed reduced to a re-
gular system, when weather allows, and which is
as follows, viz. : —

When the d:iy is fixed for the mowers to begin,
they are at their work as early as four o'clock in the
morning ; the makers, mostly women and boys, turn-
to after breakfast, and with small forks ted out all
the grass mown before breaid'ast. 'I'his tedding is
done very carefully and ecjually overall ihe surface,
and in the course of llie forenoon it is turned once
or twice. In the afternoon it is ruKed into single
wind-ro(vs, each raker taking about three feet in
width of tlie tedded grass, and thereby leaving clear
spaces between. When the wind-rowing is finished,
the rows may be turned once, if there is lime ; but
every row must be lun into grass-cocks before
sunset.

On the second day, tlie first work is tedding out
all that was mov\-n after breakfast on the first, and
up to the same time on the second day. Next the
grass-cocks are shaken out into staddles, or long-
beds, four or five yards wide, leaving a clear space
between the staddles raked clean. I'hese are turned
once or twice during the forenoon; and that which
was tedded in the morning is turned once or twice,
wind-rowed, and at last made into grass-cooks for
the night. After dinner the staddles are raked into
double wind-rows, and before sunset are made into
cocks twice or thrice the size of grass-cocks.

On the third day, the work of tedding out, wind-
rowing, shaking out into staddles, shaking out the
large cocks, and turning these last from time to time
to the sun and air, the hay will be in good order to
be carried to the lick about four o'clock afternoon.
This is the usual process, every day's mowing be-
coming fit, with the necessary attendance, to be
carried on the third or fourth day after mowing.
This, it may be thought, is an expeditious way of
getting up hav ; but it' the weatiier be fine, it is tie
usual course in the south of England. I iiave often
made scores of acres in a season, without making a
single cock; but in uncertain weather it is impos-
sible to go on safely without cocking-up every night.
Hay-ricks are generally built rectangular, about
six yards wide, and of any convenient length, say
seven, eight, or nine yards, according to the quan-
tity wished to be put together. Square ricks are
most suitable for binding into trusses three feet long
and two feet over ; the thickness varies according
to the closeness or hollowness of the hay. Each
truss weighs .561bs., thirty-six of which make what
is called a load in the markets. (For the method of
binding, see a paper of mine in vol. iii., p. 850, of
this Journal.)

In some of the eastern counties, the hay is put up
in large cocks in the rick-yard, or in a corner of the
field in which it is made. 'I'hese being well pulled,
very little straw is required for thatching, and that
only on the crown of the cock. Whereas S(iuare
ricks have the whole roof thatched, consuming much
straw, and causing expensive labour.

As grass-land is invaluable to the arable farmer,
as enabling him to keep more live stock, so has it
been particularly guarded by restrictive clauses in
leases. But sometimes old grass becomes mossy
and unprofitable. In this case, a renewal of the
sward is necessary ; and in order that this may be
effectually performed, the land undergoes a prepa-
ration and course of cropping, as has been already
detailed.

1 he system which has now gained the title of
" coinertihle hitsbandrii" that is, the conversion of
grass-land into arable, and its reconversion into
grass, is no doubt an improvement of the old sys-
tem ; because there is certainly much heavier crops
of corn produced on the newly broken-up land
during the transition, and when again laid down,
larger crops of grass of the most approved species.
Great advances have been made in the choice and
collection of the seeds of the best grasses since the
publication of our friend the late Mr. G. Sinclair's
Hortus Gramlne.o^ts Wolmrnensii. Farmers are now
well aware how much it is to their advantage to deal
with a respectable seedsman, who can serve them
with pure samples of the sorts they want, and which
are most suitable for the land they cultivate.

Permanent pasture is advised to be sown with the
following kinds and quantities of seeds per acre, viz.
lOlbs. white clover, Slbs. trefoil, 2lbs. rib-grass,
and 3 pecks cock's-foot ; or instead of the latter, 1
peck perennial rye-grass, or 3 pecks meadow-fox-
tail, and 1 peck rough-stalked meadow-grass. These
together are a very liberal quantity for an acre; but
as seedling grasses are subject to many casualties,
erring on the safe side is commendable.

Besides the above species, there are a few others
which are found in the best pastures, and recom-
mended to be sown, namely, smooth-stalked meadow,
sweet-scented vernal, meadow fescue, and golden
oat-grass.

Italian and several other superior varieties of
rye-grass have lately been introduced into culti-
vation for ordinary purposes, and are by many
farmers highly approved. The flesh-coloured
clover introduced about the same time has been
fairly tried, but has not realised tlie expectations
entertained of it as a green foiage plant.

The rough cow-parsnip, and Bokhara and flesh-
coloured clover, as forage plants, have all been
tried, and all have had or still have their admirers ;
but as yet there are no signs of either being ad-
mitted into the regular routine of farming.

Having given an outline of the usual proceed-
ings of English farmers on the almost obsolete
five-course system, and the gradual change to the
Norfolk or four-course shift, I may add, concern-
ing the latter, that this also begins to be less po-
pular than it was at first. It is objected that, in
this rotation, clover occurs too frequently, and
the consequence is, that the land is everywhere
getting sick of it, so that a really good crop of
clover is rarely to be seen. Changing the kinds of
clover, that is, substituting the white and yellow
species instead of the red every alternate fourth
year, is found not to he so effectual as it was
once presumed to he ; and other rotations have
been devised, one of which is that suggested by

114

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the experienced Mr. Morton t'or light turnip soils.

1. Turnips and Swedes on a manured fallow.

2. Barley and seeds.

3. The seeds pastured with sheep or other live
stock.

4. Second year seed, also pastured by sheep or
other ditto.

5. Oats.

(). Potatoes, mangel-wurzel, beans, or winter
tares, dunged.
7. Wheat.

The superiority of this round of cropping con-
sists in there being only three crops of corn taken
in the course of seven years, and which, from
their so seldom occurring, are likely to be extraor-
dinarily abundant ; nor will the land be exhausted
of the nourishment corn particularly requires,
when so seldom called upon. The intervening
crops are either resting, cleansing, or otherwise
ameliorating products, and, when disposed of to
live stock at home, return as great a profit in the
shape of wool, mutton, and beef, as the corn
grown on the same land would have done if
carried to market. And, moreover, the land
would be kept in constant better heart and higher
state of cultivation.

Very little rye is sown, an acre or two of the
wheat land only being devoted to it, but never ad-
mitted as aa object in the rotation. It is an ex-
hausting crop, though profitable, as far as it goes,
when the straw can be sold to the j)laiters or the
mattress makers. Rye, as well as here, is some-
times sown for sheep keep, but tares or coleseed
are mostly preferred for such purposes.

The cultivation of hemp and flax are quite
given up in the south of England j but there are
various districts in which saffron is grown for the
druggists, as well as liquorice ; and for clothiers,
the teazle ; and poppies for the apothecary ; all of
which are as profitable as common farming, other-
wise they would not be cultivated. In some
places, as in the neighbourhood of Colchester, in
the county of Essex, many farmers turn their at-
tention to growing garden and agricultural seeds
for the London seedsmen, which is said to be a
profitable pursuit. Rape and mustard are culti-
vated in various places in the northern counties,
and brank on the light lands of the south.

Hops are extensively cultivated on the rich
lands of Kent, Sussex, and Surrey in the south,
and Worcester and Gloucestershires in the west.
In the same counties the pi'oduction of fruit, from
the filbert nut up to the luscious fig, are important
items in the profits of farms, and, though all of a
precarious character, are still trusted to as sources
of income.

The circumstances of English farmers arc as
various as are their persons. When untiring in-
dustry and steadiness of conduct are united with
a competent capital, all may go on well, but capi-
tal without practical knowledge is very rarely suc-
cessful. We have witnessed many attempts of
amateur farmers to introduce what they call the
Scotch system of farming into England. Not only
the modes of ploughing and sowing, reaping and
mowing, thatching and stacking, &c., but every
other adjunct of men, implements, cattle, with all
the paraphernalia of the bothic system, even to an
old Ellen to sweep the house. The low nominal
rents of many parts of England were seductive
to many half-informed Scotch farmers, who too
engcrly engaged English farms ; but when called
upon for their quotas of tithe, poor-rates, church

and county rates, together with the higher prices
of necessaries and of labour, they found them-
selves deceived ; and when they thought of shield-
ing themselves from the two latter items of cost
by the introduction of their own countrymen and
customs, in this they were also defeated by the
desertion of their men for better engagements in
the neighbourhood, and fresh importations only
served to linger out an attempt which was so diffe-
rent from the customs of the country where tried,
and where it could not be pleasantly carried out.
But still Scotch farming and Scotch farmers are
much respected ; the first, for the economy with
which it is conducted, and the second, for their
intelligence and steady character. But in coun-
tries which differ so much in manners and cus-
toms, and particularly in the modes of paying
farm servants, the one entirely in money, and the
other partly in money, but chiefly in provisions,
must make uniformity in the success of the mas-
ters, as well as in the views, habits, and moral
conduct of the labourers impossible. It often
happens, from the improvident mismanagement
of the English labourer, that towards the end of
the week, his cottage, if he has a family, contains
none of the comforts of a home to him ; no re-
sources of either "meal or malt" to lean upon,
and only looking forward for Saturday night, to
receive his ten or twelve shillings, which are
mostly dissipated before he receives them. This
improvidence has been chiefly brought about by
the leniency of their old poor laws, and though
these laws are now more stringent, dependence
upon the overseer will never be obliterated until
the present generation has passed away.

English labourers are, however, a most useful
and hard-working class of men, and, when work-
ing by the piece, indefatigable ; they excel in all
the various labours of the husbandman, and many
of them fare hard as well as work hard, merely be-
cause they must have the most costly food. Very
few of them have any education; but the rising
generation will be greatly improved in this re-
spect, from the more general diffusion of elemen-
tary knowledge.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE NORTHAMPTON
MERCURY.

Sir,— The old-fashioned method of holding for a
series of years the precious products of the earth is
quite exploded as a theory, but there are many who
practically adopt it, as the following' facts will prove.
A friend of mine has five years' wool on hand, for
which he was offered each year the prices at foot.
Having often argued with him upon the impolicy of this
practice with little effect, I put into his hand the follow-
ing' calculation, which has induced a change in his
opinion, and may cause others to think upon the sub-
ject. Yours, &c., R. B.

£ s. d.

1838—50 Tods at 43s 107 10 0

1839-50 .. 35s 87 10 0

1840-50 .. 2Ss. 70 0 0

1841—50 .. 28s 70 0 0

1842—50 .. 28s 70 3 0

405 0 0

Present value— 250 tods at 25s .... 312 10 0

Loss 92 10 0

Interest and Compound Interest to

next show day 74 13 6

Totalloss £167 3

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

115

DEAD WEIGHT OF SOME OF TIIF.
PRIZE CATTLE EXHIBITED AT
THE SMITHFIELD CLUB CAT-
TLE SHOW FOR 1842.

oxen-Class I.

No. 1. The ri.^ht lion. Earl Speucer's four years autl
nine mouths old short-horned ox, ri4>.t. 131b.

No. 5. Sir I'. B. Lennard's four years and nine
months old Durham ox, 109 st. 10 lb. ; loose fat 13 st.
2 1b.

No. 7. Mr. William Richardson's four years and
eleven months old Durliam ox, 115 st. 6 lb.

No. 8. Mr. Thomas Crisp's three years and four-
and-a-haU months old short-horned ox, 125 st. 10 lb.;
loose fat, 15 tt. 6 lb.

No. 9. Mr. William Loft's four years and eight
months old Durham ox, 128 st. 12 lb. ; loose fat, 13 st.
21b.

No. 14. Mr. Benjamin Wilson's four years and nine
months old short-horned ox, T25st. 101b.; loose fat,
list. 61b.

No. 17. ]Mr. William Mason's four years and ten
months old short-horned ox, 151st. 31b.

No. 18. JMr. R. W. Baker's three years and nine
months old short horned steer, 116st.; loose fat, 13st.
llib.

No. 20. Mr. Thomas L. Meire's three years and
eleven and a-half months old Hereford ox, 113st. 2Ib.

No. 21. Mr. J. T. Senior, four years and six months
old Hereford ox, 102st. 121b.

No. 22. I\Ir. T. J. Mack's four years and ten months
old Durham ox, 114it. ; loose fat, 12st.

No. 28. Mr. John Millar's three years and nine
monliis old Durham ox, 106st. 4lb. ; loose fat, 14st.
41b.

No. 30. Mr. Dudgeon's three years and eight months
old short-horned ox, 120st. ; loose fat, 14st. 61b.

Class II.

No. 31. Mr. Charles Gibbs's five years and eleven
months old Devon ox, 113st. lib.

No. 33. Mr. William Loft's four years and ten
months old Durham ox, l)9st. 8lb.; loose fat, 15st.
lOlb.

No. 35. Sir William Wake, Bart., four years and
ten months old Hereford ox, 1245t. 8lb. ; loose fat,
14st. 4lb.

No. 36. The Hon. Charles Arbuthnot's four years
and six months old short-horned ox, 131st. 61b.

No. 37. Mr. Heory Towndsend's four years and nix
months old Durham steer, U9st. 4lb. ; loose fat, lOst.
5lb.

No. 38. The Right Hon. Earl Spencer's four years
and six months old short-horned ox, lOSst. 7lb.

No. 39. Mr. Abraham Perkins's three years and
eleven months old Hereford steer, 77st. 21b.

Class III.

No. 42. Mr. Robert Smith's three years and three
and a half months old improved short-horued steer. 91
St. 61b.

No. 43. Mr. G. F. Wills's three years and six months
old short-horned ox, 93.<t. lOlb.

No. 47. Mr. Chamberlain's four years and eight
moiiths old Hereford ox,96st.61b.

No. 48. Mr. Christopher Smith's under three years
and eight months old short-horned ox, 95st. 61b.

No. 49. Mr. Abraham Perkins's three years and
eight months old Hereford steer, 835t. alb.

No. 50, iMr. John Manning's four yesfrs and six
months old Hereford steer, 97st. 2lb.

No. 51. Mr. William Hay's four years and nine
months old short-horned and Aberdeenshire ox, I03st.
51b.

Class IV-

No. 52. Mr. J. W. Bailey's three years and seven
months old Devon ox,94st, ; loose fat, Ilst.6Ib.

No. 57. Mr. J. T. Senior's three yeais and one month
old Heieford steer, 80*t.

No. 62. Mr. Dudgeon's two years and five months
old Highland and short-horned cross ox, 70st. 121b. ;
loose fat, 9st. I3lb.

Clas^ V.
No. 65, Mr. W. F. Hobbs's three years and seven
months old Hereford and Durham steer, 80st. 21b.

No. 66. Mr. W. J. Bailey's three years and ten
months old Devon ox, 64st. 81b. ; loose fat, 9st. 21b.

No. 68- Mr. John Tucker's under two years and five
months old Durham steer, 80st. ; loose fat, lOst. lOlb.
Class VL
No. 71, Mr. John Manning's five years old Scotch
ox, 89st. 21b.

Class VII.
No. 73. Mr. John Manning's upwards of five years
old Scotch ox, 81st. 21b.

cows-Class VIII.
No. 76. Mr; Robert Burgess's four years and three
months old Durham heifer, 756t. 101b.; loose fat, 8st.
131b.*

No. 77. Sir George Piiillips's, Bart., four years and
two months old cross-bred heifer (Scotch and Durham),
76st.61b.

No. 78. Mr. Robert Ayres's four years and four
months old Durham heifer, 86st. 121b.
Class IX.
No. 79. The Right Hon. Earl Spencer's seven years
and seven months old Durham cow, 84st. 81b.

No. 80. Mr. William Harbridge's five years and six
months old long-horned cow, 82st. 4lb. ; loose fat,
9st. 2lb.

No. 82. Mr. William C. Maxwell's six years and
eight months old short-homed cow, 101st. 12lb. ; loose
fat, I4st. 4lb.

Class X.
No. 86. Mr. W. Harbridse's twelve years and eight
months old long-horned cow, 105st. 2lb.

No. 88. The Right Hon. the Earl of Hardwick's ten
years and eleven months old Durham cow, 98st. 41b.

EXTRA STOCK— Cattle.
No. 90. Mr. John Millar's three years and eight
months old Durham ox, 102st. 12lb. ; loose fat, I4st.

No. 91. Mr. Abraham Perkins s three years and tea
months old Hereford steer, 86st. 101b.

No. 92. Mr. Thomas Bridge's three years and eight
months old Hereford steer, 89st. lOlb.

No. 97. Mr. James Watson's three years and nine
months old short-horned ox, 117st. 101b.; loose fat,
14st. 121b.

No. 99. Mr. John Manning's upwards of five yeaiS
old Scotch ox. 81st. 21b.

No. 100. Mr. Dudgeon's three years and eight months
old short-horned ox, 131st. 6lb.

SHEEP— Class XI.

No. 101. Mr. Thomas iTwitchell's pen of Leicester
wethers, twenty months old, 9st. 41b., 8st. 131b., 8st.

No. 102. Mr. Chamberlain's pen of new Leicester
wethers, twenty months old, 9st., 9st. 71b., 9st. IHb.

No. 104, Mr. Joseph Perkins's pen of new Leicester
wethers, twenty months old, 7st. 8lb., 7st. 6lb., 7st. 3lb.

No. 107. Mr. Thomas Umbers's pen of long-woolled
wethers, twenty-one months old, 9st. 101b., 9st. I21b.,
95t. 81b.

Class XII.

No. 109. Mr. Chamberlain's pen of new Leicester
wethers, twenty months old, 8st. 61b., 7st. 21b., 7st.

No. 112. Mr. J. S. Burgess's pen of long-woolled
wethers, twenty months old, 7st. I21b., 6st. 121b., 7st.

Class XIII.
No. 115. Mr. William Sandy's pen of Leicester wet
thers twenty-one months old, lOst 61b, lOst 101b, lis.

X 3

116

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

No. 116. Sir E. C. East's, Bart., pen of cross long-
woolled vvelhcr.s twenty-two months old, lOst, lOstSlb,
9st I31b.

No. 119. The Right Hon. llie Earl of Radnor's pen
ot Leicester wethers, twenty months old, 8st 91b, lOst
41b, 9a 21b.

No. 121. Mr. Cliarles Large's pen of long-woolled
■welhers, twenty months old, 12st, 13st 21b, 13st 21b.

No. 122. Mr. Edward Chapman's pen of Leicester
welhers, twenty months old, lOst, 9st 101b, lOst 21b.

No. 124. The Hon. Charles Arbuthnol's pen of
].eicester wethers, twenty months old, 9-t Clb, lOst,
lOst 41b.

No. 125. Mr. J. S. Burgess's pen of long-wooUed
wethers, about twenty months old, 7st 61b, 7=t 81b, 7st
91b.

No. 126. His Grace the Duke of Bedford's pen of
Leicester wethers, twenty months old, lOst lib, list
21b, list 61b.

EXTRA STOCK— LoNG-wooLi.i£D Siielp.

No. 130. SirE. C. East's, Bart., cross long-wooUed
wether, twenty-two months old, 1 1st 61b.

No. 133. Mr. Edward Chapman's Leicester wether,
twenty months old, 14st 81b.

No. 134. Mr. J. S. Burge!s's long-wooUed wether,
about thirty.two months old, 14st41b.

No, 135. Mr. Thomas Carpenter's long woolled
Oxfordshire ewe, four years and nine months old, 14st
dib.

No. 193. Mr. R. Beman's Cotswold wether, thirty-
three months old, 13st 121b

Class XIV.
No. 145. Mr. .louas Webb's pen of South-down
wethers, twenty mouths old, 9st 7lb, 9si 51b, 9st 21b.

Class XV.

No. 150. His Grace the Duke of Riclimond's pen of
South Down wethers, twenty months old, Sst 41b, 8st,
7st 121b.

No. 151. Mr. Grantham's pen of South Down we-
lhers, twenty months old, 8st 41b, Sst 1 1 lb.

No. 152. Mr. Samuel Webb's pen of South Down
wethers, twenty months old, 8st 5lb, 7st 131b, 8st 4lb.

Class XVI.

No. 153. His Grace the Duke of Norfolk's pen of
South Down wethers, thirty-two months old, lOst 111b.
list 1 lib, lOst 81b,

No. 154. Mr. W. Bennett's pen of short-woolled
cross wethers, thirty two months old, lOit 21b 10»t
101b, 13st lOlb.

No, 155. Mr. John Harris's pen of South Down
wethers, thirty-two months old, lOst 61b, lOst 101b.

No. 156. His Grace the Duke of Bedford's pen of
South Down wethers, thirty-two months old, lOst 101b,
9=t31b, lOsi 51b.

No. 157. His Grace the Duke of Richmond's pen of
South Down wethers, thirty-two months old. lOst l2lb
llst41b, 10st7lb.

No. 158. The Right Hon. the Earl of Lovelace's pen
of South Down wethers, thirty-two months old, 9st,
BstlUb, 8.-t 131b, ' '

No. 159. Mr. Grantham's pen of South Down we-
thers, thirty-two months old, 9st 131b, 9st 111b. lOst
101b.

No. 161. The Right Hon. Lord Western's pen of
short-wooUcd wethers, thirty months old, 8st 1.31b 8st
lib, lOst 81b.

EXTRA STOCK— SiioinwoQLLEi) SiiLtr.

No. 163. Mr. William Bennett's short woolltd sheep
(Down and Leicester cross), thirty-two months old.
13st61b,

No. 167. The Right Hon. the Earl of Lovelace's
South Down wether, forty-four months old, list 3Ib ;
loose fat, 1st 31b.

No. 170. Mr, Samuel Webb's South Down wetlier,
twenty months old, 10*t 61b ; loose fat, 1st 41b.

pigs-Class XVII.

No. 173. Mr. W. Ilobman's pen of Neapolitan pig«,
twenty- six weeks old, I6st 4lb each.

No, 174. Mr. J. Crawther's pen of improved Middle-
sex pifcs, twenty-eight weeks old, list 91b, list l2lb,
13st2lb.

No, 175. Mr. W. F. Hobbs's pen of improved Essex
pigs, twenty-three weeks and two days old, 9sl61b each.

No. 176. Mr. T. M. Goodlake's pen of Wadley pigs,
thirly-two weeks and three days old, I5st 61b e?.ch.

No. 177, Mr. William Bryant's pen of improved
Essex pigs, twenty-nine weeks and three days old, lOst
41b each.

No. 178. Mr. G, Carrington's, jun., pen of mixed
breed pigs, thirty-seven weeknold, 16st 12lb each.

No. 1'79. Mr. John Buckley's pen of cross Warwick-
shire nnd Neapolitan pig":, thirty-one weeks and three
days old, 18st 41b each.

EXTRA STOCK— Pros.

No. 181. Mr. .Jacob Crawther's improved Middlesex
pig, twenty- eight weeks old, 14st I2lb.

No. 184. Mr. William Bryant's improved Essex pig,
twenfy-nine weeks and three drtys oil, 12^t 2lb.

No. 18p. Mr. William Hob.nau's Neapolitan pig,
twfniy-:ix weeks old, lUt.

ON THE SELECTION OF SEED
GRAIN AND VEGETABLES.

TO THE EDITOR OFTUE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Sir, — Public men and public writers are open
to public criticism ; and well it is for the good of
society that this a.\iom is generally received, or,
in many instances, an incalculable amount of
injury would be sustained by the world, owing to
the many ill-digested and often groundless theo-
ries that are propounded by men of literary emi-
nence.

On perusing your December number of the
" Farmers' Magazine," I have observed what I
conceive to be a lamentable instance ot the above,
bearing the name of an agricultural writer of un-
doubted talent — to wit, " Peter Cowan," and I
humbly solicit the favour of a short s])ace in your
columns to refute, from practical knowledge, his
groundless theory; and in order that I might not
fall into the same error myself, 1 have consulted
several practical farmers and market gardeners in
this neighbourhood on the subject. The result of
my enquiry is, that I have obtained the most deci-
sive evidence of the instability of Mr. Cowan's
statement, that a " watery, unripened, bad-to-eat
potato is the best for seed ;" on the contrary, I
have found that the best; seed invariably brings
the best crop, if planted under the same circum-
stances. My authority for this information I con-
ceive to be indubitable, from this circumstance, —
that one of the individuals I have consulted (an in-
telligent market gardener^ has been induced to
make the experiment with various species of plants,
and he therefore spoke from facts, and " facts are
stubborn things."

Mr. C. also states, " all cultivated vegetables
have a tendency to degenerate, but this tendency
is more than counteracted by the cultivation be-
stowed, until they arrive at a degree of perfection
beyond which it does not appear possible by any
cultivation to push them ; and if this is attempted
a i-ecoil is induced, and a degree of degeneracy

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

117

nii(] inferiority in the produce appears to be ine-
vitable." Again, " if fine giain is used as seed,
what will be the result? Of what quality will be
the produce ? Will it not be found to have dege-
nerated— to be much inferior to the seed used?
Improve it cannot," &c. Monstrous doctrine,
truly ! Enough to dishearten the host of indivi-
duals who have turned their attention to the im-
provement of seeds generally. It is true that all
cultivated vegetables have a tendency to degene-
rate, but it is not true that when they reach a
certain degree of perfection, they iucvitably re-
coil ; the fact is, that the tendency in vegetables to
degenerate seems to be one of the innumerable and
all-wise regulations of Divine Providence, in-
tended as a suitable punishment to those who
neglect to employ the jiowcrs he has given them,
in improving, as far as nature will allow, the se-
veral creatures intended for the use of man. With
respect to the assertion that a recoil inevitably
ensues, on any attempt being instituted to push a
vcgetai)le beyond a certain degree of perfection, I
am content to refer the reader to the great and
wondrous improvements that have beeti, and are
still making in the (luality and size of vegetable
productions— satisfied that they afford positive
l)roof that whatever exertion may be made, if
made with reason, will be rewarded by an improve-
ment. I therefore am bold to make this proposition,
in direct opposition to Mr. Cowan's theory — that al-
though, for the punishment of the indolent, vege-
tables, if neglected, will degenerate, yet, for the
reward of the industrious, if cultivated, they will
improve. It is observed in the second quotation,
that the finest grain must degenerate. " It cannot
improve," says Air. C. ; if such is the case, and if
Mr. C. is justified in advancing this opinion, he
must be prepared to state to what degree of per-
fection grain may be brought, beyond which it is
impossible to improve it. When he has furnished
this information without doubting — not on suppo-
sition, as in the paper referred to — then I shall be
prepared to contest this portion of his theory.

One other quotation only : " Those who have
been attentive observers will be led to conclude
that when vegetables, animals, or even the mental
powers of man, attain an extraordinary degree of
perfection, degeneracy in those particulars in
which they have been superior seems invariably
to await their offspring." It is an extraordinary
fact, that the offspring of men gifted with great
mental powers are generally deficient in that
respect ; but what has this to do with vegetables or
animals ? What comparison can possibly be
drawn between the mind of man and a plant ?
None whatever ; and it ought not, therefore, to be
cited as an example. But how ignorant must Mr,
C. be of practical jigriculiure, to state that animals
degenerate when they have attained a great degree
of perfection, if the slightest attention is paid to
them. AVe have certainly had no instance yet of
superior animals begetting bad stock. If Mr. C. is
aware of any such, perhaps he will communicate
il in his next letter.

In fact, I have perused Mr. Cowan's letter very
attentively, and I am firmly persuaded that it con-
tains theories calculated to have an injurious ten-
dency, inasmuch as they are directly opposed to
the results of experience ; hut, however closely
and severely I may have criticised his letter, I
trust a right interpretation will be put upon the
motives which have actuated me in so doing,

since my only object is to elicit the truth ; and
seeing statements made which I knew were in op-
position to all the information I had previously
obtained on the subject, I could not forbear giving
the results of my short observation.

I am. Sir, yours obediently,

Practicf. with Scienck.
Lion street, Kidderm/nsfer, Dec. 23, 1842.

CULTIVATION OF TURNIPS.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK I.ANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — In this day of enterprise I always feel
great pleasure in reading the practice and experi-
ments of my brother-farmers in the cultivation of
that noble root the turnip, especially the Swede.
It having been my lot for some years to have only
stiff heavy land to cultivate, 1 have adopted every
method I could think of to cultivate the Swedish
turnip on this kind of land to advantage ; but I
confess it never occurred to me to adopt the method
so highly recommtnded by Mr. Thomson, of Piffer
Mill, in your paper of the 21st of November, and
repeated again last week. It is indeed a new me-
thod, but to me it appears a very costly one. If I
rightly understand Mr. Thomson, his land is one
year devoted to the growth of tares, the second to
turnips. Now here are two green crops succeeding ;
I must contend here is a positive loss of a crop of
barley, which ought to have succeeded the tares,
which is one of the best preparative crops for barley
on heavy land. Turnips ought at all times to be
sown upon land that would otherwise have been a
summer's fallow.

If Mr. Thomson will adopt my method, which is
the following, all the difficulties he so much com-
plains of in working the land in the spring will be
obviated. The land I intend sowing with turnips,
mangold wurzel, and potatoes, was ploughed up last
August, as soon as the wheat^was carted, and well
scarified and harrowed ; it was next cross ploughed
during the harvest, and again scarified ; after the
harvest it was all picked over by women, the
weeds burnt ; the land was then put upon the
ridge to remain until March, when it will be again
ploughed. About the third week in April I put the
dung on, plough and drill the mangold wurzel ;
the second week in May I put the dung on for
Swedes, plough it in, and drill in the seed as quick
as possible. I drill in Avith the seed as many coal
and wood ashes, mixed, as my drill will deposit ; and
I find them a great stimulant to the young plant,
and the ashes adhering to the bulb as it increases in
size, preserves them from the grub. It is an error
of Mr. Thomson's to suppose that when manure is
drilled in, that niuch of its virtue is lost. Turnips
are seldom left in the row more than eighteen inches
apart, consequently the plants have only nine inches
each way to seek for the manure.

I quite agree with Mr. Thomson that too many
farmers are prone to be wedded to the systems of
their fathers, and condemn new methods without
giving them a trial ; at the same time I think it
quite necessary to be cautious in adopting new
methods we so often see recommended. My maxim
is to try all new things upon a small scale, and I
generally find some of them good. — I am, Sir,
yours most respectfully, H. C Wentworth.

Harlow, Dec. 30.

118

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
THE LAST CENSUS.

STATEMENT Or THE POPULATION, IN CouNTIES OF GrEAT BniTAIN, AND THE ISLANDS IN THE BRITISH SeAS,
ACCORDING TO THE CeNSUS OF JuNE, 1841 ; AND THE COMPARATIVE POPULATION OF 1821 AND 1831,
TOGETHER WITH THE HoiTSES INHABITED AND UNINHABITED AT THE LATE CeNSUS.

ENGLAND.

Counties.

Bedford

Berks

Buckingham

Cambridge

Chester

Cornwall

Cumberland . . . . <

Derby

Devon

Dorset

Durham

Essex

Gloucester

Hereford

Hertford

Huntingdon

Kent

Lancaster ,

Leicester

Lincoln ,

Middlesex ,

Monmouth

Norfolk

Northampton

Northumberland

Nottingham

Oxford

Rutland

Salop

Somerset

Southampton

Stafford

Suffolk

Surrey . . , ,

Sussex

Warwick

Westmorland

Wilts

Worcester

York (East Riding)

City of York and Ainstey

York (North Riding)

York (West Riding) . . . ,

England

1821.

83.716

131,977
134,068
121,909
270,098
257,447
156,124
213,333
439,040
144,499
207.673
289,424
335,843
103,243
129,714

48,771

426,016

1,052,859

174,571

283,058

1,144,531

71,833
344,368
162,483
198,963
186,873
136,971

18,487
206.153
355,314
283,298
345,895
270,.542
308,658
233,019
274.392

51,359
222,157
184,424
154,010

30,451
187,452
801,274

11,261,437

1831.

95,483
145,389

146,529
143,955
334,391
300,938
169,681
237,170
494,478
159,252
253,910
317,507
387,019
111,211
143,341

53,192

479,155

1,336,854

197,003

317,465

1,358,330

98,130
390,054
179,336
223,912
225,327
152,1,56

19,385
222,938
404,200
314,280
410,512
296,317
486,334
272,340
336,610

55,041
240,156
211,365
168,891

35,362
190,756
976,350

1841.

13,091,005

107,937
160,226
155,989
164,.509
395,306
341,269
177,912
272,202
533,731
174,743
324,277
344,995
431,307
114,438
137,937
58,699
548,161

1,667,064
215,855
362,717

1,575,895
134,349
412,621
199,061
250.268
249,773
161,573
21,440
239,014
436,002
35 ,940
510,206
315,129
582,613
299,770
402,121
56,469
260,007
233,484
186,813
38,322
211,496

1,154,924

Houses
inhabited.

14,995,508

21,235
31,472
31,071
33,112
73,390
65,641
34,444
52,910
94,637
34,559
57,450
67,602
80,856
23,461
30,155
1 1 ,897
95,547

289,166
44,649
73,038

207,814
24,880
85,922
40,903
48,704
50,.541
32,141
4.297
47,203
81,632
66,589
97,676
64,081
95,375
54,066
81,445
10,848
50,986
46,962
37,098
7,710
43,801

226,473

2,753,295

Houses
uninhabited.

521
1,566
1,157
1,218
5,845
4,956
2,369
2,484
6,117
2,012
3,272
2,482
5,790
1,428
1,305

373
5,013
23,604
3,260
2,250
9,854
1,417
3,711
1 ,674
3,031
2,749
1,440

120
2,093
4,702
3,274
5,455
2,317
3,948
3,647
6,899

870
2,149
2,922
1,647

269

2,680

18,870

162,756

Anglesey . . .

Brecon

Cardigan ...
Carmarthen .
Carnarvon...
Denbigh . . .

Flint

Glamorgan .
Merioneth.. .
Montgomery
Pembroke . . .
Radnor

Wales

45
43
57
90
57
76
50
101
34
59
74
22

063
603
784
239
958
,511
784
737
382
.899
009
459

717,438

WALES.
48,325
47,763
64,780

100,740
66,488
83,629
60,012

126,612
35,315
66,482
81,425
24,65 1

806,182

50,890
53,295
68,380

106,482
81,068
89.291
66,547

173,462
39,238
62,220
88,262
25,186

911,321

11,488
10.634
15,102
23,485
16,869
18,485
13.320
33.205

8,467
13,650
18,804

4,687

181,166

746
833
811

1,383
771
991
446

1,466
547
884

1,021
234

10,133

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
SCOTLAND.

119

Counties.

Aberdeen

Argyll

Avr

Bantr ,

Berwick : .

I'.ute

Caitbness

Clackmannan

Dumbarton

Dumfries ,

Edinburgh

Klgin

Fife

Forfar

Haddington . .

Inverness

Kincardine

Kinross

Kirkcudbrigbt

Lanark

Linlitbgovr

Nairn

Orkney and Shetland

Peebles

Perth

Renfrew

Koss and Cromarty. .

"Roxburgh

Selkirk

Stirling

Sutherland

Wigtown

Barracks

1821.

J 35,387

97,316

127,299

43,561

33,385

13,797

30,238

13,263

27,317

70,878

191,514

31,162

11-1,556

113,430

35,127

90.157

29,118

7,762

38,903

244,387

22,685

9,006

53,124

10,046

139,050

112,175

68,828

40,892

6,637

65,376

23,840

33,240

1831.

Scotland I 2,093,456

177,657

100,973

145.055

48,604

34,048

14,151

34,529

14,729

33,211

73,770

219,345

34,231

128,839

139,606

36,145

94,797

31,431

9,072

40,590

316,819

23,291

9,354

58,239

10,578

142,894

133,443

74,820

43,663

6,833

72,621

25,518

36,258

1841.

2,365,114

192,283

97,140

161,528

50,076

34,427

15,695

36,197

19,116

44,295

72,825

225,623

34,994

140,310

170,380

35,781

97,615

33,052

8,763

41,099

427,113

26,848

9,923

60,007

10,520

138,151

154,755

78,058

46,062

7,989

82,179

24,666

44,068

4,425

Ifousps
inhabited.

Houses
uninhabited.

2,628,957

32,3 93

18,514

30,247

11,228

7,405

3,067

6,962

3,593

7,986

14,375

38,903

8,133

28,965

36,153

8,009

19,182

7,274

1,806

8,159

80,531

5,309

2,396

11,426

2,119

29,172

24,626

16,166

8,674

1,446

15,837

4,972

8,512

17

503,357

1,095

917

1,297

478

382

93

214

110

372

724

2,861

370

1,502

2.036

739

578

314

114

316

3,964

327

109

267

154

1,798

1,092

385

363

76

793

167

296

24,307

SUMMARY OF THE POPULATION.

1821.

1831.

1841.

Males.

Females.

11,261,437
717,438

13,091,005
80^6,182

14,995,508
911,321

7,321,875
447,533

7,673,633

^V^ales

463,788

11,978,875
2,093,456

13,897,117
2,365,114

15,906,829
2,628,957

7,769,408
1,246,427

8,137,421

1,382,530

14,072,331
89,508

16,262,301
103,710

18,535,786
124,079

9,015,835
57,598

9,519,951
66,481

Islands in the British Seas.

...

Total

14,161,839

16,366,011

18,659,865

9,073,433

9,586,432

It will be thus seen, tbat the total population, according to the census just completed, is as follows: —

England

Wales

Scotland

Jersey, Guernsey, &c.

Males.

Females.

7,321,875 I 7,673,633

447,533 463,788

1,246,427 ! 1,382,530

57,598 i 66;481

Total.

14,995,508

911,321

2,628,957

124,079

9,073,433 9,586,432 18,659,865

120

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

These numbers, includinsf 4,003 males and r.93
females ascertained to have been travelling by rail-
ways and canals on the night of June 6, make the
grand totals 9,077,436 males, and 9,587,325 females.
The population, therefore, of Great Britain amounts
to 18,664,761 persons.

The returns include only such part of the army,
navy, and merchant seamen as were at ti>e time of
the census within the kingdom on shore.

The increase of the population, as compared with
the returns of 1831, is at the rate of 14.5 per cent,
for England ; 13 per cent, for Wales ; for Scotland,
11.1 ; for the islands in the British seas, 19.6 ; making
the increase for the whole of Great Britain 14 per
cent., being less than tiiat of the 10 years ending 1831,
which was 15 per cent.

The returns of the census for Ireland have not vet
peen published, hut it is understood that the entire
population numbers, as near as possible, a total of
8,200,000 persons.

1"he following table shows the comparative differ-
ence as to the number of houses in Great Britain in
the years 1831 and 1841 ; —

Tnl83I. In 1841.

Inhabited 2,886,595 3,464,007

Uninhabited 133,.331 198,061

Building 27,553 30,631

Increase

inl841.

597,412

64,730

3,078

3,027,479 3,692,699 665,220

THIRD REPORT OF THE FRAM-
LINGHAM FARMERS' CLUB.

PRESENTED AT THE GENERAL MEETING, NOVEM-
BER THE 15th, 1842.
December 2%th, 1841. Subject— " Sheep Stoclc on
heavy land Farms."
There were nearly 50 members present this even-
ing, and a very long and spirited discussion en-
sued ; but as the prescribed limits of a Farmers'
Club Report, will not permit us to touch upon all
the points arising out of the several subjects ap-
pointed for investigation during the year, it is
thought that the better plan will be to record only
the resolutions past, afterwards noticing such
arguments as were strongly supported in opposi-
tion, and such observations either for or against,
as seemed to be received with marked attention.
Proceeding upon this plan, our notes supply the
following report.

Resolved—" That Sheep stock to a fair extent
are very desirable even to the heavy land far-
mer."

" That half-bred Down and Leicester lambs
purchased as early as convenient, say June,
(with a slight cross of Norfolk if more size he de-
bired) are most suitable for this district.''

" That yarding sheep during winter is the bet-
ter practice, provided they are allowed to run out
upon a pasture for an hour each day, and have
sufficient troughs in the yard for all to feed at
once."

" That when the common turnips are finished,
Swedes are best for fattening, but that mangel
wurzel are preferable for breeding ewes, causing
more milk and finer lambs."

" That oil cake at the rate of \ lb. per head per
day, is better for fattening than corn."
" That cutting hay, clover, and turnips (parti-

cularly Swedes) and feeding in troughs, amply re-
j)ays the additional outlay for labour by the saving
from waste, and that cutting is more esi)eciatly
necessary for lambs, as they frequently suffer
from shedding their teeth."

" Tliat shcej) should have frequent changes of
food ; and free access to either rock, or common
salt."

"That netting is preferable to common hurdles,
for dividing fields, &c."

The propriety of the heavy land farmers keeping
sheep, seemed to be fully justified by the ex-
cellent effects said to be produced by their manure
upon the soil ; by the destruction which ensues to
the wire-worm and very many slugs by feeding
old clover layers with them, and by l;hc great
benefit which often results from turning sheep
upon young wheat in the spring.

A good deal of opposition was shewn in favour
of hoggets purchased early in the spring, and
there were members present who contended for
breeding sheep. One gentleman spoke of a heavy
land farmer who keeps twelve score breeding
ewes, yarding them continually all winter upon ■
one bushel of beet per day to every ten sheep, fl
with fresh pea straw, ^:c. ; and no one, he added, m
has better success either in the number or qua-
lity of his lambs.

Netting was advocated by some of the members
for folding on account of its comparative cheap-
ness. There appeared to be only one member
present who used wlieeled hurdles, and his decided
opinion was that their durability and the ease
with which they may he removed and fixed, gave
them many advantages, j)articularly in the sum-
mer season ; he generally folded his long fallows
with them— six hurdles (of iron he recommended)
each twenty-one feet long on four wheels, afforded
room for 100 sheep.

January 2^tli, 1842. — " The best management of
Fences andplanting of Quick.

Upon this subject it was resolved " that a new
ditch should be four and a half feet wide, well
slojjcd to about six inches at the bottom, tlie uji-
per spade being added to the bank, the facing set
back six inches, and raised sixteen or eighteen
inches for the spring, something like eight inches
more earth being placed above the spring." " That
the bank should be four feet in width, and have
the dead fence pushed into it by hand without
making a trench for it with the spade." " 'J'hat
white- thorn spring should be good, and that it
should be planted with intervals of five inches,
first slightly cutting the roots, leaving the opera-
tion of topping until the second year." " That
quick, or spring, should be jdanted as early as
possible, before Christmas better than after, and
not later than February." " That on account of
the great demand for faggots in this neighbourhood
for cattle yards, and firing, the meeting expressed
a decided opinion that cutting down to the bottom
is tiie best jjlan ; the fence grows faster, and as
it was said, fully bears out the trutli of the old
adage, " cut bushes, and have bushes."

There were but two points presenting any nota-
ble difference of opinion — the one relating to the
distance which the young plants should be placed
from each other (four, five, and six inches being
respectively contended for) and the other referring
to the cutting of fences ; some members asserting
that in cutting a fence the first time, it should be
buck-headed.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

121

February 22nd. — " Top-dressings."
The employment of artificial manures for this
purpose was brought before the club on its first
establishment now two years ago, and it would
seem froni the resolution which follows, little
additional light has been thrown upon the sub-
ject siuce that period. It appears however that one
l)roposition at least is brought to a tolerable de-
gree of certainty — we mean the inutility of the
nitrated alkalies on soils of good staple quality in
high condition ; and so far as our experience and
observation has gone, little doubt remains of
their being well worth the attention of cultiva-
tors of light soils, or strong clays. The resolution
adopted by the club on this occasion was to this
cftVct, viz. : " That the results from similar experi-
ments as tested by different individuals are so
various, that the club cannot yet arrive at any
determinate opinion ns to the particular cases in
which the several artificial manures ought to be
ap])lied ; and when they find that their farm-
yard manure seldom if ever fails, and that their
trials with cheujical manures are often unsuc-
cessful, they cannot come to any other conclusion
than that the knowledge which they greatly re-
quire is, how to detect the particular ingredients de-
ficient in their soils, or how to make such a com-
pound top-dressing as shall combine the greater
portion of the fertilizing principles of farm-yard
manure ; notwithstanding this, when they take
into account those cases in which some of the
artificial manures have produced really good ef-
fect, they still feel convinced that it is desirable
mcnibirs should individually continue to test ex-
periments on a small scale until satisfied as to their
applicability."

March '29th. — " Deficient Ltniers."

Upon this subject the following opinions were
expressed by the Club — " That clover should not
be I'epeated more than once in eight years ; that
from J of a peck to a peck per acre of good new
seed is the proper quantity ; that it should be
Rown broadcast or with the barrow, at the same time
tlie barley is put in ; that the land should be rolled
before the plant comes up ; that rye-grass is best
for filling up ; and should it be thought expedient
to plough up the layer and ])lant beans, the
ploughing is best done in November, and ought in
no case to be delayed beyond February.

There was much diversity of opinion in regard
to filling up a deficient layeis. Cow-grass found
many ojiponents on account of its generally
coining to the scythe but once ; tares had some ad-
vocates, but the majority are favourable to rye-
grass sown soon after harvest.

Drilling clover was said not to do well ; the rows
make bad ploughing. Some members held that
clover should not be sown at the same time the
barley is, if the latter is put in very early, lest the
young plant should suffer by frost ; whilst others
asserted that they had never known clovers to take
harm from such cause. Much stress was likewise
laid upon the injury which rolling is supposed to
occasion, it done when the plant is very young.

Insufficiency of seed, old or had seed, too early
or too late sowing, bad tillage, dryness of the
season, the length of time which the land has been
under the plough, were each and all of them as-
signed as sufficient to cause deficiency or failure of
the clover crop ; but instances were adduced of
the one-third of a peck per acre producing a good
crop. Claying was also allowed to be of great

service ; at the same time, it seemed that every
one finds it necessary to allow some years to
ela|)se between clovercrops. It ajjpeared obvious,
therefore, that previous and too frequent crojjpiug
with it, or with ])!ants analogous in character, is
the main cause of deficient layers ; hence the dis-
puted (luestions arise, viz., whether the injurious
consequences of growing plants of the same class
in too quick succession result from a deposition
by the plant of matter unfavourable to the growth
of that class? or whether failure arises from the
exhaustion of any i)eciiliar matter of the soil which
may be essential to the well-doing of such plants ?
This forms a subject of great national importance,
and well worthy of philosophical research, inas-
much as it involves the questions whether certain
determinate intervals of time imisi of necessity be
allowed between the cultivation of any given crop,
thus restricting the aggregate amount of such crop
throughout the kingdom, or whether any certain
means exist of making land capable of growing
the same kind of crop in closer succession.

Ajml 2Ctth. — ^^ Rearing and Weaning Ncrit Stock."
From the observations addressed to the meet-
ing, the following are selected as being approved
by the majority of those present. " 1 hat calves,
whether intended for grazing or for the dairy,
should be kept belter than they commonly are in
this district through the first year ; to this end it
was recommended (su])posing the calves to fall in
February, which was considered the best time),
that they should remain upon the cow three
weeks, or, if a young cow, a month ; when taken
off, they sliould have ahout a gallon of skimmed
milk twice a day for the first week ; this may then
be diluted with water more and more daily for
three weeks longer, or until the animal is put to
grass, when it may be entirely discontinued. In
the interim, the calf should he induced to pick at
hay, roots, pollard, or cake. A constant supply
of water should be kept by them, and during the
hot summer months, when flics are troublesome,
it is advisable to provide a shed with green clover,
tares, or cut grass ; and when taken up in Novem-
ber, hay and turnips, with liberty to shelter them-
selves in a warm covered place as they choose;
warmth, dryness, and cleanliness being deemed
veiy impoitant requisites. If possible, nothing
but wheat straw should be used.

Some casual remarks were made during the
evening, which went to show that calves when
taken from the cow do better upon oatmeal gruel
made with water, than upon skimined milk.

A gentleman had so constantly escaped the
disease known under the name of garget (which
is believed to be incurable), that he attributed his
success to his keeping his young stock warmer
and drier than his less fortunate neighbours are
in the habit of doing. Another stated that he al-
ways dressed his calves in November, with a view
of preventing the disease.

May 2Ath. — " The hest mode of making Hay and
Clover."
It will occur to the readers of our last annual
report, that this subject had already undergone
consideration by the Club; its importance, how-
ever, is such, that some members expressed a de-
sire to bring it again under notice. I'he re-discus-
sion of it was cbietiy a repetiticfn of that which we
beard last year, and concluded by an unanimous
confirmation of the resolutions then adopted ;
therefore, beyond the additional weight which may

122

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

thence attach to those resolutions, we have
gained little by the past year's experience.

A curious article upon hay-making, written by
a German some forty years ago, was read to the
meeting, the most striking portion of which was a
recommendation to gather clover in a green state
into immense large cocks containing three or four
loads each, with the view of bringing on a state
of fermentation ; a similar practice, it appears, is
prevalent in Ireland in the present day. Be the
weather wet or dry, of course it must be spread
out after a few hours ; the labour of cocking, or
rnthcr of stacking and unstacking, must conse-
quently be very great, and excited surprise in
those who heard it, that such a curious system
should be persisted in ; the fact, nevertheless, was
listened to with attention, bccnnse it recognises
the principle of fermentation upon the cock.

A gentleman complaining that his stacks always
moulded beneath the thatch, was advised to leave
the thatch open at the top until the heat of the
stack has entirely subsided. It was likewise con-
fidently stated that a layer of faggots placed just
where the roof commences, is of much use as a
preventive of mould in the body of the stack. The
bad state in which hay was harvested last year
has, we believe, made many converts to the prac-
tice of salting ; many members assenting that hay
which seemed entirely spoiled appeared to become
by its use both palatable and wholesome.

June 27th. — " The best management of Cows.''
Resolved, — "That in feeding cows great regu-
larity is required ; that from February to May they
ought to be kept well with roots, hay, and perhaps
cake, that they may go out to grass in good con-
dition : that mown grass or clover, if the meadows
arc bare, should be supplied to them under cover
during the extreme heat of the summer ; that their
keep in the winter months should consist of roots
and hay, or if short of these, straw and one cake
per day, diminishing the quantity of cake towards
the time of calving; that great care should be
taken that cows are well milked, and also that
they are kept moderately warm, dry, and clean;
that common turnips should be given first, then
Swedes or beet — if beet, cautiously, particularly
towards the time of calving ; that selling new milk
or butter at per pound or pint, answers best where
llicre is a convenient market for them, and that
where this is the case, stall feeding with tares, &:c.,
may be practised, but that butter from such feed
will not stand in firkin.''

So far as the subject was discussed, the manage-
ment of cows appears to be dependant in a great
measure on soil and locality. Some pastures are
remarkable for their yield of butter, others for
curd or cheese, and some for quantity more than
quality of milk ; after-grass, bran, pollard, and
grains, were each said to be favourable to the flow
of milk, but not of butter. Several members
thought that some artificial keep ought to be re-
sorted to when the meadows are bare in the latter
part of the summer as well as in the spring, in
order to keep the animals in milk, if possible, un-
til they calve ; this, it was said, may be generally
done, and it was deemed bad management to suffer
cows to fail in their milk at any period of the
year. A general objection, however, was raised
to artificial keep by those who firkincd, because
the butter will not keep ; but during the winter
months, when the demand for it pinted or pounded
is generally equal to tlic snj)ply, cake at the rate

of two per day with straw only, is thought to be a
good substitute for a scarcity of turnips, and it
seems doubtful, from a calculation that was made
(taking into account also the superior value of
the manure), whether there is not an actual
saving : at all events, the carting of turnips at an
unfavourable time may be avoided by their use.
Beet, it was asserted, will not do to take the place
entirely of turnips, because the produce has an
unpleasant flavour, and young stock are paralysed
by them ; their ill effects were stated to arise from
their being used too plentifully.

Barley- meal was also recommended in lieu of
cake. Alderney cows were highly extolled by two
or three members for the richness of their milk ;
and it was mentioned as a fact worthy of note,
that be their food what it may, the milk never
tastes of it. Frequent change of pasture in small
enclosures was consiJered highly desirable.

In country districts, selling milk cannot be
carried to a great extent, dairying (which needs
great attention from the mistress), is consequently
the only alternative, but whether one-meal cheese
or butter best answers the purpose was not deci-
sively determined. One shilling per pound for
butter was thought by many to pay better than
the usual price obtained for oncmeal cheese. Our
flet cheese, as such, was declared to possess su-
perior qualities if made properly ; the current jest
applied to Suffolk cheese was therefore resented.

July \^th. — " On Agriculture as a Science"

On this occasion a resolution was passed, " That
the members present, recognising the benefits al-
ready derived from science as applied to agricul-
ture, are strongly of opinion that still further im-
provetuents will be attained by its aid."

From a body of men whose experience has
taught them that it is generally safer to adhere to
what may be termed hereditary notions, than to
trust to scientific theories which they do not fully
understand; a learned disputation on a subject
embracing such a boundless field for philosophic
speculation was not expected. The only useful
objects which could be gained by discussing such
a question consisted in ascertaining the value at-
tached by the practical farmer to the labours un-
dertaken by scientific professors on his behalf;
and in giving those who are able to appreciate the
influence of the sciences an opportunity of explain-
ing, for the benefit of their less reflective neigh-
bours, how and to what extent the improvements
in modern husbandry have depended upon those
influences, and how other improvements may still
be expected to result from them.

Not many years ago, the farmer who presumed
to consult his understanding, and to dej)art from
certain universal rules, incurred the ridicule of
his neighbours ; he was pointed at as a man seek-
ing his own ruin by reckless adventure, 'i'he art
of farming, it was supposed, had reached the
point of perfection — the right way of doing every-
thing was known ; hence, he who questioned its
truth must be wrong.

We take no credit to ourselves for having
effected the change ; it is, nevertheless, satisfac-
tory to observe that progress has somehow been
made towards more enlightened views. We hail
it as one step towards improvement to hear a
community of farmers acknowledge that science
has been of beneficial service to their art; and
the terms with which tliey appeal to men of
science to continue their efforts in furtherance of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

123

agriculture, give still further reason to hope that
they are ready to avail theniselvps of such assist-
ance, and to profit by it.

The mere question whether or not agricuUuro
is receiving advantages through the sciences,
hardly existed as a question with the members of
the club ; the proceedings of the meeting were
consequently directed to some of the more conspi-
cuous features of modern farming ; and praise is
due to some of the members for their attempts to
point out the connection of agriculture with the
sciences, and how some recent improvements have
sprung from them. The observations of one gen-
tleman were peculiarly pleasing and instructive;
he alluded to numerous instances in which farm-
ing has been promoted, as he believed, by the di-
rect application of scientific principles, and called
the attention of the club to many others wherein
hints have been borrowed from the sciences ami
turned to useful account. He conchided by a re-
commendation that the study of the sciences
should form a jirominent part of the education of
the young fanner. He thought also that advan-
tage might be s;ained even from the study of the
languages — it makes the technicalities of science
intelligible, and enables persons to rend and to
understand valuable works which might otherwise
remain closed to them. The education of farmers,
said he, is too limited, and in no respect such as it
ought to be. Agriculture, it is admitted on all
hands, is or ought to be governed by principles
admittins: of the exercise of talents of the highest
order; the reasoning powers of the young farmer
ought, therefore, to be suited by proper education
to tlic noble and scientific pursuit for which he is
intended. Any fool will do for a farmer, is a
common expression, but it is a mistaken one ; the
want of education not only prevents the advance-
ment of agriculture through the farmer himself,
but he is thereby incapacitated for carrying into
effect the recommendations of those who are
better instructed. In the above views the meeting
seemed entirely to acquiesce. Perhaps we maybe
permitted to ask if any adequate means exist
through which such a desirable object can be ob-
tained ] Surely, whilst every endeavour is making
to provide suitable instruction for the poor la-
bourer, some arrangement should likewise be
made to place within the reach of the farmer more
appropriate means of educating his sons. Located
in districts remote from capable and experienced
teachers, the farmer is denied tbe advantages en-
joyed by the citizen ; he is compelled to go to the
cspense of placing his children at some distant
boarding-school, where the kind of instruction is
but little adapted to their future station in life, or
to be content with tlie meagre knowledge to be
obtained from a village schoolmaster.

September 20th. — " The Rotation of Crops."

At this meeting the club passed a resolution ap-
proving of the four-course shift usually practised
in the neighbourhood, and recommended that long
fallows should occur at least once in eight years.

The general character of the soil may be sup-
posed to have originally determined the kind of
rotation best calculated for different districts ; but
we know that the constitution of it becomes in
some degree altered by cultivation ; a different
system of cropping may, therefore, be rendered
necessary both from this circumstance, as well as
from the fact of a greater variety of field vege-
tables having been introduced from other coun-

tries. The necessity of taxing the powers of the
soil to the fullest estent is likewise so continually
pressed ujion the mind of the farmer of the pre-
sent day, that the possibility of dispensing with
long fallows or of lessening their frequency have
become questions which naturally force themselves
upon his attention. We find accordingly that
longer shifts and even perpetual cropping have
been successfully adopted by agriculturists of great
repute; a knowledge of this circumstance makes
the rotation of crops a subject well worthy of in-
vestigation. Rotations of four, five, and si.^
courses were severally canvassed by the club, and
led to the conclusion above stated. The member
who introduced the subject enquired which of the
three systems, without exhausting the laud, and
fouling it with weeds, would ultimately prove the
most advantageous after taking into account the
additional expense of cultivation I Suffolk and
Norfolk, he observed, stand high as agricultural
counties, and this he thought might be partly at-
tributed to our adlierence to a rotation suited to
the character of the soil. He thought the farmer
should be cautious how he departed from long-es-
tablished local customs in these matters : a crop
in lieu of fallow is not always a crop into pocket.
He believed that the attempts to substitute im-
proved rotations in this district had uniformly
failed, except where the individual has had access
to an unusual quantity of manure. Another gen-
tleman said that no advantage could result from
an extended rotation, unless it includes two crops
of wheat ; and these would necessarily succeed too
quickly each other ; such a system also requires
so much extra manure to compensate for exhaus-
tion and fruitless labour in weeding, <kc., that a
doubt remains after all, whether the additional
crop counterbalances the expense and injury to the
succeeding crops. A third member stated that he
had repeatedly endeavoured to introduce a differ-
ent system, but his deviations from the usual cus-
tom, notwithstanding that they have been tried
upon choice land at the expense of the remaining
portion of the farm, have always left his fields so
foul that he has been ashamed of them, and he
found the second crop of wheat very deficient.
Upon the whole, he was inclined to think he
gained nothing by it ; how, then, it was asked,
can any such practice be expected to answer when
applied to an entire occupation?

There are few farms, it was observed, which
will permit the cultivator to choose which por-
tion shall be under certain crops. An opinion
was expressed that too many tares are grown
upon our heavy lands ; it would answer better to
let a larger portion be in fallow ; the failure of the
clover crop was thought to be sometimes owing
to this practice. Again it was considered that a
few acres well prepared for a root crop was pre-
ferable to a larger breadth badly manured. Much
stress was laid upon the advantagesof getting tares
off early; to this it was answered that the land
which would most benefit by so doing will not
grow them early ; ploughing the wheat stubbles
hi was spoken of as a means of obviating this
difficulty, but it appeared that such backward land
will not readily decompose stubble. From some
other observations which followed, it seemed to be
the conviction of the members present, that whilst
there arc tracts of soil which will produce an
average under whatever crop the farmer may
choose to plant, and consequently permit him to
make choice of such a rotation as may be consi-

124

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

dered most convenient ; there are others which
will admit of the cultivation of a limited class of
plants only, and which therefore require frequent
fallows to prevent the too close succession of
them, and to compensate for the absence of those
manure crops which they are not calculated to
grow. Such land, it was remarked, would not
even withstand the four-course shift, were it not
supported by other land of better quality.
October \%th — " On the necessity of Keeping Farming
Accoxints, and the best method of doing so."

In regard to the first part of this subject, hardly
two opinions can exist; it was therefore resolved
by the club, "that to conduct farming business
properly, the keeping of correct accounts is not
only necessary, but highly advantageous and use-
ful; and that it becomes still more important in a
business point of view, if carried to the extent of
keeping a regular register of every operation car-
ried on upon the farm."

Several books published by different authors,
and which facilitate this desirable object, were laid
before the meeting ; as, however, the majority of
those present had never had an opportunity of
comparing their several merits, it was deemed ad-
visable to purchase a copy of each for circulation
amongst the members. The complicated nature
of farming accounts, it was said, had deterred
many persons from keeping them, although aware
of the importance of doing so ; great merit was
consequently conceded to those gentlemen who
have undertaken the task of simplifying them.
Other persons have neglected to keep accounts he-
cause they were not aware of the ease with which,
through the assistance of such helps, it can be
done. Three or four members bore testimony to
the great aid which they received from these
works, and stated that with a little trouble, atten-
tion, and regularity, a farmer is enabled to take
an account of all his business transactions with
great accuracy and satisfaction to himself. Al-
though, as might have been expected, none of the
puViIished systems appeared to accord entirely
with their ideas, alterations were suggested which
a better acquaintance with the works in question
may enable the club to recommend to the notice
of the publishers. It was observed during the
discussion, that nothing so greatly contributed to
the formation of business habits, [and to bind the
attention to its proper occupation, as the regular
keeping of accounts. Nothing forms so sure a
guide for future proceedings as it does, by afford-
ing the means of detecting the cause of fiilure in
past practice. It has a value beyond this — its in-
fallible property of teaching all men how to adjust
their outgoings to their incomes.

Noveinher l^tfh. — General Meeting.

The Prizes for Hoots, Sfc, were adjudged as
follows: — For

Red mangel wurzel Mr. JotiN Edwards,

Yellow ditto Mr. Jamrs Head.

15 best Swede turnips Mr. James Read.

.'i best round white turnips Mr. I'eirson.

Best white wheat Mr. James Read.

Best red wheat Mr. John Kdwauds.

Best Barley IMr. G. Goodwvn.

Best Tick beans Mr. G. (Joodwvn.

Mazagan beans (none offered)

Maple peas JNIr. I'eirson.

About twenty-five prizes were likewise awarded
to the labourers of members for garden produce.
John Feirson, Chairman. Henry C'LUTTENjSec.

SECOND REPORT OF THE GREAT
OAKLEY FARMERS' CLUB.

Presented at the Annual Meeting, held
AT Great Oakley, Nov. 14, 1842.

Your committee, in presenting you with their
second annual Re])ort, beg to congratulate you on
the increased number of your members, and on the
countenance which farmers' clubs receive from all
parties. They believe that, in the absence of a more
scientific knowledge of the properties of soils and
plants, these clubs are, from the practical know-
ledge they bring together, of the greatest possible
benefit ; and that, when such knowledge shall be
acquired, they wUl prove the best medium of bring-
ing it into general use.

Your committee desire particularly to allude to
the minutes of the July meeting. They are induced
to do so, that similar societies, which may see our
report, may, if they have not done so, be led to
give that part of it, alluding to education, their
best consideration.

It is there stated that the present improvement,
both in habits and farming, has arisen from the
improved education of the cultivators of the soil ;
that their further advancement depends u[)on it ;
and that the still further knowledge required, is
to be obtained without materially increasing the
present time or expense allotted to young men of
this class.

Your committee have reason to believe, that this
all important subject of agricultural education is
occupying the attention of its ablest and best
friends ; and that the day is not far distant, when
we shall have a class of schools calculated to im-
part knowledge on all subjects that will promote
the objects of agriculture ; and it must ever be
borne in mind, that it is only by oiu" superior skill
and knowledge, that we can, under a rewarding
Providence, maintain the position we enjoy ; for
our competitors abroad, with whom we have to
contend, in the production of corn and cattle, have
every other advantage over us.

First Meeting, 27Tn December, 1841.

Subject — " On Grazing Cattle."

That it is the opinion of this meeting, that
bullocks cannot be grazed advantageously without
the aid of artificial food ; but are not unanimous
which is the best, cake and roots, or corn, cake and
roots.

But it is the opinion of the meeting, that when
the price of corn was such as to render it ecpially
advantageous as cake, that the corn ought to be
resorted to, being the produce of our soil, and that
a warm and equal temperature is of great im-
portance.

Moved, that bullocks should have food allowed
to remain by them only 12 hours ; in which the
meeting fully concurred.

The interest of the discussion was much increased
by the remarks of two medical gentlemen ))resent,
showing the necessity of giving chaff, or dry food,
to assist the digestive powers of the animal, to ob-
tain all the nutritious part of the food, and espe-
cially if consuming a large pro])ortion of oil cake.

Second Meeting, 24th January, 1842.

Subject — " On cultivating Beans and Peas."

A member introduced the subject by stating, that
he considered it of considerable importance to the
bean crop, to have the land manured and ploughed
up before Christmas ; the land by the means of an

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

125

early ploughing acquired solidity, and was iu a
better state to receive the seed ; six rows on an
eight-furrow stetch he considered better than m ^rc,
affording a better opportunity of keeping them
clean. lie thought beans, generally speaking, were
not dropped thick enough, that two or three beans
in a hole were required, or not less than three
bushels per acre.

Another member concurred in the plan of plough-
ing strong lands up before Christmas ; but consi-
dered mild land was best ploughed just before
setting the beans ; he also preferred seven rows on
a stetch, and one bean in a hole ; or one bushel and
a half per acre. After some discussion on these
various points, it appeared that the meeting were
not U7uinimous as to the best time of ploughing
mild laud for beans; but it was the general opinion
of tlie meeting, that beans should be planted with
two beans in a hole, and with six rows on an eight-
furrow stetch.

It is the general and approved plan, in theneigh-
bourhood, to put peas in in the autumn, directly after
wheat sowing.

Third Meeting, 21st Feb.

Subject — " On cultivation of Barley."

A member considei'cd, when turnips were fed on
the land, it should be ploughed twice before sowing,
as by this plan the large proportion of manure
deposited in the furrows in feeding, would be left
on the two outside furrows; he strongly recom-
mended waiting until the lands were perfectly dry
before the seed was deposited, and the earliest time
in the year the laud was in this state, ought to be
taken advantage of. He also considered less seed
per acre than was generally used, might be adopted
with advantage ; he thought more than eight pecks
per acre was not only a waste of seed, but injurious
to the crop.

Several members who last year, upon a small scale,
adopted the plan of putting only eight pecks per
acre for seed, spoke highly of the plan, and strongly
recommended further trials to be made. After
considerable discussion on this point, the meeting
resolved, it being the almost uniform practice, that
from ten pecks to three bushels per acre of seed
was required. The land in this neighbourhood
being generally too wet to admit of feeding, it was
also resolved, that one good ploughing, after the
turnips were removed, was sufficient.

Considerable discussion took place upon the
beneiit of scarifying. A member moved that the
scarifier should be used, as it enabled you to leave
the stetch in a better form to lay down with_. seed ;
and gave a greater depth of mould for depositing
the seed.

Another member stated that land, in consequence
of being laid up very round for turnips, after the
first ploughing, might be laid with good ploughing,
sufficiently flat to be laid down with seeds ; and for
any other purpose he considered scarifying worse
than useless.

He moved, that heavy harrows should be used
instead, as he did not consider the great depth of
mould acquired by the scarifier, beneficial to the
barley crop.

The meeting did not come to a division ; for,
although the scarifier was evidently getting out of
repute as to its general use, there were cases, it was
considered, when it might be used to advantage.
Fourth Meeting, 21st March.

Subject — " On Under-draining."

A member stated, that on hilly laud the drain

he thought required to be of sufticiont depth on
the hill, so that the bottom of the drain formi'd an
incline(l plane ; but on flat land, the distance and
depth must be regulated by the nature of the sub-
soil ; and, where that was uniformly sound, he
thought sufficient water furrowing answered every
purpose.

A second member stated, that on hilly land,
where the land was springy, and the sulisoil sandy,
he had known several acres drained by sinking a
small well, and leading a drain from it.

A third member stated, that from his experi-
ence, he had found 30 inches in depth to answer
every purpose ; and he thought, all things consi-
dered, that tiles were not only the most effectual,
but in the end tlie cheapest to fill up with. Stone
was admitted to answer well; but except in a few
localities it was too difficult to obtain.

A fourth member had found great beneiit from
the use of the mole plough. Several members
spoke of it as being highly useful on some soils,
but did not consider it generally applicable to this
neighbourhood. The fourth member stated, that
he used the mole about three yards apart.

After some discussion on the best mode of filling
up drains, and the comparative expenses of the
diff'erent plans, it was resolved : —

It is the first and most essential improvement
that can be made on wet lands ; it is an improve-
ment on which all others must be based ; but this
meeting can lay down no plan, either as to depth
or distance of the drains, the soil in this neighbour-
hood varying so much ; but were unanimous in
agreeing that tiles were best, and iu the end the
cheapest to fill up with; but tile draining was so
expensive, and the improvement of such a perma-
nent character, that it could not be incurred by a
tenant, without the aid of his landlord, to any
extent.

After the discussion some interesting facts were
stated, upon the cause of drains being stopped or
blown. The roots of trees had been known to pass
a long distance, and especially the willow, and to
block the drain up, by entirely tilling it up with its
fibrous roots.

A member stated, a few years since he discovered
a drain blown, on a piece of land on which a piece
of white turnips were standing late in the spring,
and on digging down several feet, he found the
drain was entirely filled by the roots of the white
turnips.

Another instance was named, where the same
effect had been produced by the roots of mangel
wurzel.

Fifth Meeting, 18th April.

Subject — " On the Preparation of JManure for
Turnips.''

A member introduced this subject by stating, that
his conviction from several years' experience was,
that manure was applied with most advantage in a
raw state ; this conviction was forced upon him, as
he had been much prejudiced against the system,
until he saw the benefit of it on an adjoining-
farm.

There were other members, who had been apply-
ing their manure in a raw state, avoiding fermenta-
tion as much as possible, and spoke very highly of
the result of such a practice. Sir Humphrey Davey
was quoted, as high authority in favour of the
application of raw manure. They also contended
that by allowing the manure to undergo great fer-
mentation— no unusual thing, even twice before it

126

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

was applied to the land— a great portion of tlic
volatile salts was allowed to escape, and the sti'cngtli
of the manure was much lessened, if not injured ;
but by allowing decomposition to take place
under the soil, every property of the manure was
secured to it.

On the other hand, it was contended by another
member, that fermentation was not so injurious,
but was necessary to destroy seeds. After consi-
derable discussion on the best mode of mixing,
and the fermentation of hills, it was resolved, that
the majority of this meeting are decidedly in
favour of mixed manures; but" admitted that the
practice of applying manure as soon as it was
mixed was daily gaining ground ; and the spirit of
enquiry being generally agitated on this most im-
portant subject, the management of manures, aided
as practical men now were by men of science, it
was much to be hoped that some generally acknow-
ledged correct principles, for every variety of soil,
would be ascertained.

Sixth Meeting, 23rd May.

Subject — " On the best mode of keeping Farm-
ing Horses during the summer.''

A member stated that he believed red clover,
mown and used in the yard, was the best food and
j)lan of feeding horses during the summer months ;
that clover on land in a good state would admit of
being mown several times; but he considered, in
addition to green food, where horses were kept fully
employed, they required an addition of a bushel of
corn per week ; he preferred the plan of keeping
rather under the usually admitted required horse
strength of 1 to 20 acres and keeping them high. It
was calculated that where 12 horses were required,
if allowed corn all the time they ate green food,
thirteen might be kept at the same expense by re-
stricting them from corn during three months out
of the four that green food was generally consumed.
Tares were generally admitted to be a most valuable
green food for horses, and particularly at the time
they were in bloom.

A second member stated his practice was to allow
his horses no corn or dry food for the first week he
gave them tares ; he considered the purgative effect
they had on the horses, in the spring of the year,
for a few days highly beneficial to their health. He
bad lost but one horse during the last 16 years ; after
a week he gave them a little corn and chaff, until
the tares or green food approached their full growth,
when he considered corn was not required.

A third member stated that he had mown the
Italian rye grass into his yard for his horses,
and he found they would do' better on it without
corn, than they would witli other green food with
the addition of corn.

It was resolved as the opinion of the meeting,
that horses are kept with most advantage in the
yard, upon green clover, tares, or Italian rye grass ;
and the majority of the meeting concurred in tiie
oj)iiiion of the second member, that corn was not
required during two or three months of the time
the horsses were eating green food, e xcept under
peculiar circumstances.

Seventu Meeting, 20™ June.
Subject — " On the Management of Swine."
A member said ho considered the first litter of
pigs ought to fall sometime in January, and wiih
great care and good feeding they ought to arrive at
the weight of three score pounds in six months.
lie considered the diseases, to which pigs were

so liable, were to bo attributed in general to the
want of cleanliness, or to the confined size of the
piggeries.

Another member said, he believed from his own,
and from the experience of a neighbour, whose suc-
cess in themanagement of j)igs was well known, that
pigs were much injured by being turned out too
early in the morning ; their natuial habits were oii-
posed to this, except compelled to it by hunger or
force, and green food, with either white i'rost or dew-
on, he considered very liable to engender disease.
Beet root to any extent, was staled to be unfavour-
able food, cither for sows or pigs.

The members were not agreed as to which would
make the most pork — barley or peas, of equal weight ;
but it was considered, that pigs would fatten best
with barley and peas ground together,

EiGurn Meeting, IStu July.
Subject — "On the best mode of keeping Farm-
ing Accounts."

A member introduced the subject by commenting
on the importance, and pointing out the many ad-
vantages of farmers keeping correct accounts. He
stated that " Swinborne's Account Book" was one
of the earliest that appeared before the public, and
the trouble and expense taken by Mr. Swinborne
to make it generally known, gave it an extensive
circulation ; and the attention of farmers being
drawn to it, many works emanated from the press,
and the meeting fully appreciated the exertions
made by Mr. Swinborne, on a subject but too little
attended too, although of so much importance.

Several members congratulated the meeting on the
improved habits of farmers; instead of meeting, as
was too generally the case some few years since, to
indulge in the pleasures of the table to excess, meet-
ings were now becoming general throughout the
country for the enjoyment of social and intellectual
intercourse, and for the promotion of objects in
which all classes were interested.

And the meeting could not but feel that this great
and improved change had mainly arisen from the
improved education of the cultivators of the soil ;
but great as had been the good effected, the meeting
still felt that the education of young men, intended
for agricultural pursuits, was still very defective,
and that a knowledge of every branch of science
bearing on agriculture, ought to form a part of their
education ; and the meeting believed, that these
desirable objects might be accomplished, without
materially increasing the present expense and time
allotted for the education of young men of this
class.

NiNTu Meeting, 19tu September.
Subject — " On the best mode of keeping Farm-
ing Horses during the Wiiiter."

A member stated he believed, all things considered,
that oats, beans, and clover stover, were the best
food for the use of the cart horse, and on the whole,
as cheap. His own plan was to allow each horse two
bushels of oats, one and ahalfcwt. of stover, during
the busy time of wheat and spring sowing, and in the
winter months one cwt. of stover. About ten pecks
of beans were considered equivalent to a sack of
oats, but it was not thought desirable to use them
alone. He also stated, that so much depends on
the feeder and the driver as to horses being kept in
condition, that if we failed in having a steady in-
telligent man, a master cannot expect his horses
to look well with all his care in providing for them.
He believed it was a good plan to allow them to go

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINi:. 127

into a yard at uigLt, if the yard was provided with FERMENTATION OF HAY AND

good shelter and sheds. M ANTTRF

The meeting, ai'tor discussing the various plans of XViAi-y u ixu.

keeping horses, on part vegetables and part corn, all Sui, — Feeling the deep necessity for a chemical

concurred in adopting the plan first suggested, as investigation of the subjects herein to he uientioued,

most adapted to this neighbourhood. and not being a chemist myself, J beg leave to

It was stated by a member that much injury was bring them, through the medium of your paper, to

sustained, where carrots were used, by washin"- the attention of those qualified for their consideration,

them previously to giving them to horses. ° 1 mean the loss sustained by hay and by manure in

An unlimited use of clover stover was stated by a different stages of fermentation— as fermentation I

member to be injurious to the wind of many horses, believe I must call it.

qvx,.., T\r ,r, ,^ Every one knows the sweet smell of new-mown

i ENTH JMeetixc, 17Tir October i •/ 1 . ^i • n i -i . r • m

^ , . , ii 11 V. <^i<jtiLu, jjjjy . j(. jjjjg j^gj jjjjg siuell while standuig in the

Subject—' On the advantages of Top Dressing." growing state, but immediately on being cut down,

A member introduced the subject by stating ho the grass dies, and begins to give oft" a quantity of,

ijaa applied manure as a top dressing to wheat dur- I presume, gaseous matter, wliich produces this pe-

ing the winter ; but as far as could be judged by culiar odour ; this is followed by a great loss in

comparison, with but little advantage. Several weight and a great loss of nutrition. One perch of

membersspoke to the same effect; but it was stated grass will certainly feed more than two perches

by another member, that manure applied last season, of hav. Would it be possible in any degree to fix

either as a top dressing, or ploughed in from the this volatile matter, which seems by the effect of

wetness ot the season, was unusually ineffective, its loss to be the chief nuUilive ingredient "!
several members highly approved of manuring When hay is put into a rick, it sometimes heals,

young clovers in the autumn. It was also stated that which some people insist improves it— an assump-

as good wbeat was grown after clovers manured in a tion which seems at variance with common sense,

young state, as when manure was applied imme- as while the process of heating is going on, a strong

ciiately before the wheat sowing. saccharine smell is perceived ; by which it is evident

An artificial top dressing, that could be applied tliat a quantity of saccharine matter is being evolved

witn advantage to clover, was much wanted. As in the shape of gas, and is dissipated in the aimos-

regaroleU artihcial manures they had been so little phere. Is this beneficial or not ? and would it be

used m the neighbourhood generally at present, useful or not to take measures to prevent it ? I

luat tbe meeting could come to no correct conclu- know it will be asserted by some that horses prefer

sion as to their particular merits ; but those mem- heated hay; but is there net a loss sustained 1
bers who had tried them, gave the preference to I make a heap of compost manure every year;

/,.^°|^^° • . the substratum is composed of bog stuff' or peat

All w_ho bad tried them acknowledged there was earth, a substance probably unknown to most of

a benefit to the crop from the use of the nitrate of your English readers ; it serves to absorb some of

socia, and other artificial manures ; but at present the liquid matter which would otherwise be carried

ine price of them was too great to admit of their off", and it suflfers itself at least a partial decomposi-

being used to advantage. tioo, and adds to the heap. Some of our Irish

i he Prizes were adjudged as follow, for— theorists say a useless addition, but notwithstanding.

White Wheat jVli. VV Thompson. practically, mostextensivelyusedinlreland.Overthis

Red Wheat I\jj._ -^^i^ Cooner ' ^^ placed the farm-yard dung, according as it is pro-
Barley j^jj," j_ ■ga,.]((,p ' duced, and any other gatherings which can be had. I

Oats Mr! J. Hempson iun. "^^'' '° '"'"'^ ^'^'^ ''^^P •" ^P^'^'^cj ^vhereby all the ingre-

Peas j^jj.] -yy^ xhompson ' dients became intimately mixed. Immediately after

Beans Mr. E.'Cooper. * '''^® operation, the mass seemed to ferment, and a

Swede Turnips ' Mr.'stanford ' great quantity of gas was given off. I know not of what

Common Turnips Mr. W. Keer description, whether aramoniacal or what else, it

Beet Root ' may be, only that, as usual in such cases, there was

Eor the best of two acres') ^ shocking bad smell, which after a few days went

Beet Root in one field . ( Mr. VV. Mason. off by degrees, and the mass now was sensibly di-
minished in bulk, and that to a very considerable
extent, and the substance was reduced to a more

homogenous form, and more near than formerly in

appearance to the condition of rich black mould. It

TJADTVT -nr /-.,-wr.c yr^ i -r, i- r . had evideutlv suffefed decompositlon in a great de-

BARN FLOORS. -CTo the Editor of the g^ee, the putrefactive process had had its eft"ect, and

bahsbury and Winchester Journal.)— SiR,-Obicrving there was a loss of substance, which had evidently

in your widely circulated paper of tlie 19th ult., an in- gone off" in the atmosphere. Query, therefore, what

quiry as to the best material to be substituted for oak in ^vas the matter which was lost 1 Was it a loss to

barn floors, I beg to name what I conceive to be a very lose it 1 Had it been'retained, would it have been

superior substitute, both as to quality and price— I al- of use to future vegetation, and if so, how could its

lude to the wooden pavement now so generally used in loss be prevented?

the streets of London. The blocks are all pinned toge- '^'''^ ''^"*"^ '^ ^ question in which every farmer is

ther ; they require no sleepers : but are laid on a firm ^^^^P^^ interested, and I should hope be deemed

concrete foundation, thus aff"ording an elastic and im- ^'O'-^l^J °f f" «"f^er by some competent authorities ;

J a c .u \- , L ■ ,. . many of whom, I presume, look overyour pages. 1

proved floor for ihrashmg ; and. being one solid mass, j^^^/^^^ ^,3 importance so much, that these fast two

IS impervious to rat.«. Die cost is from 7s. to 10s. per years I have desisted from turning manure, and I

square yard, and I can speak from experience as to the 'would like to know whether I am right or wrong,

floor being equal, if not superior, to oak.— Your obe- I think it goes further, but it has a crude appearance

dient lervant, A Constant Reader. when going out, and the bog earth particularly

—Romsey, Dec, I, 1842. seems to be in a great measure unchanged.

128

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Further, ns n question interesting to your Irisb,
and probably some of your Scotch readers, bog or
))eat earth is certainly coiiii)oseil of lialf'-decayed
vegetable matter. Aquatic vegetables grow on the
surface of the bog, and die in succession, and so
form yearly accessions to the substance of the bog,
which is in a state apparently of serai-decomposition,
its structure being preserved from total putrefaction
by (I believe) a principle called tannin — a principle
which it is well known 0[)erates in a great degree to
the preservation of matters which have often been
found in bogs. I conceive it would be important if,
in order eflFectually to decom|)ose this bog earth, we
could get rid of or neutralize this taunin. Query,
how is this to be done ] I do not think lime does
it ; at least my experience does not tell me so. 1
have made some experiments with bog earth. [
have put it on a meadow just as it came oft' the
bog, and also when mixed with quicklime, and left
for a year in the heap twice turned, and found no
benefit in cither case ; and though 1 always use it,
and that at considerable expense for the drawing
home in compost manure, I am yet undecided whe-
ther it confers any benefit on the land of itself, or
whether it only acts by its mixture in more equally
distributing the really essential mvuters, and as an
absorbent of some which would otherwise go waste.

If I do not convey information by this letter, I
hope to elicit it, and am, Sir, yours, &c.,

Dec. 3, 1812. ' CuLTonius.

REMARKS

RtLAiivt 10 A Paper by P. Pusey, Esq., M.P.,
ON THE Progress of Agriculturai, Know-
ledge DURING THE last FOUR YEARS. By GeOHGE

Thompson, jun.

The writer of the following lines has had frequent
opportunities of ascertaining the views of practical
agriculturists with respect to the formation and en-
couragement of societies having for their express
object the advancement of agriculture ; and he has
thereby become convinced that many members of
those societies are undecided as lo the tendency of
such institutions ; indeed, that some unhesitatingly
declare it to be tlioir conviction, that tliey are, and
have been, productive of no possible advantage.
Now, by what mysterious influence sucli individuals
are induced to remain members of societies which
they think can be of no possible benefit, remains to
to be explained ; it is only necessary for the writer
to state that lie is acquainted with such individuals.
IJut, independent of this classof persons, there is an-
other which includes within its i)ale by far the greater
portion of the ;igricultur;d world, and it is that class
who professedly and practically oppose the present
progress of agricultural knowledge. Much it is to
be legrctled bj' every philanthropist, that men
should be so blind to their own interest ; and it is
still more to be regretted that this is the case, when
it is known that this blindness does not arise so much
from wiltiil prejudice as from mistaken impressions.
Every friend to agriculture ( and who ought not to
be so"!) must inevitably desire to remove such an
unfortunate impression from the minds of all in-
terested parties. Such is the desire of the writer,
and with this view he calls particular attention to
]\Ir. Pusey's j)aper, published in the third volume
of the ". Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society ;"'
a paper containing the clearest synopsis of the ad-
vantages of agricultural societies, that has ever yet
been submitted to the public. Being founded oq

fact the arguments are conclusive. Nothing is in-
serted but what bears the stamp of experience ; in
fact the paper is, as its title implies, " a retrospect of
the state of agriculture during the last four years.'
During which four years, greater advances have
been made in agricultural knowledge than were
ever before made in an equal period. Mr. Pusey
proves those advantages to have been made chiefly
from the institution of the Royal Agricultural Society.

But, however excellent the paper may be, and
however conclusive its arguments may prove, it is
a source of considerable regret, that in its present
shape the circulation must be limited to that body
of individuals who least require it — the members
of the society, in justification of which it has been
written; therefore, the writer of these remarks
ventures to hojje that the author of that paper, or the
directors of the Royal Agricultural Society, will re-
publish it, in a cheap form for general circulation;
inasmuch as such a composition, founded on indis-
putable and well authenticated facts, is calculated
to remove many dangerous prejudices still existing
in the minds of a great portion of the agricultural
communil}'.

Nevertheless, there are some few conclusions re-
lative to manures which are incorrect, or insufficient ;
and which arise from the circumstance that Mr.
Pusey has not instituted inquiry sufficiently far in
that de])artment of agricultural science; but still
are no argument against the utility of agricultural
societies, rather one in their favour.

The first instance is the exception of tanner's
bark from being available as a manure, since it is
generally known that this article forms a very use-
ful material to incorporate with other aud stronger
fertilizers ; not only this, but the writer has seen it
applied on a small scale, for onions and turnips, with
the most beneficial result ; indeed, a chemical analy-
sis of its composition must at once pronounce it to be
a valuable manure.

Again, with respect to nitrate of soda, Mr. P.
observes, "There are the most undoubted proofs
from numerous quarters of an esormous increase in
the produce alter its nse ,- there are as undoubted
instances of its utter failure, nor have we any clue
to the mystery." An instance is then quoted, where
in one year nitrate of soda produced eight bushels
of wheat ; in the next it gave but three, and in con-
sequence It was abandoned as a manure. Vet the
cause was obvious : the land did not require any-
more of that particular manure, therefore the mystery
was elucidated. Indeed, Mr. Pusej' afterwards
quotes Liebig's theory, which at onceaccounts for this
hitherto mysterious effect, and therefore it is some-
what strange that he could not solve the mystery.

But the fact is, that Liebig himself, although he
has produced the ablest work on agricultural che-
mistry vrliich was ever written, yet has not given " a
clue to the mystery." I'he clue will never bo found
until agriculturists become chemists. They must
adopt tlie motto of the Royal Agricultural Society,
namely, "Practice with Science ;" and they must
apply it as well to manuring as to every other
branch of agricultural science. Then they will
" have a clue to the mystery," not before.

With the exception of some few erroneous con-
clusions, as to the causes of failure in some particu-
lar manures, Mr. Pusey's paper cannot be regarded
in any other light than as u valuable addition to the
library of the agriculturist ; and it is hoped that so
great a desideratum will not be exclusively reserved
for the members of the Royal Agricultural Society.

Lioii-street, Kidderminstev, Nov, 28«/i, 1842.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZIIn'E.

120

A LECTURE ON AGRICULTURE,

DELIVERED AT THE WADE15KIDGE INSTITU-
TION OX l-KIDAV, IOTII DECEMI5EK, 184'i,
BV MR. JOHN AVILLS, OF SOUTIIPETHER W YN,
NEAR LAUNCESTON, CORNWALL.

Mk. President, — It is with no small degree
of pleasure that I receive permission to address such
a tlisliugnishcd and enlightened an audience on the
imjiortant and daily interesting subject of agricul-
ture as I have now the honour of seeing before me.

That anything I am able to bring forward should
be tiu>ught worthy the attention of this institution
1 consider a high compliment, and I shall endea-
vour to prove how deeply I feel tlic honour, by
laying before you whatever knowledge I have
gathered in this most useful art.

I would commence by requesting you to keep
your attention on the subject ; and, notwithstand-
ing my incapability to do justice to this important
matter, still I trust I shall show you that each of
us, and the community at large, are vitally con-
cerned in its prosperity, and that " there is nothing
better than agriculture."

Of all the arts and sciences that can engage the
attention or excite the industry of mankind, agri-
culture, or the cultivation of the earth, must stand
])re-emineut, for on its being properly understood
depends the comfort, happiness, and welfare of the
millions that inhabit the earth. On opening the
gate of this wide field what an extensive view pre-
sents itself.

Man in all ages have found it necessary to cul-
tivate the soil to procure the necessaries and com-
forts of life. Thus holy writ tells us that David,
both before and after he was anointed king, em-
ployed himself in husbandry, and made a feast at
the sheep-shearing. Rachel kept her fathei's flock.
Ruth got into the good graces of Boaz, by gleaning
at his harvest. Elisha was called to be a prophet
as he drove one of his father's twelve ]douglis ; but
it is useless to particularize all those luminaries of
ancient days who liave encouraged agriculture : still,
if it was worthy the attention of kings iu the olden
times, surely it cannot be less so now, wlien our great
and rapidly increasing population demands all the
energy, skill, and industry of tine sons of agriculture
to grow, if possible, two ears of corn and two blades
of grass where only one grew before. I have been
engaged in this pursuit from my infancy, and if
there is any advantage to be derived from farming-
lands of various descriptions, in different climates,
and fairly testing their productive qualities, paying
due regard to the expense of cultivation of each
particular soil, thereby clearly ascertaining their
respective value ; 1 repeat, if there is any advantage
to be derived from these things, I do without osten-
tation, and can with great propriety, lay claim to it.
It is always pleasing to me to see any well cultivated
district ; and whenever my eye alights on this
fayourcd and really beautiful country— when I call
to mind that I have toiled manyaday, and watched
my fleecy care by night in some of your most fertile
fields, and remember too, that they are the same
" that my grandfather tilled," I do feel, and that
most <trongly, for this delightful neighbourhood,
and am anxious to see the proprietors and cultivators
of this favoured land take the full advantage of your
fertile soil, your beautiful climate, and your inva-
luable river; and as that river, with its hundreds of
tributary branches, drains many a lofty hill and

waters many a thirsty i)liiin iu its numerous wind-
ings, yet pours its waters at last through one chan-
nel into the bosom of the wide ocean ; so nuiy you,
my brother farmers, by study and application Ining
.all the resources that are within your reach into one
bold stream, and pour it on the bosom of agricul-
ture, and make yon stand as examples to the agri-
culturists of England. It is with this feeling, sir, I
venturejto read a paper to you this evening ; not that
I can advance anything to win your admiration,
but I stand here to say to my brother fiirmers that
they hold responsible situations, for they are the
producers of food for the people ; that they must not
allow their time to be misspent, i)ut they must read,
" learn, and inwardly digest," and put in practice
what is deemed improvement, and come here, and
at other such valuable institutions, and occupy the
j)lace I so unprofltably fill, and tell their hearers the
result of their observations and experiments.

Let the farmers of England do this, and the tree
of prejudice that has taken such deep root amongst
us will be destroyed. It will silence the complaint
by removing the cause ; and the way to do this is
expressed in two words, " Improve Agriculture."

It is a truth well known, that our minds, like our
bodies, are naturally much aS'ccted by the character
of the food they receive. I wish, sir, to impress
this observation most fully on all, but with redoubled
force on the minds of young men, who, as plants iu
a nursery, are very soon to fill situations where the
food on which they have feasted their minds will be
l)ut to the test. And here I cannot but lament the
very imperfect education that class of young men
receive, who in time are to be the producers of the
food on which our very existence depends. I know
I am addressing many a wealthy and a generous
yeoman, and I rejoice in the opportunity. I trust
it will be the means of awakening a feeling that has
unconsciously been slumbering too long. I do not
hold it necessary for a farmer to be a chemist and
an engineer ; still I contend it is highly desirable he
should understand so much of the facts connected
with these subjects as to enable him to know his
business as a farmer on the most correct principle.

I beg to offer my best congratulations to you,
sir, and the highly respectable audience I have the
honour to address, on the formation of many va-
luable agricultural societies and farmers' clubs
lately established in different parts of the kingdom,
the good results of which are becoming visible every
day — the meeting at Truro for roots, seeds, &c., so
lately as the 1st instant to wit. It fully bears out
an old observation, that agriculture must and surely
will command attention ; the longer we live the
more clearly we shall see its importance, and the
more highly will it be praised by England's best
sons ; for depend on it, " nothing is better than
agriculture.''

The Royal Agricultural Society of England will
in this case, and very properly too, be the leading
star. This society is formed of noblemen and gentle-
men of station and character — men of sterling worth,
who will, and who can well afford to spend time and
money in advancing the prosperity of agriculture,
and they are stoutly supported in this great cause
by the most intelligent farmers of England. With-
out detracting from the merits of the prizes offered
for live stock, their prizes for essays on different
subjects must be attended with the gi'eatest
advantage. It must be equally gratifying to you as
it is to me, to know that the prize for the best essay
for storing turnips was awarded to Mr. Gcach, a
Cornish farmer. You have now your farmers' club j

Iv

130

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and I am delighted to find the noble house of Pen-
caiTow has mingled its influence with others of
minor degree fully to carry out the benefits intended
for the landowner, occupier, labourer, and consumer.
This is as it ought to be ; for until we feel the interest
of the one to be the Interest of the whole, we shall be
grasping at the shadow and losing the substance.
These things may probably tend to the revival of
the agricultural meeting that for many years was
held in your neighbouring town.* With this view
I am induced to speak more fully on the subject. It
Is as important to the country that agriculture
should be scientifically understood and studied as
that manufacturing science should progress. The
mere culture of the land is nothing except it be
conducted on the best possible principle. To do
only as those who have been in the field before us
did (but are now passed away), is no great merit.
The resources of the mind ought to be brought to
labour, and profiting not only by experience, but in
learning by experiment, we may hope to see improve-
ment progress in an equal ratio in agriculture as in
mechanics ; and the knowledge of the stores of ex-
perimental philosophy affords to be applied to this
most useful of all the arts, because it produces the
raw material on which the human race is fed and
clothed. When the merely operative farmer knows
tlie value of science he will then see that it is the
stepping-stone to agricultural wealth, and learn tlic
secret why his better informed neiglibour, who has
devoted some little attention to such pursuits, has
beat him in the career of enterprize. Agricultural
societies are particularly beneficial in communi-
cating this knowledge. They bring the results of
all systems into competition, and must set those
who are behind in the contest thinking why they
are so. Whatever experiments have been tried,
whatever improvements made, whatever failures ex-
perienced, are brought under the views of all : the
first as lessons to instruct, the last as rocks to avoid.
The real value in crosses in breeding, of intermixing
soils, of the action of peculiar manures, of the intro-
duction of seeds, and of the utility of implements,
are tested. The landlord and the tenant, whose
interests are identical, are brought together, and may
profit by the intercourse.

These are some, but not all the advantages de-
rived from societies of this kind. I have been in
the habit of attending various agricultural meetings
hi the west of England for many years, and can,
and do with much satisfaction, bear testimony to
the benefits resulting from them. To say I never
heard any objections to meetings of this kind is not
what I am prepared to do ; but the strongest I have
ever heard advanced is this— that it is opening the
eyes of landlords, or in other words, giving them
too great an insight into the returns made from
land. Now, sir, I, as a tenant farmer, from )ny
experience am ready to confess that this is a strong
reason for promoting these societies, and establish-
ing them on a firm and solid basis. For I contend,
and I appeal to every man of experience, if it is not
better to rent a farm under a nobleman or gentle-
man who, or whose agent, understands the art of
farming, and knows the value of an enlightened,
enterprising, and good farmer, than it is of a man
who knows little or nothing about it ; whose only
guide in choosing a tenant is the man that pro-
mises to pay the most rent. Can it in this our day
be supposed for one moment that the proprietors of
the soil of England, old England, would say to A,

* Bodmin.

" You are farming an estate of mine not better than
B's, but you show prize cattle, produce more corn,
and make a far better return than hhn ; and, not-
withstanding your rent is quite as high as his, still
from tliese circumstances it will bear, and therefore
must be increased ?" That such landlord is not to
be found is more than I am warranted in saying;
but, thank God, public opinion has such weight
witli mankind, that such a man would be placed by
the world below, far below his industrious and
praiseworthy tenant, the value of whom his sordid
views would not allow him to estimate. But, sir, it
is to be hoped where we shall see one instance of this
kind a hundred, ay, a thousand, will occur where
merit will meet its due reward. And here I will
give you an instance. At an agricultural meeting
very recently in our neighbouring county,* a tenant
farmer received the i:)rize for the best cultivated
farm. At the next court day his landlord highly
and deservedly complimented him for his good
management, and presented him with a handsome
present, assuring him that tenants of his descrip-
tion were fully entitled to every encouragement from
their landlords, and the best thanks of the public.

Having, sir, said thus much on agricultural so-
cieties, I beg to observe that, as he who would grow
good fruit must graft from a good stock, and he
who would have clear water must go to the head of
the fountain, so agricultural societies to be made
useful to farmers, and beneficial to mankind, must
be cherished and fostered by the kind and generous
hand of the proprietors of the soil ; unless this is
done, and the estate agents in England are capable
of acting as tutors to the tenantry, and able coun-
cillors to tlie landlords, we never can j^rogress pa-
llidly in agricultural improvements.

The tenant must feel an interest in the soil, and no-
thing that I know of would tend to give more confi-
dence than to fall back on the good old custom of
granting terms of twenty-one years, which are as
necessary for the prosperity of the landed proprie-
tors as tlieir tenantry. The grand and great object
of every farmer should be to raise the greatest quan-
tity of produce on a given quantity of land.

Many a farmer who now grows 20 acres of corn, if
he were to put the same manure and labour to 15,
would in all probability grow quite as many busliels,
and instead of increasing his acres was to properly
cultivate those he occupies, would find his profits
greater. This observation would also apply to some
landlords. Landlords who are very reluctant in laying
out money in draining, and otherwise improving their
lands, even when the tenant ensures them 5 per cent,
for the outlay, do not hesitate to purchase land, well
knowing at the time it will not pay them more than
3 or 3^ per cent. This, sir, I am sure you will per-
ceive is not turning capital to the best account,
neither is it improving agriculture. It is highly de-
siderahle the productive qualities of the land should
all be brought into action; but how to accom-
plish this much- wished-forobject_is a matter that re-
quires sound judgment, as no one rule can be laid
down for tlie cultivation of all soils. It must be
admitted that many valuable and useful works have
been written on the subject, but a man can never
learn the art of farming from reading alone. Agri-
culture is a science of no ordinary kind, and cannot
be properly understood and comprehended except
from practice. In trade and manufactures certain
rules arc laid down by which all arc instructed
during their apprenticeship, but husbandry is an

* Tavistock.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

131

occupation of boundless variety, extending to more
objects, and fettered by fewer' positive regiiliitions,
than any otiier. Tlie time and conditions on en-
tering a farm are of great importance, but a tenant
can rarely clioose his time of entry ; but to cultivate
a farm on the right principle heinust be fully aware
of the properties of the lands he occupies, and his
judgment and skill will be called into action to
classify them. To class ii farm judiciously is what
I call laying the foundation of agricultural pros-
perity: it is not the work of a moment, neither
can it be eflectedby the stroke of the i)cn. I never
yet saw a farm but some portion of it was better
calculated for tillage than others, and certain ticlds,
from having water, shade, and situation, better
adapted to pasture. Now this is a matter in many
countries so nicely distinguished, and so highly
prized, that tenants are prohibited from ploughing
certain lands, which is as much for the benefit of
the occupier as the owner.

After the pasture lands are deducted a certain
number of acres remain for tillage. Now the ques-
tion arises— Wliat system or rotation of crops shall
be adopted so as to keep the land in good heart, and
yet draw from it the greatest possible profit ? It
has been well observed, that no branch of husbandry
requires more sagacity and skill than a proper rota-
tion of crops. Here I have often seen the folly of
leases laying down the same rule for all lands— lands
that require direct opposite treatment. It is a well
known fact that diflerent systems prevail in the
same district ; and it is also well known that on a
vast number of farms there is no system at all.
Fields are taken from grass and laid down again
quite at random. The numerous systems that prevail
have arisen out of local habit, or they arise from
improvements that have not been generally made
known. Now, sir, from my experience, which has
been upwards of thirty years standing, I give it as
my decided (but not hasty) opinion, that the system
to be adopted, or the rotation of crops to be grown
on a farm, must depend on the soil, climate, situa-
tion for manure, and markets. The great secret for
both landlord and tenant is to lay down such course
for cropping the land as will enable the tenant to
improve it ; at the same time to pay a fair and rea-
sonable rent, which the landlord has an undoubted
right to receive. We will now suppose the best
system for all parties being ascertained, the intel-
ligence of the farmer is called into action to rightly
determine what number of people and working
cattle are requisite to cultivate his estate, so as to
bring all the productive qualities of his laud into
operation. Here it is that agricultural economy is
called into play. If a farmer employs one more
man than can be profitably employed, it detracts
from his profits. On the other hand, if he sufiers
his laud to be unproductive for want of labour, he is
injured in a tenfold degree. This is a matter worthy
every farmer's best attention. As it is highly de-
sirable to have a system for the management of the
estate, it is no less so for the establishment. Reason-
able and proper rules should be laid down and ob-
served ; due regard should also be paid to moral
and religious character. The heads of families will
do well to remember the responsible situation they
hold, and that they are accountable for their treat-
ment to those under their care and in their employ,
as well as they are in discharging their duty to them.

By putting these hints into practice it would
facilitate labour, promote industry, encourage good
behaviour, and relieve the mind of both those whose

duty it is to command, and those who are also to
obey, from much confusion that must prevail where
neither rule nor order is observed. I am now, sir,
arrived at a very imi)ortant consideration for the
farmer — the number and description of animals to
be kei)t on his estate, and the quantity and quality
of food to be provided for their sustenance. In the
early ages, and we may even come down to the time
previous to the introduction of the field culture of
green crops, the cattle were, comparatively speak-
ing, few, and those miserably provided for. In the
summer months they got into tolerably good con-
dition, and a suflicient number was then slaughtered
while they were so to provide animal food for the thia
population, until nature again clothed the pastures
with the natural grasses. As time advanced the
attention of man was called to the providing of food
for cattle during the winter and spring months^
hence the introduction of green crops and stall-feed-
ing. The number of cattle to be kept on a farm
must be entirely guided by the quantity of food
there is for their consumption ; and every owner of
stock will do well to remember that if his cattle arc
not improving, the food they consume is wasted.
How frequently are bullocks seen during the winter
months losing in condition ; and how common is it to
see sheep, more especially young sheep, not so heavy
in March as they were the November previous !
How is this to be accounted for ? Why, sir, for
want of three things ; namely, attention, shelter,
and a sufficient ((uantity of food, and that too of
the right quality for carrying the stock properly
through the winter. Notwithstanding this, improper
management is to be found. Still 1 am proud to
say, there are farmers in Cornwall, as well as in other
counties, where you may find all the cattle during
the winter and spring months in nicely built houses
or yards, well fed and comfortably littered : there
they not only retain theijkcondition, but are actually
growing more, and fattenmg faster than when in the
pastures. Nor is this all the advantage ; the quantity
of rich manure produced is the farmer's treasure.
I cannot refrain from again repeating the very great
and serious loss that is occasioned in this county for
want of better farm buildings — a subject I have
often pressed on the attention of landlords, agents,
and tenants — and a better plan of jireserving farm-
yard manure. When I have been speaking of the
propriety of confining cattle in the house or yards
during the winter and spring months, I have by
more than one been asked — how is it possible to
provide food for them during so long a period ?

I admit this is a ([uestion of vast importance, and
the man that cannot answer it has much to learn to
make him a good farmer. I have said to such per-
sons, and I would now say, if there be any one
present that wished to be informed on this valuable
head, visit some of those farms that arc regularly
and properly cultivated, and go and do likewise;
and he will soon find it to prove to his comfort and
advantage. From this improved mode of treat-
ment we find our best and fattest stock come to
market in abundance in those very months that,
imder the old system, a fat animal was rarely to be
seen ; so we have now a constant daily supply of
roast beef for the good people of England. It is
also a fact deserving notice, that the food on which
cattle are supported, and their state of condition,
make an essential difference in the quantitj' and
quality of manure. Let a man that has not given
this matter proper attention manure any given
quantity of land from that which is made from cat-

K 2

132

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Uc kept on straw alone by night, and allowed to
wander tlio lanes or neiglibourlug common by day,
and select anotlier piece of land of the same quan-
tity and quality, and use the same quantity of ma-
nure made from cattle in high condition "that are
richly ied in the stall ; and the contrast Avill be so
great that it will teach him such a profitable lesson
as lie will never forget. That nothing is better than
agriculture, as I at tirst asserted, and consequently
nothing is of greater in)i)ortancc than its im-
provement, will not, I think, in tliis our day be
(lucstioned. If any friend to this great cause, who
has hitlierto been slumbering at his post, will ask or
think, " Wliat sluill I do to promote it?"' the answer
is, join your fellow labourers with heart and hand,
and support everything that will tend to improve
tlie practice or diffuse the science of agriculture.
Tills spirit of improvement — this thirst for know-
ledge that is beginning to manifest itself, and is
spreading widely through the eountiy — give it your
best support ; for if we look to the history of manu-
factures for the last century, if we sec what it has
done for them, we shall not dou))t its capability of
lieiielitting every practice to which it is applied. If
we look at what it has done for agricultui-e itself
within the last twenty ycai's we may hope — and I
would say reasonably hope — great things for the
future.

Perhaps, sir, few things within our recollection
have so vitally touched the landed interest as the
two great questions that have recently come imder
the consideration of the legislature — questions that
all must acknowledge to be of such magnitude and
impoi'tance as to reijuire the best energy, skill, and
talent of the ablest statesman to encounter, I al-
lude to the Poor Law and the Tithe Commutation
Acts. The old I'oor Law, or I would rather say, the
administration of that law, was arrived at such a
frightful pitch, that thei^ was neither safety for
person or property. If we were wantijig proof for
this we have oidy to turn to the extracts from the
information received by his Majesty's Commissioners
as to the administration and operation of the Poor
Laws, ])ublished by authority in 1833, and we shall
be abundantly supplied. To those who have not
read this work I strongly recommend them to do so,
bt cause in this peaceful part of the country you
can form no conception of the trickery, imposition,
and wretchedness there stated. It will afford a use-
ful lesson to the young, and will stagger those of
more mature age, at the depravity of human nature.
If I shall not be too tedious I will give you a case
or two (tjo oil, ijo on). You will find in Mr. Cliad-
wiek's Kcport, page 278, the following statement : —
" Mr. Brushfield, a tradesman residing in Spital-
lields, and one of the parish officers of Christcluirch,
Spitaltields, states : — The first day I was in active
otttee (2tjth March, 1831), a woman, named Kitty
Daley, came to me for relief on account of the
illness of her child — she came M'ithout her
child. I knew this case, as the doctor had said
something ought to be given to her, on account of
the child being ill of the small-pox. I gave her six-
pence to serve until I haol th(; opportunity of visit-
ing her. In the course of the day, between the
hours of ten and two o'clock, about forty or fifty
applications were made to me for relief. Usually it
is the practice of the parish officers to give away
money on the representation and the appearance of
the parties; indeed, it is scarcely possible for a
tradesman who has a retail shop to avoid giving
away considerable sums of money, as the applicants
excite the sympathy of his customers, and if he does

not comply with their demands they (the paupers)
may and do raise mischievous tumults, and injure his
business by their clamours and obstructioais. They
did injure my business in this way, and must injure
the business of any man who does his duty. How-
ever, I determined to give no relief on the mere
representation of the parties. I therefore took
down the names and address of the applicants for
the purpose of visiting their residences. In the
couise of the foicnoon three women came to re-
quest relief, and each brought in her arms a child,
which she said had the small-pox. Tlie child was
muflied up very carefully ; one woman showed mo
the arm of the child, the other showed me the face
of the child which she had, the third gave me a
glance at the face of the child she had. Itapi)eared
to me strange that there was so much small-pox
about, but when I saw the face of this third child
it immediately struck me as being the same child
that had been shown to me before, though it was
now in a different di'ess. On visiting the places
where the parties said they resided, it was found
that about one-third of their statements of residences
were falsehoods ; no such persons were to be found.
The names of some on the list were immediately
recognised by the beadle as overseer-hunters — per-
sons who make it their business to seek out and
impose upon new overseers. Ultimately relief was
not given to more than about twenty, the remainder,
after nmch exertion (which had never been under-
taken before), having been ascertained to be cases
of im])03ition. Few tradesmen who had the inclina-
tion would have had time to go through the same
investigation, which I dare say was even then very
imperfect. I found no where the three mothers
who had each come with the infant afflicted with
the small-pox ; baton visiting the residence of Kitty
Daley, there I found the very same infant I had last
seen, and it was dressed in the same dress. She did
not deny the fact that it was the same child that
had been brought that morning in tliree different
dresses by three different women. I accordingly
gave her no relief. Subsequently I pursued my in •
vestigations into the cases of other ai)plieants for
relief, and struck off many cases of fraud. My
general mode of investigation was not to make en-
quiries elsewhere, but to visit the residences of those
persons I suspected (which, by the way, was most
of the paupers) first on the Saturday, and next on
the Sunday. On Saturday they expect us, and I
had generally some cause to doubt the appearance
of their dwellings on that day. In general those
who wished to im|)Ose upon us over-coloured tlie
picture, and certainly the pictures they drew were
often very appalling. One Saturday one of the
ehurehwardens aeeomi)aiued me, and we visited
ten i^laces — the scenes of distress were quite fright-
ful ; there were two eases which appeared to be
eases of extreme misery. In one house, that of a
man named Bag — a man with a wooden leg, residing
in Pelham-street, we found there sitting as if sunk
in despair. He said he had no work, and had had
no food for that day or since the eveinng before.
His wife was afflicted with a bad leg ; she was in
bed, and stated that she had not been able to get
out of bed for six weeks. The room was in a mise-
rable plight — dirty and wretched. I looked into
the cui)board and found no jirovisions there ; the
ap])earanee of the place was such that the church-
warden could not forbear giving th(! man some
liecuuiary relief at once. The other case was one of
a man named Ansler, of Red Lion-street, who had
for some time before been chargeable to the parish

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

133

as an out-paupor ; we found the appearance of the
place most deploiable. There ^v:ls no appearance of
food or comfort, and the cliiklren were ragged,
dirty, squalid, and wretched. I told the wife to
tell the husband to apply to nic for relief in the
evening, when I would give him relief, as I intended
to do, being fidly convinced of the necessity by the
extreme misery which I had witnessed. The husband
and wife came together to my house in the evening.
I expressed my regret that they should l)e obliged
to come to thei)arish, and asked if the husband had
no prospect of getting work, lie declared he had
neither work nor any prospect of getting any at
present. 1 Judged by his ajipearance tliat he had
lieen drinking, and said, — ' Well, call upon me in
the morning, and I will see what I can do for you.'
They said they were very much obliged to me, and
M'ent away, apparently quite pleased, although, ac-
cording to their representation:!, they were absolutely
in a state of starvation.

"On Sunday morning I renewed my visits to
most of those wliose residences I had visited on the
afternoon previous. TJie lirst case I visited was
that of the man Ansler; I went at about nine
o'clock in the morning. 1 opened the door, and
then knocked, MJien 1 found they were in bed. I
saw the wife jump out of bed, and in grpat hnste
she ran to a table whicli was standing in the middle
of the room, and covered it over with a cloth, but
in hor haste to get away, and in her confusion she
pulled the covering off, and exposed to my view a
hn-ge piece of beef, a piece of mutton, and parcels
of tea, sugar, bread, &e., Sec. Tlie man called from

the bed, ' R 1 'cm ! nevermind them; you know

they belong to your father.' I told them that was
enough, and immediately left the place. They have
never ajiplied for relief since. "When I visited the
house of Bag, I found Mrs. Bag out of bed, at her
breakfast ; she had her tea, and he had his coffee.
I saw a neck of mutton on one shelf and two loaves
on another shelf of the cupboard which was empty
the day before. I went into bis workshop (he was
a silk dresser) Mhich I found full of work. The man
swore horribly, and I left the place. I do not know
that he ever again applied to the parish. My im-
pression now is that nearly the whole of the cases
whicli we had visited on the Saturday wei'C found
to be each partially or entirely similar cases of im-
position." I will give you another case, which will
be found in Mr. Cowell's Report, page .'^9:3.

" Swaffham, Norfolk.
" A woman in a neighbouiing parish had five
illegitimate children, for which she was allowed 10s.
per week, and Os. for herself. Finding herself
pregnant for the sixth time, she employed a man to
go round to various persons with whom she might
or might not have had connection to acquaint each
of them separately with the fact of her pregnancy,
and of her intention of swearing tlie child to him
unless he consented to send her a sum of money,
when she would engage to swear it on some one else.
Her demands for this hush money ranged as high as
10/. in some instances. The first man to whonr her
ambassador a]ip!ied gave him 10/. The ambas-
sador returned, and represented to his employer
that the man had laughed at her threat, but had
sent her half-a-crown, out of which he thought she
ought to give him Is. 6d. for his trouble, 'lo this
she consented, so lie benefited Ul. 19s., and she Is.
by this first negotiation. She carried on this course
with several persons with various success, and at
last swore the child to a man who resisted, and on

his apjieal succeeded in getting the order quashed.
This case was tried at Swatrha in, where the above
circumstance came to light in court. This woman
was never punished. She gave birth to her child,
was allowed 2s. for it by the parish, and is now in
the receipt of 18s. per week, the produce of suc-
cessful bastardy adventures."

So much, sir, for the Poor-law.

The old Tithe-law, we all too well know, was in
many instiiuccs oppressive — a bar to the improve-
ment of agriculture, and in numbers of cases put the
pastor and his flock at variance. These matters
duly considered will form objections so strong, and
of such weighty nature, that posterity will look into
tlu! history of tithes with amazement at the manner
in which they were so long paid, ^\'hen we look at the
tentlis on the titheable produce nf land, calculating
on the improved principle of cultivation, the vast
outlay made in implements, buildings, manure,
labour, &c., ami all to increase the jiroduce of the
land, and view the prominent i>lace it takes in the
returns of a farm, we need not wonder at the in-
crease made in most cases of commutation. The
agreements are now generally finished, and the
ajiportionmentsare rapidly progressing. The spirit
and letter of the Tithe Act puts the principle and
the detail of the apportionment entirely into the
hands of the land.owners. They may select what
valuers they please, and what number they please;
they may give these valuers specificlnstructions, or
leave them to apportion by their own discretion,
guided only by the general rules of the act. They
may by means of these specific instructions appor-
tion the rent-charge field by field, or on their gro3.s
estates, or with the assent of the tithe-owners they
may charge it on certain portions of their estates,
leaving the other portions tithe free. Thus, sir,
you see the vast power placed in the hands of the
vainer. Landlords arelfceginning to see the pro-
priety of selecting men for thisimportant part of the
bill of practical knowledge — men that know how to
estimate the titheable produce and the productive
quality of land. The apportionment being con-
firmed the rent-charge will be paid accordingly;
and hero many a tithe-payer will be at a loss to
know why he should pay more in 42 than he did in
41, and perhaps less in 4:1 than in 42 ; but a very
few years will unriddle this mystery, and I trust
we shall " one and all'' find it an improvement ; for
while it gives the tithe-owner a better security, it
holds out to the cultivator of the soil a great in-
ducement to increase its produce, the good effects of
which must be felt by the community at large. Im-
provements of various kinds wiU be made through
the country, and amongst others draining will form
a striking picture. It cannot be too strongly re-
commended to those whose lands are about to be,
or have lately been drained, to have the plan of the
drain marked on the plan of the field (for I take it
for granted every man has, or shortly will have, the
map of his estate), that the mouth of the drains may
be found. Many a drain has been ruined for want
of being kept open, consequently a vast deal of
money has been wasted ; when the present occupier
makes his exit, all knowledge of this matter too often
ceases.

I am now, sir, drawing to a conclusion of my
paper. Could I hope that some of my observations
may tend to the improvement of my favourite i>ur-
sidt, agriculture, 1 shall be amply repaid for any
little time they have cost me. Tliis 1 confidently
anticipate, that the enquiry and study of agrieull ure

134

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

will bo pursued, and the results will afford new aids
to tliis nust useful and interesting science.

Tlie soil offers inexhaustible resources, which,
when properly appreciated and employed, must in-
crease our wealth, our population, and our physical
strength. Wo possess advantages in the use of
machinery and the division of labour belonging to
no other nation ; and the same energy of character,
and the same extent of resources which have
always distinguished the people of tlie British is-
lands, and made them excel in arms, commerce,
letters, and philosophy, apply with the Imppiest
effects to the improvement of the cultivation of the
earth. Nothing is impossible to labour aided by
ingenuity. The true objects of the agriculturist are
likewise those of the jtatriot. Men value most what
they have gained with effort— a just confidence in
their own powers result from success. They love
their country better because they have seen it im-
prove by their own talents and industry, and they
identify with these Interests the existence of those
institutions which have afforded them security, in-
dependence, and the multiplied enjoyments of
civilised life.

HADLEIGH FARMERS' CLUB.

IMPORTANT LECTURE BY PROFESSOR HENSLOW ON
THE THEORY OF MANURING.

The anniversary meeting of the Hadleigh Far-
mers' Club was held at Hadleigh, on Friday, the
ICth December.

As is usual at these meetings, there was a good
shew of neat stock and sheep in the market-place,
and there was also an excellent show of beet root
and turnips in the Corn Exchange.

Soon after four o'clocl^ upwards of 90 gentle-
men partook of a most excellent dinner provided
by Mr. Stephens of the White Lion, in the assem-
bly room. Robert Kersey, Esq., the president of
the cluh.tooii; tlie chair, supported on tlie right by
the Rev. H. B.Knox, nnd J. Grouse, Esq., and on
the left by the Rev. the Professor Henslow, and
Richard Newman, Esq. There were also present
J. Last, Esq., Messrs. R. Partridge, sen., Partridge,
jun., H. Partridge, R. Rand,.T. Rand, Ansell, Mat-
thews, C. Brown, H. Hardacre, R. Hawkins, W.
Hawkins, J. Hudson, H. Sallows, W. Strutt.jun.,
J. Everett, W. Lott, R. Postans, W. Green. R.
Sallows, A. Syer, J. Norman, Makin, C. Kersey,
C. Fenn, W. Grimwade, H. Clayden, J. Cook, &c.
Mr. J. Rands officiated as Vice President.

After the usual loyal and patriotic toasts had
been drank

The Secretary read the reportof the Society's
proceedings for the past year.

The report commenced by alluding to the va-
luable information given to the club at several of
its meetings by the Reverend the Professor Hen-
slow, nnd then went on to recommend that a se-
parate fund be raised for the purpose of giving
premiums to deserving labourers aad their fami-
lies.

February 5th. — The members took into con-
sideration the internal diseases of shecj) and neat
cattle. This discussion rested principally on \»hat
is commonly railed drop sheep, and blown and
hoven, or blown animals. Several members having
expressed their opinions, the following recipe was
recommended for a beast when it has become

blown or hoven : 1 Ib.glauher salts, |lb. of treacle,
and 1 oz. of ginger, mixed with one pint and a
half of warm water. The following resolution was
also adopted : —

" That before any direction can be given with
regard to the drop in sheep, the disease upon which
most difference of opinion existed, a minute in-
S[)ection of the internal parts was required to as-
certain the seat or cause of it, in order to offer a
remedy ; but with respect to hoven or blown ani-
mals, powerful stimulants should be administered,
and Rlr. Grouse recommended the different prepa-
rations of ammonia as likely to be the most effi-
cient.

"Li cases of scour in sheep, a small dose of
castor- oil to be given to remove any otfending
matter from the bowels, after which about four
grains of opium and one ounce of chalk, and then
put upon dry food,"

April 22nd — The preparation of the land for
vegetable crops, especially turnips and beetroot,
was the subject which engaged the attention of the
club.

The following resolution was passed : —

''Tiiat breaking up the land as deep as the soil
will permit immediately after harvest is highly ad-
vantageous, it being thereby more easily cleaned
nnd pulverized, and rendered in a better state for
the root crop. The seed to be planted upon the
ridge or Northumberland system : 27 inches apart
for mangel, and from 18 to 27 inches for turnips,
was also strongly recommended."

Blay 20fh — J he subject which stood for dis-
cussion was — on paring and burning earth — when
the following resolution was adopted : —

" That the application of burnt earth to heavy
and strong lands is highly beneficial, but injurious
to such soils as are principally composed of silici-
ous earth."

Jtme 2\tli — The fermentation of manures came
under consideration.

The member who commenced the subject, re-
commended that the manure should never be
carted from the yard except when in a moist state,
and if not wanted for immediate application to the
soil, to put it into a heap and compress it, by cart-
ing over it with the tumbril and horses, to prevent
rapid fermentation.

Another member recommended laying down a
quantity of earth, then carting the manure from
the yard upon it, and when the hill was com])leted,
to cover it with earth upon the top to prevent eva-
poration, and a short time before it was required
for use to stub it over and mix it together.

It was also thought the quality of the manure
would be much improved by allowing it to remain
in the yard a longer time than was generally the
practice, the urine and the other droppings from
the stock being absorbed, and retained by the in-
creased depth of straw and fodder.

Another member put the query, whether manure
is improved in quality by being sui)ject to any fer-
mentation.

There being a very short attendance of mem-
bers, and the subject being considered imjjortant,
and the want of chemical knowledge severely felt,
it was unanimously agreed to adjourn the consi-
deration of it to some future meetings, and that
Professor Henslow be respectfully invited to give
a lecture upon it.

At the next meeting the most advantageous
mode of consuming the root-crop came under dis-
cussion, Tiie member who hi ought it forward

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135

considered the manner of its disposal depended to
a certain extent on the nature of the soil upon
which the roots were grown, and lie thought the
most advantageous manner of consuming the tur-
nip crop was feeding sliecpupon the land.

After an interesting discussion, the following
resolution was agreed to : — Upon soils of a light
and mixed description the turnip crop is most ad-
vantageously and economically consumed by sheep
where they are grown ; the Scotch and Swede va-
lieties to be cut and put into troughs ; carrots to
he consumed by horses and colts ; potatoes, where
grown in large quantities, to be steamed or boiled,
and given to fatten bullocks and pigs : mangel to
be stored from the frost, and adapted for all des-
criptions of neat and sheep stock in the spring,
although if required, a small quantity may be
given to cows and pigs during the winter.

At the last meeting in Noveaiber, the subject of
liquid manures was brought forward by a mem-
ber who had tried its effects upon land intended
for barley and wheat, by applying about 16 hogs-
heads per acre to the soil about a month before
tbe seed was sown ; that for wheat was applied to
the old clover-lay a short time before it was
ploughed and no apparent increase visible in their
production ; but where he had applied the same
quantity to his pasture land, a great benefit resulted
from it. The application of it he also recommend-
ed to dung-hills, especially if required for imme-
diate use, as it caused a very quick decomposition,
and added materially to the quality of the ma-
nure.

Another member supported the opinion very
strongly of its beneficial application to pasture
lands, as tending materially to increase the produce,
and that it should be carted on in moist weather or
in the evening.

Other members were of opinion, if proper ma-
nagement was exercised in keeping the fatting
stock under sheds or in bouses, and a sufficient
quantity of straw allowed them for fodder, no
liquid of any value would escape, and it might
be entirely prevented by putting a layer of earth
at the bottom of the yards where the manure was
made.

After some desultory discussion, the following
resolution was agreed to : —

" That it is highly necessary to prevent, by every
])0ssible means, the escape of tbe liquid manuie,
although from the situation of different premisi s,
it is rather difficult to give any definite directions.
The general opinion was in favour of retaining it
in the straw, recommending all the buildings to be
troughed, and allowing no extra or surplus water
to run tbrough the manure-yard ; but where the
situations of the buildings renders this method
impracticable, that tanks be provided for its recep-
tion and applied to the pasture land."
The report concluded as follows : —
Your committee beg to remark, as we appear to
be arrived at a time when it will be necessary for
the British farmer to exert every energy in his
power and to cultivate the strictest economy in
his management, it becomes his duty by every
means to promote the success of societies like tbe
present, whose established object is the dissemi-
nation of every improved system ; and as the bene-
fits of association can only arrise from individual
support, they earnestly call upon one and all to
join heart and hand in promoting as far as possible
the noble cause in which we are engaged, and upon
the prosperity of which so many materially depend

for support ; and adopting the language of the

poet, would say —

" Success to the Hoof and the Horn,
Success to the Flock and the Fleece,
Success to the Growers of Corn,
With the blessings of Plenty and Peace."

The Rev. the PROFESsfiR Henslow -.—I have
permission to propose to you a toast, which I am
sure will meet with a hearty welcome. We all
know that societies of this description are chiefly
promoted — at least, the success of them is chiefly
promoted — by the officers who superintend their
proceedings. I need not say anything with re-
spect to the merits of the gentleman who presides
over this club. You have all experienced for three
years that no person could possibly have presided
in a better manner than he, or have kept you toge-
ther in better style. In his presence it would ill
become me to say much more on the subject j I
shall therefore propose the health of Mr. Kersey.
{Applause.)

The Chairman : — I rise from a sense of duty to
acknowledge the toast which has been so very
kindly proposed by the gentleman on my left, and.
which has been so cordially responded to by this
large and respectable assembly. The only answer
I can possibly make is, I feel deeply convinced that
nothing I have done — that in fact my poor services
do not in any way merit the compliment you have
paid me. I can, therefore, only echo back the
sentiment, that success may continue to attend the
Iladleigh Farmer's Club. But, as we are assembled
to commemorate our third anniversary, you will
perhaps allow me the liberty of taking a short re-
view of our past proceedings ; and in doing this, I
may say that when I consider the benefits whicli
have already arisen from the establishment of this
and similar societies — when I reflect upon the im-
portant and interesting topics connected with agri-
culture which have been brought under discussion
— when I remember the harmony of feeling that
has always prevailed at our meetings upon mutual
interchange of sentiment — when I reflect, as I do
with pleasure, upon the lectures delivered by the
learned Professor upon my left, directly and indi-
rectly connected with agriculture — when I recollect
and reflect upon all these things, I have only to
say, that the reminiscences of the Hadleigh Far-
mer's Club will always be interesting and profit-
able to my mind. (Applause.) But having taken
this short review of the past, you will allow me to
direct your attention to the future. I do not pre-
tend to be gifted with prophetic vision— I would
not cast a shade over the pleasing scene which now
presents itself before us ; neither would I check for
a moment the spirit of hilarity which now pervades
this meeting ; but you will allow me to urge upon
you the great importance of acquiring all the prac-
tical knowledge of agriculture which may come
within your reach. Remember that you are en-
tering upon the field of competition — I do not say
who your competitors are, and I will not say who
they may be ; but should they arise from every
quarter of the globe, I believe the determined and the
never-failing spirit of the agriculturist, aided, as I
trust he is, and as lie ever will be, by men of
science, by men of genius, and by men of talent —
by men whose names stand high in the page of
literature— and by men whose, I may say, uni-
versity honours adorn and dignify their brows —
with such assistance I believe we shall surmount

every difficulty : I believe we shall carry the palm

13(5

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

in pompetition, and I trust tlie British farmer will
continue to see his fields clotlicd Mith Hocks, and
his fields covered over with corn. (Ajiplause.)
Thus as English agriculture has flourished throu^^h
uncounted years, 1 trust it will continue, and that
Britain, the land of our fathers and the land of our
birth, will remain, as she ever has done,

" First flower of the eartli ;
First gem of the sea."

{Applause.) I now beg again to return my sincere
and grateful thanks for the honour I have received ;
and 1 can only regret that you have not appointed
for the ensuing year a chairman who would more
efliciently than myself discharge the impoitant and
interesting duties of the office, I have now the
pleasure and also the honour of introducing to your
notice the Reverend the Professor Henslow. {Loud
applaiige.)

The Kev. Professor Henslow, after the cheer-
ing had subsided, said. — You requested me to pre-
l^are for the present meeting some sort of statement
or report on the theory of manuring. I have, in
consequence, occupied all the leisure I could com-
mand since I met the club in October last, in stu-
dying the opinions of various authors, who have
treated the subject scientifically or practically. The
opportunity which I pos-sess of consulting pidjlica-
tions more immediately devoted to the practice of
husbandry is very limited, and there are several
authors, whose opinions I wish I could have seen,
but which I have had no means of examining.
Among those whom I have been able to consult, I
may mention Davy, Liebig, De Candolle, Sprengcl,
Payne, Daubeny, Johnston, the author of British
Husbandry in the Farmer's Scries of the Library
of Useful Knowledge, and the Edinburgh Encyclo-
paedia. I have also read all the papers relating to
this subject in the Journal of the Royal Agricultu-
ral Society, in the Garc^ner's Chronicle, and in
some of the later numbers of the Gardener's Maga-
zine. These are the chief materials from which I
have endeavoured to form my judgment. You all
know that I am entirely unacquainted with the
practical details of husbandry, and I have no
further acquaintance with a dunghill than what T
may have been able to cultivate by the sense of
smelling. When I tell you that the most experi-
enced chemical philosophers have pronounced the
subject of manuring to be one of the most intri-
cate, as it is one of the most important applications
of their science, you must not expect that the ex-
position I am about to give you can be otherwise
than imperfect. I do not pretend that it will con-
tain a thoroughly digested view of tlie great variety
of opinion which 1 have met with, but I offer it to
your notice merely as the impression left upon my
own mind of the present most plausible view of the
subject. I bring to this inquiry no greater know-
ledge of chemistry than what any man of liberal
education may be supposed to possess that has at-
tended two or three courses of chemical lectures in
a university, and has occasionally burnt his fingers
in attempting to repeat a few of the simpler experi-
ments which he may have seen his instructor per-
form. I have, certainly, no greater knowledge of
cliemistry than what I conceive every one enga"ed
in so important a pursuit as agriculture ought"^to
have acquired, as a matter of course, and as ])art of
his professional education, if hv. would hope to profit
by those researches of professed chemical jiliiloso-
pluTS, whicli are calculated to throw light upon the

science of husbandry, and enable him to turn to the
best advantage the means which he has at his com-
mand. For myself, I must confess that I have felt
somewhat in the position of the cock in the old
fable, who, whilst scratching on a dunghill,
stumbled upon a precious stone of which he could
make no use, and pi'ofessed that lie would rather
have found a single grain of barley than every such
precious stone in the world. I do not mean that
I have discovered any new fact of great value
whilst I was fulfilling the task you set me : new
facts are not to be discovered without experiment,
or personal observation. But 1 must declare that 1
have satisfied myself there are a vast number of
precious facts recorded in books, which are not
sufficiently known to the generality of practical
men. It is for you, gentlemen, 1o play the part of
agricultural lapidaries, and work up these precious
jewels into more marketable shapes, and contrive
to turn them into profitable commodities. I am
sure that you are not likely to play the part of dung-
hill cocks, and to despise such jewels when you
learn the real value of them. The general impres-
sion left upon my mind by tliese inquiries has been
of a mixed character. I have felt cheered atfinding
the decided progress wliich has been made, and the
good promise held out of further rapid advances ;
and 1 have been impressed by a feeling of regret
that the want of chemical knowledge prevents so
many practical men from either availing themselves
of the knowledge ali-eady acquired, or of adding
anything of real value to the common stock. I do
not say of my countrymen what the celebrated
German clicmist (Liebig) has declared of his, that
they have no desire to avail themselves of the infor-
mation which science proposes. I think I know the
spirit of the English nation much better than to say
tins of any class of my countrymen. 1 will quote to
you the opinion lie expresses of the present race of
German agriculturists : — " Agriculture has hitherto
never sought aid from chemical principles, based
on the knowledge of those substances which plants
extract from the soil on which they grow, and of
those restored to the soil by means of manure. The
discovery of such principles will be the task of a
future generation ; for what can be expected from
the present, which recoils with seeming distrust
and aversion from all the means of assistance
offered it*by<»chemistry, and whicli does not under-
stand the art of making a rational application of
chemical discoveries? A future generation, how-
ever, will derive incalculable advantage from these
means of help." Whatever may be the case in
Germany, I much prefer the view which Sir
Humphrey Davy took of the prospects of British
agriculture in his day, and which appears to be now
verifying to a very great extent. — " Science cannot
long be despised by any persons, as the mere spe-
culation of theorists ; but must soon be cnsidered
by all ranks of men in its true point of view — as tlic
refinement of common sense guided by experience,
gradually sul)stituting sound and rational principles
for vague poiiular prejudices. The soil offers inex-
haustible resources, which when properly appre-
ciated and employed, must increase our wealth, our
population, and our physical strength. We possess
advantages in the use of machinery, and the divi-
sion of labour, belonging to no other nation— and
the same energy of character, the same extent of
resources, whicli have always distiuiruished the
peopleof the British Islands, and made them excel in
arms, commerce, letters, and philosophy, apply witli

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

137

happiost effect to the improvement of the cultiva-
tion of the earth. Nothing is impossible to labour
aided by inoentiity."

Before I proceed to offer you my remarks, I
must ex[)ress a hope that no one will be induced
to adopt any suprgestions which I may happen to
make, without first experimentins; for himself on
a limited scale, before he ventures to ojjerale upou a
large one. My wish is to stimulate to enquiry, not
to dictate to practical men what it may he most
expedient for them to ado|)t — I have no desire to
direct, but to suggest. I fear that after-dinner
speeclies are not very «ell calculated lor convey-
ing thatdescrii)tion of information that is likely to
be of real profit to the listener ; but, as I see some
gentlemen of the press jjresent, who are pre])ared
to book my observations, I shall take the lil)erlyof
offering them my services in securini.'- a correct re-
l)rtrt of what I may say. With all due deference to
their ability to report me correctly, I know from ex-
perience that where persons are not i)crfect!y fami-
liar with the use of technical terms, imi)Grtant mis-
takes will sometimes creep in ; and, if my t.bscr-
vaiions are to go abroad, 1 should wish to avoid
anv such inaccuracy, lest it might tend to mislead.
With thi.s preamble, then, I proceed to my task.
Kut 1 must first beg you to have a little patience
witb me, and allow me to proceed in my own way.
I find, when an old woman with a long tongue has
to give evidence before me as a justice, that it is
always bsst to let her tell her story in her own
way, without interrupting her, or attempting to
arrive at the conclusion by some short cut. And
sn, if von shall think what I am about to state in
the first part of this addiess, to be somewhat irre-
levant, I trust you will bear with me, and jierhaps
you may find the second part of it a little more to
the purpose, for I propose to di\'ide this address
into two parts ; in the first of which I shall allude
to a few of the general principles of nutrition, and
in the second 1 shall eadeavour to show how it is
that manures are rendered serviceable according
to those principles. There exists so intimate a
connection between the different branches of
natural science, that it is impossible to treat of
any one of them without alluding to some other.
I find that I cannot well explain to you what are
the chemical principles involved in the theory of
manuring, without referring to the Jjotanical
principles upon which the nutrition of vegetables
is supposed to depend. I need not, however, on
the present occasion, refer you to more than two
of these principles, and they are of so simple a
character that every one may easily comprehend
the facts which they illustrate. All those plants
which are the objects of attention to agricidturiits
are jiossessed of roots and leaves. The roots are
the parts, or " organs," of the plants by -which
m:itter in a liquid state is absorbed into the sys-
tem ; and the leaves are the organs by which matter
in the gaseous state is exhaled, or discharged
from the system. A portion of the crude matter
absorbed by the roots is modified in the lea\es by
a peculiar ])iocess depending upon the action of
light, and is thereby fitted for affording nourish-
ment to all parts of the ])lant. It is nearly all the
rest which is exhaled in the form of gas, espe-
ciidly water, under the form of steam and oxygen.
There are many striking analogies l)et«-een the
functions performed by plants and animals ; only
plants are more simply organised than anin.als,
and their functions are fewer and not so compli-
cated. Plants are without that internal sack which

in animals we call the stomach, and with the prac-
tical use of which we have just lieen giving dis-
tinct evidence that we are well acquainted. Now
when animals have received food into this sto-
mach of theirs, it is immediately acted upon by
certain juices, secreted for the purpose, by which
it soon becomes converted into a semi-fluid mass,
called " chyme." Whilst this chyme is gradually
passing through the intestines, it is, in its turn,
acted upon by certain absorbing vessels, called
" lacteats," which take up from it a peculiar milky
fluid, which is named " chyle." 'J'his ch)'le is car-
ried along the lacteals into the veins, whore it is
mixed with the blood ; and after passing through
the lungs, whei'e certain changes are cflected, it is
itself converted into blood. The blood which has
thus been derived from the food of the animal
contains the materials necessary for th j nourish-
ment of all parts of the system, and circulates, as
we all know, through the whole body, la dilTeicnt
parts of the animal frame there are certain glands,
as the liver and the kidneys, &c., which are des-
tined to prepare peculiar secretions from the blood,
and to carrv off such matters as are not required,
or are no longer serviceable to the purposes of
nutrition. Uhese are discharged, as well as those
superfluous portions of the food which arc not
essential to the formation of the chyle. In com-
paring the nutrition of i>lants with that of animals,
we perceive some marl;ed differences, as well as
some general resemblances in the two processes.
Plants have no stomach, and there appears to be
no very direct analogy between the first process
in their nutrition, and in that of animals. Plants
absorb, indeed, through the extremities of their
roots, water holding many substances in solution;
but it is hardly correct to consider the extremities
of the roots as so many distinct mouths. There
are no openings at those points, neither does any-
thing in a solid state jiass into them, 'i'hey cannot
imbibe even the most impalpable powders — they
can absorb fluids only. This action then seems to be
more analogous to that of the lacteals in animals,
which absorb the chyle from the matters of the
intestines. There is also this great distinction to
he noted in the materials which afford food to plants
and food to anim.als, that whilst animals are fed
only from matter which has been previously or-
ganised (that is to say, which has formed part of
a living being, either animal or vegetable), plants
are nourished by materials which they prepare out
of inorganic matter. The water that enters their
system at the extremities of their roots contains a
small per centage of various earths, salts, and
grass, of which I shall say a few more words pre-
sently. Having been subjected to a process ana-
logous to the respiration of animals, the result is
the formation of that *' j)roper juice" of plants,
which may be considered as their blood. So that
what entered in the form of inorganic matter has
become changcl into organic. Though chemists
are able to imitate nature in compounding various
inorganic substances out of the simple elements,
they cannot so prepare any jiortion of organised
matter. It requires the agency of life, of vege-
table life, to effect this in the fir.st instance. Vege-
table life is the power, if I may be allowed the
expression, which the Creator applies to that en-
gine or laboratory which we call a plant, for the
pur])Ose of combining a. few elements in those par-
ticular proportions in which the)' constitute " or-
ganic matter.'' It is upon the continued jiroduc-
tion of organic matter out of inorganic, that the

138

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

very existence of all animals depends. No animal can
feed directly upon inorganic matter, upon eartlis,
salts, or grasses, &c. When beasts and birds of
prey devour the ilesh of other animals, they still
feed on matter which was originally derived from
the vegetable kingdom. So true to the very letter is
the gi neral declaration announced in the first chap-
ter of Genesis :— " And to every beast of the earth,
and 10 every fowl of the air, and to evervlhingthat
crecpeth upon the earth, wherein there is life, I
have given every green herb for meat." A great
variety of matters aie to be found in different
parts of organised beings, whether animal or
vegetable ; but several of these substances do not
appear to be absolutely essential to their consti-
tution. Several have been accidentally introduced
\yith the ordinary food, and do not occur at all
times in the system. Others, again, form only a
very sniiTl per centago of organised matters, al-
though their more constant presence seems to
show us that they arc absolutely necessary to its
formation—or at least to tbe healthy condition of
the individual. Setting aside for the present all
considerations of such substances as these, we
find the inain bulk of that organised matter of
which animals and vegetables are composed, is
formed out of only three or four elements, united
in a considerable diversity of proportions. In the
three lectures which I have had the pleasure of de-
livering to the Club during the past year, I endea-
voured to make j ou acquainted, by experiments
and illustrations, with the nature of those four
elements which enter most largely, though we cannot
say exclusively, into the compositions of organised
matter. Those elements are carbon, oxygen, hy-
drogen, and nitrogen. The three first are the
principal components of plants, though nitrogen is
also essentially present in small proportion; not as
it should seem in their very tissues, but in some of
the organicproducts formed within them. Nitrogen
enters more largely with the general composition of
animal matter. lean imagine that there arc persons
who, not being familiar witii chemical terms and
ideas, may have seen no use in my attempts to ex-
plain them. Certainly, to those who have no desire
to become acquainted with the first principles of
chemistry, such e.'fplanations can be of very little
service; but to those who consent to turn their
attention to the acquisition of such knowledge,
those technical terms wliich it is necessary to em-
ploy will soon become as familiar as household
words; and you will find the woids carbon, and
oxygen, and hydrogen, and nitrogen, to bring to
your iccollection as distinct ideas as the words
turrow and stetch. When I came to^reside in Suf-
folk, little more than three years ago, I recollect
that at our first village ploughing match, I was
obliged to inquire the difference between a furrow
and a stetch ; but I have not forgotten what I was
then told. tJuch information, however, is not
very likely to be of much use to mc in my pursuits,
whilst a correct apprehension of such terms as
those to whicii I have alliuled may certainly be-
come of real service to you, provided you wish
to advance a few steps towards the acquirement of
chemical knowledge. Since I have said that ani-
mals are wholly dependent upon the vegetable
kingdom for their nourishment, and «ince plants
contain less nitrogen than animals, we may per-
ceive one reason why animals discharge so large
a portion of their food in the form of excrement,
without its having ever entered into the composi-
tion of the chyle. 1 have stated that whilst all

animals require previously organized matters
for their food, plants are nourished by
forming their nutritious juices out of unorga-
nized matter. I'his assertion may seem to he
contradicted by the fact, that the manures which
are most frequently applied in culture, are or-
ganic. It is also certain, thatif plants are watered
with weak solutions of certain organic products,
as gum and sugar, they will thrive upon such
nourishment. With respect to organic manures,
I have undertaken to shosv you presently how it
is supposed that they served to nourish plants ;
but I am not prepared to say how such soluble
substances as gum and sugar, when introduced by
absorption at the roots, are acted upon by the sys-
tem. I do not think it has been clearly ascertained
whether they are directly assimilated or not. In
the case of parasitic plants which absorb a nutri-
tious juice directly from those plants to which they
are attached, we see an example where it is not
necessary that plants should prepare such juices
for themselves. So in the case of the foetus, which
we find to depend for nourishment upon the blood
prepared by the mother ; but, even if it be pos-
sil)le to nourish plants by certain soluble organic
matters, without these undergoing atiy previous
decomposition in the way, we shall presently show
to be necessary in all ordinary cases ; still we
must see that wild plants are never dependent for
their nourishment upon the juices of others. Tliey
must cater for themselves out of the abundant na-
tural supply of inorganic materials prepared for
them. Some plant or other may grow on any
spot of the earth's surface below the limits of per-
petual snow, and not absolutely in the burning
crater of a volcano, provided it can obtain a suf-
ficiency of moisture. It is moisture that plants
require in tlie first instance. Water of itself can
supply them with two out of the four elements es-
sential to the formation of organized matter.
Water is a compound of oxygen and hydro-
gen ; but all water on the earth's surface na-
turally contains also carbonic acid, which is
a compound of carbon and oxygen. This sub-
stance is every where present in small pro-
portion in the atmosphere, and is readily dis-
solved in all waters, so that the rains and dews
cannot descend upon the earth without bearing
with tliatn some jiortion of it into the soil, from
whence it may be absorbed by the roots together
with the water in which it is dissolved. Plants,
it has I)een clearly established, derive their carbon
by decomposing carbonic acid, 'i'he carbon is
fixed, and the oxygen discharged so long as their
leaves are exposed to the influence of light. Al-
though nitrogen forms the greatest portion of our
atmosphere, plants do not obtain it directly from
this supply. It should be remembered, as a fact
of imjiortance to the theory of manuring, that no
element in its free state is directly assimilated by
plants, 'ihosc elements out of which they pre-
pare organic matters, are obtained ))y the decom-
position of comiiound substances. The material
which is now considered to furnish nitrogen to
plants is ammonia. 'I his is a compound of nitrogen
and hydrogen, and is found dispersed through the
atmosphere, though in very minute projiortion.and
in combination with carbonic acid. So that we
ouglit rather to say, that it is the carbonate of am-
monia, that substance commonly called " smelling
salts," and not ammonia itself, which is the source
from whence plants obtain their nitrogen. There
may possibly be other substances besides watei-,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

139

carbonic acid, and cailionate of ammonia, from
which plants may derive one or other of ilie four
elements of which they are mainly composed ;
hut this has not been thoroughly and so satisfactorily
shown to be the case as with regard to ilic three
above mentioned, it will he observed that whilst
water may sujiply two, and carbonic acid two of
these elements, the carbonate of ammonia contains
all the four.

Having now given you this rapid and imperfect
sketch of the mode in which vegetables are
nourished out of certain inorg;anic compounds,
whose elements th -y re-arrange into the form of
organic niaitcr, I shall pause a little, before 1 enter
upon the second part of my address, that we may
be able to proceed with the more regular business
of an anniversary dinner.

The (Chairman : I have now the pleasing duty
of proposing the health of a gentleman, whose
very \aluable services have placed the lladleigh
Farmer's Clab under great obligations. It is very
evident wc have arrived nt a period of time when
science and practice must be combined, and when
we see gentlen:en of acknowledged talent and pa-
triotic mind willing to come forward to our assist-
ance, I have only to add that they place iis under
very deep and lasting obligations {Jpplause). I
am hnppy to congratulate the meeting upon the
fact, that the Reverend the Professor on my left,
distinguished as he is by literary fame, by the
rank he enjoys, and by the honour he receives
from the University of Cambridge, has conde-
scended upon this occasion to give us a lecture upon
a subject deeply and intimately connected with
agriculture. I have only to repeat that I have
great pleasure in proposing the health of Profes-
sor Henslow (Applause.)

The Rev. the Professor Henslow : I feel ex-
ceedingly obliged by the kind expressions that
have fallen from the Chairman, and my thanks are
equally due for the kind manner in which you have
received the toast. I have now been connected
with the Hadleigh Fanner's Club sufficiently long
to convey to you the assurance that it affords me
the greatest pleasure if I can at anv time afford
either instruction or amusemeut ; and I trust that
as long as it pleases God to continue me in health
and strength, I shall always have inclination and
opportunity to co-operate with you in your inves-
tigations (Loud applause.)

Song — ?dr. Hardacre, "England, the land of my
soul."

Mr. Last proposed the health of the Vice-Pre-
sident.

Mr. Rand returned thanks, expressing the jdea-
sure he felt in being connected with a society so
exceedingly respectable and liberal.
* The Secretary then read the awards to the suc-
ces^^ful competitors.

Mr. Rand proposed the health of the judges of
cattle, Mr. Turner, of Woodbridge; Mr. Hud-
son, of Romford : and Mr. Holton, of Wiston ; as
well as the healths of the judges of roots, Mr. Sal-
lows, Mr. Hawkins, Mr. Norman, and Mr. Mat-
thews, with the thanks of the club for their exer-
tions (Applause).

Mr. Turner returned thanks in behalf of him-
self and the judges, expressing the pleasure he
felt individually in being present to witness their
interesting proceedings.

The Reverend the Professor then resumed : —
I am now arrived at that part of my enquiry which
must be considered of main importance to the

agriculturist — the manner in which manures may
be supposed to supply plants with materials for
supporting the functions of nutrition. I propose
first to say a few words on the theory in general,
and then 1 shall notice the composition and eftects
])rodiiced by certdii specific manures. Ry so doing
I hope to be able to confirm and siii)i)0rt the theory
in a way which may make it more thoroughly in-
telligible. If we regard manures as the actual food
of plants, we muf.t look upon the soil as the
stomach of the vegetable kingdom. For it is ne-
cessary that certain changes sliould take place in
all organic manures which are placed in the soil
before they can benefit the plants they are intended
to nourish. The farmer, therefore, should as
carefully watch the condition of this capacious
plant-stomach, as a skilful jjhysician would be at-
tentive to the digestion of a dyspeptic patient.
He must remember that his crops are not under
the sole care of nature ; who never would have
placed them in the soil or situation where he
chooses they shall live. ^Vhen left to nature,
plants, like animals, will range themselves spon-
taneously over the surface of the earth in those
regions and localities where each, after its kind,
may have its peculiar wants supplied by the cli-
mate, soil, or other circumstances best adapted to
its constitution. V.'hatever each receives from the
soil, that it restores again in the natural progress
of decay. But still, whatever a plant derives im-
mediately from the soil, forms, as we have said, a
very small proportion of its entire bulk; being
only that small percentage of ashes which remains
fixed, after all the rest which can be dissipated by
burning. The main bullc of every plant being de-
rived from water, carbonic acid, and carbonate of
ammonia (matters which are primarily derived
from the atmosphere) cannot be considered as any
part of the soil, though plants absorb them from
the soil after they have found their way into it.
When a plant dies and is decomposed, these three
ingredients are again formed duringits decay, and
arc restored to the atmosjihere. And yet no
practical man considers that his crops can feed on
air alone; but he is careful to supply them with
manures of various kind, solid or liquid, organic
or inorganic: and experience teaches him that
hU crops have relished such food. But for all that,
plants do not attack such food directly. Such
food is often useless, even poisonous, to them in
its raw and unaltered state. It must be first di-
gested, (as it were) either before it is put into the
soil, or whilst it is beneath the soil, in order that
those particular inorganic compounds may be
formed out of it, which plants absorb in the way
I have described, and from which they form or-
ganic matter. We may then, 1 think, consider the
fermentation, putrefaction, and decomposition of
organic manures, as a substitute for digestion in
the feeding of plants, when we compare their
functions with those of animals. By this process
the elements composing an organic manure are
restored to the condition of inorganic matter, and
then they combine afresh to form those
inorganic compounds from which plants prepare
their proper juices. As for the few inorganic mat-
ters found in the ashes of plants, the presence of
some of them is no doubt essential to the healthy
condition and even to the existence of particular
species ; and therefore it is quite necessary that
they should be restored to the soil. In many
cases it is probably even more necessary that
these inorganic matters should be replaced, than

140

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

those organic parts of cortnin manures whicl^
serve to keep ii[> a supply of the four most ahun-
ilunt elements of vegetation. For nature cannot
rea'lily restore to the soil the various inorganic
matters which may be gradually abstracted by
continued cropping; but she can always do so
with respect to water, carbonic acid, and carbonate
of ammonia ; as for instance, during a fallow-
When we snpply organic manures capable of re-
storing the thrf'e last named substances to the soil,
we arc hastening the operations of nature in this
respect. Now, with regard to one of these three
substances, water, the aid we tlinsafford to nature
must be very trifling, compared with the supply
which she herself so bountifully furnishes. With
respect to another of them, carbonic acid,
her supply is at all times generous, since
every drop of water that penetrates the soil
carries with it a certain amotmt of this
ingredient, in solniion. Still it is very pos-
sible that the decomposition of organic manures,
under particular circumstances, and indeed, in or-
dinary cases, do render very effectual aid, in di-
rectly afibiding a large additional supply of carbo-
nic acid for the nourishment of plants. It was
considered by Sir II. Davy that this supply of
carbonic acid was the principal benefit derived
from the decomposiiioti of organic manures ; but
more recent experiments appear to have placed it
beyond doubt, that the regular supply of ^he car-
bonate of ammonia is of far greater im])ortancc.
Although plants require little of this material for
furnishing the small quantity of nitrogen neces-
sary to their growth, yet it must always be pre-
sent to a certain amount, or they cannot live.
I>ittle as they require, and ample as the supjdy
may be for plants growing spontaneously, it ap-
pears that in removing crops from the soil, we
abstract the carbonate of ammonia which is re-
tained there, more rapidly than nature cm readily
restore it. Hence the necessity of furnishing the
soil with organic manure, or at least with some
material which may afford nitrogen to the ensuing
crop. Such being the general theory on which
chemists explain the manner how it is that or-
ganic manures are considered to act, I shall now
proceed to an examination of some of those spe-
cific manures which farmers are in the liabit of
])roviding for their crops.

That which is generally admitted to be the most
important of all manures to the British farmer,
and of which he is most careful to obtain a supply,
is the common farm-yard manure from which
dunghills are prepared. This is composed partly
of vegetable matter, and partly of the dnng and
urine of aninrals. On putting such manure into
the soil, we are evidently restoring the inorganic
matters which were taken directly from it, and in
addition we are supplying it with a quantity of
organic matter. When this organic matter is de-
composed (but not until then) it affords the three
inorganic compounds, water, carbonic -acid, and
carbonate of ammonia, essential to the nutrition
of plants. It is a subject fif anxiety to agricultu-
rists, to ascertain the extent to which they should
allow the i)rocess of decomposition to be carried
in the dunghill ; or, whether they need allow the
materials to ferment at all, before they are applied
to the land. The question is not yet considered
to be completely decided. Whatever 1 have to
say on the subject must therefore Ik; viewed as
suggestions for further en(iuiry. I shall h«^rc set
aside all considerations of the extent of those be-

nefits which may be afforded by the vast variety
of matters to be found in a dunghill after it has
been i boron- hly rotted ; and 1 sb.all confine my at-
tention to the consideration of the single ingredi-
ent, the carbonate of ammonia. Ammonia itself
is said to exist frequently in small quantity in the
excrements of animals, more especially in
their urine. U'e must, however, look for
our main supply to the decomposition of a
variety of organic pvoduds, which are either
dissolved in the mine, or more sparingly in-
termixed with the solid excrement. The whole
of such materials, however, form a very small
per centage in the entire mass. In urine, lor
instance, water alone forms above 1)0 per cent.,
and of the materials which mal;e up the remain-
der, some of them contain no nitrogen at all. In
the progress of the decomposition of those pro-
ducts which contain nitrogen, this element is set
free, and immediately unites with hydrogen, also
set free, and the result is ammonia. But ammo-
nia cannot exist long in a free state in the atmos-
I)here. It enters into ready combination with any
acid it may meet with. Now carbonic acid is ano-
ther of the inorganic compounds which is formed
in abundance duiing the progiess of the decom-
position ; and some portions of it enter into im-
mediate combination with the ammonia, and the
result is a new substance, the carbonate of a'^imo-
nia. Ammonia itself is highly volatile ; it rises
readily into the air and is dispersed. t.'arbonate
of ammoni.i is also volatile, and escapes in a simi-
lar manner, though not with equal rapidity. In
its solid state it is a white substance, looking some-
thing like a piece of marble ; and I will hand
round the table a lump of it for your inspection.
You will find that it emits a iiighly pungent odour,
and if any gentleman present is unacquainted
with the smell of a dunghill, he may obtain a no-
tion of what it is like by smelling at this lump of
carbonate (f ammonia. Though this substance is
so volatile, it is readily dissolved in water, and
will then be retained for a considerable time, the
evaporation going on very slowly, except the tem-
perature be somewhat elevated. It has been stated
that gypsum may be advantageously employed in
effecting the decomposition of the carbonate of
ammonia, as fast as it is formed in the dunghill.
The consequence would be, that we should have
the sidphate of ammonia, instead of the carbonic ;
and that salt is not volatile. But though plants
may be able to obtain their nitrogen from ammo-
nia, or the carbonate of ammonia, it does not fol-
low that they may therefore do so from the snl-
jfhate, or any other of the salts of ammonia. This
is a subject which chemists have not yet fully elu-
cidated. It seems, however, to ])C quite certain,
that all the salts of ammonia do produce a benefi- *
eial effect on vegetation ; and therefon; it is highly
important to secure as nurny of them as ])ossible,
whether by retaining the liquid in which some may
be dissolved, or by preventing the escape of such of
them as can assume the gaseous state. Perhaps I
maybe permitted to allude to a trifling- exjieriment
which any of you can easily leiieut, and which may
serve to show liow the ammonia may be fixed in
the state of the sulphate of ammonia upon decom-
posing the carbonate with gypsmn. If you place
in a wine-glass a little powdered carbonate of am-
mom'a, with a little more than an eqiuil ()uantity
of powdered gypsum, or of jdaster of Paris, which
is burnt gypsum, you will still ])erceive the strong
odour of the carbonate of annnonia. But if you

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

141

now aild a liltle water to the mixture, ami ^lir it
well, tlie odour iuiniecliGtely ceaiscsi, and a sliylit et-
t'ervcsccnce in the "'ass shows us that a cheniieal
action is taking pUice; and if wo were to examine
tlie result at the end of a little time, wc should find
it consist of carbonate of lime and sulphate of am-
monia. Tlie affinities of lime and ammonia for the
sulphuric and carbonic acids areso nearly balanced,
that a mere difference in temperature will deternn"ne
which of the two shall combine with each ; and it
is a singular fact, tljat if carbonate of lime (chalk)
bo mixed with sulphate of ammonia, and tlicn mois-
tened, a reaction takes place; and whilst the sul-
\Amlc of Innc (gi/psumj is forming, the carbonate
of ammonia (which is also formed) gradually es-
cajjcs, till the water becomes pure, with nothing
but the nearly insoluble sulphate of lime left in the
glass. AVithout detaining you further with any
disquisition on these effects, I recommend you to
try such simple experiments as may seem to make
the matter clearer to yourselves. Since the whole
amount of the salts of ammonia which may be
]irocured during the decomposition of the organic
matters in a dunghill, depends upon the quantity
of nitrogen which these may contain ; it is evident
that under ordinary circumstances, a portion only
of that amount has been preserved at the end of the
process : since there has been a constant escape of
some jiart of the carbonate of ammonia, in an invi-
sible form, whilst the process of decomposition was
"■oin" on. It should seem, therefore, a prudent step
to get the mamireinto theground as speedily as pos-
sible j and perhaps oven before the decomposition of
the mateiialshas commenced; or at least before it is
much advanced. But let us look a little more atten-
tively at this important question before we cornc
to ally dcfinirc cotichisions. Sup])Ose I represent
the quantity of nitrogen contained in tlie organic
matter of a certain poition of unrotted manure,
by 100. Snijposc that this gradually combines
with hvdrogen, and forms 100 paits of ammonia,
and this again combines with carbonic acid, and
forms 100 parts of carbonate of ammonia. In
such an estimate of the amount of these several
materials, 1 make no allusion to their respective
weights ; I am merely looking to the relative pro-
portion between the atoms of each substance, and
this will be tbc same in the compounds as in the
simple element nitrogen. Whiht this formation
of lOO jiarls of carbonate of ammonia was pro-
ceeding, let us suppose that half of this substance
escaped into the atmosjihere, and the other half
was retained, some how or other, in the manure.
AVo may suppose the moisture retains it ; or
that it has been decomposed by some acid, as the
humic acid, or the sulphuric acid, and that the
salts thus formed are dissolved in the liquid parts
of the manure. At the end of the process, then,
we shall find fifty parts of ammonia, in some form
or other in our rotted manure; the other fifty
parts having been lost. Compared with unrotted
manure, then, it is enriched by these fifty parts of
serviceable material, whilst there is not an atom
of any such in the other. Suppose we now put a
certain quantity of unrotted manure into a patch
of ground, and leave a like quantity till it has
become thoroughly rotted, and put it also into
another patch of ground of the same dimensions.
In the latter case we apidy, suppose, fifty parts of
the fixed ammonia directly to the soil, ready for
the crop ; but in the former case we have not any.
Still in the unrotted dung we have the 100 {)arts
of nitrogen, capable of forming 100 parts of am-

monia. Provided, then, we can secure the condi-
tions necessary for cfiecting tlie decomposition of
tlie manure after it lias been placed in the earth,
we shall now have command over 100, and not
.50 i)arts only of ammonia, in some form or other.
But i)0sslbly the decomposition may not com-
mence, or not jirocecd with sufficient rapidity to
benefit the crop to the same extent as the already
rotted manure. Let us suppose, however, that it
does begin immediately, and that whilst the crop
is growing, 50 parts of the nitrogen have been
usefully employed in keeping up a regular supply
of ammonia. 'J'he unrotted manure will then have
done its duty as efficiently, and perhaps more so,
than the rotted ; and when the crop is removed
there will still remain oO jiarts of the nitro-
gen which has not j'ct been abstracted. It does
not follow that the whole of this can be rendered
available for the succeeding crop ; for the decom-
position will proceed, possibly with an increasing
rapidity, fo that before another crop can be bene-
fitted by the nitrogen that was left, this may be
greatly dimitiishcd. I don't mean to say that this
can be considered a precise representation of
what can really happen in any case; but it may
serve to show you the complexity of the subject,
and why it is that wc cannot always ex])ect so
great an advantage from the use of unrotted ma-
nure as wc might have fancied wc should have
done. The process of i)utrcfaction requires a
certain degree of heat, of moisture, and the ac-
cess of air, or it cannot talie place. 'I'his process
may, therefore, be very much advanced or re-
tarded by the particular circumstances. Thus,
for instance, in a very dry sandy soil the vegeta-
ble matter of the manure may be preserved for
some time, as cfFcctually as the dried plants in my
herbarium ; here moisture was required. Ur, in
a stiff clay, the ready access of air may be cut off,
and the decomposition, in consequence, proceed
very slowly. Lastly, the weather may be too cold,
and thus decomposition may be entirely arrested.
We all know that in Russia the markets are sup-
plied during the winter, with frozen provisions,
and that these will keep jjcrfectly fresh as long as
the frost lasts. Indeed, there seems to be no limit
to the length of time which organized matter
may be preserved in ice ; and I dare say that most
persons here present have heard of the entire
mammoth which had been embedded in the ice of
Siberia, in all probability, for thousands of years,
until it was thawed out one hot summer, when
the dogs and bears devoured the flish. 'J'he skele-
ton and parts of the skin are still preserved in the
museum at St. Pctersburgh. I have, perhaps, been
unnecessarily tedious in these remarks, but I wish
to impress upon you how requisite it is that every
farmer, or at hast every superintendent of agri-
cultural proceedings, should be able to determine,
upon correct principles, to what extent he should
allow his manure to decompose before he makes
use of it, in order that he may apply it to the very
best advantage. He must distinctly understand
that the longer he suffers any organized matter to
continue rotting, the less nitrogen he can com-
mand for the formation of ammonia and the salts of
ammonia. In cases where the greatest good may
be expected from using the manure in its unfer-
mented or very slightly decomposed state, there
is an objection, of a mechanical nature, to its ap-
plication, on account of the difficulty of getting
the long straw into the ground. But surely any
mechanical difiicidty may easily be overcome in

142

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

an age of mechanical contrivances. I have no
doubt that our Ipswicli friends, Messrs. Ransome
and May, would readily invent, if such an instru-
ment shouhl ever be required, soniy smasher or
crusher of long muck, which would iiiasticnte this
plant-food as effectually as our own jaws have
cliopped up the excellent dinner we had lately on
the table. Science certainly advises against any
long- continuance of the jjrocess of decomposition,
and her suggestions in this respect are backed by
a recorded practice of the late Lord Leicester, to
whose opinions all practical men will be willing
to lend most serious attention. He is stated to
have said that by allowing farm yard manure to
be only half rotted, lie found it went twice as far
as when entirely rotted. I think I do not mis-
state him ; and that he also had adopted the prac-
tice at the suggestion of Sir H. DavJ^ I am careful
not to give any very positive advice on practical
matters, but I shall venture to forego a little of
my caution in what I have to say further on the
subject of dunghills. Much is yet to be learnt as
to the best mode of preparing and employing
farm yard manure ; but I think, that as a general
rule of management, farmers should he more anxi-
ous about retarding than accelerating its decom-
position. Whenever tbey perceive a great heat
arising, and a strong smell escaping, they may
know that the chemical action is violent, by which
the re- arrangement of the elementary substances
it contains is taking place ; and the carbonate of
ammonia will be rapidly forming and escaping.
They should take precautions to prevent this. Just
attention should be paid to mixing the materials
as equably as possible, and I will even venture
to recommend, till good reason shall be shown
against such jjracticc, that a little powdered gj'p-
sum be scattered from time to time over the mate-
rials as they accumulate. It can do no harm, and
I believe may do much good. Let a sufficient
quantity of water be sprinkled over it, to wet the
gypsum thoroughly. If the manure is to be kept
for anytime, it may be covered over with the
richest mould, which will retain some portion of
the escaping carbonate of ammonia; and if peat
can he procured conveniently, it may be ser-
viceable for the same purpose. But I must not
trespass upon you by entering into details of this
sort, which you will find bettir explained by prac-
tical writers. I should certainly avoid using limo
on the dunghill ; and I do not understand the use
of covering a dunghill with chalk, which I see is
sometimes the practice of this neighbourhood.
Those who adojjt it no doubt find it beneficial ; but
I question whether they would not be equally bene-
fitted by carting the chalk directly on to the land.
If some parts of our enquiry are encumbered with
difficulties and uncertainty, there arc some points
upon which I find both scientific and jiractical
writers a])pear most cordially to agree, and upon
which indeed I should have thought very little
judgment was required, it should be no question
with a furraer that he cannot be too careful in the
preparation and preservation of his manure. It
should at all times be under his immediate inspec-
tion and control. The too common practice of
leaving it exposed by the roadside is as impolitic
as it is illegal. A proper place should be provided,
where it may be jirotected from undue influences
of the weather, and where the farmer may secure
from waste every droj) of that rich brown liquid
which I so often see oozing out and runningaway,
but which may be considered as the very life blood

of his crops. There are sundry suggestions to be
met with in professed treatises on the subject, and
I shall not presume to decide which is the best
mode of preparing a site for the dunghill. I'erhaps
a fiooting of asphalte might be useful in some cases
instead of stone or brick. If the practice of leaving
dunghills by the roadsides is objectionable, on a
variety of accounts, so I consider there can be no
doubt it is wrong to carry such manure on the
land in the manner generally adojjted in this
neighbourhood. I see it for a fortnight together
scattered over the field in little hilloclis. If there
are any matters capable of rising in a gaseous
state, their escape must be facilitated by such a
process; and if there be any liquid matters oozing
from the manure, they will penetrate the soil im-
mediately under each hillock in undue proportion.
I must incline to the practice of those districts
where, I have been informed, whilst the manure
is carted on the land in rapid succession of load
after load by one set of men, another set of men
attends to put it under grountJ as soon as possible.
Having spoken so fully on the subject of farm-
yard manure, I shall not attempt to discuss very
minutely the differences between this and other
organic manures. The chief objection to farm-
yard manure is its bulk, and perhaps the day is
arriving when means will be contrived for extract-
ing from it all that is really essential to vegeta-
tion in some very small compass. I shall now pass
on to what must be considered a still more impor-
tant description of manure than that which I have
just mentioned, although in this country we are
far behind other nations in understanding its pro-
per management. 1 shall quote to you a passage
from Sprengel on the subject : — "Although there
can be no doubt that night-soil is one of the
strongest manures, it is still in most places ma-
naged with less care than any, and in many alto-
gether neglected ; yet the greater or less value
attached to it in any country is certainly a proof of
the degree in which the agriculture of that country
is advanced. Where pains are taken with it, hus-
bandry will be found in other respects excellent ;
where it is little thought of, the art in general will
usually be less perfect." In these observations I
perfectly coincide. Both theory and an intelligent
practice unite in declaring that the mixture of
fscces and urine, termed night-soil, is among the
forms of animal excrement which abound the
most in nitrogen. Besides this, such a material
must contain all those inorganic substances, to be
found in the food of man, some of which may not
be restored to the earth with the excrement of
other animals, because they may not have formed
an essential part of those plants noon which they
fed. In the case of wheat, for instance, though
we restore the straw to the earth, still the seeds
may have required that something should be ex-
tracted from the soil, essential to their develop-
ment, and which may not be retained in the straw
itself; this, in fact, is known to be the case. Such
a substance would not necessarily be returned to
the soil, in restoring the straw alone, or even the
dung of other animals, which may never be fed on
corn. But such a substance would be restored by
the use of night-soil. The rapidity with which
this manure enters into decomposition renders its
managetnent more intricate, and fully justifies
Sjirengel's remark. If, then, the farmeis of Kng-
land are prepared to avail themselves of what he
tells them, I have no doubt they will soon find itto
be wxU woith their while to establish sonic gene-

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143

ral system of saving every particle of night-soil
they can command in the towns and villages. I
would go further in my recommendation, and,
though my advice may seem ironical, I believe it
to be sound and wLolesome advice. I would say
to tliem, to care less about the number of cattle
you may require for securing an abundance of
manure, and feed your labourers well and better
than tliey are now fed, and you will find it more
to your interests to do so. I shall not dilate upon
the manner in whicli night-soil should ba pre-
pared, but content myself with the statement that
there are means for entirely depriving it of un-
pleasant odour. It can be no small convenience to
be able to concentrate the useful part of twenty-
five tons of farm-yaivl manure into thirteen bush-
els ; and this is about the proportion in which ti
given quantity of night-soil is said to excel the
more bulky material. The liquid portions of
animal excrement contain the gre;itest quantity of
nitrogen ; hut the effects they produce are more
transient from the rapidity with which they de-
compose ; so that great waste must occur unless
they are applied in a very diluted state, and from
time to time whilst the crop is growing. If it
were expedient to apply such manure, little at a
time and fi'equently, the effects would probably ex-
ceed those of all other kinds. I'ut the manage-
ment of liquid manure requires tact and experi-
ence. Perhaps in places where it is secured from
waste by being collected in tanks, the constant pre-
sence of gypsum would be found very serviceable.
With respect to other organic manures of animal
origin, I need say scarcely anything — they are all
serviceable — not a particle of them should ever be
wasted — every farm-yard might have some pit or
general receptacle for all kinds of offal, blood,
feathers, dead rats, mice, or whatever else is of
animal origin — by covering such matters with
earth (and again I would add a little gypsum), and
mixing with them some vegetable refuse, a rich
compost might be prepared of great use in
the good cause. There is one description of
animal manure upon which I wish to make a few
remarks. Every one is aware of the value of bone
manure, of which such immense importations Lave
taken place of late years. The effects produced by
fresh bones must be considered of a two-fold charac-
ter ; one depending upon the decomposition of the
organic matters in the bone, and the other on
that produced by the action of the earthy or inor-
ganic matter, which is chiefly phosphate of lime.
Those who have never seen the experiment tried,
will be surprised to find how large a portion of
every bone, and even of the teeth, is composed of
animal matter. I have here prepared two bones
from a leg of mutton which I will send to the
right and left round the table. They have been
steeped for a few hours in dilute muriatic acid,
which has extracted ewry particle of earthy mat-
ter without very materially altering their general
appearance. But if you take them in your hand,
you will find they are as flexible as if they were
made of leather.' This explains the use of bones
in the manufacture of glue, or in making soup,
so large a quantity of animal matter must be ser-
viceable in its decomposition in supplying am-
monia. Intermixed as it is with the earthy parts
of the bone, it decomposes very slowly ; and traces
of it may be found in the fossil bones which have
been buried in caves and dens of extinct animals
which perished thousands of years ago. But when
all this animal matter has been extracted from

bones, whether by boiling, burning, or by
long decay, the earthy matter that remains is also
a most valuable manure. It is chiefly composed of
phosphate of lime, a substance of at least one of
the materials of which, seems to he very generally
if not universally essential to the structure of
plants, or the perfecting of their seed. Very lit-
tle of it, however, is taken up by each individual
plant. The same substance forms the greater
part of that particulur form of dog's excrement,
called " album gicccum," of the shells of crabs and
lolisters, &;c. It is highly advisable that all such
matters should be added to the compost pit. Some
simple contrivance may be employed for breaking
them into small pieces, or for reducing them to
powder. Perhaps something on the principal of a
stamper ; a vertically-placed beam of timber with
an iron shoe, which may be raised and then al-
lowed to fallen the materials to be crushed. It
should be remembered that diflercnt animal ma-
nures enter into decomposition with very differ-
ent degrees of rapidity. Those which are soft and
juicy readily decompose, whilst such substances
as horn, hair, feathers and woollen rags are some-
times not thoroughly decomposed till after the
lapse of several years'. These latter are generally
much the richest in nitrogen.

With respect to organic manures of vegetable
origin, I shall say but very little. 'J'hey confjin lit-
tle nitrogen compared with animal manures. They
ought all to be carefully collected, and added to the
compost heap. Even the docks which are now pul-
led uj) in full seed, and placed in the middle of the
road, 1 presume for the purpose of disseminating
them in all directions, might be collected before they
went to seed, and added to the general stock. The
more juicy the vegetable matter the more readily it
decomposes; but even the decomposition of the
more fibrous kinds may be secured by mixing them
with other matters. In foreign countries, farmers
seem to make inuch greater use of manuring with
green crops, by ploughing them in before they have
gone to seed, than is considered to be expedient
among ourselves. Perhaps there may be cases _m
which attention to this practice would not be mis-
placed. If a fallow be required for improving the
condition of the soil, and not merely for destroying
weeds, then I can conceive that a green crop, which
may be sufl'cred to grow for the sole purpose of
being ploughed in, might be of real benefit. At first
si'^ht, it might seem that such a crop could add no
more'to the soil than it had taken from it. But this
is not strictly true. Some portion at least of its car-
bon has been derived from other sources, and thus
an alteration must he effected both in the chemical
composition and mechanical condition of the soil
when the crop is ploughed in. The roots of the green
crop are also employed in bringing up towarda- the
surface certain saline and earthy matters which lie
at some depth, and are thus placed in a more con-
venient nosition for the crop which is to succeed.

I shall pass on to the subject of inorganic ma-
nures, though I cannot say much on them, after
the length of time I have already occupied your
attention. These substances are calculated to
supply ]dants with some of those materials which
enter into their composition to a much smaller
extent than the four elements supplied by organic
matter. Some of them, as the salts of ammonia,
and the nitrates, may possibly be sources from
whence jilants are able to derive a portion of then-
nitrogen ; but this is an undetermined qntstion.
Some of them seem to be serviceable to one kind

144

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of plant, and some to another. In general, I
should consider that they ought to be aj)])lied in
coin])aratively small quantities ; and frequently,
rather than much at once. I may remark upon a
i'uw of then), which seem to produce a specific
effect ujjon pariicular plants, 'i'his ajjpcars to be
owing to different plants having the power of se-
lecting, to a certain extent, particular substances
from the soil, which otiier plants growing in the
same soil either do not recjuire at all, or only in
much smaller quantity. For instance, all the
grass tribe take up a large quantity of siliceous
matter, the substance of which flints are com-
posed. This it is which gives the polished sur-
face to the straw of corn and grass. So much of
this material is taken up by the gigantic grass
called bamboo, that lumps of it coze out of the
stem like masses of gum, and are contained in the
hollow parts between the joints. 1 will send
round for your inspection some fragments of this
curious substance. Gypsum, again, is found
abundantly in the plants of clover, and others of
the same natural family. It is stated that as much
as three or four bushels may be obtained from the
plants which have grown on one acre. \^'here a
soil does not contain gypsum, we may reasonably
suppose that clover will not prosper; but the
manner in which gypsum should be a])i)lied to the
soil admits of further cn()uiry. It is stated to pro-
duce most remarkable effects in some places by
being merely scattered on the soil itself; whilst in
other instances it produces no effect unless it is
scattered over the leaves of the plant in the form
of plaster of Piuis, or burnt gypsum. The nitrate
of soda seems to be decidedly useful in invigo-
rating the grass tribe (among others), and in all
j)robab:liiy will generally be found to increase the
produce of a hay-field, provided it be applied with
other manures. For with all these inorganic ma-
nures, it is liardly judicious, in the present
state of our knowledge, to think of dispensing
entirely with such as are of organic origin. That
nitrate of soda accelerates the germination of
seeds, I had an opportunity of witnessing in tiie
effect it produced upon some wheat which I had
stec))cd in it, and which came up more readily,
and, fur a time, grew more rapidly than other seed
sown with it. Salt again, is another inorganic
manure, aboui which there is great ditference of
opinion. If I should be asked, as a botanist, to
what ]dants I should consider its application likely
to be benelicial, 1 should say at once, try it upon ail
those which, in their native state, are found oidv
growing near the sea side, or upon the very shore.
I niine asparagus, seakale, cabbage, all the forms of
beet and mangel wurzel, perhaps celerv also, as
plants whicii nature shows us need salt for their
healthy development, anil consequently which might
most probably be assisted in those more monstrous
.states undt'r which culture lias brought them. I
dare say that most of you are well aware bow grate-
ful salt is to all cattle. It seems to be as essential
to their perfect health as it is to our own, that they
slujuld obtain it with their food, as in fact thev gene-
rally do to a greater or less extent. If a lump of
rock-salt be fastened at one end of the manger, a
liorse will bo found to lick it daily, and we may
fairly conclude that it is wholesome to him. If salt
then is used as a manure on giass lands, and it
should be found to produce no very decided benefit,
yet it is not unlikely that the grass will have become
more grateful and serviceable to cattle, sinijdy by
its having absorbed some portion of it. A mixture

of lime ami stdt has bren recommended as a manure.
Perhaps chalk and salt would jiroduco the desired
effect still better. 1 know thai one valuable member
of this club once tried it, and succeeded in giving
his field a coat of hard mortar, which he was after-
wards obliged to scrape off again, liut possibly
he was in too great a hurry. For when lime and
sdt are left to the long continued action of the at-
mosjihere, I can easily suppose that a carbonate of
soda, and a muriate of lime will be the result, two
salts which are said to have been found beneficial,
and both of which are soluble in water. But I must
really desist fioni further comment. What ] have
been saying will I hope assist in convincing the
members of the club, or any others who may have
]):itience to read this long-winded address, that prac-
tical men ought to be better acquainted with some
of the leading princi|)les of chemistry, than they
generally are. Such knowledge is not merely re-
quired of them for the jmrpofe of directing their
own concerns ; but wi'ihout it they cannot hope to
make chemists actiuainied with the results of their
])ractice in a form and shape which may be available
for scientific purposes. A celebrated French bota-
nist has pointed out the manner in which persons
engaged in different departments of science mayco-
operate in elucidating the general theory of vegetable
jdiysiology. On reJerring to agriculturists, he is
very particular in pointing out the necessity of their
being fur more accurate than they generally are in
their details. I shall quote to you his remarks: —
" The radical fault which so much detracts from the
use that might otherwise be made of the experience
of practical men, consists in the too frequent ab-
sence of all comparative e.'iperiment. 1 mean of
such as are rigorously comparative. We read daily
in works of husbandry, and wc hear repeated in
conversation, accounts of some particular process,
which is j)ronounced to be good or bad without any
reference to an exact comparative result. \Vhat a
multitude of boasted processes we meet with in
agricultural journals, which in reality can neither
prove beneficial to practice, nor serve to throw any
liglit upon theory. 'I'be first step towards curing
this evil, is to bring practical men to understand
that a single trial never proves any thing. It is
much to be wished that the host of agricultural and
horticultural societies which now cover the face of
Europe, would determine never to pay attention to
the results of any but comparative experimeniN,
detailed under a precise form of numerical expres-
sion." Provided agriculturists will turn over a new
leaf in these respects, it is from them that science
might expect to derive the most considerable mass
of facts upon which she may hojie to improve our
knowledge of the laws of vegetation, and bring the
art of agriculture to the dignity of a science. Sir
John llerschcl, in his " Discourse on Natural Philo-
sophy "• — a book which evcrv one should read who
wishes to know what science means — has some excel-
lent remarks u])on the possibility of almost every
one who chooses it, co-o])erating in some way or
other for the advance of knowledge. "It is an object
of great importance to avail ourselves as far as pos-
sible of the advantages which a division of labour
may afford for the collection of facts, by the industry
and activity which the general diffusion of informa-
tion, in the present age, brings into exercise. 'I'here
is scarcely any well informed person, who, if he
has l)ut the will, has not also the power to add
something essential to the general stock of know-
ledge, if he will only observe regularly and metho-
dically some particular class of facts which may

THE FAllMEIl'S MAGAZINE.

14.5

most cxciie liis attention, or wliich bis situation may
best enable biin to study with etVect." IMay 1 ibcn
aJvise you to omit no opportunity of keeping;- an
oxact rc;^ister of all tbe ])ositive facts you can obtain
in tbc cultivation of your crops. I would say re-
gister, register, register tbese facts, and in the end
you will find tliat sucb a proceeding will be ser- .
viceable to yourselves in particular, and to science
in general. I sball liere close my remarks on the
subject you have requested me to look into; but
before 1 sit down, I sball venture to say afew words
upon another subject, on which I feel myself much
more qualified to give an opinion, than upon bow
your crops should be manured. There is a descrip.
tiou of culture which requires its special manure,
and in which I conceive you are as deeply interested
as in any which you carry on in the lields. You
have tbe proper cultivation of your labourers to look
to, I'his is not the place, nor is this a befitting
occasion for rac to appeal to you on any higher
grounds than mere worldly policy, for recommending
attention to their moral, intellectual, and social con-
dition. One of the best manures which you can
provide for tbe description of culture I now allude
to, is to secure your labourers constant employment.
I shall not enter upon the wide field which this
(juestiou embraces ; but 1 put it simply to you as a
matter of worldly policy to do so. 1 am no prophet :
but it needs no prophet to foreshow you what will
certainly come to pass, if your labourers are thrown
out of employ. If profits are to depend in future
upon increased produce, and not upon high prices,
then must there be an increase of general intelli-
gence among your labourers, to enable you to take
advantage of improved methods of culture ; and
there must be increased labour also to carry them
out. I recommend to your serious attention that
glorious maxim of the wisest of earthly monarchs —
"There is that scattereth and yet increaseih; and
there is that withholdeth more than is meet, but
it tendeth to poverty." — Prov. xi. 24.

" The health of tbe Secretary. " (Applause.)

Mr. Grim WADE returned thank?.

ill the bottom of the first furrow, throwing up ;J or 4
incfies more on the top of the first; and so on until
the whole is completed. This done in Autumn,
and exposed to Winter's frost, will make it ready
for sowing a crop of llopetowii oats along with
•i cwt. of Guano in the Spring. This crop may
not make the farmer rich, but it will l»ring the laud
into a proper state of cultivation for next year's
turnips or potatoes.

In the Spring preparations for the above green
crop?, a moderate liming would be necessary. I
have found it answer very well to throw the lime
upon the drills after the potatoes were planted, and
then hoe or harrow it in.

Having had much experience in Scottish agri.
culture, 1 shall be most happy at all times to give
information regarding any of the late improvements.
A ClIliSHIRE Stewauu.

AGRICULTURAL QUERY.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

SiK, — In your paper of December 19th, Mr.
James Beadel, of AVitham, stated that he was dig-
ging a field with a peculiarly constructed fork,
which enabled hiiu to keep the present top soil on
the surface. I shall feel much obliged by Mr.
Beadel giving a description of the fork, and how
used, in your paper. By so doing you will confer
a benefit on manual labour. — I remain, Mr. Editor,
yours respectfully, A Yorkshiremax.

Jan. 18.

ANSWERS TO QUERIES.

In answer to " A Young Farmer," I would burn
the heath preparatory to bringing in moor-land,
because the heath would tend to keep the furrows
too open in the first process of cultivation ; but,
unless prompted by necessity, I on no account
countenance the burning of vegetable matter on a
farmer's field, such as scutch, &c., for it is like a
man lighting his own lamp, that the character
" Bad fanner" may be more legible to all around.
But to the point in ([uestion. After the heath is
burned, go along with a plough, taking a furrow of
* or 3 inches deep ; then follow with another plough

Siu, — In answer to the " Goth" of Teeswater, the
most rapid way of reducing the couch grass collected
from his land into the state of decomposing manure,
is to mix it with either common salt or lime (say half
a bushel of salt, or one bushel of lime, to a ton of
the couch grass). — See Johiison and Shaw's Fanner's
Almanac, for 1843.

As to the analysis of the ashes of the larch tree,
tbe composition of these vary with the soil on which
tbey are raised. 100 parts of some from a limestone
hill were found to contain —

Soluble salts IJ

Phosphates of Lime and Magnesia. . . . 12.26
Carbonates of Lime and Magnesia .... 44

Silica 2

Metallic oxide 2

Loss ^2.75

The most rational way of applying tbese aa a
fertiliser is as a top dressing to the grasses.

Peter Vandel PbiooLiNS.
Newcastle, December IGt/i, 1842.

AYRSHIRE CATTLE.

Sir, — In answer to the queries of a " Constant
Reader," in tbe Mark Lane Express of this week, as
to Ayrshire cattle, tbe prevailing colour is red and
white, occasionally roan ; their milk is superior in
quality and quantity. In the autumn of 1841, 1
tried the milk of four against that of four well-bred
short-horned cows ; the milk of the Ayrshire out-
weighed that of the short-horned. The Ayrshire
eat little, and from their lighter weights do not
poach tbe land in wet weather, and tbey are hardy ;
my county is Lancashire, and the land rich dairy
land. A commission agent purchases them for me
at Falkirk in general. This autumn he has sent me
a considerable number of calving cows and heifers,
high-bred and handsome. Average price, 8/.6s.6d. ;
some yearling heifers, 5/. OS. ; a two-year old bull,
lai. 15s. ; and a one-year old bull, 8/. 8s. ; also a
full-bred and perfect beauty in-calf heifer, lOl. 10s.
These prices are exclusive of commission and tra-
velling expenses.

If tbe "Constant Reader" wishes for fuitber
information, and will address to 11. P., post office,
Blackburn, he shall with pleasure have all parti-
culars.

The Epidemic— Wc beg the most particular
attention of our readers to a cure for the epidemic,
announced in our advertising columns ; upon tie
efficacy of which we place implicit reliance, pro-
vided care is taken in the application.

L

14G

THE rAllMEil'S MAGAZINE.

0.\ MANURES.

Bv MM. BOUSSIXGAULT AND PaYEN.

(From the Annals of Chcmistnj.)

Ill a former tneinoir we sought to establish the
comparative value of manures hy the results of
analysis. The praetieal observations which have
bince come iind^r our notice scim to justify the
principle on which we had based our calculations;
at least, no serious objections Lave been raised
against it ; and the kindness with which enliKht-
ened practical men received our first attempts de-
cided us on completjngthe taskofexaminingall the
manures that it lias been possible for us to obtain.

Tor the better comprehension of the remarks
contained in this second paper, it will be neces-
sary to repeat the definition which we g;ive of
powerful manures. At the present day, tliis defi-
nition is equally applicable as it was formerly, and
appears to be the exact expression of well-ascer-
tained facts.

Manure Is the more valuuhlc in proportion as the
quantity of organic azotized flatter is stronger, or
predominates over the non-azotized organic matter ;
and in proportion as the deconijwsltlon of quater-
nary substances acts gradually, and agrees iclth the
progress of vegetation.*

We intend to define here the value of manures
ai)plifal)Ic to such cultivated lands as receive the
benefit of preceding crops, containing residuary
vegetable matters poor in azote, but rich in ter-
nary organic substances. It may be admitted that
thein';ciligcnt fiirmer can obtain, at a low cost, the
mineral matters which enter into the composition
of the soil, and thereby assure himself of the
influence of manures. In order that manure
spread over the ground may alone serve for
vegetable nourishmeiit, it would be requisite
that it should contain all those elements, or-
ganic and inorganic, which, witliout being bor-
rowed from the atmosphere, should be in
reality assimilated during the life of the plant,
and contained in the crop. In this case the
manure must necessarily vary according to the
nature of the ground, the climate, the season, the
species of vegetable cultivated, the laying,' down
and slope of the land, and lastly, according to the
influence of the subsoil and the residue of preced-
ing crops. If we admitted this hypothesis, the
composition of manures would become so variable
and complex, that any general rule wonld be im-
possible. Scientific daia would be useless, for it
would bo utterly impossible to re-unite economi-
cally ihe required conditions : it is convenient,
therefore, as formerly practised, to divide tlie sub-
stances which increase the fertility of the soil into
twogrent classes — the inorganic compounds, wliicli
independent o( the chemical properiies they pro-
cure to soils, by furnishing such mineral substances
as are indispensable to the coujplcte development
of vegetables, cvidcnily contribute to t!ie phy^ical
qualities of the land under cultivation. ISucli are
the salts particularly snitaliie forcertain plants, as
gyi)sum C/ilatieJ for Iep;nniinous plants, and those
which have an alkaline reaction, and are found in
the greater nuinl)er of vegetables, as lime, solu-
tions of soda or pitassn, wood ashes, &c., which
generally assist vegetation on all soils. These

* Thus it is the azote in comhination, conf.iined in
a manure which is especially useful, and the propor-
tion of this, when ascertained, indicates the richness
of the manure.

matters, so useful to the agriculturist, are com-
prised under the denomination of uincin'mails and
ilimidunls,

^Vc may consi<ler cither as sti'uulanfs or as
manure, substances by whose assistance plants are
furnished with the water necessary for their most
proiluciive development : organic remains mace-
rated in ponds, irrigation even (too often neglected
where it might be managed), serve to attain this
desirable end.

Miinitrr:;, correctly speaking, are of organic
origin ; they ought to supjily to land the want ot
ga:ieniis or soluble alintenls, such as vegetables can
assitiiilafe.

I'ut among these aliments, we should do wrong
if we considered those as most desirable which
give rise to the production of the greatest quantity
of carbonic acid. It were wrong, v.e repeat ; for
these almost always abound in lands continually
cultivatcil, wdiilst decomposable azotised matters,
experiencing the most rapid losses, ought conse-
quently to be more frequently renJered to the
soil : it should always be our care to renew the
supply of these latter, wddch are unceasingly being
exhausted. We niay, then, with projjriety point
out these to cultivators as most worthy of their
attention ; and if we determine accurately their
jjropoition in the commoidy-used manures, wc
shall have given useful information, and fnrnishtd
tliebest means of detecting the frauds so prejudi-
cial to the agriculturist, which occur in commer-
cial manures.*

Besides, it is now a question thnt lias been de-
cided by numerous concordant facts, f^enerally ad-
mitted hy the most distinguished agriculturists.
They know also that certain manures furnish at
one and the same time amendments — stimulants,
water and organic aliments, more or less azotised ;
such are the majority of manures, which ought,
from the many functions which they serve to
fnfil, to be very aj)i)roi)riate to the soil, and espe-
cially for cultivation : J'resh for dry or sandy lands :
ii:ann for wet and cold argillaceous soils.

As to rich manures, capable of being trans-
prrted to long distances, they may be fruitfully
applied on all lands, for all kinds of cultivation,
provided that tlieir action be assisted, and tlie
power of the soil dexcloped b}' amendments, and
by irrigation, contrived on the spot, or not far re-
moved fi-om the farm.

To fix our ideas clearly on this subject, we cite
the following example : — On a dry and sandy land,
where manure, strongly impregnated with moisture
agreed very well, it was attempted to replace this
manure by dry blood, of equal value. It was easy
to foresee the result : the c;oj) failed.

Ought we, from this, to conclude that a manure,
rich in stronglyazotiscd matter, was useless or in-
jurious on a light soil? Undoubtedly not : mixed
with a small jiortion of fresh manure, so as to
contain altogether the same quantity of azote, it
rendered the vegetation far more luxurious and
abundant than by the customary ncthod of cultiva-
tion, where fresh dung alone had been employed.

* The numerous disputs betn-een agriculturists
and merchants, relative to disinfectant manures, and
to the black residua of refineries, have shown how
illusory were the old tests for manure. The pro-
l)ortion of ai;ote replaces these very advantageously :
it has been adojited by M. Malagutti, one of the
learned Professors of the Faculty of Rennes, not far
from localities where agriculture has derived much
profit from the vast ajiplications of these manures.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

147

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i\'t>/c.— In the column A, tlie title of eacli manure, supposed tlrv, is compared to that of dry clun^', represented by 100.
In the column B, the title of each manure, in its usual moist state, is cgnipared ^yith the title of ino.st dung-, represented

L 2

148

THE FARMER'S MAGAZJNE.
SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF EQUIVALENTS OF MANURES.

SUBSTANCES.

Farm dung

Autumoul leaves, oak

" beech

" poplar

" acacia

jieartree

I\Iadia sativa, recent manure

Box

Residue of apples used for cyder

Ditto Lops for brewing

Sciiiu and lees

E.'chausied slices of beetroot

Cake of cotton-grains

" camelina

" Lempseed

" poppies

" beecb-nuts

" walnuts

Inn dung

Guano

Ditto

Ditto

Litter of silkworms

Ditto

Chrysalides of silkworms

Urine ^

Ditto ., ,

Refineries' black

Compost (lermed) Dutcb

English black

Residue of Prussian blue

Marine plants

IJitto

Decomposed manure

Sea-sbells

Equivalent of the
substance dry.

100

125
102-3
167-2
1-25-2
127
126
67-5
309

87-6

127-1

110-7

32

32-8

40-8

34-2

55

34-8

93-7

31-4

27-7

12-4

56

52-5

21-6

11-1

8-4

102-5

78 6

24-3

6-9

7-0

7-1

189

3750

Equivalent of

the substance in

its

Normal state.

100
34

33 98
74-34
55-47
29-40
88-88
3418
67-79

66-65

47-65

4136-50

9-99

7-25

9-50

7-46

12-08

7-63

50-63

80-40

74-10

28 60

12-17

12-15

20-61

2-37

55-95

27-91

29-40

5-75

30-62

16-61

16-70

33-33

769-23

OBSERVATIONS.

Taken as a term of comparison

Roots, stalks, leaves, and tlowers

Branches and leaves

Residue dried in the air, taken

as the Nirmal state
Residue containing 0-73 of water
From a beetroot sugar factory
From beetroot macerated

Very woody, used foi burning

Inland

Imported into England
Ditto sifted
Imported into France

5 " age

6 ' age

From public urinals (dried)

Liquid (ammonia included)

F'rom Rlayenne, obtained at Paris

At Lyons, animalised blaok

Blood -j- lime -\- coal soot

Animalised with blood

Ditto with fsecal matter

Ditto

Horsedung, dried and sifted

F'rom the shores of Dunkirk.

IVote. The figures in the first columu indicate tlie quantity of eaoh manure wliicli would be required to replace 100

of dry dung. Tlie figures in the second column indicate the quantity of manure which would be required to replace lOD
of fresh dung (aioist).

Comptes Rendiis, Oct., 1842.

by 100. It will be perceived, that farm dung diflers cliretly from inn duns in its proportion of drymatier: the fiist

contains 0-2 and the second 0-4 of solid matter. These data may serve to calculate the amount of profit that might be
realised by drying manures, in order tu reduce the cost of carriage.

CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE
FOR FEBRUARY.

The season and weather, so far as the year 1843
has advauced, have been extraordinary. Every
prognostic of the autumnal equinox is verified ;
the winter is mild, open, rather damp, and of late
somewhat boisterous. Still high winds have not
been frequera, and very few fogs have occurred.
'J'he phenomena peculiar to the entire season are
those singular and remarkable fluctuations of the
barometer fortnightly, the mercury attaining great
altitude, and gradually becoming depressed to a
still greater extent. In 1822, at Christmas, and
but lor one day, it approached to 28 inches in the
Isle of Thanet ; and then a little rain followed, but

no marked commotion. In the present year, it fell
progressively, continuing nearly a week below 29
inches, till the 13th of January, ?/hen our instru-
ments showed 28 inches 20 cents. Subsequently
they have ririeii ; and now we have very nearly 30
inches 40 cents (19th). It will soon be known
whether any violent meteorological commotion has
occurred abroad, indoijendent of the eruption of
Etna.

Of the crojjs and plants — one and all — in the
open air and under glass, the report is singularly
proi)itious. Garden vegetables are piime : and a
nurseryman aptly observed, that he has been init
to little comparative trouble this winter, as his
delicate plants had very few dead leaves, the foliage
being healthy and active; hence, there is little
danger of mouldiness. Every persoi^, \vdi9,. values

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

149

his gerania, calceolarias, and such species, ouglit
to be on the alert to remove decayed leaves bel'ore
and during winter, because they foster those para-
sites which constitute what is called ■' mould,'' and
also conununicate a taint to the healthy adjoining
foliage.

Every green-house plant now requires ahundance
of air when the atmosphere is clear and d'\ying ;
foggy weather induces damp. Fire lias been little
used at present, but some shoidd be applied in very
cold evenings, because the buds are advancing, and
many juicy plants sutler mucli in February.

Camellias that have passed blooming may now
be excited in a moist heat to accelerate the spring
growth. When growing they require abundance of
water, a frequent gentle syringing, and a somewhat
shady situation.

Indian and Chinese azalias are coming into
bloom. Some gardeners force these sweet plants
in a moist heat of 60°, others never remove them
from the greenhouse ; by adopting both plans a
longer succession may be kept up. One precaution
must be observed. If the azalias are potted in
heath-soil only, that earth must never be suffered
to become quite dry, else it will be difficult to
re-moisten it, and the tender fibres of the roots
must perish. This remark applies extensively.

Sow the seeds of gloxinia, streptocarpos, aud
gesnera^, on the surface of a shallow pot, or pan of
fine heatli-moukl ; sprinkle, and cover the pot with
a piece of glass. Sow also, early, seeds of the
several varieties of thumbelgia half-an-inch deep,
and many choice annuals. A small propagation-
house, with a pit of damp sand in the middle, kept
gently warm lay a branch of the flue, or hot-water
pipe passing through it, will facilitate every opera-
tion of sowing, and of striking cuttings, graftings,
and of inarching the camellias and other choice
shrubs. The propagator should however bear in
mind that cuttingrs ought to receive their moisture
from the bottom ; therefore, a pot of them, pro-
perly prepared with drainage-soil and upper layer
of sand, should he placed in another large pot, its
bottom covered an inch or more with small pot-
sherds; on these the small pot may rest, sand being
interposed between the sides of both to a level with
the two rims, and a bell-glass pressed therein. The
sand should be thoroughly moistened by the sy-
ringe, when the outer pot may be kept in a trough
standing upon a temperate part of the flue, in this
an inch of water should constantly be kept ; and
thus a gentle bottom heat and due moisture will be
maintained, as the water will be drawn up by the
sand as required. The glass need never be moved ;
and thus that loss of foliage which always results
from top waterings, may generally be obviated.

The early vinery should be kept moist and pretty
close, with a temperature of 70" by day and 6o° at
night. Considerable precaution is required Just at
the drawing-out of the clusters and when the flowers
open ; the water should fall upon them at that time.
The pine-stove must be maintained at 70° to 75°
for fruiters ; and the succession -pits moist, at 70°.

Cucumbers succeed well if forced now, aiid the
pits or beds should be well attended to, that the
heat decline not.

Small snlads and kidnej'-beans mny he sown ;
strawberry plants, and dwarf rhubarb in pots,
covered with others, may now be introduced into a
warm forcing house. Asparagus may again be
forced for a late crop prior to that of the open beds,
also potatoes and sea-kale.

VEGETABLE OPEN DIPAHTMEMT.

Earth up, and stick peas. Sow another crop of
Charlton's or Cormack's early May-pea. Several
new sorts aie announced, of which we know not the
merits. Kepeat the sowings of beans and peas,
twice in the month. The following may be sown in
the last week, if soil and climate are known to favour
early sowings ; but in general March will be soon
enough : e'Jirly York, and red cabbage, savoy,
Brussel's sprouts, horn carrots, onions, and leeks.

Give air abundantly to cauliflowers under frames
and glasses. Move the eartli, if the ground be dry
enough for the hoe, about the rows of winter spi-
nach^cabbage sprouts, and all other vegetables ia
rows ; or pass the spade horizontall^y along the
surface, so as to cut up an inch of earth, and re-
verse it; thus thousands of rising weeds will be
obliierated, and a neat appearance given to the
beds.

Sweet herbs can be propagated by rooted off sets
or suckers. Choose a fresh site, and make the
soil rather ri^b.

HARDY raUIT TUEIS.

Gooseberry and currant bushes should be pruned
without loss of time, for the buds will soon expand
unless very severe weather occur. Ample dii-ec-
tions have been repeatedly gi^en for the selection
and amiHitatinn ot shoots in the former, and the
close spurrmg-in and shortening the latter; tlierel'ore,
we may refer to former CHl^ndars : \et it will be
right to observe that a shoot of a currant-shrub, if
cut back, rarely fails to die down, or become feeble,
two joints below. Therefore, while the gardener
should resolutely cut out crowding branches, and
spur close the laterals, it would be as well to forego
shortening the reserved leaders till several green
shoots have become an inch leng ; then, the sap be-
ino- active, and the foliage sufficiently expanded
to absorb and transpire, the leaders can be cut back
to the lowest growing shoot but two, and thus a
clear healthy lead will in general be secured.

Raspberry rods may be pruned back to a swelling
bud or at the point where the shoot takes a curve.
They then can be staked, and the ground cleared
of wandering suckers.

When the berry-bearing shrubs are regulated,
every one which is infested with moss or lichens
ought to be well dredged with a mixture, of wood-
ashes two parts, powdered limethe same, and coal-
soot half a part, all by weight or measure. This
done, while dew or hoar- frost is on the twigs,
the ground should be forked, or turned over to
make the plots and borders neat.

Apricot, peach, nectarine, plum and cherry trees
on walls, ought to be pruned, the time being deter-
mined by the condition of the buds. It is never un-
seasonable to cut quite close all the projecting
breast wood, and to disbud those at the back ; but
the well placed bearers that can be laid in close to
the wall ought to remain till some young shoots
break, and begin to expand their leaves, for the
reason just assigned under the direction for pruning
the currant. After the walls are put in order, it
will not be amiss to turn the soil, and sow a few
light crops, such ns lettuce, salad, and radish, but
never within a yard of the trees.

Espalier apple and pear-trees are not shortened,
unless the remote branches interfere with oiher
trees : but all the small laterals and spur? ought to
be pruned back to a fertile bud ; and the boughs
should then be secured close and in regular order
to the stakes or trellis.

150

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

FtOWER GARDEN.

Sweep and roll lawns and gravel walks, trim
away dead shoots of herbaceous pluits, but still
leave the ground undisturbed till March. It is
better far to sow annual plants in pots, protecting
them in frames, or over the gentle liot-beds ; time
and securit)' are thus gained. But beds of tulips
ought to be cleared of weeds ; and ranunculus roots
planted in beds, deepli' prepared and enriched, about
the end of the month.

Look over the auriculas, remove deed leaves, and
top-dress the soil.

Polyanthuses in pots are also to be dressed with
maiden turf loam mixed with a little old manure.

If there be dead wood in the evergreens it ought
to be sawed or cut out — nothing more disfigures a
laurel than such branches, which soon cause hollow
places.

Scatter heath soil mised with a little sandy loam
over the American borders ; this dress will par-
ticularly assist the hardy azalias, by promoting the
growth of 3'oung roots near the surface.

Prune hardy roses to low, well situated buds,
whether they be bushes or standards — to confer vi-
gorous growth and compact figure.

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR
JANUARY.

At most previous corresponding- periods of the
year, we have had occasion to notice what is usually
termed" seasonable" weather, but that of the past
month has been the mildest, as a whole, almost ever
recollected. For the lirst ten days, however, and
about the iJth and 16th, the temperature was low, and
■which was productive of some rather sharp frosts,
so as to produce ice, in exposed situations, of about
an inch in thickness. Since the date last mentioned
the atmosphere lias continued unusually fine and
open, but without being creative of much rain. Of
snow, we have had very little, in any part of Eng-
land. Notwithstanding that prevailing circumstan-
ces have been anything but favourable to the young
wheals, it is gratifying- to observe that they have
not exhibited that rapidity of growth as might have
been anticipated. True it is, that in some instances
the plants have become proud and spindlj', especi-
ally in bottoms ; but, generallj' speaking, we think
there is no great reason to complain. All out-door
farm labours are well in their place — the land h:!s
received frequent stirrings and workings, uninter-
rupted by superabundant moisture — while the fal-
lows are much more free from weeds than could
reasonably be expected.

The fine seed-time, in the autumn of last year, was
a great boon to the agricultural body; since not only
did it allow theni to finish the sowing of the usual
breadths of land with wheat, but many of them de-
termined, when it was practicable — and particularly
as that description of grain was yielding a fair re-
turn— to bring an increased number into cultiva-
tion. The ravages of the slug and other insects,
have been only to a moderate — perhaps we might
say limited — extent, compared with former years ;
hence, should the months of February and March
prove erjually fine, the prospects for the next harvest
are undoubtedly good. It has been argued that the
present depressed prices of wheat will, doubiless,
cause many large farms to grow less of that article
this year ; consequently, tiiat a large crop cannot
be fairly calculated upon. We take oui stand upon
a very different footing to this. That quotations are
ruinously low, we admit; but then a question arises
in our minds, what other produce can, in the ordi-
nary course of things, be made to give a greater re-
turn than wheat ? If attention be the more directed to
barley, oats, beans, or other grain, it is reasonable
to suppose, that from their superabundance, even
greater losses would be the result. It is not to be

imagined that, because the value of the staple com-
modity is now beneath that which it ought to pro-
duce, that it is always to continue so. Our candid
opinion is, that if the growth of wheat be once
neglected in this country, distress and ruin would
he speedily felt. There is one thing very evident : we
must have it for our subsistence, and if not produced
here, we shall be compelled to import more largely.
Here, then, a question of the most vital importance
to all classes of the community arises, which is — are
we to make use of the appliances within ourselves
fand which, by the way, are of no ordinary cha-
racter), or are we, by our own neglect, to he de-
pendant upon the foreigner? The former can be
brought into action without difficulty ; the latter
would inevilablv produce a great national loss,
never to be repaired. Take, for instance, a deficient
harvest in this kingdom : say the yield of wheat has
fallen two millions of quarters under an average of
years, and then we shall soon find where " the shoe
pinc!.;es." To purchase this immense supply, wo
should have to export not less than four mlUinns of
soverei^iif, bard cash, which ought to be in free cir-
culation amongst the home growers. It is a folly —
as is here demonstated — to wish for what are called
" high" prices ; these neither benefit consumer or
producer — indeed they are injurious, in the long run,
to both — for the withdrawal of so much money from
the country — and that too for ever—is an event, at
any time, to be regretted ; the more so, as very little
reciprocity of feeling is scarcely, if ever, evinced
by the recipients abroad. But some have argued
that the more corn we take the greater will be the
demand for our manufactured goods. A greater
fallacy than this never entered into the mind of
man, as we shall presently show. Now, if
we could find that the principles of reciprocity
2cere recognised and adhered to, we could offer no
opposition to an easy importation of grain ; but it
certainly does occur to us that it would be as difficult
to prove that it does exist, on anything like a lii)eral
scale, as to solve the whole of the problems of Eu-
clid, or give an example of the theorem of a " body
irresistible meeting a body immoveable !" Although
we may be considered as ti-avelling somewhat out
of the path usually allotted to us in an Agricultural
Report, we beg to lay a few facts before our readers,
in order to work out the position we have here as-
sumed. If we take last year, we shall find that the
exports, from this country to Russia, with a popula-
tion of no less than sixty niillion.«,was not •i,00(),()00/. ;
to Franco, with thirty- two millions of inhabitants,
1.700,000/.; to Prussia, having fourteen millions,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

151

not 200,000/. ; to Spain, with tlie same amount of
population, 500,000/. To Portugal, Sweden and
Denmark, we semi about one million sevenhundrcil
and fifty thousand pounds worth of goods, while the
numher of inhabitants of those countries is about
eight millions : hence, it will be observed that our ex-
ports to those parts — with a united population of
about one hundred and twenty-eight millions, and
from which wehave derived,in the same period,an im-
mense supply of wheat — exceeded little more tha)i
5,000,000/. M'hy, our shipments to the West-India
Islands, and to the North American and Australian
Colonics, with a population of only two millions and
a half, exceeded 7,o00,000/. ; or about one half more
than those to the countries above named, willi their
hundred and twenty-eight millions'. To particular-
ize further, we might add that, if anything were
requisite to show the necessity of giving ample pro-
tection to the capital and labour em.ployed in the
cultivation of the land in the United Kingdom, and
to prove more forcibly that we should endeavour, as
the foreigners are, to have the means of subsistence
within ourselves, we might adduce the following
curious and imjjortant statement of the proportion
jier head v.hieh the i>opulation of several foreign
countries and British Colonies received of British
exports last year : Prussia consumed, per heail, 3id.
worth; Russia, 5d.; Portugal, 8d.; Spain, 8d. ;
Sweden, 9d.; Denmark, lid.; France, lid. ; the
United States of America, 17s. ; Austrahan Colonies,
11/. l,''iS.;- West-Indies, 3/. 12s.; and our North
American Provinces, 1/. lis. 6d.! It is also a sin-
gular and instructive fact, that, while Russia receives
from us articles of the value of only 2,000,000/,,
Great Britain annually pays to that nation a balance,
over and above the value of the goods she sends her,
ranging from .5,000,000/. to 6,000,000/.! This does
jiot look imich like reciprocity, at least not to our
way of thinking ; but " facts are stubborn things,"
and so, we think, they will ever continue.

The extremely dull state of the Corn trade,
and the miserably low prices consequent there-
on, have been productive of great injury to
the interests of the Agriculturists. The operative
class has likewise suffered to an extent hitherti)
almost unknown; and this leads us to the consid-
eration of the future prospect of the trade, 'i'o
arrive at anything li!ce an accurate conclusion on
this head would, m the absence of any official de-
tails, hy which we could form a pretty correct
0))iniL-in as to the actual supply of liliiglish wheat
on hand, be a matter of no little difficulty. It
seems to be generally understood that the iiggrc-
gate produce in this country last year was lather
ovr-r-rated by some of the dealers. In the county
of Essex, in particular, the yield has exhibited a
considerable falling off; yet we cannot conceal
the fact from our readers that we have nearly or
quite a sufficiency on hand, including, of course,
the foreign supplies, to meet every demand until
upxt harvest. There is one thing very much op-
I))scd to any national advance in the cuircncies
for some liuie lo come, viz., the excellent qiality
of the grain now in the hands of the growers. We
could sincerely wish the farmers to receive fair
returns for their skill and industry, but it would
ill become us to give publicity to any opinion or
advice by which they might be uasled. Prices
may rise somewhat above their present level ; but
we much question whether they will this season
come up to that obtained during any period of
1841.

The early lambing season has gone ori remark-
ably well, and been productive of a fine fall of
strong and healthy lambs ; but, as respects the
epidemic, we regret to observe that very numerous
instances have occurred of a fatal character. De-
pastured stock has fared unusually well, in conse-
quence of the plenteous supply of herbage ami
succulent roots.

The working of the tariff has been closely
watched by those most immediately interested.
On this occasion, we have to notice very scanty
imports of stock from any quarter into England,
while their quality has certainly been beneath an
average. Some of the supporters of the present
measure refer, with some ap])arcnt degree of sa-
tisfaction, to what they consider the limited arri-
vals, but it should be borne in mind that there Ls
every prospect of a very great and decided increase
in the numbers, as well as a great improvement:
in the condition, of the importations which will
take place in the spring. Sir Robert Peel told us
that we had nothing whatever to fear from Spam,
from the impossibility of bringing beasts across the
Bay of Biscay, hut what will be said when we
intimate that the " Lady Mary Wood" steamer
brought in safety through the tremendous gale
that occurred on the 13th, eighteen oxen across
that dangerous portion of our navigation? As
yet. nothing has arrived at Liverpool ; but prepa-
rations are in progress to bring large quantities
to that port from Spain. The following stnte-
mcnt will show the total numbers which have ar-
rived under the new act : —

Beasts. Cows. Sheep. Pigs.

From Germany. . 1228 3«1 21K) 101

Spain ..,. '.)92 134 230 —

Holland .. C72 220 — -10

France.... 401 38 140 —

Total.. 3273 753

6()0

181

Forming no less than 4,867 head, or nn increase
over our last month's statement of G5.j— the latter
being the importations from the 1st till the 26th.

'I he general state of the demand for live stock in
Smithfield— if we except thai for veal having ruled
jii-iii—since our last, has been inanimate, and the
quotations have suffered some abatement, owing, in
a great measure, to the immense arrivals of country
slaughtered meat up to Newgate and Leadenhall
markets. We are glad to state that comparatively
few of the beasts have been affected with the dis-
ease ; but the sheep have come to hand in very
bad condition, and great losses have in consequence
occurred on the roads. The supplies have com-
prised about 13,.500 beasts, 124,000 sheep, 1,100
calves, and 2,600 pigs ; the former of which have
been derived as follows -.—About 2,600 Scots and
homebreds, from Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and Cam-
bridgeshire; 3,000 short horns and runts, from Lin-
colnshire, Leicestershire, and Northamptonshire;
2,000 short horns, runts, Devons, and Irish beasts,
from our western and midland districts ; 3,400 of
various breeds, from other parts of England ; 230
horned and polled Scots, by sea from Scotland ;
200, vUi Liverpool, from Ireland ; the remainder
being chiefly brought in from the neighbourhood of
the metropolis. The prices have ranged thus :—
Beef, from 3s. 2d. to 4s. 6d. ; mutton, Ss. 4d. to 43.
6d. ; veal, 4s. lOd. to .^s. 8d. ; and pork, 3s. 6d. to
4s. 6d. per Slbs. to sink the offals.

152

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

A STATEMENT and COMPARISON of the SUP-
PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibited
and sold iu Smithfikld Cattle Markkt, on
Monday, Jan. 24, 1842, and Monday, Jan. 23, 1843.

AtperSlbs.to sink the offals,

Jan. 24, 1842. Jan. 23, 1843.

8. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.

Coarse&inferiorBeastss 2to3 6 ., 3 0 3 4

Second quality do 3 8 3 10.. 3 6 3 8

Prime large Oxen 40 44, .3 10 40

Prime Scots, &c 4 0 48. .42 44

Coarse & inferior Sheep 34 38. .30 32

Second quality do 3 10 4 2.34 36

Primecoarsewoolleddo. 4 4 4 6.38 3 10

Prime Southdown do. . 4 8 4 10 .. 4 0 4 4

Large coarse Calves .. 4 10 5 2 .. 4 2 4 10

Prime small ditto 5 4 5 6.. 5 0 5 4

Large Hogs 4 6 5 0.. 3 10 44

Neat small Porkers .,52 54. .46 4 s

SUPPLIES.

Jan. 24, 1842. Jan. 23, 1843,
Beasts....... ..... 2 741 2,698

Sheep 24,020 26,720

Calves 130 76

Pigs; 412 381

The demand at Newgate and Leadenhall mar-
Ivots lias been very dull, at low quotations. There
have been received about 3,000 carcasses weekly
from Scotland and various parts of England. Beef
has sold at from Ss. to 3s. 8d. ; mutton, 3s. to 4s. ;
veal, 4s. 2(1. to os. Gd.; and pork, 3s. lOd. to 4s. Od.
per Ribs, by the carcass.

AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR JANUARY,

We continue to witness the regular progress of
the growing crops. Large breadths of wheat of a
beautiful verdure, but by no means luxuriant,
that is, unduly gay ; this we can testify, as refers
to the condition of wheat in the east of Berk-
shire. We, therefore, can by no means justify the
assertions of some who tell us of an untimely ad-
vance. However, it is proper to observe, that
from a Northamptonshire correspondent there is
advice of an unprecedented healthy verdure, and
that many have fed off the wheats with sheep ; but
no mention whatever is made of any injury, either
incurred or to be apprehended — on the contrary,
the writer asserts the confident hopes of the
growers.

Some frosts have occurred, and January Is much
colder than was December. The unusual depres-
sion of the barometer ifas it prognosticated) was
followed by a fierce tempest, which broke or tore
up some trees, destroyed chimney-pots, and dis-
placed much thatch; but the rain was wholly dis-
proportionate to the fall of the mercury, and that
was soon contrasted by a rise almost equal to the
previous depression.

The meteorology of the first month warrants
the hopes of a fine season ; and if February be of
its accustomed character, and the rains be suc-
ceeded by a drying but not rigorous March, the
prospects will be cheering indeed.

Of crops, besides the growing wheat, we can
form but little judgment. Clover is good — so are
the vetches, but no conclusion can be yet arrived
at ; the land, however, turns up most capitally,
and a famous bed is thus preparing for all the
spring corn. What a contrast with the condition
of the ground in 1842 1

The flocks of sheeji appear to be very fine, and
the lambing season has hitherto been propii ions,

There are increasing evidences of tlie stimulus
which has been applied to chemical research. New
manures multiply, but we question whether there
be not much of empiricism abroad. Were our
own rich materials economised, we should find
occasion to congratulate ourselves. The Chinese
are patterns; not a grain of ordure is wasted by
them ; all is applied with industry, and the land
becomes the grand laboratory of animal excre-
tions.

If we arc likely to hold intercourse with this
strange and exclusive people, it will be wise to
observe and copy them in all things which are
found to produce great results.

But though many things which are offered to
the farmer be useless, it is proper to say that
some we are acquainted with flatter themselves
as possessing manures of recent discovery which
will extensively fertilize, at a very trifling cost of
money or labour. We propose to keep in view
one or more trials that are likely to be made close
at hand. Whoever can cause the land which now
yields three and a half quarters to produce five
per acre, will be a benefictor to the state, and
hereupon it is rational to entertain hopes. Some-
thing indeed must be done to increase produce, in
lieu of indulging in the vain expectation of lower
rents and higher prices.

Supply and the demand. These are the govern-
ing principles which render nugatory all the en-
actments of law ; and were the agricidturists
really scientific, and acquainted with the compo-
nents of land and crops, they would not seek for
or depend upon scales or restrictions, which, in
solemn fact, tend to little elsethan.to produce dan-
gerous speculations and fictltious.reports. — Jan. 25.

SOMERSETSHIRE.

I now commence my report after the completion of
another year, but from which in its events mu.^t the
matter it contains be chosen, grounding- the prospects
before us on the facts of the past. 1842 will for many
reasons be a marked one to the agriculturist, a year of
changes, of perplexity, and lofs ; and yet as far as refers
to the seasons vie shall seldom witness more favourable
ones, and should the next be similar, we may look for
great abundance, but on this it would be unwise to
speculate. If we compare the appearance of the wheat
in ground with last year, it will be generally acknow-
ledged there is scarcely any comparison ; ihe danger
and the eventual deficiency in the crop last year, arose
from seed and plant being destroyed by the wet, and
iht^ state of the land when put in ; but this year no seed
ceuld have come up better, or thicker, and the only
fear is its expending itself ; it certainly looks strong and
healthy, but much more forward than is thought de-
sirable ; that an unusual breadth is put in, T think admits
of no doubt, and should the crop be no better than the
last year the quantity will far exceed it, but with such
a season there is a greater prospect of abundance.
Vetches are also very forn-arJ, and we have not for
years saved so much hay from the growth of grass ; our
fields have scarce the least appearance of winter, and
there is a freshness in the green that reminds one of the
spring rather. Complaints are made of the winter roots
growing out, and spoiling from the mildness of the
season ; cowslips were gathered in tiie field not long-
before the shortest day. Although it has been so un-
usually unfavourab'e to the butcher, and they have in
many instances sufl'ered by having more meat killed
than demand for it, there ir; from the scarcity of slock
a tendency already to advance ; but it is expected later
in the spring there will not be the usual scarcity of the
season, many of the dairy farmers having to winter-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

153

graze their Jairy cows, in consequence of so many of
tliem proving barren, so mucli so, that \Ae may expect
a good sale lor cows and calves to supply their places.
Mutton is much scarcer, the low price has caused a
good consumption. The lambing reason has com-
nifnced f'avonrably, the ewes being in good condiliou.
The price of pork has gone down to 6s. (5d. per 20 lbs,,
butit has now rallied to 6s. 9J. to 7s. ; and bacon 4^d. to
5id. per lb. by the side. Cheese has also siiared the
depression, although the make is decidedly less than
last year, 4"2s. to 50s. having been about the best prices ;
and la.^t week there was a very poor sule, but it is ex-
pected the demand will improve should we have a dryer
atmosphere. Good, or rather extra beet', has not been
\inder 10s., with a good demand; but that which was
only half fat was a drug on the muiket, as yet at the
low price, 6s. 6J. to 1^. per score, such were purchased,
it occasioned considerable slaughter, and has made a
proportionate clearance of live stock. The sale of beef
and pork, sold fov foreign, has been much lessened, and
unless our fresh meats are much higher than
they have been since the alteration of the tariff, there
is nothing to be feared from salt meat ; and if parties
have sent out orders, grounded on the demand a few
months back, ihcy will be deceived, novelty had more
to do with that demand ; and with it, I am persuaded,
in these parts the snle will cease also. If the grazier can
begin Ijy purchas'ng his stock in place, so as to sell at
from 7s. to Ps., according to quality, at a profit, he will
not be affected much by foreign competition. As re-
gards the alteration in the corn laws, no doubt the con-
sumer is benefited, but it makes the corn trade one of
the wor^t capital can be engaged safely in, and inflicts
an injury on those growers who stand in need of the
greatest protection ; lor, in consequence of the quantity
poured in to meet the lowest duty, and with the panic
whiuli ensued rents were to be made up at very low
prices by large quantities from a dfjicicnt produce per
acre, forced into the market just at the worst time for
sale, the consequence is, that when the deficiency begins
to be apparent from the supplies falling off, the price

rises too late to benefit the parties who are least able
to bear the low prices ; at the present time there, is ap-
parently, in ihis country much less of wheal in the
growers' hands than for years, and that in comparatively
few hands. Of barley, beans, oats, and clover?eed,
there is more than an average stock ; but of oats and
barley,! should consider there was about the usual con-
suinplion, and will not accumulate in stock, as there is
no disposition to buy these articles beyond the usual
wants of the trade. i3ut the consumption of beans has
from some cause much fallen oft", and a good many that
have appeared have gone into store. Peas have also
with difficulty found buyers. The price of eloverseed
is not fixed, ihe quality is good, and the quantity saved
exceeds g:reatly what it has been for years : I have heard
of prices from 36s. to 50s. per cwt., very little yet sold.
I sliould quote the price of grain us follows :— wheat,
62 to 65 lbs. per bushel, 6s. 3d. to 6-. 9J., red, 5s. 4d.
to 6s, 3d. ; flour, per 280 lbs., 345. to 37s. ; barley, 3s.
to 3s. 3d., grinding and malting, 3s. 3d. to 3s. 8d. ;
beans, 3s. 8d. to 4s,, old,4s. 3d. to 4s. 6d. Since the
above was written, the effect of the rise in London has
become more apparent, and at Bridgwater, yesterday,
6s. 9d. was refused tor very prime white, 64 lbs. per
bushel ; fiour, 37s. to 38s. was the price some millers
stood for; foreign wheat would fetch full 4s. per qr.
more than three weeks since, but to have a good sale
English must sell hip:her; to show how low we have
been, flour has been down to 34s. ; the Union contract
has been taken as low as 4:fd., but generally at 5d. to
5|d. best ilb. loaves. Neither millers or bakers have an
average stock, and there is an increasing conviction
that the crop was much overrated. Beans are still a
drug. We have had this week several hail storms, and
Mendip has been covered with snow ; last evening
it froze, but about the middle of the night the wind got
round to the south-west, and it was rough, accom-
panied with rain ; it is now west, and has blown all
the day a hurricane, with occasional showers, and trees
falling, &;c., &c., and we shall hear, T expect, of much
damage.— Jan. 13.

AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c.

OSWESTRY FAIR. -The supply of sheep was
small; good mutton averaged fully S^d. per lb,, infe-
rior .Od., bacon pigs and porkers 3Jd. An improve-
ment of 3^ to 4s. per head took place in tiie price of
small stores, for which there was a considerable de-
mand. The cattle market was a bad one, good beef
not exceeding .Od., and lean stock almost unsaleable.
Good cows and calves were enquired after, and sold
tolerably well, there being few in market.

NEWARK FAT STOCK MARKET, on Tuesday
last, was well supplied with beasts and sheep of a very
vood quality, which realised pretty good prices.

HIGHLAND a^d AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
— At the late general meeting of tiiis Society, it was
stated that a gold medal had been awarded by the Com-
mittee to James Stuart Menteath, Esq., yr. of Close-
burn, for a paper on the Geology of Dumfries-shire,
accompanied by a map and an extensive collection of
•pecimens: a premium of twenty sovereigns was voted
to George Bell, Esq., \Voo(lhouselees, for a distinct
report, wiih plans and specifications, of a tile-work
suited for proprietors or tenant? who may wish to
manufacture drain tiles for their own use. Mr. Scott,
of Craigmuie, made a report of tlie progress which had
been made in obtaining subscribers for the society'.s
journal and transactions, at a reduced price. He need
not remind the meeting that the desirable object could
only be attained by guaranteeing to the publishers a
reri'diu number of subscribers. The privilege of
obtaining the work on the terms proposed was open to
the members of this society, and to the members of

local associations in communication with the society,
to whom it had also been extended. If there were
1,500 subscribers, the publishers had agreed to make
the price two shillings to these classes. Every exer-
tion had been made by the commiiiee, by st-nding circu-
lars and otherwise, to induce the members to come
forward ; and he was happy to report, that 880 mem-
bers of the society had subsciibed, and 131 members
out of seventy local societies, making a total of 1,011.
Though this fell short of the number required, yet he
had no doubt it would soon be made up, us the propo-
sition had been favourably received by every one ; and
he had no doubt the delay that had taken place, on the
part of many members, was to be imputed entirely to
oversight. He begged that the members present
would urge upon their friends to delay no longer ; as
the last number of the old series of the Journal
would be published in i\Iarch, and the first number of
the new seiies would be issued in June.
He was gratified to state that this matter
had attracted the attention of members of
local societies in the north of England ; and the
publishers had handsomely agreed to extend to them
the same privilege.? with the members of this society
and of the local agricultural societies of Scotland. He
might take this opportunity of stating, also, that mea-
sures were in process by the Directors for making up
a complete list of all the local societies in Scotland ;
and he would be glad if gentlemen would assist the
committee by giving information respecting the asso-
ciations in their respective neighbourhoods, Mr, Nor-

154

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

man Lockhart reported tlie preliminary arranprements
in progress for the Glasgow Cattle Show ia 1844. Sir
William Jardine, in the absence of Lord Greenock,
gave in a report on the stale ol the museum. In every
respect that institution kept up its iaterest ; and, as the
Society were aware, it was (he best arrang'ed and the
most capable of being: rendered useful of any similar
Wu-eum in tlie country. In the year 1841, 3,700 in-
diviilu:ils visited the Musi um ; last year no fewer than
I0,28<i had insciibed iheir names in the visitors' book,
'ihese consiited ot persons of all ranks and classes, and
prctcnted a grati'ying instance of the interest which
the museum hud excited. The donations of models,
implements, roots, seeds, &c., continued to flow in as
before ; and ho might pariicularly notice a splendid
colleption of geological specimens of Dumfries-shire,
from Mr. Menteath, younger, of Closeburn. The
monthly meeiinjs of the Society, held in the mu?euiii,
contiQutd to be as attractive as hitherto. '^Ihe Direc-
tors had resolved to change the hour of meeting to
three in the afleraoon, that the farmers might attend
immediately after the market. It was intended that
papers of practical interest should be read at these
meetings, as well as papers of a more scientific cha-
racter ; and it would be well if those who had influence
would urge tiiem to attend and take part in the dis-
cusiions that took place, as their practical experience
would be of mucli value to those who uere more inti-
mately engaged with scientific pursuits. In the esta-
hli-hmentfor 1843 we find (connected with this dis-
trict > ; Vice- Presidents — [he Right lion. William, Earl
of Mansfield, K.T. ; Extraivdiiiury JJirectors —\he
Right Hon. Lord Wm. DousI.ts ; Ordinary Directurs,
— .Sir William Jardine of Applegarih, Rait. ; Norman
Lockhart, K-q., Tarbrax ; William Scott, Esq,, of
Craigmuie ; James Allan Dalzell, E*q., Wliilehou=e
\'illa ; Chairman of Slanding Committees, Cottages —
William Grierson ^■orsioun of Garroch ; Deputy Chair-
man of Monthly MeeHMs(s-S\T William .Tardine, Birt.
KOSS FARMERS' CLUB.-i he members of thi^
rlnb held their annual meeting at the New Inn, en

Thursday last, when the accounts were audited, leaviu»
a considerable balance iu the t.easurer's h'lnds. H.
Cheliingworth.Esq, was unanimously elected president
lor the ensuing ytar, and F. Woodall, Esq. vice-presi-
dent ; and a vote of thanks was passed to the secretary
(Mr. Price, of Bccheli), for the asaduity and a'tention
he had paid to the society hitherto; after which the
members sat down to a most excellent dinner, and the
whole pa'-sed off' with much spirit.

FKAMLINGUAM FAIlMEllS' CLUB.— St/B-
JECTS FOR THE YtAR. — Feb. 14, The propriety of paying
iDore attention to pieserving the drainage from our farm
yards— jMr. JeaffVe^on. jMarcli 14, The best description
of Vegetables, to cultivate lor stock feeding — Mr. G.
Goodwyn. April 11, Merits of lye gras^, and other
artificiiT grasses'— Mr. Chapmun. Rlay 16, On the pay-
ment of labourers' v\ ages, partly in kind — Mr. Peirson.
June 13, The management ot swine — Mr. E. Gooch.
July 11, The dairy versus grazing — Mr. James Read.
August, no meeting. September 5, The best mode of
breaking up pasture; also the best way of laying down
old ploughed land to permanent pasture— Mr. J. Laws,
October 10, The desirability of changing occupations at
New, instead of Old Michaelmas— Mr. James Barker,
Jun. November 7. Annual nieetinor.

LOUGHBOROUGH AGRICULTURAL ASSO-
CTAI'ION.— The Members of this Association held
their fourth quarterly mettingfor the discussion of sub-
jects connected with the welfare of agricuituro, on
Jhursday last (the 19ih inrt), at the Plough Inn,
Loughborough ; S. B. Wild, Esq., of Ibstock, in the
chair. The subj' ct lor discussion was ably introduced
by Mr. Walker, of Bradmoie, " On the best method of
depositing grain arid small seeds ;" and some valuable
practical knowledge on tlii^ important branch of agri-
culture was displayed by several members. At the
close of the discu'Jsion, the following resolution was
agreed to : — " That this meeting- recommends ihe drill
system as the best method of depositing grain and
seeds, and that grain be placed not more than two inches
deep, and small seeds one inch.''

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURIxVG THE MONTH OF JANUARY

'I'lie new year has not commenced under favour-
able circumstances to the cultivators of Critiib and
Irish fields. For that portion of the crop of l81'J,
which ibey have forwarded heretofore to ninrket for
sale, they liave obtained prices much under the ex-
penses of Its production, a'.:d strong doubts and
much anxiety Lave been created in their minds re-
specting-the future; for the alteiiition in the corn
laws, and the reduction in the duties charged on
the importation of various articles of foreign a^ri-
culturnl produce, continue to be universally consi-
dered as by no means favourable to the agriculturul
interest of the United Kingdom. E.\-petience has
taught ihe farmers the expenses of grain production
at home, but they know not tlie lowest price at which
foreign agricultural produce can bo profitably sold
in this couiUr\'. After jiayment of rent, local and
public taxes, tithes, fair wages to their labourers,
and numerous other expences attending tillage in
this country, they are practically convinced that,
when the average [irico of British grown wheat is
under .^'is. per qr., the farmer suffers iii his ca|ntal ;
and in the existing state of the corn Irnde, therefore,
they feel little ronlidcnce in their ability successfully
and profitablv to cultivate the fields of their fore-
fathers hereafter. Within the last quarter of a year,
the overage price of wlieat has been under 4?St per

quarter, and, during the same period in the current
year, similar c^nises .may produce a similar efifcct on
the value of their propertj^ Now, in the minds of
our farmers, an impression has been created that
even this low average cannot prevent the importa-
tion of foreign wheat of fine quality into this coun-
try for consumption. Polish wheats are generally
worth from 7s, to lOs. per qr. more in JIark-lane
than the average jirice i)f English wheat; and as
ill Poland rents and tithes are unknown, and as
the field-labour is performed by half-starved and
un|)aid serfs and slaves, tiie great land-proprietors
genera]]}' on tlie continent of Europe can afford to
pay, we may say, under all circumstances, our maxi-
mum duty, and have sufficient profit to themselves also,
after payment of freight and all the other esjiencts
of inij ortation into this country. The prospects,
therefore, of the agricultural interest are at the
pi'e>:ent time any thing but cheering, for only
by short crops in future have tliey any great chance
of reaping remunerating prices for their wheat produce.
For the remainder of their wheat, iiowever, of 184'.?,
some j)rospcct exists at jircseiit that remunerating
prices may soon be obtained. Tlie consumption of
wlieat dining tlie last four months has been chiefly
supplied by the importers of foreign wheat, and the
fpiantity of this description in granary has conse-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

16^

quently been vci'y materially reduced since that pe-
riod. Of duty-paid wheat not much above half a
million of quarters now remains in the granaries, and
under the Queen's lock the quantity is somewhere
about two hundred thousand quarters, the cost price
of which has been so high, that to pay our present
duty would subject its proprietors to a considerable
jiecuniary loss. It is, therefore, not probable that
tins bonded wheat will be entered for home use, un-
til a considerable improvement in its piescnt value
occur ; and the farmers, therefore, may naturally
conclude that in the wheat markets, until the end of
June at all events, their property cannot be inter-
fered with, except by the small quantity of foreign
duty-paid wheats at present in the United Kingdom.
There, therefore, as M'e have said above, may exist
fair grounds for expectations and hopes that the re-
mainder of last year's crop may still be disposed of
at prices which may in some measure remunerate
the British growers for its cultivation. During last
month, indeed, some improvement, but to no great
extent, in the value of various descriptions of grain
actually occurred ; and so long as the farmer's de-
liveries are confined within the bounds of prudence
and moderation, this advance will be maintained,
and may even be increased, until the arrival of the
time when our supplies may be again rendered re-
dundant by foreign importations. This, however,
cannot be the case to any extent before the month
of .) uly, or the beginning of next harvest season ;
and then prices, as they nsually are at that season
of tiie year, will be chiefly regulated by the ap-
pearance of the crops in the fields, and by the state
of the weather. Our farmers have, therefore, before
them the prosjicct of nearly exclusively supplying
the maikets with wheat during the next four or
five months — a privilege which it would be well for
the best interests of the United Kingdom if the law
gave to them in all times, and under all circum-
stances, excepting when actual want may be the
consequence of unfavourable seasons ; and there is,
therefore, as we have already said, a chance at all
events that, by prudential management, a partial
degree of prosperity may be restored to them, al-
though we much fear that it cannot be lasting in
the present state of the agricultural laws of
the Eritish Empire. A moderate advance
in the value of grain d'lring the next six montljs
must be attended by an universal good ; indeed the
benefit will be much more extensively felt by our
artizansandcomraercialand manufacturing labourers,
than by the landholders, the fanners, and the
field laboureis themselves ; the agricultural interest
having alwavs within itself abundance of jirovision
for immediate support, even under the most adverse
circumstances, but with the other classes in our
society circumstances are widely different indeed.
]5ad seasons and damaged crops, r.o doubt, may
render occasional supplies of foreign food absolutely
necessary ; but when this misfortune occurs, dis-
tress amongst the manufacturing and trading in-
terests is the inevitable consequence. J3uring the
last four or five years we have had but too much ex-
I)erience of the evil conseCjUences to commerce of
large supplies of foreign grain, even before the late
alteration of the corn law gave encouragement to
this description of trade* This most extensive
importation of foreign grain has not been attended
during these years by any corresponding increase in
the quantity or in the value of British goods ex-
ported to those empires, kingdoms, and states, from
which such immense supplies of grain and provi-

sions have been received by us. On the contrary,
the custom-house returns but too clearly establish
the melancholy fact tiiat annually have our exports
of manufactures to these foreign grain-exponinw
states been on the decline. In our trade with any
of them, reciprocity exists not. We are compelled
to pay for their agricultural jiroduce in the precious
metals, and this money never is again remitted to
this country in exchange for any article produced by
British or by Irish industry. It is now embarked
in the improvement of the fields in those states to
which it has been remitted, and in extending their
manufactuers, thereby rendering fheni annually
more and more independent of Jkitish manufactures,
in proportion to the value of the grain and provi-
sions which we receive from them. This is not the
way to extend the foreign consumption of British
manufactures, for a barter trade in clothing and
provisions has never yet been established betwixt any
two foreign communiiifs, and tho whole history of
civilized society most abundantly has established the
painful factthatit never can. The unfortunate state
of our grain crops latterly, joined to the reduction
made in the import duties on various articles of
foreign produce and manufactures, and to the al-
teration effected in the corn laws during the last
session of Parliament, is now visibly making a deep
inroad on our finances themselves ; to which, un-
less some bar be immediately raised, it is impoRsi-
ble to predict the fatal consequences which may
ensue to the people in general. In the year 1842,
we paid to foreign agriculturists upwards of six
millions sterling in money for wheat alone, which
is a dead loss now to the IJritish nation. So far
from having increased the foreign demand for
manufactured goods, the effect has been decidedly
the reverse ; and it has also most materially de-
creased the home consumption of goods amongst
the luudholders, farmers, and the agricultural
labourers ; and we cannot be surprised that manu-
facturing distress has boon the natural effect of this
most untbrtunate state of our affairs. Had these six
millions sterling been paid to British farmers for
provisions, instead of having been remitted to fo-
reign nations in payment for foreign wheat, that
sum would never have been withdrawn from cir-
culation i;i this country ; but it would have been
em])loyed now at home in increasing the wages of
the industrious classes of society gcneialiy. This,
however, is only a small jjart of the money remit-
ted during 1842 to foreigners in exchange for their
manufactures, and for many articles of their agri-
cultural produce, which, uruier protective laws,
(ve could grow or manufacture in far greater
perfection at home, 'i'o tins false system of free
trade are we now indebted for even a deficient re-
venue. The money which we pay to foreigners
for various articles of their production would he
far more profiiablj' employed now had it been ])aid
away to our svorkmen at home for similar articles.
For instance, in minor matters even, we cannot
at tho same moment ])ay for and wear French boots
and English ones ; and if we prefer the foreign
ones, we throw the English makers out of employ-
ment. Now, so long as this most impolitic trade
exists— by wiiich our money is sent to foreigners in
exchange for grain, provisions, or for any descrip-
tion of foreign manufacture, which we can manu-
facture at home — so long must distress continue to
exist amongst all the productive classes in British
society. Poverty must continue to be their chief
companion, and low wages must deprive i^them of

156

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

those means of living whicli they enjoyed nndev
laws patriotic and protective to home agiiculture
and to internal industry. The deficiency now
existing in our imblie revenue has its origin, we
repeat, solely in the reduction — or, we may more
truly say, in the w.iut of living wages amongst
many of the industrious classes. 1 he money which
would have been emjiloyed by thoni in the con-
sumption of duty-paid articles has been paid away
for foreign grain and for foreign labour, and thus
is the revenue injured by encouraging foreign in-
stead of iuiglish labourers. A few, and only a
very few, of the Cotton Lords may make princely
fortunes on the ruins of British agriculture, and
on the reduction of the wages latterly paid to the
manufacturing labourers ; but this selfish princi-
ple will not be long permitted to exist witliin the
United Kingdom ; for if it be tolerated only for a
few years, the ])ublic creditor may begin to whistle
for his dividend, which assuredly caimot be paid
so long as the wages oftlje industrious aflbrd them
not the means of paying for and consuming duty-
paying articles. Income-taxes and property-
taxes may ba doubled and tripled on the commu-
nity, but without the aid of powerful indirect tax-
ation, they can, under no circumstances, be of any
avail in restoring the national finances. Under
the influence and protection of laws now either
repealed entirely — or, at all events, modified —
hn-ge crops formerly rendered our agricultural in-
terest flourishing. No money was then paid away
for foreign agricultural produce, unless when the
crops at home were bad. It remained in active
circulation at home. It rendered labour abundant,
increased the wages of industry, and reduced the
expenses of living. It rendered tbc revenue more
than equal to the public expenditure, and it filled
the people with gladness. A material improvement
in the value of agricultural produce may, however,
take place within the next six months ; and even
this alteration will do good to the community, short
though the period may be in which it may be en-
joyed. But, after all, the only true plan for the
restoration of general prosperity is to enact laws by
which our internal industry may be sufficiently
protected. With our immense capital, energy, and
science, applied to agricultural, commercial, and
manufacturing improvements at liome, double our
present population may be well fed and productively
employed. The wages of labour may then be al-
ways placed above the expenses of living, whatever
may be their amount, and no complaints will be
made afterwards of any deficiency existing
in that part, at all events, of our revenue
which is collected by the officers of the excise.
But now circumstances have put it beyond the
])Ower even of the Anti-Corn Law Le:iguers them-
selves, any longer to attribute the partial distress
to which a jiortion of the manufacturer's opera-
tives have latterly been subjected, to the high
price of provisions ; for, during tiie last half ye.ir
at any rate, wheat has certainly been far under thi'
price at which it cvm be, with profit to tlie grower,
produced in this country; and had the doctrines
inculcated by these our modern [lolitical econo-
mists, of the possibU'dij of a purehj barter trade
existing awongst nations in the present art'ifc'ial
state of (itiH'iseil siicicty, any foundation what-
ever, the vast (luantiiies of grain which we liavc
imported during the last five years from foreign
nations, should long before this time have illus-
trated the soundness of these piinciplcs, and ena-
bled them to point to a happy, well paid, and well

employed manufacturing population for a con-
firmation of the good conferred by their acts on
the inhabitants generally of the United Kingdom.
The commercial operatives, however, now know
by experience, that v^hen the value of provisions
is reduced by foreign supplies, their wages are
much more in proportion reduced by the same
cause. 'I'he home market they know to be the
most valuable, because the most extensive, for the
consumption of British manufactured goods, and
this channel for consumption mainly depends on
agricultural prosperity. Our colonies and India
possessions are the next best consumers, for
throughout Europe and the United States of North
America, our free trade laws have been met by
the imposition of nearly prohibitory duties on the
importation of British goods into any one of them,
and yearly now does our export commerce with
them decline. The Anti-Corn Law Leaguers now
finding little or rather ho favour in the eyes of the
manufacturing labourers, are turning their atten-
tion to our agricultural labourers, .nnd are extend-
ing to them their philanthropy. Here, howevei-,
their labour is equally unfortunate and unproduc-
tive, for the agriculturists, consisting of at least
two millions and a half of males, cannot under-
stand Inw their condition in life can be improved
by our purchasing the produce of forpigu fields,
and giving employment to foreign labourers in
])rodncing grain and mnny other descriptions of
provisions, which can be most abundantly grown
at home by themselves. When a real equality in
circumstances is established amongst nations, when
British labourers come on an equality in mind,
in intelligence, and in living, with those of Russia
or of Poland ; when the wealih of the United King-
don), and that of ihe corn districts in Europe may
be placed on a level, then indeed something like
reciprocity in trading may be established. The
equal circumstances may then teach the free trade
doctrine of giving and receiving according to their
wants amongst nations; but so long as the im-
mense riches of Great Britain render the customs
and manners of the population so very different to
those in any other country, a barter trade cannot
exist. The time, liowever, must speedily arrive
when an unanimous demand will be made on
the British legislature by the British people, for
protection to their industry in our markets of con-
sumption against the industry of all foreign com-
munities. Until this be done the state of the
British empire must continue to be unsatisfactor}'
in tlie extreme, and none will suffc'r more than
those whose labour is their property, until some
change in the jjresent system be effected.

In the barley trade the month of .January has
cft'ictcd very little alteration. The finest samples
have advanced somewhere about Is. jjcr qr. ; but
this, unfortunately, has been occasioned by small
supplies of the finest qualities, and certainly not
by any increased consumption. The consumption
of malt has most materially fallen off" durirg the
year 1842, and we fear much that this decrease
must annually occur in a greater degree until the
cause in which it has its origin be removed.
During the last session of Parliament the attention
of the representatives of the British empire was
mainly directed to our tariff" of (Custom-house
duties, which were materially reduced, we pre-
sume chiefly for the encouragement of foreign
labourers, and of foreign industry, by making the
British markets more profitable to them, and by
enabling them to possess themselves of a share of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

157

our surplus money, the employment ofwliicliiit
home is now felt to be so diffieuit ami unpioritablc.
To the excise laws no attention was given, nor
was any alteration in them atteinpted cither
by her ^Iajesty's Ministers, or by the Ojjposi-
tion during the last year. The reduction of the
duties levied on foreign wines and on foreign
spirits was mentioned, but the reduction of the
duty levied in England on British S|)irits did not
enter, even for one day, into the coiitemi)latioii of
the British legislature. These duties are upwards
of three hundred and fifty per cent, on the original
value of spirits, and in this source alone originates
the immoral practice of stnuggliug. In afl'onling
relief to the inhabitants of the United Kingilom
generally all the duties levied by the excise
should have been very materially reduced, for by
these means alone can consumption be legitimately
increased, and an addition be made to the produc-
tive employment of many of the industrious
classes of society. By the reduction of the duty
now ciiarged on British spirits, consumed in En-
gland for instance, the labour and i)rolJt of j)ro-
ducing an additional (juantity of oats and barley,
to the extent of not less than half a million of
quarters, would be gained by the community, the
revenue would be increased, and it is no paradox
to assert that at the same time the consumption
of ardent sjiirits by the British people would be
most materially decreased. Moderate duties in
England, such as they now are in Scotland and in
Ireland, \vould destroy the trade of the smuggler
by retidering it no longer profitable ; and in this
bighly important alteration would the temptation to
drunkenness be in a considerable degree suppressed.
Somehow or other, spirits, which have paid no
duty, possess, we may almost say, an exclusive
charm for the con3um])tion of the people ; and the
encouragement which the high spirit duties in Eng-
land hold out to the illicit trader, both at home and
abroad, renders the field for smuggling at jjresent
not to be resisted. The quantity now annually and
illegally imported, and passed into use, cannot be
less than ten millions of gallons ; on which ilie
British Government obtains no revenue, and in the
prjduciiun of which neither the British farmer, the
British workmen^ nor the British distiller receives
either useful employment or profit. It must there-
fore be ajiparent that, for the interest of morality
amongst the people, for the interest of the public
revenue, for the interest of the improvements in
agriculture, and lor the extension of productive em-
ployment amongst the industrious classes of society
generally, a material alteration in the duty now im-
posed on home-made spirits in England,
should be effected immediately on the nest
meeting of parliament. The British distillers
form a most injjiortant class in society. By them,
even under the existing most impolitic system, the
public revenue is benefited to the extent of at least
sis millions sterling annually, and to grant to them
facilities for increasing their operations in England
IS certainly a much greater national advantage than
to encourage the distillers of I'rancc or of Holland.
Those who consume brandy and geneva can well afford
to pay the present import duty, but it is widely dif-
ferent with the great mass of the community. Our
rectifiers can give all the flavour to British brandy
and gin which the foreign distillers can do, and in
real wholesomeness no comj)arison can be made.
For the sake of the public health, therefore, as well
as for that of morality, smuggling of spirits should
be suppressed, and fair encouragement should be

given to the manufacluievs of good spirits at home.
\Ve have stated that high spirit duties in England
prevent an additional consumption of British grain
to a very considerable extent; and our high malt
duty prevents the quantity of barley now used by
the public brewers from being much move than
doubled ; for so far from the consumption of malt
keeping pace with the increase of population, it has
annually been falling away, until the (jiiantity now
used by the licensed brewers has declined to little
above three millions and a half of quarters. tJnder
a proper system of taxation, and under bettor regu-
lations for the maltsters tiian the present excise laws
permit, the consumption of barley by the brewers
may, in a very few years, be more than tripled. A
du"y of Is. per bushel imposed on barley intended
to be converted into malt, and permission to the
maltster to use his experience and his talents in pro-
ducing the best article possible, would speedily be
attended by tl-'is much ilesircd effect. As matters
now are regulated, in many instances, no science
can enable the maltster to accomplish his own inten-
tions. He is now compelled to apply the same
rules to his trade, whether the barley bo flinty or
soft, whether it be grown in a warm or a cold cli-
mate, and whether the temperature at the time of
malting be suitable or not for his operation. If the
excise permitted him to convert his barley into malt,
according to circumstances, a superior article would
always be the result of his labour, and to charge
the duty on the raw barley itself would remove every
objection which can now be made to our proposed
alteration. It would save the exciseman a great
deal of very useless trouble, and it would also save
ilie public the still more useless expense of
maintaining many officers, who would be much
better employed in followiui;' up pursuits far
more useful to the public, though certainly less pro-
fitable to themselves. It ouly reiiuires a small por-
tion of nerve to be exerted by the Chancellor of the
Exchequer to enable hiin to remove, at all events,
a considerable part of the dcpressiou under wliicli
the comnumity is now labouring. The cultivatiou
of at least two millions of acres of land, now en-
tirely unproductive, will be one cfiect necessarily
arising from the reduction in the present rate of the
malt duty. When accomplished, this improvement
will add to the value of land rents at least two
millions sterling annually, and thus increase the
nation's wealth ; it will likewise give a great deal of
productive employment annually to many thou-
sands of families now unemployed, and the profits
arising from this source alone would go far in pay-
ing for any expence which the increased consump-
tion of beer would occasion. Another i)OWGrful
reason for the reduction of the malt duty to some
point within moderation, may be found in the solid
benefit which the community would derive from the
enjoyment of cheap and unadulterated beer. At
present more than one half of the population have
not the means to pay for even the smallest pittance
of this article, not more to them a luxury than a
necessary of life; whilst the other half, whose iu-
comes permit the use of it, consume it in a highly
adulterated state, and they arc in fact defrauded by
by many of the vendors, who cannot afford to sell
it at any thing like moderate prices, unless after a
mixture with it of the most deleterious ingredients.
A reduction in the malt duty and an alteration in
the regulations, by which the maltsters are at pre-
sent restricted in their operations, is a duty, there-
fore, which the legislature imperatively owes to the
best interests of the inhabitants of the United King-

lo8

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

(loiu. No doubt can be entertained of the revenue
drawn from this source eventually being improved
by a linancial measure of this description, for tlie
increased consuniiition would render an increased
re\ cnue a necessary consequence. But even should
the redaction of the malt duty create a contrary ef-
fect, no deficiency in this respect should be per-
mitted to stand in the way of a great public benefit,
for there are other channels from which any defici-
ency in the malt tax maybe easily supplied. In our
late publications we have pointed to the duties now
levied on the importation for home consumption
of foreign grain, pulse, and various other de-
scriptions of agricultural products. As the al-
teration in the corn laws, and the late reduc-
tion in the duties chargeable on cured provi-
sions of all descriptions, press heavily on the agri-
cultural interest, it is but common justice that the
revenue arising from the introduction into consump-
tion of those articles, bj^ which farmers arc so se-
verely injured in their property, should in future be
applied to the redaction of those taxes which res-
trict, in a great manner, the progress of agricultural
improvements. Sir John Barleycorn — and from his
long and varied experience, his authority ought at
all events to be attended to, even by the Chancellor
of the Exchequer himself, on a subject of this vast
importance— asserts, that he can afford to pay more
than one quarter of the public expenditure; indeed,
that he has nearly done so, till he was overtaxecl
within the last five or six years, and that he would
contribute in a far greater degree still to the same
object, if the law only gave him a fair opportunity
to do his best for the public service. The worthy
knight also is under some fear that the national
creditors will not long receive their dividends, un-
less his valuable representations be immediately at-
tended to, and the malt and spirit duties be materi-
ally reduced.

The oat trade during the whole of last month
has continued in a most deplorable state of depres-
sion, but prices had previously been so low, that it
would require talent of a peculiar description to
make them less valuable than they latterly have
been. As it is, however, a fall of Is. per qr. on the
finest qualities has occurred since our last number
went to press. Improved quality on the contrary
has raised the price of the lowest descriptions about
Is. per qr. during the same period. '1 he average
price is somewhere about 17g. per qr. The greater
portion of the Irish supplies in London is sold at
l^resent even under that low price, and it must be
perfectly obvious, we may almost say to the
Anti-corn Leaguers themselves, that this article
cannot be grown in Ireland at anything like that
]irice, if rents, taxes, and even the lowest wages
to agricultural labourers, are to be in future paid.
To the north of Europe, therefore, should the
existing system be persevered in, must the Oat
consumers in Great Britain ultimately look for sui-
table su]iplios, and the labour of production will
be then transi'errcd from British and Irish work-
men to those of foreign states. This is one way
certainly to imi)rovc our excise duties, which rc-
rjuires more than common sense to comprehend.
But, even in this loss of field employment at home,
the evil docs not end. We have been accustomed
to admire, and foreign maritime states to fear the
British navy heretofore, and it would appear that
the modern jjlan for strengthening our commercial
navy, is to transfer a large portion of our oat carry-
ing trade from the British flag to those of foreign
comimunities i for most undoubtedly the greater

part by far of foreign oats consumed in this country
always has been, and ever will be, imported in
foreign ships, navigated by foreign seamen. As
soon as the season open;?, the freight of oats to
Scolland and to all the ports in Englimd, betwixt
Berwick and the Land's-end, will be I'rom Is. to
Is. 3d. per qr. at most, and these freights will be
carried out of the British empire in hard money,
as will be also the cost price of the oats them-
selves. In manufactured goods not one cargo of
them will be paid. On the contrary, this money
will be invested in foreign improvements of various
descriptions, and must hereafter increase the difli-
culties which our manufacturers now experience in
competing with those of foreign states even in our
home market. Oats for some years past have been
profitably cultivated in Ireland, chiefly because in
the British markets they received prices generally
more than equal to the expenses of their cultivation ;
but now this advantage has been to a certain extent
withdrawn, for the sole purpose apparently of en-
riching foreign agriculturists, and from the vaiu
expectation that a part of this money may be re-
turned by them afterwards, and expended amongst
the Rlanehestcr manufacturers. For a theory,
therefore, the future improvement of the Irish soil,
and the productive employment of the Irish jjcoplc
in their native country, are to be put in jeopardy ;
but the truth may be discovered when a remedy
cannot be applied to the evils which generally arise
from experiments so truly absurd as those are, to
which the public attention has been so frequently
directed of late. From the United States, and from
our American colonies, the letters received since
our last publication, are dated in the first week of
January ; but they communicate no commercial
information in any degree interesting to corn
traders in this country. Throughout the American
Union flour and wheat for home consumption had
not declined, at these dates, materially in value ;
but when the season allows the prosecution of that
tradC; we are informed that prices in a great mea-
sure will be regulated by those in Mark Lane, for
the last crop was uncommonly productive, and the
quality also was fine. It was not supposed, there-
fore, that our West India colonies, and tlie different
states in South America, would be .'ible to take off
the surplus of the American growth, and therefore
it was then generally concluded that much nmst
depend on appearances in Great Britain for a fa-
vorable vent, for at all events a portion of the last
American wheat crop. In the meantime the ship-
ments of dairy products were weekly on the in-
crease. The quantity of American cheese now in
this country is exceedingly large, and it is there-
fore obvious that any farther increase in the sup-
plies of it must hereafter materially interfere with
the value of this article in this country, to the great
detriment of our dairy farmer's property embarked
in it. Jonathan's reciprocity in this article is not
unlike his reciprocity in all other connnercial
matters. We charge less than Hd. of duty on
each pound of his cheese entered here for home
consumption, whilst the American duty on English
cheese, when imported into that I'cpublic, is up-
wards of (i^d. per pound. This is another valuable
sample of freedom in trade amongst friendly
nations ; one by which (Jrcat Britain will not con-
siderably add to the quantity of IVlanehestcr goods
now consumed in that rei)ublic ; but to hurt the
cai)ital of our dairy farmers is only another small
sacrifice made to the illustration of, we do not call
jtpolitical economy, but of a false philosophy now

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

159

daily propagated amongst llic British people. The
iiitbnnation re:<peeting the corn trade, whieh \vc have
received from various parts of Europe, is not of any
interest whatever to those concerned in the corn
trade here. The elements have closed all the corn
shipping- ports within the Haltic sea, and the doubt-
ful prospects of the trade in the United Kinjidom
have j)rcventcd specidative bargains from being
entered into for shipment when the seasons permit.
At Dantzig, Stettin, Rostock, and all the large
wheat markets within that sea, ]>rices of wheat were
nearly nominal, the best high mixed Polish samples
being quoted at 33s. to 3.js. per quarter ; but, as no
l)urchasers for exportation were then in any of these
markets, sales of only small quantities could be
then effected. When the inland navigation, how-
ever, became again free, large supplies were expected
in all of them from the interior, and then the value
would be regulated by the future appearances in
Mark-lane. If no improvement occur here, the best
Dantzig wheat, it was generally expected, would fall
under 30s. per quarter on board, and at Stettin and
Rostock Silesian wheat of the best qualities v.'ill
probably decline some shillings below Polish, under
similar circumstances; for the last crop was abun-
dant, and of superior quality almost everywhere
throughout the Northern corn districts. In the
ports in the Mediterranean and Black seas, the corn
trade is still in a very depressed state, and the value
of all descriptions of grain is purely nominal at the
latest advices. Unless a demand should arise from
England, little improvement in this state of affairs
was expected in those parts, for the supplies, during
the spring, will naturally exceed the home consump-
tion. On the whole, we regret that our January
jirospects are so gloomy, and so little qualified to
ixmove the fears of our Agriculturists, who have a
chance certainly of obtaining during a few months
remunerating prices, for last gear's wheat crop; but,
we repeat, that this is only a prospect whieh depends
on the future supply of British wheats, and whieh
may be removed within a few months by the
favourable appearance of the coming wheat crop,
when harvest approaches towards its completion.

CURRENCY PER IMP. MEASURE.

Wln'te 50 54 58

Do 48 50

no — —

New .32 — •

Clieralier 31 33

Bere . 19 20 22

Bruv.ii . . 50 54

Clievalier 60 —

Potato.. 'J3 25

Cork, white 18 10

Westpon 13 10

Black .. 10 17

Jan. 23.

Wheat, Essex and Kent, red iC

Irisli 46

Old, red —

UrE, old ?,2

Barley, Grinding 24 27 Alalting SO

Irish 21

Malt, Suflolk and Norfolk .... 50

Kin^jston and Ware .... 50

Oats, Yorksli. & Liiicolnsh., feed 20

You;;!iaIl and Cork black 10

Dublin 17

Waterford, white 17 18

Ncwry.. 20

Oahvay 12

Sootcli feud 22

Clonniel 17 18

Londonderry 18

Beans, Tick, new 30

Peas, Grey 31

White 32

Seed, Rape ~l. -I.

Linseed, Baltic. . .40

English Red Clover..,
White

Mustard, White 7 10 brcwn 8 11 per bush

Tares, old .... 28 30 new 80 40 per qr.
Flock, Town-made 43 45 Suflblk 30 — pr sk. of 280 Ihs
Str.okton and Norfolk, 30 —

FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND.

OATS,Brew 15 17 i'ecd . . . 12 14

Bbans 13 24

Peas 20 24

FLOun, American, per bW...... 22 34 Baltic.. — 22

10

19

32

33

30
Irish..—/
40 Odessa 43
• — — per cwt,

Potato.. 21 24

Limerick 18 19 21

Sli^ro .. IS 19

Old 32 .34

Maple.. 31 S3

Rjihirs . 35 83

I. per last.

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

AVuek endiiis AVheat. Barley. Oats. lUjc. Beans. Peas

D(.c. lOlh

17th

24th

31st

Jan. 7lh

14th

Agtjreyate average
of the six weeks
which regulato-

tlie duty

Duties payable
in London till
Wednesday nest
inclusive, and at
tile Outports till
thcarrivalof the
mail of that day
from London . .
Do. on grain fri^m
British posses-
sions out of
Kurope

47 3
40 10
47 2
47 1
47 1
47 10

8 0

2 0 1 01 1 0

80 3
29 10
28 11
28 3
28 0
27 5

32 3
32 2
31 2
31 0
29 11
20 7

—

crushiii

J 13

45 pt.

!• qr.

46

50

white

42

58 pci

cwl.

40

do..

none

1

n

e

do..

40

60

p

43

do..

nont

S

48

do..

none

J

a

10

old....

16

20 per cw(.

11

white..

9 10

-Gdp.

>\nh.

22

old....

12

16

33/.

rcr ton.

to 10/. 10s.

PRICES OF SEEDS.

Jan. 23.
'J"he demand for Cloversced does not augraent much
and having a fair quantiiy offering this morning- sales
proceeded slowly at about our quotations. In the value
of other descriptions of Seeds little change has occurred
during ll.e past wtck, and the only article which was
actually cheaper this morning was Canary.

Linseed, English, sowing 43 58

Haltic —

Mediter. & Odessa 45

Large, foreign.. .. —
Clover, Englisii, red .. .. 40

Flemish 42

New Hamburgh .. nor

Old do 40

French 40

Coriander 10

Mustard, brown, new . . 9

Trefoil, new 18

Rnpeseed, English new.. 31/.
Linseed Cakes, Englisli.. lijl.

Do. Foreign.. 71. to 7/. 10s.

Rapcseed Cukes 6/. 5s. to 01. Os.

Hempsccd, small 35 38 large.. 40 48 per (jr.

Rye Grass, English 30 42 ScoUli 18 40

Tares, winter — — New 4s Od 5s Od p. bubli.

Canary, new 64 03 lino 05 66 i)er (|r.

Carraway, old — — new 42 44

PRICES OF HOPS.

BOROUGH, Monday, Jaa. 23.

Prices for Hopsof lliis year'.-, o-powth are rather hetler
since our last, and the quotations are as follows for
pockets b;ig-s bfdng very scarce :— Wealils, 79s. to 87i. ;
East Kent, ids. to ills.; and Sussex 77s. to 83s.
per cwt. Farnham, 140s. to 160 3. ; J'ockels of 1841,
GOs. to 70s; choice rlitlo, 70s. to 8 is. ; and bags,
60s. to 80:;. ; old olds, 35s. lo 423. per cwt.

Accounts from the German breweries state that
owing to die deficient crops, cargoes harl been received
from the United States, some of thtm being, however,
of very unequal quality. There had bren a good deal
of speculaiiou in Bavarij, &c. 'I'he duty on Foreign
Hop- brought to England is £4 14s. 6d. per cwt,

WORCESTER, .Tan. 21.-UutiI within the last
week or two our Hop market has w orn a very gloomy ap-
pearance ever since November la^t, some weeks passing
without a singe lot going through the scales, and the
lew parcels disposed of were generally at very ridueed
rates; now,_ however, things are changed, the demand
for all descriptions being general, and prices have again
rallied to nearly the highest quotalion since the season
commeDceil. To day some considerable sales were
made at the quotaiions given below. There is not so

160

THE TAKMEIl'S MAGAZINE.

mucb tuquiry for old lIoi)b, though good yearlings arc
very saleable.

1842's 78s. to 86s. choice, ilOi. per cwl.

1841's b"5s. to 72s. .. 78s.

1839's 48s. to 56s. .. 60s.
Old odds 25s. to 40s. .. 453.

POTATO MARKET.

SOUIHWARK, WATERSIDE, Jan. 23.

The supply of Potatoes to the Londsn market during'
the pa-t week i> not so large as have been lately re-
ceived. 'I he receipts for the week are as follows, viz.,
from Yniksliire, 975 tons ; Scotlaad, 440 ; Devonsliire,
225; Jersey, llO ; Wisbeaeh, 90. 'I'otal, 1840 tons.

The demand is much firmer for good samples of tiie
best so!ts, and the supply being limited, sales have been
readily effected, and our laU quotations freely obtained ;
and if tiie supply continues short, with a prospect of
improvement.

PRliStNT I'RICUS AS ANNKXED.

Per ton.

Scotch ReJs 50 to 55

York do — to 60

Devouii — to 65

Kent ic Essex Whites — to 45
Wisbeach 40 to 45

Per ton.

Jersey and Guernsey
Blues — to 50

Yorlvshire Prince
Regents — to 4.5

WOOL MARKETS.

BRITISH.

LPJEUS, January 20th.— There has been rather more
doing in sales of combing wool this week ; and prices
are firmer at last week's quotations. In clothiog wools
we have not any alteration to notice either in demand or
prices.

WAKEFIELD, January 20tIi.--We have little varia-
tiou to notice in our report of the wool trade this week ;
a lew sales have been made in light haired combing
wools at former limits— and as stocks are very bad, the
iiiai ket is firm. We have scarcely any inquiry for clo-
thing or blanket wools, and prices are nominal.

LIVERPOOL, Jan. 21.
Scotch.— Wc have notiiing new to report in laid
Highland W^ool ; the trade only continue to take for
their immediate wants at late rates. White Highland
has been in fair request, and is now scarce in the mar-
ket. Good cros cd Wool is still in demand at late rates,
but inferior is quite neglected. There is no demand for
Cheviots of any class, but as a few government orders
are being' given out, it is expected there will be a little
more dtmand soon.

8. d. s. (1.
Laid Highland Wool, per 24 lbs.. 6 9 to 7 a

White do. do 9 3 10 0

Laid Crossrd do.. unwashed.. 8 0 9 C

Do. washed do 8 0 11 0

Do. Clieviot uuwablied do 8 6 10 0

Do. washed la 0 15 (i

White do. do 19 0 S2 0

FOREIGN.
Jan. 23.
'J'he wool n.arket keeps firm, although some of our
manufucturcrs feel disappointed that there has not been
a more animated demand for the China trade, 'J'he
secret is, however, that our met chants have already
suffered too severely from the experience of late years
to run headlong into extensive and uncertain specula-
tions, though there is no (juestion but that both from
the Kuijlish and Scotch ports there are shipments mak-
ing. The statement cojiied from a Geiinan corres-
pondent's report of tlieLeipsic fair, wlarein are noticed
large jjurcliases by English houses, of cloth intended
for exportation to China, because cheaper than our
own fabrics, seems to be partially incorrect, since it is

now admitted by other commercial writers that the
Germans themselves have begun to move in the ship-
ment of articles to China, and intend freighting several
vessels. INlight not these said English purchases be
therefore a mere v\'eak invention of our rivals to alarm
the British manufacturers, and encourage their own ?

Upon the 7lh inst., the cloth market of Lcipsic had
not been brought to a close. Ord. descriptions were at
first neglected, bttt afterwards there arose some deniand
for exportation to Sweden and Norway, al the rather
lower rates that were current. Not so much was done
in middling cloths. Fine qualities al about 40 guter
groschens were most sought after. Of English wooUens
ihc supply was very limited, but still quite adequate to
the demand. There was a larger stock of German
fabrics, but no exiensive buyers. Most of the raw
wool at market found buyers. Combed wa^; in principal
demand, and a shade dearer.

Accounts of Sept, 3, from Sydney, give the exports
of Wool to England during the first six months of 1842,
at 25,130 bales. The market for English manufactures
continued to improve.

At Paris some woollen fabrics appear to have ra-
ther advanced in price, or at least the holders are
firmer.

From the Cape of Good Hope, accounts of Nov. 26
notice an increase in the exports of Wool during the
preceding quaiter ; the shipments to October 10 hav-
ing amounted to 499//. from Table Bay ; and to 3732/.
from Port Elizabeth.

PRICES OF MANURES.

Subjoined are the present prices of several sorts of

Bone dust, 22s. to 23s. per qr.

Half-inch Bone, 21s. 6d. to 22s. per qr.

Rape Dust 71. 7s. per ton.

Rape Cake, 6/. 10s. to 11 per ton.

Pvags, 41. to 41. lOs. per ton.

Graves, 6/. lOs. per ton.

Gypsum, at the v^-aterside, 35s. per too; landed and

housed, 38s. to 42s. per ton, according to quantity.
Agricultural Salt, 34s. per ton.
J^ance's Carbon, 12s. per qr.
Ditto Humus, 14s, per qr.
Soap Ashes, lOs. per ton.

Poittevin's Patent Disinfected Manure, 13s. 6d. per qr.
Poittevin's Highly Concentrated Manure, 30s. per qr.
Nitrate of Soda, 22s. 9d (duly paid) per cwt.
Nitrate Potash (saltpetre) 3()s. per cwt.
Petre Salt, 4s. per cwt.
Willey Dust, Al. 4s. per ton.
Urate, 5/. per ton.
Chie-fou, 21 = . per cwt.

Uaniell's new Bristol Manure, 13s, 4d. per qr.
Hunt's new Fertilizer, 13s. 4d. per qr.
Grimwade's Preparation for Turnip Fly, lOs. 6d. per

packet, sufhcient for three acres.
Wolverhampton Compost ( Alexandei's), 12s, per qr.,

subject to carriage to London, or forwarded from

Wolverhampton.
Guano, 10s. to 143. per cwt , according to quantity.
Potter's Artificial Guano, 15s, per cwt.
Dr, Daubeney's Sulphate of Ammonia, 125. per cut.
AJuriate of Ammonia, 24?. per cwt.
Muriate of Lime, 12s. per cwt,
Clarke's Compost, 3/, 12s, 6J. per hhd,, sulHcient for

three acres,
Wright's Alkalies, 28s. and 42s. per cwt.
Soda Ash, 20s.
Chloride Lirai-, 28s per cwt.
Suljjhuric Acid, 2id. per lb.

Sulphur for Destroying Worm on Turnips, 16s, pel' cwl.
Hunt's Artificial Guano, 12/. per ton.

Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 24, Norfolk-street, Strand,
London.

Ji )

««f # I

'-"«! -1

^ '

/

*-%

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

MARCH, 1843.

No. 3— Vol. VII.] [Second Series.

PLATE I.

The subject of our first plate is a six years and eight months old short-horned Cow,
for wliich a prize of Twenty Sovereigns was awarded to W. C. Maxwell, Esq., of
Everingliam Park, near Pocklington, Yorkshire, at the Sniithfield Club Show in De-
cember last. The Gold Medal was also awarded to Sir Charles Tempest, Bart., of
Broughton Hall, Skipton, as the breeder of the animal. She was likewise exhibited at
the Meeting of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society, and obtained a prizeof Ten Sovereigns.

PEDIGREE.

She was calved 7th of March, 1836, got by Scrip (2(304), dam Modesty by Magnet
(2-241), grandam Prudence by Don Juan (1923), g. g. dam Modesty by Sir Anthony
(143-5), g. g. g. dam by Romulus (564), g. g. g. g. dam by Snowball, g. g. g. g. g. dam
by Wellington (684), g. g. g. g. g. g, dam by Young Wynyard, g. g. g. g. g. g. g. dam
by Simon (590), g-g-g. g.g.g.g.g. dam by Simon.

ON THE PLANTING, MANAGE-
MENT, VALUE, GROWTH, AND
HARVESTING OF FOREST
TREES CULTIVATED FOR
PROFIT.

By John RTorton.

Observation of nature is a source whence much
valuable knowledge may be obtained on almost
any branch of rural economy, and particularly in
the management of forest-trees j but of all the
sources from which assistance may be obtained on
this subject, none has been more generally neg-
'^p^^^: . ^^* when we seek for knowledge of any
kind, it is surely best to apply to that authority
which appeals for the superiority of its principles
to the success of its practice. Naw, if we test this
matter so, where shall we find a name connected
with the production of timber of higher authority
than that of nature ? ^Vbcrc arc there finer trees

OLD SERIES.]

than those cut in Ler forests ? Should we not then
ai)ply to her for information ? The present mode of
managing timber shows that no such application has
as yet been made. The practice of an age which could
not call science to its assistance seems still to be
preferred to that which might be founded on an
examination of any of the great natural forests.
The axe and the saw, in conformity with the
maxims of a long-past age, are still used to destroy
plantations in their youth. Did we consult na-
ture on this subject, this would not be. She
would tell us that no pruning-hook ever entered
the precincts of her domain — that she pays no
forester to superintend the growth of her timber
— and that it is by neglecting the use of those
means alone which are now considered essential
that she succeeds in raising those trees, without
which our ship-builders might shut up their
yards, and our navies would be mastless. It is
very evident that a great deal of error lies at the
foundation of the general practice of our foresters.
In order, then, that we may be better able to
M INo. 3.— VOL. XVIII,

162

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

state with clearness our views on tins subject, it
will be well to arrange them under different heads.

There are many things — such, for instance, as
tbe influence of light on vegetation — which, while
they are very important as regards the assistance
they afford us in our inquiries into tbe best mode
of managing plantations, are yet so purely scien-
tific in their nature, that it may be well, in the
first place, to give a short statement of that
science which connects them togetljer, and draws
from them results regarding the mode in which
the bullc of trees is annually increased, and re-
garding the circumstances favourable to the
amount of that increase.

The two great organs in the plant, the one for
administering and the other for qualifying and
modifying the food supplied to it by the soil, are
the roots and the leaves. The body or trunk of
a tree is that which connects these two parts to-
gether, and it is that part of the tree tlie growth
and increase of which is the object of the forester
in adopting all the diS'erent modes of managing
plantations. In a transverse section of this part
of the tree a number of circular rings of various
breadths are observed. These circular rings arc
larger and more distinctly marked in some kinds
of trees than in others. There is a remarkable
difference in the texture of the inner and outer
side of the circular ring in some kinds of timber.
In the pine tribe particularly the outer side is
much more dense and compact than the inner ; it
is by this difference indeed that these rings are so
easily distinguished in some trees, and with such
difficulty in others. Each of these circles is the
growth of one year, and thus the age of the tree
is known by their number — its diameter depends
on their number and breadth. These circular
rings are so many integuments, each of them en-
circling the older portion of the tree. Tbe growth
of the tree every year is owing to the annual ad-
dition of a new integument. The newest of them,
or so many of tbe newest as are distinguishable
from the others by greater softness, and gene-
rally also by a whiter colour, gets the name of the
alburnum ; it is through this alburnum alone that
the sap ascends from the root to the leaf. There
are many theories to account for the way in which
the food of plants, after having been prepared in
the soil, is taken up by the roots. The roots ter-
minate in fibres, whose extremities consist of
small tubes which are closed by a porous, mem-
branous substance. This, from its nature, gets
the name of a spongiolc. The commonly-received
opinion is, that the ascent of the sap is owing to
capillary attraction, which, as the tubes through
which the ascent takes place are very line, would
be sufficient to raise it to a very considerable
height. Others have supposed it to be owing to a
process the)' have termed endosmose ; they sup-
pose that the substance of which sap is composed
has a strong affinity to water, and that, while the
pores of the spongiole are sufficiently open to allow
water to pass through them inwards, they are fine
enough to hinder the passage of sap outwards. The
consequence must be, that water will be constantly
passing through ; it is evident there is a limit to
this process where irritated artificially, for the
syrup generally employed instead of the sap will,
by the constant influx of water, eventually become
so diluted as to lose its attraction for the water
without the membrane ; but this limit can never
occur in nature, for, while the moisture absorbed
below tends to dilute, the evaporation going on

from the leaves has the effect of concentration, so
that its consistence remains unaltered. A third
party, but with probably less reason than the
others, attribute the whole of the phenomenon to
muscular action. Perhaps each of these causes is
partially effective in producing the result. What-
ever be the nature of the propelling force, it is a
well-established fact that sap does ascend. It pro-
ceeds upwards through the alburnum, or newly-
forraed part of the stem, to the leaves, and is
there acted upon by the air of the atmosphere.
A great portion of it is there evaporated, and when
it has at length assumed a proper consistence it
descends by the inner coating of the bark, supply-
ing, as it passes downwards, the wants of the
various growing parts of the tree. In the course
of one season a new coat or integument is laid on
over the last year's growth, between the bark and
the old part of the tree, and at the same time a
new bark is produced within the last year's bark ;
between this new wood and new bark another
layer of wood and another layer of bark will next
year be made. The first year's growth, the oldest
part of the wood, is thus always in the centre of
the tree, where it remains in its original size,
neither growing in length nor circumference ;
and the oldest part of the bark is always on the
exterior of the tree, where it remains till the an-
nual increase of the bulk of the tree bursts and
splits it, and at length, in some cases, causes it to
fall off. It is very evident that the annual addi-
tion of a layer of wood around the older part of
the tree gives to trees a tendency to grow in a
conical form, because the number of these annual
layers must diminish of course from the root to
the top.

The use of the leaves of plants is most import-
ant ; a leaf is merely a curious development of the
stem, all the different parts of which may be dis-
tinguished in it ; it is formed of a tbln portion of
a succulent, cellular substance, covered by a skin
or cuticle on each side. The upper surface of it
is not nearly so porous as the lower, at which ac-
cordingly all the changes effected by heat, air, and
light are supposed to take place. Water is here
evaporated, and the amount so lost is astonishing;
it is so great, that it has been proposed, and in
some cases, I believe, carried into effect with con-
siderable success, to drain marshes in the first
place by planting trees in them, which by the
copious evaporation from the leaves would at
length remove the stagnant water. The concen-
tration of the sap by evaporation is, however, not
the only effect produced by the leaves ; oxygen
gas is given out by the green parts of plants while
tbe sun shines, and during night is absorbed in
smaller quantity. This is supposed to take place
by the absorption of the carbonic acid gas con-
tained in the air and its decomposition in the
plant under the influence of light, the carbon
being taken and appropriated as food, while the
oxygen is set at liberty. During the absence of
light this process is exactly reversed ; but the
amount of oxygen then absorbed is not so great
as that given out during the day. The foliage thus
appears not only to be a most beautiful, butamost
useful part of the tree. The sap, thus prepared
by the leaves of each branch, gives increase of
bulk first to the branch as it descends towards its
junction with the stem, and then to the trunk and
roots. The trees, consequently, that have
branches from the the ground to the top naturally
take a conical form, tapering from the bottom

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163

upwards. This is particularly the case in trees of
the pine tribe. Their limbs are distributed with
regularity, growing in whorls from the ground to
the top of the tree, at almost equal distances, and
there is alw;iys one circular ring less above each
tier of brauches.

In almost all that Las been here said a strong re-
semblance may be observed between the plant and
the animal. The root may be compared to the
mouth, the leaves to the lungs ; and the analogy
between these two last sets of organs is very
striking. The sap, like the blood, circulates; each
is at length divided and subdivided, and spread
over an immense surface, by which it is brought into
contact with the air ; and though, on the whole in the
one case the fluid is oxidised, carbon being given oft",
and in the other carbon is absorbed, yet, under cer-
tain circumstances, the operation is precisely the
same. Neither the plant nor the animal will benefit
by the nourishment they receive, unless they idso
receive the aid of the atmosphere. The air must
lend its vivifying and enriching properties, or
they cannot live. The power of converting food
into material fit for nourishment is said to be in pro-
portion to the size of the lungs in animals ; so it is
with trees ; for as it is the leaves of plants wliich
convert sap into a substance capable of nourishing
them, we must conclude that, the greater the extent
of its foliage, the greater will be the growth of the
tree. It by no means follows from this, however,
that of two trees that which is placed in the situ-
ation most unfavourable for the production of leaves
vyill not eventually produce the most valuable
timber.

Each kind of tree, however, has a character and
external appearauce peculiar to itself. The oak is
a noble and majestic tree. It stretches abroad its
sinewy arms, aad conveys to the mind the idea of
strength. The beech too throws out its wide-spread-
ing branches, but it wants the rugged outline and
abrupt roughness characteristic of the oak. The
Spanish chesnut may be said to hold a place between
these, and accordingly partakes in part of the cha-
racter of each. The ash again is known by the
scantiness of its foliage, and the size and peculiar
arrangement of its limbs. The elm rises to a height
superior to the oak or the beech, extending its arms
aloft. All the pine tribe take the form of cones,
their limbs being arranged in whorls stretching out
horizontally, and decreasing in length towards the
top. These descriptions, however, apply to the trees
when growing solitarily under favourable circum-
stances. Trees, as well as plants of every kind, ac-
commodate themselves to circumstances, adapting
their growth to their situation. Thus the roots of a
solitary tree, growing in an exposed situation, are
large and numerous, having a deep and firm hold of
the ground, to enable it to withstand the force of the
storms to which it is exposed ; thetrunk too is short,
and it sends out a great number of limbs abounding
in small twigs and foliage, and the whole tree appears
stunted and dwarfish compared with one of the same
species growing in a low and sheltered situation. A
similar contrast also is observable between trees
growing on the sea-shore and those situate in deep
valleys, sheltered either by surrounding hills or by
trees growing around them. Near the coast the
limbs are observed to grow almost exclusively on
one side ; they shrink, as it were, from the appa-
rently withering effect of toe sea-breeze, and those
which front it have degenerated to mere bushy twigs,
and are covered with a thick but stunted foliage'.
In the sheltered valley the trunk is straight

and tall, and the limbs are vigorous. It is
icurious to observe the near connection which ex-
sts between the roots and the limbs of a tree. A
single tree, having a large head spreading over a
considerable extent of ground, is always possessed
of very large roots, extending deep into the earth,
and spreading in every direction from its centre to a
much greater distance than the extremities of its
limbs • a complete net-work is thus formed under
the surface, the roots interlacing each other in every
possible direction. But a tree of tlie same kind
growing in a thick plantation, having a tall trunk
and few straight branches, has also very few
roots, and those are long and slender, taking but
a slight hold of the ground; yet the strength of
each tree is similarly jiroportioned to the resistance
which each requires to make for its support during
stormy weather. Thick plantations are much less
agitated by wind and storm than when they are
thinly planted, for the tops only of the plantations
in that case present a resisting surface of leaves and
branches ; hence trees in sheltered situations are
easily blown down when that shelter has been taken
away by improper thinning.

It is this tendency in trees to accommodate their
growth to their situation that puts it in our power to
give them almost any character which we choose ;
for, in whatever way we wish them to grow, we
have onh' to place them in circumstances fitted to
produce that effect, and nature will perform the rest
for us. If, then, we plant for profit, the first thing
to be done is to inquire into the mode of growth
which is most profitable, producing the finest and
most valuable timber — then to ascertain under what
circumstances that growth will take place — and
lastly to act upon the information so obtained.

Forest trees may be classed, according to their ex-
ternal characters, induced by the circumstances
under which their growth has taken place, into two
great divisions.

The natural propensity of a tree is to spread its
foliage to the light ; when, therefore, it is solitary,
OF on the outskirts of a forest, there being no ob-
struction to this propensity, a large head is formed,
abounding in limbs, with numerous small branches
and thick ioliage. This then may be taken as a spe-
cimen of our first class — the solitary tree, abounding
in branches and limbs of various sizes.

When, however, trees are situated close too'ether
each, that it may surmount the obstacles which op-
pose its lateral growth, increases in height, and ex-
pends but little of its sap in the formation of limbs.
Here then is an individual of our second class — the
tree of the thickly.wooded forest, having a lono-
trunk and few limbs.

These then are the two classes between which we
have tojudge.

The answer to the question as to which is most
valuable might doubtless be easily guessed, for it is
well known that the value of timber depends not so
much on the solid contents of trunk, lirnbs, &c., as
on the length of scantling ; so that, although it
may be perfectly true, as was before stated, that,
other things being equal, of two trees, that which
was single and therefore fully exposed to the action
of heat and light will in the course of a given num-
ber of years increase in solid contents, altogether
more than the one which is situated in a closely-
wooded plantation, yet the difference in the amount
of growth does not compensate for the difference
in the value of the growth per cubic foot. Trees
that grow close together soon lose their branches ;
the trunk, though it does not increase so much in

M 2

164

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

diameter, increases greatly in lengtli, and the tim-
ber is niucli iiiier tlum that of single trees.

The liinbs and heads of trees, where they have
been allowed to grow solitarily, msiy be considered
as about three-fourths of the weight of the whole;
while in trees raised together in a plantation they
not nnfrequeiitly bear so small a proportion to the
whole as one-fourth only. In order, however, that
we may not seem to make assertions without proof,
wc shall refer to a table at the end of this paper, in
which, by not only giving the measurements, but
the value also, of the limbs, trunk, and branches of
three oaks which grew single, and of three cut down
in a plantation — also of the same number of beech
similarly circumstanced — the statements here made
are fully borne out. These trees were not selected
for the purpose of illustrating the argument ; but
having been cut down for sale they were measured ;
and the results will be found fully to corroborate
all that is here stated.

Having thus shown what kind of growth pro-
duces the most valuable timber, and the mode in
which that growtli may be obtained, the next point
is to ascertain the best way of adopting the princi-
ples here laid down : and for this purpose we shall
go into the details — first, of planting, then of ma-
nagement of young plantations, and, linally, of
harvesting the timber when fully matured.

'J he second branch of our subject, therefore, is
planting. In planting, as in almost every branch
of rural econom)', wc should study to adopt all
the operations of nature. Nature seldom or never
plants more than one kind of tree in the same dis-
trict ; each tract is generally well stocked with
only one kind of timber. In Engbuid nature has
her forests or plantations of oalc and beech, and we
believe that, before the lowlands of the middle and
southern counties were brought into cultivation,
the greatest part of them was covered with elm.
Because, however, the elm takes possession of
good deep land, it was rooted up to make room
for the production of food, and is now found only
in hedge-rows — while some forests of oak and
beech, because those trees prefer poor clay or thin
calcareous soils, have been allowed to remain.

In Scotland the natural forests arc of Scottish fir
(piiius siilvestrh), and here there is no mixture of
any other sort of tree. In Norway, Sweden,
Poland, Russia, and America, there are numerous
forests of various species of pine ; also without
mixture. Each species of pine occupies the dis-
trict allotted to it without the interference of any
other variety.

There are two reasons for planting individuals
of only one sort of tree together. The first is, be-
cause, as the difllcrent foiest-trees differ in their
choice of soils, that which is ada|)ted for any one
of them might not be suitable for a variety. The
other is this -. — some trees arc more hardy and
have a greater tendency to throw out lateral
shoots than others ; this, when the wind rises,
causes them to lash and irritate the stems of their
more delicate neighbours, the sap- vessels of which
arc thus bruised, their growth retarded, and tlie
trees themselves ultimately destroyed.

If wc mix hardwood trees and evergreen toge-
ther, the latter very soon get the mastery over the
others; thus, when cither spruce, Scotch, or sil-
ver fir is one of the sorts of trees growing in a
plantation where there is a variety, their lateral
limbs growing very strong, they will not only
occupy the ground allotted to them by the planter,
but will also extend their limbs in every direction,

assuming a right to the allotments of their more
tardy neighbours. ^Vhen, however, a iduitalion
is composed solely of any one of these firs, each
individual tree being placed under similar circum-
stances with its neighbours, they will grow up
siile by side as if they had come to a mutual under-
standing that each should only occupy its own por-
tion of ground ; and if this allotment be very li-
mited, tall straight trunks will be produced with-
out any lateral branches. What is true in respect
of the Scotch fir is true of any other kind of tree.
If, however, inplantingwc select those trees which
resemble each other in their tendency to throw out
lateral branches, there cannot be the same objec-
tion as there is to the mixture of trees varying in
the amount of this tendency. Thus the growth of
the oak and the Spanish chesnut— the elm and the
ash — the beech and the sycamore— the larch and
the poplar— and of the Scotch firs, the spruce and
the silver fir, is similar as regards both rapidity of
growth and character, and their propensity to
throw out latcrallimbs is equal: these, therefore,
may with propriety be planted together. If, how-
ever, all are mixed up in one plantation, we shall
find that the Scotch and spruce firs, &c., will oc-
cupy most room, and have the siijieriority over
the others, forming trees with large heads and a
great quantity of limbs; next to these in the
vigour of their growth will be the larch, then the
beech and the sycamore, then the oak and the
Spanish chesnut— lastly, the ash, the elm, and the
poplar.

Nature may be supposed to begin her operations
in the formation of forests by sowing clumps and
patches over the surface of the ground hereafter
to be covered with wood, the size and form of the
plots being regulated by circumstances. A seed is
carried by a bird or by some of the many other
means adopted by nature for transporiing it, and is
dropped in the midst of a barren waste It grows
up and becomes a tree ; after the lapse of years
the seed which it has scattered around it also
springs up, and a clump or plantation is thus
formed : if seeds of any other kind should have
been dropped in the midst of them, one of the kinds
will eventually obtain the mastery of the other.
The seeds thus scattered grow uparoundthe parent
plant— the plantation will increase annually in ex-
tent until it meet the progeny of trees of the
same or of another species whose ancestors have
been transjiorted in a similar way. In this way
natural forests arc raised, and they may be of the
same kind of tree for a great extent, if the soil and
subsoil be uniform, or they may grow in different
masses of trees, varying with the nature of the
soil and of the climate. The tediousncss of this
process evidently precludes the possibility of our
imitating nature here ; but although we cannot
adopt all the details of her practice, wc can, and
wc should, admit the correctness of the principle
upon which she acts, and take it as the rule of our
conduct. We should with her plant thickly toge-
ther, although wc may not take the same method
of putting our seed into the ground ; and the only
variety we should admit into our woods ought to
be, as with her, that which depends on variety of
soil and of situation.

Having thus laid down the principles on which
we are to act, we shall now consider the details to
be founded uj)on it. The plan to be adopted should
have a reference to the natural habits of the trees
to be grown. If the ground proposed to be planted
be of a uniform nature, then, as we have said, only

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

IGo

one kind of tree should be i)lantod. If, however,
the soil vary considerably, then we should plant in
masses of diHerent trees, each kind being planted on
that soil which it prefers,

liy thus j)lanting in soils and situations natural lo
the,tree to he gfrown, we may calculate on success in
all our plantations.

Tliore are several jioints which should be taken
into consideration before proceeding' to plant at all.

We must in the first place inquire if the value of
the timber grown after a certain number of years
would be greater than that which might be pro-
duced from the same land if uniier agricultural ma-
nagement. 'J'lie value of the produce in (he one
case must be comjiared with tliat in the other befo: e
we can determine on whicli side the profit would be
greater. Thus, if a field be worth so much per acre
per annum for the purposes of agriculture, it ought
when ulanted not only to i)ay the same yearly rent
with compound interest lliereon, hut also the ex-
pence of jilanling, with the interest on such expense,
and that (or as long a time as the ground is wholly
occn|)ied by it; and if the sale of timber after a cer-
tain period amounts to more than this accumul.iteil
sum at the time it is hai vested, then, and then only,
is it more i)rofitjb!e to plant than to farm the
land.

J'here are, however, besides the mere return of
cash, other advantages to be talcen into considera-
tion as due to the growth of timber. Thus trees and
plantations in many cases increase the value of sur-
rounding land. The profits accordingly of planta-
tions formed for (he purpose of shelter must be
sought for in the improvement which the adjoining
laud has received from them, and in cold bleak
situations this advantage has been very great. In
this way the beauty of an estate is often greatly im-
j)roved by the very means taken to increase its value ;
and ornamental plantations, if laid out with judg-
ment in the form of belts, screens, and clunjps, so as
to take up the poorest land and occupy the bleak-
est situations, are freiiuently the means of adding
greatly to its market value.

Some soils, with a view to their improvement,
might be planted with the intention of clearing them
again after not many years, and restoring them to
the common purposes of agriculture. If this be our
object, viz. the preparation of land for future cro))-
ping, the larch is the best of all trees for the pur-
pose— the quantity of its leaves is greater, and they
decay much sooner, than those of any other tree.
The fertility frequently given lo poor soils bv the
decayed vegetable matter thus left on the ground is
astonishing. One great advantage which larch pos-
sesses over most other trees for this purpose is
that twelve or fifteen years' growth is in general
su£ficient to kill all the natural plants on the ground,
and if the wood bo intended for an open grove,
it will, when thinned out, soon get covered «ith u
sward of fine rich grass. The change of the value
of poor mountainous districts thus effected would
amply repay the expense of planting at the end of
twenty or twenty. five years, independently of the
value of the poles and hark.

The planter should consider all the expense he
has incurred in the formation of woods as so
much capital sunk for the purpose of creating a
provident fund for a future generation, to enable
it to meet extraordinary «lemands on the estate,
such as planting wa'^te land, repairing and erecting
buildings, and other permanent improvements.
As soon, accordingly, as the timber is harvested,
the proceeds should be laid out in this way, or in

the purchase of an additional extent of property.
The timber of an estate should never be sold to
meet the annual expense of an establishment.

Hefore the planting is entered upon, the soil
should be prepared for it. Wet soils shouhl he
drained, and soil of every kind should be fenced
and cultivated to a certain extent to jirotcct and
l)repare it for the reception of the seed or plants.
In some wet and thin soils the surface should be
laid out into one-bout ridges with the plough, after
having been jjared and but ned, drained with o])en
ditches — for close drains would soon he choked by
the roots of the plants — and subsoil-ploughed :
the trees should be planted on the tops of these
ridges in rows, the earth being drawn up about
their roots, in most soils the previous preparation
should be that of double-digging, if the subsoil
will admit of it, and a crop of potatoes or turnips
shouUI l)e taketi off' it the year before the planting
is to be commenced. The ground is thus left in a
clean state, fit for the reception of the seed or
young plants — sometimes great advantage results
from bringing up the subsoil and mixing it with
the soil. There are instances in which the soil
does not suit a jjarticular tree, while the subsoil
is such as that tree would grow in to perfection.
It is in cases such as this that this operation is
attended with such beneficial effects. If, for in-
stance, we attempt to grow larch on black moor or
peat earth lying on a gravelly subsoil, we shall
certainly fail ; while, had we previously turned
the land so deep as to mix with it some of the
subsoil, our operations would have been attended
with success.

This shows us the necessity of not only ex-
amining the soil before determining on the kind of
tree to be grown, but the subsoil also, as we may
by this examination be enablcti to grow a more
valuable tree than we should otherwise have been
justified in attempting.

When the climate will allow, it is always better
to ROW trees than to plant them. Sowing the
ground we intend for a plantation of hard wood
with acorns, beech-masts, or ask-keys, according
to the tiee we have determineil on, is the best and
most profitable way of raising timber. The plan-
tations raised in this way will grow quicker, and
produce straighter and more uniform shoots,
and are found in eight or ten years to outstrip
those of the same age raised from seedlings trans-
j)lanted from a nursery. Oaks grown from acorns
sown in the field in which they are allowed to come
to maturity grow taller and arc more kind in their
growth than those which have first been sown in a
nursery, transplanted, and then put out into the
field where they are destined to stand. The reason
seems to he that no check is put to the growth of
their lajj-roots, and they are therefore not only
enabled to take a firm hold of the ground at an
early period of tlieir growth, but also go deeper
into the earth in seaich of their food. Those
which have been transplanted grow stunted and
dwarfish, throwing out lateral shoots for manj'^
years after they are planted.

We have already stated that trees, in order to
produce valuable timber, should be sown thick.
Oaks, ash, and beech should be sown in rows about
two feet apart, and about two or three inches from
seed to seed in the rows, and they shouhl be kejit
clean for four or five years ; good seed should be
selected, not the heaviest and largest, but that
gathered from the finest, fastest gr''-wing, and
largest trees of the kind. On examining the various

166

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

experiments that have been made at Welbeck, the
property of the Duke of Portland, the plan that
seems to succeed best in raising the oak is that
where the acorns had been sown in rows varying
from eighteen inches to two feet apart, and having
a furrow every five or six rows to take off the sur-
face water. The acorns in many places came up
as thick as beans in a garden, and they have thus
been allowed to grow for sixteen or twenty years,
till they were eio^hteen or twenty feet high, at
which time nine-tenths of them had been thinned
out by the natural de^Uh of the most backward of
the lot, the remainder being the finest and most
vigorous plants. The dead plants soon rot, and
thus not only prevent weeds and rubbish from
accumulating, but furnish by their decomposition
manure for those that remain. These are at that
age about three feet apart, all the dead and imper-
fect ones being cut down.

Although, however, almost every fact bearing
the least on the subject shows the propriety of
thick planting, we should not on that account for-
get to vary this thickness according to circum-
stances ; and if we use nursery plants of perhaps
from two to three years old, though it is certainly
more profitable to sow, it is a good rule to plant
thinnest, and the largest plants, in the most shel-
tered situation and the richest soil, and vice versa.
The thictness of our planting may then vary from
two to three feet between the plants, which is from
11,000 to 5,000 plants i)er acre.

I have already stated myopinion, and the reason
for it, that individuals of only one sort of tree
should be planted together. This is contrary to
the prevailing fashion on this subject, for we are
constantly told that there are certain kinds of
trees, as larch, spruce, and Scotch fir, which are
good nurse-plants, and are accordingly recom-
mended to be mingled with the hardwood intended
to be grown as a protection to it. They are good
nurse-plants, it is said, because they grow fast ;
now this is a very excellent property, if they unite
strength and durability, which the trees mentioned
do to a very considerable extent ; then these of all
others are those which a view to profit would re-
commend us to grow. That, however, is not the
mode generally adopted, and the larch, the spruce,
and Scotch fir are cut down to make way for the
tender and less profitable growth of a hardwood
plantation.

I do not here advocate the growth of these trees
to the exclusion of the oak, the beech, and other
hardwood trees. All that I here mean is, that it is
unprofitable to attempt the growth of hardwood
in situations where these nurse-trees are required,
and it is highly so to use these nurse-plants in
situations where the hardwoods flourish without
them.

We now come to the consideration of the pro-
per mode of managing plantations, from the time
they are planted till the time they are harvested.

Numberless are the plans, of various degrees of
complexity and expense, by which man's ingenuity
attempts to perform that which nature does with
simplicity, regularity, and no expense. In the
ca'ie before us, the object is the growth of the
greatest number of cubic feet per acre of the most
valuable timber ; the production of trees that have
the least offals, that will cut up for every use with
the least waste, and whose length fits them for
every purpose. It should here, therefore, he the
aim to throw the greater portion of the weight of
wood, which would otherwise form the head of

the tree, and then be fit merely for fire-wood, into
the trunk, where it will become valuable timber.
This being the object, what are the means in
general taken to obtain it ? The young trees,
oaks for exam|ile, are transplanted from a nur-
sery, where for four or five years they have grown
on a rich soil, to a situation where the land is
probably too ])oor for profitable cultivation ; thdy
are planted here and there among a plantation of
young firs, larches, &c., the intention of which is
to give them shelter, but the effect of which is in
most instances to choke their growth and destroy
them ; they are then gradually allowed to see the
light by the cutting down and removal of the
nurse-plants ; and, whereas it was formerly almost
entirely excluded, they have how a superabundance
of light, and room is given for the lateral shoots
to grow and increase in size, which they will not
fail to do. These, as the forester knows, not
being calculated to improve either the form or the
quality of timber, are cut off; they grow again,
and are again pruned, and so on till the upper
branches of the young trees, having at length
met one another, exclude the li.aht and stop any
further tendency to growth in that quarter. The
plantation, after a lapse of years, is ready for
market, and the forester wonders that, after hav-
ing followed the usual practice of pruning and thin-
ning, and thinning and pruning, in order that it
may not be said, as we have heard it remarked of
plantations, " These trees could not grow for want
of air," the timber is of bad quality, full of knots,
and still, after all his precautions, with a large
proportion of offal.

How does nature act ? We have already de-
scribed the mode of growth in natural forests.
The trees are there so close together that light is
excluded from their trunks, and their growth is
therefore entirely upwards ; there are no lateral
shoots, and that which would otherwise have
formed a head produces a trunk. Thus it is that
the spars used in our navies are of such perfect
straightness, so very long, and so perfectly free
from knots. In the forest thus coming to perfec-
tion, a great many trees are choked by the supe-
rior growth of others, and, as the food supplied to
those which remain decreases every year, owing
to the gradual exclusion of light, there is annually
a smaller quantity of sap-wood formed, and a
pfreater quantity of that which remains is hardened,
till at length the whole becomes of equal excellence
with the heartwood. The growth of the tree is
thus entirely stopped, and if it is not felled by the
axe of the woodman, who knows the value which
the timber-merchant sets on it in that state, it
stands a few years till, the process of decay having
been carried sufficiently far, it at length falls, and
furnishes nourishment for the growth of those that
remain.

The work thus gradually and spontaneously
proceeds, and tie results of it are far superior to
anything that can be referred to by the advocates
of the system of spoliation, which is generally con-
sidered as necessary to jjcrfect timber in artificial
plantations.

Here, as in other cases already mentioned,
though it would be far from profitable to follow
nature through all the details of her management,
it would be highly so to adopt the principle upon
which she acts. We should with her avail our-
selves of the effects of light in accomplishing our
purpose. After planting or sowing thickly, the
natural Influence of light will have the effect of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

107

raising trees perfect in form and qufility- T.iglit
has everything to do in directing tlie growth of
trees, and it will he a powerful engine in the hand
of the manager of woods if he make use of its in-
fluence in attaining his ohject, but it will he too
powerful for him if he work in opposition to it.
If it be let in upon the trunk of the tree in excess,
then lateral shoots and branches will make their
appearance, and lopping them will only increase
the injury, for it is useless to attempt to work
with the knife against the influence of light. No
art can set aside the laws of nature.

I should much rather leave nature alone to adopt
her method of thinning, than let a forester enter a
plantation and thin it out in the way it is always
executed ; although I should rather it were thinned,
if il were done in a proper time and manner.

The question, to what extent will it eventually
he profitable to thin out a plantation, hinges upon
two important facts : first, that too small a quan-
tity of limbs and leaves will check the growth of
the tree, a certain quantity being required to main-
tain the growth in undiminished vigour ; and se-
condly, that too large a quantity will injure the
value of the timber. Now, extensive thinning, by
admitting the light, will not only produce limbs
and lateral branches, but also greatly diminish the
number of trees per acre ; and too slight a thin-
ning may, by excluding the light, give a check to
the growth of the tree. There will therefore be
a medium, by adopting which we shall raise va-
luable timber, and at the same time run no risk of
checking the growth of our plantation. I would
commence, when the trees are from 10 to 15 feet
high, according to their thickness on the ground,
by cutting down all those that are choked and dying
or dead, and I would let these lie and rot on the
ground, rather than run the risk of bruising the
sap-vessels and injuring the bark of those that
remain by taking them out of the field. Their
value will, at any rate, be scarcely beyond the ex-
pense of cutting them up and fagoting them, and
they will by their decay give food for the young
plants that are left.

In no instance should a plant be cut down be-
cause by the vigour of its growth it is likely to
overtop and choke those around it ; nor should
any be felled because the operator thinks they are
too thick — the only rule to guide him should be
this : cut down the dead and those that are dying.
He may err in cutting down a growing tree ; he
cannot do so in letting it stand. Time will decide
if the plantation is too thick ; and when we require
to go over it a second time, we shall then be no
longer in doubt whether this tree or that of those
which remained after our first thinning shall sur-
vive, for all that we have to do is to abide by our
old rule. We should not be scrupulous to thin
them out to a certain distance, those merely should
be felled upon which nature has set her mark.
Our anxiety should be to take out the worst, and
leave the best and most thriving, for it is these
which occupy the land with their roots, and fill up
the space above them with their foliage.

By proceeding thus, we shall keep the trees
just so thick as to let them have just the room and
the light that is necessary for the healthy produc-
tion of the quantity of branches and leaves re-
quired for the preparation of the sap that will pro-
fitably augment their trunks. The knowledge of
the qunntity of branches that is necessary for the
vigorous growth of trees of various kinds and size
can be obtained only by long experience.

Practice also will teach how to vary the details of
management according to tlio habits of the trees
grown. With respect, for instance, to a j^encral
rule, which wc have found useful, to double the
distance between the trees as they trijjle their
height, it may he sufficiently correct, and yet it
may be improper to follow literally the table of
distances which may be deduced from it; thus,
if the trees be 3 feet high, three years after plant-
ing, and 2 feet apart, the following table will show
how to proceed : —

Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet.

Length of tree :^ i) 27 81

Distance between them
produced by death or

thinning 2 4 8 ItJ

This table should vary according to the kind of
tree grown. Thus, while larch, and Scotch fir,
and others of the pine tribe may be benefited by
the thinning being commenced at an early stage
of their growth, which indeed will spontaneously
take place, onk, ash, and other hardwood trees,
for the first fifteen or twenty years of their growth,
will grow faster and to greater perfection by being
thick together. They may then be thinned out, if
about 15 feet high, to the distance of '.i feet apart,
all the dead wood being cut down. When about
25 feet high, the removal of all the dead trees will
increase the average distance between them to four
or five feet. The thinnings may this time be taken
away, as the operation of removal will not be
likely to injure the trees, the room being greater;
they are also now of more value. When from 30
to 40 feet high, they may be thinned out to G feet
apart, about 1200 trees being left to the acre.
The operation of thinning, that is, of removing
those trees whose growth is checked, may be con-
tinued till ultimately, when the trees are ready for
harvesting, they will be found to be from 12 to 18
or 20 feet apart, or about 120 in number per acre.
The details of management should, however,
not only vary with the habits of the tree, but also
with the nature of the ground planted. Thus on
poor laud the same kind of tree should be thinned
less, and should be brought to maturity closer
together, than when grown on rich land, well
calculated for the production of timber of the first
magnitude. On soil of this character trees will
grow longer, and occupy the ground profitably for
a greater number of years, and the thinning pro-
cess may therefore be carried on a longer time,
than when the land is thin and the situation
bleak.

It is evident that trees which will grow to two
tons of timber will require more nourishment and
greater room than those which will grow to half a
ton only.

(To be concluded in our next.)

The Value of a Shilling. — For one
shilling per week, paid yearly, half-yearly, or quarterly,
a person thirty-six years of age may secure lOOZ. to his
widow, children, or representatives at his decease. —
For one shilling per week, aman aged 30 may secure for
his wile, not exceeding his own age, an annuity of 10/.
per annum at his death, whenever it may happen. — For
one shilling per week a person twenty-one years of
age may secure an annuity of 10/. on attaining tlie age
of .50 ; a person twenty-eight years of age on attaining
55; a person aged 36 on attaininsr 60; and a person
aged 44 on attaining 65. Either of these benefits may
be secured in the Farmer's Fire and Life Insurance
Office.

168

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

FARMERS' CLUB HOUSE.

PROPOSED TO BK ESTABLISHED INT LONDON FOn THE USE
OF FABMEnS AND OTIIEll I'ERSONS INTERESTED IN THE
CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL, OPEN TO PRACTICAL
FARSIRRS AND SCIENTIFIC MEN OF ALL COUNTRIES.

Since tie formation of tlie Royal Agricultural
Society of England, the want of a Club House in
London, at which members of that Society, of the
Sraithfiehl Club, and agriculturists from different
parts of the country when visiting the metropolis,
might meet each other, and where tliose who may
Lave long known each other by name, and perhaps
have been in correspondence with each other, miglit
become personally acquainted, has long been felt.
The subject was brought under the notice of the
Committee of the British Farmers' Club in Decem-
ber, 1840, and was highly apjjroved. Several at-
tempts have been made to effect the object, but a
serious difficulty always interposed in tlie outlay of
capital requisite for the formation of such an esta-
blishment. A plan has, however, been devised by
which that difficulty is completely overcome.

Each succeeding year furnishes fresh proofs of
the necessity of union among Farmers, and that it
now more than ever behoves them to adopt in earnest
the means pursued by the other classes of society,
viz., that of associating with each other, as well for
the purpose of mutual information as for the general
good of the body.

It is proposed that this Club shall be established
as a point of union for agriculturists, and with a
view of affording to its Members accommodation
similar to that of the London Club Houses already
existing, but more comprehensive in its objects, and
much less expensive. That arrangements b« made
with the proprietor of an hotel to let to the Club a
suite of rooms to be devoted exclusiveUj to the use of
its Members, and to supply viands, wines, &c., of
the best quality, at a fixed late of charge to be agreed
upon.

It is proposed at first to have a reading-room, a
dining-room, both of large dimensions, and one or
more sitting-rooms for the use of Members who have
private business to transact.

The reading-room will be supplied with the lead-
ing daily papers, and all newspapers and magazines,
British, colonial, and foreign, connected with agri-
culture and horticulture. An agricultural library
will be formed, to contain all works upon agricul-
ture, horticulture, and (he sciences bearing upon
them, such as geology, botany, chemistry, &c. ; also
Parliamentary reports and returns, bills and acts of
Parliament having reference to the same subjects.
A register will be kept of estates to be sold or let,
and similar information of any description will be
entered, so that persons requiring it may obtain (he
best and readiest information upon all matters bear-
ing upon agriculture. It is intended also, through
the medium of this establishment, to form a central
point of communication between all the Farmers'
Clubs in the kingdom, so that (he information to he
supplied from each may be collected and communi-
cated (o the others. A book will be kept for enterinn-
ihe addresses of Members while staying in London'',
so that persons desirous of communicating with
them may be enabled so to do. This slight "outline
will serve as a specimen of the objects contemplated
in the establishment of a Farmers' Club House; once

established, it will afford the means of carrying out
many others which time and circumstances will de-
velope. In order to render the use and benefits of
the Club House extensively available to Farmers,
the entrance-fee and annual subscription has been
fixed as low as possible.

All persons sending in their names to the Secre-
tary before the 2.>lh March will be admitted Mem-
bers, subject to the rules as to admission and general
government of the Club, upon payment of an en-
trance-fee of one guinea, and an annual subscription
of one guinea; and after that period upon payment
of an entrance-fee of two guineas, and an annual
subscription of one guinea.

The Provisional Committee have had communica-
tion with a person occupying jjremises in a central
situation between the Cattle Market of Smithfield
and the Corn Market in Mark Lane, for suitable
apartments for the Club, until the number of .Sub-
scribers shall have so increased as to warrant their
taking to rent or purchasing a liouse, and providing
the requisite establishment. From (he ex(ent of the
premises in question further temporary accommoda--
tion can always be had if needed, and should the
number of Members so increase as to require further
permanent accommodation, it can be afl'orded ; and
(he Provisional Committee have received an offer
from the party to the effect, that he will furnish
good viands, wines, spirits, beds, &c., &c,, at a
moderate scale of charges, to be hereafter agreed
upon by the Committee.

The following Gentlemen compose the Provisional
Committee : —

ANDERSOiV, W.. Oakley, Bedford
BAKER. ROBERT, Wriltle, Chelmsford, Essex
BEAD EL, J., Witham, Essex

BEMAN, R., Donnington, Stow-on-the-WoId, Glouc.
BRAGIN i ON, G., Torrington, Devon.
COOPER, J. R., Red House, Wcsllelon, Suffolk
DEAN, J., The Yews, Tottenham, Middlesex ; a Mem-
ber of the Council of (he Royal Agricultural Society
EMERY, G., The Granite, Banwell, Somerset,
GATES, R., Marshall Vale, Bramley, Guildford
GIBBS.HUMPHREY, Half-Moon Street, Piccadilly,
and AmphiU, Beds. ; a Governor and a Member of
the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society
GRANrilAM, STEPHEN, Stoneham, Lewes Sussex
IIOBBS, W. F., Mark's Hall, Cog'geshall, Essex ; a
Member of the Council of the Royal Agrie. Society
HUDSON, JOHN, Castle Acre Lodge, Swaffham,

Norfolk
HUTLEY, W.. Pown's Hall, Witham, Essex
JACOBS, VV. H.,Chale Abbey. Isle of Wight
JAQUES, R. J\L, Easby, Richmond, Yorkshire
JOHNSON, CUTHBERT WILLIAM, 14, Gray's

Inn Square. Londou
KING. FIELDER. Burilon. Prtersfield. Hants.
LOFT. W., Truahorpi!, Alford. Lincoln
OAKLEY, J., Frindbbury, near Rochester
PRICE. IL, Hartlip, Sittinghourne, Kent
PURSER, W.. Cople, near Bedford
D.VVID. E., Radyr Court, Car<liff, South Wales
RUSBRIDGER,.TOHN, Goodwood. Sussex
SHA RPE, W., Scarthing Moor, I'uxford
SHAW, Wi\I., Mi], Strand, London ; a Governor and
Member of (he Council of (he Royal Agricultural
Society
STEVENS, T., Atherston, Uminster, Somerset
TORR, VV., jun., Riby, near Caisior, Lincola
WEST, J., Collingham, Newark, Nolt=.
WESTIUIRY, GILES, Andover, Hants.
WETHERELL, WM., Durham.

Wm. Shaw, 346, Strand,

Honorary Secretary.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

1G9

CULTIVATION OF TURNIPS.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MAllK LANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — In 1840 it was proposcfl by the
Royal Agricultural Society to try certain experi-
ments on tlic growing" ol" Swedish turnips, upon
the following conditions. Bee tlie Journal, 1840,
Part IV.

Model Experiment on the growing of Swedish

Turnips.

CON DI T lo xs.

Seed — " Purple-top," to be procured of IMr. Thomas

Oibbs, Half Moon Street, Piccadilly.
Manure— Dung, -20 tons.

Bones, 20 bushels.
Poittcvin's Manure, 20 bushels.
Distance — 18 inches and 27.

In llie following year (1841) I was induced to
make my huin1>Ie attempt, not only from a desire
to aid in an experiment emanating from tiiis much
valued Society, but in consequence of a prize being
offered in this county (Rutland), upon the following
conditions : —

" For Swedish Turnips, cultivated on any system,
in quantities not less than five acres, and si-
tuated within the county of Rutland, first
prize, 71. The entries made previous to sow-
ing, &.C."

Tlie particulars of the trial, for which I received
the first prize, were handed to the Royal Agricul-
tural Society, but were not selected and set forth in
the Journal, See vol. iii. p. 423-4-3-G. I trust
that should you feel disposed to give tlie particulars
herewith sent publicity in your excellent publica-
tion, the Mark Lone JExpress, you will not only
oblige my inquiring neighbours, but many other
experimental agriculturists.

I remain. Sir, your obedient servant,

Richard Westbrook Baker.

Cottesmore, Feb. Uth, 1843.
(copy.)

The seed from Mr. Thomas Gibbs, Half Moon
Street, Piccadilly.

The five acres were cultivated alike, with the
exception of bones to one acre, and had been so
cultivated for some years, viz., upon the four course
system of turnips, oats or barley, seeds, wheat.
The field is situate upon a high tabling, say two
hundred feet above the valley. Tiie soil is red,
and the subsoil red kale with iron stone, and va-
lued in 1814, with the average of wheat at 72s. Id.,
at 30s. per acre, tithe free, and is by no means
naturally a powerful soil. Gorse grew abundantly
thereon but a few years back. The whole was
ploughed in December, 1840, after wheat, ten inches
deep, being three inches deeper than any former
])loughing ; and was covered with lime fresh from
the kiln in March, 1841, at the rate of twenty
qrs. per acre; was harrowed a few days after-
wards, and ploughed a second and third time, and
harrowed to admit the weather and incorporate the
lime with the soil — betw(»en the 20th of March and
the 10th of May. On the following days tlic land
was ridged twcuty-eiglit inches wide, and twenty
tons of farm-yard manure per acre moderately
rotten was deposited, and immediately covered by
the double mould-board plough. A single horse
drill which will deposit bones and seed, or the
latter without the former, followed, and two lbs.
of seed per acre were sown ; and on the first acre
twenty bushels ai' bones were used. Poittevin's
manure could not be procured. The turnips were

liorsc-hoed in the usual mode, and set out with the
hand hoc at nine inclies from plant to plant.

The summer was unl'avoiirable — first, from
drought, with severe frost, cast winds, fiy, and
wire-worm ; and, afterwards, from excessive rains
and cold weather.

Having a great objection to depend upon weigh-
ing a portion of an acre, I determined to have (as I
had in former years) tlie whole acre. No. 1, that had
the bones applied, drawn on the 1st of December,
carefully cleaned from top, bottom, and soil, anil
weighed, the land being correctly measured : also
the acre, No. 2, that was not boned. The result
was as follows : — tons. cwt.

No. 1, with bones 23 1

2, without bones 21 0

In favour of bones . . 2 1
Cost of bones 3/. It is further stated that in
former experiments similar to this, the exact acre
measured, and the crop cleaned as in this case, tlie
weight in no one instance exceeded twenty-six tons.
Apiilicatiou of lime and winter ploughing did not
appear as a preventive to wire-worm.

(Signed) Richard Westbrook Baker.
Cottesmore, Dec. 2Wi, 1842.

TURNIPS.

At the recent meeting of the West Suffolk Agri-
cultural Association, Mr. II. B. Harvey (Harleston),
being loudly called for, said lie had been peculiarly
gratified that day by the observations of a gentleman
opposite upon the show of roots, which ho consi-
dered a point of the greatest importance. However
good the cattle might he, it was necessary that there
should be good food to give to them. He had had
in the present week, an opportunity of seeing the
vast difference between a good and a bad crop of
roots, grown on the same land and at the same
expence. On the same field were grown Skirving's
turnips (of which doubtless most present had heard)
and twoother varieties, and the difference was as much
as 303. per acre in favour of Skirving's over one variet}^
and not quite so much over the other. Looking at
the matter iu this light it must be of the greatest
importance to obtain a good stock of seed, and he
for one was obliged to tlie gentleman who had offered
an increased premium with this view.

Mr. Gayford felt rather called to make a few ob-
servations after what l\[r. Harvey had stated, and
would observe that if the agriculturists wished to
make the association as beneficial as he wished it to
be, they would communicate what they could, throw
aside prejudice, and receive information. It hap-
pened that it was his field to which Rlr. Harvey had
alluded — this field and his books were open to any
one who might choose to go over them. He had a
quantity of Skirving's seed, and some from Mr.
Raynbird's, and some from Mr. Grayson's. His
drill deposited four drills at a time; Skirving's seed
was put into two of them, and the other descriptions
into the other two; and Mr. Harvey had not exag-
gerated when he said that the difference in favour of
Skirving's was 30s. per acre. He pledged himself
that there was no difterence in the manure, they
were all drilled at the same moment, and there could
not be an advantage to one and disadvantage lo the
other.

Mr. Gedney said that he should not have risen

170

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

but for the turnip question being brought upon the
carpet. He thouglit the subject was a most import-
ant one, for tliey could not have good meat unless
they had good roots. 'I'hev all saw that they were
to have very cheap meat ; however, that was not a
matter to disturb tliemselves about at present, though
it might very soon be. His friends Messrs. Harvey
and Gayford iiad told them that one sort of turnips
(Skirving's) were worth more by iJOs. an acre or
upwards than another description ; but the ([uestion
was whether they did not grow water instead of
sugar. He himself was no novice in growing tur-
nips ; he had been endeavouring to instil a few of
liis notions into the mind of the Rev. Mr. Gwilt,
who was sitting by his side, but that gentleman told
him that they were things of bygone times, and his
notions about the turnip crop he supjioscd were the
same. He had coased to grow Skirving's turnips,
for he entertained an opinion that it was not a turnip
to grow upon a light or mixed soil — his belief was
that it might be grown safely on a heavy soil. It
had been said that Skirving's turnips were the best
because game would eat them in preference to any
others, but he thought the reason fjr this was that
they stood high out of the ground, and the game
would not eat dirt. He had put some turnips of
two different sorts, and grown on different kinds of
land, into a chemist's hands to be analyzed ; he asked
him if he could take a square inch or a grain weight
out of each turnip, but lie preferred analyzing the
whole turnips. He had done so, and he would now
state to the members of this Association the result
arrived at, giving the weight and specific gravity of
the various turnips (six in number) taking water
as a standard at 60 degrees of temperature, reckoning
in grains troy.

Description of Turnip
and of Land.

Skirving, on stiff clay soil

Ditto, ditto

Ditto, very light land. .. .

Ditto, ditto

Short top purple, mix'd soil
Ditto, ditto

•c 0.2-

•If S

t/:

3 5'-'
36

^5 6
1P8

31270

1015.4

34560

1005

28

90

25813

1003

34

96

35812

1009.3

37

120

17718

1017.3

46

120

19875

1012.7

80

90

S70
843
834

874

What was considered fibre was wood, and nothing
more nor less. No. 4 was small and very deficient
in weight as compared with No. 1, yet it produced
120 grains of sugar, or nourishment. No. 5 was a
very small turnip, yet yielding 1?0 grains of sugar,
whilst No. 1, almost twice its size, yeilded but 108.
On this giound he should build his argument that
in a small turnip there might be a great deal more
nourishment than in a large one. He hoped some
of the members of the Association would take cou-
rage and go to a chemist's, and find out what they
really did grow. It was desirable at this time of
day that they should begin to understand what tbey
were doing : the gentleman by his side might say
that these things were understood years ago, but he
could tell them that there was a necessity that they
should now open the door, and it would not want
oiling, for it would be forced open. {Iletir, hear.)

The llev. D. Ci wilt explained that when he talked
to Mr. Gedney of bygone things, he meant to say that
these matters had been laid before the public in the
Quarterly Journal of A(/ricullure and in the British
Farmers' Mayazlne. He agreed in Mr. Gedney 's
remarks about turnips. He recollected that when
Skirving's turnips were first introduced at Smithfield,

Rlr. Gurney bought some of them, as well as the
seed, but he (Mr. Gwilt) could get no seed. Two
years after ho saw Mr. (iurney and he said they
would not do— they were coarse and bad. He
thought Rlatson's a superior turni]), and that that
small sort against Skirving's would be found to pro-
duce more saccharine matter. That time three years
Mr. Gataker gave him a challenge against his Swede
turnips; tliey were thrown down in the committee-
room, and folks said he was fairly beaten, but they
were afterwards cut up and he believed his own were
allowed to be the best. But he was of opinion, in
looking over the field with farmers, that they would
not stand with Matson's, which were longer necked
and better turnips. He would have an opportunity
of testing some varieties, and would communicate
the result.

ON GUANO.

BY CUTIIBHRT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S.

The exertions now making in every direction to
increase the supply of all kinds of manure, is
perhaps one of the best proofs of the great modern
increase of agricultural enterprize. The farmers
of a former generation would have been little pre-
pared for the infonnatioa, that the town-made
dung of London was capable of being profitably
conveyed, by sailing vessels, to all the southern
and eastern counties— that it was even carried to
Northutnberland, as ballast for the coal vessels ;
they would have been still more surprised to learn
that distant countries were exhausted of their re-
fuse bones to manure the turnip lands of England
— that they were brought for this purpose from
the Baltic, and even from the Atlantic Ocean. And
if they deemed these facts matter for astonishment,
how much more would they consider marvellous
the very recent importation of the excrements of
sea birds, brought from the Pacific Ocean — the
guano of the Peruvian farmers ? And yet it appears
to be a fact, that within the last two years from
twenty to thiity thousand tons of guano have been
brought into this country from those islands on
the western side of South America, which are
situated within the latitude of perpetual dryness.

Guano is, it seems, the European mode of pro-
nouncing the Peruvian word " huano," or manure.

This substance exists in large quantities in some
of the rocky islands ofi' the coast of Peru, where,
in the course of ages, it has been formed bv the
deposit of the excrements of innumerable multi-
tudes of sea fowl, who haunt these localities,
especially during the breeding season.* It exists,
according to hi. Humboldt {Davy's Elein. Ay.
Chem. 29G.) in the greatest abundance in some of
the small rocky Islands of the Pacific Ocean, as at
Ghincha, Ho, Iza, and Arica. Even when Hum-
boldt wrote, some twenty years since, fifty vessels
were annually loaded with the guano at Ghincha
alone, each trader carrying from 1,500 to 2,000
cubic feet.

* " It forms irregular and limited deposits, which
at times attain a deptli of .50 or 60 feet, and are ex-
cavated like mines of red ochre. Its real origin was
well known to the Government of the Incas, and its
national importance fully understood. It was made a
capital offence to kill the young birds on the Guano
Islands.'' — Professor Johnston, Jour. Boy. An. Soc. v.
2, p. 103.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

171

In a communication (January 29, 1843) from a
gentleman who has visited these islands, he ob-
serves : — " TheC'hincha Islands (three in number)
are in a line with each other, north and south, and
about balf a mile distant from each other. Their
greatest extent is north and south, and each is-
land is from live to six miles in circumference.
Their base is f^ranile, and the covering huano, in
some places 200 feet thick, stratified horizontally ;
the strata varying from ,{ to 10 inches in thickness ;
in colour from light to dark brown, and unmixed,
(to all appearance), with the slightest particle
of sand or enrth of any description. When
I was last at the Chiiicha Islands, in April,
1842, 1 saw a perpendicular surface of huano
exposed, of upwards of a hundred feet, and
no difference whatever in its appearance from the
surface to the bottom. The underneath part was
probably somewhat heavier than the upper. The
different shades of strata seemed to be mixed in-
discriminately. The depth of the huano formation,
however, is by no means the same ail over the
islands. In some parts it does not exceed three
or four feet. Supposing the huano to be really
the dung of birds, there was one fact which we
who visited the islands found difficulty in account-
ing for ; pieces of granite in considerable quantity,
some of them weighing twenty pounds, are found
strewed over the surface of the island, in parts
where the huano is from fifty to a hundred feet
thick. I enquired ])articularly of the labourers if
any of these pieces of granite had been dug out of
the huano, and they answered they bad not. They
were found only on the surface. The only sub-
stances occasionally found in the huano (at all
depths) are skeletons of birds and eggs, or rather
lumps of ammonia, with the form and colour of an
egg, which when exposed to the air are dissipated
in three or four days."

The guano is the putrefying excrements of innu-
merable sea-fowl that remain on the islands during
the breeding season. It is used by the farmers of
Peru chiefly as a manure for the maize or Indian
corn, and it is said sometimes in the small propor-
tion of about one cwt. per acre. "The date of
the discovery of the guano and of its introduction
as a manure," says Mr. Winderfeldt {Brit, Farm,
Mag. vol vi. p. 411), " is unknown, although no
doubt exists of its great antiquitj'. In many parts
of America, tvhere the soil is volcanic or sandj', no
produce would be obtained without the guano. It
has been calculated that from 12,000 to 14,000
cwt. are annually sold in the port of JMoUendo for
the use of the coui»try round the city of Arequipa.
In the province of Taracapa and in the valleys of
Tambo and Victor the consumption should be
something more, as wheat, all kinds of fruit, trees,
and plants, with the single exception of the sugar
cane, are manured with the guano ; which is not
the case with the district of Arequipa, where maize
and the potato alone require it. In the district of
Arequipa 3 cwts. of guano are spread over an ex-
tent of 5000 square yards (about an English acre) ;
but in 'l'araca;)a and the valleys of Tambo and
Victor, 5 cwt. are required. The land thus ma-
nured in Arequipa produces45 for 1 of potatoes, and
35 for 1 of maize, where wheat manured with horse-
dung produces only 18." There are, it appears,
three varieties of guano, which bear on the coast of
Peru different prices. " The white guano is con-
sidered the most valuable, as being fresher and
purer. It is. found on nearly all the islands along
the coast. The red and dark grey are worth 2s.

3d. the cwt. ; a higher price is given for the white
on account of its greater scarcity ; it is sold at the
port of Alollendo at 3s. t!d, per cwt., and at times,
as during the war, it has obtained as high a price
as 12s."

In a recent obliging communication (Dec. '20,
1842), from a gentleman who has resided many
years on the coast of Peru (Henry Bland, Esq., of
Liverpool), he observes, in answer to some ques-
tions which I had addressed to him, with regard to
the uses of the guano, the soils, and the climate of
Pern : " The valleys on the coast'of Peru consist
chiefly of a light sandy soil. No rain falls upon that
part of the coast where I have seen guano used.
Neither are the dews so copious as to be considered
by the Peruvian farmer to be of any importance in
promoting vegetation in the valleys. On the tops
of the coast hills, a slight verdure is produced by
the dews in the winter season, but it does not re-
main for more than from one to two months. The
land of the valleys is irrigated, but without the
the limits of irrigation all is a desert, with the ex-
ception of the slight vegetation I have alluded to.
This is the state of the coast, from about 5 degrees
to 22 degrees south latitude. I do not believe that
so small a quantity as one cwt. of guano per acre
is found sufficient for the soil upon any part of the
coast of Peru. In the neighbourhood of Arequipa,
the first crop is maize (Indian corn). The seed is
sown in drills or trenches, and the bunches f three
or four plants I call a bunch) come up about two
feet apart. When the plants are six or eight inches
above ground, a pinch of guano (as much as can he
easily lield between the thumb and two fingers) is
placed around each bunch, and the whole is usually
irrigated immediately afterwards. Guano is again
applied when the plant is about throwing out its
fruits ; a handful is then applied to each bunch, and
irrigation immediately follows. The next succeed-
ing crops, potatoes and wheat, are produced with-
out any further application of manure. In the
valley of Chaucay, distant from Lima about 40
miles, a soil, which without guano is capable of pro-
ducing only fifteen for one of Indian corn, with
guano is made to produce 300 for one. In speak-
ing of guano, the Peruvians say, ' Aunque no sea
sauto hace milagros' — Guano, though no saint,
works miracles. Guano to be good, being in some
measure soluble in water, can never be found In its
most powerful state in any climate where rain falls ;
and consequently any that may be brought from the
coast of Peru, taken from without the limits of
dryness, must be of inferior value compared with
that which comes from the Chincha Islands, situ-
ated in about 14 degrees south latitude, and about
ten miles distant from the main, and from Paquica
on the coast of Bolivia, in latitude 21 south. Upon
these islands and at Paquica, is the principal deposit
of guano. Two or three cargoes of guano from the
coast of Chili (where rain is frequent) have found
their way into this country, and have, I believe,
been sold for Chincha guano; thus injuring both
the character of the best guano as a manure, and
the importer of the genuine article.* I may men-

* " It is the dryness of the climate, " observes
Professor Johnston, "which has permitted the
guano to accumulate on these coasts. When we reach
a region in which from local causes the dews are
heavier, and the rains more frequent, the accumula-
tion ceases ; cold water dissolves at least three-
lifths of the guano in the state in which it reaches

172

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tion a circumstance to show the little estimation in
which nitrate of soila, compared with guano, is held
by the Peruvian farmer. "On the coast of Peru nitrate
of soda is produced at a distance of about 45 miles
from Iquique, the port at which the principal part
of the nitrate is shipped. For mules to transport
the nitrate from the jtlace where it is made to the
port of shipment, the nitrate merchant, who sells
f ,r export, depends chiefly upon the farmers who
reside in the Immediate neighbourhood where the
nitrate is produced, and he can only secure their
services by having- always ready for them in the
port of Icpiiquc, a return load of guano, wliich they
carry back to manure their farms, after having car-
ried a load of nitrate, almost from their own doors,
to the port of Iquique."

Guano appears in the state in which it has been
lately introduced into this country, to be a fine
brown or fawn-coloured powder, emitting a strong
marine smell : it blackens when heated, and gives
ofT strong animoniacal fumes. When nitric acid is
mixed witli it, uric or lithic acid is produced. The
composition of guano varies, however, considerably.
According to the analyses of MM. Voelckel and
Klaproth, the varieties which they examined con-
tained— Voelclcel. Klaprotb.

Parts. Parts.

Urate of nnimonia 9 16

Oxalate of ammonia 106 0-0

Oxalate of lime ... 7 12-75

Phosphate of ammonia 6 0-0

Phosphate of ammonia & mag-
nesia 2-6 0 0

Sulphate of potnss 5-5 00

Sulpiiate of soda 3-.3 0-0

Chloride of sodium (common

salt ) 0-0 0..'i

Chloride of ammonia 4-2 0-0

Phosphate of lime 14-3 10

Clay and sand 4-7 32

Undetermined organic suh-

stances, of which about 12

per cent, is soluble in water,

a small quantity of soluble

salt of iron, water 32*53 2S'75

In a few words it may he regarded as an impure
compound of phosphate of lime, of urate of am-
monia, and other salts. There is no doubt but that
it is a very powerful manure ; the very composition
of its salts would indicate this fact. Thus, uric or
lithic acid, which is a fine white powder, nearly in-
soluble in water (17"20 parts of water only dissolv-
ing 1 part of uric acid), is composed, according to
Dr. Prout ( T/iomson's CJicm. vol. ii. p. 187), of —

Hydrogen 0-1 2.5

Carbon 2-250

Nitrogen, or Azote 1-750

Oxygen 1-500

5-G25

us. A single day of English rain would dissolve
and carry into the sea a considerable portion of one
of the largest accumulations ; ii single year of Hn"-
lish weather would cause many of ihera entircdy to
disajjpear." — {Jour. Roy, Ag. Soc. v. 2 ;). 315.) As
the guano is, we have seen, of ditferent qualities,
and is easily adulterated, the farmer should be care-
ful to procure it of the large dealers, such as Messrs.
\V. J. Myers, and Co., or Edwards, Uatison, and
Co., F^iverpool, the London Manure Company, or
Mr. Mark Fothergill, Lower 'i'hames-strect.

The fresh guano, says Professor J. F. Johnston
(Jour. Rrt/. Ag. Soc, V. ii. p. .'^11), is more valua-
ble, because it contains more of the uric acid. ^Ve
have no analysis of the recc.it droppings of any of
the birds which frequent the shores of Peru ; they
would probably be found to differ in some degree,
not only with the species of bird, hut also with the
kind of fishes on which at different seasons of the
year they were found to prey. We possess analyses,
however, of the excretions of other birds which
live chiefly upon fish, from which we are enai)led
to form an opinion as to what the recent guano
is likely to be. Thus Dr. WoUaston found those
of the gannet (Pelicanus hassanus), when dry, to
contain little else but uric acid, while in those of
the sea eagle Coindet found —

SOLID EXCRETIONS. LIQUin EXC RETIONS, DRIED

Ammonia 92

Uric acid 84-(;5

Phosphate of lime 6'15

lOOO

Uric acid 59

Earthy and alkaline
phosphate, sulphates,
and chlorides 41

100

The most elaborate set of experiments with the
guano, with which I am acquainted, w^re made in
1810, upon potatoes and mangel-wurzel, in the
Island of St. Helena, by the late General Beatson ;
and they are the more valuable from being com-
l)arative. The soil on which these experiments
were made was rather stiff, being composed of
blackish mould, intermixed with friable fat clay.
The following table gives the results of every ex-
periment : 35 loads of horse-dung litter per acre
were used, 35 of hogs' dung litter, and 35 bushels
per acre of the guano. With potato seed the size
of walnuts, planted whole: —

Six inches deep.

Bushels.

Guano 554

Horse-dung 583

Pigs' dung 447

Soil simple 395

Three inches deep.

Bushels.

Guano 531

Horse-dung 479

Pigs' dung 414

Soil simple 311

The total comparative produce in lbs. of pota-
toes, from a series of experiments on these ma-
nures, was therefore — lbs.
Giiano, or sea-fowl dung, at 35 bushels

per acre 639

Horse-dung, 35 cart loads per acre 626

Hogs' dung, 35 cart loads per acre 534

Soil simple 446

\Vith mangel-wurzel the produce per acre on a
similar soil was as follows : —

Leaves. Roots,
tons. tons.

Soil simple 38 194

Hogs' dung and ashes, 360

bushels per acre 131 66iJ-

Guano, 35 bushels per acre. .. . 153| 77 J

In an experiment of Mr. Henry Barton, of Caldy
(Brit. Farm. Mag. v. vi. p. 555), with Swedish tur-
nips, the following were the results : —

tons. cwt. lbs.
Two rows manured with 6 cwts. per

acre of guano produced 19 3 3

Two rows manured with Ki cart
loads per acre of compost i)ro-
duced 16 0 6

In those of Mr. Pu<ey with Swedish turnips,
upon a strong but shallow loam upon limestone,
the following were the products {Jour, lioi/. Ay.
Soc, V. iii. p. 425) : —

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

173

At 18

inc

hes.

At '2/

inc

les

Ions.

cwt

.lb.

tuns.

cwt

lb-

With 20 tons of clung

per acre 1.5

U

'10

i;}

1

:?(i

With 20 bush, of bone 14

0

3(i

!»

18

40

,. 26' bush.ofroit-

tcvin I'J

5

1

80
•48

12
1'-'

0

1

80

With :i cwt. of niiife. 1.?

48

M -i .> of gnano 13

10

16

12

3

16

,, 20 bush.ofpeail

ashes 8

16

0

10

16

60

At the meeting of the Isle of Man Agricultural
Society, in August, 1842, INJr. Lyle gave the re-
sults of some experiments with this manure on a
light, poor, hungry soil, on which grew two pat-
terns of grass — one of Stickncy's rye-grass, raixcd
with small quantities of holcus lanatus (woolly soft
grass), and poa trivialis ; the other of Italian rye-
grass. Roth were top-dressed on the 12th of lAIay
with guano, at the rate of 3 cwt. per acre. On
the 20th June following, one square yard of the
dressed and undressed spaces, taken as fairly as
possible, was cut and carefully weighed; the fol-
lowing were the results : —
Stickney's rye-grass, and small quantities of Holcus

lanatus and Poa trivialis.
Of one square yard, dressed with guano at

the above ra'e, ihe produce weighed .... T^lbs.

Of ditto, not so dressed 2^

Italian rye-grass.
Of one square yard, dressed with guano as

above, the produce weighed lOJlb?.

Of ditto, not dressed 4|

The guano was also applied at the same time
(Tith of iMay,) and at the same rate, to rows of
young elms, larches, and strawberries, and on the
20th of June these rows could be distin3uished,
even at a considerable distance, from the others,
by their deep and healthy green, and more vigo-
rous growth. — (Johnson and Shaic's L'urnier's
Almanac, v. 1. p. 25)0.)

The experiments hitherto reported, made in Ire-
land with guano, aj)pear to have been on a small
scale, and attended with all the disadvantages
arising from a first attempt with a new manure. Ihe
results of several of these were communicaicd to
Lord Gosford's annual meeting at Market Hill, in
December, 1842, from which I find that the Rev.
R. Archer, of Hilltown, obtained the following
results from the admeasurement of a sciuarc perch
of each.

Kind of Manure,

and Quantity

Sort of Turnips.

Crop, per acre.

per acre.

Carb. of ammonia,

Ton

cwt.

fir. II).

501bs

Sliirving's Swede,

16

14

0 22

without tops ....

13

16

1 20

Guano, 3f cwts. .

Ditto

25

14

1 4

without tops ....

19

18

2 8

Guano, do.

Yellow Aberdeen,

38

17

0 8

without tops ....

31

10

0 0

Carb. of ammonia,

lOOlbs

Dale's Hybrid,

31

10

0 0

without tops

18

12

3 2

Guano, 3^ cwts..

Ditto,

39

10

2 24

without tops ....

27

16

1 20

Farm-yard manure

perhaps 30 tons

White Norfolk,

jj

7

2 20

..

without tops ....

23

Id

2 24

The results of the experiments of Mr. Alexander
Kinmouth, of Deer Park, were as follows : —

Manure,
Per English Acre.

PiiODucii, r£n .\uRE.

Ton*, cwts. qrs. lbs.
Farm-yard manure, 36

carts Turnips 30 8 3 0

Tops.. 8 15 3 0

Guano, 4 cwt. . .
Bones, 25 bushels

Compost of clay and lime
— 30 barrels of lime
mixed with the scour-
ings and deepenings of
flax-holes, which, when
dry, lay 4 months be-
fore using

Turnips 28 17 0 16
Tops . . 4 4 14

Turnips 20 17
lops . . 4 17

Turnips 28 1
Tops .. 7 10

0 16
0 16

1 20
0 0

I hcse experiments upon guano I have selected
from the most recent with which I am acfiuainted
(and others will be found in the subsequent pages
of this IMagazine) ; from these we may arrive at
the conclusion that the effects which it has been
noticed to produce when used in sufficient pro-
jiortions, are exactly those which might be calcu-
lated ui)on, from a knowledge of its chemical com-
jjosition. The salts of ammonia, with which it
abounds, of necessity produce that early vegetation ,
and those dark green coloured leaves in the after
stages of the growth of the plant, that the salts of
ammonia, in other forms, are pretty certain to in-
duce. Rapid, however, in their action, Ihcy of
necessity speedily lose their fertilizing powers,
fince dccomjjosed by the growing plant, the nitro-
gen and the hydrogen of which the ammonia is
composed, are assimilated by the plant. The salts
of ammonia being decomposed, nothing of any roa-
tei i il consequence remains for the service of the
growing crop but the phosphate of lime. This salt,
it is well known, forms the chief fertilizing ingre-
dient in bones ; if this was removed from them
the bones would become of little value. Now,
this mode of comparison may be som-^ gtiide in
directing us to the true proportion in which the
guano should be applied to the soil. Guano there
contains phosphate oflime,in varying proportions,
but always in quantities very considerably inferior
to bones ; sometimes 10 or 15, at others 22, and
in one specimen 30 per cent, of this salt was de-
tected. Now this is not half the amount of the
same salt that bones contain. M. Berzelia found
55 per cent, in those of the ox. 07 per cent, has
been detected in those of the horse, and 70 in
those of the sheep. How then is it probable if the
farmers of the turnip soils of England find it ne-
cessary to use from twelve to si.xteen bushels per
acre of crushed bones, how is it likely that a
much less quantity of guano can be needed? It
is true that in the watered lands of South America ,
only three or four cwts. per acre are applied ; but
then these soils are irrlgatsd immediatelyaftcr the
guano is applied, so that its salts of ammonia arc
dissolved and form a liquid manure ; and every
farmer is well aware that the very object and effect
of all liquid manures is to reduce the amount of

174

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the organic matters, which is, in other forms, ne-
cessary to apply to the soil. And as I have else-
where remarked, I have every reason to believe
that for grass lands, especially those in moist situ-
ations, guano, in liberal proportions, will be found
to be an excellent top-dressing. To assert, how-
ever, as some persons have, that guano may be
successfully used in the proportion of about one
cwt. per acre, is to injure the cause of the guano ;
it is an error which could only arise from an igno-
rance of its mode of action and chemical composi-
tion, and can only be compared to the absurd story
once so gravely detailed, that a single bushel of
common salt would permanently fertilize au acre
of grass.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.

The Council held their first monthly meeting at the
Society's House, in Hanover Square, on Wednesday,
the 1st of February ; present — His Grace the Duke
of Richmond in the Chair, Earl of Euston, Colonel
Austen, Thomas Raymond Barker, Esq., Frencli Burke,
Esq., Colonel Challoner, F. ClifTord Cherry, Esq.,
Charles Robert Colvile, Esq., ]\I.P., James Dean, Esq.,
Humphrey Gibbs, Esq., B. Brandreth Gibbs, Esq.,
Henry Hundley, Esq., VV. Gooderough Hayter, Esq.,
M.P., C. Hillyard, Esq., W. Fisher Hobbs, Esq., John
Houghton, Esq., John Kinder, Esq , Francis Pym,
Esq., Rev. W. L. Rham, Professor Sewell, William
Shaw, Esq., and John Worsop,

Mr. Raymond Barker, Ciiairman of the Finance
Committee, presented to the Council the Committee's
Monthly Report, on the state of the funds of the Society,
the current cash balance in the hands of the bankers
on that day being 1,772/., and the amount of invested
capital 6,700/. stock. Tiie Report announced the deci-
sion of the Committee on the two resolutions referred
to them by the Council, the committeG recommending
two additional clerks for the execution and despatch of
the increasing business of the Society, and the continued
adoption of post-office orders for the transmission of
subscriptions to the Society's office.

These recommendations were unanimously adopted
by the Councd.

Mr. Pym reported to the Council the steps he had
taken for getting in the arrears of subscriptions in Bed-
fordshire, and the success which had attended his ap-
plications to the Members in that county, the sub-
scriptions received by him on the part of the
Society having amounted to the sum of £54.

Mr. Wyon, her Majesty's Ciiief Medallist at the
Royal Mint, having transmitted to the Council the
great seal confided to his execution, it was declared by
the Council to be unanimously adopted as the common
seal of the Society ; and Mr. Dean having laid before
the Council, on the part of Mr. Bicknell, theSociety'soIi-
citor, and of Messrs. Lowe, the solicitors of Sir George
Talbot, the approved lease of the Society's house in
Hanover-square, for a term of 99 years, at an annual
rent of £300 for the house and £30 for the fixtures, the
seal of the Society was affixed to the lease in the
presence of the Council, and the contract signed by
the Secretary, in the name and on behalf of the So-
ciety, agreeably with the terms and condition. of
the Royal Charier, the Uuke of Richmond as the
Chairman, and Mr. Handiey as a Trustee, attesting-, by
their signatures to the document, the validity of the
contract.

On the motion of Mr. Gmus, seconded by the Eurl of
EusTON, the following resolulions, of which due notice
had been given, were carried unanimously : —

1. That a card be printed for the use of the Members
of the Council, showing the datcii at winch the stated

meetings of the Councd will take place throughout the
Session.

2. That the Duke of Richmond, Earl Spencer, the
Chairman of the Journal Committee, the Chairman of
the Finance Commitiee, and Mr. Gibbs, be appointed
a Committee to inquire into, and report upon, a more
economical mode of printing and getting up the Journal ;
and that they be requested to report the result of their
inquiries as early as convenient.

3. That the Finance and Journal Committees be re-
quested to settle a scale of charges for the insertion of
advertisements in the advertising sheet of the Journal ;
and that the publisher be instructed to receive adver-
tisements accordingly on the account of the Society.

Notices of Motion.— The Rev. W. L. Rham
gave notice that he should move, at the next Monthly
Council, for the appointment of a Sub-Committee of the
.fournal Committee, to whom all papers and agricul-
tural correspondence should be referred, and who should
meet monthly to examine and classify the papers, and
make their reports to the Council ; and Mr. Raymond
Barker, for the appointment of a permanent House
Committee, entrusted with given powers ; and Mr.
Gibbs, that an annual list of the Members be printed
showing the state of arrears (if any) due from each
]\Iember, no Member being allowed to have his copy of
the Journal delivered or sent to him for any year until
the subscription for that year shall have been paid.

The Duke of Rutland placed at the disposal of the
Society a cow on the Belvoir Ca«tle Farm, whose ex-
traordinary case of preternatural enlargement of one
side of the body without any apparent cause, and under
the condition of perfect health and uninterrupted func-
tions, had already been brought under the notice of the
Council by the Duke of Richmond. The best thanks
of the Council were voted to the Duke of Rutland for
this instance of his Grace's interest and liberality ; and
Professor Sewell undertook, at the request of the Couri-
cil, to communicate with the Duke of Rutland on this
subject.

The Marquis of Doa\nsiiiiie, and Mr. Blacker, of
Armagh, transmitted communications to the Council,
having reference to the recent agricultural meeting at
Markethill, in Ireland.

The Baron de Cetto, the Bavarian minister, commu-
nicated to the Council a request on the part of the
Bavarian Agricultural Society on the subject of the
Alpaca.

Mr. Richard W. Nash, Secretary of the Western
Australian Society, transmitted to the Council an ac-
knowledgment oa the part of that Society, of its having
been placed on the list of the corresponding Societies
of the Royal Agricultural Society of England ; and a
statement of the intention of its members to communi-
cate every information in their power upon any subject
regarded as of sufficient importance.

Mr. Ridgway, of Piccadilly, .sent in a proposal to
undertake the printing of the Society's list in a com-
pendious and economical manner.

The thanks of the Council were ordered for these
communications, and for those of Sir Franci* Mac-
kenzie and J\Ir. Iloughton, laid at the same time before
them.

Numerous donations were received of books for the
Society's library, and for the museum the model of a
new roller, invented by Mr. Cliflbrd Cherry, for pres-
sing and equalising the surface of land.

The Council adjourned to Wednesday next, t!ie Sth
of February.

A Council was held at the Society's House in
Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the Sth of February ;
present, Pliiiip Pusey, Esq., M.P., in the chair; 'Ihos.
llaymond Barker, Esq.; James Dean, Esq. ; Hum-
phrey Gibb<, Esq. ; Brandreth Gibbs, Esq. ; William
Goodenough Hayter, Esq., M.P. ; W. Woods Page,
Esq. ; Wm. Shaw, Esq. : and W. R. Crompton Stans-
field, Esq., M.P.

The various communications presented to the Society

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

175

since the former meeting: were received with the best
thanks of the Council.

The Council then adjourned to Wednesday next, the
15th inst.

At a Council, held on Wednesday, the I5lh of
February — present, William Miles, Esq., M.P., in
the chiir; Colonel Austen; David Barclay, Esq.,
RI.P. ; Thomas Raymond Barker, Esq, ; French
Burke, Esq. ; Colonel Challoner ; F. C. Cherry, Esq.;
Brandreth Gibbs, E-;q. ; Humphrey Gibbs, Esq. ;
William Goodenough llayter, Esq., M.P. ; Philip
Puscy, Esq., M.P. ; Rev. W. L. Rham, and William
Shaw, Esq.

Coramuiiicittions were received from His Grace the
Duke of Portland, on the application of bones as a
manure ; from Sir John W. Lubbock, Bart., on the
agricultural instruction of cottage tenantry ; and fioiii
Mr. J. II. Cliarnock, of Wakefield, on the subject of
drainage.

The Council adjourned to Wednesday next, the
22ad instant.

NEW MEMBERS.

The following gentlenaen have been elected
members of the Society during the month.

Thomas John Moysey Bartlett, Esq., solicitor, of 5,
Beak Street, Regrent Street, London, was elected a
Governor.

Adams, Edward, Bassford Hall, Newcastle, Staffs.
Alsop, John, Darley Dale, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Ames, John, 33, Green Street, Grosvenor Square,

London
Ansdell, John, Gliisllyn, near Abergavenny, S.W.
Argile, George, Heage Hall, Belper, Derbyshire
Baker, Benjamin, Acle, near Yarmouth, Norfolk
Balmer, Thomas, Fochabers, N. B.
Barber, John, Derby

Barker, James, The Hall, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Barrow, G. H., Ringwood House, near Chesterfield,

Derbysh.
Baring, John, Onkwood, Chichester, Sussex
Bate, Samuel, Beecli, Swinnerton, Stone, Staffordshire
Beeley, Samuel, Palterton,ncar Chesterfield, Derbysh,
Belcher, the Rev. George Paul.Butterton, Ashbourne,

Derbyshire
Bentall, Edward Hammond, Heybridge, near Maldon,

Essex
Biddulph, Robert, Charing Cross, London, and Led-
bury, Hertfordshire
Bilbie, Thomas, Nettleworth, Notts.
Bird, John, Westerfield, Ipswich, Suffolk
Bloodworth, Thomas, Kimbolton, Huntingdonshire
Boden, Henry, The Field, Derby
Braddock, Henry, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk
Briltlebank, William, Winster, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Brightmore, John, Highlow, near Bakewell
Brooke, Thomas, Pencraig Court, near Ross, Hereford-
shire
Brown, Thomas, Kinwarton, Slratford-on-Avon, War-
wickshire
Buckley, the Rev. Henry W., Hartshorne, Burton-on-

Trent, Staffordshire
Buckley, John, jun., Normanton Hill, Loughborough,

Leicestershire
Bulpet, W. W., Winchester

Burgess, Joseph Stubbing, Holme Pierrepoint, Not-
tingham
Burgess, William, Wiggenhall, Sainl-Mary-Magdakn,

near Lynn, Norfolk
Burnell, Edward Pegge, Wimburne Hall, near South-
well, Notts.
Butler, Sir Thomas, Bart,, Ballin Temple, County
Carlow, Ireland

Calvert, Edward, Derby

Campion, William, juu,, Hehen-Abbot, Winchester
Campion, Rev. H,, Danny House, Brighton
Caatrell, Rev, William, Alvaston Field, Derby
Cantrill, Joseph Thomas, 21, Old-square, Lincoln's

Inn, London
Carpenter, Thomas, Hull Farm, Chipping Norton,

Oxon.
Carr, Walter Edmund, Milfield House, Wooler, Nor-
thumberland.
Capel, Arthur, Bulland f^odge, Wiveliscombe, Somer-
setshire
Capron, George, Stoke, Northamptonshire
Carson, Rev. Thomas, Vicar of Crich, near Alfreton,

Derbyshiie
Cat heart, Sir John Andrew, Adiestress House, near

Chipping Norton, Oxon,
Chambers, John, the Hurst, Alfreton, Derbyshire
Charles, Charles, Wollalon, Nottingham
Charlton, Thomas Broughton, Chilwell Hall, Notting-
ham
Clarence, John, 2], Cullum Street, Fenchnrch Street,

London
Clarke, Charles, Matlock Bath, Derbyshire
Clavering, William, Univerjity Club, Suffolk Street,

London
Cleave, John, Hereford

Cleave, Benjamin, Newcombe, Credilon, Devon
Crundwell, George, Castle Hill, Tunbridge, Kent
Cocker, Henry, Hathersage, near Bakewell
Coke, Major, Vice-President of the North Derbyshire

Ag-r. Soc, Woodhouse, Mansfield, Notts,
Conyton, George, Pentiilie Castle, Plymouth
Copeman, W, W., North Wilts Bank, Devizes, Wilts.
Corney, Thomas, 65, Old Broad Street, London
Cotterell, Jacob Henry, land-agent, Bath
Cox, L., Ardinarton Mill, Wantage, Berkshire
Crompton, Gilbert, Chesterfield, Derbyvhire
Curtis, Samuel, Justice of the Peace, Wellington V'al-

ley. New South Wales
Davis, John, Mapperton, Wincanton, Somersetshire
Day, Thomas, Spaldwick, near Kimbolton, Hunting-
donshire
Deane, Thomas, Hambleden, near Henley, Oxon,
Dean, Alexander, Pershore Road, Smithfield, Bir-
mingham
Deans, Rev. Joseph, Vicar of Melbourne and Cliellas-

ton, Derbyshire
Dyotf, Captain, Frenford, Lichfield, Staffordshire
Ella, William, Wimeswold, Loughborough, Leices-
tershire
Elliot, William, Grislow Field, near Bakewell
Fawcett, Rev. Christopher, Boscombe Rectory, near

Ameubury, Wilts.
Fairman, William Creed, Gore House, Sittingbourne,

Kent
Featherstonhauf h. Timothy, the College, Kirkoswald,

Cumberland
Forrester, George, Rryanston, Blandford, Dorset
Ficiuantle, Rev. Wm, Robt,, Rector of Middle Clay-
don, Winslow, Bucks.
Frost, Jonathan, Baslow, near Bakewell
Frost, Matthew, Buxton, near Bakewell
Fuller, Augustus Elliot, M.P., Rose Hill, Roberts'-

bridge, Sussex, and 26, Clifford Street, London
Gamble, Joss Christopher, Sutton House, St. Helen's,

Lancashire
Giirlick, John, Gosberton, near Spalding, Lincolnsh.
Gibbons, Edward, Mimter, Isle of Thanet, Kent
Godfrey, Thomas Spragging, Balderton, near Newark,

Notts.
Goodwin, George, Langar, near Bingham, Notts.
Goodwin, William, Birchwood, near Alfreton, Derbysh.
Gorham, John, Wittering, Chichester, Sussex
Griffith, Edward Humphrey, Ty-newydd, near Denbigh
Hail, Joseph, Castleton, near Bakewell, Derbyshire
Hall, Jas. Wallace Richard, Springfield, near Ross,

Herefordshire
Hallowes, Thomas, Glapwell Hall, Chesterfield, Der-
byshire

176

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

HalioD, Rev. Immauuel, Winfield Manor, Alfieton,

Derbyshire
Harris, James, Lonj? Sutton, near Odiliam, Hants
Harrison, Thomas, Risley, Derby
Haworth, S. R., 21, High-street, Hull
Haw iiins, John, Ilenge, Belper, Derbysliire
Heaihcote, Arthur H., Black well, near Bakewell
Heathcole, Cockshulf, i'eiffnmouth, Devonshire
Heath, John, Amershani, l?ucks
Henson, John, Walton, Lout^hborouprh, Leicestershire
Heywood, John Thomas, Briminglon, near Chesterfield,

Derbyshire
Hey worth, Ormerod, Everton, Liverpool
Hill, Edward, Brierly Hill, near Dudley, Wore.
Holmes, John, Alfreton, Derbyshire
Howard, John, Bedford

Hoy, B;»rloiv, Thornhill Park, near Southampton
Hubbersty, Kev. Nathan, Wirksworth, Derbyshire
Hubbersly, Philip, Solicitor, Wirksworth, Derbyshire
Hughes, VVilliam, Framfield, Sussex
Humbert, Charle? F., Stanmore, Middlesex
Hunt, Charles Brook, Bowden Hall, Gloucester
Hunter, Charles Vickers, Kilbourne, near Derby
Hurley, Richard, Uaddon House, Collumpton, Devon-
shire
Ingle, Thomas, Solicitor, Bel per, Derbyshire
Keppell, Hon. Colonel, Ashley Lodge, near Lyniing-

lon, Hants .
Jcpson, William, Edensor Inn, near Bakewell
Jones, ThomHs, Kcnsworth, Market Street, Herts.
Keary, H. \V., Holkham, Norfolk
Licey, VVilliam, Adbolton, Nottingham
Leech, John, Fox au<i Owl Inn, Derby
Lees, Benjamin, Eastling, Fevershum, Kent
L'ewellyn, Pearce, Merrion Court, near Pembroke,

S.W.
Lingen, Henry, 4, Essex Court, Temple
LongcToft, Clias. Richard, Llanina, Cardiganshire
Longsdon, William, Longstone, near Bakewell
Luckham, Levi, Broadway, near Weymouth
Mac Cound, Henry, Cres4)rook, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Martin, Wm. Bennett, Westborough, Barnsley, York-
shire
Martin, Charles Wykeham, M.P., Leeds Castle, Maid-
stone, Kent
Mea I, Rev. David, Brewham, Bruton, Somerset
Miller, Giles, Goudhur«,t, Kent
Mill', Samuel, 20, Russell Square, London
Mills, John, Bisterne, Ringwood, Hampshire
Milnes, William, Stubbing Edge, Alfreton, Derbyshire
Milnes, James, Wood End, near Matlock, Derbyshire
Mold, John, Alderwasley, Bel per, Derbyshire
Morris, Thomas, Woolpaek Lane, Nottingham
Rlosley, Ashley Nicholas Avery, Bumeston House,

near Derby
Mundy, William, Markeaton, near D>rby
Murdock, James Gordon, 11, Haymarket, London
Nash, Daniel, 60. Strand, F^ondon
Newiiigate, F., Blackhcath, Kent
North, Nicholas, Wiggenhall, Saiiit-Mary-Magdalen,

near Lynn, Norfolk
Oakes, Thomas, Riddings Home, near Alfreton,

Derbyshire
Ord, Capt. Harry Gough, Manor House, Bexley, Kent
Ormerod, (ieorge, Fern Hill, near Rochdale, Lane.
Parkinson, John, Kumertley, Herelordshire
I'axtoQ, Joseph, (^haisworth, near Bakewell
IVach, Robert, Fansley, near Derby
I'laison, John, South Winefield, Alfreton, Derbyshire
I'eli, Albert, Peniicr Hill, Watlord, Hertfordshire
I'euton, Tliomas, Middleton-strect Farm, Longparish,

Wliitehnrch, Hampshire
Phillips, John Friend Pering, Gitcumbe, near Totness,

Devon
Philips, Fred. Charles, Rhual, near Mold, Flintshire ^

Porlman, Wyndham B,, R.N., Hare Park, New-
market
Potter, Joseph, Horsley Woodhousc, Derby
Poyser, Thomas, Solicitor, Wirksworth, Derbyshire
Price, Joseph, Monmouth

Radford, Edward, Tansley Wood, Matlock, Derbyshire
Rea, Georgc.North Middleton, near Wooler, Northum-
berland
Read, John, Derwent Hall, Sheffield
Rees, John, Flimston, near Pembroke, S.W.
Reed, John, Hopton, Suffolk

Redfern, William, Middleton, Bakewell, Derbyshire
Rendlesham, Lord, Rendlesham, Woodbridge, Sufl'o k
Riches, John, Uxbridge, Middlesex
Roberts, Charles, Tedmore, near Stourbridge, Wor-
cestershire
Rogers, Captain William Henry, Newlaud, near

Coleford, Gloucestershire
Rothwell, Richard Rainshaw, Preston, Lancashire, and

6, Alfred Place. Btdford Square, London
Round, George, Colchester, Essex
Sadler, William Ford, Nurseryman, Derby
Scarsdale, Lord, Kedleston Hall, near Derby
Scriven, George, Cas'.Ie-Ashby, Northampton
Sergeant, John, Stralford-on-Avon, Warwickshire
Sharman, Alexander, Bedford
Shippard, Sir Thos. Cotton, Bart., Thornton Hall,

Stoney Stratford, Bucks
Simpson, James BIyth, Derby
Silvvell, Edward Degge, Stainsby, near Derby
Slater, John, Shottle, Belper, Derbyshire.
Smith, Alfred, Banker, Derby
Smith, 'I'homas, Cotton Court, Manchester

Smith, John George, Crediton, Devon
Spencer, Griftin, Alfreton, Derbyshire

Stedman, Robert, Great Bookham, Leatherhead, Surrey

Slcdnian, Robert, Pakenham, Ixvvorth, Suffolk

Stevens, John, Breaston, Derby

Stirrup, Samuel, Mansfield, Notts.

Stokes, Thomas, WiHord Place, Leicester

Stone, 'I'hos., Barrow, Loughborough, Leicestershire

Story, Nathaniel, Derby

Strutt, Jedediah, Belper, Derbyshire.

Syraonds, Thomas Powell, Pengethly, Ross, Hereford-
shire

Swinborne, Robert, Great Oakley, Colchester, Essex

'I'aylor, Robert, Treeton Mill^, Rotherham

Taylor, John, jun., Coed-Du, Mold, Flintshire

Taylor, Henry, Pilsley, near Bakewell

Taylor, John, Mereworth, Wrolham, Kent

Tebbs, John, Walcol, near Lutterworth, Leicestershire

Thomas, Le Marchant, Billingbear Park, Wokingham,
Berks.

Thomas, llted. Hill House, Swansea, S.W.

Tooke, Rev. Alfred, East INIordon, Blandford, Dorset

Turbutt, Glad win, Ogston Hall, near Alfreton, Derbysh.

Tuck, Henry, Avon, Ringwood, Hampshire

Turner, the Rev. Arthur, Ladbroke Rectory, Southam,
Warwickshire

Vandcleur, George, King's Newton Hall, Derby

\'ickers, Abraham, Rlanchcster

Wakely, Thomas, Rainham, Rochester, Kent

Walking:, Samuel, Worksop, Notts.

Webster, PVederick, Marley Farm, Battle, Sussex

White, T. IL.Chcvening, Kent

Wheatcroft, Abraham, Cromford, Derbyshire

M'illis, Charles, Cranbrook, Kent

Worsley, Charles Carill, Winster, Bakewell, Derbysh.

Wrirht, Henry, Kelvedon Hall, Chijiping Ongar,
Essex

Wright, Charles, Wirksworth, Derbyshire

Wylcy, James, High Onn, Stafford

Wyalt, Harvey, Aclon Hill, near Staflbrd

Wyatt, William, Eyam, near Bakewell

Wyatt, Robert, Foolow, near Bakewell

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

177

THE CORN LAWS.

TO THE EDITOR OF TflE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Sir,, — You are at liberty, if you think proper,
to publish the following observations and remarks
on the all-absorbing question of the corn laws.
They are tlic conciuf.ions arrived at after closely
watching the worinng of those laws for more than
thirty years. About 1810, I first began to consider
the subject, and was then a decided advocate for
those laws, and continued so for ten years. Since
then my opinions have tal<eii a retrograde bias,
and at this time am in favour of an entire repeal.
From 1813 to 1837 I was a rent-pat/hiff farmer, iiud
I am still so connected with land in various ways,
that if the corn laws are any bent-fit to those in-
terested in land, they will be to me. Hut, how-
ever connected I was with land, I should be very
sorry to advocate any law which might benefit
one part of the community at the e.-^pense of the
other.

My intention is to prove the following points : —
1st, Tliat the corn laws were no benefit to the
landowners from the year 1800 to 1815. That
they were of considerable benefit to them from the
latter period to 1830, and that from 1830 to the
present time it is extremely doubtful whether they
have not been injurious to them. 2nd, That the
corn laws, instead of being any service to the
tenant farmers, from 1800 to the present time,
they have been extremely injurious to them, and
cf course to the rural population. In short, that
they have produced a worse eftect upon these two
classes than upon any other class, or upon all the
other classes. 3rd", That although I consider
these laws have not had a good effect on the in-
terest of the trading and manufacturing classes,
yet I am far from thinking they have done the
mischief which those classes imagine. It is my
intention in this paper to steer clear of all party
or interested views, and to fearlessly state what I
consider to be the truth, whoever I may offend or
whoever I may please.

There is little doubt but the real intention of
the landowners in carrying the corn laws aUvays
has been to keep up the rent roll, but, at the same
time, 1 feel persuaded that one part of the benefit,
in their ideas, fell to the lot of the tenants and
their labourers. They are charged with selfish-
ness. I believe they have just as much of tliis
vicious ingredient in their composition as the
other classes of the community have, and no more.
We have all too much of it, from the highest to
the lowest ; the only difference is, that the
wealthy, in every class, have the most power to
injure his neighbour when he allows it to get the
upper hand of bis better feelings. England will
never he a happy country till there ia less of it.
The aristocracy have a great number of faults, and
some of them great ones. But, notwithstanding
these faults, and notwithstanding the injury they
have unintentionally done to their tenants and to
their labourers, in the passing of the corn laws,
they generally make the best landlords. Where it
is otherwise, it is as often the fault of the agent as
the principal.

I shall now proceed to prove my first proposi-
tion. From 1805 to 1815 the law allowed free im-
portation of wheat at (id. per quarter, when the
price was above 66s. Now, during the whole of
those ten years, with the exception of 1814, the
price never averaged so low as 66s. j consequently,

there was a constant free importation previous to
1814 from this time, and, notwithstanding it being
then stopped, corn still continued to fall in price
till 1816, when we had a very bad harvest. In
several of these ten years j)rices averaged I'iOs. or
130s. ])er ([uarter, although there was free impor-
tation at 66s. It is therefore clear that the corn
laws were not the cause of these high prices, and
of the high rents put ujjon the laud, during those
ten years, or I will say fifteen years — namely,
from 1800 to 1815. The causes evidently were,
the paper money and the war. During the whole
of those fourteen years, when the ports were al-
ways open to foreign corn, and ot course a free
trade in it, the importation of wheat never
amounted in any one year to one million quarters,
except in 1810, when it amounted to near one and
a half millions. My object in stating this is to
prove that we should never be able to import
even one-sixth of our consumption, and that we
should always be dependent on the British farmer
for a supply under any circumstance.

I knowitwillbesaid that in those fifteen years we
were at war with France, and that the seat of war
was generally in the corn-growing countries of
Europe, and from which the armies would have
to be supplied. But we were at peace with Ame-
rica most of the time, and the war was never
carried into Poland or Russia till 1813 ; and, as we
were master of the sea, those countries were open
to us, and where it is said we can get the cheapest
grain.

In 1815 wheat got down to the average of
63s. 8d. per quarter, and the landowners consider-
ing that with the rents and burdens upon land, at
that time, it could not be grown for less than 80s.,
they passed a law prohibiting importation when
the price was below that sum. And, under the idea
that the general average would be near 80s., land-
owners, valuers, and farmers, made their valuations
and estimates accordingly, and, of course, rents re-
mained at the point which they had gained before
the conclusion of the war. Then it was that the
ruin of the tenant and the labourer commenced.
Then it was that the landowners were receiving
thirty per cent, more rent than they ought to have
done; for, notwithstanding the prohibition when
the price was under 80s., and notwithstanding, of
course, that there was none imported, except in
1817 and 1818, the prices kept averaging lower
and lower Cexcept in these two years), till 1822,
when the average was 43s. 3d., only 3s. 3d. above
one-half of the prices contemplated by the land-
owners, farmers, &c., at the passing of the Act of
1815. The average in these seven years never
reached 80s., except in 1817 and 1818, which was
caused by the two extremely bad seasons of 1816
and 1817 ; and, excluding these two years, the
average price of wheat of the other five years was
62s. 5d. It is clear the corn laws in these seven
years could not keep the pri(*s up anything near
80s.

The landowners, seeing that in 1822 wheat only
averaged 43s. 3d., and seeing the ruin which was
taking place amongst farmers and all the rural
population, concluded there must be something
wrong in the law as it then stood, and, of course,
in 1823 passed a new law. Now this law was a
proof that all who voted for it were either ex-
tremely deficient in common sense, or in firm uj)-
right integrity ; because if they had marked the
working of the preceding law, they would have
seen that it had been ineffectual. They woidd

N

178

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

have seen that it had not prevented wheat coming
down to an average of 43s. oil., without any im-
portation, cxcei)t after an extremely had harvest ;
therefore, it was very clear that the new law could
not have that effect. Those who had not marked
this were unfit for law makers, and those who had,
and still voted for it, were not honest men, as it
is evident they intended to do an injustice to the
farmers by keeping- their retits up a little longer.
Tiie law of 1823 prohibited importation of wheat
when the price was below 70s., with a duty of 17s.
per quarter when above. It v.'as again supposed
by the farmers and land valuers that the price
would average near the above price ; of course,
rents were still fixed higher than they ought to
have been. Landowners and all the other classes
also supposed, or pretended to suppose, that wheat
would never be much below 70s., while the law
of 1823 remained in force.

This law continued in force till 1828; and how
does the fact stand .' Why, that the average
never reached 70s., and only 'reached (iOs. in two
out of the five years. The lowest average of a
whole year was 51s. 9d., and the average of the
whole five years was 58s. 5d., or lis. 7d. below the
price prohibiting importation ; of course, it could
not be foreign corn which reduced the price in
England, and it follows that the law was worse
than useless to the farmers, as without it they
would have expected low prices. The consequence
Was, they were still sinking deeper in poverty, and
of course the landowners still getting more rent
than their due— that is, where the tenants could
stand the screw, and the landowners were true
" Sbylocks."

lu 1828 the late law was passed, and has been
oiie of the greatest humbugs that has been enacted
of late years. However, the injury it has done the
farmers has not been so great as was the case with
the two former bills. 1st, They had had two ex-
cellent lessons taught them by the preceding laws,
and had not much confidence in any corn laws.
2nd, What little confidence they had was shaken
by the sliding scale, as the price of corn abroad
was_ represented to be so low as to afi'ord the
foreign corn merchant to pay almost any amount
of duty fixed by the law. They were therefore ex-
tremely cautious in their offer of rent, and there
had also been a general reduction, to a consider-
able amount, all over the kingdom, but particu-
larly in the agricultural districts.

Having shown that the corn laws of 1815 and
1823 had entirely failed in their object of keeping
prices and rents up, and of course had brought
ruin on the great body of farmers and their
labourers, I shall next show what the slidmg
scale humbug has done for these classes. In
1828, the miseries of the rural population were
such as to make property completely unsafe in the
agricultural counties. Seeing this state of things,
and still clinging to Ae corn laws, like a drowning
man to a straw, and being urged by the trading
interest to make some alteration in those laws,
and wishing to appear liberal in making the
change, our law-nsakers enacted the sliding scale.
For nine years (ending 1837) after the passing
of this act, the price of wheat averaged 5()s. ; and
if 1838 liad not been z^n extremely deficient har-
vest, and the three following ones below an ave-
rage, the price would still not have averaged more
than 5(js. In 1835, the average was 3!)s. Id., and
in one week in .January, 183(j, as low as 3()s.
Therefore in these nine years there was little or

no foreign corn in the market ; of course import-
ation was not the cause of those low prices, and it
follows that the corn laws could not keep prices
up. And, if they fail in the object intended , why
keep such laws in force — or, at all events, why
not have a low fi.ved duty, which would assist the
revenue?

Previous to the passing of the late act in 1828,
I have said that rents and other expenses of farm-
ing were very considerably reduced throughout
the country ; of course the prices under the last
law, previous to 1838, did not produce the same
ruinous results to the farmer as the preceding
I aw had done ; but their capital had been so
nuich reduced, that the wages of their labourers
could not be advanced, on account of the farmers
being unable to employ the number of hands they
otherwise would have done. But it is very clear
that the sliding scale would still have slided money
out of their pockets, if new bargains had not been
entered into as regards rent, &c.

Since 1838, we have had several general gaol
deliveries of foreign corn, which, with a great
quantity on which duty has been paid, above the
nominal duty of Is. per quarter; so that we may
say that we have had open ports for corn since
1838, so far as competing with the British farmer j
and I feel convinced that little more foreign corn
would have entered our ports for the last three
years, if they had been entirely open the whole
time. It is therefore very clear that the sliding
scale could not prevent wheat coming doicn to 36s.
per quarter, or advancing up to 80s. From what
I have stated above, and from what I have felt in
practice, I am quite satisfied that the corn laws,
previous to 1828, were the cause of the ruin of
hundreds of farmers, and of the starvation of
thousands of their labourers; and that since 1828,
the late law has been no manner of use to them,
or to the landowners. It is evident that the
amount of paper money, combined with the p'O-
ductive or unproductive seasons, have more to do
with the prices of grain than the corn laws have.
The landowners on one side, and the trading
interest on the other, may say that, if there had
been no corn laws, prices might have been con-
siderably lower than they have been. I do not |
believe it, neither can they prove it ; and by-
and-by I shall prove that it would not have been
the case; it is therefore idle talk to say, as the
trading interest do say, that these laws double the
price of bread.

Previous to 1842, we had four deficient harvests,
two of them very much so. The crop of 1838
was not more than two-thirds of an average one
in this parish, and was little more in any jjart of
England or Scotland.

I will now endeavour to prove that, had the
ports always been open, the prices of grain would
not have averaged much, if any, less than they
have done.

I have already shown that, with open ports,
from 1800 to 1815 wheat scarce ever averaged be-
low 80s., and several years above 100s. per quarter.
In 1817 and 1818 open ports could not keep it be-
low the average of 80s.

With all the foreign corn which has come into
the English market the last four years previous to
1842, a great part at a nominal duty, the average
price has not been much below 70s. (b"8s.)i even
with the great quantity of inferior grain which
has been brought into the market. AVithout this
it would have been nearer 80s. than 70s. I repeat

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

179

that it is quite clear that, when we have either an
excess of paper vioney or a deficient 7i«rrcs^, prices
cannot be kept down with open ports or free im-
portations Vit a nominal duty ; of course, at sucli
times, corn laws do nothing /or the interest of the
landowner, an<l not half the injury to the con-
sumer as is represented by that class. To the
farmer they never did anything but injury.

It is qviite clear that the average price of wheat
for nine years after the passing of the late act
could not have been so low as 5Gs., if we had not
grown suflBcient for home consumption ; and, as
the farmers were attlie end of those nine years in
far better circumstances than at present, it proves
that ')()s. is a remunerative price to the British
fanners, when we have average crops, and, sup-
posing rents and other burdens the same as in
those nine years. Now, supposing that we had
had open ports those nine years, would the prices
Lave been much lower upon an average than aGs. t
or would they have fluctuated more f 1 feel con-
vinced they would not. It would not do for Eng-
land to purchase foreign corn to any extent with
hard cash. If we must import extensively, so as to
injure the British farmer in his own market, wheat
must be laid down in the manufacturing districts
at a less price than 5f)s. ; and the foreign corn
merchant must take goods in exchange, not cash.
Now our manufacturers say this will be (he case ;
but stop, my friends, do not be sure of this.
\Vhat advantages have the farmers in Russia,
Prussia, Poland, &;c., over the English farmers ?
It is said, little or no rent, few if any taxes, very
low wages, or no wages at all in some parts. This
is a very pretty picture till examined very closely,
when it will be seen that there are a few blemishes
in it. But I will let these alone till I have exa-
mined the other side of this pretty gilded picture.
Well, then, what are the disadvantages ? Well,
there is the English corn merchants'profitj carriage
from the English port to the inferior ; the English
port dues ; the freight, insurance, and risk from
damage while on board ship ; the foreign port
dues ; the foreign corn merchants' profit ; car-
riage by water from the interior, with damage and
waste ; carriage by land from the farm to the
river — from one mile to perhaps fifty, sixty, or a
hundred miles, over bad roads. There are neither
canals or railroads in ihose countries, where there
are no rents or icuges paid. The farmers are de-
ficient in capital, and both them and their labour-
ers are deficient in skill, in comparison with the
British farmers and their labourers — although
these have plenty of room for improvement.
Grain is continually wasting and taking damage,
from its being first cut from the land till it gets
to the consumer : in the stack, in the barn, in the
granary, on board ship or boat, in the warehouse,
at the mill, it it is continually wasti7ig, or taking
damage from insects, vermin, or moisture. When
all these advantages and disadvantages are ba-
lanced on both sides, I say, I do not fear the
foreign farmer a fig, tcith open jjorts and without
duty. It is the increased skill and industry of the
British farmers and their labourers which has
enabled them to produce wheat at 56s., with the
present rent and taxes : and there is little doubt
in my mind that, by applying more capital and
skill to the British soil, it will be raised at con-
siderably less price than that.

i here has been no more grain raised in foreign
countries than what has been consumed there or
exported ; and, from accounts from all travellers.

all the land near good reads or rivers is occupied in
the cultivation of grain. Of course, if their ex-
ports must be extensively increased, the cultiva-
tion of grain must be greatly extended ; and this
cannot be done without a greater outlay of capital
in the cultivation of the land at present in tillage,
or by extending the cultivation of grain at a greater
distance from good roads or water carriage. To
intersect the country with common roads, rail-
roads, or canals, will also require capital. The
Russians, Poles, and Germans are poor, and while
they continue to export corn at a very low price,
they will continue so, wheiher Oiey take our manu-
factured goods or not. If they were to sell grain
at a higher price, it would require considerable
time to acquire this necessary capital ; and at pre-
sent they seem inclined to expend what they can
spare on manufacturing for themselves, and by-
and-by I will show that they will continue to do
so, however free and open the British ports are for
their corn.

If foreign landowners get little or no rent, and
if the foreign labourers and fanners get little or
no wages or remuneration, how will it be possible
for them to take our manufactured goods to any
extent for their corn ! The labouring classes
must be content with the plainest and coarsest of
clothing, and not sufficient of that ; neither can
the higher classes (there is seldom any middle
class in such countries) afford any luxury either of
dress, equipage, or furniture. Where there is
little coming in, there will be little going out. It
will just amount to this : while they remain in
such circumstances as to aft'ord grain lotver than
the British farmer, with their advantages, they
will not be in circumstances to take our goods at
a price to pay the manufacturers ; and, if their
circumstances improve by higher rents and higher
wages, then they cannot afford grain at the same
low price. It is the low wages which are now-
given in England to all classes of labourers which
prevent them from purchasing clothes and other
articles of comfort ; and very low wages will pro-
duce the same effect everywhere. I maintain that
high icages and low-priced provisions can never go
together; the nature of the thing will not allow
it. Labour constitutes a great portion of the ex-
pense of raising grain ; I therefore repeat that', if
wages rise abroad so as to afford the labourers
good cloth, furniture, and houses, the expense of
raising grain will be increased in the same pro-
portion. At present the Germans, Russians, &c.,
want OTiXy cash; and while they do this, it will
be ruin to us to take much of their grain.

For ten years ending 1840, the average price of
wheat at Danzig was 37s. 7d. ; at Petersburgh,
36s. ; at Odessa, 27s. 9d. With respect to expenses,
it is difficult to get a correct statement, as they
are generally made out for party purposes ; and I
never saw one yet but I could find several holes in
it. According to a writer in favour of corn laws,
the average expense, interest, and profit, from the
above ports, is 13s. per quarter ; but the writer
has made no allowance for damage by moisture,
heating, English port dues, porterage, and ware-
house rent at the British port ; or carriage inland,
British corn merchants' profits and interest ;
DO allowance for feeding rats, mice, insects,
sailors, porters, carters, and millers— for no man
will starve who works in grain. It is therefore
clear that 13s. will not cover all expenses, risk,
and waste. Again, the grain from the above ports
is not equal in quality to the J3ritish in fair ave-

K 2

180

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

rage seasons, and of course would not sell in tli^
same market at the same price by several shillings
per quarter.

It will be seen from the above, that wheat
from the above foreign ports could not have
been sold in the English market on an ave-
rage of (en years, for less than 50s. or 51s.;
and, taking the quality into account, could only
meet the British wheat at about 55s. or 5fis.
The average of England for those ten years was
57s. — only a difference of Is., or 2s. at the most.
There needs little more said to prove that, taking
qualltij into account, wheat must be purchased on
an average from Kis. to 20s. per quarter less at the
above ports than the average price of English
wheat. For six years ending 18.H7, the ports were
entirely closed to foreign corn, and of course, in
consequence of no demand for it, the price at
the above ports would !)e at its lowest po'mt fcr
remunerating the foreign grower, and perhaps
even lower than that. Well, the average of these
six years in England was 50s. ; the average at the
above three foreign ports was 32s. ; difference,
18s. We will take the lowest average in England
for one 3'ear out of the above six years— natnely,
1835— which was 39s. Id. ; average of the same
year at the above ports, 28s. 4d. ; difference, only
10s. Dd., which w'ould not pay expenses, saying
nothing of risk, &c. And yet the farmers in Eng-
land were in better circumstances in 1835 than at
present. It must be remarked here, that in Eng-
land the average of these six years was 50s., and
for 1835 only 3Ds. Id.; difference, 10s. lid.;
■while the difference at the above foreign ports was
only 4s. 8d. between the average of the six years
and 1835.

It is seen that with closed ports for sis years the
average price in England was 50s., and at the three
foreign ports 32s., a difference just sufficient to
cover all expenses, profits, waste, damage, fee,
and difference of quality. Well, we will suppose
the ports had been open those six years : what
would have been the result ? There ivojcM have
been foreign corn imported, or there would not.
If not, then prices would have remained at home
and abroad as they were ; but, if importation had
taken place to that extent as to reduce the average
below bOs. in England, it would also have raised
the average abroad, in consequence of the greater
demand, and would have acted upon the foreign
corn merchant like burning a candle at both ends.
It is to be seen from facts, that, as the foreign ex-
ports of corn Increase, so the price theve advances ;
for it is there, as it is here— supply and demand
affect the prices.

Let us peep at the good old times of England, be-
fore the Frenchionr, when the "old English gentle-
men" were so very generous and hospitable. I'he
averace of wheat in England for twenty years ending
17L10 was 45s. 4d., ; the average at Danzig for the
same lime was 28s. 8d. ; difference. 16s. 8d. The
difference in England between the average of those
twenty years and the last ten years is only lls.Bd;
and the differenceat Danzigis 8s. lid. At tbattime
the " fine old English gentleman'' frequently gave
the corn merchant 5s. per qu^irter for exjKJrting
wheat, so that jjrices could be kept up to 45s. He
was then frightened of his rent-roll just as the
"young English gentleman" is at present. At
that time the rent of land was less than half the
])reseut rent — wages about one-half — lays and
taxes nothing in comparison to what they are at
present ; no rural j>olice ; yet the average price

of wheat was only lis. 8d. below the average of
the last ten years, in which we had several bad
seasons. At that time (from I770tol71)0) ports
were generally open to foreign corn, and yet there
is a difference of l6s. 8d. between the English
price and the price at Danzig, which cleariy proves
that it required that sum at that tune to cover ex-
penses, profits, damage, and waste ; and taking
the difference of the value of money at the two
periods into account, the cost of importing at this
time should not be less than 30?.

I contend that, at the very lowest estimate, the
Enijlisli landowners en]oy an advantage of not Uss
than from 16s. to 20s. per qiiarier over the land-
owners of Poland and Russia. This, I contend, is
quite sufficient to cover the difference of the bur-
dens upon the land, and, of course, that we may
safely repeal the corn laws. As to the tenants and
their labourers, they have lost millions by the corn
laws.

I think I have shown that we cannot exchange
goods for corn to any extent on the European
continent, so as to jiay the British manufacturers,
on account of the poverty of the people ; but it
may be said, and is said, this may be done with
America, as there the people get good wages, and
spend very considerably on the various neces-
saries, comforts, find luxuries in and on their
bodies, dwellings, &c. There, it is said, " they
liave corn enough, and to sjjare." We will soon
see whether this is, or will be, the case to any ex-
tent or not.

Brother Jonathan talks loudly at this time, how
he could befriend his old hard-worked brother
John, by taking his manufactured goods, if Johnny
will but take his corn in return for payment. But
this is only because he finds that his brother, at
this time, is selling his goods at less than jn'i'uc
cost, and has been giving inore tlian the average
prime cost for his corn. Now what Jonathan says
is very well, and would without any doubt be the
case, and would have been of late years of con-
siderable benefit to England ; and, of course, is
one reason why the ports should have been open,
and the corn laws repealed. But let wheat keep
at iis present price, and let manufactured goods
get vp in price, so as to pay the workmen fair
7cages, and masters and merchants a. fair remunera-
tion ; I say, let these state of things come round
again, and brother Jonathan will call out, ''Oh,
brother Johnny, brother Johnny ! I cannot afford
Wheat at that price and pay all expences ; and I
also begin to think of manufacturing for myself.
However, if you will take my cotton, tobacco, and
other produce of that nature, which you do not
produce, and give me a good price for it, I will
exchange with you ; but I caunot stand your
prices of corn, as my labourers are determined to
have good wages. I have to give a dollar for
wages where you give Is. Gd."

I have said before that cheap corn and high
wages caimot stand together. In an entirely new
settled country, where there is little to do but
plough, sow and reap, this may be the case; but
in all that part of America east of the mountains,
except the barren or utdmprovahle land, has now
been in cultivation some time, and to raise good
crops will require cultivating in the English or
Scotch style ; and of course with high priced
labour, wdl make the cxpence ot raising corn as
great as in England. If the prices of grain in all
the seaports he exatnincd, it will be seen that little
will come to England when the price is down here

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

181

at Sfis. Besides, in America tliere is a rapid ia-
crease of inhabitants, from birchs and emigration,
so that tine cultivation of grain lias to be rapidly
extended to supply their own wants, and brother
Jonathan will not be content with the same qnan-
tity and quality of food as the Russian and Poland
serfs, or even the EiujUsh labourer. It is quite
clear to me, that very cheap corn cannot be pro-
duced in America cast of the Alleghany mountains,
for reasons above stated ; and it can only be raised
at little co.'it on the frenh land in tlie valleys of
Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri. An American
writer says, wheat can be laid down at Liverpool,
from these valleys, at 47s. the quarter. But in
mailing out his bill of charges, profits, &:c., he has
left several items out, so that 1 feel convinced it
cannot l)e brought from thence for that money.

If grain can he raised so very ciieaply in the
United States, why not in Canada ? I'here the
rents and taxes are no higher than in the United
States, and the land is superior to tliat in tlie
eastern division of the United States. Canada is
under the iJritish govermncnt, and of course our
marlcets are open to tliei-- produce, and every
facility is afforded them for taking our articles of
mercliandise in return. There is sufficient of ter-
ritory to raise grain for nearly all England, and
the Canadians have their eyes open to profit where
there is any to be had. Vet, with all these facili-
ties for a traffic in food, there is never any exten-
sive importations of coin from thence. The renson
is obvious : corn cannot be raised without hands,
and those liands want wfujes and food, and the
Canadian farmers and labourers are both better
fed and paid than the English. It is clear, from
facts, that they have nut sent, or will send,
much corn when wheat is below 56s. here. There-
fore, I for my part do not fear the American farmer
with a free trade in corn. And I feel convinced,
that whenever the corn laws are repealed — and
most assuredly they will be repealed before many
years are rolled over — the English landowners
will find that their propertv will be depreciated
very little if any in value. If I siiould recommend
any duty at all upon foreign corn it should be a
low one, U7id fixed, for the sole purpose of raising
revenue.

I shall here say a few words on the objections
of a fixed duty when prices are high. We will
suppose it 10s., and tlie average prices in England
80ii. If the duty was then taken off, tlie only dif-
ference it would make would be advancing the
price at the foreip;n ports 10s., the price in Eng-
land would remain the same. I will prove this
from facts: on June 5th, 1811., wheat free on
board at Danzig was 403. Supposing wheat
shipped on tliat day, by the time it arrived in Eng-
land (five weeks) the duty was 24s. On August
17th it was seen that the duty would soon be down
to Is., and wheat was then 60s. at Danzig. That is,
09 the duty fell from 24s. to Is. in England, prices
roseat Danzig from 40s. to 60s. When prices are
high here, the dutv can he no object abroad, and
prices will be high here, whether we have corn
laws or not, when we have 7nore than one bad
seaso7i in sitccesslMi, or when we have an excess of
paper money. I am an advocate for a repeal of
the corn laws, because I feel thej' are no benefit
to the farmers or their labourers, or labourers of
any class, and at this time, or for the future, no
great benefit to the landowners. But at the same
time, I am of opinion they Lave not done that
injury to the manufacturer as is represeritcd by

that class, although I admit they may have done
some harm. Itmay perhaps then be a^^ked, is there
no remedy for the present depression ? 1 will
give my opinion as to the cause.";, and leave it with
the manufacturers to judge for themselves as to a
remedy or remedies.

There were always ebbs and flows in trade, and
ever will be. But notwithstanding this, ever since
the conclusion of the war the profits on trade and
commerce have regularly been getting less. Be-
fore I go into the causes of this, I will state what
I conceive to be the cause of the present deep and
long continued depression.

One cause, no doubt, is the four deficient harvests
%ve have had, in consequence of which provisions
have been so high that the labouiing classes could
only purchase food. Another cause in my opinion
is, that there has been too much monej' spent in
too little time in making railways ; particularly
upon tiiose which will never pay anything like fair
interest. This, therefore, has been mis-spent
capital. If one half the money which has lieen
spent on railways had been spent upon the cultiva-
tion of waste lands, or in the better cultivation of
the land at present in cultivation, it would have
produced a greater amount of manual labour, and
would have produced double the quantity of pro-
visions we IJave imported. This would have as-
sisted trade by loicering the price of provisions, and
giving jnore wages to the labourers.

It appears to me very strange that almost any
upstart, if he can raise a fine coac, sport a gold or
silver watch-guard, smoke a cigar, and tell a
plausible story on some speculative concern, can
easily raise the means for carrying his project out ;
while a drab coated farmer would be kicked out
of doors for even having the piesum>)tion to ask
for assistance in the improvement of Lis farm.

I will now give my oi)inion as lo the causes of
the falling off in the profits on trade, and which I
say commenced at the conclusion of the war.

One cause, and the principal one, is excessive
taxation, caused by tliat war. This cuts like a two
edged sword. First, it has enabled foreigners to
compete with us; secondly, a great portion of the
earnings of the people is taken to jiay taxes, and
of course cannot purchase sufficient of the com-
forts and necessaries of life, in clothing, furni-
ture, &c.

.Another cause is, excessive extravagance in the
higlier and the middle classes, and also at times in
the labouring classes when they had the means to
be so ; for there has been times when even tlii.s
class could have saved money. The estates of ihe
nobility are nearly all in mortgage. They
cannot support the younger branches of their
families out of their estates, and they are thrown
upon the country; that is, kept out of the taxes
in some shape or other, and in which tliey are of
no manner of use, imt generally do harm. They
are thus fed by the people, and fed extravagantly.
It is an axiom which cannot be denied, that the
more extravagantly one portion of the people
are kept, the poorer the remaining |,ortion
will be. Extravagance in the merchant, trades-
man, manufacturer, or farmer, has equally as
bad effect. \Yhen these live up to their incomes
in prosperous times, they cannot keep their mer-
chandise, goods, or produce, when demand for a
season declines. All must goto market, and prices
sink so as to produce ruin, and injure their neigh-
bours, and their worl>men. Too great a desire for
luxury, po.Tip, and power, leads to immoralitj', and

182

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

these combined will lead either a man or a nalion
to ruin. These ivere the ruin of the Grecian and
Persian empires. They caused the downfall of the
Roman empire. They were the ruin of the French
monarchy, and it is very doubtful if they will not
be the downfall of I'2ngland.

Another cause of the gradually declining pro-
fits in trade is, that foreigners aie begun to manu-
facture for themselves. And why should they not
do so? why should we have the presumption, or
the selfishness, as to expect that we should manu-
facture for the whole world ? When the war was
over, the world was open for every nation to
do the best it could, by every fair means in its
power. When foreigners saw the wealth we had
acquired by commerce and manufactures, it was
natural they wonid attempt to follow our example.
Theyhavedone so, and they will do so. At the first
they only required capltcU and skill. The latter is
easily got, as it can be imported, so far as manaoe-
ment goes, and they are acquiring it rapidly. The
former is not so easily got, but they are acquiring
it, and it will be like a snowball — it gathers slowly
at first, but increases more rapidly in proportion
as it augments. They will find that, for a long time
yet to come, capital will pay a grester per centage
expended in manufactures' than if expended on
land. If low priced food and low wages are a
benefit to the English manufacturer, those on the
Continent of Europe have both these benefits in
perfection, and are also e.xempt from excessive
taxation. The masters themselves are more
simple in their manners, and of course live at
less expense than the same class here.

Having now given my opinions and ideas upon
the various subjects connected with the corn laws,
I will sum up the conclusions at which my argu-
ments point.

First, tbat we have grown, and shall continue
to grow, sufficient for home consumption in fair
average seasons, and that we can afford wheat in
such seasons at from 50s. to 5f)s., and other grain
in proportion.

Secondly, that the foreign corn grower cannot
produce corn loicer than this laid down in the
manufacturing districts of England, on account of
their great distance from this market, the in-
effectiveness of their implements of husbandry,
their deficiency in skill and that of their labourers,
their want of capital, and want of good internal
communication in the country.

Thirdly, that these disadvantages are sufficient
to counterbalance their advantages of lower rents,
waoies, and taxes.

Fourthly, that as the principles of the late corn
law and the present one are grounded on the idea
that the only danger to the British landowners will
arise from fair average cro])s at home, of course,
if my conclusions rest on good grounds, the corn
laws may safely be repealed.

Fifthly, that corn laws were never anything but
an injury to the tenant fanners and their la-
bourers.

Sixthly, that all sliding scales arc grounded in
error ; as, however low the duty, when the prices
are high here, this will not affect the prices ; for as
the duty is reduced in England in seasons of
scarcity, so the prices will rise in foreign markets,
and of course all the advantage will go to the'
foreign farmer or corn merchant. Common sense
will tell any one this, andrit only requires facts to
be examined to prove its correctness. Sliding
scales, however easy and graceful, will lead to un-

certainty in the business of corn merchants, but
particularly to importers.

Seventbly, that there are other causes than the
corn laws for the present depression in trade ; for,
according to their own statements, when food is
lowest trade is best, and of course trade is best
when there is the least foreign corn imported;
therefore, corn could not have been taken in ex-
change for goods.

I ground my objections to any corn laws, prin-
cipally, that they lead to everlasting uncertainty
in the affairs of almost every class, by raising or
depressing their expectations above or below par,
and leads to everlasting agitation and ill feeling
between the different classes which ought to go hand
in hand together. Through them men's minds
are always in an unsettled state. Repeal them
and we shall soon know what we are all about.
We could not be worse than we are. If we have
a fixed duty, let it be a low one, of about 4s. per
quarter for the purpose of revenue.

I am yours respectfully,

Wiiiwich, Jan. 2Qlh. W, Rothweli-

A WORD TO THE BRITISH AGRI-
CULTURIST.

If there is ore department of agricultural science
more neglected by the practical farmer than
another, it is tliat of manuring. Chemists have
made calculation after calculation, experiment after
experiment, but all to little or no purpose. The
farmer, I mean the working farmer — him who is a
farmer from necessity — has derived little or no be-
nefit from the host of eminent individuals who have
concentrated their whole attention on agricultural
chemistry. AYhy is this ? Why is it that the great
and all-important discoveries of Davy are still
laughed at by many — paid, but slight attention to
by all ; at least by all those who would reap the
greatest profit from them ? 'Tis true that a wonder-
ful progress has been made in agriculture within the
last few years ; * and much has been done in the
improvement of stock, perfection of machinery,
&c., but very little in the science of manuring. And
the circumstance appears to be still more unac-
countable when we call to mind the fact tliat there
are greater means of improvement in this particular
branch of husbandry than any other; in no other
department are the rudiments so well understood
and so generally circulated as in this. We know
the constitution of every agricultural plant, we have
analyses of all descriptions ofsoils,weare well versed
in the respective compositions of air and water, we
liave abundant means of ascertaining the constitu-
tion of all manures ; indeed, we know and perceive
all but the peculiar operation of the vital principle,
and yet we are daily applying matter to soils in
which a sufhcicncy already exists. Why is all this?
Why is it that in some departments agriculture is
rapidly advancing — in others making no perceptible
progress .' It is unpleasant and by no means the
choice of the writer to give the cause of this ano-
maly ; but " facts are stubborn things," and it be-
comes no one to conceal the truth.

* See Paper by P. Pusey, Esq., Jour.
Agric. Society, Vol. III., Parts 2, .3.

Royal

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

183

It is well known that the improvements which
have heen made in stock, are owing to tlie exertions
oi experimental farmers and tliose wlio farm for
example; independent of which it requires little or
no calculation to improve stock — there are no scien-
tific rules to bo perused and committed to memory
— it can he accomplished as well by a man of medi-
ocre ability, as by one of a high order of intellectual
capacity, provided he has perseverance. It must
not be supposed, therefore, that no credit is due to
those who have by their exertions improved the
breed of any kind of stock. Immortal credit is due
to any one who confers the smallest benefit upon
his fellow creatures; but the purpose is to shew
why our breeds of animals have been so much im-
proved, and another department of husbandry al-
most totally neglected. The cause, then, is that
much in this respect has been done /or the agricul-
turist, and there being little difficulty in what has
been accomplished.

With respect to machinery, in which, perhaps,
the most extensive as well as the most beneficial
results have taken place, it need only be asked,
who take the majority of prizes for machinery at
agricultural prize meetings ? Not farmers, but ma-
chinists. This then speaks for itself: the improve-
ments, the wonderful improvements made in ma-
chines have been brought about by the machine
vendors, and not by farmers. It is readily admitted
that it would be of no avail for Messrs. Ransome,
Garrett, Crosskill, &c., &c. to construct new imple-
ments if the farmer had no disposition to encourage
their laudable exertions ; still, it must be confessed,
that the advance of agriculture in this department
is not owing to agriculturists themselves.

All this puts a different feature upon the question,
since it is obvious that the rapid strides which have
been made, and are now making, in agriculture, are
not to be attributed to the exertions of the working-
farmer. Now, it is no longer unaccountable that
manuring should remain stationary, since it is a
pitiable but undeniable circumstance that three-
fourths of the working agriculturists are men who
rest satisfied with pursuing the customs of their an-
cestors, and who invincibly resist the introduction
of science. Science is a bane to them — the very
word is a nuisance to John Bull.

Then what is this word science, that practical
men seem to be so averse to ? If we refer to John-
son, we find that science is art — a most ridiculous
signification, truly. In the mind of the practical
farmer it is too frequently interpreted to be a sys-
tem of human invention, cunningly devised for the
base purpose of rendering a subject incomprehensi-
ble to any but tlie most learned ; and, truly, when
we see the pains which some professors take to
clothe their thoughts in pedantic phraseology, it is
not surprising that some individuals should arrive at
this conclusion. But the true signification of the
word science is, a knowledge of all that exists, and
of the laws that govern the operations of nature — a
knowledge of matter, things, and systems. What-
ever is done by a system is done scientifically :
nature does nothing, except Ijy the interposition of
nature's God, without a system. A knowledge of
these systems is science, generally ; a knowledge of
any one system is a science. The numerous terms,
the difficult rules, the complicated calculations, the
mysterious analyses, are not the science ; they are
the handles, the guides, the agents which render the
science comprehensible by the human mind, inven-
ted by human beings for that purpose. They are

the channels through which the Newtons, the
Lockes, the Davys, the Liebigs convey the re-
searches of their expansive minds to unborn gene-
rations. If science, then, is a knowledge of the
operations of nature, it must be from some unwhole-
some influence that so many individuals neglect to
profit by it. That influence in the present instance
is prejudice — yes, prejudice — however disagreealile it
may sound to those interested, it is too true ; for what
can it be but prejudice that prompts men to say —
" Our forefathers prospered without science, and
why should'nt we?" What can it be but prejudice
which induces men to believe that the system they
adopt admits of no improvement?

In order to render the question more intelligible,
it may be asked for what purpose do men apply
manure to soils ? Most assuredly to supply a
something which is requisite to the growth of a
plant, and which does not exist in the soil. Then,
as we have the means of ascertaining what portioa
of a plant is supplied from the atmosphere, what
from the rain which falls, and what from the soil,
is it not evident to the most prejudiced that the
slightest exercise of our reasoning faculties must en-
able us to judge with some degree of accuracy what
particular bodies or compounds should be added to
the soil, in order that it may furnish the plant with
due proportions of each of its component materials?
If we once admit the possibility of the above state-
ments—and who can deny that they are rational ?
— we become advocates of science.

But, in order to explain the subject
more clearly, and that there may be no doubt
as to the advantage of calling in the help of
science, in the application of manures — in making
manuring a science instead of an art, we will
imagine an instance which has frequently oc-
curred : — two neighbouring farmers enter upon
the occupation of adjoining farms at the same
time, and it so happens that they have adjoining
fields of three-year-old turf; the soil in eacli field
being composed, as far as ocular examination can
detect, of the same materials. Being old friends
they make no secret to each other of the system
of cultivation they intend to pursue; conse-
quently, being convinced that some application is
necessary to the turf, and having heard that nitrate
of soda has had a beneficial eff"ect upon such crops
in many instances, they each decide on applying
this manure at the same rate per acre, and as
nearly as possible at the same time. The result is,
that a great increase in the crop is produced in
one instance— in the other, no benefit whatever
can be discovered. The consequence is, that the
one individual denounces the use of nitrate of
soda, the other applies it indiscriminately^ in al-
most all cases. Meanwhile, this trifling circum-
stance probably engenders ill feeling between the
two old friends, and all because they cannot dis-
cover (to use the words of an existing agricultural
writer) " a clue to the mystery." The foregoing
is by no means an exaggerated picture of every-
day occurences. This is the consequence of
making manuring an art.

We will now suppose the same case treated sci-
entifically— the parties being fully aware that a
plant cannot abstract that from the soil which does
not pre-exist in it. Their first impulse is either
to submit a portion of the soil to the analytical
examination of an operative chemist, or, being
chemists themselves, to ascertain of what the soil
is composed — the one individual finds it will be

184

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

improved by the materials contained in the nitrate
of sofhi ; the other, not only that this manure will
be useless, but what composition is required ;
now this is manuring i<cientijicalh/—i\\\% is making
manuring a science. The advantage of the latter
system is obvious.

A little consideration will, nevertheless, render
it by no means remarkable that, notwithstanding
the means of making the application of manures a
science have been long placed within reach of
agriculturists, yet that they have been utterly neg-
lected ; since it is generally known that the appli-
cation of artificial fertilizers is comparatively of a
recent date, prior to which ])eriod the evacuations
of animals, combined with decayed vegetable
matter, formed the stnple manure of the country.
Now, farm yard manure, which was the chief ap-
plication, contains every materia! that a plant re-
quires ; hence, if applied in sufficient quantities, it
can never fail. Uut within a few years soils have
been brought into culiivation, and those systems
of farming have been adopted which have com-
pelled the agriculturist to introduce artificial ma-
nures, in order to supply the deficiency of natural.
And, from the circumstance that no artificial ma-
nures have been found (with one or two excep-
tions) to contain every material abstracted from
the soil by plants geneially, it is apparent that
any one artificial manure is insufficient to main-
tain tcrtility in the soil. This renders it impera-
tive upon the agriculturist to call in the assistance
of chemistry, in order that he may be enabled to
comijete with agriculturists in this country and all
others ; for, if the soil requires i)hosphate of lime
to produce a wheat crop, of what possible utility
will it be to apply a manure which does not di-
rectly or indirectly afford that particular matter ?
And who can ascertain by mere ocular observa-
tion whether the manure or the soil contains
phosphate of lime ?

If this problem cannot be solved by looking at
the soil and the manure, what is the course to be
pursued? We must endeavour to ascertain tiie
composition of each, which cannot be done with-
out the help of science. Jt is very well to say,
" science was not necess.iry when my grandfather
or great-grandfather was a farmer." It is very
■well to say at the market dinner-table, " farmers
liave done well without science, and therefore it is
unnecessary." But wc must remember that our
forefathers tilled the richest soil, at a time when
there was no foreign competition, when farming
produce realised almost double its present value,
when receipts were larger and disbursements
smaller, and when they had abundance of farm-
yard manure to preserve the fertility of soil, with-
out resorting to the application of rape-cake, ni-
trate of soda, cum multis aliis. Still it is by no
means extraordinary that farmers of the present
day should be opposed to the application of scien-
tific rules; or, if not opposed to their application,
at least careless in applying them ; for, as they
justly observe, farming has been conducted with-
out Ecience, and they cannot yet perceive the very
different position in which they arc placed, com-
pared with farmers even of the last generation.
The human mind is so subject to the unhealthy in-
fluence of prejudice, that it is no wonder farmers
of the present day should be disposed to follow
with almost invincible determination the customs
of past ages ; yet, however natural it may be that
they should thus act, it must be a source of sin-
cere regret to the enlightened, unprejudiced mind,

that they should thus be heaping up trouble for a
future day. If English farmers would but avail
themselves of English discoveries; if they would
but instantly adopt the sure path of science, in
preference to the uncertain one of art ; if they
would but avail themselves of all the important in-
ventions which are open to them, they would once
more be enabled to compete witVi those who till
the soil in any country on the face of tVie earth.

May they adopt those rules which will make
agriculture a science, before they have cause to
regret their culpable neglect in not doing so, by
the overwhelming and ruinous consequences at-
tendant upon the introduction of the untaxed pro-
duce of more fertile countries.

George Thoimpson, Jun.

Lion Street, Kidderminster,
Feb. 4 th, 1843.

GUANO.

EXTRACTS FROM AN ESSAY, BY MR. J. NAPIER, JUN.,
WHICH OBTAINED A PRIZE ATTHE LATE MEETING
OF THE NORTH DERBYSHIRE AGRICULTURAL
SOCIETY.

From Mr. John IIorncastle, Agent to H. G.
Knight, Esq., M. P.

The Yews, near TickhiU, Aug. 8, 1842.

To Mr. James Napier,

Dear Sir, — I fear you will think me negligent
for not replying sooner to your queries respecting
the Guano, but I have been from home, and other-
wise much engaged, owing to the return of Mr.
Gaily Knight into the country.

I will answer your questions as correctly as I
can, in the order they are put.

The (juantity of Guano we applied, was 4cwt.per
acre, and it was mixed with about an equal quan-
tity (in measure) of wood ashes. It was drilled in
with the turnip seed, the manure of course being
let in a little deeper than the seed. The nature of
the soil is limestone, averaging b or 6 inches deep.
It is oil a hill, and consequently dry. The turnips
were drilled on ridges 21 inches apart. They were
drilled on the Ilfh of June last, when the weather
was very dry. There has not been the slightest ap-
])carance of fly or wire worm, but this observation
will e(iually apply to the remainder of the field,
which has been differently treated. The present
appearance of the crop (Swedes) where the Guano
has been applied, is highly pleasing, the plants be-
ing strong, and of a dark healthy green colour.

The adjoining portion of the field is of the same
nature and quality. The same description of tur-
nip seed was drilled, and part of it the same day,
but instead of Guano and wood ashes, avc put on
good farm yard manure and rape dust.

The ridges were first opened, and about nine one-
horse loads of good rotten manure (per acre) were
spread. The ridges were then closed, and 4^ cwt.
(per acre) of rape dust was drilled in with the
seed. The Guano-tilled turnips came up three or
four days before the others, grew much faster, and
ai'e now nwst decidedly superior; so much so as to
he cosily distinguishable hy a stranger in walking
past. Tlicy have all been cleaned and hoed alike,
and when arrived at maturity, I shall have equal
quantities of land measured, and the bulbs weighed.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

185

I will not speculate upon the eftects to be derived
by the suceeediug- crops, but at present, tlie Guano
is certiilnl// deserving of the preference.

I estimate the cost of one acre, tilled with 4.J cwt.
of Guano and wood ashes, at 4/. 10s., and I consi-
der the quantity and value of the manure and rape
dust to be the same; in both instances of course iii-
cluding an allowance for labour and cxpences.
I am, dear sir, yours very faithfully,

John Horncastle, Jun.

From Tiios. Dunn, Esq.' (Sheflicld Coal Company),
liichinon/l Hill, near Sheffield, July 30, 1842.

To Mr. James Napier,

Sir, — I beg- to acknowledge the receipt of your
note of 2Cth Inst., relative to the trial of (luano,
which I have made on the Colliery Farm, at Birley.
I had S| cwt. of Guano, which I applied on one
acre of land. 1 he Guano was mixed with about
six bushels of wood-ashes, and then drilled along
with the seed. The land is dry, of moderate qua-
lity; the subsoil stony, resting on porous rock.
The depth of the soil about 15 inches. The fallow
was clean, and the whole field in what we call
" good heart," previous to the application of the
manure for the turnip crop.

The ridges are 22 inches apart. The Guano was
drilled with Skirving's seed, which I had direct
from him. The sowing took place ou 12th May,
the land being in beautiful order for the reception
of the seed. The plants came up well, have not
been troubled with the fly, nor yet with the grub,
and at present look as well as possible. The re-
mainder of the same field was sown with the same
seed on 14th of May, having IG tons of good farm
yard manure per acre. The plants came up cquallj'
well, and for tiie first six weeks or two months,
took the lead of the plants where the Guano was
drilled. Now, they are more on aii equality; in-
deed a stranger would have difficulty in deciding
on which part of the field the Gu mo had been nsed.
My own opiuion is, however, that the plants on that
part of the field where farm yard manure was nsed,
will produce the greatest crop. They look, I think,
more vigorous, and form the bulbs better. It is
however, but fair to say, that the cost of dressing
the field where the farm yard manure was used, was
much more than where the Guano was used. I in-
tend to weigh a fair sample of the produce, say in
December, and shall be glad to give you the result.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,

Thomas Ddnn.

From Benjamin Swaffield, Esq., Bailift' to His
Grace The Duke of Devonshire.

Chatsworth Farm, Aug. 10, 1842.
To Mr. J. Napier,

Sir, — Enclosed is the best answer I can give to
the questions touching the Guano, which I hope
will be satisfactory to you, and you have my best
wishes for your success at the approaching meeting.

On the 20th June last, I drilled 3^ cwt. of Guano
mixed with wood ashes, along with the turnip seed
on 2^ acres of land, in ridges 2 feet 0 inches apart.
The weather was then showery. The nature of the
laud is a poor peaty soil ; the subsoil, a yellow clay.
On the other part of the field, I used bones and
rape dust, mixed in the following proportions : —

Bones, 1^ qr. per acre, at 223. per qr.

Rape dust, 1^ cwt. per acre, at 73. Od. per cwt.

and I also applied a small dressing of yard manure
equally over the whole field.

The present appearance of the crop is very equal.

It is an excellent crop, and looking remarkably

healthy. I consider it tlie best crop I ever saw on.

land of the same quality, the land being very poor.

I am, sir, yours respectfully,

BEX.TAMIN SWAFVIELD.

P. S. — I applied \\ cwt. of the Guano on an acre
of eddish as soon as the hay was got, and the iin-
proveiufnt in the eddish is wonderful.

From Tiios. Stanifoiith, Esq., Haekenthorpe.
Haclienthorjje, near Sheffield, Aug. 3, 1842.
To Mr. James Napier,

Dear Sir, — I beg to hand you the following
statement of my trial of the Guano manure, in re-
ply to your application of yesterday.

I drilled the Guano at the rate of 2| cwt. per acre,
(mixed with ashes) with my turnip seed on 1st
June last. The field, which is a two acre one, is of
a strong soil on a stiff clay bottom, and was in good
condition prior to the application of the manure.
On the other half of the field, I drilled bones at the
rate of half a ton per acre, the cost of which was 6/.
per ton. I also applied good fold manure upon the
whole field at the rate of 12 loads or tons per acre,
which I value at full lis. per ton. The plants where
the Guano was applied, are looking better than
those dressed tuith hones, and judging from present
appearances, will, I think, produce a greater weight
of turnips.

I am, dear sir, yours truly,

Thomas Staniforth.

From Mr. Samuel Linley, Haekenthorpe.

Haekenthorpe, Aug. 2, 1842.
To Mr. Napier,

Sin, — I mixed 12 cwt. of Giiano with about four
cart loads of sod ashes, and drilled it in vvitli the
common white and Dale's hybrid turnip on the 24th
June last, at which time the weather was rather
showery. The size of the field is 8 acres, and it is
situate on Birley Common. The land is of a very
thin, poor, and gravelly nature. I drilled the Guano
on about five acres, the drills being 18 inches apart ;
and on the remainder of the field, I used bones (al-
so mixed with ashes), at the rate of half a ton per
acre. The cost of these was 7/. per ton, at Wood-
house Mills. The plants where the Guano was used,
are looking much better and healthier than those
vianured icith bones, and will, I doubt not, produce
a much more abundant crop.

I should also add, that they have scarcely been
troubled in the least by the roire-ioorm, (with
which the land is greatly infested) , whilst the others
have been very much injured thereby.

1 am, sir, yours respectfully,

Samuel Linley.

From Mr. Edward nonsoN,Rirley, near Sheffield.
Birley, Sth mo. {Aui^.) 12, 1842.
Respected Friend, James Napier,— On 23rd of
Gth mo. (June), we mixed 2 cwt. 2 qrs. 17 lbs.
Guano, with asufficient quantity ofsodashes to make
it spread well out of a hopper, and applied it broad-
cast on an acre of land. I then sowed the turnip
seed, (Dale's Hybrid), also broad-cast, and ploughed

186

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the Guano and seed into ridges with a double
mould-board plough, rolling them afterwards with a
light roller.

The cost for the acre, was 2L 7s. 5d.

On three acres adjoining, we applied about 17
cwt. per acre of pulverized bones, and ploughed
them into ridges in the same manner, but sowed the
seed with a drill attached to the plough, and rolled
them also with a light roller.

The cost per acre, was about 21. los. 6d.

Tiie turnips on the Guano are rather thinner, but
in colour, exceed those on the bones. The soil is
of a light nature, on a gravelly subsoil; and the
weather was rather showery before and after sow-
ing. I am, respectfully, thy friend,

Edwakd Hobson.

From Mr. George Woodiiead, Birley.
Birley Common Side, Aug. 12, 1842.
To Mr. J. Napier,

Sir, — The following is an account of my trial of
Guano manure on turnips : — On 20th May, I
drilled it in with Swede turnip seed {unmixed with
ashes), at the rate of 4 cwt. per acre. The weather
was then dry. Rain fell a few days afterwards.
The quantity of land whereon it was applied, is ex-
actly half an acre. The soil is a gravelly loam, on
a subsoil of shaly gritstone. The ridges are 24
inches apart. On the other part of the field I ap-
plied good rotten fold manure, (mixed with a few
ashes), at the rate of 14 loads per acre. I consider
the value of this, to be at the least, 10s. per load or
ton. The turnips dressed with Guano, cnme up a
full week before the others. They have kept the
lead, and at the present time are almost as good
again as the others, both in size and colour. They
have not been in the least affected by grub or wire-
worm, neither did we meet with any in hoeing them,
whereas on those dressed with yard manure I often
destroyed as many as eight or nine wire- worms at
one root.

On a rood of the same field, I also drilled (a fort-
night later than the Swedes), the seed of the Scotch
yellow turnip, with Guano, in the same proportion
as before. They are greatly superior to the re-
mainder of the crop, which was dressed with yard
manure of the same quality, and in like quantity as
the Swedes.

They have never been injured by vermin of any
kind, and are easily to be distinguished by their
size and healthy colour. I have this day, (merely
for the sake of curiosity), weighed a fair average
sized turnip, including bulb and top, from the dif-
ferent parts of the field. The weight is as under : —

lbs. oz.

Swede turnip, dressed with Guano 3 8

Do., do.. Yard Manure 2 2

Present balance in favour of Guano. . 1 6

lbs. oz.
Scotch yellow, dressed with Guano .... 3 'i
Do., do, Yard Manure 1 9

Present balance in favour of Guano. . 1 12

I shall be glad to show the crop to any one who
may wish to see the great benefit derived from the
use of the Guano manure, and am, sir.

Yours respectfully,
George Woodhead.

The result of my own experiment with Guano is
as follows : —

On the lOth of June last, 1 mixed a hundred
weight of Guano with two bushels of wood ashes,
and drilled it with Swede turnip seed on half an acre
of land. The weather at the time of sowing, was
fair, but cool. The land is of a strong nature, rest-
ing upon a subsoil of stift" yellow clay, and is by no
means good turnip land.

The depth of soil is about ten inches, and the
ridges are 24 inches apart.

On the remainder of the field, I used good well-
rotten yard manure, at the rate of 12 tons per acre,
the worth of which I estimate to be about lOs. per
ton. The plants on that part of (he field where the
Guano was used, came up sooner than those whereon
yard manure only was applied, but at first did not
look so vigorous.

Now, however, (Aug. 4th) they are far superior
to the others, and the difference both in size and co-
lour is very apparent. I must likewise mention,
that when we hoed the Guano'd turnips, we did not
find either wire-worm or slug; but in other parts
of the field, and even in the next row to them, we
were much infested by them, and the crop has suf-
fered accordingly.

I also observed during the hot iveaiher we have
lately had, that the ridges containing the Guano
were invariably moist, ivhilst the remainder of the
field was quite parched by the heat. This, I think,
proves its utility in retaining moisture in the soil,
and also its i:)ower of absorption thereof from the
atmosphere. I likewise sowed broad-cast, and
mixed in like manner with ashes, a hundred weight
of Guano, on about the same quantity of land, in a
field of barley, which was so much injured by the
slug, as to convey the idea, that in some parts it
had been left unsown.

In a very few days after this dressing, the eftect
was surprisingly visible. The barley is now so
much improved, as to give every promise of an abun-
dant crop. The ears are well filled, and the straw
is both stronger and taller than that on the remain-
der of the field. James Napier, Jun.

Haclienthorpe, Aug. 4, 1842.

Guano has also been applied with very great suc-
cess to wheat, clover, grasses, potatoes and other
vegetables, as well as to exotic and other i^lants.

The following statement from a correspondent of
the " Gardener's Chronicle," establishes it as a valu-
able manure for all purposes of horticulture.

" As I see many questions in the " Chronicle''
concerning Guano, 1 send you, for the benefit of
your readers, the following observations which I
have made during a period of sixteen or seventeen
months, having used it both in its natural and in a
liquid state. I find the following method of apply-
ing it to succeed best on soil which is of a light sandy
nature, on a red sandstone formation. For peas,
beans, onions, kc, and all other crops for which the
ground is prepared in the autumn, it should be used
at the rate of one pound to four squai'e yards,
(mixed with half its own quantity of wood ashes,
where they can be procured.) When used in spring,
or any other season, it should be well dug into the
ground before planting or sowing, for if seeds come
into contact with it during germination, the stimu-
lus is too strong for them. The cabbage tribe seems
particularly benefited, as it not only promotes their
hixuriancc, but prevents them from clubbing. Our
cauliflowers have this year been very fine, and/re«

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

187

from that pest ; whereas last year they were lite-
rally devoured; and I attribute it entirely to
Guano having been used this year instead of other
manure. I may also mention, for the information
of those who are now troubled with slugs, that if
they will dust the ground now and then with it,
those enemies icill very soon disappear. Potatoes,
turnips, lettuce. Sec, and every thing for which it
has been used as a manure, show its beneficial ef-
fects. When the crops arc gathered, I will send the
comparative weights of the produce of it and other
manures. When used in a liquid state, four pounds
will be sufficient for ten gallons of water ; and in
this way I prefer it for all plants in pots, having
nsed it for cameUias, pelargoniums, and many other
things, with the most gratifying results. I water
with it twice a week. The leaves of the camellias
are dark green, and from their shining appearance,
seem as if they had been washed : they have made
good wood, and show abundance of flower-beds for
the next season. Cucumbers also, w^atered twice a
week with the liquid, assume a healthy green pecu-
liar to Guano. We have cut many this season, 22
inches and 2 feet long, (a cross between Kenyon's
and Walker's) grown at the back of a pipe stove,
and watered as before stated. The pine apple lux-
uriates under similar treatment, and I have now
about forty black Jamaicas, swelling fine fruit,
which I think would not have been half the size,
if they had not been watered with the liquid twice
a week. I may state, that I allow it to stand twelve
hours after mixing, and I prefer using it before it
has stood too long, as it then gives off its ammonia."
The following statement of" the effects of Guano
as a manure," has lately appeared in a number of
" The Cumberland Pacquet." A correspondent of
that journal writes as follows : —

" Having paid considerable attention to the ef-
fects produced by this manure in the different kinds
of crops to which it has been applied in this dis-
trict, I am able to furnish your correspondent with
the information he desires, and also to give him
such respectable references in the names of those
whom I shall mention, as having tested the produc-
tive powers of this manure, as will leave no doubt
upon his mind [with respect to the efficacy of
Guano in the production of grain crops, turnips, &c."
" This year, Guano has been used by the Earl of
Lonsdale, on Monkwray farm, where it has been
applied both to turnips and hay-grass with sur-
prising efficacy. 1 he turnips are a splendid crop,
and the hay-grass was one third more in quantity
than was produced by the same extent of land to
ichich the Guano had not been applied."

" Mr. Todd, of Tarnflat, made an experiment
with this manure, which he applied to barley, oats,
and turnips, and the result has been most 'success-
ful, as his crops, thus favoured with the application
of this manure, will testify."

" ]Mr. Carter, of St. Bees ; Mr. James Fox, of
High Street; Mr. Mossop, of Rottiugton; Mr.
Hodgson, of Low Walton; and a great number of
other spirited cultivators, have also made trial of
Guano this season, and are prepared to prove its ef-
ficacy by a reference to the splendid and luxuriant
crops now growing upon the lands to which it has
been applied. With respect to the qualities of the
soils on which Guano has been tried in this district,
I may at once state that they consist of every va-
riety, in consequence of the application having been
so extensive, and I have not heard of one single
failure on any hind of soil. A correspondent of

last week is anxious to know, if Guano would an-
swer upon cold land in summer fallow for xolieat.
My answer is that it trould, and I ground it upon
the following reasons : — First, it has been found to
answer ujion every variety of soil to which it has
been applied in this district; and in the second
place. Guano is so tenacious of its fertilizing poicers,
that it does not, like some other n\\i.i\aves, lose them
ia one season at least ; for I know a gentleman in
this neighbourhood, who tried the effect of Guano
in 1841 with success, and this year its productive
qualities have exhibited themselves on the same soil
xcithout any fresh application, and xoith undimi-
nished effect. How long this manure will retain
its virtues in the soil after its application, is a
question which time alone can solve ; but it is no
mean circumstance in the way of its recommenda-
tion, to be enabled to state, that for two seasons its
productive qualities have undergone no diminu-
tion."

The following has recently appeared in a number
of the " Liverpool Albion,'' pubhshed in October
last.

" Guano. — We are happy to hear from our agri-
cultural and horticultural friends, that this manure,
which was tried in this neighbourhood last year, for
the first time, with such favourable results, has
again proved itself to be one of the most valuable
manures ever introduced either for field or gar-
den crops. It has been used to a considerable ex-
tent in this county, both in a dry and in a liquid
state ; and in every instance when properlj' ap-
plied, it has answered well for crops of every
kind. It has also been proved to be a lasting
manure ifor very good crops have this year been ob-
tained, without any manure rchatever, from the
land where Guano was appHed,and had given large
crops last year. Our farmers and gardeners have,
no doubt, much to learn with regard to the proper
quantity to be used of this new manure; but, as a
great many experiments have this season been
made with it, we may expect this point will soon be
settled. In this neighbourhood, Guano has been ap-
plied on wheat and other grain crops, and on grass
lands, as a top dressing, at the rate of two hundred
weight per statute acre, with most excellent effect.
For turnips, four hundred weight has been used to
she acre, and given very good crops; and four and
six hundi'ed weight used for potatoes with the same
tuccess. In the gardens and nursery grounds,
Guano has been applied principally in a liquid state,
and in that manner has surpassed every manure
yet discovered. Its effects on young fruit and fo-
rest trees are wonderful ; also upon greenhouse and
hothouse j^lants of every description ; even the exo-
tic heaths, to which manure of any kind has been
considered injurious, seem to flourish beyond all
precedent when watered with it. About four pounds
to twelve gallons of water are enough for the liquid.
The water should stand twenty-four hours before
use ; and when drawn off, twelve gallons more may
be put to the same Guano."

Agricultural Statistics, — The total

number of horned cattle in the United Kingdom is es-
timated at 7,000,000, and the total number of sheep at
32,000,000. Valuing the first over-head at I0l.,nn(l
the last at 25s., both together will give a total value of
110,000,000.— Manchester Guardian.

188

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

LANDLORD AND TENANT.

PnESENT State and future Prospects of Agricul-

TURE, AS RE1.ATES TO LANDLORD AND 'J'eNANT, AND
AS AEFECTINC; THE COMMUNITY AT LARGE. AD-
DRESSED TO THE Land-owners of England — Bv
" A Tenant Fahmeu."

Mv Lords and Gentlemen — For a long series of
years, wliellier in peace or war, the loyalty and de-
votion of tbe tenantry of England to the interests of
tlieir country, have never been called in question,
and scarcely less proverbial has been their fidelity
to you, whose lands they have so greatly improved.
Hitherto in times ot civil commotion, whether from
Ludditeism, Chartism, uicendiurism, or whatever else
may have threatened the peace of the country, your
tenants have come at your bidding, and enrolled
tiiemselves as peace-ofiicers for the protection of
your persons and property. In more modern times,
a strong current has also set in in the populous dis-
tricts against your interests ; by the aid of your te-
nantry, you have successfully repelled those attacks,
and that aid has been rendered not more, we think,
from interest than principle. The more intelligent
of vour tenantry looking at the peculiar circum-
stances of the countrv, since the commencement of
tbe French war, tbe manner in which the debt and
consequent taxation has influenced the price of land-
morigages, and all other contracts relating to the
soil of the country have, (in their opinion) rendered
security to tbe domestic markets necessary, by the
wise policy of jirotecting laws ; and (his they have
thought not merelv beneficial to agriculture, but
also conformable, permanently, to the best interests
of tbe country. So far, then, you have doubtless
taken with you a largo portion of tbe more enlight-
ened of the tenantry of tlie country ; besides which
they have been wont to regard their interests as mainly
identified witli your own. It would he idle, how-
ever, now to deny that recent events have jiroduced
a most fearful reaction in the minds of the tenantry
at large, without any reference to party politics ; tbe
identity of interests is doubted, and that of sympathy
for your tenants in many instances denied.

Facts are stubborn things, and it cannot be dis-
puted that within two short years one-fourth at least
of the entire property of the tenantry of the country,
as far as it was invested, in tbe live and dead farm-
ing stock, and cropping of the farm, has been com-
pletely swept away, and that not from disastrous
seasons or providential visitations.

I do not say that Sir Robert Peel and his coad-
jutors have been tbe wholesale plunderers'. I leave
that point for others to settle ; all I know is, that
tlie veri) men who could never assemble in the com-
pany of agriculturists two years ago, without anatlie-
mutising the Whig Radical Government (as it was
called), and calling upon tbe firmers to l^etition —
J*etition — Petition! at the late autumnal meetings,
liave been horror-stricken at the very name of t)oli-
tics. " For God's sake, don't introduce jiolilics !''
and the old cry of Petition — Petition — Potiiion!
has been superceded by " Cultiiate — Cultirate —
Cultivate !" There can be no mistake as to what
this means — " The profits of you tenants are gone,
that is quite certain; and, by Jove 1 if you abate
one iota of cultivation our rents must go too."

My Lords and Gentlemen — I appeal to you. Is
this the treatment that the tenantry of En';land de-
serve at your hands? That there are, however,
amono' you many noble minded and generous men
who will honourably meet any emergency I do not

for a moment question, but it is useless to deny
that the representatives of the farming districts
stand convicted before the tenantry of the country,
and you must not imagine that this great political
dishonesty can go unpunished.

Henceforth you may retain the homage of a vassal,
but not that ot a bold, honest-hearted yeoman!

These observations, I am aware, more or less
partake of party : but it is not on that account I
introduce them ; the main object of this letter is to
bring before the public a subject too big for party,
and one in which the very best interests of the coun-
try are involved — it is the Law of Landlord and
Tenant, as affecting the community at large.

My Lords and Gentlemen — You are accused by
large bodies of people in the more j)opulous districts
of holdmg exclusive privileges. Tuis angry feel-
ing, I believe, is not at all confined to the question
of Corn-laws ; (hat question settled, the rancour
would remain. You iiave made a large number of
electors by the 50/. clause of the Reform liill, who
cannot independently exercise their elective fran-
chise; besides which it is a fact, which cannot be
controverted, that while large portions of the com-
munity have been suffering great privations, your
property has been ascendant. This is easily ac-
counted for, and it is time now that the truth
should come out. The despotic (not to say dis-
honest) principle, on which much of the laud has
been let in England for a series of years l>y ihe
wretched tenant-at-will system, enables the land-
lord to put in his pocket by far the greater part
of all the tenant's imjirovements. By the statute
law of the land the tenant is punished ibr dilapi-
dations; but it affords him no protection as to his
ioaprovemonts. Let the tenant only farm high, by
the purchase of manures, by draining and marling
his land, or by any other ameliorations, however ex-
pensive, and in six short months a needy, avari-
cious landlord may pounce upon those improve-
ments, and make them his own.

Nor am I writing at random. I can name farms
(if called upon) in the county of Bedford — and
there are doubtless thousands elsewhere — where
the tenants thirty or about thirty-one years ago,
sold a waggon load of wheat for upwards of 70/.
On the same farms they have been compelled
during the present winter to sell the like quantity
and quality for about 30/., while the rent of the
farms, are from ten to fifteen per cent, higher now
than at the former period, Awrf tins lohen no part of
the improcements have been made by the landlord.
No wonder then that such landlords should call
ont,^' Cultivate! cultivate! cultivate!" This state
of things, followed as it has been hy the recent
loss of projjerty among the tenantry, added to their
total inability to employ our redundant population,
caimot but have produced the most serious heart-
burnings in the country. The labourers will not,
nor ought they to be allowed to, starve or to be
penned up in district workhouses. The great in-
crease of incendiary fires is seriously ominous !
Landlords of England, look on these things ! I do
not wish to alarm your fears so much as to awaken
you to a sense of justice and sympathy. The
competition for farms deceives you. The truth is,
farmers increase, while the average of the country
remains stationary ; and, for the most part, they
have no alternative but to hire on your own terms,
or (regardless of friends and kindred) leave the
country, and try their fortunes in foreign lands.'?
You have, however, the remedies for your country's

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

189

ills very largely within your own reach ; aud if you
have not honcfity ami patriotism enough to adopt
theui, you vimt Iniow icliere the rcsponsibUitij rests.
Let tlie first acts of the sessions of 1843 be such as
shall enable you to stand erect before the country.
First, regardless of all party considerations, re-
peal so much of the 50/. clause of the Reform Hill
as relates to tenants-at-icill. It imposes a respon-
sibility on the tenant, and gives a despotic power
to the landlord, botli totally at variance witli the
spirit of the Britisli constitution. It is not in this
point, however, that I have to deal with it; in its
operation upon the condition of the tenantry and
upon cultivation, it is infinitelj' worse It imposes
a great barrier to tlic granting of leases, reduces
the tenant to a mere state of vassalage ; giving him
comparatively but little interest in the future, it
dams up the sources of employment, and conse-
quently greatly retards improvements.*

The second point — and that which I regard as
fraught with the greatest benefits to the country-
is some amelioration of the law of landlord and
tenant. In a short but comprehensive act com-
prising few words, all that is wanted might be
accomplished. Talic the following as a rough
draft, and ivnprove it all you like, but do not
damage it.

Whereas the population of the United Kingdom
seems to be rapidly outgrowing the ordinary capa-
bilities of the soil for its maintenance ; and, more-
over, it being vastly important for the better em-
ployment of her Majesty's dutiful and loyal sub-
jects in the rural districts, as well for the happiness,
wealth, and independence of the United Kingdom,
that all obstructions should be forthwith removed,
and full scope given to the employment of the
capital, skill, and enterprise of the agriculturists.
Be it therefore enacted by lier Majesty's special
command, with the consent of the Lords Spiritual
and Temporal, and the Commoners of the United
Kingdom in Parliament assembled, that from and
after the passing of this act, any farmer being a
tenant-at-will, or under a lease for a less term than
twelve years. It shall and may he lawful on such
tenant receiving a notice to quit from his landlord,
to call in a valuer, and to give notice to the land-
lord to appoint a person on his part to meet such
valuer, to assess the amount of compensation that
shall be due to the tenant for any improvements he
shall have made during his occupancy, the full
benefit of which he shall not have received — any
lawful claims of the landlord for dilapidations and
mismanagement to be deducted : the decision of
such valuers or their umpire to be final.

And when the act is passed, you may call it, if
you please, the Farmers' " Magna Charta."

It is quite clear that the landlord who wishes to
hold his tenant in a state of vassalage, and imme-
diately grasp his improvements, will demur to such
a piece of even-handed justice. There are those
however in the country who would doubtless spurn
to avail themselves intentionally of what in com-
mon justice must belong to the tenant. The late
Duke of Bedford, to wit, once said to a tenant of

* I am frank to admit however that this clause
of the Reform Bill, seemed but a fair balance of
power against the 10/. borough voters, but descending
down to tenants-at-will in its operation it is most
mischievous ; such a person under a lease may
exercise bis elective franchise with some degree of
independence — a teoant-at-will cannot.

his — " That the law of landlord and tenant doubt-
less required revision, and he hoped to live to see
the day when it should be accomplished." That
generous and truly patriotic nobleman, however,
did not live to see it accomplished.

The importance of some such measure is not
fully seen at the first glance. Among some of the
benefits which would accrue the following may be
enumerated.

It would greatly conduce to the granting of long
leases, giving the tenant a sort of co proprietorship
in the lands; raise him in the scale of society;
inspire confidence in the outlay of capital ; secure
the em])loyment of an otherwise redundant popula-
tion ; and provide food in our own country for
almost an indefinite increase of mankind.
Apologising for the length of this letter,

1 remain, your very obedient servant,

The Bedfordshire Reporter.

P.S. I know it may be objected that in these
changing times no one knows how to hire land on
a lease. A lease for land ought however, at any
time, to contain a clause enabling a tenant to vacate,
providing any great de|)reciation of farm produce
should be effected by legislative enactments. It is
time, however, this system of plunder ivas put an end to.
If further concessions are to be made, it would be
infinitely better to do it once for all, at whatever cost.
Tbe writer however hns no hesitation in saying, let
whoever may live to see it, e.xtreme low prices for
any lengthened period, in the circumstances of this
country, cannot f:iil to prodiice tbe most serious
convulsions. Had Sir Robert Peel stopped in his
alteration of duties on wheat, it might have been
well ; to blast everything the farmer grows was
entirely uncalled for.

AGRICULTURE AND COM-
MERGE.

lO THE EDITOR OF TUE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — A subscriber, I send for your consideration
a letter, which I trust you will insert in your paper
and magazine, believing it to contain views of the
utmost importance, in themselves essentially cor-
rect, and, at the present juncture, peculiarly ap-
propriate.

We see agitation on every side, the consequence
of embarrassment and conflicting interests; we
hear discussion, and yet the questions in dispute
seem at best but imperfectly understood. The
rival claims of the two great classes of agriculture
and trade furnish the matter of debate ; and al-
though the interests of any two classes in a commu-
nity should, in a well-regulated state of things, not be
directly at variance with each other, these evidently
are so, and reconciliation is apparently almost im-
practicable. With much declamation on the sub-
ject, however, the case is yet never fairly stated
between them — the real difficulty never fairly
met.

Now, what is the actual position, what the sup-
posed interests of the respective parties ? A
question this, whose answer fairly stated, would
obviously indicate as well the true state of the case,
as the course to be followed in our present emer-
gency.

" Repeal of the Corn Laws," on the one band,

190

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

" No Repeal," on the other ; such at the present
moment ai'e the respective party claims.

The English manufacturer demands " Repeal,"
in other words, he demands cheap provisions, and
he thus argues : 1. Wages will inevitably fall to
the price of the necessaries of life. 2. A low priced
manufactured article will give a profit at low wages,
■which same article would be ruinous at high
ones. 3. England is heavily taxed directly and
indirectly. The English manufacturer, therefore,
demands " Repeal," because he has to compete in
the market with a foreign merchant, who enjoys the
advantages of cheap provisions and light taxes.
He complains, and justly, of the corn laws being
injurious to trade; but when he assumes them to
be a monopoly existing for the benefit of the land,
at the expense of the rest of the community, he is
manifestly wrong, inasmuch as the farmer does in
uo degree pocket the proceeds.

He demands corn laws, i.e., protection, not for
his own private interest, but because heavily taxed
he has to compete, at great odds against himself,
with the foreign agriculturist. In a word, he re-
quires protection against foreign competition. But
to put his case in the clearest possible light : sup-
pose a farm, subject to certain money payments,
rent, &c., convert the several sums into their equi-
valent bushels of wheat, at the respective rates of
8s. or protection, and 6s. or no protection — the
figures 8 and 6 being assumed for illustration sake
— free trade would not give him 5s. per bushel.
Precision of figure is here, however, of less conse-
quence than the presenting a comparative result in
bushels of wheat, instead of pounds of money.
Farm . . 200 acres.

Bush, of Wheat Bush of Wheat
£ at 8s. per hush. at6s. per bush. Difference.

Rent . . 300 .... 750 1000 250

Taxes . . 30 .... 75 100 .... 25

Rates .. 36 90 120 .... 30

366 915 1220 305

Tithes 60/. with the standard of wheat fixed by law
at 7s. per bushel, also a 20 per cent, depreciation of
stock.

Omitting the depreciation of his stock, what, in
the case of repeal, shall give the English farmer the
extra 305 bushels of wheat necessary to make up
the same sum total in money? Improved system
or science? Can the farmer with diminished re-
ceipts afford expensive artificial manures, or costly
machinery, or superior stock? No; the very means
of improvement are taken from him. But, says
the free trader, all things are reduced alike ; the
farmer on the whole will be no loser. Evidently
the receiver of a fixed income will be no loser ; on
the contrary, he will be a gainer to the amount of
the reduction, as prices will have fallen 25 per cent,
while his money income will remain the same.
With the farmer, however, it is not so : his main
outgoings are his fixed payments — rent, tithe, taxes,
rates. In wages really he can save nextto nothing,
though nominally he reduces them ; he pays them
in bushels of wheat, and his labourers already are
reduced to the barest necessaries of life. His ex-
penditure in his other matters is but small, at least
the savings on these can be but trifling. If liis
great money payments remain nearly the same,
even the present modified duty will, with every
economy on his part, scarcely support him ; but
total repeal would annihilate rent.

The interests, then, of the two classes are rival,
and in existing circumstances irrcconcileable.

Why is repeal essential to the existence of our
foreign trade ; M'hy destructive to English agri-
culture?

The whole resolves itself into a question of
taxation.

Supposed all nations taxed alike, there would be
comparatively but little need for prohibition or
protection ; but in our artificial state, heavily taxed
as we are, protection against the lightly taxed for-
eigner is absolutely necessary ; or our home interests
are ruined. To enable us to bear the immense
taxes imposed on us, prosperity, in other words
highprice, is necessary ; and then here is our
dilemma, with high prices at home, our foreign
demand gradually ceases, and of course distress of
trade ensues ; with low price at home, the pressure
of our fixed burdens is at once acutely felt, and we
have immediately the cry of distress ; and if to
relieve trade we lower the farmer, we do bat in-
volve him in tlie dithculty, and also to the same ex-
tent injure our home market. And extension of
trade is not the panacea the free trader would have
us believe. We want remunerating prices as well
as extension. Now, the official returns of our ex-
ports and their value, prove beyond doubt, that
depreciation has at length taken place to the extent
of nearly one half; in other words, our trade has
been forced at any sacrifice. Hitherto improved
machinery, together with gradual reduction of
wages, has supported the profit of the employer —
until at length machinery has gone abroad, giving
the foreigner in that respect an equality with our-
selves— and the English price of the necessaries of
life will admit of uo further reduction of the misera-
ble artizan. Hence the cry for cheap corn ; hence
the Anti-Corn Law League. With what justice to
the farmer, however, the demand for repeal can be
made, is, I trust, made evident ; certainly justice to
the artizan can form no part of the argument in its
favour.

The only just course would be for the English
farmer to pay his landlord, the state, and his local
taxes in bushels of wheat, instead of pounds of
money. As he receives so let him pay, and then
he would not object to repeal ; price to him in such
case being of no consequence. But to compel him
to pay the same sum of money with depreciated
produce, is at least as much a breach of national
faith as Sir J. G.'s proposed 30 per cent, reduction
of the interest of the debt. Such proposition is
obviously equivalent to a reduction of taxes, which,
so says the deficient revenue, cannot be collected
with the great interests of the country steadily
declining.

Is such reduction unjust? Where is the injustice
of cutting down our expenditure to our means ; of
leaving in the hands of the toiling labourer enough
of his hard earnings to furnish him with daily
bread ? Is reduction necessary ? The state of the
country affords a sufficient answer. Of that state
the falling revenue is a marked index, pointing as
it does for its cause, to the dreadful privation, the
norrid suffering which must, which does exist ; con-
firming too, as that deficiency does, the statements
of the " Sanitory Report ;" a confirmation shocking
to Christian, to common humanity, subversive of our
claim to superior civilization, and yet desirable (if
the reality be, as it is, true) as furnishing the most
imperative call for earnest and honest consideratiou
for prompt remedy.

And the suff'ering, the difficulty, is now not con-
fined to the lowest, it pervades to a great extent the
middle classes also ; meanwhile the shocks to ere-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

191

dit are becoming more dangerous, the condition of
our labouring class more brutalized, all together
threatening to involve the general interests of the
country in one common ruin. Once again, what is
the remedy ? Temporizing, inasmuch as it deals
only with detail, leaving the cause untouched, must
ultimately fail. Sir R. Peel nevertheless hopes, by
the revision of old and the imposition of new taxes,
to make up the deficiency, and so meet the diffi-
culty of his position. His hope has proved, will
pi'ove, to be fallacious ; he can but shift the burden
from one shoulder to the other, if the burden itself
remain the same. What is that burden ? Fifty
millions of state taxes, more than twenty more of
local taxes for the church, the poor, &c. Seventy
millions! can there be no saving in any of the
various items of this monstrous total ? Are there
no unnecessary offices, no overpaid services ? Can
wc much longer aflbrd such expence.s ?

Witb retrenchment the corn laws, any monopoly,
may be repealed, and yet all classes flourish, and
then England would take equal, if not vantage
ground. Without retrenchment, skill and force
may do much to delay, but they cannot prevent
national bankruptcy.

Jan., 184.3. J. B. I. N.

Amongst the most useful of modern inventions,
the doctrine of chances, as applied to assurances
on lives and survivorships, stands undoubtedly
pre-eminent. Tlie certainty with which the dura-
tion of human life is now ascertained, renders this
mode of providing for a family the most eligible
of any, to individuals whose incomes are depend-
ant on their personal exertions ; and whose fami-
lies, deprived by sudden death of their natural
protector, would be often y^lunged into misery, did
not the salutary provisions of life assurance fur-
nish a means by which, on llie investment of small
annual contributions, the future comfort of those
most cearly loved and fondly cherished is ren-
dered certain, safe, and permanent. Yet, little
more than two generations have passed away,
since, instead of a graduated scale of premium,
so arranged that each age shall pay its own risk,
every age was insured at the common premium of
five per cent. ; and the eslablisiimenls trading on
life risks were tenacious of speculating even at that
exoibitant rate of premium. Dr. Hailey and M.
de Moivre were the first on the continent vvlio at-
tempted to apply a graduated scale, fixing the ra-
tio of decline in human life ; which attempts stimu-
lated the ingenuity of our own countrymen to
apply the new theory to the actual decrement of
life, as furnished by the London Bills of Mortality;
and Mr. Simpson gave rules for constructing tables
of expectation, which were improved on by the
celebrated Dr. Price, and afterwards perfected by
the talented secretary of the Equitable Society,
Mr. Morgan, who has tince applied the doctrine of
chance to almost every variety of contingency
incidental to man in a state of society. Stiii with
the fear which naturally governed these specula-
tions, before experience had convinced the framers
of schemes of life assurance that their principles

and doctrines were perfectly sound, the conduc-
tors of the Equitable Insurance Society set apart
a reserve fund to provide against the period wlien,
according to Dr. Price's suggestion, a maximum
of decrement would bring on a maximum of
claims, and the immense profits attendant on their
speculation may be fairly inferred from the fact of
tiiis reserve fund having accumulated to nearly 20
millions of pounds sterling. Added to this, almost
all the old companies admit the fact of their scale
of premiums being too high, by allowing their in-
surers a sliare of profits, not exceeding two-
tliirds; and even with this allowance thrown back,
the various offices continue to realize capital,
though it must be confessed at the expense very
often of many praiseworthy insurers struggling
througii difficulties to make a provision for the
future well-being of their families; who, by being
called on to pay more than the risk actually de-
mands, are frequently deprived of present com-
forts while they are not able to realize commen-
surate benefits in the future. Many of the pre-
miums in the older establishments are notoriously
20 per cent, in excess. Thus the insurer who
wishes to invest savings out of his present income
sufficient to secure a thousand pounds on his
death, is obliged to pay one-fifth more than the
office has a right to demand. Now, though this
does not appear to make any difference in the end,
in cases wlierein the insurers are entitled to share
profits, it will be found to operate most grievously
when the policy of insurance is held as a security.
For here the insurer is taxed far beyond his just
proportion, while another takes the profits to which
the excess of premium he has paid fairly en-
titles him. Besides, the office taking one-third of
the accumulated premium as its own share of the
profit, the debtor who has given a policy of in-
surance, by way of collateral security, is thus de-
prived of the whole 20 per cent, for the benefit of
parties who can have no just claim to the sacrifice.
Prudence, therefore, should dictate to individuals
who may haveoccasion to ensure their lives, whether
for investment, security, or otherwise, to seek out
establishments whose scale of premium is as low
as is consistent with the guarantee of the sum
assured, both as furnishing the most certain, be-
cause the least onerous mode of paying the pre-
mium, and preventing the accumulation of undue
profit in the iiands of liie company. We repeat
that companies, trading on calculated results, from
the experience of the Equitable Society, might
even reduce the premiums of the older offices, in
some cases 2.') per cent., and yet retain in their
hands a sufficient remunerating profit. Life
assurance will be found highly beneficial to per-
sons having offices, employments, estates, or in-
comes which cease and determine with their
lives ; move especially to clergymen, physicians,
lawyers, and persons holding pensions for life, as
it enables them to secure a sum to be paid at
their decease to their families or representatives ;
it is also useful to persons holding offices, leases,
Sec. during the lives of others, as by the same
means they may secure themselves from the loss
which they would otherwise sustain by the death

192

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of sucli persons. But wliile prudence dictates
tite necessity of life assurance to individuals so
situated, it imperatively calls on tliem to seek out
sucli oftices as will at tlie least possible diminu-
tion of their present income guarantee tliem tlie
exact sum required, instead of continuing to pay
an excessive premium for a sliare in profits, tiie
principal part of wliicli must find way into llie
pockets of the company, and not into those of the
insurer.

FOUR LETTERS ON THE PLANT-
ING OF FOREST TREES.

TO THE EDITOn OF THE MARK-LANE EXPRESS.

Letter I.
ON THE PREPARATION OF THE SOIL.

Sin, — Conflicting opinions Laving; recently ap-
peared, and those too of distinguished wiiters,* as
to the necessity and advantai;e of previous prepara-
tion of the soil for planting, it seems requisite to
say a few words with the preliminary object of
clearing away the doubt that such a discussion
must raise, upon tiie very threshold of the subject,
in the minds of those who have not proved the fact
for themselves. Indeed it would be practically
absurd to enter upon the directions and details of
a step, the total necessity of which was disputed.
But we hope this question maj' be easily set at
rest.

The writer who maintains (upon experience) that
a young plantation vfill thrive as well as it is possi-
ble for it to do, without the previous double digging
or trenching of the soil, is either speaking of land
too oood to plant (except as may be required for
ornament, or particular purposes unconnected with
profit), or else he asserts what common experience
contradicts. In fact the question as to the amount
of preparation required, is a mere question of dif-
ference of soils. If the soil be deep, rich, and
loamy, giving free percolation to the surface-water,
the expense of double digging, trenching, or subsoil
ploughing, is obviously unnecessary, though the
additional oxygenation of the soil occasioned by
them cannot but do good. But where, as in the
great majority of land to be planted, we have to
deal with a thin-skinned piece of ground eitber too
light or too heavy for profitable cultivation ; or a
piece ot recently inclosed common land ; or the side
of a hill ; or any rough nook or corner of land, over-
grown with furze, ling, heather, fern, thistles, net-
tles, or any such gipsey-like occupants of neglected
territory — there can be no more doubt of the extreme
advantage, if I mav not say necessity, of previous
preparation of the kind above-mentioned for profit-
able planting, than there is of the use and value of
man's labour upon any other of the various forms of
matter which nature has thrown ' in the rough '
before his industry and skill. In a word, common
sense bids us so to prepare a middling or bad soil
as to approximate as nearly as art can do to the
character and qualities of a good one ; and, of

* Mr. Selby on the one side ; Mr. Withers of
Norfolk, Mr. Shaw, Mr. Johnson, and the Editor
of the Mark Lane Express, on the other.

course, in proportion as the soil already possesses
by nature tlie qualities desired, so will it demand
less from human labour. If, however, it may be
assumed that really good soils are not those usually
or properly devoted to forest planting, I do not
hesitate to lav it down as an unassadable general
principle, that deep cultivation, either by the spade
or the plough, is an absolute essential to the best,
and I mean by that the most profitable, planting.

But then the exjjense! Here is the stone against
which several reasonable and practical-seeming
writers have stumbled. And men who would think
nothing of a year's naked fidlovv, with Heaven Jcnows
how many plougl.ings and harrowings, with liming,
manuring, and the loss of a year's rent, as the i)re-
paration (or a crop of wheat — put their bands into
their pockets, and look wise and prudent about the
expense of a double digging or double ploughing
for a crop, not of one year, but of centuries.

A piece of ground is about to be made woodland.
The question is, shall it be made good woodland
once and for ever, by an outlay of 4L or 5/. nn acre?
or shall it be made a waste of stunted stag-beaded
oak — mossy, coarse, unhealthy-looking ash — thin,
straggling, feathery larch — getting worse and worse
every year as their roots got deeper into the hard,
weeping subsoil of a wet clay, or the dry and hun-
gry substratum of an uncultivated sand? Which
shall it be ? The future produce of the latter may be
worth from half-a-crown to five shillings an acre per
annum, the former from fifteen shillings to a guinea.
When you have taken your choice, _i/o" haiie taken it
for ever; because you cannot recultivatc the soil in
winch your trees are growing. If you make an error,
it is the error of a hundred years. And do not
imagine, as one writer has done,* that two feet
depth of double-dug soil is only an improvement
pro taiito, i. e., until the roots of the trees get deeper.
For it is a most important truth in arboriculture, that
the vigour and health imparted to the tree by free
growth when young, will give it root-strength to
overcome almost every difficulty of soil and situation
afterwards : besides, that ash, the most profitable
perhaps of all, seldom penetrates deejjly into the
soil ; and the deeper the soil is looseued, the sooner
the roots of the oak and other deep growing trees
get out of its way, and both species are enabled to
grow healthily nearer to cacli other, causing thereby a
greater crop on the given space. In fiict, whatever
may be asserted oe denied as to the importance and
value of deep cultivation for annual crops, it is im-
possible to say too much in its fixvour as a necessary
preparation for trees, whether for grove plantations
or coppice, a description of cro]) which when once
S('w» will show, and that irrevocably and irremeduMy,
during the life of the planter, and for generations
afterwards, results corresponding with the due pre-
paration of the soil to which it was committed.

Now the roots of the sapling of any forest tree
have this advantage over the annual crops of the
farmer and the gardener, viz., that from their hardier
and more permanent nature they will more readily
betake themselves to active growth, in soil or sub-
soil well broken u]), which (to use a farmer's phrase)
" never saw daylight before." Double digging,
therefore, by which the upper layer of soil, with »11
the coarse vegetable matter in and upon it, is effec-
tually buried, and the subsoil exposed at the top, is

* Sir Walter Scott— a great novelist and a great
planter, but whose fame survives better in Lis novels
than Lis plantations.

THE FARMER'S MACA/INE.

193

not oiilv a safe but perliaps the best inetbod of pte-
paratioii. If any things be added lo stimulate early
{jrowtij, lime is preferable to oiber manures, because
its effect upon the coarse and raw soil thus super-
imposed, is both more specific, and more lasting.
Every subsoil contains more or loss of metallic salts
and of crude unoxydised earths, both of which are
cliemicall_v acted on, and corrected by lime, which
in this case cannot be applied loo hot. Its operation
upon inert vegetable matter is stil! more familiar to
all: and lime having a tendency to deaceiid, and be
carried into the subsoil by rain, operates upon the
buried vegetable soil, at the very time when the
hidden treasures of this layer are required for the
extending roots of the young trees. If mixed in
the course of the work, with the subsoil thrown to
the top in double-digging, it will be found the best
and most permanent, as well as generally the cheap-
est application that the planter can use. It particu-
larly favours the growth of the beech and the Spanish
chesnut. It would be well, if convenient, that this
operation should be performed about six months be-
fore the setting of the plants: early in spring, for
instance, with the view of October planting.

But in stiff or wet land, or ground that lies low,
a thing, if possible, still more important than double-
digging, is the cutting of deep, open drains. This is
an advantage peculiar to plantations and coppice:
because not an inch of ground is lost, and the drain-
age far more perfect than even the best tile-drain-
ing will afford. They should be cut at least three
feet deep, and this may be done between rows of
trees not more than live feet apart.

It is difficult to overstate the advantages of these
drains : for, besides the principal object of them,
viz. the getting rid of stagnant surface water, the
soil thrown out adds consideiably to the depth of the
adjoining land : and they contribute to loosen the
whole of the ground, by allowing of greater lateral
expansion, which even in the stiffest soils, the planter
will soon observe to be taken advantage of. By
means of them more air is admitted to the soil, and
stagnant gases and moistuie released. The freedom
thus afforded to the spread of the minute fibres of
the roots, is of incalculable benefit, years and years
after the most deeply broken soil would have set to
almost its original hardness.

These open drains, or " grips,'' maj' be made from
20 to 30 feet apart, according to the wetness and
tenacity of the soil : and as this work can be better
judged of when finished than double-digging, it
may safely be set by the perch oi rood for job-
work. 1 have found, and consider it of such im-
portance, that in soils of the above description, I
should never think of planting without it. 'J'o
prove its importance, let the planter only try the
experiment of making some deep open cuttings,
80 directed as to carry off the water, wherever
bad patches are observable in wood and coppice:
the good effect will be reniarked, even after one
summer's growth. I have recovered a great deal
in this manner : indeed it is the only remedy that
may be said to be applicable to plantations already
growing. And in large tracts, where, perhaps,
double-digging might be out of the question, one
deep ploughing, followed by deep open drains, at
about 30 feet apart, and the soil out of them spread
and broken over the adjoining " lands," is as good
and effectual a preparation as circumstances will
sometimes admit of. But let the planter ever bear
in mind that the preparaiion of ground for trees is a
thing which when done is done once for all. When
the roots have once begun to travel in a networic

through the ground, it is too lalo to regret the mis-
chief which original neglect of cultivation soon be-
gins to show. Truly is the motto in this case appli-
cable,

" DimidiamJ'acit qui bene capit, hahel."

I remain, Sir, your very obedient servant,

MiSLJiTOE,

LETTER II.
THE CHOICE OF PLANTS.

Sin, — The preparation of the ground being com-
pleted, our next consideration will be, what descrip-
tion of trees to plant.

The number of those which are found in prac-
tice most profitable is not great. The ash, larch,
Spanish chestnut, oak, elm, and birch, with the
hazel, alder, and withy, seem to comprise all which,
for the purpose of mere profit and a ready sale,
would occur to the planter in ordinary situations
and cases. Second to these in point of value, but
not therefore to be excluded, even where ornament
and diversity of effect may be disregarded, I would
name the beech, lime, abele-poplar, wych-elm,
maple, locust (rob'min pseud-acacia), and walnut,
with the spruce and silver firs. And thirdly, as
chiefly for ornament and variety, the plane-syca-
more and tulip, hornbeam, mountain-ash, horse-
chestnut, copper-beech, black-walnut, holly, and
box, with the cedar, Scotch fir, and yew-tree.

The order in which I have named them will seem
arbitrary ; but botanical arrangement being out of
the present question, I have endeavoured to do so
as nearly as possible in reference (taking one dis-
trict with another) to facility of sale and private
use.

To the ash I have given the very first place ;
and few I believe will now dispute its precedency.
The rapidity of its growth, its specific utility for
a variety of purposes answered by no other wood,
and the consequent steadiness of demand and high
l^rice, give it an importance less affected by season,
situation, or circumstance, than any other tree.
As coppice it will flourish even in soils where it
would never become fine timber; which I have
never seen it do in a subsoil of coarse, hard, or
wet clay. Wherever this is the case, it is useless
to plant it for timber without double digging.
Indeed it is only in the best soils that this tree
will come to perfection without it. So much does
it shun all contact with a hard unbroken subsoil,
that its roots will travel far and wide, scarcely a
couple of inches below the surface, in search of
vegetable mould. Well, therefore, may the farmer
regard it with dislike when planted for hedge-row
timber ; though a clean harked and healthy aj)'
jieai-ance of it, in that character, is perhaps one
of the best letters of credit that the land can offer
to a new comer. A foe to the plough while living,
it is however its best friend afterwards. Mr. Selby
speaks in the highest terms of its beauty; but I
confess that even during its brief term of foliage,
and without considering its late bloom and early
unpicturesque decay, it seems to me far behind the
Spanish chestnut, oak, elm, or beech, in this point.

The value of the larch, after the struggle of more
than half a century, is at last understood. From a
peculiarity in the deposition of its woody fibre at
each year's growth, it is almost unique in its com-
bination of lightness with strength, durability, and
longitudinal bearing. Oa this account it is pecu-

O

194

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

liarly suitable for roofing, and for building purposes
generally ; and makes excellent gates, preventing
by its lightness both the slamming and the droop-
ing at the nose, which so often destroy oak gates
prematurely. VVhen planted originally very close,
the first thinnings are admirable as hop-poles ; and
at the next thinning it is superior to everything
else for scaffolding. In consequence of the com-
plexity of its grain above alluded to, and to which
it mainly owes its strength, it will not cleave, but
must be sawed into scantling. Mr. Selby calls it
" the rival of the oak "— a name which I would
rather make it share with

The S2)a?dsh chestnut, a tree whose virtues are
not yet so generally known or appreciated as it
■well deserves. For coppice it is surpassed by
nothing but the ash, and its growth is very nearly
as rapid. Allowance being made for any pecu-
liarities of situation and demand, a coppice of ash
and Spanish chestnut is fit to cut from two to
three years earlier than one of oak and hazel ; and
being certainly more valuable would afford on cal-
culation an advantage of from twenty-five to thirty
per cent, in profit. As timber, the Spanish chest-
nut comes to maturity in less than half the time
of the oak, being at its prime from forty to sixty
years old. Some of the finest and soundest beams
in old houses that have been pulled down, have
been found to be of this tree.* The bark contains
the tannin principle in the degi-ec of about two-
thirds to that of the oak ; and it generally sells for
half price, but at the present value of bark this
would hardly compensate the disadvantage of
summer felling. After the age of sixty, it is apt
(except in the finest specimens) to bleed from small
fissures near the neck of the root, caused probably
by wind-shakes, in consequence of its excessive
weight of foliage. There is no tree tohich seems to
vie to comhine ■profit with ornament in so great a
degree as this.

The oak and the elm require but little remark.
In a light, dry, and deep soil, the latter is certainly
the best of all hedge-row timber. Its shade is both
less, and less injurious to growing crops or grass,
than that of the oak ; and, in suitable soil, its roots
will descend below the reach of the plough. It
bears the removal of its lower branches more kindly
than the oak (an amiabihty that is sadly abused),
and heals the wound very rapidly. And as it bears
transplanting, and standing aloiie transplanted,
better perhaps than any other tree, it is convenient,
if not one of the most beautiful, for ornamental
purposes. Here again the foe most to be dreaded
is a wet clay subsoil, in which the elm soon takes
the character of a slow-growing, mossy tree, often
found heart rotten when felled. On such a soil the
oak will generally grow the quicker of the two.
Unrivalled, however, and well known as are the
qualities of this truly British tree— the oak, the
slowness of its growth is so great a drawback, that

During the recent alterations at Hampton
Court, in Herefordshire, the ancient and truly
baronial seat of the Lords Coningsby, some beams
of very great antiquity, and in a high state of sound-
ness and preservation, were found on being cut to
be of Spanish chestnut. IMr. Selby, alluding to some
other instances, suggests that oak beams might pos-
sibly, through the similarity of the grain, have been
mistaken for chestnut; but there is abundant reason
to doubt the suggestion more than the reality of the
iustances he alludes to.

as hedge-row timber, especially, I much doubt
whether, at the present and probable future prices,
it ever pays for the land it spoils. Our dockyards
are full of foreign oak, in consequence of the im-
mense expense of its conveyance by land : so that,
except in the somewhat problematical emergency
of universal war, its value, even for naval purposes,
will ever be little better than a mere speculation.
If war were, according to the views of some, a sort
of essential and perpetual condition of mankind,
then I would still place this emphatically " war
tree " in the foremost position : but if we may
hope that that best of national civilization, which
is founded on the increase of education and cor-
rected views amongst all classes of the great fa-
milies of the human race, will gradually convince
mankind of the mutual inutility and disastrous
consequences, not to speak of the wholesale crime,
of trying to settle diflerences by mutual butchery ;
I see no good reason why our friend the planter
should attach more than that due share of import-
ance which the ordinary purposes of trade and
commerce, and private utility give, to a tree which
is hardly arrived at maturity when his grandson,
if he ever have one, is near his grave. The practice
of summer felling deducts from the real value, even
of the heart wood ; and must, upon every principle
of vegetable physiology and the chemical history
of decay, constitute the main predisposing cause
of dry-rot. The sap wood of the oak is far less
valuable than that of the larch, or Spanish chestnut.

I have mentioned the hazel, alder, and withy, of
course as underwood only ; but I doubt whether
the latter should ever be grown except in a bed
by itself, in which condition it is a most profitable
way of employing wet land. But in mixed cop-
pices it is lite the poplar, a bad neighbour, whip-
ping the leaders of the nearest trees, in consequence
of its rapid growth and pliancy to the wind ; and
in oak coppices, becoming rotten at the stool and
mouldy in the bark before the time of cutting
arrives. In some localities, the alder, which also
delights in wet and even marshy ground, is very
profitable ; but it may otherwise be well substi-
tuted by the hazel and Spanish chestnut.

Of the trees in the second class I may speak
more briefly, though of course there are districts
where, in consequence of peculiarities of soil or of
local demand, many of them assume a more pri-
mary importance. The partiality of the beech for
a calcareous, or indeed a pure chalk, soil, is well
known. In a damp climate, like that of England,
timber which will not bear exposure to wet is apt
to fall even below a fair discount. Such is the case
with the beech, whose firmness of grain, and conse-
quent adaptation for the turner's lathe, prove how
much higher its character would stand in a steady
atmosphere. As a park tree it is beautiful, and
autumn owes it some of her richest tints. In seve-
ral places I have observed that rooks show a great
partiality to this tree for the establishment of their
clamorous but respectable communities. To accom-
plish which end (for those who may desire it), the
trees should be planted pretty thickly, that they
may draw each other up to that particular height
wliich the crafty rook seems to measure with the
gun-accomplished eye of a Manton, Egg, or Purday.
In coppice, however, this tree should be planted
very sparingly, being almost the only one wliieh,
however close pressed on every side, will not aban-
don its tendency to spread. Even the ash and the
larch — the former the most baleful, and the latter
the most intolerant, neighbour of the forest — cannot

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

195

keep within bounds the overhearing and interfering
shoots of tlie well-named " pntid<pfagl."

But the detail, however brief and sketchy, of the
respective merits of our " forest friends " have led
me into trespass ; and I must beg the reader's
indulgence for the postponement of the conclusion
of this letter to a future number of a journal whose
every page is too well filled, and at this busy time
too preoccupied with parliamentary information,
for the insertion of country communications, which
savour in every sense of the " Long Recess."
And I beg to subscribe myself, Sir,

Your very obedient servant,

MiSLETOE.

ON THE PROGRESS OF AGRICUL-
TURAL KNOWLEDGE DURING
THE LAST FOUR YEARS.

BY PH. PUSEV, M.P., F.R. AND G.S.

(From the Jotinml of the Roijal AgncuUiinil Societii.)

lCo7itimied.~\

There is still a practical point of view, however,
which strikes me so forcibly, with regard to these
common admixtures of soil, that I cannot but
shortly advert to it. They are all permanent in
their effect, and nevertheless all exceedingly cheap.
Chalking land on the hills costs little more than
2t. per acre ; pays itself often in the second year ;
and its effect lasts for twenty years. Marling
cannot cost more ; repays itself as soon ; and lasts
even longer. Claying the fen-land costs 36s. an
acre ; converts very bad into very productive
land ; and lasts twenty years. Yet there is a
great deal of land in each district to which these
improvements are applicable on which they are
not practised, although they are permanent, while
farmers elsewhere lay out 31. an acre for bones
which hardly last above two or three years. It is
not that the farmers of these districts have any
doubt of the efficacy of each process. Why, then,
is not each universally carried out upon every acre
of land within its own limits'! This is a difficult
question to answer. In some degree none of us
carry out all that is in our power ; but want of
capital, or want of confidence in the tenure of
farms, are, I suppose, the two principal causes of
this omission. Without entering minutely into
the remedy, I think the more landowners acquaint
themselves with the real merits and real difficul-
ties of farming, the more these two obstacles will
be smoothed ; and I must say that land-agents
might promote such improvements more than
they do, if they would make themselves acquaint-
ed, not with the theory, which is difficult, and
may be mischievous, but, as they easily might,
with the common practice of their own neigh-
bourhoods. We have many intelligent agents; but
it is an evil that any land-agents should be utterly
unacquainted with land. Besides these three cheap
and lasting improvements of the soil itself, we have
found a still more necessary and almost equally
cheap improvement, draining, which, it now ap-
pears, can be accomplished l)y some well-known
method or other on all land, at little more than

31. per acre, the cost, as I before said, of a good
dressing of bones. Now, as ihe varied surface of
England passes through my mind, I do not see
that in any large portion of it one or other of these
acknowledged improvements might not be at once
put largely in jiractice, with an absolute certainty
of success. The chalk hills span the whole south
of the country in four branches. We hear of marl-
ing in Norfolk, Suffolk, Warwickshire, Bedford-
shire, Cheshire, Yorkshire, and Hampshire. I do
not know the extent of the fens; but I have seen
the extent of land which empties its waters into
Boston Wash stated at a million of acres. As for
draining, there is not a county, nor any large pro-
portion of parishes, or even of farms, in which it
ought not to be done. These improvements must
cost, no doubt, many millions ; but there is no
waut of idle capital. The misfortune is, that, ac-
cording to an old remark, I forget by whom made,
the capital and the soil of the country are not ac-
quainted with each other. I wish it werea stand-
ing rule on every estate, and, if possible, on each
individual farm, that some employment should be
given every winter to the labourer, by doing some
lasting good to the soil.

We may proceed, however, from the soil to its
tillage, and first the plough. As more as been done
by our society in the last four years for its im-
provement than might have been expected with
regard to so ancient an implement, I will endeavour
to trace the progress of our inquiries. At the time
of our foundation, four years back, the Scotch
iron swing-plough was stated to be the most per-
fect form of plough. Lord Spencer having re-
marked that, from his observation of ploughing-
matches, he doubted whether swing-ploughs had
any advantage over those with wheels, a prize was
proposed by our council for the best essay upon
the subject, which was won by Mr. Handley, who
applied the draught gauge for measuring the strain
arising to the horses from different jjloughs, and
found that those wheel-ploughs he tried inflicted
tlie least labour upon the cattle. Following his
example, I tried several ploughs in the same man-
ner, and with the same result. It further appeared
that there was a much wider difference in the
draught of ploughs than had been suspected, and
even that, of two ploughs used by two farmers in
the same parish and on the same soil, one was
heavier for three horses than the other for two ;
the old Berkshire plough costing the cattle a
muscular strain of twenty-three stones, while
Hart's improved one-wheeled plough was drawn
by them with an exertion of fourteen stones only.
One of Messrs. Ransome's was hardly surpassed by
Hart's in lightness, and it certainly made better
work. The Scotch were the heaviest of the
swing-ploughs. The next trial was by Mr. Free-
man* at Haverfordwest, in South W^ales, who set
an old Welsh plough of the country against Hart's.
Here again the old plough was more severe for
three horses than Hart's was for two. The old
plough stood at twenty stones ; Hart's at thirteen.
The next experiments were made by Lord Tweed-
dale, and in these the Yester plough equalled Hart's
plough in lightness. The next trial was before our
judges at Liverpool, whose words I will quote
from their report : — -f-

" It appears that in almost every case the draught
of the wheel-ploughs was less than that of the

* Journal, ii. p. 105.

t Ibid., p. cxiv.. Judges' Report.

o 2

196

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

swing kind : and it must not be concealed that the
\vhccl-])loiiglis in every case actuallj' turned over
more soil than the swing, for the share and sole of
the former maintained a flat, horizontal position,
whereas all the swing-ploughs leant more or les.s
to the land-side, cutting to a less depth on the
right than on the left hand side. Consequently,
the furrow-bottoms left by the wheel-ploughs
were more even than those excavated by the swing-
l)loughs."

On this occasion, a wheel plough by Messrs.
Barrett, of Reading, was the lightest, marking 22
stonts ; Hart's the next, 24 stones ; a Scotch and
a Northampton swing-plough the heaviest, stand-
ing each at 40 stones. I cannot but remark how
little our mechanists yet know of the draught of
their ploughs, when implements could be brought
forward to compete for a prize at a great public
meeting, some of which gave as much work nearly
for four horses as others for two.

The latest published record of trials* is a very
caref.il set of experiments by Mr. Hannam,
of Dorchester, in Oxfordshire'. Here again,
as in Wales and in Berkshire, the lightest plough
stood at 13 stones, the old Oxfordshire plough at
22 stones, the Scotch swing-plough at 20 stones.
The lightest plough in this instance was Messrs.
Barrett's.

There only remains the interesting report of
our judges on the ploughs which competed at our
Bristol meeting, 'i'here, again, it will be seen that
the lightest plough was a wheeled one, Mr. How-
ard's of Bedford, which stood at 22 ; the heaviest,
a Scotch swing-plough, which marked 44 ; the next
heaviest, another Scotch swing-plough, which
marked 36; and, in the words of our judges, " it
is worthy of note that the resistance of Mr. How-
ard's two-wheel was less by four stones than that
of his swing-plough."

From these repeated trials, which have arisen
out of Lord Spencer's remark, we may now come
to the conclusion that wheel-ploughs, as be sus-
pected, are superior to swing-ploughs, in ease for
the cattle, and are also superior in the work they
perform; that the Scotch swing-plough in par-
ticular is very severe for the cattle; that, since in
three country trials the draught of the ploughs
Avas found to differ as two to three — that is, as two
horses to three— more attention is required on the
part of our ploughwrights to the easiness of their
draught ; and lastly, that, since in our two public
competitions at Liverpool, and again at Bristol,
the draught of some competing ploughs doubled
that of the winning plough, as if at Epsom one
horse had only run half the course when another
was winning the Derby, it appears very clearly
that our plough-makers, as a body, are not
thoroughly acquainted with the qualities of their
own implements, otherwise the race could not be
so unequal. It may not be useless to them, therefore
that we should inquire what it is in ploughing
which constitutes the work of the horses .' Some
makers appear to think that if their plough is light
in weight it will be light in draught; but this
supposition is a mistake, as the report of our
judges at Bristol will show. The lightest weight
of a wheel-plough there stated is that of the plough
which was heaviest but one in draught ; and the
swing-plough worst in draught was the lightest in
weight of its class.

Journal, iii. p. 9.

Draught. Weight.

Howard's wheel-plough, light-
est in draught 2-2 stones. 220 lbs.

Carson's wheel-plough, heavi-
est but one indraught..,. 32 193

Earl of Ducie's swing-plough,

lightest in draught 26 161

VVilkie's swing-plough, heavi-
est in draught 44 125

This distinction between lightness of weigh
and of draught should be observed by the makers
of ploughs who intend to compete at future trials ;
and it is satisfactory to the employers of ploughs,
since it shows that solid construction of the im-
plement is by no means inconsistent with ease to
their horses. Again, if the weight of the plough
has little effect on its draught, I believe that the
weight of the earth to be raised has not much
more— for the furrow-slice, when the jdougb has
severed it, can be turned over by the hand with-
out much exertion ; neither can the perpendicu-
lar cutting of the earth by the coulter occasion
much of the draught in ordinary land, because im-
plements with numerous teeth, each performing a
similar cut, can be drawn by four horses. But a
plough, when merely drawn along the surface of
a furrow, requires considerable force to move it.
This arises of course from friction — the resistance
of the rough ])articles of the soil to its progress. If
the furrow were coated with ice, a finger would
draw the plough. Locking the wheel of a wag-
gon at a descent shows the power of this kind of
friction. Before the iron shoe is placed under the
wheel the horses may scarcely be able to hold
back the waggon ; afterwards they maybe obliged
to pull it : but when the plough is at work, every
part of it below ground grates downwards, side-
ways, or upwards, against the earth, as the shoe
of the wheel grinds the road. You must therefore
add to the labour of a plough-team when you in-
crease the rubbing surface of the sole or of the
mouldboard. Our manufacturers of impleme n y
should, I think, therefore inquire whether they
may not improve the draught of their ploughs bo
diminishing the surface of the parts which are
below ground. Captain Carr pointed out to m
that the draught of a plough is diminished if th^
coulter be set towards the land-side. The reason
must be this, — that the coulter so set prevents
that side of the plough from rubbing against the
land.

There is another cause of draught, which,
though similar, is not precisely the same with
friction. In my first trials I found that a plough
drawn along a furrow on clay laud iu a very wet
state occasioned nearly as much labour to the
horses as when actually doing its work. The fric-
tion on so smooth a surface as wet clay cannot be
much ; the strain must be occasioned, I believe,
by its adhesion. The strength of this adhesion is
shown by the difficulty which a labourer finds in
digging strong clay, from its adhering when wet
to the back of his spade. On such lands in this
neighbourhood a wooden mouldboard is used, the
clay being found to adhere less strongly to wood
than to iron.* The length of a mouldboard must

* The same soil which when wet adheres to the
jdough becomes exceedingly hard when dry, because
Its particles cohere together, and then the .splitting
action becomes a source of draught ; he.nce, of
course, Ibe difficulty of ploughing most soils wheu

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

197

increase adhesion as well as friction, but practi-
cally on clay Innd It is impossible, to use a short
inouldboard, because, if we endeavour to tiirow
such laud too suddenly over, it will roll before
the plough svhen it is very wet. This happens
sometimes indeed even with the long mould boards
now used on such ground ; and coiisetiuently it is
very difficult to make an improved plough for such
clays. But for other soils I think plough makers
will do well to regiud diminution of friction as a
leading principle of their attempts at improve-
ment, varying its application according to the land
which their ploughs aie intended to work ; for we
never can have a standard ]>lough suited to all de-
scriptions of land. If land be light and free, the
plough should be sliort above ground, that the
horses may be nearer their vi'ork, and short be-
low, that there may be less friction. Hart's is
such a plough ; and :s now generally used on such
land in this neiglibourhood ; but if you put this
])lough on strong or stony land, it will rise out of
the ground when at work. On strong or stony
land a wheel -plough must be long in the beam,
that the horses may hold it down when they pull
it ; and taper in the breast, tliat it may undermine
the obstacles which it meets. Different depths
of ploughing, again, require a different shape of
the mouldboard- These, however, are matters for
the makers of ploughs ; the question for farmers is,
the advantafje to be derived from the use of light
ploughs. Where the difference is between the
draught of two horses and of three, that advan-
tage is of course very clear ; even where it is less,
the improvement ra:iy bring the plough within the
command of two horses, upon land which before
was too strong for a pair. Where four horses
are the usual team, pair-horse ploughing may be
impossible, and its advocates were wrong when
they asserted that there is no land which two
horses are unable to master. But in many dis-
tricts, where three horses were the usual number,
country ploughing matches have tended to intro-
duce the two-horse system. On the first occasion
the curtailed team is viewed with some incredu-
lity, but does its work. '1 he next year more pairs
come forward. At last the triple team becomes
singular in its turn, and ultimately disai)pears.

Even if the number of horses be not reduced, it
is of course right for their sakes and cur own to
lighten their labour ; but there is another point in
which lightness of ploughs n)ay be useful. I
mean increase of pace, and this is a matter de-
serving more attention than it has received. It
is remarkable that more work is done in a day at
plough in the north of England than in many
parts of the south. Here three-quarters of an
acre, I believe, is the daily task in winter, whereas
an acre is the Scotch amount at that season, and a
quarter more as the days lengthen. It is stated,
however, by Loudon,* that in Suffolk farmers
plough, with two horses, 1 acre a-day on stiff soils,
and Ij to 1^ acre on sands. In Northumberland
even 2 acres are sometimes accomplished, I am
informed, during the hurry of turnip-sowing. 1
think our farmer's clubs in the slow-ploughing
districts ought to inquire whether this practice of
the northern and Suffolk farmers does not deserve
imitation ; and I may repeat one circumstance
which struck me much in my former experiments,

they are dry, which becomes impossibility on a
strong clay.

* Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agriculture, p. 1136.

as it appears to bear out quickness of pace. It
might be sujiposed that the more rapidly the
plough works the greater would be the exeriion of
the horses, so that, although more work miijht be
done in a day, the ultimate wear of the cattle
would be the same. But I found by the draught-
gauge that, when a plough was made to move
quicker, though more earth was of course movi'd,
there was no increase in the drauglit, at least as
between the pace of 1§ and of 2i miles in an hour.
Strange as this fact appears, it agrees with what is
kHown by mechanicians, that in many cases the
resistance arising from friction does not augment
with increase of speed, and it tends to confirm n)y
belief that friction is a principal cause of the la-
bour of ploughing teams. An example of increase
of pace without addition of draught may be found,
I believe, in the descent of a carriage with a drag
on the wheel. The horses, indeed, who have to
cover more ground at plough, have of course to
carry their own weight a greater distance each
day. But, if they be in good condition and nimble,
I doubt if they feel it ; and the northern horses ap-
pear to me to be naturally quick steppers. The
best Clvdesdale horses, such as tho i)air of greys
which Lord Derby sent to our trial-ground at Li-
verpool, or Lord Ducie's browns, which were seen
by nrany of our members at Bristol, appear to
unite the merits of our three English breeds — the
compactness of the Suftblks, the power of the
old Lincolns, and the courage and quickness of
the Cleveland race.

I have dwelt at great length on the construction
of the plough, because each successive trial has
shown that it is a subject which rewards our in-
quiries in practice. Mathematical calculations have
been framed for it, but the mouldboard of Lord
Ducie's plough, so highly praised by our judges at
Bristol, had been cast on the day before the trial
from a mould shaped to the actual curve of the
furrow-slice : and it may be best thus to fit on the
plough to different kinds of soil. There is evi-
dently much to be gained, and a great reduction
of horse-labour to be effected. Only we must not
go too far by asserting that all land can be worked
at all times by two horses only.* Soils differ much
too widely in their resistance, as appears from the
following numbers, wliich have been already pub-
lished,f shawing the average draught of numerous
ploughs tried by me on three neighbouring
farms : — Draught.

Sandy loam 17 stone.

Clay loam 30 "

Strong clay 47 "

Mr. Hannam too, in his interesting trials, has
shown that the same field, in different stages of

* Even if two horses could draw the ])lough in
winter on our heavy clay-lands, the surface is so
soft that the horse which must necessarily walk
upon the unploughed land does great harm by
trampling it together. I believe that the best plan
upon such farms would be this: to have a plough
with two shifting mouldboards, a short iron one for
summer use, with two horses abreast, and a long
wooden one for wet weather, to be used with three
horses walking in line. Both Mr. Bennett of Temps-
ford, near Bedford, and M r. Moore of Coleshill, have
adopted this plan of a changeable mouldboard. 'i'he
plough should have one wheel in summer, an<l in
winter afoot which clogs less than a wheel.

t Journal, vol. i. p. 219, Inquiry on Draught in
Ploughing.

198

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

cultivation, varies widely in its resistance ; for he
measured the draught of some ploughs during the
process of barley-sowing, and the difference with
Hart's plough was as follows : —

Draught. Furrow.
April 2. Seed-furrow with single

horse 9 stones 2i x 8

April :i. Breaking up turnip-
ground trodden in rain .... 21 5x9

" Ditto less trodden 18 5x9

April 20. Ditto drier and harder,

with the same plough 25 5i x 9

The difference of draught between three farms
worked with the same ploughs a«i one to three,
and here on the same field the difference within
one month is again one to three. Such variations
must encourage active inquiry, hut should check
hasty conclusions.

There is no doubt, however, that in many parts
of the country the third horse might be discarded,
and that two horses would be ample for each
plough. But it may be said that ploughing is not
the only employment of farm-horses, and that if
the same number of horses be required as at pre-
sent for other farming operations, each in their
due season, the farmer cannot reduce his horses,
since for these operations he will require his pre-
sent establishment; that his stables must be as
full as they are now ; and consequently the only
advantage of putting two horses instead of three
to his plough will be that one-third of his cattle
may remain idle at home during the season of
ploughing. Now it happens, singularly, that an-
other saving of horse-labour has been proposed,
which would precisely meet this emergency. In
southern England the harvest is brought home on
heavy waggons drawn by three horses ; and the
dung is carried out on equally heavy carts, to
which three horses arc also attached : but in
Cumberland and the north all this is done with
light carts drawn by one horse only. Here we
have practice on each side, and certainly there
appears no particular reason why three' horses
drawing three carts should be able to convey more
than three horses drawing one large cart only :
but the contrary would seem more likely. Still
there is a strong opinion on the part of those
farmers who use the one-horse cart that their
system is best. This is a difficult matter to test ;
but we have had a paper from a south country
agriculturist, Mr. Ilannam, who has used one-
horse carts for ten years, at Burcott, near Dor-
chester, in Oxfordshire, and who thus states his
own experience: —

" My farm, of 370 acres, was some years ago
under very able management, with a strength of
twelve horses and six oxen. Just previous to my
taking it into my own occupation sixteen horses
had been employed bv another spirited cultivator.
1 have gradually, by the joint operation of two-
horse ploughs and single-horse carts, reduced my

number to eight horses Let farmers take the

two-horse plough as a first, and the single-horse
cart as a second step, and I have no hesitation in
asserting that they will find themselves gradually,
as they are able to master the working of the sys-
tem, able to perform their labour, as 1 have expe-
rienced, with something approaching to half the
number of horses that they now use, and with at
least equal facility and comfort."

This is a strong statement from ten years' ex-
perience, supported by calculations for which I

must refer to Mr. Hannam's own paper;* and
founded on the practice of the north of England
— that one half of the purchase-money of horses,
their wear and tear, their food, the bills for shoe-
ing them, forming together a large part of the out-
goings upon a farm, may be saved by the use of
two-horse ploughs and one-horse carts. Now I
would not advise a farmer even on these grounds,
to part witii his waggons, because further inquiry
is needed ; but I do think this question of one-
horse carts well deserves that further inquiry, and
ought not to be put aside ; and I will avow, though
living in a country of waggons, that, from what I
have seen of one-horse carts, I believe these
heavy waggons are doomed. One merit of the
carts is their readiness in service. On a large
farm near Wantage, Mr. W. Edmunds has adopted
them ; and last year I witnessed them accidentally
carrying barley : it was done most briskly by a
man loading on each side, and one on the cart.
The time occupied to load a cart high; and tie it
by two ropes thrown over from each hind corner
(which was done instantaneously), was five
minutes by the watch, and the succeeding driver
standing in his cart trotted up in his turn, keeping
his time regularly, though the field was a hilly
one. Carts certainly offer an important saving to
a young man entering upon business. For Mr.
Hannam says that, where waggons are used, there
" would be required, on a farm of 400 acres, six
dung-carts, at 161. ; two Dutch (mould) carts, at
lO/. ; one marketing-cart, at It!/. ; and five wag-
gons, at .35^.: total, 295/." On the other hand,
Mr. Hannam uses skeleton harvest-carts; but,
elegant as they are, they are not necessary. His
own or any other light cart, fitted with rails and
ladders, answers, 1 find, the same purpose ; and
eight of these carts, at IG/. each, would amount
to 128/. only; so that here would be a saving of
capital to the amount of one half. Leaving this
subject, however, to the consideration of farmers,
I must return for a moment to ploughing.

As to the modes of ploughing, it is not to be ex-
pected that much should have been brought to
light in four years : but I may mention one point
for which northern farmers have sometimes blamed
those of the south — I mean shallow ploughing.
On our trial-ground at Liverpool a southern farmer
observed to me that the furrow prescribed (six
inches) was too deep, and immediately afterwards
a northern farmer found fault with it as being too
shallow. I have already detailed the practice
of my own neighbours in ploughing light bar-
ren soils very shallow indeed. t AVhere they have
ploughed sands deep even for turnips, in trying
the Scotch practice, it has decidedly failed. Firm-
ness is, I believe, quite as important for loose land
as looseness for land which is over close. On
some very loose land of my own I have seen the
most remarkable improvement produced on a
turnip-crop, for which tightness of soil is least
requisite, by the passage of waggons in a previous
year, and by the trampling of horses where a rick
had been built. For a wheat-crop firmness, as all
farmers know, is indispensable. Firmness, how-
ever, is not a positive but a relative term — relative
to the soil, to the crop, and also to the climate.

* Journal, vol. ii. p. 73. On the Reduction of
Horse Labour by Single Horse Carts ; by H.
Hannam.

t Journal, vol. ii. p. 400. On the Practice of
Farmers in cultivating Peaty Land.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

190

In part of Norfolk, according to Loudon, "they
plough with two or four horses eery shallow, care-
fully preserving the hard hasis formed by the sole
of the plough, which is called the pan of the land ;
breaking this up is R-,iid to let down the riches into
the hungry subsoil. One of our members, ]\Ir. A.
Edmunds, who has long farmed 200 acres of peaty
land in Gloucestershire, tells me that he always
ploughed it shallow, and that for wheat he did not
stir it at all, but skimmed it only with a breast-
plough. The simimers there are probably hotter
than in Lincolnshire, where peat is ploughed
deeper. Near Coblentz, on the Rhine, where the
summers are very burning, it is stated that the
farmers only scratch the ground with a one-horse
plough, because they find deeper ploughing injuri-
ous. I dwell on this point the more because high
authorities in Scotland unite in recommending not
only deep ploughing but trench-ploughing, that is
with one plough following another in the same
furrow, and throwing up the subsoil on the surface
from the depth of a foot. This may be useful
where the surface is light and the subsoil is a good
clay, and it may be less dangerous to make the
ground so hollow where rain falls constantly, and
the land is seldom very dry ; but, apart from the
looseness produced, I should think that, as Mr.
Denison observes, " in very few cases is the soil
underneath more fitted for vegetation than that of
the surface;"* and I believe such an operation
would be destructive on many of our southern
farms.

The use of the plough may be sometimes even
dispensed with altogether, by means of a class of
implements on wheels, with teeth or tines that tear
up the land. One of them is Biddell's scarifier,
which I believe to be a good working tool, because
I see many farmers purchase it, and because one
of ray own I constantly find has been borrowed by
my neighbours. A Suffolk farmer statest that " by
the use of this implement he can equally well
cultivate his farm with 12 percent, less of horses."
Lord Ducie's cultivator is also well spoken of, and
our Bristol judges commend another b}' Messrs.
Cottam. They likewise speak highly of a War-
wickshire plough with slices behind, which pulve-
rise the soil like a harrow. If this simple con-
trivance of Mr. Mason's should answer, it will be
a remarkable discovery; but time and use must
show its merits or its defects, and the soils to
which it can be applied.

The land being worked, we may proceed to the
crop. The sower, with his accurate hand and eye,
is now seldom seen ; but I am unable to detail the
various modes of spreading the seed which have
taken his place. The large drill is generally used
for corn in the south, and the intervals between
the rows of young corn enable the hoer to keep
the land clean. As every seed, too, is covered with
earth, less corn is required for the purpose. In
Suffolk wheat is dibbled in by the hand, and a still
further saving of seed is effected, one bushel
being sufficient, instead of two or of three. This
seems a strangely tedious process ; but some of us,
who may look on it as unworthy of a large farm,
probably set out beans by hand, and should blame
the Scotch farmer,! who sows broadcast four
bushels per acre, while we find one bushel enough

* Journal, ii. p. 32.

+ Journal, vol. i. p. 348. Account of the use of
Biddell's Scarifier.
t Professor Lowe's Practical Agriculture, p. 274.

for that crop. Even corn, I believe, is but little
drilled in Scotland. Should iSIr. Rham be able to
bring his dibbling-inachine to perfection, he will
have the satisfaction of saving the country one
bushel per acre of wheat. I should mention that
there is a question on the advantages of thick and
thin sowing. Lord Western strongly advocates
liberal use of seed, but I am unable to bring for-
ward any facts on this point.

Great hopes have been entertained that by at-
tention to the selection of seed, we might be able
to increase the yield of our wheat, and many new
varieties have been from time to time advertised,
with favourable testimony as to their produce.
Farmers, however, rightly view with mistrust very
long, loose beads of corn and a great bulk of straw,
having found such wheat liable to be laid, and
subject to mildew, a disease which appears to arise
whenever the vegetation of the plant, either from
its own habit or from the manure applied to it,
surpasses the strength of the soil. This I believe
to be an important law of agriculture. Such long,
loose heads of corn are often found to contain very
little and very thin grain ; or where the grain is
large, the millers will not purchase it, because the
bran is too thick. Our Society has offered prizes
for the best specimens of seed-wheat, to be ad-
judged after trial by appointed judges ; but as yet
we have had no award, because the wheats selected
at Oxford were mixed in the sack, and the Cam-
bridge prize-wheats were not found to excel those
against which they were tried. There is a doubt
even about the principle of our selection, because
though the prize is for seed-wheat, our judges can
only tell us which are the best samples of corn ;
but many farmers say that the plumpest sample
is not the best seed ;* that plump corn is most
liable to rot in the ground in wet weather : they
certainly do not use inferior wheat as seed from
mere economy; for sometimes lean wheat is sold
as seed at a higher price than other corn which is
better for grinding. Still I believe that we have
done good already by directing attention to old as
well as new sorts of prolific wheat. It is impossi-
ble that so great a difference of yield should be
found as four bushels an acre in many trials, and
that some wheats should not give more than others,
were it only half a bushel, in a regular course of
farming ; and though half a bushel be little, I
need scarcely remind our members that in all cal-
culations for general improvement of farming our
multiplier for these small numbers is millions. I
believe, however, that a greater increase than this
may be hoped for, especially upon good land, for
it is on good land, as far as I can ascertain, that
the different (lualities of wheat show themselves
most ; which might be expected, and is another
instance of the principle, that soil will not bear to
be forced beyond given limits. A familiar instance
of this principle is the growth of white wheat,
which, although more valuable than the red, has
been abandoned excepting upon superior soils. It
has been often tried in the parish where I am
writing, but the ear produced is of a dingy colour
externally, the grain poor, and, what is remarka-
ble, of a red colour. Amongst the good wheats
which have come to my knowledge, I may mention
the Red Marigold, shown by Mr. Fisher Hobbs, at

* Sprengel I find also states that the best wheat
contains too much gluten for seed — the gluten con-
verting the starch into vinegar instead of sugar
which is the food of the young sprout. •

200

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

our Oxford meeting, the Burwell, the Chidham,
the Golden Drop, the Silver J)roi), the Golden
Swan, the Bellevue Talavera (but upon good land,
for on a moderate soil I have seen this last wheat
fail in several cases), Hunter's White, the Hope-
toun, an excelleut Scotch wheat, propagated by
Mr. ShirrefF (to whom we are also indebted for
the Hopetoun oat), and a wheat not yet known, a
seedling raised by Mr. Jonas, of Ickleton, in the
county of Cambridge : but for more accurate in-
formation we must await the result of future
trials.

No improvement has been made during the last
four years in barley; but a new kind had been
already widely adopted, and is regularly quoted in
market reports, which proceeds from a single ear
picked by the Rev. Mr. Chevalier, at Debenham,
in 1819, and is now well known by his name. A
new kind of oat, however, is mentioned in our
present .Journal, which is remarkable not tor larger
produce, but for early maturity. This property is
hardly important in ordinary English farming,
but those who have seen the oat-harvest tardily
ended, as I did last year on the elevated moors of
West Somerset in mid-November, will be aware
of its value for such mountainous districts where
the chill summers seldom ripen the crop, and a
doubt is entertained whether it be worth while to
raise corn at all. There are such tracts in Derby-
shire, and must be many such, I imagine, in
Wales. Cumberland and Westmoreland, with a
considerable portion of Scotland, have the same
bleak and rainy atmosphere. The farmers of those
districts, and it is to them I address myself, will
value the account which Mr. Fisher* gives of the
oat raised from a single ear by Mr. Dyock, near
Aberdeen, in 1830. It ripens a fortnight or even
three weeks earlier than other kinds, and is equally
productive with potato-oats in the elevated situa-
tions to which it is fitted. Its use appears to have
spread gradually in Scotland. Mr. Fisher tried
this oat for the first time last year in Westmore-
land. He sowed it side by side with the potato-
oat, reaped the Dyock oat on the last day of
August, the potato-oat on the 20th of September,
and obtained the largest return trom the Dyock
oat, as well as the heaviest sample. If this oat
should maintain its character, a greater boon could
not be given to the mountainous parts of Great
Britain, since it would remedy at once for their
staple crop the main difficulty of their farms.

Eut if we have not learned much that is new as
yet respecting white crops, the information we
have received upon green crops has made amends
to us ; nor is there any more interesting branch of
farming. It is well known that the stock which
furnished our forefathers with meat were fattened
on the rich grass lands, but that, by a great revo-
lution in farming, the light arable soils now chiefly
supply the country with animal food. In the four-
course rotation, consisting of barley, clover,
wheat, and turnips, successively, while the wheat
gives us bread, and the barley beer, a great part of
the clover and all the turnips are converted into
mutton, or sometimes into beef. But there is ano-
ther ground for inquiry into green crops. It is
commonly said that the farmers of the south of
England are greatly inferior to those of the north,
and the charge is hardly denied ; yet I do not
think that in the south we are at all backward in

• Journal, present number, Mr. Fisher on the
Dyock Oat.

the management of our corn ; on the contrary,
I am told that our corn-fields are more free from
weeds : our grass lands have also a decided supe-
riority. It is our turnip-fields, with poor roots
and large patches of bare ground, that ofi'end the
sight of those who are accustomed to the neat, and
vigorous aspect of ridges crowned with close-set
heavy bulbs, in northern husbandry. A keen con-
trover.qyhas been carried on for some time, chiefly
in the Farmers' Magazine by practical farmers on
this very subject, and has been called "The Turnip
Question." The chief point on which it turned
was, the weight of turnips that could he grown
on an acreof land— the northern farmers asserting
high weiglits, the southern denying them. Having
attentively read the arguments, I will state what
appears to me to be the result.* It is clear, I
think, that the northern crops do greatly exceed
those of the south. Five-and-twenty tons to the
acre of Swedish turnips are not an unusual yield
in Scotland with ordinary good farming. Ilere
the best crop I have grown with a heavy dressing
did not exceed sixteen tons; one neighbour I be-
lieve has reached twenty. But in Lancashire
prizes have been given during the last ten years
by two district societies. The average weight of
the prize crops of Swedes has been thirty tons :
such a crop has never been seen in the part of the
country where I am writing. To what, then, is
their superiority owing } Undoubtedly to the ridge
system, which has been so admirably described by
Mr. Grey.t of Dilston, in his account of Northum-
berland farming. In the first place, the dung being
in the centre of the ridge immediately under the
seed, the young i)lant is forced up more rapidly,
and is sooner safe from the fly, which so often
destroys the whole crop at its birth. In the next
place, it is a great advantage that the horse-hoe
can be used, instead of the tedious hand-hoe.
Lastly, there is no doubt that the plant placed im-
mediately over the dung attains a much greater
bulk. Hence arise the fine turnip-crops of the
north ; and southern farmers are often blamed for
not following this example ; but wrongly, as I now
sec, for having endeavoured, during many years,
to introduce the ridge system into my own neigh-
bourhood, I must admit that on some soils so far
south it does not answer. Nor ought we to be
surprised that it does not ; for one object doubt-
less of the ridge-system is, by raising the turnip
above the level of the soil, to free it from exces-
sive wet ; and this is a great gain in those northern
and western parts of the country, Scotland, and
even Lancashire, where the summers are con-
stantly wet. But in many parts of the south we
have to fear not wet, but dry springs and summers,
at least upon turnip lands ; and it is not imusual
that six weeks together should pass without rain.
W^hat is advantageous, therefore, in Scotland, may

* The relative expense of raising Swedes in the
north and south has never been fairly compared.
In the north it is not uncommon to manure very
heavily for Swedes, and plough it in the ridges,
and also to drill bones or other expensive artificial
manures with the seed on the top of tiie ridge, the
whole amounting to from VIL to l.y. ])er acre ;
in the south a fair coat of dung, at less than half
that cost, is the usual practice, while in many cases
great crops of Swedes are raised at a less charge
than "il. per acre for manure. — Geo. Kimberi.ev.

t See ]\Ir. Grey on Northumberland Farming,
.Journal, vol. ii. p. 151,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

201

be hurtful here ; and on this point I cannot do
Letter than state the opinion of one of our mem-
bers, Mr. Brooks, of Hatford, near Faringdon, a
practical farmer, wliich ought to liave the more
weiglit, because, having tried the ridge system for
many years, he has retained it upon one part of
his farm, and abandoned it upon the other. It is
upon adiiesive land that he has found it fail, and,

in the south of England. At the time of our
meeting in 1841, there were beautiful crops of
Swedes near Liverpool, of which the leaves al-
ready met, and in that rainy region were, no
douh't, perfectly safe. Here I found a last attempt
which had been made at early sowing of Swedes
by Mr. Brooks, and I watched them with much
anxiety. During the si.K chilly wet weeks which

in his opinion, from two reasons :— When the followed, they went on perfectly well. But no

ground is thrown over the dung by the plough, the
small clods wLicli such land almost always con-
tains fall exactly into the centre ; that is, in the
line where the seed is to be sown, and form a bad
'seed-bed. Again, if dry weatlier follow, moderate
showers do not penetrate the hardened surface of
the ridges upon cohesive land. Upon a light sandy
soil, on the other hand, i\Ir. Brooks finds ridging
answer, and perseveres in it with success. There
is indeed an advantage in ridging, where it is
practicable, which I have not seen adverted to,
but which I believe to be real. It is common to
see on a field of green corn that the blade grows
stronger in a line along the crown of each land,
in consequence of the double portion of surface
mould collected by the plough, where the two
slices of earth are lapped over each other in
ploughing ; now a turnip set on a ridge has this
very advantage of a double foundation of the best
mould. Still in the south of England, on some
soils, we must give up the hope ef establishing the
ridge system ; but it does nut follow that we are
to renounce all endeavour at improving our turnip
crop. Even flat-drilling, I am told, has great
advantages over broadcast sowing of turnips ; for
although dung cannot be placed immediately under
the rows, bones and other artificial manures can.
On one farm in Oxfordshire, l.fiOO bushels of
bones are drilled every year in this way. There
is, besides, a much greater certainty of a crop, be-
cause the drill deposits all the seed at the proper
depth, and thus the unseemly blanks in our turnip
fields may be prevented. Another great disadvan-
tage in the broadcast system is the expense of hoe-
ing them twice, or c\'en three times, by the hand,
which costs 10s., or even lis., per acre. I do not
know any good liorse-hoe for flat-drilled turnips ;
but at Holkhain, where mangold-wurzel is sown
in this manner, an implement is used which hoes
three rows at once, being drawn by two horses
abreast. A good horse-hoe for flat-drilled turnips
is, I believe, one of the most useful machines that
could be invented ; or if there be a good one al-
ready in use, though confined to its own district,
that could be made known.

But when we have done all, applying to our tur-
nips or Swedes as mucli manure as the northern
farmers, I doubt if it be i)03sible for us to obtain
in the south crops generally equal to theirs, for a
reason to which I must now advert. In the north
the Swede and white turnip are each sown nearly
a month earlier than in the south. Hence they
have a longer time fur their growth. For many
years I have seen repeated attempts made here to
fdlow this Scotch practice, and they have all sig-
nally failed ; for as soon as warm weather comes,
white filmy spots appear on the leaves of the tur-
nip, which soon creep over its whole surface.
This is mildew, and at once arrests the growth of
the plant, rendering the root hard and stringy. In
a bad case of mildew 1 have seen a large field of
these early Swedes struck in July, and filling the
air with a most off'ensive odour. Last year, if
ever, early sowing of Swedes might have answered

sooner did the sun shine forth in September, than
after four drys the white tint appeared, and the
plants grew no more. I do not mean that no-
where in the south turnips can be planted early ;
for on the top of the ciialk hills I know that they
can ; and it is well worth observing how very
slight an elevation aff"ects the climate, and conse-
quently the growth of crops. On the Cotswold
hills, which are of no great height. Lord Ducie,
who has occupied a farm there, doubts if it be
worth while to grow wheat. But generally in the
south, I do not believe we can sow Swedes or tiu--
nips as early as in the north ; nor have we mois-
ture eiiough for carrying them forward ; conse-
quently, though we ought to manure them more
highly than we do, we cannot fairly be blamed, as
we are sometimes blamed, for not raising crops
equal to those of the north. Still many of us
miglit grow much better turnips than we now do ;
and it is one of the points to which we ought in
the south to give our most earnest attention.

But if our southern climate be against us in the
growth of tnrnips as well as of oats, there is a
root which our warm summers favour as they do
wheat— that root is mangold-wurzel, or beet. 1
state this on the high authority of Mr. Lowe, Pro-
fessor of Agriculture at Edinburgh, who soys —

" Jieet, however, requires a somewhat favoura-
ble climate. It is accordingly more cultivated in
the southern than in the northern i)arts of this
island. Although in Scotland very good crops
are occasionally produced, the plant is not so well
suited to cultivation there as the Swedish and
yellow turnips ; while in the southern counties the
beet is probably a more productive crop than the
turnip. Thus also in France and the warm coun-
tries of Europe the turnips are not to be compared
with the crops which are produced of beet."*

Professor Lowe's opinion, that a heavier bulk of
beet can be grown than of Swedes, is confirmed by
Mr. Hillyard, who has raised both for many years,
and informs me that where he gets twenty- five
tons to the acre of Swedes he would expect thirty
tons of beet. The question then arises, can the
farmer apply the mangold as profitably as the
Swede ? It is well known that the Swede is not
very good for ewes suckling in February; the tur-
nip is better,but docs not keep well until that time,
unless it he small ; so that many farmers sow very
late turnips for their ewes, which stand the frost
indeed, but give a very small bulk. The mangold
is known to be good for all animals giving milk.
But it also appears, from a remarkable experiment
of Lord Spencer's, t that this root is good for fatting
also. The two beasts put up by him made even
more progress when fed alternately upon mangold
than upon turnips, and he considers the result to
have been decisive. Mr. Hillyard, however, has
undertaken to renew the experiment with regard
to horned cattle ; and it might be desirable to try
it respecting the fattening of sheep. Still enough

» Lowe's Practical Agriculture, p. 33k
t Journal, vol. ii. p. 200.

202

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

is known to encourage tbe growth of mangold ;
and Mr. Miles has given* us some good rules for
its cultivation. The only difficulty is In tbe sow-
ing ; because, unless the seeds are put in verj'
shallow, they will not grow. But the dibbling
wheelt removes tliis objection. After the young
shoot is come up, all anxiety is at an end. It
is attacked neither by iiy, slug, nor wireworm.
Unlike the Swede, it can be sown early in
April. It can be grown, too, on heavier lands
than even the Swede. The common long red
beet exhausts the land rather more, in JMr. Mlles's
opinion, and requires rather abetter soil ; but tbe
orange globe will flourish wherever the Swede
will succeed. I find in Count de Gourcy's Travels.}:
that Mr. Fisiier Hobbs, who has grown beet for
many years, and has tried twenty-eight kinds, le-
gards the red and the yellow globes as the most
productive varieties. It appears also certain that
in our four-course system tbe turnip crop returns
too often. All the manure we bestow on the tur-
nip does not produce such fine roots as were seen
forty years since, when it was new to the land, and
the site of a freshly-grubbed hedge puts our best
cultivation to shame. i For these reasons, and be-
cause the beets keep longer in spring than any
turnip, I think they should be allowed a share of
the root-fields on every farm to which they are
suited. The merits of the four-course system are
great, but a great defect too is its monotonous
circle of wheat, turnips, barley, and clover.

(To he continued.)

TO THE FARMERS OF SUFFOLK.

LETTER II.

GrNTLEMEX, — I Stumbled yesterday upon tbe
following notice in a newspaper, by whom sent
I know not. ^Vhetller the suggestion it contains,
of using common salt for fixing ammonia, may be
of equal value with that of Liebig, which I laid
before you in my first letter, il is for you lo determine.

"Manitre. — It is well known that in a close
stable, where there are a good many horses, there
is a very pungent smell aft'ectiug the nose and eyes,
more particularly when the stable is being cleaned
out. This smell is occasioned by the flying off of
ammonia, which is tlie very essence and value of
manure, and which volatilizes or flies off at a very

* Journal, vol. ii. p. 298.'

f It is Stated that a double wheel answers still
better. .Journal, vol. iii. p. 164. A small frame
with a short row of dibbles, held in the hand, may
also be used.

X A translation of this very interesting agricul-
tural tour is now appearing in tbe " Farmer's Maga-
zine."

^ It is well known that all varieties of beet re-
quire to be stored before the setting in of severe
frost. This is now frequently done with Swedes
also. They are either earlbed up in the field, or
carried home to the vard, where care should be
taken that they have a free circulation of air. It is
one of tbe advantages of this extending practice,
that it affords a busy month of employment for
women at a time when other labour is scarce.

low temperature — even the warmth of the dung in
a stable will send it ofl', and it goes off in great
quantities bj' tbe common heat of the dung in a
farm-yard, whether thrown up in heaps or not.
There is however a very cheap and simple remedy
for this. Before you begin to farm out your stable,
dissolve some common salt in water ; if a fr.ur-
horse stable, say 41bs. of salt, dissolved in two
buckets of water, and poured through the nose of a
watering-pan over the stable floor an hour or so
before you begin to move tbe manure ; and the
volatile salts of ammonia will become fixed salts
from their having united with the muriatic acid of
the common salt, and the soda thus liberated from
the salt will quickly absorb carbonic acid, forming
carbonate of soda ; thus you will retain with your
manure the ammonia which would otherwise have
flown away, and you have also a new and most
important agent thus introduced, viz., the car-
bonate of soda. As this is the most powerful solvent
of all vegetable fibre, and seeing that all manures
have to be rendered soluble before they can act
upon vegetation, it will be at once apparent that
the carbonate of soda so introduced must be a most
powerful and valuable agent. If 1 cwt. of salt
were used for these purposes every week for each
one hundred acres of land under cultivation, it
Avould be quite ample to sprinkle frequently all tbe
feeding places and the farm-yard, for the latter the
salt may be sown by the band in rainy weather.
The weekly cost would be, say Is. Gd. to 2s. 6d.
The advantage to be derived from this simple
measure is very great Indeed, and eau only be
known by actual trial. Suppose the cost to be
2s. per week, the advantage may be safely esti-
mated at ten times that amount."

In this account I observe, what appear to me,
some inaccuracies. It may be true that a little
free ammonia does escape in a stable ; but I believe
that chemists teach us it is rather the carbonate
of ammonia which we smell there than ammonia
itself. Amn.onia cannot long exist in a free state
wherever carbonic acid is present; and this acid
is everywhere present in the atmosphere. More-
over, whilst ammonia is forming from t'le decom-
position of certain organic compounds in tbe dung
and urine of animals, carbonic acid is also forming
abundantly, and will instantly unite with the am-
monia. The abuse or misuse of terms is too
common, even among some of your best agri-
cultural writers. This is very unwise. Precision
in the application of technical terms is the very
soul of science. But I find chapters on tbe use
of lime iu agriculture, where lime is treated as
existing under a variety of forms ; when all tbe
while the author is speaking of so many perfectly
distinct mineral substances, of which lime happens
to be one of the constituents. Nothing, again, is
more common than to hear mention of a soil con-
taining lime, or mild lime, when it is tbe carbonate
of lime which is intended. Some will think me
trifling in this matter ; but really it is of great
importance. Tbe action of a particular substance
may be very diff'erent in an uncombined state,
from tbe action of another substance of which it
may form a constituent part. For instance, both
sodium and chlorine would act intensely upon tbe
human frame, and rapidly destroy life if received
into our stomachs ; but when chemically combined,
these substances, united with water, form common
salt, one of the most harmless and most necessary
articles of life. V/e might just as well call salt
a form of sodium or of chlorine, as carbonate of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

203

lime a form of lime. We might as well call our
flesh a form of carbon. Unless attention be paid
to iheapplication of terms, according to their strict
meaning, a confusion of ideas is always to he
dreaded. Tbus. in the extract I am noticing, I
presume we ought rather to consider that the car-
bonate of ammonia and the muriate of soda have
mutually decomposed each other, than that the
latter was decomposed by ammonia, and the soda
afterwards united with carbonic acid. The result
of such mutual decomposition would at once lead to
the formation of muriate of ammonia (sal ammo-
niac) and carbonate of soda (commonly called
soda). Now muriate of ammonia is described as
being beneficial to vegetation, but what relation
it may bear in this respect to the sulphate of
ammonia, that form in which Liebig directs you
to fix the ammonia, I am not prepared to say ;
this mtist he left for voiirsehes to determine. The
author of the above communication directs attention
more particularly to the carbonate of soda, which
has, I believe, been found very serviceable on
some lands ; and I remember that I alluded to it
m my Address to the Hadleigh Club. But I must
beg leave to doubt the explanation which he gives
us of its mode of acting. It is stated to be " a
most powerful solvent for all vegetable fibre ;"
whereas I have experimentally ascertained that we
may preserve both animal and vegetable substances
in solutions of carbonate of soda, much better than
in most other chemical salts. The precise manner
in which the alkaline salts — of potash, soda, and
ammonia — act on the vegetable system is at present
an undetermined point ; but that their action is
more or less beneficial appears to have been fully
proved. Provided, therefore, our informant is
correct in saying that salt fixes the ammonia, his
advice may be considered valuable, though his
theorjj should turn out somewhat premature. I
shall here mention a little experiment I have lately
tried, as it bears upon the subject I am discussing,
though it absolutely proves nothing that was not
previously known ; because I was not careful
about making the necessary comparaiiie experi-
ments essential for enabling me to draw positive
conclusions. Two quarts of urine were saturated
with salt, and allowed to stand for a fortnight,
when two quarts of water were added to them. A
strip of grass in a grass plot which is kept constantly
mown, in front of my house, was now watered with
the mixture, on the I3th of December last. In about
eight or ten days a visible effect had been produced,
the strip became greener than the rest, and at this
moment is very distinctly marked by its darker
colour. I have another strip, which was watered
with a weak solution of nitrate of soda in July or
August last, which is also of a darker green than the
rest of the grass. No effect has been produced upon
a strip tiiat was watered with a .solution of common
salt at the same time. In these experiments I merely
wished to see whether those solutions would produce
any effect ; and not to estimate the precise effect.
But I am so satisfied with the effect produced by the
urine, that I am intending to have an underground
tank for the reception of all liquid " rejectamenta,"
such as soap suds, scullery water, and urine. I
think of dividing my tank into two compartments,
and allowing the liquid to collect alternately in one
or the other ; and then, in the first week of every
month, to clear out the compartment which has been
filling, and carrying the contents over a grass field,
or applying them to the garden. Whether I shall
place gypsum or salt ia the tank will be for future

consideration. I have been informed by practical
men in this countv,that the use of liquid manure has
been tried and abandoned in several cases. Why it
was not considered expedient to persevere I know
not. The effects whiclj it produces must be expected
to be more transient than those of solid manure, and
especially so on stiff soils, which may not readily
imbibe it ; but perhaps it may still be worthy your
consideriitiou, whether it would not be expedient
to apply it, in certain cases, verit much diluted, and
with frequency. But, however unadvisable such a
practice may be thought for arable land, perhaps it
may be recommended for pasture. It is the liquid
parts of manure which are richest in materials suited
for generating ammonia. It is to me a continued
cause of surprise to witness the supineness of some
of my neighbours, who persist in adhering to the
bad and proscribed practice of preparing their dung-
hills by the roadside — a practice which not only
scientific enquirers, but all intelligent practical
writers, have denounced.

The preparation of manures should be watched
and attended to at home, as c irefuUy as the food you
prepare for your cattle. My friends of the vegetable
kingdom like good food as well as your stalled oxen ;
and they will not be put off with half allowance,
and yet yield you double measure, you may depend
upori it. Your obedient servant,

J. Hen SLOW.

Hilcham Rectory, Jan, 14, 1843.

TO THE EDITOR OP THE BURY POST.

Sir, — Permit me to make one or two observa-
tions upon the letter of Professor Henslow, on the
subject of Manures, which appeared in your last
number. In that gentleman's excellent remarks
upon the necessity of making experiments with the
sulphate of lime (gypsum), he has, inadvertently I
have no doubt, omitted the consideration of one fact,
which iSjthatgypsum itself acts as apowerful manure
— and consequently that the experiments suggested
with tiiw heaps of manure must be inconclusive as
to the power of gypsum in fixing ammonia, inas-
much as the experimenter will he at a loss to know
whether his increase of produce (if such is the
effect), is owing to the gypsum, per se, or to the
sulphate of ammonia formed by the decomposition
of the sulphate of lime. The action of gypsum on
grass land and clover layers is different from the
effect which it is intended to have in the heap of
manure. In the former instance, it acts as Liebig
points out, by decomposing carbonate of ammonia
absorbed from the rain and moisture of tire atmos-
phere : in the latter, it is intended to^u; a volatile
body. Now the decomposition of the sulphate of
lime by ammonia is a vei'ij gradual process, and
will not, according to Liebig, take place at all, un-
less in a state of solution, for which it requires 400
times its weight of water.

The question of the degree of affinity between
lime and ammonia for sulphuric acid is, however,
by no means clearly decided. In " Turner's Che-
mistry" it is stated that lime has agreater affinity for
sulphuric acid than ammonia, but at the same time
the writer admits that causes may so modify the
action of affinity, " that it is conceivable that am-
monia may in reality have a stronger attraction for
sulphuric acid than lime, and yet the latter, from
the great influence of disturbing causes, may suc-
ceed in decomposing the sulphate of ammonia."

I think, then, it is quite clear that the experi-
ments with the gypsiim alone must be unsatisfactory.

204

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

I would therefore take the liberty of suggesting that
a third heap of manure be added to those recom-
mended by the Professor, and tliat this be watered
with dilute sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol. One
ounce of the concentrated acid to a gallon of water
will make a solution sufficiently strong for the de-
sired purpose. Let this be used in the same way as
the Professor instructs tlie use of gypsum, each
layer of manure being watered by the dilute acid.
llie ammonia u-Ul he thus fixed at once. Care
must however be taken, in this experiment, not to
supply too much acid, or the result will not be cor-
rect, because sulpluiric acid in excess acts as a
manure itself by uniting with lime in the earth and
thus forming gypsum. The test of the whole of the
ammonia being fixed is the following : — Take a
piece of rag, and dip it into muriatic acid ; hold
this immediately over the dunghill, and if ammonia
is escaping, there will be a white layer of muriate
of ammonia on the rag.

In conclusion, let me express how deeply I con-
sider the agriculturists of Suffolk are indebted to
Professor Henslow for the exertions which he is
making in tlieir beh:.df, in bringing his well known
talents to bear upon one of the most important
subjects that can possibly affect the interest of the
British farmer.

I am, sir, your obedient servant,

Stowmarket, Jan. 14. C. R. Bkee.

LETTER IIL

Gentlemen, — Mr. Bree has correctly asserted
that two comparative experiments alone, such as
those I have suggested to you, cannot afford con-
chisice evidence of the utility of gypsum in de-
composing the carbonate of ammonia, formed
during the decomposition of certain organic mat-
ters in a dunghill. It was not from inadvertency,
as he suj)poses, that I proposed to restrict you to
the consideration of those two comparative expe-
riments. By referring to that address to the Had-
leigh Club, which has been the occasion of my
commencing these letters, you will see that I have
noticed the direct action of gypsum upon plants ;
and also, that I have briefly alluded to the anoma-
lous relations under which lime and ammonia
appear to stand with regard to each other, in their
affinities for carbonic and sulphuric acid, to which
Mr. Bree has likewise referred. But for the pre-
sent I had rather not enter into these considera-
tions. Let us only get the two exj)eriments I have
proposed to you, repeated by not less than fifty
experimenters, in different parts of the county, and
I think it very possible that we may need no fur-
ther trials. Should any ambiguity remain, it may
easily be cleared up by a few very simple experi-
ments afterwards. 1 am very anxious, in a first
eftbrt,not to involve the question in greater com-
plexity thnn may be absolutely necessary ; and I
am afraid that a third heap watered with sulphuric
acid would not much assist us. If you are desi-
rous of ascertaining whether free gypsum is
capable of producing any effect in the particular
soil in which the experiments arc being tried, it
may be aitplied at once to that soil without the
manure. If I had supposed that only one or two
of yourselves were likely to attempt the solution
of the problem I have set yon, I should have asked
for a dozen different modes of preparing the dung-
heaps ; and I had thought of proposing that five,
and not two pieces oidy, of ground should be set
apart ; but afterwards, I considered the plan I

have suggested would, upon the whole, prove to
be the best. Only we are dependent upon numbers
making the trial, if we are to hope for anything
like success. Althougii I am still of opinion that
the challenge may rest as it is framed, for the gene-
ral sweepstakes ; yet, as Mr. Bree has suggested
an improvement (for no doubt it would be one),
for you to determine whether some free gypsum
in the dunghill may not be producing a specific
effect, I will suggest to the doublti energetic among
you a second brace of experiments, viz. : 'Jo
set apart two pieces of land of the same size as
those you propose to manure with our two dung-
hills, and let one of these be prepared with gyp-
sum and the other left untouched. If the results
should not be needed otherwise, it may be of im-
portance to you to ascertain whether the particular
field in which the experiment is made require gyp-
sum or not.

From a private communication which I have re-
ceived, I fear I have been imperfectly undei-stood
as to the scale upon which it may be considered
necessary to carry on these experiments. My
correspondent expresses his fears that the neces-
sary care, time, and expense required will prevent
many of you from attempting them — " To comply
with your terms (he writes), it would be requisite
to put two equal bullocks into two equal yards,
equally exposed to the weather, equally drained,
equally littered, equally fed ; and this carried on
for three months at least ; and the result carried
out into a heap and turned, and left for three
months more, and then applied to equally good
land : the coming up and growth of the crop
watched for nine months ; thrashed and marketed
in three months more ; in all eighteen or twenty
months, 'i'he patience of no farmer would hold
out so long." Now, I certainly had no idea of
taxing a farmer's patience with all these minutiae.
In leaving it open to the zeal or judgment of every
one to proceed as far as he might choose, I have
perhaps said too much about noting the time it
may take in preparing the dunghills, though I did
not suppose this would at most include more than a
few days. I will state, therefore, what may be
considered as sufficient for those who have no in-
clination to go further.

1. Mark out two pieces of land, each about one-
eighth of an acre, in the same field ; and settle
before-hand bow much manure yon consider they
may ruquire.

2. Weigh out as much straw as may be required
for preparing the requisite quantity of manure.

3. Measure out and mix well together as much
fresh dung, of any or of all sorts, as may be re-
quired.

4. Place the straw and dung in alternate layers,
sifting the gypsum over the dung in one heap as
already directed, &c., &c.

All this need not occupy more than a good
morning's work ; though if larger dunghills are
to be prepared, the time of preparation should be
noticed, on account of the possible escape of the
carbonate of ammonia. In those preliminary ex-
j)eriments which chemists or botanists may attempt
for the purpose of interrogating nature, there can-
not be too minute or laborious attention paid to all
the details ; but when the results of such experi-
ments appear to have ascertained some natural
law of vegetation, which may be considered as
bearing directly on the pursuits of agriculture,
then the further experiments which the agricul-
turist himself is called upon to make, are of a

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

205

miich coarser and less elaborate character ; and
none of them need be made a tax upon his lime,
patience, or ])ocket, to any very forniidable extent.
An ordinary degree of attention to weigiits and
measures is generally all that will be called for —
little more, in fact, thnn the practice of the market
itself require?. But success is mainly to be looked
for ('/( the iniittitude of co-operators accumulating a
sufficient number of positive facts. All England
might be converted into one great experimental
farm, if our different agricultural societies would
prepare accounts of the exact mode in which some
hundred farmers might perform a set of easy com-
parative experiments at the same time, and send
in the results of them. 'J'his is what is most
needed for accelerating the present jog-trot pro-
gress of agriculture into something like a railroad
pace of advancing. A multiplicity of most impor-
tant questions might then as speedily be settled as
you, gentlemen, farmers of Suffolk, mean to de-
cide whether Liebig is right or wrong in recom-
mending gy])sum to you for fixing ammonia in
your dunghills.

In concluding this letter, allow me, once for all,
to thank the few gentlemen who have already,
and those many gentlemen who intend hereafter,
to assist in these discussions. The greater the
number who enlist under the banners of free dis-
cussion the better. I, for one, shall be quite ready
to acknowledge any error that may be detected in
my statements, or to attend to any suggestions
which I may feel convinced are improvements
upon them ; for you must understand that 1 am
not an accomplished chemist, and that I have no
experience as a practical agriculturist, and am
therefore very likely to be caught tripping. But
let us all agree to dispense with mutual compli-
ments, and to preserve our tempers, and truth in
the end will not be far from us.

Your obedient servant,

Hitcham Rectory, Jan. 21. J. S. Henslow.

PROBUS FARMERS' CLUB.

BONE DUST AND TURNIPS.

In consequence of the severe weather which oc-
curred at the late anniversary of the Probus Far-
mers' Club, the members were prevented from vi-
siliog the farm of Carnwinick, and examining the
improvements made thereon as intended ; and, ac-
cordmgly, Thursday, the 26tb of January, was ap-
pointed for this purpose.

This farm is the property of C. 11. T. Hawkins,
Esq., and is under the management of Mr. Trethewy,
ef 'i'rewithen. Previous to the year 1835, it was a
barren waste, — heath and fuize being the only co-
vering of the soil; and it had been let for ticn sltUUiii^s
per acre. Some attempts had been made to cultivate
small portions of this waste, about twenty-one years
since, using lime as a manure, but without success.
In the spring of that year, Mr. Trethewy resolved
on trying the eflect of bone dust, which had just
been introduced into the county, by Mr. Strong, of
Exeter; and, accordingly, some few acres were
broken and sown with turnips, one portion of which
was manured with bones, at the rate of three quar-
ters to the acre, the price then being 17s. per quar-
ter. In the years 1836 and 1837, it was cropped
with oats, and then laid down to pasture up to the
present time.

The attention of the members of the club was par-
ticularly drawn to this field. The portion where
the bone dust had been used, had a most luxuriant
appearance, whilst the other part exhibited a state of
the greatest sterility. It was as if a lino of dis-
tinction i)ad been drawn between rich and scanty
herbage — between a green meadow and a barren
soil; and we understand that the effect of the bone
dust was as perceptible in both crops of oats, as it is
in the pasture at the present time.

In the year 1836, Mr. Trethewy broke up another
piece of the waste, which was sown with oats ; and
on the following year a similar crop was taken,
using as a manure for ahout one half only, two
quarters of bone dust to the acre, sown broad cast,
after which the whole was laid down to pasture. We
understand that where the bone liadbnen used, the
crop of oats was particularly good ; and at the pre-
sent period, the line of distinction on the pasture is
so perceptible, that the effect of tlie bones mightbe
seen at almost any distance where the eye could
reach, and from all appearances will remain so for
years to come.

This was a convincing proof to the members that
bone dust was not only valuable for a present crop,
but that it was a manure that left its durable effecls
on the soil beyond every other kind.

Other similar cases were shewn us, where the
same beneficial effects had been expeiienced, in two
jiatches particularly, one being broken in 1837, and
the other in 1838. They had been sown with tur-
nips, and manured with bone dust, which produced
most excellent crops ; after which a crop of oats
was taken, and then pastured, up to the present
period. And in another piece of about six acres,
which was broken in 1839, and sown with Swede
turnips, an excellent crop was produced ; since
which, other crops have been taken, and the clover
at the present time is very luxuriant, and equal to
land let at 40s. per acre.

In 1840, another piece was broken and sown with
turnips, with bone as before, and oats in the follow-
ing year ; both crops were excellent. In November,
1841, it was ploughed once only, and without any
other cultivation sown to turnips in June, 1842.
This crop was also good, and plainly proved that
turnips after grain may be produced without either
spring or summer ploughing. In 1841, another
large portion was broken, sown with Swedes and
afterwards cropped with oats, using the bone manure
only, which answered as well as before ; and last
year, another piece of six acres was broken, four of
which were sown with Swedes, and manured with
bone dust. The members of the club acknowledged
that this was decidedly the best crop of turnips
which they had seen for the season.

The general plan adopted by Mr. Trethewy
through the whole period had been to consume about
one-half of the turnips on the land, by folding slieep
thereon, whilst the remaining half was carted to the
farm yard for the cattle. In a few instances, in or-
der to test the value of some other manures against
the bone, he has instituted experiments on small
portions of the dilTerent^fields, with Lance's, Poit-
tevin's, and Clarke's manures, the urate of the Lon-
don Manure Company, and Guano, all of which he
found to be extremely useful, though failing evi-
dently in their durability on the land.

The estate of Carnwinick is about 100 acres, 50 of
which Mr. Trethewy has thus brought into good
cultivation, in the manner wo have described, since
1835. Its general appearance is that of patches of
verdure and sterility — the cultivated portions

206

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

strongly contrasting with tbe uncultivated ones, and
the naked and barren waste of Trelyon common ad-
joining.

In tbe farm yard, there were twenty bead of cat-
tle feeding on turnips, among wbicb were a few
tolerable specimens of tbe Devon breed, some good
specimens of a cross between tbe Devon and the
Sbort-born, and four of tbe West Highland breed — a
hardy race, possessing great aptitude to fatten, and
well adapted to some of our mountanous districts.
In addition to the members belonging to Probus,
there were several practical agriculturists from the
adjoining parishes also present, who expressed them-
selves not only pleased at what they saw, but sur-
prised at the improvements which had been effec-
ted in so short a period, and at so trifling an ex-
pence — an expense evidently within the reach of
every farmer, since there was a decided profit
produced en the outlay even on tbe first crop,
whilst theland in appearance was equal to tbe same let
at from 20s. to 30s. per acre. The soil lies on the
clay slate rock, and may be considered as a fair
average of the commons and downs lying on tbe
same stratum, in the parish of St. Stephens,
which might all be brought into a similar state of cul-
tivation by using the same means.

CORN AVERAGE PRICES.

Opinions differ much on the effect produced by the
addition of the 138 towns by the Corn Law Act passed
last session. The subjoined table shews that the effect
has been to raise the averages in every case except one.

Averages

Averages

Averages

taken from

taken from

published

the 150 Towns

the 138

weeisly in

only, named

additional

the London

in 9 Geo. IV.

Towns only,

Gazette.

c. 60.

named in

5Vic.I. C.14.

2&! ^^i

s. d.
64 10.321

s. d.
64 7.838

s. d.
65 10.463

65 8.006

65 8.612

65 5.726

23

65 4.251

6S 3.006

65 8.563

30

63 9 357

63 8.907

63 10.692

Aug. 6

61 2.999

60 10.730

62 1.924

13

68 11.035

.58 3.182

60 5.878

20

56 5.149

.55 11.019

57 8.521

27

55 0.928

54 6.866

56 4.737

Sept. 3

53 3010

52 10.738

54 3.318

10

51 6 744

51 2 071

52 9.070

17

52 8-992

52 7.801

53 0.627

24

54 0 564

53 9.334

54 9.845

Oct. 1

53 2-200

52 3 206

55 11.601

8

51 6765

51 3,386

52 5.273

15

51 1-216

50 11.043

51 7.620

22

50 9-465

50 5.281

51 10,237

29

49 5 492

49 1 431

50 6.349

Nov. 5

48 7-668

48 3 227

40 9.097

12

48 8-671

48 3.816

40 10.336

19

49 8-340

49 7.033

49 11.967

26

49 6 570

40 3.645

50 3.265

Dec. 3

48 6-007

47 6.722

49 3.362

10

47 3.904

47 1.695

47 10.5.34

17

46 10.546

46 9.104

47 2.871

24

47 2-276

47 1.387

47 1 897

31

47 1 280

46 10,979

47 7.903

1843.

Jan. 7

47 1.211

46 9.093

47 9.996

14

47 10.107

47 8.592

48 2.753

21

49 1.602

48 9.117

50 2.616

28

49 3.082

48 11 703

50 0.603

Aggregat* weekly

average

52 10.304

52 6.049

S3 8.188

CHELMSFORD FARMERS' CLUB.

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE CHELMSFORD
farmers' club for THE YEAR 1842.

The committee have much satisfaction in communi-
cating to the members of the Chelmsford Farmers'
Club a summary of its proceedmgs during the last year,
and they look with confidence for its continuing pros-
perity and usefulness. Since the formation of the club,
external circumstances, in some lictle degree unfa-
vourable, have occurred ; but on the whole the results
have been both gratilying and valuable. The discus-
sions at the monthly meetings have been productive of
considerable information on some of the most import-
ant question? of agricultural practice ; and the absence
of the restraint which practical men sometimes feel in
large public assemblies, has, in these monthly meet-
ings, elicited many most useful remarks and opinions,
which, there is reason to believe, would not have been
delivered in meetings of a more mixed and public cha-
racter.

The experience of every day affords abundant proof
of the value of farmers' clubs in diffusing a knowledge
of the principles on which the cultivators of the soil
may or may not be successful in the various operations
of their practice.

Abstract science alone cannot make a good farmer ;
and but a few years ago practical men were too apt to
treat all theory as worthless — if not mischievous —
speculation ; but a new light has now broken in upon
those who are engaged in agricultural pursuits, and the
elucidations of some of the most scientific men of the
age have clarly shown, that with a view to improve-
ment, it is necessary to look to the nature of the
root and trunk of the tree, and not to remain satisfied
with the fruit its branches may spontaneously yield.
The committee, therefore, earnestly recommend to
their brother agriculturists the study of principles as an
important guide in practice, at the same time rejecting
idle projects, which, though specious in appearance,
are, on examinaiion, found to be inconsistent with long
and successful experience. The value of scientific
principles can only be tested by experiments— the best
of all possible instructors for intelligent men, having
general practical knowledge of the matter to which the
experiment is applied.

With these few preliminary observations, your com-
mittee deem it proper to lay before you the following
sketch of the proceedings of the club during the year
1842.

The club was formed at a public meeting, held on
the 17th December, 1841, IVIr. llobt. Baker, of Writtle,
in the chair ; and after several aicetings of a provisional
committee, 'rules for the governance of the club were
drawn up, and a committee, achairman, and a secretary
for the ensuing year were appointed.

The first monthly meeting was held on Friday, the
28th of January, 1842, at the Chelmsford Institute,
and the subsequent meetings have been held at the
same place.

At the first monthly meeting, on the '28th of Jan.,
thiG chairman favoured the club with a valuable dis-
sertation on draining, illustrating it by drawings. Mr.
O. Copland alio made some useful observations on the
same subject, accompanied with drawings. After a very
interesting discussion as to the best methods of drain-
ing (in which several other members joined), the meet-
ing separated wiiiiout agreeing to any resolution ; and
the subject will be renewed at an early period.

The other subjects of discussion, and the resolutions
of the meetings thereon, have been as follows : —

The canses, prevention, and remedying of defective
plants of wheat, and preventives of the devastation
committed by slugs and insects.

Resolved —That the slug and wire worm are most
destructive to the wheat plant.

That the application of lime and salt to the seed pre-
vious to sowing the wheat is destructive to the slug and

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

207

wire worm, and that lime is beneficial both before and
after sowing the wheat.

'I hat dibbling or drilling in wheat is the best mode of
remedying a defective plant.

The »uihing, managing, and applying, of farm-yard
manure.

Resolved — That the best method of making manure
i s to do so under cover, with as little water as possible ;
and in tlie absence of sheds, to do so as far as the avail-
able means will admit.

The soiling of horses and cattle npon green crops in
yards, as a means of economizing the food, and in-
creasing the quantity and quality of the manure.

Kesolved— That as a general principle for econo-
mizing food, and producing the best manure, green
crops should be mown and fed intlie yards.

Thai horses should not be permitted to feed out of
the yards during the summer.

That cattle upon farms with little pasture should be
kept in the same way.

That sheep should be folded on the clovers, h;iving
the fold changed frequently.

That rye, Italian ryegrass, lucerne, tares, and red
clover, are best adapted to keep up the proper succes-
sion of green crops, fdr soiling, so as to ensure a con
stant supply.

The best method of producing and securing a good crop of
turnips.

Resolved — That in fallowing land for turnips the land
should be ploughed early in autumn, and immediately
after the removal of the grain crops.

That manure put on at this season and ploughed
repeatedly with the land will produce better turnips
than if put on immediately preceding the sowing.

That the land should be allowed to remain as long as
possible between the two last ploughings.

That immediately the land has been ploughed, it
should be sown, rolled, and harrowed, without allow-
ing opportunity for the moisture to escape.

That the ridge system of IS or 27 inches is best
adapted to produce Swede turnips. The ridge should
be formed, the dung deposited, ploughed in, drilled and
rolled without any delay, which can be easily effected
upon large occupations".

That turnips should be hoed as early as possible, to
prevent their being drawn up weakly and to facilitate
their growth.

That a plant is better secured from the fly, by
manuring well and drilling a large quantity of seed.

That in pullmg turnips for storing, the tops should
be wrung and not cutoff; the roots should bo lelt on
with the earth attached, and the turnips should not be
pulled with a hook.

That in storing, the turnips should either be collected
in heaps of about ten bushels each, covered with straw
and then with earth, or be carted home, placed between
hurdles of the width of six or eight leet, and slightly
thatched, and further protected by placing mulch or
straw round the sides during severe frost. They should
on no account be carted before they are perfectly dry.

That if turnips be put in clamps, great care be taken
not to cover them too closely, njr to put ihem in clamps
of more than six feet in width.

That Swede turnips should not be stored in enclosed
buildings, as so doing would rvduder them liable to get
into fermentation and rot. Swede turnips may also be
stored by ploughing into furrows, and covering them
wiih earth from the next furrows, and so on m suc-
cession.

The best method of catting and harvesting grain crops.

Resolved— That it is the opinion of this meeting that
the system of bagging, or, as it is otherwise termed,
fagging, is the best mode of cutting wheat.

First — Because it occasions less loss of grain, the
labourer, if expert at the work, bein» able to secure
nearly every ear.

Secondly— Because all the straw is obtained, and the
expense of haulming dispensed with ; the value of the
straw so obtained being equivalent to 20s. per acre.

Thirdly — Because the sheaves of wheat by standing
further above the stubble, are more exposed to the air,
and admit it more freely.

Fourthly — Because no earth is taken up in the pro-
cess, as is frequently the case with mowing wheat; and
the wheat is not tied so closely as in reaping.

Fifthly — Because the land is at once cleared for the
next crop, wijhout the process of haulming, which is a
saving of at least from three to four shillings per acre.

That the proper time for cutting wheat is when the
straw has become yellow for three or four inches below
the ear ; bnt if mildew be apprehended, and the wheat
has not changed to a yellow colour so soon as might
have been expected, then it cannot be cut too early,
and it is advisable at all times to commence cutting a
little too early rather than too late, both as regards the
improvement of quality and the quantity of grain.

That as regards oats it is advisable to cut them before
they become quite ripe, as the straw is thereby greatly
improved tor the purpose of food, and the oats are pre-
served from shelling in the field, and if a few not quite
ripe should after thrashing be kept on the straw, they
are not lost, as the cattle will find them.

That it is advisable to bind oats, especially if the
crop is a heavy one ; bnt they should not be bound im-
mediately after cutting, but merely be laid in the band
two days previous to binding.

That beans should have the latter green beans cut
out and laid in the furrows a few days previous to cut-
ting the general crop. The beans should be placed in
the form of a cone, and bound round securely with
those which have been previously cut, and if they are
well managed they may be pitched on the waggon and
transferred to the stack with almost the same facility as
those bound with spun yarn ; the beans also will resist
rain much longer by this mode than if they were bound
in the ordinary way.

The resolution respecting the bagging of wheat is
strongly recommended to the attention of the members
of the club ; and it is hoped that the utmost exertion
will be used to adopt it immediately in this district, as
from the forwardness of the present harvest there is
almost a certainty of its succeeding. It is also recom-
mended to use the bagging hook with the improved
bent shank.

The best method of preparing land for wheat — the va-
rieties best adapted for light or for heavy soils— the
best method of steeping or %uetting—and the best
method of soviing.

Resolved— That a good clover ley is best calculated
to produce a full crop of wheat— that it should only be
ploughed once previous to sowing- that if there is a
misplant of clover, the land should be ploughed fleet or
struck at Midsummer.

That a bean or pea etch kept clean is the next best
preparation for wheat— that on tender or light soils
cultivated on the four-course system (when the beans
or peas take the place of clover) the etch does not (if
clean) require to be ploughed more than once for the
seed, but that on heavy soils farmed on the six-course
system of husbandry — when the beans are grown in
the filth year and far from the fallow, it is best to gain
tilth for the wheat, by ploughing the land about imme-
diately alter harvest.

That on most soils it is not advisable to manure a
good clover ley for the wheat crop, as the manure may
be more profitably applied to other crops.

For heavy land in a good state of cultivation rough
chaflp white wheat is best adapted ; for mixed soils, the
hedge-row or launton Dean, Syer, and Smoothey's red
are best.

That the best method of welting wheat is in a solu-
tion of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol). The quantity
recommended generally for a sack of wheat is one
pound of the sulphate to two gallons of boiling water ;
the solution to be applied while warm.

208

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

That as soils and circumstances arc so various, the
club can come to no determination as to the best method
of seeding. They consider that it must be left to the
judgment of the pradical farmer to make use of the
drill, the dibble, or the broadcast system of sowing'
wheat, according to circuniftances.

The best and most economical method of keeping farm
horses,

Eesolved— That one bushel of oats weekly is suffi-
cient for a farm horse during the summer and winter
months, between the seed times.

That it is injudicious to take horses entirely from
corn during the winter.

That Swede turnips, carrots, and mangel wurzel,
may be economically used in feeding horse?, but as it
is considered that the greatest consumption of food
upon the farm most benefits the land, it is most ad-
visable under ail circumstance-; to feed the horses on
grain, and to use the green food for neat cattle and
sheep.

That salt is beneficial to horses, and ought to be used
at all times— in moderate quantity.

That beans are beneficial when used in small quan-
tities, as a substitute for oats, in the autumnal months,
but it is best to use them with bran or pollard, which
may be effected with less expense than with oats.

That it is advisable, both with regard to economy
and benefit to the horses, to cut hay and straw together
for them in preference to feeding them with hay alone ;
the proportion to be 561bs. of hay to two trusses of
straw : wheat or oat straw to be preferred. From 24
to 301bs. of the chaff daily is sufficient for an ordinary
sizeil horse. During the seed-time, or in any period of
liard work, from 10 to 151bs. of oats daily are required
in addition ; but the quantity of chaff should be Jimi-
nished in proportion as the qu inlity of corn is in-
creased.

That it is advisable at all times to bruise the oats be-
fore using them.

'J'hat the principal point with regard to economy in
feeding horses is the assiduity of the horseman, and his
giving the food in small quantities at each time, feeding
them regularly, and for a long time together.

Tt7iat varieties of stock pay best; the causes and best
method of treating ilie disease that has for some time
past been so injtiriously prevalent among stock.

That Kent sheep are decidedly best for marsh land,
as being hardy and producing an excellent carcase ;
but they are not so well adapted for arable land.

That Southdowns are best adapted for dry pasture
or dry arable land, and the Hampshire downs for
general purposes, especially upon the heavier descrip-
tions of land.

That half-breds, between the Leicester aad South-
down are most disposed to fatten, and they come to
maturity earlier than any other description of sheep,
and are well adapted, when the food is of good quality,
but the mutton is not so valuable as either the South-
down or Hampshire down.

That pure Leicesters are disposed to fatten beyond
any pure breed of sheep, but as they are not grazed to
any extent in the county, their qualities have not been
fully discussed.

That Hereford oxen are best adapted for stall feeding
and dry and ^varm pasturage.

'J'hat Durham and Devons stand next in position,
Galloway Scots the next, and all the short-horns and
Scots before the Welch varieties, of which the best are
ihe South Wales oxen.

That the Highland Scots, the North Wales, and the
Durham are beat adapted for summer grazing, with
Herefords, &c, ; but in every point the West Highlands
are best adapted for the mar.-hes.

The discussion on the question of disease was prin-
cipally relative to its affecting sh^;ep, and it was
resolved,

That the disease was originally entirely infectious,
but is now more frequently epidemic, or belli.

That the disease is inflammatory. The system is
first affected, subsequently the feet. The inflammatory
action goes on until matter is found ketwecn the
sensible part of the foot and the hoof, and con-
tinue? until it finds vent at the top of the hoof,
which ultimately comes off, and foot-rot frequently
succeeds.

That the principle of cure is obvious, and the
experience of persons in the meeting confirms the
utility of first giving the animal one ounce of salt,
and the dose repeated in twenty-four hours. The
hoof should be cut away between the claws, until
bleeding ensues, or the matter escapes. The sheep
should be kept on dry pasturage until the cure is
effected.

Your committee next beg to call your attention to
another subject, viz., the formation of a permanent
library for circulation and reference. This has been
attended to so far as the funds of the club would
allow, and a nucleus has been formed, around which
it is hoped a large accumulation of books will, ere long,
take place. Several periodical agricultural publica-
tions are regularly added to the library, and a few
members have kindly lent some books for the general
use of the club, ihe committee beg to remind the
members of the utility of such a library, and hope that
in the present year it will receive a large increase either
by gift or loan.

The next point to which it is the duty of the com-
mittee to ailvert, is the present state of the club with
respect to the number of its members, and to its funds.
The present number of members is 73. The receipts
have been the annual subscriptions of members (10s.
each), and the items of expenditure, the rent of
Institute, purchase of books, advertising, printing,
stationery, and postage — leaving a balance in hand of
about 8/.

As several gentlemen who are not members have on
this occasion honoured the club by their presence, the
committee beg to introduce the following brief sketch
of the objects and rules of the institution : —

'J'he objects of the club are the advancement and dif-
fusion ol agricultural knowledge.

The officers are a chairman, treasurer, and secretary,
and a committee of management, elected annually.

The members of the club meet monthly, on the Fri-
day on or next succeediug the full moon, for the discus-
sion of subjects connected with agriculture.

The chair is taken at half-past four o'clock, and the
meeting terminates at balF-past seven.

Any member may propose for discussion a subject
connected with agriculture, on giving notice to the sec-
retary.

A candidate for admission as a member must be pro-
posed and seconded by members at a monthly meeting ,
and balloted for at the next meeting.

No person can be admitted as a visitor more than
once, without the consent of the committee.

An annual meeting of the members is held in January.

The annual subscription is ten shillings per annum,
to be paid to the secretary in advance.

Having noticed all that occurs to your committee,
of information and explanation, they conclude by ex-
pressing a confident hope that the members of the club
will continue to attend the monthly meetings as often
as may be in their power, and use their utmost endea-
vours to enlarge the sphere of its utility. The agricul-
turists have too long been passive and disorganised.
While every other class of the producing part of the
community have been uniting and labouring together
for the benefit of their general interests, the cultivator
of the soil has been isolated from his brother cultivators,
and without the means of advancingihe general interest
of the body to which he belonged. Each agriculturist
laboured and improved but for himself, and had not the
opportunity of offering to others the expensive and la-
borious advantages of his own experience, with a cer-
tainty or even a jirobability of an equivalent return.
But the time has arrived when he finds that he must be
up and doing. The spirit of enquiry— the desire for

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

209

improvement, and the acquisition of knowledge, are no
longer confined to the factory or lo the general hive of
manufacturing' industry. The why and ihe wherefore
are now asked on tha broad acres of }3ritain a> well as
in the laboratory or the workship ; and the aid of
science is now called in to ascertain the qualities and
capabilities of soils — the principles of vegetable and ani-
mal organization and growtli — the best applications of
manure, and to promote the improvement of agricultu-
ral implements. A^'riculturists laow meet to give and
to receive information, and there is diffused into their
body at large a spirit of enquiry and a unity of feeling
which must produce the liappiest results, not only to the
cultivator ot the soil, but to every inhabitant of Great
Britain. These ends and these results cannot be better
promoted than by a zealou-=, and.ubove all, by an active
personal support of institutions formed on the princi-
ples of the Chelmsford Fanners' Club.

THE PLOUGH.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Sib, — la your last montb's masjazine your readers
are favoured with what purports to be an '' Essay on
the mech inical properties of Ploughs." Had the

author contented himself with treating generally of
the principle upon which all ploughs ought to be
constructed, and their various properties, 1 should
not have thought it necessary to say anything on the
subject ; but, conceiving the purport of the "essay"
to be rather to pufF a particular implement — its object
an attempt to convert a fancied superiority into
reality — 1 am induced to forward a few remwrks in
reply, bv way of protest against so unwarrantable
an inference being drawn from your correspondent's
positive affirmations.

Mr. Smart's sole end and aim appears to be to
show that the turn-wrest plough possesses properties
of which the fixed-wrest plough cannot boast, and
which, indeed, may in some degree account lor bis
" essay" being unsuccessful in obtaining a prize
from the Royal Agricultural Society.

The chief advantage Mr. Smart contends for, is
the power the turn-wrest plough has of turning the
furrow slice completely over. Now, what more
efiVctual plan could be adop'ed to leave the land flat
(which Mr. Smart so properly deprecates) than just
to invert its original flat position, and which the
figure in the "essay" shows that the turn-wrest
plough accomplishes ?

1 he two figures that Mr. Smart introduces to
elucidate his position, are quite sufficient, in my
opinion, to disprove what he wishes to establish.

y^ ,^

Work performed by " Turn-wrest Plough," as described by
Mr. Smart.

"Work as performed by " Fixed-wrest" Plough.

The practical man, at a glance, will not hesitate
to give his preference to the lieof the furrow-slices
— as shewn by the section of the work performed
by the fixed-wrest plough over that performed by
the turn-wrest; first, because parts of two sides
of the slice arfl exposed, which will the beiter en-
able the weather to penetrate, if that is the object
wished ; and, secondly, the angles will aflord
greater facilities for ob'aining a mould, by means
of the harrow, than a flat surface can furnish.

I fully agree with your correspondent, that
ploughing is one of the most important operations
in husbandry ; but, at the same time, I must beg
to retain my opinion that if the work can be
performed efficiently with two horses, it is nothing
but sheer waste to use lour.

In the concluding paragraph in the "essay" Mr.
Snaart expresses a hope that an unprejudiced trial

will be made of the various ploughs. He appears
to forget that many such trial- have been made,
nnd thnt the re«;ult has ever been to prove the
"turn-wrest plough" to lie the most burdensome
implement (nearly one-third more than any other
plough). With regard to efficiency of work,
I contend there is just as much corn grown
on land ploughed by two hoises as there would
be th lUgh four were employed.

Siiould INlr. S. wish to see his giganticimplement
tried once more, an opportunity will be afforded
him at the next annual meeting oi the E^ist Suffolk
Agricultural Association, when I understand it Is
intended to have a geneial trial of implements, but
more especially ploughs.

I have the honour to remain.

Sir, your most obedient servant,

Su/o//c, Fe6. 21. Harrv Flowerdew.

210

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY.

Every thing on a faira ought to be turned to ac-
count. The farmer must have horses to labour
his f5elds, and cart his produce. He must feed
these horses at considerable expence ; and shall he
not turn their dung, urine, and litter, to the best
account? He must have cattle also to consume
his straw, to breed, and yield milk, and thus ena-
ble him to pay a part of his accounts. Shall he
not turn the excreinent of these cattle to the best
account? He requires an establishment of ser-
vants and labourers; if these have not employ,
ment.they will steal from him, or leave him.
His wisdom then is to consider how he can em-
ploy them with economy and advantage.

We hear much of foreigners taking our manu-
factures for their produce. Will foreigners take
our farm dung for their guano and bones ? I trow
not. What then? The farmer has an article which
he can neither sell nor barter ; and this article,
when properly prepared, is the vevM best manure
for raising his crops. Is he to throw it down the
water, or allow it to go to waste, that he may give
a large sum to foreigners for an uncertain substi-
tute ?

If, as on entering a new farm, he needs to pur-
chase part of the manure for the first crop, it may be
important to know at what market he can obtain
the cheapest and best supply; or, if part of his
farm is too hilly to admit cartage of dung, he may
find it cheaper to use bones or guano; but in all
ordinary cases he may, with skill and attention,
supply bis wants from his own resources. It is,
therefore, unfair to charge the price of farm dung
in opposition to that of purc/iased articles, because
It has cost the farmer almost no expence but what
he would have incurred, even if he had neglected
it. The charge of dung is putting money out of
the farmer's right hand into his left; while the
charge of other manures is sending his money
abroad.

I have said that farm dung is the very bent
the farmer can have. In mine of 29 th
Nov. last, I showed that its chief function is to
supply carbon to plants in the form of carbonic
acid, and that by the combined aid of warmth, air,
moisture, and slight alkaline reaction, it gives off
carbonic acid, to betaken up by the roots as they
need it. When soils are rich in decaying vegeta-
ble matter, a slight dressing of alkaline or saline
manure wdl assist the evolution of carbonic acid,
and bring forward a good crop. But it is the ten-
dency of all other manures except dung or decay-
ing vegetable matter, to exhaust and impoverish
the soil. It is true that plants take up between one
and two per cent, of inorganic matter from the soil ;
but It is also true that they contain about^/"/?/ per
cent, of carbon. Every farmer knows four 'facts
which bear on this subject. (1 .) He knows that if he
go on limingand cropping without dung, he will gra-
dually render his fields barren. Thus lime enables
him to exhaust the soil by removing its carbon.
(2.) He knows that the period in which his fields
are_ chiefly exhausted is the ripcjimj season, a
period when plants are giving alkalies back to the
soil, and largely accumulating carbon. (;{.) He
knows that wheat requires a warmer and richer
soil, and is more exhausting than oats. AVheat, in
ripening, takes uj) carbon much more rapidly than
oats; but wheat docs not contain half the weight
of inorganic matter wliich oats contain. Krr/o,
wheat robs the soil chiefly by abstracting carbon

or decaying vegetable matter. (4.) He knows
that a crop of turnips, though it takes up more
than te)i times the weight of inorganic matter which
a crop of wheat takes up, enriches rather than im-
poverishes the soil; and why? because the tur-
nips are not allowed to ripen their seed, and per-
haps draw more of their carbon from the atmos-
phere. Corn plants ripen chiefly after their leaves
have become hard and begun to fade. Hence it is
absurd to suppose that these dying leaves can ab-
sorb from the air the carbon which fills the husk.

The inference from these facts plainly is, that no
manure can permanently support fertility, except
what contains carbon in a state capable of giving
off carbonic acid ; and as no manure equals good
farm dung in this quality, it is obviously the best
(as it is the cheapest) wliich the farmer can have.
I3ut it not only contains carbon in this state ; it
also contains all the inorganic matter required by
agricultural crops. The farther discussion of
questions connected with this important point
must be deferred.

By the kindness of Professor Johnston, of Dur-
ham University, I am favoured with a very interest-
ting detail of experiments performed on different
crops in 1{:42, with a view of answering several
important questions connected with manures. The
sheet will probably be published in the next num-
ber of his Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry. I
can at present refer only to the first set of experi-
ments, performed on the estate of Lord Blantyre,
near Haddington, on a field which bad been furrow-
drained and subsoil-ploughed. The object of these
experiments was to ascertain — (1.) " Whatare the
relative effects of different saline substances upon
the turnip crop under the same circumstances ?
And (2.) How far may these substances be em-
ployed a?o»e to supersede farm-yard manure in the
culture of turnips ?"

The part grown with "farm-yard manure was
a fair average crop," and this shows the field to
have been in fair condition for culture. Not one
of the ten lots treated with other manures (as salt,
rape-dust, nitrate of soda, sulphate of soda, guano,
soot, and mixtures of these,) yielded one-fourth
of a good crop. "They show Csays Professor
Johnston) — (L) That saline manures in that loca-
lity cannot economically take the place of farm-
yard manure, even for a single season. (2.) That
saline manures are even hurtful in the present
condition of the land, when employed alone — pro-
ducing a smaller crop than if no manure had been
applied at all, and some of them in a remarkable
degree. This appears to be especially the case
with common salt, which, at the rate of one cwt.
an acre, reduced the crop of bulbs nearly to one
half of what was yielded by the nnmanured portion
of the field. It is still more striking that nitrate
of soda, applied at the same rate, should dimi-
nish the crop, though in a less degree than com-
mon salt, and that soot should almost kill it en-
tirely, and that fifteen cwt. of rape-dust per acre
should produce scarcely any effect. In regard to
guano, it was applied in too small a quantity to do
all the good of which it was capable had it been
laid on more largely. If six or eight cwt., instead
of one and a half cwt., per acre had been used, the
crop would probably have equalled that obtained
by the use of farm-yard manure.'*

I may remark that both soot and guano have
been found valuable in gardens, and wherever there
is an excess of decaying organic matter along
with a deficiency of alkaline matter.

THE rAllMER'S MAGAZINE.

211

In answer to the request of " An Agriculturist,"
I beg to refer liim to Professor Johnston's Lec-
ture " On Liming." His last number on the theory
of the actinn of lime, just published, contains
substantially the same view which I stated in the
Herald of 1st December last, and treats the subject
with much persjjicuity. Liebig's " inorganic"
theory will soon be a matter of history.

Feb. 13, 184.5. G.

GYPSUM AS MANURE.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — An interesting letter appears in your last
number, written hj the Rev. Professor Henslow to
the Bury Post, in which experiments on the appli-
cation of gypsum to manure heaps, for the purpose
of fixing the ammonia, are suggested to the Suffolk
farmers.

Gypsum in many parts of England is difficult to
procure, and in such places would be expensive ; in
addition to which, it is almost invariably sold in the
state of rock, and requires grinding or pounding be-
fore it is applied, which, with most farmers, would
be found a troublesome operation ; and every little
difficulty of this sort would operate against its use.
Again, gypsum is so sparingly soluble, that under
the average circumstances of the farm-yard dung,
the moisture would be insufficient to its solution ;
and consequently a large portion of the gypsum
would remain undissolved, and of course could not
act.

Now, common salt is almost everywhere to bj
had cheaper than gypsum, is very soluble, requires
no pulverising, and will act equally beneficially in
fixing the ammonia.

If gypsum is used, the carbonate of ammonia
becomes sulphate, and the sulphate of lime becomes
carbonate of lime, which is comparatively useless.

If common salt be employed, the carbonate of
ammonia becomes muriate, and the common salt is
c«nverted into carbonate of soda.

The muriate of ammonia is as fixed a salt as the
sulphate of ammonia, and thus the important end
in view is equally answered at less cost and less
trouble. The generality of farmers having no che-
mical knowledge, and perhaps little faith in the
results of these plans, it is desirable to render the
operation as simple as possible.

We have, however, a lother most important ad-
vantage in using common salt as compared w
gypsum, as the double decomposition in this case
leaves us in the manure carbonate of soda instead
of carbonate of lime, as in the case of gypsum.

Now, carbonate of soda is a most powerful sol-
vent of vegetable fibre, and consequently a most
valuable agent in preparing the manure to act on
plants.

The description of salt to be used should be the
common rough salt of commerce, which is to be
had in Liverpool at from 10s. to 1.5s. per ton ; and
I should suppose that a peck measure full applied
to the farm-yard manure once a week, by sowing it
all over the surface with the hand, would be suffi-
cient for a farm of 100 or 150 acres ; and I believe
the result would be highly beneficial to the farmer.
Salt would appear to have been anciently used on
the dunghill, from the expression in scripture — that
if the salt has lost its savour, it is neither fit for the
laud or the dunghill.

I am, sir, yours, respectfully.

Ammonia.

BURTON- U PON-TRENT
FARMERS' CLUB.

We hope to be able to present our readers with a
monthly report of the proceedings of the Farmer's
Club of this town, which cannot fail to interest
many and to advance in some degree the object of
that society in spreading useful information on
agricultural subjects.

At the last meeting, held on the 13th January,
the discussion turned on one of the most import-
ant branches in the art of agriculture — " the best
method of draining land." Mr. Bass had engaged
to introduce the subject, and as he was unable to
attend, a short essay, which by the assistance of
an intelligent friend he was enabled to lay before
the meeting, by way of directing the discussion to
the points he thought most worthy of examination,
was read for him. He chiefly wished to seek the
advice of the club, on the plan of " draining strong
lands," now known as " thorough draining."
Where the land is wet from springs, the under-
water must be removed, or the draining could not
be called thorough. Where the land was wet
through the retention of the water which fell on the
surface, the difference between a thorough and an
imperfect drainage, chiefly consisted in the depth
and distance of the drains. He thought the right
principles were those advanced by Mr. Smith, of
Deanston, and his followers. The land which lies
on a retentive bed should be brought as much as
possible to resemble that which rests on a porous
bottom. To do this, the drains must be as deep as
plants penetrate. Two feet was the least depth.
Thev should he as near together as was necessary
to lay the ground dry, not only effectually, but
quickly; sometimes as near as ten, and in lighter
loa-ns forty feet asunder. The depth should be
greater if the soil were porous at two feet deep,
because if as much water passed through the side
of the drains in the third, as the second foot down-
wards, the distance apart need not be so great.
The proper distance apart and the depth of the
drains, were the first requisites of their efficiency.
If the trenches could be left open the draining
would be perfect. The construction of the closed
drain should be with a view to preserve the same
advantages as the open trench. In such soils the
water is removed by percolation, through its sub-
stance and the side of the drain, was the filter. It
must therefore be preserved, and there must be a
free channel below to give vent to the water. In
proportion as a drain fulfilled these purposes it
approached to eflSciency, and its importance next
to its efficiency was its permanence. If the trench
were filled with thorns in the lower parts, and
covered well, to prevent direct openings through
the top, an efficient drain would be made, but not
lasting. Nevertheless in heavy clays they would re-
main along time. In lighter soils the sides of the
drain would fall in and choke the passage. A rub-
ble drain of stones made a better drain, and if well
made might continue an indefinite time. It would
answer best in heavy soils. In light soils the
side and bottom of the drain would fall and the mud
could not be removed, but would rest in the cre-
vices of the stones. This was its inferiority to the
tile. Besides it was not cheaper except where
stones could be gathered on the ground. Conduit
drains of stones were as good as tiles, biit usually
more expensive. Tiles were the best drain, if well
made and properly filled up. He thought that a
perfect drain was a tile with a sale, covered with

P 2

212

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

stones, and a turf over tbe stones to prevent the
soil from falling in above. But stones could not
often be had without too much expense. A turf
over the tile and upper soil over it was the usual
way of filling. It was very well at first, but the
turf would decay, and there would be soil washed
into the channel. There ought to be a layer of
stones, or of screened gravel immediately above the
tile and around it, or the soil would gain access.
A quick fall in the drains was good to remove col-
lections of mud, and was open to no objection where
a sole was used to the tile. He thought a sole
needful in every case of either clay or more open
soil to prevent the sinking of the tile. The filling
up with a porous material was the first essential,
without it the water could notflowinto the drain.
To prevent the wear of the bottom of tbe drain,
and the falling of soil into tbe channel, were the
secondary, but not less important things to be at-
tended to ; they were all too often neglected.

Thorough draining was opposed to surface drain-
ing ; but pure clays could not be thoroughly
drained, and poor soils would not pay for a tho-
rough drainage. They must be thrown in a good
form by ridge and furrow. Every soil of good tex-
ture would pay for thorough, better than for im-
perfect drainage. In conclusion he thought such
improvements as draining ought always to be ef-
fected by tbe landlord, who miglit charge interest
to the tenant on the outlay, or increase the rent
according to the increased fertility of the soil. In
the first case the tenant took the risk, and in the
second the landlord ; but he thought there were
few cases in which it would not be the landlord's
interest to take the whole risk and chance of pro-
iit on himself. It was seldom the interest of the
tenant to invest money in draining, because he re-
quired a return of ten to fifteen per cent, on his
capital, and the tenancy from year to year, which
is tbe common custom of letting lands, made the
case in which it was his interest stili more rare.

Mr. Pratt, of Cauldwell, in consequence of the
unavoidable absence of Mr. Matthew Gisborne,
was called to the chair, and gave great satisfaction
by bis adroit manner of eliciting the opinions of
each gentleman supposed to be most conversant
with the subject for discussion.

The experience of the club had been mostly in
deep draining for springs. Mr. Roper of Blakeley
Lodge, gave many instances of the good eifects
upon the land effected by drainage. He agreed
with the opinions of the proposer as to the effici-
ency, and the practicability of the system on strong
lands on an impervious subsoil, but he doubted
whether it could be applied in any case where wa-
ter could find its way from belov/ (Mr. Bass had
in his paper expressed his opinion that there might
be such cases). Mr. W. Higgott, of Branston, also
explained the methods he had pursued and had
found a thorough draining profitable. Mr. W.
Hollier, of Walton, and several other gentlemen,
also took part in the discussion. Mr. George
Greaves, Mr. Joseph Nadin,and Mr. Robert Chap-
roan, of Greslcy, put the meeting in possession of
some valuable geological information respecting
the rise and progress of springs ; and on the best
methods of obviating their injurious effects upon
the land. The club expressed their concurrence
in the views of the proposer, though there was
much difference of opinion as to the necessity of
soles to the tile in strong soils. Mr. George
Greaves doubted whether the system of thorough
draining laid down by Mr. Smith, of DeaDston,and

adopted in the essay just read, were applicable to
the generality of the land in England, believing
as he did, that the land in Scotland on which Mr.
Smith's experiments had been chiefly tried, dif-
fered widely in its geology from the generality of
land in this country. We believe the meeting did
not coincide with the opinions of Mr. G. Greaves.

Mr. Bass was requested by the club to permit
the paper to be published, as they thought it would
do good to direct the minds of the farmers of the
neighbourhood to an examination of the subject.
W^e have reason to believe it will be circulated in
the shape of a pamphlet.

At tbe meeting, Febraary Otb, M. Gisborne, Esq.,
president, in the chair, the club took into considera-
tion " the advantages to be derived from a more
general adoption of the drill system both on light
and heavy soils." There was scarcely the slightest
difterence of opinion as to the superiority of the drill
over tbe broadcast method of sowing for every
description of crop. The increase of crop caused
by tbe destruction of tbe weeds, and tbe diminution
of the labour of cleaning the land in tbe intervals of
the crops, were thought to afford an ample return for
tbe extra expense of drilling and hoeing. There
arose a good deal of discussion on tbe tjuestion how
far it was practicable to extend the practice to tbe
heavy soils, as well as on some other imjjuted ad-
vantages of the drill. Mr. Roper, the proposer of
the subject, thought drilling both pulse and white
crojis might be applied to the very heaviest soils,
if they were on a dry bottom, and said that during
an extensive experience on the estates of INIr. Pole,
of Radbourn, be had never been prevented from
drilling on strong land, except during the wet win-
ter of 1841. As soon as tbe crop was gathered in
the autumn, be ploughed the land, and, if possible,
got out tbe weeds, and laid it up in ridges till tbe
spring, when be scarified tbe land, and drilled upon
a stale fuirow. He preferred three yard lands, so
that tbe horses might never step from the furrow
and poach the ground ; but this could not always
be done on lands which had long been used in ano-
ther form, for tbe form could not be changed without
much damage. If the land were ploughed early
enough, he thought there would seldom be any
difficulty in getting tbe strongest soils fine enough
for the drill, and whether we sowed drill or broad-
cast the same fine tilth would repay the labour.
Some of tbe members thought that in many soils,
and in wet seasons, it was impossible to use the
drill for spring sowing, but the majority agreed that
it might be much more used than it is in heavy lands,
and the club came to this resolution on the point : —
" That the practice of drilling was beneficial
wherever it could ho follovred, and that its use
might be greatly extended to tbe heavy soils." The
next question was tbe saving of seed. Mr. Roper
thought seed was saved in two ways by tbe drill.
All the seed sown by drill was sown at tbe depth
required, while of that sown by broadcast some was
much too deep, and some much too shallow. A
given quantity of seed would produce a greater
quantity of plants. The saving of seed in white
crops from this cause would average one-sixth. The
stirring of the soil around tbe young plants, and the
destruction of tbe weeds, caused each individual
plant to extend its roots further, and to thrive more
vigorously, and, consequently, fewer plants wero
neededj and he is of opinion that one bushel of seed
by tbe drill would yield as much as two sown

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

213

broadcast. There was a vigorous opposition to the
latter oi)inion. IMr. Daniel lulvocnteil tlic doctrine
laid down ia Lord Western's letter, which is a
liberal allowance of seed at a rather wide distunce.
He was followed by the majoritj' of the members
present, and the club came to this resolution : —
" That no saving of seed was effected by the drill
farther than by its producing more plants from a
given quantity of seed." Then as to the saving of
manure. Mr. Roper contended that not only was
the application of manure rendered more efficient by
being- put in the immediate neighbourhood of the
plants, but tbat a less quantity of manure was re-
quired in a course of husbandry to produce a given
quantity of produce. He bad found two quarters of
bone dust go as far when drilled with tlie seed as
three quarters sown broadcast, and when the turnips
were eaten on the ground the subsequent crops were
quite as large from the smaller quantity of dust. He
had seen the same thing with rape cake. He was
joined in opinion by Mr. Win. Greaves, who said
that part of the manure scattered broadcast must
be necessarily consumed by the weeds, which was
consumed by the additional crop when the weeds
were hoed up, and tliat the weeds did not return the
manure back again. He thought also that in light
soils it was not good to give more manure than the
immediate crop required, as it would evaporate into
the air, or he washed through by water, instead of
remaining for the subsequent crop. The majority
of the members argued, on the other side, that crops
consumed manure in proportion to their bulk, and
that if the immediate crop consumed more the sub-
sequent ones would fall off; but it was admitted
freely that by placing the manure in the vicinity of
the plants, their vigorous growth was ensured with
more certainty, and the club came to the resolution
— " That there was no saving of manure by the
drills, but a more efficient and beneficial application
of it." As to admission of light and air, and heat,
between the rows, there were various opinions.
Some members thought the drills should run north
and south, in strong lands, to catch the sun, and
east and west in light lands, to escape bis rays. ]\Ir.
Roper did not attribute much of the good effect of
drilling to this cause. JMr. Joseph Uickin was of
opinion that it was of little importance in white
crops, which carried their leaves and flowers at the
top to admit tlie current of air and the light between
the rows, but of great advantage in bean and pulse
crops, which podded low. The podding at bottom
was always the mark of a good crop of beans, and
be had found this g^reater in the drill than by broad-
cast. Mr. G. Greaves also thought that mildew was
favoured by damp, and that the intervals of the drill
rendered the wheat less liable to it. As to the de-
struction of weeds, all agreed tbat this was the main
object of the drill, and the chief source of the in-
crease of the crop. Mr. Roper thought that to drill
and not to hoe was to favour the growth of weeds,
and diminish instead of increasing the crop. There
were no advantages which could be put in com-
parison with those springing from the hoes. Some
members thought that the use of the hand hoe in
white and pulse crops was not effectual in quelling
the root weed as well as annuals, and many that the
horse-hoe was much more efficient. Others, on the
contrary, said they had experienced a great falling
off of the root-weed, and thought the hand-hoe as
efficacious as the horse-hoe in this respect. In crops
at wide intervals, the horse-hoe stirred the ground
deeper and admitted air, and was less expensive;
but iu white crops the hand-hoe was thought safer

and better. No horse-hoeing, it was thought, could
kill weed as a fallow kills it by exposing it to the
sun, and it only checked weed as the hand-lioe does,
by cutting off the early shoots, and keeping it down
till the roots of the crop have obtained possession of
the soil. It was resolved on this point — " That the
hand-hoeing of crops has great effect in diminishing
the quantity of root-weed." After these main ad-
vantages of an increased produce, a destruction of
weeds, and consequent lessening of labour in the
tillage, others of lesser weight were insisted on. The
clover and grass seeds were put on a clean bed, and
on unoccupied spaces, and they throve better. One
member remarked, that the red clover often ex-
hausted itself in the first year, if sown early, and
with the drill it was hoed in late. Drilled crops, by
being free from weeds, stood uj) better, and rose
more quickly after being beaten down ; for the same
reason they required less field room. One member
said it was customary with him to mow his barley in
the morning and carry it in the evening.

The subject proposed for debate at the next meet-
ing, is the " growth of turnips on strong lands," by
Mr. Daniel,

PLOUGHING MATCH.

On Tuesday, February 14, a ploughing match of
a first-rate character took place at Baumber, on a
piece of land (kindly lent for the occasion) in the
occupation of Joseph Hunter, Esq., between seven
farmers' sons — most of them having gained cups
at other meetings. The following are the names
of the young men for a sweepstakes of 20s. each :—

John Richardson, Sturton ; Edward P , Stur-

ton ; Joseph Hance, Borwell ; — Nicholson, Tel-
ford; John Gilbert, Sturton; — Evison, Wes-
pington ; — Strawson, Heniingby.

They ploughed half an acre with two horses
abreast in four hours. It was a slight frost in the
morning ; towards noon a great many gentlemen
and farmers in the neighbourhood were present,
and were highly gratified at the superior manner
in which the work was done by all. Mr. Thomas
Hodgson, of Market Stainton, and Mr. Thomas
Westoby, of Belshford, were the judges. The
first prize was awarded to young Strawson, of
Hemingby ; the second to John Gilbert, of Sturton ;
and the third to young Nicholson, of Belshford ;
and the judges expressed great pleasure in find-
ing the work done in so masterly a manner.

A dinner was provided by Mr. Addison, at the
Ram Inn, where nothing but good feeling pre-
vailed.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FAR-
MER'S MAGAZINE.

SiRj — A writer in your magazine for the present
month, who subscribes himself "Practice with
Science," must be told that he, as well as Peter
Cowan, is deficient in an acquaintance with, at
least, one science — I mean that of phrenology ;
otherwise he would not have so dogmatically as-
serted that the same law which influenced the pro-
gress to perfection in animals and in plants, did
not hold good when applied to the improvement of
the mental faculties in man. I admit that numerous
instances may be cited where " the offspring of

214

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

men gifted with great mental powers are deficient
in that respect," but the cause of that deficiency
can generally be traced by the phrenologist,

When " Practice with Science" shall have devo-
ted the same attention to the consideration of the
moral improvement of the human race as he has
evidently done to that of the improvement of agri-
cultural animals and plants, probably he may see
reason to admit that the operation of the laws of
nature are in both cases the same. N.

AGRICULTURE.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE REPORTER AND CHRONICLE.

Sir, — If you can afford space for such quiet sub-
jects as those which concern agriculture, when the
proceedings of Parliament fill your columns with
more interesting matter, I should be glad to be
allowed to offer two or three observations on tlie
agricultural report in your last, from a North Derby-
shire Farmer. From the spirit of his own remarks
I feel sure that he will be pleased to have an op-
portunity of answering the objections I think may
be made to some of his opinions.

I agree with him that the farmer is now-a-days
placed in circumstances which require all his skill
and energy to meet the diflSculties of his condition.
I do not quite agree with him that these difficulties
have been broiight on by tlie alteration in the Corn
Law and Tariff, though certainly the sliding-scale
has not been much of a protection during the last
half year. I can remember, too, many times in
which agriculture was depressed while the so-called
protection of the corn-law was greater than now to
attribute the present low markets to a remission
of the protective system. But without disputing
about the source of the altered state of things, it
is certain that we must now-a-days bestir ourselves
and seize every improvement which can lessen
our expence or increase our produce.

Your reporter has, I think, somewhat indis-
criminately disparaged three of the most useful
innovations in the practice of farming; and without
attempting to go at length into their merits, T
will endeavour to remove the objections he makes
to new manures, the subsoil plough, and thorough
drainage. He classes them all among those things
advised by politicians, which, if followed, would in-
crease the payments of the farmer without a cor-
responding increase of his produce.

"If, for instance," he says, " new manures be
injudiciously applied in forcing and stimulating
white crops continuously, the land will be ex-
hausted, and the condition of the fanner made
worse." Here, I think, he overleaps the true point
of danger as to new manures, and places it where
there is none which docs not equally belong to our
staple farm-yard manure. The danger is lest far-
mers should rashly waste the new manures on
land which is not fitted for them. But if it be ad-
mitted that the new manures will increase the
white crop to a profitable degree, they will also
increase the green crops, and I see no reason on
earth why farmers should be more injudicious in
over-cropping their land with old than with new
manures. I have been accustomed to regard the
new manures, and to sec them used to increase the
quantity of farm-yard manure, and to add to in-
stead of diminishing the fertility of the land.

Agreeing with Mr. Smith, of Deanston, that a

thorough drainage is the first step to good farming,
and agreeing with him further as to the distance
and parallelism of the drains, the reporter goes
on to say that he thinks a deeper drain than
twenty inches superfluous — the subsoil-plough
useless, and that the drains should be in the fur-
rows. It must be confessed that the plan of
draining tenacious clays, described by him, is an
excellent system of surface draining, but still it is
not a thorough drainage, nor according to the
Deanston principles. That there are soils so te-
nacious and impervious as not to admit of the me-
thod of Mr. Smith, I can well conceive. The prin-
ciples of thorough drainage I take to be, that the
water should all pass through the soil and subsoil
into the side of the drains. In a pure clay this is
not possible, and the water must be removed
by suffering it to fall down steep ridges into
the fuirows, either over the surface or by percola-
tion through the upper soil, and fall into the drains
through the top. By this plan the drainage can-
not be called thorough, for the subsoil is not
drained, and the roots of the deep seeking plants
are still in the wet. But in any subsoil which docs
admit of percolation through its substance by pla-
cing the drains near enough and deep enough,
the whole body of the soil and subsoil is laid dry
to the depth of the drains. The use of the sub-
soil plough, considered merely as an agent in
draining, is to improve the texture of the subsoil,
and to convert an impervious into a permeable
substance. It is recommended by Mr. Smith to
wait two or more years after draining tenacious
clay lands before the subsoil plough is used, in
order that the soil may become more friable, and
the numerous crevices it makes may be more per-
manent. By means of it the whole subsoil is
made capable of admitting the flow of water from
side to side, and I cannot suppose the channels by
the mole-plough, at distances of eight or ten feet,
can drain the subsoil in an etjually efficient man-
ner. I do not doubt, therefore, that the plan of
Mr. Smith would more effectually drain such a
soil as the reporter describes, though, perhaps,
the less perfect plan may be most expedient on
clay pastures. As to the depth of the drains, when
the subsoil is impervious at the depth of twenty
inches, so that no water will flow into the drain
lower, it is of course useless to go deeper than is
necessary to make a secure drain ; neither, I be-
lieve, would Mr. Smith recommend it except the
subsoil plough be used, in which case the drain
needs to be deeper to allow the plough to pass
safely over it. But in all soils which are permeable
at the depth of two feet or more, I believe the land
is greatly improved by being drained to that depth,
and ill most cases by making the drains deeper we
are enabled to widen the disiance and effect a
much greater saving of materials than the cost of
the extra cutting. As to the question whether
the drains should be in the furrows, 1 admit that
in the plan of drainage described by the reporter
that it is necessary to place them there, as he says,
to "facilitate the discharge of water into the
drained furrows." But I believe he would find it
difficult to piove that " more sun and warmth" are
given to the land by laying it ridge and furrow.
Mr. Siuitb, in his lecture, told us why the land
should be laid flat, and if a thorough drained field
be in the same condition as a field naturally well
drained, I see no reason why one should be laid in
a different manner to the other.

I agree with the reporter that tile drains, well

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE

made, are better than stone. It is only when
stone is at ham], and tiles not to be come at, that
I would use rubble drains. I do not believe it pos-
sible for any sediment to be removed from a rub-
ble drain, and they therefore require extreme care
in making them, and are very liable to get nut of
order. 1 wish our farmers in this district would
imitate the excellent method of using the tile prac-
tised by the reporter. We too frequently see the
tile laid without a sole at the bottom, and no care
bestowed in filling up t!ie drain with porous mate-
rial—two things which I consider essential to a
good and lasting drain.

The reporter seems to me to do great wrong to
the subsoil plough in considering it merely as an
assistant in thorough drainage. He says "the
truth resolves itself into this, that the whole cre-
dit claimed by the subsoil plough is due to the
efficient drainage previously applied ;" thus he not
only denies it any efficiency in draining, but also
any merit in improving the soil or favouring ve-
getation after it. Now, I believe, if he will consult
the reports of those who have used the subsoil
])!ough, he will find that its efficacy in draining te-
nacious soils is admitted by all, but that its effect
in ihis way is infinitely less than its value in im-
proving soils which are already drained. The
soils which do not require drainage have, in fact,
been those which have been most benefited by
its use. It would take np more space than you
could afford me, if I were to adduce any proof of
what I have advanced, and I fear I have written at
too great a length already. In conclusion, I beg
to assure your reporter that ray wish is like his
— the improvement of agriculture and the benefit
of the farmer ; and I shall be glad to meet him
again in a friendly spirit if he thinks what I say
worthy of comment.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

Feb. 8. A South Derbvshire Farmer.

New Agricultural Implkment. — There
was exhibited in the iMnrket-place on Monday, a pa-
tent *' convertible cultiva'or," the invention of Mr.
J. Hall, of this town. The peculiar properties of
this machine are, that it is made with parallel and
tilting motion frames, now fcr the first time, it is
stated, brought into operation, and that in the ma-
chine may be fixed anq instrument for the general
purpose of tilling the soil, the frame being alike
suited to all. Previously to setting this machine to
work, the delvers and crushers can be fixed, so as
to penetrate to any required depth into the soil, and
the arrangements for this purpose can be ensily and
quickly varied when necessary. Motion is given to
the delving and crushing wheels, by the delvers and
crushers acting against the ground in a contrary di-
rection to the line of draught of the horses or other
animals employed to draw the machine. From the
bind wheels revolving in the spaces between the
front wheels, they not only serve to break up any
clods or lumps which may have been imperfectly
acted on by the front wheels, but are also of great
use in clearing away anv earth or rubbish which may
adhere to the delvers and crushers of the front
wheels. For a full description of this instrument,
which has been pronounced " one of the most cle-
verly contrived and efficient of the kind" ever in-
vented, we refer to the jSlechanics' Magazine, of Ja-
nuary 21st, to which we are partly indebted for the
terms of the above notice. — CambridM Advertiser,

ON THE FERTTLIZIN<bK>ilOPE:fe^<r
TIES OF BONE MANURES.

Sir, — In Professor Liebig's "Agricultural Che-
mistry," page 184, Playfair's translation, is an im-
portant practical receipt. He is treating upon the
fertilizing properties of bone manures ; and, after
stating that 401bs. of bone-dust per acre is sufficient
to supply three crops of wheat, clover, potatoes,
turnips, &:c., with the requisite quantities of phos-
phates, he goes on to say — " But the form in which
thev (the phosphates) are restored to a soil does not
ajjpear to be a matter of indifference ; for the more
finely the bones are reduced to powder, and the more
intimately thev are mixed with the soil, the more easily
are they assimilated. The most easy and practical
mode of effecting their division is to pour over the
bones, in a state of fine powder, half of their weight
of sulphuric acid diluted with three or four parts of
water ; and after they have been digested for some
time to add 100 parts of water, and sprinkle tiiis
mixture over the fields before the plough ; in a few
seconds the free acids unite with the bases con-
tained in the earth, and a neutral salt is formed in a
very fine state of division." He afterwards pro-
ceeds to shew the beneficial effect of it thus applied,
and states that neither corn nor kitchen-garden plants
suffer in consequence.

The practical value of this suggestion is well
known, and has been adverted to in the public
journals, and particularly, I believe, in the 3Iark
Lane Express, by a very intelligent correspondent
from Scotland : it has become the property of
chemistry ; but, if it belongs to any individual, it
certainly is the. property of the learned and illus-
trious Professor of Giessen, to whom the scientific
world is under manifold obligations; and doubtless
numbers of the readers of your valuable journal are
at present engaged in putting this ingenious sugges-
tion to the test of experiment. Of that number I am
one, and being so, permit me to draw the attention
of yourself and readers, as it is a subject of some
interest to the British farmer, to the specification of
a patent lately published in the London Journal and
Repositurtj of Arts and Science and Manufactures, an
extract from which is published in the Chemist of the
present month, page 7 2. After staling that the
improvements consist in decom|)osing bones, bone-
ash, &c., &c., previous to using them as a manure,
by mixing them with a quantity of suljihutic acid,
sufficient to set free as much phosphoric aoid
as will hold in solution the undecomposed phos-
])hate of lime, the notable discoverer, John Bennet
Lawes, Esq., of Rothampstead, BerUs, goes on to
claim, amongst other things, firstly, "The combina-
tion, for the purposes of manure, of bones or any
other substances containing phosphoric acid with
sulphuric acid, as aforesaid ;" secondly, " Ihe com-
bination, for the purposes of manure, of phosphoric
acid with any of the alkalies, potash, soda or am-
monia, or any of the alkaline earths, lime, or mag-
nesia or alumina, as aforesaid :'' thus, in the first
place, claiming the whole of Liebig's process ; in
the second, the practical application of its resulting
compounds to agricultural purposes.

Having made these remarks, I leave the public to
draw their own conclusions, and will merely remark
that scientific discoveries ought ever to minister to
the arts of life, and to individual interests only when
a fair and legitimate claim can be made to them or
their practical application. Chemicus.

Feb. 6.

216

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THEORY OF MANURES.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPHESS.

SiK, — la tlie last number of your valuable and
iiuprovingf paper, a Dumfriesshire correspondent
makes some remarks on the theory of manures.

He admits that soils are exhausted by crops, but
denies that " by applying to soil those matters which
one crop has taken up, we restore it to its original
condition, and render it capable of yielding another
crop equal to the first." He wns sure that Mr. Han-
nam would find this verified bv making the experi-
ment on on exhausted wheat field, and that, even if
he applied, proportionally to the crop of wheat he
ox()pcfed to leap, the nicely estimated quantities de-
tailed in Sprengel's analysis of ibis grain, allowing,
as be prudently proposes, "a little for rain," and
odds " the field will be barren indeed if it does not
coniain a litile of each to help his crop."

Your correspondent must surely be a«are that
no soil, capable of *up(.orting vegetation, is utterly
destitute of organic salts nnd acids and the mineral
alkalies or alkaline earths in some niea-^ure, and he
may ea,ily satisfy himself of this by a glance at the
mineral composition of rockv masses in general ; but
he is mistaken in supposing that on this account
most or all soils comain " a IiiiIh of each of them."
A -soil .nav even produce tolerable crops of various
kind-;, and still be destitute of one or other o* these
desir^ihle e ements. Of this he can easily satisfy
himself iilso, bv again consultmH: the celebrated Ger-
man chemist whose h'gli authority he has cited.

No scientific ag- iculturi»t for a moment supposes
that he is jiisufied in expecting a crop of wheat,
merely if to a soil almost destitute Of the necessary
elementary bases and acids, &c. a proportion of all
these be applied equivalent to what a crop of wheat
should remove from it. Hut he holds that ifa crop
of wheat is reaped from the soil, and the straw re-
turned to it, and the grain sold, and that he returns
also a propoitiori of feriilizmg matter propor-
tionate in chemical value to the grain he has sold
and so removed, he will be preserving his land in a
Stiite of unit'onn fertility. That in every rotation
he is bound, as nearly as his circumstances will ad-
mit, to restore to the soil in one sliape or another
a quantity of fertilizing matter as nearly as pos-
sible proportionate to what has been removed from
the soil during the course of that rotation.

Who could reasonably suppose that the roots of a
single crop could extract from a barren soil every
particle, minus " a little for rain," of a measured es-
timated quantity added to it, ^^ith the vain hope of
securing by ibis measured quantity a crop of a cer-
tain bulk and valuel It is not possible that any one
could imagine that the roots of a single crop could
so effectually and unsparingly permeate and exhaust
every interstice and particle of soil of its accidentally
appropriated portion as to recover and embody in its
own organization the whole of the limited quantity so
added. But if a crop of wheat is reaped and a fer-
tilizing equivalent added, the fertility of the soil may
be indefinitely preserved.

Another consideration too is worthy of attention,
viz., that the various fertilizing substances in the soil
are constantly preserved in a ceaseless and unvarying
state of progressive decomposition and recomposi-
tion— that they must undergo many such changes
before they are capable of entering by the root pores or
spongioles, so as to be afterwards deposited as a por-
tion of the suhslance of the jdani, and that very tew
substances indeed can be applied to the soil as ma-

nures in a form calculated for their immediate ab-
sorption by vegetables; and that usually a much lon-
ger time must elapse before the entire produce of
the substances are in a fit state to be appropriated by
plants, than that which passes from the period of
sowing to the reaping of a grain crop. But if a crop
of wheat be reaped from a fertile soil, it only ex-
hausts a portion of its fertility, that portion which
has undergone the changes necessary to fit it for the
wheat plant ; and by restoring this portion in che-
mical viilue the fertility of the soil may be rendered
permanent. But the roots of the plants would only
remove such congenial particles as came within their
reach, and could by no means exhaust the soil of
its fertilizing principles. It is wrong to suppose that
ifa soil be effectually exhausted, and even a very
large portion of raw restoratives added with a view
to its recovery, that it is immediately ])laced in the
same sitration as a soil that has never been so ex-
hausted, but has had its energies carefully nursed by
a uniform interchange of enriching manures for eciui-
valent produce reajied in every rotation. The last
contains fertilizing compounds in every varying
stage of progress — the first, though the chemical
elements have been copiously superadded, still re-
quires a certain time to prepare and mature these
compounds.

Your correspondent also says that " if the che-
mical action of the roots is of the healthy character,
a slight excess there, in part, compensates deficiency
of solar action at the leaves ; but if the solar and
tertesiriai actions do not nearly balance each other,
little value will be reaped." JMost certainly if the
" terrestrial action," as I understand his meaning, is
in excess, the |)lantis likely to increase too much in
length without [lerfecting its seeds in time. It must
however be borne in mind that lime in the soil tends
to encourage early maturity in the crops. And your
correspondent would also do well to remember that
the " solar action" always increases the " terrestrial
action" in a great degree, particularly in a rich soil,
and with abundant moi*ture also encouraging lig-
neous development. When the soil is poor or in-
fertile, of couisethe ligneous growth is diminutive
and soon checked and ovei. The '' solar action"
has theiefore quite as great an influence as the '' ter-
resirial action" has "on the leaves."

He is quite correct in saying that " the effect of
the disposing influence is extensively manifest in all
natural agencies." For instance, the formation of
acid compounds in the soil is much promoted by the
presence of lime. Lime promotes the decomposition
of the organic substances it accidentally meets with
in the soil, by pre-disi)osing them to the formation
of such acids. Therefore raw elements added to a
fertile soil, always, in this latitude, containing lime,
&c., pass rapidly through the various successive pre-
paratory stages, and are much sooner converted
to fructifying usefulness than they would
be in a soil either barren or containing noxious
principles, which they would require to combine
with previously perhaps and neutralize.

He is wrong in talking of an excess of manure
being necessary to produce permanent fertility; only
so much is required as just to render the soil suf-
ficiently rich, and afford, by a gradual and sustained
decay, a moderate but uniform sujiply of wholesome
vegetable food. To effect this it is not necessary to
lay on manure in excess. 'I'his would be waste.

He is perhaps right in remarking generally that
too little attention is paid to climate.

Nevertheless it is unquestionable that draining,
liming, and sufficient manuring, particularly bone

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

217

manure, bave enabled the Higbland farmer to creep
up eminences witb a stealtby but steady step; and,
if not retarded by the late deterioration in value of
ngriculiural produce nnd stock, there can be little
doubt that these encroaciinients on the domain of
the heath and the dingle for turnip "round, so indis-
pensable to ensure winter food and numerical in-
crease for the neighbouring flocks, will go on rapidly
increasing in extent and value.

I have the honour to be, Sir,

Your very obedient servant,
Hampstead, 18th Jan, J. A.

STEEP LIQUORS, DISINFECTING
NIGHT SOIL, BONE DUST, &
GYPSUM.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANR EXPRESS.

Sir, — Having as little inclination as leisure for
additional correspondence, yet desirous to have the
proposed steep liquors, referred to in your last, dis-
cussed by intelligent practical men, I hand yo>i a
copy of the original letter, in which the inquirer
will find the information he desires. It is a prac-
tical, not a chemical question, that it requires to be
examined, and your correspondents must not ex-
pect me to take any part in the discussion.

There is another question in your last, which
may as well be answered whilst the pen is in my
hand — " How much gypsum will fix the nitrogen in
night-soil, und how long will it be in disinfecting it?"
The proportion required depends chiefly on that of
urine present; but as gypsum is a useful manure
and cheap, it is as well be sure to put enough — say
1 j cwt. per ton; even 2 cwt. would do no harm.
But gypsum does not " disinfect ;" that is, destroy
the offensive smell: it only fixes the ammonia,
which contains the nitrogen. Burnt bones will do
both ; and best when burnt in covered vessels, so
as to be only charred, not calcined. But, whilst
their " disinfecting" power is great, they are not so
good fixers of ammonia as gypsum; and as, in cal-
cining, they lose almost half their weight of animal
matter of the most fertilizing quality, more will
be lost in this process than will be gained by their
action on the night-soil. Gypsum is perhaps the
best fixer of ammonia ; and dry coal ashes in
towns, or charred hedge-sods in the country, the
best destroyer of the bad smell, which they both do
almost instantly. Sods do not act so M-ell when
the black is burnt off them ; the carbonaceous
matter being the chief disinfector. Turf ashes an-
swer almost as well. Any of these ashes will
fix the ammonia also if pretty freely used, and
so will tanners' refuse bark, or acid matter of any
kind. Peat or bog-turf is an excellent fixer of the
ammonia ; adding, at the same time, much to the
quantity and value of the manure. But for
destroying the odour, ashes and charred substances
are best: soot mixed with saw-dust answers both
purposes.

This is a hasty and abrupt account of what
might be much better explained in fuller detail ;
but I have only leisure to add that, it is pity ever
to burn bones for manure. They may be broken
and fermented with wet sheep's-dung, well bedded
and covered with moist earth, peat, or sods, to ab-
sorb all gases, when they become much more active

and friable. Stable-dung may do where sheep's
dung is not at hand ; but they must not be allowed
to get dry and fire-fanged.

To a former letter from a " Lancashire Agricultu-
rist" I may take this opportunity to observe, that
it was not for my own " pleasure," but for the
benefit of the farmer the letter he referred to was
written ; that, whether the " farmer will believe it"
or not, seems rather his business than mine; but
that if he will turn back to your paper of the 19th
December, he will see an account of good crops of
turnips from IGOlbs. bone-dust per acre, instead of
the IjOOOlbs. allowed by, Sir, yours, &c.,

J. Prideaux.

SEED PICKLES, OR STEEP
LIQUORS.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE PLYMOUTH HERALD.

" Lpt us bear always in mind, that while the country grants
protection to agrieiiliure, it will expect, in return, that the
land shall be cultivated in the best and most productive
manner." — Daijbeny.

Sir, — The practice of steeping seeds may have a
two-fold object — the cure or prevention of disease ;
or quick germination and early growth of the young
plant. The first is the purpose for which seed-
wheat is generally pickled ; the latter being more
ajiplicable to spring sowing. Of all the plants that
would profit by quick germination and early growth,
none would gain more than turnips, by getting out
of reach of the fly. An objection here meets us at
the outset ; experience has abundantly proved the,
advantage of sowing turnips with the drill ; in which
damp seeds would hang, and soft ones might be
crushed. The dampness may, however, be cured
by shaking with fine sifted and dried bone dust ;
and there are some drills in which soft seeds may
pass without crushing. At any rate, if great ad-
vantage can be gained by steeping, we may safely
leave this mechanical objection to the ingenuity of
the machine maker.

I throw out the suggestion for the consideration
of practical men ; and now, out of the season, to
allow time for its consideration and discussion.
Tlie liquors are borrowed from Sprengel, whose
works not existing in English, are accessible to few
British farmers : but he must be exonerated from
whatever impropriety there may be in their appli-
cation to turnips, as he does not mention that seed
in the case; only saying, generallj'^, that seeds thrive
best, after steeps of the same nature as the manures
which best agree with them when growing.

" Phosphoric acid," he says, " properly diluted
with water, effects such extraordinary quick germi-
nation and early growth of the young plant, as to
have often struck me with surprise. This acid does
not corrode the seeds, even in a strong solution ; thus
quite unlike the other mineral acids. I have em-
ployed it for steeping a great varietj' of seeds, and
found it useful to all. The strength was one acid
to 400 water, and the seeds remained in 15 to 20
hours ; but even 48 hours does not hurt them.
Since this is so prompt a promoter of germination
and early growth, I should recommend its employ-
ment on the large scale ; first ascertaining by expe-
riment, the smallest proportion that will answer ;
not from fear of hurting the seed, but on account of
the expense, phosphoric acid being a costly article."

218

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

Thus far Sprengel. The only objection he finds
is its dearness, which is so easily obviated, that the
method could only have escaped him in the multi-
fariousness of his subject. Bone-dust, decomposed
by sulphuric acid, forms sulphate of lime (gypsum),
and super-phosphate of lime, which is very soluble
in water. It may be thus prepared : — 1 lb. sul-
phuric acid, mixed with 5 lb. of water, will become
very hot. When half cold stir in 2 lb. fine bone
dust, and let digest 48 hours, stirring occasionally
to prevent clotting. It may then be diluted with
10 or twelve gallons water, adding it gradually at
first, and stirring it quite smooth. When the water
is all in, let it settle, and pour off clear.

Gypsum will fall to the bottom, and the clear
solution will contain the super-phosphate of lime,
with about one-fourth per cent, of gypsum, and a
very little free sulphuric acid. These are no way
injurious ; the solution of gypsum being itself an
excellent steep liquor, strongly recommended by
Sprengel for peas, beans, and vetches : and sul-
phuric acid found by him not injurious even in
much larger proportion.

Steep liquor thus prepared will, therefore, be not
only cheap, but probably better than mere phos-
phoric acid, as containing also phosphate of lime
and gypsum, both considerable ingredients of tur-
nips, as well as other crops.

Phosphoric acid, and this preparation of it, may
be regarded as mere accelerators, not likely to de-
stroy infection, unless so far as the strengthening
of the young plant may help to do it. But the
other material which strikes me as deserving the
consideration of your practical readers, is already
partially known as a disinfecter ; though its em-
ployment has been restricted by the prudent cau-
tion it unquestionably requires.

Arsenic was found by Sprengel to produce such
extraordinary eflTects on the germination and early
growth of wheat and rye, that the rye showed the
effects of it even in May : an object where the rye
is wanted for green food. He used one part white
arsenic to 50 water, and steeped the seeds ten hours.

Now arsenic is a terrible poison. If we allow
weight for weight of steep liquor, to seed, 50 lb. seed
will contain lib. of arsenic, a quantity not likely to
carry any injurious proportion into the crop even of
corn; and in the turnip seed quite insignificant.
Nor seems there much ground of apprehension from
mismanagement of this dangerous material by un-
practised hands, farmers being already in the habit
of using it in sheep liquor.

It must be observed that arsenic is not an Ingre-
dient of plants, but it possesses many chemical
properties in common witli phosphorus, and may
therefore have some analagous effect in germina-
tion. Even its objectionable poisonous quality
seems to offer some important advantages over
phosphoric acid.

If the diseases of wheat and rye arc due, as is
now pretty generally understood, to fungi and ani-
malcules, there seems nothing more likely to de-
stroy them than arsenic : and in the case of turnips
it might not only force the young germs generally
out of reach of the fly, but perhaps kills the flies
and grubs which were forward enough to attack
them. It is used on the continent, in little balls,
with flour, &c., to kill vermin in the soil.

It has been long since recommended for experi-
ment in the second volume of " British Husbandry."
I should like to seeitsapidicability fully and search-
ingly discussed by practical men.

ON GYPSUM.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — In your paper of the 30th ult. a reference
is made to the fixing of ammonia by the application
of gypsum, and during the last year many sug-
gestions have appeared in your paper of the advan-
tage of using it for that purpose, and that by persons
who appeared to be conversant with its chemical
properties, which in substance were to the following
effect, viz. : — " That by mixing or sprinkling ground
gypsum with carbonate of ammonia they would
each become decomposed, and form new com-
pounds ; the sulphuric acid would leave the lime
and unite with the ammonia, and the carbonic
acid would leave the ammonia and unite with the
lime, thus forming sulphate of ammonia and car-
bonate of lime." Conceiving that these suggestions
were founded on correct principles, I was induced
to incur some expense in procuring gypsum for the
purpose, but after having tried it, the gypsum did
not appear to fix the ammonia, which led me to
ascertain the affinity that these respective substances
have for each other, and found that the sulphuric
acid has a greater afiSnity for lime than it has for
ammonia, or than carbonic acid has for lime. It is
a well known fact that heat will separate or disiiel
carbonic acid from lime, which takes place in the
conversion of limestone into pure lime, but heat will
not dispel or separate sulphuric acid from lime.
Should the gypsum contain an excess of sulphuric
acid, which is sometimes the case, then the acid to
that extent would combine with the ammonia ; but
is it economical to purchase gypsum to be thus ap-
plied ? It has also been recommended to mix peat-
ashes with manure, or substances containing am-
monia for the same purpose ; but upon ascertaining
what peat ashes are composed of, we find that their
most powerful constituent is carbonate of potash ,
a substance the most efficient in volatilising
ammonia.

Should these hasty and crude remarks upon a sub-
ject that is attracting considerable atttention among
agriculturists be deemed interesting to your nu-
merous readers, they may inducesimilar communica-
tions on practical subjects, which are the only test
of correct theorj'. I. J. M.

Balglan, Feb. 3, 1843.

NITRATE OF SODA AND GUANO.

Sir, — It my be acceptable to some of your
readers to have a>eady mode of detecting adultera-
tions in nitrate of soda and Guano; and if you
think the following information worth a corner in
your paper, you are welcome to make use of it.

A ready test for nitrate of soda is to throw a
little on a clear fire. If the nitrate burns freely
with a yellow light and hissing noise, it is pure ; but
if there is any tinge of blue in the flame, accompa-
nied with a slight cracking noise, it is adulterated
with common salt.

The pure nitrate burns very much like saltpetre,
and may be substituted for it in making a weaker
gunpowder.

Guano possesses a peculiar fishy smell, not easily
mistaken ; but some kinds now ofieriug are totally
devoid of even this peculiarity. A very easy mode
of detecting the best sample is to moisten a small
portion of each with water, and place them whilst

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE

21

wet on a line of fresh lime. A strong smell of am-
monia will instantly be perceptible, and that which
yields the strongest smell will be the best Guano.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,

ClIAKLKS SlJUAREY.

Saiisbuiy, Feb. 8, 1843.

ON GUANO.

Sir, — If vou think the following observations on
guano, crops, &c., worlby of a place in your inviiluable
journal, you at pleasure may insert tiiera. The first
thing I shall notice is a part of my experiments
this year, on an eight acre field, sown with 3
cwt. of guano and 3 bushels of Italian rye grass
per acre on the '^9th of April, cut on the 3rd of
August, weighing when green eighteen tons, and
when drv and ready for stack four tons per acre.
Much of this crop was upwards of five feet long ; so
rapid was the growth that fifty hours alter cutting, it
had again sprung up to the height of 3| inches.
With the above in view I see no reason to doubt
that the cotiager, with his five roods of land, could
supply his house with vegetables, and cow with
winter and summer food, thereby providing for his
family an almost enti re subsistence. \V ho with a Scotch
eve in his head can view without regret the richest
plains of England lying in a state of nature, in what
are called " meadow-lands," on which are laid a
large portion of the best dung from the farmyard
(not from the liquid tanks, which would be infinitely
better^, there to be exposed to and carried off by the
action of the atraospliere ?

Surely in this day of intelligence these lands
might be turned to a better account.

Second, an acre of oats sown wilh two cwt.
of guano, mixed with an equal ((uantity of gypsum, had
a powerful effect in producing a growth ; but in this
case it did harm in laying the crop flat to the ground,
thereby deteriorating the quality of straw and grain,
nevertheless proving itself to be most valuable
when the land is too poor for a crop. Thirdly, on
pot.itoes six cwt. of guano mixed with one cwt. of
gypsum produced a crop equal to twenty tons of
good farm-yard dung. Fourth, on turnips, one acre
of yellow bullock manured with four cwt. of guano,
mixed with equal quantity of gypsum, produced a
crop of thirty tons. One acre done with two cwt.
of guano, mixed, produced twenty-seven tons. The
portion done with four cwt. pushed at first a rapid
growth into the tops, so that for long, that done
with the two cwt. bade fair to be the best crop, but
when then the tops began to fail of the first portion,
they shot past the other and took their place iu de-
gree of crop, as will be seen by the above weights.

Along wilh all my turnips I sowed one cwt. of
gypsum per acre, mixed with a like quantity of fine
wood or other ashes, so wet, as to pass through the
machine freely, which greatly assists in the first
stage of vegetation.

On no account would I sow such manures as guano,
bone-dust, rape-dust, &:c., upon the surface for a tur-
nip crop, which is too conimoidy done by machines
for the purpose, although those machines have
coulters making ruts of two or three inches deep for
receiving the seed and manure ; yet the depositing
of that manure so near the surface induces the plant

in seeking food to push its roots along the top
of the drill, thereby exposing them to all the
changes of our variable climate, and materially
checidng the growth of the plant. Another evil at-
tends sowing manure so near the surface, which is
in the first hoeing or thinning of the turnips, a large
portion of it is drawn away from the plant alto-
gether.

The manure, be what it may, for a turnip crop
ought to be deposited in the bottom of the drills,
and then with the plough covered in about six inches
deep; the seed then sown on the top of the drill
along with the before mentioned mixture ; the plants
will push their roots in the natural direction, where
they will find their food in a comparatively uniform
temperature.

AVere it not for the uninteresting nature of the
foregoing remarks I might with legs hesitation
trouble you wilh the following observations on the
practical system of farming of an east Lothian
friend of niine, which may be summed up in these
words — Drain well, clean well, and manure well. In
following out these valuable and comprehensive sen-
tences, in the first place leases must be granted of from
fifteen to twenty-one years, according to the state
the farm is in when agreed for, which alone will give
that security absolutely necessary to the improver.
This done, drain efiectually, the landlord giving the
tile, and the tenant putting them in under the di-
rection and inspection of the proprietor's agent (not
at aper-cenlage, that appearing as an addition to rent,
and rather objectionable to the tenant at a collecting
day), parallel to ridges of from sixteen to thirty feet
apart, and from two to three deep, according to na-
ture of subsoil.

Of all the materials with which drains are filled I
should prefer tile, because, by giving great facility
to the farmer, the tide of profit is so much sooner
turned into the pocket. After the above drainage,
subsoil plough ("there are now two-horse subsoil
ploughs very answerable for small farmers) ; then
j)Iough, cultivate, and harrow, as occasion requires,
not wilh a team of from three to eight horses one be-
fore another, necessarily involving the labour of two
men, but by two horses abreast, which can be
managed perfectly in every respect by one man.
All scutch and other weeds being now brought to
the surface, so many little boys and girls must be in
readiness to gather them into heaps, to be carted off
to some convenient place (not to be burned), where
they should be mixed with dung for a future crop,
'i he ground being now drained and cleaned ready
for receiving, say a turnip crop, I would only add
that turnip manure ought to be ofa mixed description,
on purpose to obtain both an early and late growth.
My last year's general crop was raised from a mixture
of farm-yard, bones, and guano, at an expense of four
guineas an acre, some of the yellow bullock mea-
suring thirty-eight inches in circumference.

Agricultural associations established in every dis-
trict, sending one member to the annual meeting of
the great parent society, bearing to and from every
useful information would, tend much to theadvance-
ment of agriculture.

In removing that vassalage and moral restraint
under which the tenant-at-will lies, by granting leases,
would do more, in the way of food and labour to the
poor, and general advantage to all classes, than any
other act of emancipation that could be granted to
the people of England,

A CnESHinE Steward.

220

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

DRAINING BY THE PLOUGH.

Considering tbe rapidity and cheapness with
which this fundamental improvement can be exe-
cuted by the drain plough, we think the following
experiment, reported in the Stirlinff-hire Observer,
well worthy attention: —

" We have much pleasure in drawing attention to
the subjoined statement of tbe performance of Mr.
Alexander's drain ploughs, on Tuesday week, on
the farm of J'orthbank, lately entered to by Mr.
Robert Forrester. Mr. Forrester is going over the
farm with a regular system of draining, and his
friends and neighbours, along with Mr. Alexander,
turned out to give him a day's darg, and we must
say, that we never witnessed work performed in so
masterly a style. Mr. Alexander's two ploughs
opened the drain, the tiles being put down and laid
in at the same time, and so rapid was the performace,
that a field of 10^ acres was opened in every furrow,
tbe greater part of the tiles put down and laid in,
in the short space of seven hours.

"The ploughs were drawn by a team of twelve
horses each, the first or top plough taking out from
fourteen to fifteen inches, the second or bottom
plough followed, taking out from ten to twelve
inches, and in less than seven hours from starting
Ciecluding twenty minutes for feeding"), opened
10,080 yards of drains ready for the tiles, excepting
the removing of the small earth from the bottom with
the cleaner, tliat had fallen in from the sides, and
opening the parallel drains into the main diainswitli
the spades (the main drains having been previously
put in^. Tiie levels were taken with the greatest
accuracj', and we have conversed wiih several gen-
tlemen experienced in draining who were on tbe
spot, and who gave it as their opinion, that they
had never seen drains opened with spade or plough
so neatly, or the levels taken so correctly.

" The following is an estimate of the expence of
opening drains both with tbe spade and plough in
the same field :

Cost of opening 10,080 yards of

drains with the Spade, and lay-
ing in the tiles at lid. per 36

yards of drain, £12 16 8

Cost of opening 10,080 yards with

the Plough,
12 pairs of horses at 3s. per pair,

including drivers £4 16 0

2 conductors to each Plough, at

2s. each 0 8 0

2\ days of a man cleaning drains

and laying in tiles at 2s. 2 15 0

£7 19 0

£7 19 0

Balance in favour of Plough draining .... £4 17 8

" Besides, in estimating the expence of drains
opened by the plough, the expence is less real than
apparent, because at this season of the jear the
horses are not required for farm purposes, and would,
in all probability, be standing idle in tbe stables.
The objection, too, which is sometimes urged to the
number of horses required for plough draining, is
at once removed by the facility of two or more
farmers clubbing together, as was done in the pre-
sent case, and which is now getting general over the
district.

" We were glad to observe a number of gentlemen

connected with the agriculture of the district, and
others present during the performance of the ploughs,
who all seemed particularly pleased with the result."

Australian Agricultural Company. —

The nineteenth annual general meeting of the share-
holders in the above association was held last week
at their offices, 12, King's Arms-yard, Moorgate-
street. Mr. Broderick, chairman of the board of
directors, having been called upon to preside, the
report for the year 18-11, tbe latest period to which
the accounts were made up, was read. It stated
that the whole of the shepherds, labourers, &c., sent
out to Australia in 1840 had arrived in safety, and
very favourable accounts regarding their conduct
had been received. The great depression of employ-
ment in the colony rendered it unadvisable to send
any more labourers from this country, and, in con-
sequence of tlie substitution of free for convict labour,
the expenses of tbe association had increased, and
tbe waffes of the workmen been reduced. In the
year 1841, 2,033 acres of land bad been cleared for
cultivation, being an increase of 101 acres above
that in the previous year. The harvest had, how-
ever, been very unfavourable, 80 acres of wheat
having been destroyed by tbe excessive drought and
the southerly winds ; but in other respects the crops,
up to August, 1842, were in a promising condition.
Tbe live stock up to December, 1841, were — sheep
79,961, lambs yearned during the year 16,994, which
with tbe purchase of live Leicester sheep, was
96,960. There had been sold from December, 1840,
to December, 1841, 2,279; slaughtered for the use
of the establishment, 5,782 ; and 9,836 had died from
age and disease. The horses and ponies numbered
566, and tbe horned cattle 5,251. In consequence
of the great drought an unusual number of sheep
bad died ; and the sule of live stock in 1841 only
realised 5,983/. 6s. Id., while in the preceding year it
amounted to 21,498/. Is. lOd. In tbe agricultural
department, 143 free labourers were employed,
118 ticket-of-leave men, and 269 convicts. In the
collieries, 63 free men and 120 convicts, showing
an increase during the year in the former of 26, and
a decrease in the latter of 73. Tbe produce of the
sale ofcoals, live stock, and wool, was 37,574/. 12s.5d.
The entire expenditure left a balance in favour of
the association of 3,173/. lis. Id. The surplus in
hand in 1840 was 19,145/, and it was then annouced
that a call of 11. 18s. per share must be made, or the
dividend suspended. The call was made, and paid
in Julv last ; but tbe directors regretted to state that
in consequence of tbe great depression in colonial
affairs they were unable to announce a dividend this
year. The balance-sheet, exhibiting the receipts
from all sources, proved a balance in hand of 8,074/.
Is. Id. Tbe debtor account was 362,460/., and the
creditor, 354,386/. ls.6d. The value of the property
of the association was 798,926/. 16s. 6d. The report
having been adopted, the meeting broke up.

A Giiazier's PnoriTs. — A grazier brought to
Wakefield Fortnightly Cattle Fair, on Wednesday
se'nnight, twenty fat sheep for sale ; he a^ked 37s. each
for them, but was bid only 30-5., which price he ulti-
mately took. Three monihs ago, the same sheep were
bought by tbe grazier at York at 2/. 2s. 6J. per head,
and he had fed them upon turnips, which cost him
2/. 12s. 6d. per acre. The amount oi his profits will be
easily ascertained.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

221

THE WEATHER OF 1842.

My report of the weather for 1841 (published in
the Carlisle Patriot o( the 22nd January, 1842) began,
as well it might, with remarks on the great quantity
of rain which had fallen in that year, and particu-
larly during the last six months of the year. Very
different must be the beginning and end of this
report of the weather in 1842; for the words
" drought" and " continued drought" need only
•be used, and they will almost express the weather
for the whole twelve months, as will be seen by
reference to the following table of

RAIN.

If we follow the plan of 1841, we come next to
tlie consideration of the winds; and here we find
from the following table that the number of days on
which the wind was westerly in 1842 is less by four
than in 1841. The most remarkable feature has
been in the force of the wind during the past year ;
for we had the strong winds in June and July which
we usually have in September.
WINDS.

NUMBER OF DAYS.

DAYS

cJUANTITVr

FALLEN.

AVERAGE

RAIN.

OF LAST
7 YEARS.

1841.

1842.

1841
23

1842

January . .

2.364

2,331

2.516

16

February . .

1.249

1.315

2.106

19

15

March ....

2.407

2.962

2.580

22

23

April ....

2.429

0.418

1.255

26

7

May

2.172

1.671

1.475

18

17

June

3.243

1.849

3.052

18

13

July

3.166

2.529

4.458

25

16

August

6.210

1.675

3.568

23

14

September .

3.863

1.812

3.681

18

20

October . .

5.360

1.795

3.266

25

9

November .

3.231

1.925

2.838

17

18

December .

3.388

1,543

2.280

23

18

39.082

21.825

33.056

257

186

13y examining this table in detail we find that
March is the ouly month in which the quantity is
above the average, and that only rather more than a
quarter of an inch ; also that February and March
are the only months in which 1842 exceed 1841 ; all
the other months being so much deficient that in the
first six mouths the quantity of 1841 exceeds the
quantity of the same months in 1842 by three inches
and a quarter (3.318) ; and the last six months of
1341 in like manner exceed by nearly fourteen
inches (13.939), while the total quantity for 1841
exceeds the quantity for 1842 by seventeen inches
and a quarter.

The total quantity for 1842 is less than the ave-
rage by 11.231 inches; or nearly eleven inches and
a quarter. There is no other year on record in
which so small a quantity of rain has fallen here.

There have been also 71 fewer days on which rain
fell in 1842 than in 1841, March being the only
month in which 1842 exceeds 1841, and the most
remarkable difference being in the months of April
and October. The uumber of days on which snow
fell in 1842 was 15 ; while in 1841 there were 21,
and in 1840, 22 such days. The following table
will shew in what months this difference occurred.
SNOW.

NUMBER OF DAYS,

1842.

1841,

1840.

January

February , , . ,

March

April

October ....•.,
December , . . .

8
3
1

1
2

14
6

1

5
10

3

4

15

21

22

January, . .
February .
March . . .

April

May

June

July

August . . .
September.
October.. .
November.
December

EASTERLY. 1

WESTERLY.

1841.

1842.

1841.

1842.

15|

17

15f

14

22

8*

6

19i

lOi

'H

20|

26f

lOi

19

19f

11

8i

13

221

18

141

121

15i

m

6|

131

24i

174

•H

111

25i

191

161

15

131

15

15f

H

15i

25f

14^

21f

151

H

7h

9

231

22

147

150^

218

214i

The following table exhibits the indications of
the thermometer during the past year as respects
the mean of each month, as also the maximum and
minimum ; and wc find that the mean tempera-
ture of the year has been the same as the average
mean temperature, namely, 48 degrees. The
mean temperature of the first six months of the
past year was 45 degrees, and of the last six months
51 degrees. The lowest degree of temperature (14
degrees) was registered on the night between the
20ih and 2lst of October; the highest (81 de-
grees) was registered on the I8th of August,^ In
1841, the highest degree of temperature was 77 de-
grees (on the 27th May), the lowest was 2 degrees
(on the 7th January) ; the mean of the whole year
being 49 degrees. If we look only at the mean
temperature of the year, we find that the difference
between one year and another is seldom more
than two degrees, generally only one, however
much the two extremes (the maximum and mini-
mum) may have varied : —

THERMOMETER,

January, . ,
February . .

March

April

May

June

July

August ...
September
October , , ■
November ,
December ,

MEAN,

MIGHEST,

LOWEST.

33.2

45.5

21,5

40,1

53,4

24,0

44.0

56,6

33,3

47,6

67.0

31,0

54,3

67.3

38,8

58.5

77.0

41.8

.57.0

72.6

33.8

61.5

81.3

42.8

57,5

67,5

39,8

44,5

60,0

14,8

39,6

53,8

24,8

44,6

55,0

29.5

The remarks which have just been made on the
the uniformity of the mean temperature apply still
more strongly to the mean pressure of the atmos-
phere. The average mean pressure at Carlisle is
29,800 ; the mean pressure of 1842 was 29,826 ; of
1841, 29,724; and of 1840, 29,868. These dif-

222

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ferences, considering the range of the mercury in
the barometer in this latitude, may be set down as
nought; for a very small error in taking one ob-
servation miglit cause them all easily enough.
The greatest height to which the mercury in the
barometer attained in 1842 was 30,563 (on the 9th
of April). The lowest point to which it fell was
28,465, on the 23rd October, during the great
storm at Madeira. The difference between the
two points was, therefore, 2,098, or rather more
than two inches.

BAROMETER.

January . .
February

March

April ....

May

June

July

August . .
September.
October . . ,
November .
December ,

HIGHEST. 1 LOWEST.

The following tnble of the weather presents very
few new features, wben looked at in conjunction
with the table given last year. We find, however,
that the frosty days of 1842 were fewer in number
than those of 1841, by 12 ; that the clear days of
1842 were more than those of 1841 by 16, and
that there were 46 days in the past year on which
the sun did not shine. The days on which hail
fell, in 1842, were 16 ; in 1841, there were 8 such
days ; and in 1840, only 3. The days on which we
bad thunder, in 1842, were 8 ; in 1841, we had 12
such days, and in 1840, 9.

WEATHER.

NUMBER OF DAYS.

.Tnnuary . . . .
February . . . .

March

April

May

June

July

Augusc

September . . .

October

November . . .
December . . .

Clear

Cloud)'

Sun

through

without

Rain.

Frost.

Shone

out.
3

rain.

out.

12

16

24

21

4

9

15

o

26

0

8

23

0

29

15

8

7

1

29

4

10

17

0

27

9

8

13

0

30

5

10

16

0

30

2

15

14

0

28

0

10

20

0

28

4

18

9

7

28

1

11

18

15

20

0

13

18

6

23

4:7

13'2

186

58

319

Upon a review of the weather for the whole year*
we find that it has been an extraordinarily favour-
able year for the farmer and the gardener. The
winter month of January was not inordinately
severe, the temperature having never been lower
than 21 degrees, and the succeeding spring months
were so dry that the farmer had every oi)portunity
of cleaning his land ; indeed, such opportunity as
seldom occurs ; and we know that it was not lost
in this part of the country at least. As soon, how-
ever, as this cleaning had been got over, tlie far-
mer began to express fears for the grass and the

subsequent hay harvest ; and, as it proved, such
fears were not groundless ; for we had so many
days of dry easterly winds in April, and so little
rain, that it soon became too evident that the
grass and the hay would be failing crops. So
turned it out ; but this was fortunaiely the only
failure of the year ; unless we reckon the failure
of the after grass as another and separate blemish
in the weather of this remarkable year; for,
though after each successive dry month we per-
suaded ourselves that the next 7Hust be a wet
month, and though our hopes of rain were put off
from quarter to quarter, no rain came in such
quantities as to make up for the dryness of the
preceding months. The grain, however, flourished
amidst all the dryness ; and such a produce has
not been known for many years ; the quantity per
acre, in many places, being nearly double the pro-
duce of the few last years. The harvest began
ten days sooner this year than last , and, on account
of the grain being all ready for the sickle, it was
housed fifteen days sooner than in the last year.
Of course, in this respect, reference is only made
to the harvest of this immediate neighbourhood.
Willi respect to the potato crop, the farmers
actually complained that they were taken up too
dry, and have subsequently attributed to that fact
the rot which in some parts of the country — more
particularly on the borders of Scotland — lias con-
siderably reduced the quantity available for human
food. If we judge by the price, however, there
seems to be no fear of there not being sufficient to
feed us all till next crop. The mildewed tops of the
turnips seemed to alarm the farmer, and not without
reason ; for hay being scarce and straw short, if the
turnip crop failed too, the natural question arose,
what was to be done with the live stock during tha
approaching winter, which winter (during the severe
frost in October, when the thermometer was seven
degrees lower than it had been in January), every
one prophesied would set in soon and be remarkably
severe ; a prophecy, by the bye, not hitherto ful-
filled, for cows might be seen enjoying their mid-
day grassing on the 27th of December. On the
strength of all these fears and prophecies, however,
bay rose from sixpence a stone to ninepeuce before
the close of the year ; but the openness of the win-
ter will prevent such a price being sustained, it is
hoped.

When the wheat seed-time arrived the farmer had
still to contend with the drought, which in some
places prevented his getting into the land. Such an
obstruction as that he seldom has to complain of.
Since then we have had such remarkable open wea-
ther, that the wheat has got too high to be able to
bear the frosts of January — at least so say the farm-
ers. Certainly a more open December has seldom
been known ; for we had the violet, hepatica, pri-
mula, polyanthus, leopard's bane, gentianella, and
other spring flowers, in full bloom, as if it were
March ins'ead of December; and tulips, which
were planted in the middle of November, were ap-
pearing above the soil in the middle of December
— the usual time for their appearance being the
beginning of Februarj'. Before leaving the garden
it may be as well to state that the past year has been
remarkably favourable for flowers and fruit ; the
summer flowers having come to such perfection in
bloom and in seed as we seldom witness here ; and
the fruit having been so jilentiful tliat apples might
truly be called a drug in the market. " We had not
even the usual strong winds in September to blow
them off the trees. We were obliged to bestir our-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

223

selves, nnd undergo the liardsliip o( piillit}<:; tlieni all
oft". \\'itli respect to the frost in October, which
killed the dahlias and other half-liardy plants, it may
be a useful hint to the gardener, in the way of pro-
tection, to inform hira that for the last four years his
dahlias have been injured almost exactly on the same
day : thus it happened in 1839, in October, on the
6th ; in 1840, on the ;3rd ; in 18 11, on the 4th ; and
in 1842, on the 4th. From this it will be seen that
protection during the first week in October will
most likely preserve the enjoyment of those beau-
tiful flowers for many weeks after.

Il remains only now to say that we were not much
better off for moisture in December than we were in
June. Complaints of wells and water-holes being
without Nvaler were then still rife, and if you bad
occasion to transplant a tree or a shrub, you still,
even then, found the soil about its roots as dry as
dust; and yet we are given to understand that 1842
Is only the beginning of a series of fine years, and
we are implored hy meteorologists to live till 1844,
when, say they, tliose that live so long shall see a
fine year. Joseph Atkinson.

llaiTubij, near Carlisle, 7th Jan., 1843.

AGRICULTURAL QUERIES.

Sir,— I should be much indebted to any of your
correspondents who would furnish in your next
number, a plan, or description of a cow house,
which would be suitable for stall-feeding seven or
eight cows.

I should be glad to be informed as to the di-
mensions of the stalls, arrangement of the racks
and mangers — whether the cattle are to be tied up
or left at liberty ; and any other particulars use-
ful to a novice in the plan, io a part of the kingdom
where nothing of the kind is to be met with.

I should be also thankful for any hints on the
cultivation of lucerne— whether it will bear trans-
planting, and if it is capable of enduring an ex-
posed northern (sea) aspect. The soil is light,
rich, and dry, with a granite bottom.

Your insertion of the above queries will be ap-
preciated by A Recent Subscriber.

Near the Land's End, Feb. 4th, 1843.

Sir, — Your last number contains a letter from
IMr. J. Scougall, on the important question of
autumn cultivation for turnips, to which ]Mr. S.
replies, and refers to a communication to the
Mark Lane Express. As 1 take your magazine only,
I should be glad to know if Mr. S.'s practice is to
prepare and manure the land fully in autumn, as
appears to be the practice of Mr. P. Thompson.

Mr. Matson's " autumn cultivation" has also been
referred to, but, as his statements appeared in your
journal before I became a subscriber, I should feel
obliged by your republishing his system and its re-
sults. Several queries in late numbers remain un-
answered : in September on " winter vetches," in
November on " carrots."

We have alabaster in plenty in this neighbour-
hood, which I understand is your gypsum. Will
you inform me if it is absolutely necessary that it
should be burned before use ; also if two cwt. of the
calcined alabaster is the proper quantity for an
acre of clover or grass. Is the advantage great if
it is mixed in the manure heap ? How long should
urine remain in the tank before using?

I should feel greatly obliged by answers to

the above, and if you are thus indulgent
1 may venture to trouble you with further
queries, as I believe the time is fast approaching
when all owners of small properties in land must
exert themselves to the utmost to exist. The ge-
neral impression here is, that there luust either be
a low fixed duty on corn, or none at all, and we
must alter our system of husbandry altogether. At
present we grow corn in a grass country. Now, sir,
it appears to me we ought immediately to com-
mence a change by increasing our number of cat-
tle, &c. ; this involves the important question of
house-feeding, on which 1 may address you here-
after, if you treat my present attempt with in-
dulgence.

I am, sir, yours very respectfully,

A Cumberland Yeoman.
Egremont, near Whitehaven, January 21, 1843.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — As a constant reader of vour Journal, I take
the liberty of submitting the following questions, re-
plies to which, either from yourself or readers, will
be valuable.

Would spade husbandry be advantageous on a
light gravelly soill

Could the four course system be pursued on such,
viz., clover or seeds every four years, by the appli-
cition of gypsum ; also when should tlie gypsum
be applied, at the time of sowing the seed, or as a
top-diessing in the spring following?

Would not the cleansing of a s[)ring water pond
succeed as a substitute for gypsum ?

How would lucerne succeed on such a soil, and
how is it cultivated — is it fit for cutting the same
season as sown, or not till the following — is it a
productive plant, and would it be suitable for milk-
ing cows on the soiling system ?

Your insertion of the above will much oblige,
A Yoi'NO Farjier.

Alderton, near Tewkesbury, Feb. 10.

ON SUBSOILING.

Sir, — As some gentlemen favour the idea that
subsoiling light lands (viz., those which have their
subsoils of gravel, sand, and clialkj is beneficial,
but which I consider quite contrary to my ideas
upon the subject, I have here proposed a few re-
marks, which I will thank you to insert in your
next number.

It is of consequence to know how this species of
tillage benefits the lands, as it is very expensive.
I, not having had any experience upon this sub-
ject, shall only argue upon the supposition of the
case.

We must first know, then, in what way subsoiling
benefits lands which have a subsoil of clay. In two
ways it effects this — by allowing the superfluous
water to soak lower into the soil, which the draius
carry off much sooner ; and in making a deeper
soil, which is also very beneficial. But when we
come to talk of light lands being subsoiled, it is to
be considered hoiv it benefits them, for they are al-
ready too dry, and by subsoiling them they will be
made much drier.

By ploughing at a certain depth, I consider a
pan is formed, which much prevents the waterfrom
soaking lower; but subsoiling would destroy this
pan ; and some will perhaps say that subsoiling
these lands will make a deeper soil ; but to accom-
plish this, these lands may be ploughed much
deeper.

224

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

If this should happen to meet the eyes of any of
your readers who differ with me upon this subject,
and still consider subsoiUng light lands beneficial,
I shall feel obliged to them if they will state their
reasons for so thinking. Your obedient servant,

Sandon. A Young Fakmer.

GUANO.
Sir,— The present fine open weather encourages
farmers to begin sowing beans, peas, oats, spring
wheat, &c., and many of us are desirous of using
guano, now that the price has fallen to lOl. or 12/.
per ton ; but we are at a loss to know in what man-
ner to apply this great fertiliser in the most advan-
tageous manner. We are told that two or two and
a half cwt. is amply sufficient for an acre of land ;
the cost per acre would not, therefore, exceed 24s.
to 30s. per acre, and the smallness of the bulk Avill
render the expense of its application very small.
A great service would be rendered to the farming
interest if some one or more of your intelligent
correspondents, who have tried guano, would give
the result of their experiments, and communicate
to their brother farmers the best modes of applying
this manure — to what soils it is especially applica-
ble— in what manner it is best applied — at what
seasons — to what crops — and in what quantities.
Plain instructions on these heads, which the least
scientific of us could readily comprehend and carry
into practice, would confer no small benefit on the
farmer and the public ; and, if my letter should
elicit such information, I shall rejoice at having
addressed you on the subject. A. B. C.

Sir, — The pastures in the counties of Monmouth
and Hereford are much infested by a strong grow-
ing weed, commonly called "hard heads," or " hard
tops;" it is found both in dry and wet fields, and I
have observed it grow particularly strong on the
tops of the drains, in ground drained within the
last two or three years. The blossom of it is pur-
ple, much the shape of a thistle ; but it does not
turn to down, like the latter, and blow away by the
wind, but dries on the stem, and continues until
the plant dies down in autumn, as the cattle never
meddle with it. It grows from one to two feet
high. If any of your correspondents can suggest
a means of extirpating it without ploughing up, it
will much oblige your obedient servant,

Dec. 30. Enquirer.

I Lave beard of more than once instance where such
is the case ; and tbe loss to the county must be
immense. Your reader, and admirer,

Feb. 10, 1843. Aoricola.

Sir, — May I trouble you to call tlie attention of
your readers, more particularly the professional
ones, to tbe disease now prevailing amongst cattle ?
It is not the same, I understand, as that with which
tbe whole country was visited a year ago, and for
which various remedies were speedily announced,
but of a far more fatal cbaracter. In some districts
in this county, Derbyshire, it appears most destruc-
tive ; most of those, on some farms, very shortly
dying after they are attacked. Tbe veterinary sur-
geon seems quite loit. If any remedy is at present
known it is highly desirable that tbe county should
be made acquainted with it. If not, that the atten-
tion of scientific men should be called more particu-
larly to it, as also that of tbe Royal Agricultural
Society, that by it a suitable and sufficient remune-
ration may be afforded to those that may give up
their time to the discovery of a remedy for so fatal a
malady. Tbe small farmer must inevitably be ruined
if nothing can be done to save bis stock. Already

Sir, — Observing in your excellent Journal that
one of your correspondents highly exiols tbe Ayr-
shire breed of cows, I shall feel obliged to that
gentleman if he would inform me, if be does not
find that they go a much longer period dry before
calving than anv other breed. 1 have changed my
breed of short-horns to the Ayrshire, because I
thought they would suit my pastures better ; but
from some cause, or from their nature, I find it to
be the case, as at this time I have three cows which
have been dry ever since the end of November, and
I do not expect them to calve before next month and
the month after. If there is any reason from neglect
of tbe dairy-woman, or other cause, I shall thank
the correspondent to inform nie.

Y'our obedient servant,

Saltwood, Hylhe, Feb. 4, 1843. Subscriber.

]\Ir. Editor, — Allow me to express my obliga-
tions to the " Cheshire Farmer" for his kind reply
to my former enquiry respecting the best method
of bringing heath land into cultivation. For want
of being more explicit in describing the nature of
the land, I did not give him the opportunity of
giving me the information I wanted The heath,
or grig, grows to the height of eighteen inches or
so, quite covering the surface, and by its shade has
destroyed all herbage underneath. The soil is
loose and friable, but the roots of the heath, after
the bushes are burnt oft", remain and make it very
difficult to plough, and so matted together that it
cannot be crop cut by the plough, nor raked out by
the harrows. One part I wish to convert into pas-
ture : can it be done without ploughing ?

Is there any instrument by which the roots can
be torn out or cut ? or, if there is not, is there au
implement by which it can be pared off" by horse-
l^ower ? — Any information will greatly oblige,

A Young Farmer.

On reading the report of ycur Nottinghamshire
eorrespondent in your last week's journal, I see that
the murrain has made its appearance amongst the
sheep and cattle in that county , and that from
their method of treating the disease very few of
either die from its effects. The same disease being
prevalent some seasons in this part of the country,
a great favour would be conferred on myself aiid
neighbours by being informed of the manner in
which the disease is there treated, as with us it
generally proves fatal.

A Constant Eeadek.

Near Hightvorth, Wilts., Feb. 19.

" A Constant Reader" says — you, or any of your
correspondents, will oblige by answering the fol-
lowing query : —

I am going to leave land next Michaelmas, hired
on lease ; this lease restricts me from having more
than n certain quantity in cropping ; ibis quantity I
have already sown with wheat, but I want to set a
field with potatoes. My landlord says that potatoes
are considered as cropping, as is everything that
comes to maturity and ripens. Shall I be departing
from tbe terms of my lease if I set potatoes in addi-
tion to tbe quantity already sown with corn 1

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

225

SHORT HORNS.

TO THE EDITOR OF TIIH MAHK LANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — Allow me through the medium of your va-
luable and widely-circulated paper, to make a few
enquiries relative to the improved breed of short
horns. 1 wisli to establish a small but choice herd,
and should be glad to obtain information as to the
requisite outlay per head, the best mode of manage-
ment, and whose blood is considered the choicest?
Should this meet the eye of any old breeder willing
to lend a helping hand to an ardent admirer of short
horns, he will l)y so doing confer a favour on yours,
truly,

■I'^i'b. 16. Grazier.

" Enquirer" asks what are the best means of rot-
ting grass-sods and twitch-roots? " A Tenant" in-
forms the writer that, a few years ago, he mixed up
a quantity of twitch-roots with horse dung, in the
month of July; he turned over the heap in Novem-
ber, when the roots were partly decomposed, and
early after Christmas he carted the compost upon
his meadowiiig land, and the roots were then com-
pletely decomposed ; ths grass-sods would un-
doubtedly decompose sooner than the twitch-roots.
— Feb. 1(5.

" A Correspondent" wishes to know which is
considered the best mode of feeding horses with
Swedish turnips — steamed, or in their natural state
— and whit quantity per day should be given 1

Perhaps some of your correspondents could inform
me what is the best means of rotting a large heap of
grass sods and twitch roots. Would it hasten the
decomposition by mixing farm-yard manure, &c.?
\Vouid lime, or salt be useful ?

Your obedient servant, ENQuiREn.

ANSWERS TO AGRICULTURAL
QUERIES.

AYRSHIRE COWS.

In answer to " Subscriber,'' JI. P. has to inform
him that his cowman states his Ayrshire cows ge-
nerally go dry from six to ten weeks previous to
their time of calving ; last year one of his Ayrshire
cows, a superior milker, went dry only a month be-
fore she calved, and this year she has gone dry full
three months before her period of calving. In this
respect his cowman finds no marked difference be-
tween Ayrshire and other cattle. H. P. cannot see
that any blame can be attached to a dairy-woman on
this account. H. P., Post-office, Blackburn, will
be happy to give " Subscriber," if he will favour
Liiu with his address, his opinion, or rather that of
an experienced agricultural friend, on the breed of
Ayrshire and short horns. — Feb. 16.

Sir, — I have only just time (o say to a " ^ oung
Farmer" that there is no doubt heath land can be
turned to pasture, by first mowing or burning the
heath, then giving it a good dose of quick-lime, and
in the next spring after that is done, give bones
small ground at the rate of one ton per acre ; but I
am quite satisfied that by^ breaking such land up,
and giving it a thoroug'h working and filling its
heart full of proper manure, then sowing it down
with a proper quantity of mixed seeds suited to the
soil, would be much more profitable and pleasing to
the eye. I cannot fancy there can be any insur-
mountable difficulty in ploughing heath lauds a first
time. If the roots be so closely entwined as to pre-
clude a thin ploughing, give it a good furrow be-
low all roots, with a plough which have irons file-
sharped and coulter well bent forward; if two
horses be not sufficient for the task, four will, two
and two abreast, A Cheshire Far.mer.

Sir,— In answer to the letter of " A Northum-
brian," in the Express of the IGth January, the
following is submitted by the writer of the paper to
which he refers : —

The bone solution is prepared as follows : — Pro-
cure the bones in a state of fine powder, the finer
the better, and pour over them half their weight of
sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), previously diluted
with three or four times its weight of water ; stir
the mixture, and allow it to stand for three or four
days, or for a longer period if convenient, repeating
the stirring occasionally. A soluble 5M/je7--phosphate
of lime is thus formed, along with the sparingly solu-
ble sulphate of lime. The way in which the solution
has hitherto been most generally used, is to dilute it,
when thus prepared, with from thirty to fifty times
the weight of the bones used of water, and to
spread it into the drills by a machine for the pur-
pose. The solution has, however, been applied in a
dry state, but not hitherto to any great extent. I
last season mixed up a small quantity of it with
peat-ashes, in sufficient quantity to take up the free
acid (the additional quantity of water, of course,
not having been added), and then expose the mix-
ture to dry. This was applied at the rate of about
3401bs. (of bones) per imperial acre, and, without
any dung, produced, on a very poor and light soil,
a very fair crop of turnips. This may be repeated
by way of experiment, but on an extensive scale it
would be advisable to use along with it a certain
quantity of dung, in order to ensure a good crop.
From this, however, and some other similar experi-
ments, it appears that the efficacy of the manure is
not lessened — or, at least, not materially so — by be-
ing mixed up with ashes and applied in a dry state.
And, if " A Northumbrian " can command a sup-
ply of wood-ashes, they will certainly form a most
excellent mixture for the solution. Wood-ashes
themselves — especially if not lixiviated — form a
valuable manure, containing as they do a large
quantity of potash and some phosphates. " A
Northumbrian" will see in the paper in t\\c Exjyress
of the 26th of December, to which he refers, that
it was recommended to mix the bone solution with
compost, and then to saturate this compost with
urine, by which the important object would be
gained of fixing the volatile carbonate of ammonia
of the urine ; and the mixture thus formed would
be a most valuable manure, as it would contain
phosphate of lime and nitrogen (in the form of
fixed salts of ammonia), two grand requsites for
almost every kind of crop. With regard to the in-
fluence of the bone solution on the after corn crop,
experience does not warrant the expression of any
decided opinion. The experiments made in 1841
were on a small scale — a few drills of turnips in
different fields— and from such narrow stripes it
is impossible to speak with any confidence; and we
do not wish to make any statement without seeing
clearly the ground on which it rests.

226

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Sir, — A " Yorkshireman," in your last number,
requests a description of the fork which I use for
digging, and a statement of the method I adopt so
as to keep the top soil on the surface.

The fork has three prongs ; it is fourteen inches
long, seven and a half wide; each prong is three
quarters of an inch wide, and half an inch thick,
made rather tapering, and the ends are chisel-
pointed ; the weight, including the handle, is Slbs.
It is difticult to give an intelligible description of an
implement; and if " Yorkshireman " will favour
me with his address, I will procure one and forward
it to him — tlic cost is only 4s. 9d.

The plan I pursued, so as to keep the top soil on
the surface, in the field which is now finished, was
as follows : — The men were required to dig up the
old furrows fourteen inches deep ; the plough then
took a slice of four inches deep on each side, and
turned them on the part dug. The furrows so left
were then dug, and an adjoining slice turned on
to them. The process was repeated till the whole
was dug, and the land left in the same sized stitches
as before.

The digging costs 2^d. per rod, or 33s. 4d. per
acre, to which is to be added the expense of one
ploughing. The advantages are—additional depth
of soil, the capability of growing green or root
crops without the usual manuring, and a diminution
in horse and a corresponding increase in manual
labour. Spade husbandry may not be adapted for
every soil ; but, as a means of improving the land,
increasing the produce, and aftbrding profitable la-
bour, it is entitled to more attention than has been
hitherto bestowed upon it.

I remain, Mr. Editor, your obedient servant,

With(a)i,Jan.2S. James Beadel.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FAR-
MERS' MAGAZINE.

Sir, — It would afford me the greatest pleasure to
see in the pages of your widely circulated maga-
zine, a paper by some of your scientific contribu-
tors on the best means of steaming fodder, toge-
ther with an account of the best apparatus for that
purpose, and an exposition of the mode in which
the constituents of fodder are affected by steaming
so as to render it more nutritious to cattle.

I am the more desirous to see this subject treated
of in consequence of the nature of the soil where
I am located being unfavourable to the growth of
turnips, and as large numbers of cattle are kept a
great interest would be excited and much benefit
conferred on many of your readers in this quarter
by an article on the subject referred to.
I am, sir, yours very respectfully,

A Constant Reader.

Liitle-liallam, Derbyshire, February 22, 184;^.

BARN FLOORS.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMERS' MAGAZINE.

Sir, — In your magazine of this month there is a
letter copied from the Salisburi! and Winchester
Journal, and signed a " Constant Reader," respect-
ing barn floors. His suggestions arc very good as
to upright blocks being used for that purpose, ex-
cept that rats are as likely to burrow under wooden
blocks as under planking, the superiority of the

one lloor over the other would consist in the longer
time it would take the rat to get to the surface of the
one to that of the other. I would therefore call
the attention of the writer of the letter to a barn
floor superior to any other, viz., asphalte, through
which no rat will burrow, no damp raise through
it, even if laid on a springy cbiy and as no dust
would rise as from a clay floor, or damp as from a
stone one, a better sample would be delivered.
The value of liquid manure being now fully appre-
ciated, asphalte is one of the best floorings for
stables, bullock and cow sheds, and pig-styes, and
is a most excellent coating for tanks to receive the
liquid manure in.

I am, Sir, yours &c.
Norwich, Feb. 23, \M3. A Subscriber.

CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE
FOR MARCH.

The sudden attack of winter, which commenced
in the evening of 13th ult., was very decisive in
its character : fierce easterly wind, a copious but
drifting fall of snow, and a frost progressing from
"0 to 90, 10", 11", to the 17th, produced their full
effects ; we use the terms of horticulture, and im-
ply degrees of actual depression below the freezing
point (32"). The lowest grade observed on our
instruments was 21" of Farenheit, on the third
morning-, but we have heard of 18" — that is to
say, 14" of frost. After the snow commenced, the
temperature rose five degrees, and a gradual thaw
succeeded, with some rain on the l9th.

We suspect that many geraniums, calceolarias,
and such-like semi-succulent plants, have sufiered,
because the long continuance of open weather na-
turally tended to induce security. But, though
the attack wns sudden and waspish, we had the sa-
tisfaction to observe that in dry houses, coverings
and moderate fires operated very effectually. So
mueh depends upon habits, and what wc call the
education of a set of plants, that, unless they be
exposed to a degree of rigour which actually de-
composes the tissue, a very low comparative tem-
perature will be beneficial rather than hurtful.

From the character of February— cold, fluctu-
ating, and moderately wet — (circumstances which
remind one of the sayings of old) — we anticipate a
true iMarch, and if that be the case, the employ-
ment for the gardener will be ample. In the

Vegetable Department
Sow, at intervals, all the summer crops, ex-
cepting the kidney bean, and where any vegeta-
table is required in succession, it may be a good
rule to sow so soon as the plants of the previous
sowing appear above the surface. It will be ad-
visable to dig before sowing, and it should appear
that much may be done towards cleaning and en-
riching the ground by attending to the following
simple processes ; —

First of all, lay the spit-dung, leaf-mould, de-
cayed vegetables, or whatever manure be employed,
over the plot ; then scatter over this dress, a mix-
ture composed of dusty ashes one peck, powdered
air-slaked lime half the quantity, and common
salt about a quart — the whole sifted together ; be-
ing dusted over a pole of land, every slug upon
the mar. arc touched by the dust would be killed or
debilitated. This mixture ought to be applied at
night, and again in the early morning, prior to
digging.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

227

The sowing may then be made as the work pro-
ceeds, but after its completion a second two-fold
dusting will be proper.

J he spade and rake will carry some portion of
the first caustic materials into contact with vermin
below the surface, the turning-up of the ground
will raise more of them, and the last dressing made
immediately after every portion is sowed and
raked, will do execution upon the slugs so ex-
posed. Fortunately the ground is pretty free al-
ready, the dry weather of August having thus
proved the gardener's friend ; and now, by a lit-
tle attention at every favourable opportunity, we
believe that nine-tenths of the moluscous pests
may be destroyed, and that without any risk to a
crop.

Here it will be relevant to advance a hint upon
the fuel wliich a forcing gardener might adopt
with advantage. ^Ve find no kind of coal so cheap
or effectual as that called Moira — it does not pro-
duce bin<iing clinkers, but consumes to a grey ash,
fine as hair-powder. This ash contains saline
matter, and hence resembles wood ash, and acts
as a manure. AViien the fire is hanked up at
night, we have known a lump of /lbs., covered
with screenings of coal and small cinders, to re-
tain strong heat for ten hours, insomuch that, for
many weeks, we have no occasion to rekindle the
fire. The ashes are capital, used with lime and
salt.

Having thus premised, taking advantage of the
state of the soil and weather, sow — broad beans,
i. e.. long pod, toker Sandwich, Windsor, and the
green-seeded.

Peas — the new early sorts, also Prussian, sci-
mitar, and imperials.

Cabbage — including brocoli, Brussell's sprouts,
borecole— all these towards the end of the month.

Lettuce, radish, small salad, spinach, parsley.

Beet-root in drills. Carrot, parsnip — some pre-
fer broad-casting, but, however sown, the loam
cannot be too fresh and pure, nor too fine and
free from stones.

Sow early turnips.

Onions require deep tillage and sound manure ;
afterwards the surface may be beaten hard, sow-
ing the seed upon it as broad-cast, or in mere
scratches or shallow drills, covering the seed by a
slight screening of sand and light manure mixed,
which may be patted to a level flat surface. Sow
also leeks.

Plant out cabbage from the beds — a few red ones
for pickling; cauliflower, from glasses and frames ;
lettuces, of the autumn sowings.

The sweet and pot-herbs — as purslane, chervil,
coriander, basil, dill, fennel — are sown about the
last week.

Dress the artichoke plants, removing litter and
dead leaves, and prepare land for fresh planta-
tions, and for new rows of asparagus and sea-kale,
in the following manner — rhubarb can be in-
cluded. Our plan was suggested by observing the
work performed in one of the finest old gardens
of Berkshire Cof conventual origin we believe) —
that of Shottesbrook, whose old church and ap-
pendages are the admiration of the antiquary.

Dig out two feet wide trenches, screen the earth,
if the good soil will admit it, thirty inches deep ;
if not, add to the depth, but by no means raise
bad subsoil. Throw cabbage-stalks, strawberry-
refuse, or any vegetable offal into the trenches ;
tread them level, and fill up with the screened
earth or old turf loam, blended with an equal

quantity of the best manure that can be obtained.
During the mixing and turning, scatter salt or ni-
trate of soda, to the extent of two pounds to every
trench of twenty feet length ; these saline inorga-
nic manures will furnish a supply for years, but
their immediate effect will be the desiraction of
soft insects. Leave the land so prepured till April.

Earth up peas, beans, &c. ; hoe all intervening
spaces ; fork asparagus beds and rows, and re-
move every kind of litier.

Fruit Department.

Gooseberry, currant, and raspberry bushes, if
not already regulated, should be pruned forthwith,
according to the directions given informer articles.
Scatter wood-ashes, lime, and soot, over the
branches, or dredge them over with a tinho .
containing powdered lime, sulphur, and a little
coalsoot. This application will at least clear the
barkfrom parasite vegetation, and, moreover, may
check the progress of some insects lodged therein.
After the regulation, the ground should be turned,
and spiinkled with a very small quantity of dry
and finely powdeied salt. A pound will go far,
and a particle the size of a grain of celery-eeed,
will annoy a small slug — it is more effectual than
lime.

Prune and nail all the wall-trees, study the ha-
bits and process of beaiitig of each, thf-n apply the
knife accordingly. Tlie leading maxim is to fur-
nish every half foot of the space occupied by a
tree, with fertile wood.

Spur prune apple and pear espalier trees, tie the
branches to form a well trained figure, and, if
mossy, wash the limbs, or syringe them with lime
water.

Trench and prepare ground for new strawbeiry
rows ; 18 inches to two feet is not too deep ; apply
manuVe as dress and nitrate of soda before digging
and turning, and select three aspects to pro ong
the season. If the beds be ready by the 15th
plant before the end ; Keen's, the Hudson's Bay,
and Knight's Elton, will not be surpassed.

Give air, proper supplies of water, and increased
heat, as the season advances, to the pine-stoves
and vineries. Keep a steady growing heat with
the cucumbers, and begin to sow melons.
Flower Garden.

In the first favourable weather dig in all the
leaves that Lave lain on the ground of parterre or
shrubberies; add leaf-mould and old cow manmei
and, in digging, separate and replant herbaceous
plants in new earth. It is a great advantage to re-
move the old earth from all the fancy beds upon
lawns, and to replace it, according to the babits of
an}' choice plants, either with the best maiden turfy-
loam or leaf-raould and heath-soil: the elfect pro-
duced is most striking.

Sow at the end of the mouth, the seeds of ap-
proved annuals, and carefully thin out and give
much air to the pots of annuals sown under glass
Propagate freely, by cuttings, calceolarias, cinera-
rias, and some geraniums. A ready method to ob-
tain the former is to look over some strong plants
of last year, and to select some of those low shoots
which begin to protrude root processes. These
emerge near the point of junction of the older with
the last made young wood ; taken off just below the
embryo root, and planted in light soil, aided by a
very gentle heat in a closed frame, plants will be se-
cured in a very short time.

Auriculas require attention; prepare a soil of
equal parts — reduced turfy loam, heath-mould, leaf-

Q 2

228

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

mould, or three year old cow -dung and sand ; mix,
and sift tbein twice, remove all the best oflsets, and
jdant three in a forty-two pot. Scrape away the
old top soil from the parent plants, and top-dress
them ; expose to air and morning sun.

Look over all the green-house plants, remove
dead leaves ; dress the surface; repot growing pe-
largonia ; cut back to well placed buds all that have
a bad unbalanced figure. Water timely given, and
the regular use of the syringe are essentials. The
Indian azalia, if suffered to become heart-dry, sel-
dom revives; its hair-like roots perish in a dry ball,
and it is notorious that heath mould should always
be gently moist.

Heaths require abundance of air, free watering,

and a shifting, if the roots fill the pot, before growth
takes place.

Camellias out of bloom, may be safely excited in
a shady warm house ; they like water while growing.

Whether a plant be in stove, conservatory, green-
house, or pit, as the solar power increases, so ought
our application of stimuli to be called in aid. More
beat, more water, more air ; these form our princi-
ples—but we say by day — for night is not the season
for excitation, but for repose. Early closing all the
bouses with sun on them, is a conservative precept;
and where fire or hot water is applied, let the beat
fall 10 or 12 degrees during the night. No injury
will result even with plants which revel by day in
90", by a decline to 60" ia the hours of darkness.

AGRICULTURM. REPORTS.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR
FEBRUARY.

Notwithstanding there have been several extra-
ordinary changes in the temperature of the past
month, the weather has proved, as a whole, sea-
sonably fine. From the 1st until about the 10th,
the atmosphere was very damp and humid ; after
that period, a cold north-easterly wind was expe-
rienced for several days, which had the effect of
causing the young wheat plants, though they thus
received a wholesome check, to assume rather a
withered appearance. Fortunately, however, at
this crisis a fine and deep fall of snow took place,
which, while it sheltered the wheats from atmos-
pheric inclemency, tended to produce a favourable
influence upon the soil ; such, indeed, as the far-
mer is always desirous of beholding. On the ISUh
the wind worked round to the south-west; hence
the snow speedily disappeared, and we have since
been favoured with several genial rains. This,
then, is a brief history of the month's weather.

In reference to vegetation in general, we may
slate that it was never remembered to be in a more
healthy and flourishing state than at the present
moment. As to the wheat, in particular, it is true
several instances have come under our notice in
which premature growth has been exhibited ;
but, comparatively speaking, there is cause for
congratulation on this head, and we think the
prospects of the forthcoming harvest are certainly
good. There is one thing certain, that our agricul-
turists are in a much better position, as regards
their heavy wheats, than they were at tiie corres-
ponding period last year. 'I'hcn scarcely a moiety
had been sown ; but now wc find that every patch
of land destined to be sown with that description
of winter grain has growing upon it most luxuriant
crops. Preparations are in active progress for
sowing the Lent corn, which, we trust, will be
satisfactorily accomplished.

A question of the highest importance to the
agricultural community now arises ; and which,
by the way, has been productive of some very
crrnncous details, offered in a variety of forms, re-
garding the stocksof wheat of home produce now
in this country. That these are the great govern-
ing i)rinciple of future prices, none will be found
to deny, though the sup])lies of foreign may be
large. With much care have we collected every
fact bearing: upon this topic of consideration, in

order to arrive at the truth of the position we are
about to assiime. Now, it will be remembered
that, for several months past, wc have stated it to
be our honest conviction that, from the circum-
stance of the supply of wheat being about an
average, we were fully convinced that no
permanent rise could, in the ordinary course
of things, take place. That we were correct
in our views, is evidenced from the fact of
the trade and ruling prices corresponding
exactly with them. If reference be made
to the stocks now on hand for the whole country, it
will be found that, though deficiencies are observed
in many districts — such, for instance, as Essex, Suf-
folk, and parts of Norfolk — they are quite equal to
those at the corresponding period of last year. Wliilst
holding in view that present rates are extremely low,
and perhaps unprofitable, we cannot conceal the
fact that the future prosj)ects are far from flattering ;
yet we entertain this conviction, that |)rices have
seen their minimum range. It is far, very far, from
our wish to represent matters or circumstances
worse than they really are; but it would, in our
opinion, be a derilection of duty did we withhold
any statement which would be a guide to the agri-
cultural body of the kingdom. At Mark Lane, as
well as in nearly the whole of our provincial mar-
kets, the supplies of wheat offering, direct from the
growers, have been very scanty, and of middling and
inferior qualit)'. With some difficulty previous
rates have beeu obtained for the finest parcels, but
the middling and out-of-condition sorts may be
called Is. per qr. lower. Foreign wheat — both free
and in bond — has ruled very heavy, and prices, in
many instances, have remained almost nominal.
Good sound barley and the best malt have main-
tained their value, but other kinds have commanded
little attention. Oats, beans, peas, and flour, have
ruled about stationary.

The early lambing season has gone on favourably,
and been productive — especially in the southern dis-
tricts, including the Isle of Wight — of a good fall of
strong and healthy lambs. The ejiidemic, however,
has been again very prevalent, and some rather se-
vere losses have been sustained by tlie graziers, both
as respects their beasts and sheep.

The turnip crop is well represented, while the de-
pastured stock, from the supply of grass being more
than usually abundant, have fared extremely well.

In Ireland and Scotland the wheats are looking
remarkably well, with every prospect of an abundant

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

2-29

liarvest. The com trade, however, as with us, has
ruled dull, and rather lower rates have been ac-
cepted for low parcels of grain.

With respect to the tariff, we have but few ob-
servations to otter this month ; so scanty liave been
the importations, that tliej' are quite unworthy of
notice. At Smitlifield, no fresh foreign beasts or
sheep have been on sale, yet we have good authority
for stating that large importations will take place in
the spring- from Geimany and Spain.

The following is our usual monthly statement
of the sn])plics and prices of fat stock exhibited
and sold in Smithfield cattle market. The former
have amounted to 12,020 beasts; I0r),233 sheep;
992 calves; and 2,;512 pigs : the latter have ruled
as follows :— Beef, from 2s. lOd. to 4s. 4d. ;
Muiton,.^s. to 4s. (id.; Veal, 4s. to ."is. (id. ; and
Pork, 33. 4d. to 43. 4d. per 81bs., to sink the
offals.

On each market day there has been a fair at-
tendance of buyers, but, owir.g to the large ar-
rivals of slaughtered meat up to Newgate and
Leaderhall markets, from Scotland and various
parts of England— they having exceeded 20,000
carcasses — the demand has ruled inactive, and
lower prices has been the result. As to the qua-
lity of the stock, this has heen pretty good, and
we are glad to be enabled to state that the Norfolk
droves, as well as the lectipts from Scotland, have
more than equalled our expectations.

A STATEMENT and COMPARISON of the SUP
PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibittd
and sold ill Smithfield Cattle Markkt, on
Monday, Feb. 21, 18i2, and Monday, Feb. 20, 1843.
At per Slhi.lo sink the nj/als.

¥eb. 21, 1»42. Feb. 20, 1S43.

s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.

Coarse&inferiorBeastsS 6 to 3 8.. 2 10 3 0

Second quality do 3 10 4 0.. 3 2 3 4

Prime large Oxen 42 44. .36 38

Prime Scots, &c 44 46. .3 10 42

Coarse & inferior Sheep 3 8 3 10. .30 3 2

Second quality do 3 10 4 2.34 36

Prime coarse woolled do. 4 4 4 6.38 3 10
Prime Southdown do. .4 8 5 0.. 4 0 4 4
Litrge coarse Calves ..5 0 5 6..310 4 6

Prime small ditto 58 GO. .48 4 10

Large Hogs 4 6 410.. 3 4 4 0

Neat small Porkers .50 52.. 42 44

SUPPLIES.

Feb. 21, 1842. Feb. 20, 11^43.

Beasts 2,602 3,113

Sheep 19,650 26,220

Calves 61 94

PiES 419 392

In Nev^gate and Leadenhall markets the trade
has again ruled very dull, and low prices have
been with difficuliy realized for all descriptions of
meat.

AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR
FEBRUARY.

On the l5th a keen frosty air from a north-eastern
quarter, which in the earlier days of tlie month had
brought merely a bracing temperature, ushered in a
degree of severity ^'crfectly Siberian when com-
pared with the general mildness of the three pre-
ceding months. The frost increfsed daily till the
I8ih, when the mercurv rose 6 degrees, i. e., from
21 of Fahrenheit — its lowest— to 27". A fierce
wind then accompanied, as it had preceded, a con-
siderable fall of si.ow, which, had there been a calm,
would have covered the surface to the depth of four

inches. As it was, we have obtained only drif;s and
snow-water to fill the ditches ; for a thaw took place
in twelve hours, and by the f20th hardly a patch of
snow remained. The thermometer has now attained
40", and rain falls.

The consequences of these mutations must be,
first, a complete check, at this late^period, of winter
vegetable growth, and an end to all anticipations
of premature luxuriance.

February puts on its old-fashioned garb : the
land will be replenished with water at a period when
the drying winds of March are likely to carry off
every particle from the surface. In 1841 the floods
of December had poached, nay, drowned the lands ;
and then, as early March proved again rainy, the
drains and water-courses were replete with water in
Ajiril.

Crops of all kinds now occupy a genial, mellow-
bed ; every thing is secure and unscathed. I'^nougb
of winter has occurred to retard, but nothing to injure ;
and if we be blessed with those genuine influences
which bring plenty of Rlarch dust, we may safely
congratulate the agriculturist upon the progress of
one of the finest of seasons. We use the term
genuine, because, of late years, the dust of March
has been raised by parching, rigorous, ea^t winds,
accompanied by five or seven degrees of unsea-
sonable frost : 'a dty atmosphere, a keenish air,
and plenty of sun, arc the legitimate concomitants
of a health-confining March.

What will the landlords and farmers think, say,
or do now .' The quotations cited in the leading
article of last Monday's " Express"' are quite deci-
sive— they appeal to the understanding 1 The pro-
gress of events, and the spirit of the times are
therein laid down as in a well-drawn map.

" God helps those who help themselves" — says
the proverb ! Which, being applied, will instruct,
that they to whom the wisdom is granted to strike
at the nail which will drive ; and, taking advantage
of every available method of improvement, cm-
ploy the means placed within their command,
will, by the exercise of a liberal economy, be ren-
dered prosperous.

We know not that sudden alterations, or aboli-
tions of restrictive measures, would be wise ; but
certain we are that, whatever is the relics of a
warlike, contentious spirit, ought not to be upheld
by men who profess a love of peace ! Let all men
love as brethren, generally and individually — in
.states and in families, and it will be as plain as the
sun at noonday, that it is their interest to cultivate
an interchange of all comforts; and that the oppo-
site system must be purely evil in its origin and
results.

Every prospect is cheering, if we could but lay
aside anticipations of what may never occur. The
land is in the most excellent condition, the plough
(prior to the frost) discovered that; in every situa-
tion the grass lands are covered v.'ith healthy
verdure ; the turnips hold out sound and abundant,
and the flocks are thriving. We ought to he grate-
ful and wise! Legislator, landlord, and occupier,
ought to pull together, and feel but one common
interest ; whereas, we stand still, revile, and abuse ;
then cry out " Wolf 1" — and despair of a remedy!
Assuredly rents, in hundreds of instances, are
too high, and tenancies far too limited; but the
farmer is also too profuse and lavish : horses are
superabundant, machinery is too expensive, force
is not economised ; and in addition, every market
day shows us equipages and general appliances of
wealth ! Is complaint legitimate with the mainte-

230

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

nance of three Imnlers ? It is not that wc would
argue for oM, hygono cnsloni'!, and ihe self-denial
of even delicacies : none better merit the enj'iy-
nients of the earth's bounty th;in they who labour
on the soil; but then, why should we enjoy and
complain, — why prognosticate ruin, while we revel
in superfluity ?

The arts and sciences are open to this favoured
generation; and our Scots brethren have well,
diligently, and economically availed themselves of
their aid — aud become rich.

Difference of clime, of seasons, and habits, cer-
tainly claim allowances ; but still, we of the south
may learn. Our advantages are pre-eminent also ;
and herein, perhaps, we may trace a primary
cause ; for experience has ever shown, thnt a land
rich by nature, that produces almost spontaneously,
is comparatively neglected, while another, whicli
would be barren weie it not courted and tasked
to the uttermo-t, repays the labourer with double
interest. I hus is verified the text tbat says —

"The hand of the diligent shall bear rule."

ESSEX.
The appearance of ourcountv hears full promise,
as far as wheat is concerned, of very ^reat abun-
dance. Genial weather cheq' ered with but little
frost has been 'he predominant feature of the
se;is>on, and though many farmers are in favour of
till her more severity on the young wheat plants,
yet we are inc ined to the contrary opinion, and
prefer a mild wimer as bein^ far more betieficial
tl)*<n a se\'ere one to the productiveness of the
crop. For the last three or four seasons frost bus
prevailed to a greater extent than in the preceding
on^s, and short roduce has t/enerally been com-
plaioett of. So far as appearance ot other vegetation
goes, tares and yi'Ung clovers are generally
promising. Grass has continued growing all
throuah ilie winter, and ha-i cariied stock to nn
unnsiiahy laie |)eri"d. '1 he time for spring sowing^
has arrived, but li'ile appears yi^t to be done with
the cxcei'tion of a few beans. The land is still in
a very rotten state, hut should the weather im-
prove it m ly probab y viork well, as the fine dry
tilth ill which it was laid up last autumn must
have tended much to have that effect. The utmost
^hion. hrnod« over the markets tcr nil descripiions
of agricultiiial produce. Gooil red wheat is selling
ill our mai l-ets, at 47s. ; liai ley, 28s. ; beans, 24s. ;
and oats, 18s. |.er qr Clover-seed may be bought
fioin i'O-. lip to 34s. Live stock of all descriptions
!)• gg-.iriiig the sellers, and proving the fact to be
indi-piit^d)!e tha' the 1 te .'ud threatened measures
of oui- Cntiservative government are rapidly producing
a state of things de ying comparison with anything
that has occurred during the last twenty years.
In the year \HM, one of the most productive as
well as the lowest piiced year of any during that
ji-riod. wheat averaged 39s. 4d., with an almvdant
cm/), what i« it now w ith but an exceedingly limited one
in our county, 47s. 5d. 1 Barley, 29s. "lid.; what
is it now w ith a bad crop, 127s. Id. ! Oats, 22s.: what
are they now, equally unirolific, IGs. lid.! Beans,
SOs.; what are tliey now, with a wretched crop,
27s. :n\.\ Peas SOs. 3d., now 30s, Id. Clover-
seed in a far worse plight, and the meal
maikets more wretched than all ; and yet the
Agricultural Interest siill slumbers, and patiently
waits its downlal. No threat seems now to alarm it.
W about a leader to protect it, its energies seem all

at once prostrated, and sullen inactivity has suc-
ceeded the glorious struggle of the Inst election.
The events of the last session a'e perhaps without a
parallel in the history of legislation. An open attack
is made by a previous Government on the Agricul-
tural Interest — that attack is resented— an appeal is
made to the country — a vast majority of representa-
tives are returned to repel encroachments — and the
chosen leader, "The Farmer's Friend," demands an
immediate recantation of their allegiance to the soil ;
away go the hopes of the constituency, and still
paralyzed, they heed not the Goverument announce-
ment but lately made, that the whole continent of
North and South America is to have free access to
our markets by the payment of 3s. per qr. duty to
the Canadian treasury. This proposal ought to he
sufficient to strike terror into the hearts of every
man who has anght invested in British land. Farm-
ers of Engliind ! we urge you to your duty — we
appeal to you. Rouse from your fatal apathy, and
demand justice, ave, and good faith from your repre-
sentatives ere your all is gone. The tenant class is
first to fall ; the landowner may live without the
tenant. Do what you can to disperse the fatal mes-
merism that broods over the onceindependent spirit
of the Legislature. Mark ye! Twelve more months
will not have passed before the farmers of England
shall demand, as they have hitherto done, measures
for immediate justice. If native industry is to have
no claim upon the legislature, the legislature must
reduce its claims ou it. Native industry must then
determine whether it is just that the hierarchy
should have their increased demands met without
abatement. Native industry must, then, with rigid
scrutiny analyse the various imposts to which she is
noyv subjected. If nothing but noise and agitation
is to be suscessful, weni'ist try that too. We want
but a rallying point. That gained, the Agricultural
Interest mav yet he saved. Its strength is not yet
gone. Like the lion, it may sleep till shorn of its
last hair, but its sleep is only adding to its strength ;
for encountering the hostile ranks which have
gathered round it while in its state of lethargy.

YORKSHIRE.
The extreme open weather, which resembled
April more than January, continued until the latter
end of that month, ;in(l vegetation was stimulated to
a degree of forwardness rarely witnessed. The
wheats were shooting upwards, the hedges budding,
and the woodbines in full leaf; the turnips very
nearly in flower, and the birds singing, quite to re-
mind us ol tl e Spring in the very middle ot the season
called Winter. A change, however, look place to-
wards the close ; a little snow, and some frosts oc-
cured in the beginning of Febiuary ; and on the 4th a
storm of wind, little inferior to the hurricane of
January 1839 passed over the county, and upturned
hundreds of st.cks, unroofed and blew down se-
veral buildings, and uprooted many beautiful trees.
No damage beyond a considerable waste, has been
done to the corn, as the weather yvas happily fine
for a time, sufficient to enable the farmers to get the
fcatcered sheaves together again. Vegetation is,
however, severely checked. The wheats are shri-
velled, and the recent spring the plants have made
are again levelled with the ground ; indeed the
shrivelled blueness of the wheat plants gives a degree
of e.'ilreme baldness to many a field, which a month
ago was more like a fog-layer than any thing else.
The turnips are also checked, hut not so far as to
affect their juicyness, nor cut down their large
ioliage. Fodder, though certainly spared a good

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

231

deal by the ojien winter, is by no means alxindant,
and beasts and sbeop me boginiiing to cumeoutof
tbe graziers' bands |)rettv raiadly — sufficiently so,
or more so, tban tbe wants of liie niarl;ets require.
Prices are very low. Spring wbeat is being sown,
but not by any means to tbe extent of last Spring ;
indeed, tbe price of wheat is by no means such as to

tempt the farmer to extend bis breadth of that grain
beyond its wonted limits; live and sixpence per
bii'sbel is the prevailing price lor tiiat arliele. Sir
I'.oburt Peel's declaration has given universal satis-
faction amongst the farmers here. The leag>ie is
powerless so long as he holds bis present positicn.^-
Feb. 11.

AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c.

NORTHALLERTON FAIR.-'ibis celebrated fair
commenced on I\Ionday, tbe 6th, and terminated on
tile 14tb. There was a large attendance of respectable
dealers from London, Edinbur^ii, Manchester, Liver-
pool, and oiber places, and also several foreigners.
During the early part of the fair the show ot first-rate
coaching' hordes, hunters, and nags, was good, most of
\yhicb met with ready sale at fair average iirice^, par-
ticularly the ilr^t sort, which appeared to be most in
request. One dealer, Mr. Bnrford, of London, pur-
chased upwards of 150 cf that dc^tripiion, and gave
great prices. A-: tiie fair progressed, tbe middling and
inferior description of horses became plentiful, and al-
thoug-b the prices obtained lor such were low, yet there
was a better demand for them than for several years
past.

GODALMING WINTER CATTLE FAIR, held
on jMonday la-t, brought together an unusually large
show of animals, of which the working horses were tbe
best. On this occasion tbe usual coUeciion was rein-
forced by the addi'ion of some pens of sheep, which
were a novelty in tlie show. Nothing could exceed the
beauty of the day and fmencss of the weather, for the
season, and the attendance was both numerous and re-
spectable. Buyers snaring in the influence of the de-
pressed slate of markets, were few, and much of the
stock remained unsold.

ASHBOURN FAIR, Feb. 13th, was well supplied
with all kinds of cattle. Fr, sli barren beasts were
better sold than any other stock, and those at indifferent
prices ; all other stock were scarcely saleable at all ; in
factue never witnessed so dull a lair as this in cattle.
But few sheep were penned, and in them sales were
dull. The Irirse fair commenced at ilie latter end of
last week, was but thinly supplied, and little business
was done in them.

BIDEFORD SPRING FAIR.-The show ofcalilo
was larger than we ever witnessed at any spring fair
previously held in Bideford. Fat bullocks were sold at
93. 6d. to 10s.; store cattle, from 7s. to 7s. 6d. per
score ; cows and calves, from 9l- 9s. to 13/. 13s. each.
Sheep — the number of sheep penned was not so large
as last year. Piiaie fat wethers fetched 53d. ; ewes,
5jd. per lb.; couples sold for 26s. to o5s. Horses-
there were but few gooi horses in tbe fair, wi;h tbe e.x-
ception of those in the hands of dealers, and high prices
were demanded. There were a good many rough
colt*, which sold at from 3/. 10s. to 11. each. The lair
generally was tolerably brisk — the cattle and sheep
being in excellent contlition for the season ; and we are
glad to state that this fair is greatly improving every
\ear. Tbe attendar.ce of graziers, dealers, and iTiCn of
business was very numerous indeed.

DEVIZES CANDLEMAS FAIR was largely sup-
plied with all descriptions of cattle; but owing to tbe
low prices ofifeicd, little business was trans xted
throughout the day. 'iowards tbe close, however, some
few sales were effected ; beet selling at from 9s. to 10s.
per score ; but on the whole the trade was exceedingly
dull.

BATH FAIR was well supplied with fat cattle, and
of an excellent description. Sales were effected at better
piices than have ruled atlatefairs. Beef fetched I iota
9s. 6d. to 105. 6d. per score, and mutton sold as high as
5^d. to e^d. per lb. There was a fair supply of lean
stock, but sales wereralherdnll.

At DORCHESTER CANDLEMAS FAIR there

was a very numerous attendance of farmers and gra-
ziers, and much business was done. Tbe supply of fat
beasts was limited, prices being from 8<. to lOs. per
score. There was a large supply of Cows and Calves,
among which were many of prime quality ; ready sales
were eftected at from lO/. to 15/.

FARINGDON CATTLE FAIR, although larger
than tbe corresponding one of last year, was by no
means a large one. A few excellent horses sold well,
as also a lew fat 0.\en. There was a full attendance
of dealers, but trade on the wiiole was considered dull.

INFLUENZA AMONGST CATTLE AND
SHEEP.— The contagious dioorder which has now for
nearly four years more or less attacked tbe cattle and
sheep brought to the London markets has this year re-
turned with unabated violence. On every market-day
both Smitbfield market and all the leading lines of in-
tercourse from it exhibit this from the number of sheep
which are seen lying in a condition incapacitated for
walking. The principal effects on the sheep are shown
upon the hoof, as inflammation, and subsequently sup-
puration takes place round the coronet of the hoof,
which from that cause is thrown off, thus differing from
tbe cominon foot rot, the seat of which is bt;tween the
claws. Ihe extent of this disease is so great, that
numbers of the sheep are obliged to be brought to
market in carts, and in cases where the pens are not
crowded, the poor animals lie down, and are incapable
of again rising. There is no doubt, however, that the
complaint is considerably increased by the crowded state
of the pens, which are quite inadequate for their accom-
modation, whilst this circumstance defies the juds'inent
of the butcher, who is tiius prevented examining them.
The disease is also extremely prevalent amongst cows
and other cattle, and since Cbiistmas Mr. Rhodes, tbe
extensive cowkceper at Kingsland, has lost 170 of the
former. Another cowkeeper in the neighbourhood of
Gray's Inn-lane also has lost 42 within the last four
weeks. In these the chief scat of attack is the lungs,
and if not rallied within 48 hours after tbe attack, their
loss is certain. Their hoofs, as well as those of the
sheep, are also thrown off, and the tracks from the
bleeding limbs of tbe animals in Smitbfield market
present a pitiable picture of the sufferings which ihey
must undergo. The epidemic, if such it may be termed,
is not so prevalent on the Surrey as the Middlesex side
of tbe river, although the cows at many sheds in Ber-
mondsey, and paiiieularly in tbe Grange-road, have
recently suffered much. Although ibeie is no doubt the
quality of the meal must be very much impaired by the
prevailing disease, there is no criterion by which such
may be distinguished after death Irom the meat of the
healthy animal. The sufferings of tbe sheep in Smith-
fiel-l-maiket, and the impossibility of butchers distin-
guishing the diseased from the healthy animal, is a very
strong plea for the enlargement of the market for their
accommodation, particularly as the means for doing it
are now offered ut a reasonable expense to the corpo-
ration.

DISEASE IN CATTLE.— A destructive disease
has recently broken out amongst the cattle in certain
districts of this county, which has hitherto defied the
power of medicine or treatment to overcome. It chiefly
affects the lungs, and comes on so imperceptibly, that
it has generally advanced to its last stage' before the
state of the animal is discovered ; and by tnat time the
lungs are found to be greatly wasted, and incapable of

232

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

perfoitning their functions. It does not appear to be
contagious ; as the cattle on farms situated on each side
of those in which it rages, are exempt Irom the disease ;
"whilst on the farms where it has Ijroken out, cattle at
the stall, in the yard, and in the pastures are all alike
]iihle to it. On some farms in the neighbourhood of
one town in this county, as many as from 23 to 32 head
of cattle have died from its effect*, and a number are
yet suH'ering.— Shri'ushui;/ Clironicle.

GUANO. — The Liverpool United Brokers' Circular
States that 2000 tons of the new manure, called g;uaiio,
have been recently sold in this town at from 10/. to 12/.
per ton. Tiiis quantity will rai^e ton thousand acres of
turnips, as four cwt. per acre has been found sufficient
for that purpose. With that quant'ly, which at the
present price will only cost two pounds, wc ourselves
raised larger crops of turnips last year than we were
able to raise with eight pounds' worth of common
manure. If the oriorinal importers of ibis valuable
manure had been satisfied to offer it to the public at the
present price, the consumption would have been ten
times as great as it is now ; for having tried guano with
every description of crop, we do not hesitate to pro-
nounce it the cheapest and most valuable manure ever
introduced into this country. As we are buyers, not
sellers of the article, our praise of it is at least disin-
terested.—ijy. Times,

GUANO.— The superintendent of the hardy depart-
ment reported that he had tried several experiments
with guano upon plants in pots. In loam, containing
one-fiftieth part of this substance, Verbenas and Sal-
vias became luxuriant in about the same degree as if
potted in rotten dung. The same plants also flourished
exceedingly in sand containing a similar proportion of
guano. The same effect, or even a more beneficial
action, was produced upon them when peat was sub-
stituted for sand. But when rich garden soil was em-
ployed with ihe same pioportion of guano, ihe plants
became languid and died. It was Iherelore inferred that
the value of guano as a manure, will depend upon the
soil with which it is employed, and that a quaniity
which would be highly beneficial in poor soil will be-
come deleterious upon land previously rich and well
manmed.— Proceedhigs of the H or t. Soc, No. 17.

APRIL WHEAT.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMERS* MAGAZINE.

i\rr. EniTOR, — As you did me the favour to in-
sert, in your December number, my former com-
munication on the " April Wheat/' I must now beg
your permission to occupy a small space in the forth-
coming number of your valuable journal to state
the result of my last year's growth.

I find the portion of my field sown last year with
the April wheat measures 8 logs less than 3 acres,
and my crop is exactly 26 sacks 2^ bushels, includ-
ing tail — making on the [average full 9 sacks per
acre.

The sample is very good — weighs 12 score lOlbs.
per sack— and is put by the millers who have seen
it, at the highest market price.

It will be in the recollection of your readers that
this wheat was sown on the 19th April, and was
reaped on the 12tli August — before it had been
four months on the ground — and that a small quan-
tity sown on the 20th of May, not only ripened well
but produced more than an average crop.

The advantages of such a wheat for late spring-
sowing arc so self-evident that it would be a waste
of time to dwell on them. I shall therefore only-
call the attention of those farmers who may be dis-
posed this year to give it a trial, to the circumstance,
that whenever it has not succeeded well, I have
had reason to know or to suspect, that the land had
been left too rough. It cannot be made too fine,
and should in fact be prepared as if for barley ;
and the wheat should be sown at the rate of 2
bushels, or 22 bushels per acre.

I am, Sir, with thanks for your kindness, yours
faithfully, A CONSTANT ReAdek.

Wilts, Feb. 20th, 1843.

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE MONTH OF FEBRUARY.

The meeting of Parliament has not in any
manner dispelled the gloom which for many
months now has been suspended over ihe heads of
our agricultural interest. On the contrury, this
gloom is rapidly on the increase, the Minister
having plainly intimated that, should it be neces-
sary to make any alteration in the corn laws
hereafter, the change will render them, if possible,
even less protective to the cultivators of the fields
at home than they are at the present moment. It
i^ therefore now the general fear and expectation
that the system of fixed duties being levied on
foreign grain of all descriptions, when entered for
home consumption throughout the United King-
dom, will eventually be adopted by the ISritish
legislature, and thus will an ell'cctuar bar be placed
to the progress of agricultural improvements
throughout the three kingdoms. These unfavour-
able prospects very naturally arc daily increasing
those doubts previously entertained by the entire
body of British farmers respecting the result of
their future agricultural ojierations. I'^ven on tho
best soils, at the ])resent prices of agricultural
produce, they are i)erfectly persuaded that to

pursue the present system without better protec-
tion, caw only end in the loss of the large capital
cniharl<ed by them in the cultivation of their
farms, and afterwards in placing one-half of their
field labourers in Union-houses, and reducing the
other half to that condition in life which is cfosely
allied to starvation. It is utterly impossible to
conceive in what manner the general interests of
the British iMupire can be promoted by trans-
ferring the productive labours of the fields from
our own population to the inhabitants of foreign
empires, kingdoms, and states; or wdiat advan-
tages can be gained by placing our agricultural
labourers on a level with the serfs of Poland and
the slaves of Ilussia. This is, to be sure, a sys-
tem of liberty and cijuality which may be suitable
to the inhabitants Ota kingdom like Utopia, but
can never be palatable to the enlightened and
comfortably supported subjects of the Queen of
the British Isles. It is surely a novel atid most
extraordinary plan for providing for what the
Anti-Corn -Law Leaguers denominate a snrjilus
population, to transfer from them the productive
and healthy labours of the fields to German boors,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

233

Polish serfs, and Russian slaves. It is likewise a
still more extraordinary plan for increasing the
wealth and adding to the strength and power of
the British empire, to cease agricultural improve-
ments at home, to throw millions of acres of land,
noweiuir.ently pioductive, out of cultivation, and to
cultivate foreign fields instead of our own with
British money, which under the existing corn law
has already heen, and must continue to be, re-
mitted ahroad to an immense extent, in exchange
for numerous articles of foreign produce aiul ma-
nufactures. These sums of money sent abroad by
us, in exchange for foreign grain and for the pro-
ducts of foreign industry, must for the future be
employed in foreign agricultural improvements,
or embarked in foreign manufacturing establish-
ments. It is inconsistent with experience and
common sense for one moment, to suppose liiat our
parting- with money can give the slightest encou-
I'agement to reciprocity in trade. So I'ar from
being hereafter exchanged by its now foreign pro-
prietors for British manufactured goods, its in-
fluence will for the futuie produce widely opposite
effects. It is- already limiting the quantity and
V. due of our export trade to those countries from
which we import provisions, and it must continue
to diminish it annually until it arrive at nil. Wc
are giving to foreign corn-producing communities
the means of speedily competing with us, not only
in their own but also in our markets, in the sale
of manufactuicd goods. Wc are enabling them,
by our false liberal principles of trade, to build up
manufacturing establishinents in all directions, ri-
valling our own in extent, entirely at the expense
of the British Em|iiie. By our corn laws we arc
extending productive employment annually amongst
foreigners, and we are at the same time reducing
our own labourers to idleness and to jjovert}-.
We are also yearly adiling lo the strength of what
may soon be hostile nations, by actions which are
gradually undermining the power and greatness
of the British Empire. And for what are these
sacrifices made! Certainly for no other national,
or rather rational, object than to increase the
riches of a few of the cotton lords. These traders
want to manufacture cheaper than they do at pre-
sent, but this benefit to themselves they cannot
obtain unless by the reduction of the wages now
paid to their artisans and workmen, the preli-
minary stcj< to which is the reduction of the
prices of the necessaries of life. To obtain this
their end, they care not for the safety of the
national creditors, nor have they any objection to
place the foreign slave and the Biitish labourer
on a perfect equality in mental intelligence and in
worldly circumstances. Under an entirely free
trade in grain with foreign states, or under any
fixed duty on the inq)ortation of grain into this
country, it is vain to expect that fifty millions
sterling of taxes and upwards can be annually
collected in the British Empire, and the receivers
of the jjublic dividends must be the first sufTereis
from any deficiency occurring hereafter in the re-
venue. Without a perfect system of proteciion
to industry at home, the general annual ex-
penditure of the inhabitants of the United
Kingdom canmt be, for any length of
time, maintained at its present amount,
and the consumption of all tax-paying ar-
ticles must be also eventually very materially re-
duced by this cause. The certain consequences of
an actual freedom in the foreign corn trade, or the
imposition of fixed rates of dut/ on foreign grain

when entered here for home use, mnst he, we re-
peat, ruinous to the industry of all classes in the
British Empire, and must place in great danger
that sacred property which is embarked by the
fundholders on the faith and honour of the English
nation. But even this interest, however important
it undoubtedly is, is still vastly inferior in its intrin-
sic value to the one which the industrious classes at
present possess in productive employment. This is
the real property of the great majority of the Bri-
tish community, and out of it springs the real
wealth of the nation. To transfer even a portion
of this property to foreigners is to defraud British
labourers, and, as soon as the mist of prejudice is
removed from their eyes, an universal demand will
he made by them, whether they he employed in
agricultural or in commercial pursuits, on the le-
gislature for protection to their labour, which now
affords them the means of comfortable living, against
the interference of foreign labour in the liritish
market. To employ Poles in the production of
wheat, is to defraud the Essex farm labourer of a
part of his property ; and to ompli>y foreign boot-
makers, hatters, or any other foreign handicraft,
for British consumers, is to deprive British labour-
ers of their legitimate property in the production
of similar articles at home. During the whole of
last month, the fishmongers, for instance, have been
most abundantly supplying the pcojile of England
with Dutch fresh salmon and with foreigncaughtfresh
fish of every descrii'/tion, which is an extraordinary
plan for increasing the means of our fishing interest
for the payment of tax-paying articles of consump-
tion. There must therefore, we repeat, soon arise
loud and universal complaints amongst workmen of
every denoniination,against tampering with the corn
laws in the British legislature, and petition on peti-
tion will be then presented to Parliament for the re-
enactment of many laws, latterly either repealed or
greatly modified, by which our internal industry —
which had for many years been properly protected,
and under which the people generally existed in a
flourishing condition, and the British Empire rose
to the greatest eminence amongst the nations of
the earth — may be again restored to its pristine
state of real prosperity. Within the United King-
dom we at present possess, and the people univer-
sally are acquainted with the fact, in the greatest
abundance, the means of supporting triple our pre-
sent population in that independent state in which
the British people have for generations now been
accustomed to live ; and until these moans be ex-
hausted it is in the extreme improper to attempt
to reduce them to a level with the working classes
in any part of Europe, Asia, or America. The
wastelands alone in Great Britain and Ireland,
which at present are entirely useless to the people,
but at the same time are perfectly capable of being
brought into the highest state of cultivation, render
the idea of a surplus population truly ridiculous and
contemptible. We have immense resources for
converting these wastes into grain and grass fields,
and certainly we have abundance of money at pre-
sent unemployed, which, under wise regulations,
may be most productively employed in these im-
portant undertakings. Lands may be reclaimed
from the banks of rivers, from arms of the sea, and
from morasses themselves, by the labour of man,
and the capital embarked eventually must be
doubled and tripled by operations of this descrip-
tion. Nothing which manufacturers can produce,
can be placed In the scale against the advantages
which may easily be obtained from further agri-

234

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

cultural improvements. Tlio products of manu-
facturers speedily pcrrsli, but agricultural improve-
ment is, not like them, the plant of a kindly sun.
It does not, like them, rise quickly to its height,
nor does it soon decay. As it approaches to per-
fection it benefits mankind, and it blesses the hu-
man race for many centuries afterwards. The la-
bours of the manufacturer are widely different from
those of the farmer also, in the health and real hap-
piness of the workmen. The labourers of the ma-
nufacturer breathe a heated atmospiiere, and are
subjected to numerous complaints ; whilst the agri-
cultural labourer does his quiet duty in the fields,
where he inhales only the pure air of heaven, and
consequently he lives in comparative contentment
■with his condition in life. To compare the state of
the agricultural labourer with that of the manufac-
turing workman, is only necessary to establish the
great truth, that the former is infinitely superior in
his habits to the latter, and, therefore, that to sa-
crifice the one to the other would be an act of the
greatest injustice to the working classes generally
in this country, in as far as the one enjoys sturdy
health, whilst the squalid appearance of the other
universally denotes a broken up constitution ; and
therefore, we repeat, it is the duty of the le-
gislature to give the greatest encouragement to
agricultural pursuits, in as far as to do so best
serves the real interests of the commonwealth.
The wages of labour cannot be maintained, we
again assert, at their present rates, in any de-
partment of industry, unless the cultivators of
the soil be fairly protected in all our markets
of consumption against agricultural produce of
foreign growth; and the same justice should
be extended to manufacturing labourers, to arti-
sans, and in fact to every interest in the state. The
admission of foreign goods into consumption should
be prohibited altogether unless on the payment of
duties sufficiently protective to industry at home,
and, at the same time, adding to the national revenue.
By these means alone can the capital of the Bri-
tish Empire be retained at home for the public use,
and profitably applied to the productive employ-
ment of the British people. The experience
of farmii':g during the last year is as little
satisfactory to the cultivator of the British soil
as aie his fiiturc prospects. For that portion
of the last wheat crop which he has already sent
into consumption, the prices received by him have
not remunerated him for the expenses of its pro-
duction ; and the millers' demand generally has
been during that period supplied by wheats of
foreign growth, on which the British importers
have sustained a heavy loss of m!)ney. Under the
new corn law, good and sound wheaten bread is
now selling in the metropolis at one penny half-
penny a pound ; but the wages of labour render
this price far dearer to the consumer than it was
when he paid lOd. for the four-pound louf ; and
this reduction in his pay is mainly, if not entirely,
occasioned by the transfer of a portion of our ])ro-
ductive labour from our own to the workmen of
foreign communities. Thus both manufacturers
and agriculturists are now paying heavy penalties
for the illustration of the principles of free trade
with foreign nations ; aiul some sjjfiedy alteration
must be made in the present system, if our legis-
lators be inclined to avert from the Hritish nation
still greater calamities. The manufacturers com-
plain of want of markets every wli ere for their
goods J and the farmers know not whether their
prosperity for the future depends on good or on

damaged crops. In all department-S of indiistrj',
in fact, confusion of the worst description pre-
vails. The manufacturer can find no remunerat-
ing market for his finer descriptions of goods ;
because the agriculturist obtains not for his pro-
duce prices nearly equal to the expenses of grow-
ing it. iMoney is collected into large masses by
the capitalist, who can find no channel at home
in which he can productively to himself send it
again into circulation. Legal protection to agri-
cultural and to manufacturing pursuits can alone
alter this unwholesome condition of British so-
ciety. With protection against foreign agricul-
tural produce in all our markets of consumption,
abundance of money will be speedily invested in
agricultural improvements ; and soon afterwards
must prosperity again attend the labours of the
industrious. It will then soon become sufficient!}'
apparent, that in the United Kingdom means e.\ist
for supporting triple her present population, and
for productively employing our commercial, fish-
ing, and nianuf;ictiiring labourers, if the number
of them should hereafter be doubled. As matters
are at present, the farmers find tbcmselves in the
distressing position of not knowing whether abun-
dant or damaged crops will in future be most ad-
vantageous to themselves, and therefore they have
paid little attention to the seasonable check which
the winter wheat plants received during the pro-
gress of the last month. That this occurrence
must tend to increase the chances of an abun-
dant wheat crop ne.\t harvest, cannot be disputed ;
but it may also tend still to reduce farther the
capital now embarked in agricultural pursuits.
Indeed, the markets seem already to be labouring
under its influence ; for the supplies of wheat, and
particularly of north-country flour, have since our
last publication considerably exceeded the de-
mand, and to effect sales declining prices must
be submitted to. It was, some time ago, gene-
rally supposed that, after the turn of the year, the
wheat trade would have assumed a more cheer-
ing aspect ; but in this hope the cultivators of the
soil have been as much deceived as they have been
since the meeting of jjarliament, by the conduct of
the farmers' friends, placed by their exertions
in the House of Commons. At the one event
they are much disappointed, whilst the latter cir-
cumstance fills the great majority of them with
amazement.

The informaiion received from North America,
since our last publication, is neither of recent date
nor is it interesting either to traders or to agricul-
turists in this country. In all the corn export
markets throughout the Uuited States, the stip-
plies of wheat and flour were much larger than
the demand required; p'.ices had consequently
given way considerably, and a still further depre-
ciation in tlie value of agricultural produce was
confidently looked for by the exporters. The low
prices in England did not encourage speculation at
these dates, for a confident opinion was entertain-
ed that the sellers must eventually submit to tliose
j)rices which would render sliipments both of
wheat and flour to this country practicable. In
the meantime, shipments to a considerable extent
continued to be made of dairy farming produce,
and of cured provisions of various descriptions.
Even the ailvantages to be obtained in this cjun-
try from shij) biscuit baking had not escaped the
attention of .Tonathan, and considerable shipments
of this manufactured article continued to be made
to this country, and goes into consuniptiou here,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

235

we presume, for the benefit of our bakers at
home. Ill return for agricultural products, Jona-
than at ])rescnt receives not one article on which
British industrj' has been employed, unless
on the payment of heavy duties, partly for the pro-
tection of American industry at home, and partly
for financial purposes. In this way, certainly, the
American system of reciprocity in trade is g:ra-
dually becoming;; wonderfully successful. Manufac-
tures of all descriptions are rapidly incre;ising
amongst them, because th"y are perfectly protected
against foreign competiiion, and laigc sums of
specie are weekly arriving in their various ports,
to pay for the balance of their export commerce.
Money consequently had become so abundant
throughout the American Union, that a considera-
ble portion of the loan which the American gov-
ernment had latterly but vainly endeavoured to
raise in Europe, had been advanced by a few mer-
chants in New York, paying par for a six per cent
stock. We dare say that these bonds will find
their way speedily into this country ; be purchased
by our capitalists, and the annual interest on them
eventually be repudiated by our transatlantic
brethren. Thus do our corn laws encourage the
shipment of specie to foreign states, in exchange
for foreign agricultural produce. Thus does our
system of free trade give most productive employ-
ment to foreign workmen, and drive our own
labourers into Union-houses, or into destitution
even of a worse description. During the month
preceding the latest dates, upwards of half a mil-
lion sterling, in specie, had been received from this
country by the American Union, whilst scarcely
any goods of British snanufacture had arrived in
that period. Still larger sums of cash have been
since then forwarded to A merica, and the shipments
made of goods arc still less. Thus progresses
reciprocity in commerce with that country.

The se.ison of the year having suspended the
corn trade between the ports in the Mediterranean
and Black seas, and those in the United Kingdom,
the reports from these markets during the last
month have not been intetesting. The depressed
state of the corn trade in England had, for a time,
rendered sales of wheat for exportation impossible,
and had reduced the quotations to rates nearly
nominal, more particularly in the Adriatic. In all
those markets the stock of wheat was gradually
accumulating, and its value decreasing. Prices at
Trieste were quoted at 26s. to 28s. per quarter,
but no business had been latterlv transacted there,
and it was the general opinion that actual buyers
would have been supplied ev^n at lower rates ; the
cro|is in that country bfing large, and immediate
sales being preferred by the proprietors, to holding
for still higher rates. The stock of beans had then
been considerably reduced, and an improvement
in their value had occurred, which rendered them
too dear for shipment to our markets. In the
lower ports of Italy the trade was in an equal
degree depressed, no animation whatever being
exhibited in anj' article of agricultural produce.
^Vhen the season, however, removes the danger of
heating created by the length of the voyage to
Great Britain, it is not improbable that exceedingly
low prices may encourage speculative shipments
being made during the next summer and harvest
months.

The internal navigation betwixt the wheat dis-
tricts in the interior and the shipping ports in the
Baltic and the German ocean, being at present
interrupted by the elements, the information re-

ceived, since our last publication, from Dantzig,
Rostock, Hamburg, and the other foreign corn
markets in the north of Europe, is not of any in-
terest, for scarcely any business was doing in any
description of grain. The prices of wheat at
Dantzig were nominally quoted at the latest dates,
at somewhere about 33s. per quarter, free on
board ; but the future value of this article depended
much on the advices which may hereafter be
transmitted to the foreign corn merchants from
Mark-lane. Lower down in the Baltic and with-
out that sea, wheat prices were proportionately
lower, and the future depended on similar circum-
stances. One lesson, however, may be drawn
from the state of the corn trade in America and in
Europe at the present moment. It may shew clearly
to the advocates of a free corn trade, or of fixed
rates of imjjort duties, how injurious these changes
would be to the best interests of the British peo-
j)le. Dantzig wheat, without duty, could at the
present prices in the ports of shipment, be sold
here, to a good profit, at 42s. per quarter. In
quality it is certainly equal to any grown in the
United Kingdom, and here it cannot be produced
at any such rates, if the interest on our national
debt is to be paid in future, and if our labourers
are to be permitted to live in the comfortable
manner to which they have heretofore been ac-
customed. But even under the existing corn law,
it is generally expected that when the season
permits, we shall be inundated with grain from the
Baltic, for its value will conform with the prices to
be obtained in Mark-lane.

In the barley trade no improvement whatever
has occurred during the last month. On the con-
trary, the supply has regularly exceeded the de-
mand, and sales have been consequently forced at
declining prices. This circumstance, so exceedingly-
injurious to the barley farmer, has its origin in
various causes, the principal one of which most un-
fortunately is to be found in the reduced consump-
tion of pure and unadulterated beer by the great
mass of the people. Herein too are the evils of
reduced rates of wages operating most disadvan-
tageously, not only on the interests of agriculture,
but most particularly so on the comforts of the
entire population itself. When our internal in-
dustry was duly protected by law, more particularly
the profitable cultivation of the soil, the home
market universally consumed such quantities of
manufactures and of various other articles of
necessaries and luxuries, as gave much produc-
tive labour to various descriptions of industry, and
remunerated the workmen with excellent wages.
The new theory, however, of political economy, and
the almost fatal practice which we have now for
sometime had of the principles of a false system of
free trade, have, even already, reduced the wages
of labour throughout Great Britain so very mate-
rially, that although the people have the inclination,
still they have not the means to consume their
wonted regular quantity of beer. From this cause
have arisen the late falling away in quantity in the
manufacture of barley into malt, the at present
great heaviness in the sale of, and continued de-
pression in the value of barley, and, what the
Chancellor of the Exchequer considers to be the
greatest evil of all, the immense falling away which
occurred during the last financial quarter, in the
excise department of the public revenue. The pre-
sent state of the corn trade generally, and that
depression in prices which is gradually depriving
the farmers of the capital which they have em-

236

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

barked in the cultivation of their fields, must here-
after, however, add more and more to the present
depression, in proportion to that diminution which
is now annually occurring in the means of the great
body of consumers in the home market to pay for
their usual quantity of goods for the use of their
families and of themselves. Already has the rapid
decline in the home market, in the consumption of
manufactured goods, thrown hundreds of thousands
of luiman beings out of their daily bread, and the
future prospect of receiving remunerating wages for
their labour hereafter is gloomy in the extreme.
The barley grower is severely feeling the decreased
value of his produce, nor has he any more cheering
prospects before him than the great body of con-
sumers of beer. In one way most certainly
have the ministers of the crown means to diminish,
if not entirely to remove, the complaints at present
made by the barley farmers of the want of remu-
nerating prices for their crops, and by the great
body of consumers, that beer is too dear when
compared with the wages now paid to them for
their labour. To tliis channel of national relief we
have often directed the attention of our readers,
and we shall continue to call the public attention
to this deplorable state of affiiirs until the legisla-
ture be pleased to apply a real remedy to this evil.
It originates, in a certain degree, in the weight of
the malt duty, and also in the manner in which the
maltster's operations are interfered with by the
absurd malting regulations of the excise oflice.
The high duty now charged on malt not only re-
stricts the quantity of barley manufactured "into
malt, but it is likewise the cause of that adultera-
tion in the quality of beer which is so extremely
pernicious to the health of the lower orders of con-
sumers, and also detrimental to the revenue itself.
A moderate rate of duty on all taxed articles
universally places much more money in the
treasury than is done by oppressive duties, and the
whole history of the malt-tax perfectly establishes
this fact. Its present high rate is gradually de-
creasing the quantity of barley converted into malt.
Indeed, at present the quantity of malt now con-
sumed by the common brewers is reduced consi-
derably under four millions of quarters; but to
remit in some degree a portion of the malt tax,
would certainly very materially increase the quan-
tity of malt at present manufactured in Great
Britain. On properly dried malt the duty now
is somewhere about 2.iJs. per quarter, which in
metallic money is fully as high as the former
charge of 34s. Dd. was in a paper circulating me-
dium. It is nearly one hundred per cent, on the
value of the raw material, and the natural conse-
quence of this oppressive charge is an annual de-
cline in the quantity of barley now manufactured
into malt. Tlie malt duty of Sts, 9(1. nsver paid
more into the treasury in one year than three mil-
lions sterling. In the second year, hoA-ever, after
its reduction to 20s. per quarter, upwards of six
millions of quarters of barley were converted into
malt. Even this quantity, however, when used by
the brewer, served out beer in very limited quan-
tities to the entire popuhition. Not much above
one-half of that quantity of malt is now used in
the brewer's trnde, and the consequence is, that
adulteration of beer has latterly become so pre-
valent amongst the minor retailers. A large loss
of revenue is likewise a result of the same cause.
To reduce the malt duty to Is. per bushel, will in
a great measure remedy these evils, and that, too,
within a very short period after its reduction. The

increased consumption of malt will add to tie pre-
sent sum paid into the treasury from this source
of revenue ^■e^y considerably; and eventually it
will more than triple the quantity of barley con-
verted into malt under the existing system of re-
striction. At a time when it is proposed to reduce
the duty now charged on foreign wines, which even
now is uj)wards of thirty per cent, lower than the
duly charged on Uritish made spirits, surely some
attention should be j)aid by tlie ministers of the
crown to the malt duty, which is chiefly paid by the
productive classes of society. On the mass of the
English people a material reduction in the malt
duty would confer a great benefit, and in doing so
the legislature would be only doing to them an act
of common justice. The benefit, however, would
not be confined to the lower grades of British so-
ciety, for the alteration would be fully as advan-
tageous to the proprietors themselves of barley
lands. The increased consumption of beer would
render necessary the cultivation of at least two
millions of acres of land, at present entirely un-
productive, in addition to the lands at present in
barley cultivation. This conversion of waste
lands into barley fields, would add upwards of one
million sterling annually to the income of land
proprietors ; and the after-profits arising from
their cultivation would much more than pay for
thii additional expense which the additional con-
sumption of beer would occasion amongst the
people. Instead of transporting many thousands
of our agricultural laboui'ers for the jjurpose of
cultivating the wilds of the Canadas, surely com-
mon sense and the common feelings of humanity
should dictate their employment within the British
islands, so long as one acre of land remains
in a state of perfect nature, and so long as
even the best cultivated lands at home are still
capable of much more imjiorlant imjirovemeut by
the application to them of capital, of labour, and of
legal ])rotection to the produce of that labour. If
the malt duty, however, be unnaturally high, the
duty at present charged in England on the manu-
facture of spirits is extravagantly high, being nearly
three hundred and fifty per cwt. on the value of
British spirits themselves. This excessive duty
renders the profits and the jjleasures of the smug-
gling trade irresistible to the peojile, and is a great
corrupter of public moraliiy ; it encourages the con-
sumjition of illicit spiriis, defrauds the public
revenue, and destroys the health and the characters
of all employed in this nefarious system of trade.
In Ireland and in Scotland smuggled spirits do
not at jjresent exi^t, because low duties have ren-
dered their importation not sufficiently profitable.
In England, however, high duties render the system
widely different, for at least one-half of the spirits
now consumed in this portion of the United King-
dom is of the worst description, and pays not one
farthing of duty to the public revenue. There is no
cause whatever for the duty on home-made spirits
in Scotland and in Ireland being lower than it is
in England, for we do not find that the ladies of
Lambeth, and of the Seven Dials, are more prone to
the coHSumption of spirits than are those of Scot-
land and of Ireland. At all events, if we may be
allowed to judge from appearances, we are per-
suaded that excessive duties do not cure the evil ;
for the smuggler renders the supply at all times
fully as large as the demand requires. To equalize
the duties on home-made and on colonial spirits
would speedily remedy the evils of the present
system. To fix the duty throughout the United

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

237

Kingdom at 5s. per proof gallon would improve tlie
revenue, because it would destroy the temptation to
the Illicit importation of spirits, and the morals and
health of the people would likewise be improved by
consuming pure and wholesome home-made spirits,
instead of the deleterious and pernicious trash with
which they are at present supplied by llie smuggler.
Tlie reduction of tbe duty on home-made spirits
in England, and tlie suppression of the smug-
gler's trado, would open a channel for the con-
sumption of at least half a million of quarters of
British-grown grain, in addition to the quantity
consumed under the present system by the distillers
of tbe United Kingdom. The excise taxes require
revision in a far greater degree than those of
the customs did last year. By the reductions made
in tbe latter, a vast deal of productive employment
has been transferred by the legislature from Bri-
tish labourers to those of foreign nations, without
in any manner whatever serving one interest with-
in the British empire. Manufactured barley lat-
terly paid one quarter of the public expentliture,
and if the excise laws were modified, as they cer-
tainly should be, this article would contribute
still more largely towards the national income.

In our last re\iew of the state of the corn trade,
we reported the trade in oats to labour under much
depression, and prices to have nearly reached the
lowest rates possible. During the last month we
are unable to quote the slightest amendment, and
to say that this article is not now of less value
than it was in January last, would be but little
cheering to the jiroducers. To the farmers in
Great Britain, oat prices now are not nearly so
interesting as they were twenty or thirty years
ago, because they are not now so generally culti-
vated either in England or in Scotland as they
formerly were ; but to the agricultural interest in
Ireland, the state of the oat markets in Great
Britain is in the highest degree important. In
that island agricultural improvements have been
slowly but surely progressing during the last
quarter of a century; and the ready sale which
Irish agricultural produce of all descriptions has
met with in all the British markets, has been the
chief spur to enterprise in tbe sister country. The
attention of the farmers there Las heretofore been
chiefly directed to oats, and they cultivated them
not only to their own advantage, but likewise to
that of the British consumers. Moderate prices
were sufficient for the farmers' profit, and were,
of course, of much consequence to the great
body of the general buyers in this country of this
article. At the present value, however, it is
almost impossible that they can be produced in
Ireland, and still more impossible to grow them
with any chance of profit in Great I'ritain. The
existing depressed value is not occasioned by un-
usually large supplies, nor is there any visible fall-
ing away in the quantity required for general con-
sumption. The uncertainty which the alteration
in the corn laws has created in the United King-
dom, respecting the future value of agricultural
produce, is the chief, if not the sole, cause of that
dulness in the corn trade which at present exists
so extensively, and which is doing so much in-
jury to the best interests of the British community.
In London a great part of the Irish supply of oats
has for several months been selling at about 16s.
per quarter ; and when the expenses of preparing
them for the voyage by kiln-drying and of ship-
ping them, the after charges of freight, sea insur-
ance, and London expenses of sale, are deducted
from that price, we strongly suspect that little

remains to pay the farmer for their production,
and still less is left to pay the laiul proprietor for
the rents of the fields on which these oats have
been produced, The great fear at present enter-
tained by our growers is, that the highest duty
now charged on foreign oats cannot prohibit the
importation of the finest qualities of them at any
time into this country ; the maximum duty not
being more than the difference in price is betwixt
the best descriptions of foreign oats and the aver-
age price of those grown at home. I'he current
year, therefore, in every probabi'ity, will shew
whether foreigners can, under the present law,
undersell Irish oat growers in the British markets.
That a contest of this description should have
been sanctioned by the British legislature is cer-
tainly not one of "the smallest wonders of these
times of liberty, for in it is distinctly included the
futurecontinuation of those principles on which our
empire has been mainly raised. The trial here-
after must be whether Great Britain is for the
future to employ Irish or foreign labourers in the
production of oats, consumed by her population ;
whether these oats are to be carried under the
British or under foreign flags, and whether
the money to be paid for these oats is to
continue in circulation amongst the produc-
tive classes in the British Empire, or to
be remitted to foreign nations, for the improve-
ment of foreign fields, and for the encouragement
of foreign manufactures. The experiment is
certainly a dangercus one, for on its issue depends
also, in a material degree, the future progress of
agricultural improvements in Ireland, and the
future productive employment of the agricultural
portion of her population. In Ireland upwards
of eight millions of the human race are at present
supported chiefly by agricultural pursuits ; and it
appears to us hazardous in the extreme to place in
jeopardy the very means, limited though they be,
by which they are now maintained, even should
the wages of the manufacturing labourers in Great
Britain (amounting, as they do, to something
considerably less than half a million of males) be
doubled by the depression of the wages of the
Irish population. Great Britain is, however, con-
sidered by foreign agricultural and manufacturing
workmen to be extremely wealthy, and they ac-
cordingly are hovering around her, like hungry
vultures^ to have their share of the prey. At this
certainly, on their part, no wonder need be enter-
tained, for they are only acting on the great laws
of nature ; but the wonder is how any person
calling himself a British statesman, can encourage
and promote these most extiaordinary and violent
attacks on the sacred property of the industrious
labourers in the United Kingdom, by transferring
even the smallest portion of it to foreign workmen ;
for it must be eventually a fatal policy to pay
foreigners for labour which can be well performed
at home— particularly when multitudes of our
own workmen cannot procure any labour, and are
consequently reduced to a state of perfect destitu-
tion. The certain consequences of persevering in
the present falsely-called system of reciprocity in
trade, must be the transportation to the colonies
of multitudes of valuable labourers annually, and
tbe reduction of still greater numbers of them to
the union-bouses. It is not by means such as these
that the public revenue can be rendered equal
to the public expenditure; nor indeed can it be
maintained at anything like its present amount by
reducing to pauperism a vast portion of the pro-
ductive classes within the United Kingdom.

238

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

CURRENCY PER IMP. MEASURE.

Fbd. 20.

Wheat, Essex and Kent, red iC 62 White 60 64 58

Irish 46 48 Do 48 50

Oia, red — — Do — —

Rye, old 82 — New.,.. 32 —

BAliLEr, GriiKling24 27 Malting 30 32 Cheralier 31 33

Irish 21 23 Bere . 19 20 22

Malt, Suffolk and Norfolk .... 56 58 Brown . . 50 54

Kingston and Ware .... 50 CO Chevalier 60 —

Oats, Yorksh. & Lincolnsh., feed 20 23 Potato. . S3 25

You^hall and Cork black 17 18 Cork, white 18 19

Dublin 17 18 Westport 18 10

Waterford, white 17 18 19 Black.. 17 18

Newry...... 20 21

Galway 15 17

Scotcli feed 22 — Potato.. 21 24

Cloniuel 17 18 19 LiraericklS 19 21

Londonderry 18 19 Sligo .. 18 19

Beans, Tick, new .SO 32 Old..,, 32 34

Peas, Grey 31 83 Maple.. 31 83

White 32 33 Boilers. 35 38

Seed, Rape —I. —I. Irish. .—L —i. per last.

Linseed, Baltic... 40 46 Odessa 48
English Red Clover.... — — per cwt.

White —

Mustard, White 7 10 brown 8 II per bush
Tares, old ... . 28 30 new 36 40 per qr.

Flour, Town-made 42 45 SutFolk — 36 pr sk. of 230 lbs
Stockton and Norfolk, — 36

FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND.

Wheat, Dantzic — —

Hamburg — —

Rostock — —

Barley 20

Oats, Brew 15 17 Feed... 12 14

Beans 18 24

Peas 20 24

Flour, American, per brl 22 24 Baltic.. — 22

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

Week ending Wheat. Barley. Oats. IRye. Beans. Peas,

Jan. 7th ...

14th ...

21st ...

28th ...
Feb. 4th ...

nth ...

Aggregate average

of the six weeki

which regulate:

the duty

Duties payable
in London till
Wednesday next
inclusive, and at
the Outports till
thearrivalof the
mail of tliat day
from London . .
Do. on grain frem
British posses-
sions out of
Europe

47 1

47 10
49 1
49 3

48 1
47 5

48 1

II 6

28 0
27 5
27 7
27 10
27 3
27 5

1 0

29 11
29 7

29 5

30 4

29 U

30 1

29 11

11 6

COMPARATIVE PRICES of GRAIN.

WEEKLY AVERAGES by
the Imp. Quarter, from the
Gazette, of Friday last,
Feb. 17tli, 1843.

s. d.

Wheat 47 5

Bakle*- 27 1

Oats 16 11

Rye 30 I

Beans 27 5

Peas 30 1

AVERAGES from the corres-
ponding Gazette in the li Bt
year, Friday, Feb. 18th,
1842.

s. d.

Wheat 60 o

Barley 28 5

Oats 19 8

Rye 37 1

Beans 32 5

Peas 33 11

PRICES OF SEEDS.

Feb. 20,

Tlie demand for Cloverseed was excessively slow this
morning, and considerable difficulty was experienced
in making sales at last week's qHOtalions. lu other des-

criptions of seeds there was scarcely anything passing-,
and prices remained nominally unvaried. The enquiry
for botii Linseed and Kapeseed Cakes wa5 slow and
the latter was somewhat easier to buy.

Linseed, English, sowing 43 56

Baltic — — crushing 42 45 per qr.

Mediter. & Odessa 45 46
Large, foreign.... — —

Clover, English, red .... 40 53 white 42 CO per cwt.
Flemish, pale .... 42 46 tine.. 50 63
New Hamburgh .. none do.. 40 CO

Old do 40 43 do.. none

French 40 48 do., none

Coriander 10 16 old..., 16 20percw',

Mustard, brown, new .. 9 11 white.. 9 lOaOdp.bush.

Trefoil, new 18 22 old 12 16

Rapeseod, Englishnew., 32?. 35/. per ton.

Linseed Cakes, English., 91. IDs. to 10/.
Do, Foreign.. 5/. 15s, to 6/,

Rapeseed Cakes 5/, 10s. to 5/. 15s.

Hera))seed, small 35 38 large., 46 48 per qr.

Rye Grass, Englisli 30 42 Scotch 18 40

Tares, winter — — New 4s Od 5s Od p.bush.

Canary, new 62 63 line 64 65 per qr,

Carraway, old — — new 42 44

PRICES OF HOPS.

BOROUGH, Monday, Feb. 20.

The quantity of business doin^ is rather limited, the
buyers appearing to think that the quotations are lua
HP somewhat beyond the sura they ought to pay ; there
is notwithstanding a short supply, and much firmness ia
the rates, which we quote as under : —

Pockets 1841 : 60s. to 70s, ; choice do,, 705, to 84s.
Bags 1841 : 60s. to 8O3. per cwt. Pocket?, old olds,
35s. to 42s. per cwt.

Pockets 1842: East Kent, 101s. to 141s.; Weald
of Kent, 80j. to 89s. ; Sussex, 77s, to 83s.; and Farn-
ham, 140s, to I60s. per cwt.

POTATO MARKET.

SOUTHWARK, WATERSIDE, Feb. 20.

Owing to the weather during' the past week beingf
colder, and mora seasonable, the demand has conse-
quently been brisker, and our market has had a nmch
firmer appearance than of late, but without any material
variation on our former quotations. Present prices as
annexed : —

Per ton.
s. s.

York Reds — to 60

Scotch do 50 to 55

Devons — to 55

Kent, Essex & Suffolk

Whites — to 45 1

Per ton.
8. s.

Wisbeach 40 to 45

.Jersey and Guernsey

Blues 50 to 55

Yorkshire Prince

Regents 45 to 50

Yorkshire Shaws, for planting, 50s.

WOOL MARKETS.

BRITISH.

LEEDS, Feb. 17. — We have not any material alter-
ation to report in the markets during the present week,
either as to demand or prices,

WAKEFIELD, Feb, 17.— We cannot report any
improvement in any branch of the Wool trade ; on the
contrary less is doing, and in order to effect sales a
shade lower prices have been submitted to.

LIVERPOOL, Feb. 18.
Scotch.— The same inactivity pervades our market
for all kinds of Scotch Wool. Laid Highland is light
in stock, and prices are maintained; white Highland is
scarce, and enquired for at our quotations. There is
very little good cross ia our market to oiler, and infe-
rior is quite neglected. There is rather more doing in
Cheviot this week, but at lower prices.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

239

s. d. 8. c).

Laid Highland Wool, per 24 lbs.. 6 6 to 7 0

White do. do 9 0 9 9

Laid Crossed do.. unwashed.. 8 0 9 3

Do. washed do 8 6 10 6

Do. Cheviot unwashed do 8 3 10 6

Do. washed 12 0 15 0

White do. do 18 0 21 6

Import and export ofForeiga and Colonial Sheeps'Wool
and Goat's Wool, into and from the ports of Great
Britain, for the years 1840, 1S41, 1S42, witli a stale-
mout of the qiiauiiiy of lbs. ol Foreign Wool upon
which duty has been paid for home consumption,
compiled principally from official returns.

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3 =; 2; = S- S s ?

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TOTAL IMPORT, FOREIGN AND COLONLA.L.

Foreign.

Colonial.

Total.

1842
1841
1840

bales.
96,897
148,980
137,198

I)ales.
70,499
67,936
52,752

bales.
167,396
216,916
) 89,950

EXPORTS, INCLUDING ENGLISH.

1842
1841
1840

London.

lbs.
1,836,851
1,779,898
717,405

Liverpool

lbs.

1,693,285

845,149

188,363

Total.

lbs.

3,530,136

2,6^5,045

905,768

Bales.
From the foregoing statement it will be seen
that tiie decrease in the import of Foreign
Wool as compared with the year 1841 amounts
to the large quantity of 52,083

This decrease, however, consists prin-
cipally in the quantity of small
bales imported from the West Coast
of South America, the import of
which into London and Liverpool was

in 1841 54,883

1842 20,809

Decrease 34,026

In German and Danish, the quantity
imported into London, Liverpool,

Hull, and Goole was, in 1841

1842

Decrease

In Spanisli there is also a decrease of

To which, adding the increase in im-
ports from Russia, viz 184',i

1841

3,282

Loaves 4,949

For decrease in the imports of other descriptions of
foreign Wool, not enumerated above, and which will be
found to consist principally in Turkey, Italian, &c.

The quantity of foreign Wool which has actually
paid duty in the past year for home consumption has
not decreased in anything' like the same proportion as
the imports ; the amount on which duty was paid in

1841 being 33,553,398 lbs.

1842 „ 30,981,376 „

Showing a decrease of 2,572,022 „

Or rather more than two and a-half millions of pounds,
whereas the weight of the bales above named as shore
imported would, at the lowest calculation, be upwards
of nine millions of pound?. It is also worthy of remark
that the decrease in the amount on which duty was
paid in 1841 as compared with 1840, showed a much
greater decrease of consumption of foreign Wool than
the past year, being very little short of five millions of
pounds, which decrease howtj-ver was nearly balanced
by an increased import of Colonial, which latter we as-
sume to be entirely used for our home manufactures ;
and from this it would appear that in the year 1841
there was no decrease in the total quantity of Wool
consumed for manufacturing purposes.

In Colonial Wool there has been an increase upon
the total import in 1842, viz.,

1841.

New South Wales .... 39,372 . .

Van Diemen's Land .. 12,988 ..

Cape of Good Hepe .. 4,951 .,

East India 10,579 ..

67,890

2,576
Bale?, which would average, one description with an-
other, about 780,ooolbs. against the decrease above al-

240

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

lulled to in foreign Wool of two and a-half millions of
pounds, thus sliowing a decreafe in liie actual con-
sunipiion of Wool of about 1,700^000 lbs. in the year
1842.

PRICES OF SHARES.

FOREIGN.

CITY, Feb. 20.— The imports of wool into London
last week were 500 bales, of which 365 bales were from
Turkey, 122 from Rio de Janiero, and 13 from Ger-
many.

The public sales of Colonial wool commenced on
Thursday, the quantity advertised for the whole series
being about 9000 bales, and which it will take till the
close of next week to offer. At first the attendance
was barely so good as at tiie last auctions, but since it
has improved, and may now be called fair ; the wool
which was partly withdrawn on the opening, and which
lias gone lower, having. since shewn a tendency to rally
a little. Perhaps as the better flocks come forward
prices may rise a little.

PRICES OF MANURES.

Subjoined are the present prices of several sorts of
manure : —

Hunt's Bone dust, 18s. per qr.
Hunt's Half-inch BonJ^, I6s. per qr.
Hunt's Artificial Guano, 8/. per ton.
Ilape Dust, 11. to 8/. per ton.
Rape Cake, 6/. 10s. to 11. per ton.
Rags, 41. to 41. lOs. per ton.
Graves, 6/. lOs. per ton.
Gypsum, at the waterside, 32s. 6^1, per ton ; landed and

housed, 38s. to 42s. per ton, according to quantity.
Agricultural Salt, 34s. per ton.
Lance's Carbon, 12s. per qr.
Ditto Humus, 14s. per qr.
Soap Ashes, 10s. per ton.

Poitteviu's Patent Disinfected Manure, 13s. 6d. per qr.
Poittevin's Highly Concentrated Manure, 30s. per qr.
Nitrate of Soda, IBs. to 18s. 6d. (duty paid) per cwt.
Nitrate Potash (saltpetre) 26s. Gd. per cwt.
Pelre Salt, 4s. per cwt.
Wdley Dust, 41. 4s. per ton.

The Urate of the London Manure Company, 5^. per ton.
Chie-fou, 2ls. per cwt.
Daniell's new Bristol Manure, Bs. per qr.
Hunt's new Fertilizer, 13s. 4d. per qr.
Grimwade's Preparation for Turnip Fly, 10s. 6d. per

packet, sufficient for three acres.
Wolverhampton Compost (Alexander's), 12s. per qr.,

subject to carriage to London, or forwarded from

Wolverhampton.
Guano, 10s. to 14s. per cwt , according to quantity.
Potter's Artificial Guano, 15s. per cwt.
Muriate of Ammonia, 24s. per cwt.
Muriate of Lime, 12s. per cwt,
Clarke's Compost, 3/. 12s. 6d. per hhd., sufficient for

three acres.
Wright's Alkalies, 28s. and 42s. per cwt.
Soda Ash, 14s. to 16s.
Chloride Limi;, 28s. per cwt.
Sulphuric Acid, 2id. per lb.

Sulphur for Destroying Worm on Turnips, 16s. per cwt.
Sulphate Soda, 7s. 6d. i)er cwt.

No. of
Sliares.

Div.
per Ann.

6,.300
6,300

IMsp.c.

8s

9,500
10,000
15,000

7,500

41 per ct
21 10s

.0,000
64,000

I8s p sh.

04,000
12,500

^lper ct

18,000
18,000
10,000

61 per ct
7sGclp.sIi

10,918
11,000
10,000
25,000
25,000
37,500

lOZperct
51 per ct
2Upercl
it per sli
3/ per sli
5s per sli

2,000
8,000
2,100
6,100
7,968
11,475
86,000

\l per sh
41 per ct

48,000
43,077
11,136

25,000
25,000
31,250

3s

51 per ct
51 per ct
]0l p sh

21 10s
31 4s
21 14s

40,200

31 persh

83,000
13,000
13,000

30,000

13s4dp s
3n7spsh
inSspsh
4s

10,000
10,000

31
15s

15,000
15,000
22,500

21

11 Os
l:3s 4d

10,256
3,130
] 2,203
72,000
40,000
7,000

21

5 per ct

1,000
1,500
28,000
28,000
6,700
6.700

U 15s
ISiperct
il ptr ct

lOZpcrct
10/perct

IRON RAILWAYS.

Bu'iniriKham & Derby . . lOOl sli pel
Do. Thirds, iss.8 J dis. 33;,^ sli 251 pd

Do. Eights '. Ij; pd

Do. and Gloucester ...lOOl sh pd
Do. New, iss. 7idis. 25ish 17^1 pd
Bristol and Exeter. . lOOl sh 701 pd
Cheltenham & Great Western 100/

sh 80Z pd

Clarence 100/ sh pd

Eastern Counties 25/ sli 23Zpd

Ditto New SI Cs 8d pd

Ditto Debentures .. 8i 6s 8d sh pd
Glasgow, Paisley, and Ayrshire

501 sh pd
Edinburgh &; Glasgow . . 501 sh pd

Ditto New 12JZ sh 7^i pd

Glasgow, Paisley, and Greenock,
27/ sh 2i/ pd

Grand Junction 100/ sh pd

Ditto Half Shares .50/ sh pd

Great North of England . 100/ sh pd

Great Western 100/sh05/pd

Ditto New 50/ sh pd

Ditto Fifths 20/ sh 12/ pd

Ditto Bonds 1849

Ditto Bonds 1850, Letter C

Hartlepool 100/ sh pd

Hull and Selby 50/ sh pd

Leeds and Selby 100/ sh pd

Liverpool & Manchester. 100/ sh pd

Ditto Half Shares 50/sh pd

Ditto Quarter Shares ..25/ sh pd
London and Brighton. . . ..50/ sh pd

Ditto Loan Notes 10/sh pd

London & Blackwall Av. 16/ 13s 4d
London & Gi'eenwich Av. 12/ 15s4d
Preference or Privilege.\v.l8/I7s2d

Ditto Bonds ( 183,300)

London & Birmingham 100/ sh pd
Ditto Quarter Shares. . . .25/ sh pd

Ditto Thirds 32/ sh pd

Ditto New 32/ sh 2/ pd

Ditto Bonds 1843

London&South West. Av. 41/6sl0d

Ditto Bonds 1842

London & Croydon. .Av. IS/ 15s 9d
Manchester & Leeds 100/ sh 70/ pd

Ditto New Shares 50/ sh 30/ pd

Ditto Quarter Shares 2/ pd

Manchester &Birming. 70/ sh 40/ pd

Ditto Extension 70/ sh 7/ pd

Midland Counties 100/ sh pd

Do. :| Shares, iss. 10 dis. 25/ sh 15/ pd

Newcastle & Darlington Junction

25/ sh 6/ pd

North Midland 100/ sh pd

Do. i Shares, iss. 10 dis. 50/sh 40/ pd
Ditto Thirds, iss. at 11/ 13s 4d dis.
21/ 13s 4d sh pd
Northern & Eastern 50/ sh 45/ pd
Do. Scrip . . . iss. 6 dis. 50/ sh 5/ pd
Do. i Shares. . .12/ lOs sh 1/ 5s pd
Paris and Rouen ... .30/ sh 20/ pd
Rouen and Havre. . . . 20/ sh 2/ pd
Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lvne, and

Manchester 100/ sh" 82^/ pd

Sheffield and Rotherham 25/ sh pd
Stockton and Darlington 100/ sh pd
South Eastern and Dover 50/ sh pd
Ditto New, iss. 25 dis. 25/ sh 25/ pd
York & North Midland. .50/ sh pd
Ditto New Shares..,. 25/ sh 20/ pd

57 a 6J

31. J

9a J
Ilia k
Hi a 11

45^ex-d,
6?

Price per

Share.

91 a
69| a
17ft a

36 a 5^

5| a 5

4^ a 5

21 1 ex d.
5iijex-d.

36iex-d.

64? a 5

23 a J

62
15i

65
32.i

21 a

34 cx-d.

aaj a i

234 a I
93 a J
39

Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 24, Norfolk- street. Strand, London.

(^

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

APRIL, 1843.
No. 4.-— Vol. VII.] [Second Series.

PLATE I.

SIR HERCULES.

THE PROPERTY OF MR. WEATHERLEY, OF EAST ACTON.

In presenting our readers with a portrait of this celebrated stallion, it is not too much
to say that in popularity on the turf or in the stud, he ranks as high as any of his con-
temporaries. He was bred by Lord Langford, in 182(3; got by Whalebone, out of Peri,
by Wanderer — Thalestris, by Alexander — Rival, by Sir Peter — Hornet, by Drone —
Manilla, by Goldfincher — Mr. Goodricke's old English mare — Cullen, Arabian, Cad**,

PERFORMANCES.

In 1828, at the Curragh September Meeting, won a match, carrying Tst. 101b., agst.
Mount Eagle, 8st. 21b. ; New T. Y. C. j 100 sovs. ; and won a Two-years-old- Stakes,
New T. Y. C. At the Curragh October Meeting won a Two-years-old Stakes, T. Y. C,
beating three others; and walked over for a Two-years-old Stakes.

In 1829 won a Three-years-old Stakes at York Spring Meeting ; last mile and three
quarters (8 subs.) ; beating Netherby, Flambeau, Flacrow, c. by Viscount, out of Nell,
Maldon, and Bridle. At Doncaster ran third for the St. Leger ; beaten by Rowton
and Voltaire, and beating 10 others ; and won a Three-years-old Staked ; one mile (23
subs.) beating Fortitude and Zodiac.

In 1830, at Newmarket Craven Meeting, won the Claret Stakes (5 subs.), beating
Morris Dancer, c. by Gustavus, out of Canvass, and Spaniard.

Sir Hercules is the sire of Mulgrave, Maria, The Gipsey, Water Witch, Bird-
catcher, Arthur, Langford, Cruiskeen, Honest Ned, Honesty, The Hydra, The Corsair,
Jenny Jones, Coronation, Hereford, lole, Robert dc Gorham, and several other winners.

PLATE II.

THE FOX AND BADGER.
OLD SERIES.] R iKo. 4:.~V0L. XVJII,

242

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ON THE PLANTING, MANAGE-
MENT, VALUE, GROWTH, AND
HARVESTING OF FOREST
TREES CULTIVATED FOR
PROFIT.

BY JOHN MORTON.
{Cotickided.^)

The evils attendant on improper thinning are
without remedy, and tend sometimes to the
destruction of entire plantations. At Wilbecli, the
seat of the Dul<e of Portland, where the manage-
ment of the oak is carried on in a scientific man-
ner, there is an instance of injury done by over
thinning. The laM'n, I think, was planted in 1743,
and was in 1825 eighty-two years old. The oaks
here were then about 30 feet high, and the average
quarter girth was about 7 inches ; while the oaks
in Lord Harley's wood, close by, that were planted
in 1725, and were consequently 100 years old,
were about 60 feet long, and the average quarter
girth was 9^ inches. The trees on the lawn were
thinned too early and too much. This is the
cause of the stunted growth of its timber. There
is another evil attendant upon reckless thinning
besides that which tells upon the quality and
quantity of the growth of the plantation — one that
is often most destructive in its consequences. It
has been shown that in thick plantations the whole
of the trees unite in the resistance they make to a
storm, and that the wind glides over the smooth
surface presented to it by their tops, without
being able to make any impression on the body of
any individual of their number. It has been also
shown that trees grow tall in proportion to the
shelter they receive, and that they are provided
with roots according to the resistance they are
required to make in the particular situation in
which they grow. If, then, this smooth surface
be broken in upon by imprudent thinning, gaps
being made, and each tree being- more exposed,
then, as they are not prepared for the resistance
they arc now required to make, it must be evident
that, if a storm attack them before the roots have
acquired sufficient strength, they will not be able
to withstand its violence. There are many in-
stances of this. The following is one. A field of
larch in Renfrewshire was thinned out by a
gardener ignorant of the business : the trees were
at once thinned out to the distance of 20 feet
apart : soon after the operation was finished, the
first storm of wind that occurred threw down
nearly all those that remained.

In summing up all that has been said on this
subject, we must protest; against the method
in which it is handled by most foresters. Their
object seems to be — and indeed the object has
been commended by many authors on the subject
— not to raise a valuable crop of timber, but to
make the ground pay a certain annual return after
the first six or eight years, by the sale of thinnings
and prunings. This mode of arrangement renders
useless any attempt that may be afterwards made
to produce timber ; for the wood has become so
knotty as to be worth very little per foot ; and
there is so great a proportion of offal, that there
arc but few trees in the plantation which exceed
in solid contents a very small numberof cubic feet.
However various the details of inanagement may
require to be in different cases dependent on the
habits of the tree and the nature of the soil, yet

the principle here laid down should be adopted as
the foundation of them all.

The following remarks on circumstances aflfect-
ing the value of timber will be placed here in their
most natural position, between what has been said
on the management of plantations and that which
remains to say on the harvesting of timber.

For general purposes timber requires to be hard,
tough, and clean ; and if with these properties it
unite great length and considerable diameter, it is
then the most valuable of its kind. If timber be
short, although it may be of great diameter, the
short scantlings into which alone it can be cut
will require no considerable thickness : a thin tree,
therefore, will serve as well as a thick one for
these purposes. If, however, it be of great length,
the long scantlings will require proportionate
thickness. Such trees, however, are rare : con-
sequently the value per foot increases more rapidly
with the length of the tree than with the diameter.

There are many circumstances which must in-
fluence us in the price of timber besides the varia-
tions in the demand. Thus its value is dependent
on soil and situation. If it has grown on a poor
soil, the timber is harder and more durable ; it is
of finer grain, and has a finer texture ; and con-
sequently, though the trees of a sheltered situation
have grown in the same time to a much greater
height and bulk, they are worth less per foot than
those of a bleak and poor district. The strongest
and best timber is grown on the north side of the
hill. Timber grown in hedge-rows is much
heavier and harder than that grown in a planta-
tion, its bark is also thicker, and contains more
tannin ; yet this has not much influence on its
value per foot, as, although superior in these re
spects, it is not only greatly inferior in the length
and bulk of its growth, but, in consequence of its
limbs and branches being coarse and full of knots,
it can be used only in short and bulky masses. It
does not answer well to be cut out in small scant-
ling, as it warps at every knot.

The quality of timber, again, is better, and its
value per foot is therefore greater, when grown
on soil suited than when raised on soil not natural
to it. Thus oak that has grown on clay is much
more valuable to the consumer than that grown
on sand or any other soil. The wood is tougher,
harder, and more durable, and the bark is thicker
and has more tannin in it. On sand, the wood of
the oak is brittle and soft, and, like the Dutch oak,
spoils the carpenter's tools, probably owing to its
containing a portion of silex. The value of timber
will depend also on a variety of local circum-
stances. It will vary with its distance from the
market, and also with the nature of the demand.
If near a manufacturing or a seaport town, the
demand will raise its price. In valuing trees for
sale, besides all these circumstances, we must also
take into account the proportion which the head
of the tree bears to the trunk ; for not only is the
wood of the limbs of less value than the trunk,
but it injures that part which is valuable by form-
ing knots at its junction with the trunk. Generally
speaking, the timber of the trunk of the tree, how-
ever large the limbs may be, is double the value
per foot of the wood of the branches.

We now come to the last branch of our subject —
the harvesting of timber. A great deal has been said
and written on the planting and management of
plantations, but very little has been said on the
proper time and mode of harvesting them.

Notwithstanding, however, the neglect which
this branch of the subject has hitherto sustained,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

243

it is one of the greatest importance, as I shall show,
that heavy losses are frequently clue merely to im-
proper management as to the period of bringing
the timber of a plantation to the market. Trees
should be felled as soon as their growth becomes
unprofitable ; and this is the case whenever their
annual increase of growth is of less value than the
interest upon the sum for which they could be
sold. It must be evident tlint, though the value of
a plantation may increase lOi. annually, owing to
a yearly increase of bulk, yet it must be advan-
tageous to cut it down, if by bringing it to market
we could obtain 13/. interest per annum for its
value. We by so doing not only gain 5^. a-year,
but the ground occupied by the wood becomes
available for other purposes. It should therefore
be the object of the forester to ascertain the period
wiien the growth of the plantation become un-
profitable. This knowledge can only be obtained
by repeated measurements and compaiisons of the
growth of one year with another. Signs of decay
are very easily distinguished ; but they should
never be allowed to make their appearance in the
trees of a well-managed plantation. We often hear
it observed of a tree, " It should be cut down, for
it has done growing; it is beginning to decay;"
whereas it is more than probable tbat the trees
should have been cut down many years, perhaps
generations, before, and the proprietor has all this
time been sustaining a great annual loss. There
are instances in which the loss sustained in this
way may be proved to be immense.

There are very few individuals who hear of the
progress and growth of their timber, and yet there
is no other way of securing ourselves against this
loss ; for, although there are many signs which
indicate decay iti a tree, there are none which
point out the period when it has reached its
greitest yearly growth. This period will vary
with many local circumstances. It will be depen-
dent on the kind of tree grown, and
on the nature of the soil and situation,
being later in those trees which are raised on
a soil and in a situation most fitted for it. Thus
oak will grow profitably longer on a clay soil than
on any other; elm on a deep loam ; and
beech on a calcareous soil ; and the pine tribe in
bleak situations, those being natural to them. Tlie
only accurate way, however, of determining this
period is by the measurement of the annual growth
of the tree ; and every proprietor of a timbered
estate should have his plantation looked over by a
person qualified to report on the state of their
growth ; all those trees whose growth is unprofit-
able should at once be brought to the market. If
possible, they should be cut down in the month of
October, in a year when there has been a good
crop of seeds, so that tbeir places may ne.xt year
be supplied by young plants at no expense.

I shall now give some instances which I have
collected of trees of great bulk growing solitarily,
giving in some of them data by which the growth
at various intervals may be ascertained. These
instances are brought forward with the view of
showing the wondrous growth which sometimes
takes place in solitary trees, and of proving the
impropriety of drawing general conclusions from
the results of individual trees, not for the jjurpose
of encouraging the growth of isolated trees with
a view to profit, of which I have already shown
the impropriety, involving as it does wrong forma-
tion of wood as well as a great waste of ground.
They are worthy of being put upon record, al-

though they do not bear upon the point imme-
diately to be established. Having mentioned a
few of them, I shall return to the course of my
argument and endeavour to prove the result of the
foregoing statements : — •

1. "The Golenos oak grew about four miles from
Newport, in Monmouthshire. It was cut down
and converted by Thomas Harrison, his Majesty's
purveyor for Plymouth dock-yards, in 1810. The
trunk was nine feet in diameter and ten feet in
length, containing 450 cubic feet j but there were
twelve limbs —

The 1st of which contained 472 cubic feet.
2ad " 355 •<

3rd •• 235 •<

4th " 156 *'

5th " 113

6 th " 106

And six others, in all 540 "

2427 cubic feet
of sound convertible timber. The bark was esti-
mated at six tons ; five men were twenty days in
cutting it down and stripping the bark, and a pair
of sawyers were five months in converting it,
without missing a single day. This tree had only
400 rings in its trunk, and (a convincing proof tbat
it was in an improving state all that time) it had
increased 8-lOths of an inch in circumference
annually, and produced six cubic feet of excellent
timber per annum during the whole time of its
growth. It was sold by Mr. Harrison to govern-
ment after it was converted, and delivered at Ply-
mouth dock for 600/."

The two following instances are given in a letter
from R. Mansham, Esq., to J. Reeves, Esq., of
Hithel, in Norwich, dated 1st October, 1799, 1st
vol. Bath Papers : —

2. " I have a memorandum of a former rector
of Honingham, wherein it is written that in 1610
he planted two chestnut-trees by his church-porch.

" The largest of these was, in 1778, fourteen
feet eight and a half inches in circumference,
showing an increase of 176^ inches in 168 years."

3. " Near Honingham, on the road to Norwich,
were planted oaks in 1580, the largest of which, in
1778, was sixteen feet three and a half inches in
circumference, an increase of 195^ inches in 198
years."

4. The Bowles oak in Nymphsfield parish, Glou-
cestershire, was cut down in 1826 : the trunk was
fourteen feet long, and 164 inches in circumfe-
rence under the bark at the girting place. It con-
tained 163 cubic feet of timber ; one limb was
twenty-one feet long and nineteen inches round it,
making fifty-five feet ; there were twenty-five
other limbs, containing in all ninety-eight feet,
making in all 310 cubic feet ; besides smaller
limbs, from which were made 145 posts six feet
long and twenty-four inches in circumference ;
this is equivalent to 200 feet more. This tree had
only 150 circular rings in its trunk, and its age
was therefore only 150 years: so that it had in-
creased in circumference one inch and one-tenth,
and produced two cubic feet of timber per annum,
exclusive of small limbs.

5. In the parish of Standieh, Gloucestershire,
on Butts farm, an oak was cut down in 1825, the
trunk of which was 176 inches in circumference,
and only nine feet long. It contained 121 cubic
feet of timber, two limbs containing in all 180
feet; and seven other limbs containing 122 feetj
making in all 423 cubic feet of convertible timber,

R 2

244

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

besides fit'ty-six posts containing eighty-four cubic
feet. This tree was only 1 10 years old ; it had
therefore grown one inch and a quarter per annum
in circumference, and had increased in bulk three
cubic feet annually, exclusive of small brandies.

(j. In 1816 a beech was cut down in Woodcbes-
ter Park, the seat of Earl Ducie. It was ninety two
feet long, and at five feet from the ground it was
seventy-two inches in circumference ; it contained
177^ cubic feet of timber; it was 147 years old,
that being- the number of its circular rings ; it had
consequently increased in circumference half an
inch per annum, and had produced one cubic foot
and two-sevenths of timber annually.

7. Not far from the same place was cut down
another beech ; it was 115 feet long, and its cir-
cumference at five feet from the ground was
seventy-four inches : it Lad only 111) circular rings,
and had therefore increased in circumference si.\-
tenths of an inch per annum, and produced one
cubic foot and seven-tenths of timber annually.
These two last instances seem to give a slower
growth to the beech than to the oak ; they how-
ever grew in a thick wood, and their head was so
small that a couple of men might have carried that
of either of them down the hill on which they grew.

8. A solitary elm which grew on Mr. Barber's
farm, Tortworth, Gloucestershire, was cut down
in 1825; its circumference at five feet from the
ground was eighteen feet and a quarter, the trunk
was only nine feet long, and there divided into
three limbs. The total solid contents was 6B5
cubic feet ; it had grown 188 years. This gives
one inch and two-tenths as the annual increase of
its circumference, and three cubic feet and six-
tenths as the annual increase of its bulk.

9. In 1816, 400 larch were cut down at Dun-
keld. The following table shows their growth at
ages varying from forty-seven to seventy-two years :

No. of

Age.

Average con-

Growth per

Trees.

tents in feet.

annum.

60

72

65

J of a foot.

78

70

68

56

i do.

78-20

120

57

40

* do.

96

100

M

72

50

17

30

1 do.

30

354-20

10. Thirty-six years ago a number of larch were
planted in a clump in the midst of Colliers Wood,
in the parish of Avening, in the county of Glou-
cester ; thirty of them only remain, the others
having been cut down. The length of the tallest
is eighty feet, and at five feet from the ground the
circumference is forty-two inches. At fifty feet
high it contains twenty-six cubic feet. The
average contents of the thirty were about ten
cubic feet, and they occupy ten square yards each,
which gives 4860 cubic feet per acre.

11. The oaks sown at Welbeck, the seat of the
Duke of Portland, in 180;?, at twenty-two years
old (1825) were about twenty feet high, and about
six inches in circumference breast high : they were
thinned out to three feet apart. Cowclosc was
partly sown and partly planted in 1785 with oak ;
when forty years old they were from thirty-five
to forty feet high, and from sixteen to twenty
inches in circumference at five feet from the
ground ; then standing from two to three yards
apart : this was the finest growing oak-plantation

at Welbeck. The Lawn plantation was eighty-two
years old in 1825; the average length of trunk
was here only about thirty feet, and the circum-
ference about twenty eight inches. The trees
stood at an average distance of twenty-four feet
from one another. The dwarfish state of this
plantation has been already pointed out as the
effects of over-thinning : their growth had not
been four-tenths of an inch in circumference
annually. The average length of trunk in Lord
Harley's wood, planted in 1725, and therefore
a hundred years old in 1825, when I took all
these particulars, was about sixty feet, and the
average circumference at the girting-jilacc was
thirty eight inches : they were thinned out to
twenty-five feet apart. The annual growth for 100
years was here about one-third of a foot.

12. The following table marks the progress of
the growth of twenty-six oaks raised in Wood-
che.etcr Park, Gloucestershire, felled in 1825. The
circular rings at the root, indicating their age,
were 146 in number. The largest tree contained
l.'^4 feet of timber, and was forty feet long ; the
smallest contained only twenty-seven feet, and
was twenty feet long : they averaged sixty-four
feet apiece, and their average length to the
limbs was thirty-six feet. A section was taken
from three trees nearest the medium size,
and their average at five feet from the root,
was twenty-five inches and tliree-tenths in
diameter- At eighteen feet from the ground it
vvas twenty- one inches and three-tenths ; and at
both these places the increase in diameter was
ascertained at intervals of ten years by a careful
examination of the rings, and a calculation of the
increase in the contents founded on them : —

Periods of

M

»-*

10

1^

rf^

w

6S

o

•^

C3

^

Oi

o-

*.

oa ♦© 1-^

Ol

o

o o

o o

o

o

o

o

o o

o

o o

Years ea cli

C CO O tS li^ CJi ~^ CO '« O tS iji <o

;e o ■; ^C

•^1. S" S- o
re 3 T «iS^

S » o 3
cfl 2. D re

e> »£ w 03 »-* vo O' h- a. -o «-2

of Quarter
for each
od, at
g-place.

c a. cji *- i4i OS o> M t-' M
>f-oa(OtoOiOWOot-sNio

Amount of Cubic
feet at the end of

each Period,

the length being

30 feet.

4. >{>■ N VI Ci c?i cr. oi cji i;;i *.

«o -i -<i ~*

0\ cji yi <j\

Increase of
Cubic feet
for every
10 years.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

24.5

This table is instructive, as the last column
proves the annual growth of the tree to have in-
creased up to the age of 130 years, at which it be-
gan to decrease. Such an increased growth of
timber as this is not, however, to be expected on
any entire plantation.

Having given these instances of remarkable
growth, from wliich no decided inference can be
drawn, but which I thought might not be without
interest for the society, I shall now proceed, lastly,
to that point which is the most important of all,
and shall bring forward in detail the result in value
of timber which arises from thin and from thick
growth of timber.

I'he following is a measurement and valuation
of six oaks cut down in 182.T, in the parisli of
Woodchester, in the county of Gloucester, by the
particulars of wliich I intend to shew the supe-
riority of the plan of growing trees with few limbs
o\cr that of growing trees with many limbs. The
three first oaks which I shall mention grew in a
thick plantation surrounded by other trees of
equal height. I'iie three last were each solitary : —
No. 1.

Measurement of an oak at the Farm Hill, Wood-
chesier : — £ s. d.

rt2 feet long by 19 inches quarter-girth,

130 cubic feet, at 4s. 6d. per foot .... 29 15 0
Ij cord of wood, which is equal, at 10s.

per cord, as it requires 40 cubic feet of

solid wood to make a conl of wood, so

that Ij cord is equid to 60 cubic feet, at

say 3d. per cubic foot 0 1.5 0

20 faggots, worth 8s. 4d. per 100, or id.

each, say jOlbs. each 0 18

16 cwt. of bark, at 8/. per ton 6 8 0

£36 19 8

N.B, — There is a cwt. of bark for every 12 cubic
feet of timber.

The trunk of this tree is rather more than two-
thirds of the whole tree, taking all the cord-wood
into the account.

No. 2.

Measurement of an oak by the mill-pond, Wood-
chester Park : — £ 3. d.
.56 feet long by 18 incites quarter-girth,

126 cubic feet, at 4s. (id. per foot 28 10 0

1 cord of wood, equal to 40 cubic feet, at

3d. per foot 0 10 0

20 faggots, at 1. J. each 0 18

15 cwt. of bark, at 8/. per ton 6 0 0

£35 1 8

N.B. — There is 1 cwt. of bark for 11 cubic feet of
timber.

Tbe trunk of this tree is just three-fourths of the
whole tree, taking all the cord-wood into account.
No. 3.

Measurement of an oak at the top of Shade Hol-
low, Woodchester Patk : — £ s. d.
Tbe trunk is 41 ft. long and 22 in. ^-girth,

137 cub. ft. at 43. 6d. per ft. 30 16 6
One limb is 18^

ft. long and

lOin.^ girth.

12f

Another is 14 i'

ft. long and

lOin.lgirth, I

n J

159

do. at 23.6d. do. 2 15 0

1 cord of wood, £ s. d.

equal to 40 do. at 3d. per foot 0 10 0

20 faggots, at Id. each 0 18

1 ton of bark, at 8/ 8 0 0

£42 3 2
N.R. — There is 1 cwt. of bark for 10 cubic feet
of timber.

Tbe trunk of this tree is rather more than two-
thirds of the wliole tree, taking into account the
limbs and cord-wood.

The following is a recapitulation of the above
three oaks, which grew in a thick plantation,
surrounded by other trees of equal height: —

No.

Trunk.

130
126
137

Limbs.

Cord-
wood.

1
1

Cubic ft.
of Cord-
wood.

60
40
40

Fagots.

Bark.

Value.

1

2
3

22

20
20
20

16
15

20

£ s. d.
36 19 2
35 1 8

42 3 2

393

22

H

140

60

51

114 4 6

From the average of these three oaks the follow-
ing facts are shown. The trunks are about three-
fourths of the whole trees, including limbs and
cord-wood ; there is only one faggot for every six
cubic feet and a half of the trunk, being fifteen
faggots per hundred cubic feet ; one cord of wood
for every 112 cubic feet of trunk ; one cubic foot
of limbs for every eighteen feet of trunk, being
less than six per hundred feet ; and for every
eight cubic feet of the trunk and measurable limbs
there is one cwt. of bark. These trees were above
150 years old, and their timber was of the most
valuable quality. The whole were sold at an
average of 4s. l^d. per cubic foot.

No. 4.
INIeasurement of a solitary oak then standing in
Milbarn Ground : —

No.

Trunk.
Limbs, 1
2

3
4
^,
G
7
8
9
10
11

Length. Quarter-
Feet, girtli.

Contents. At per
ft.

18
18
12

18

20

6

18
18
24
26
IC
16

Inohes.
26J
12
12

9
9

y

8i

7

7

6

6

s. d.
0 0

18
12

10
11
■i
9
9
8
9
4
4

-30 3?. 4 10 0

50 posts, worth Is. each, 1
containing each about > 75

ing ^a^.. ^u^^. .
I5 foot of timber ; in all j
.i cord of wood, 10s. perl j^q
cord of timber, say.

60 faggots, at Id. each

24 cwt. of bark, at 8/. per ton

~G7 2s. 6 14 0
Is. Cd. 2 10 0

3d.

1 10 0

5 0
12 0

1 0

380 £47

There is 1 cwt. of bark for li cubic feet of
timber, including the measurable limbs ; and the

246

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

trunk of this tree is not quite one-fourth of the
whole tree, taking all the limbs, posts, and all the
cord-wood in account.

No. 5.
Measurement of a solitary oak hy the Shade,
near Mr. Almond's : —

No. 6.

Measurement of a solitary oak in the long
ground, near Mr. Almond's: —

No. Length. Quarter- Contents. At per Value.

No. Length. Quarter- Contents. At per Value

Feet, g:

Trunk.
Limbs, 1

2

19

9
8

20
12
14
14

20

Jrth

Inches.

24

13

121

10
101

76

ft.
5s.

£
19

s. d.
0 0

H

14

9

7

7
It

-19 3s. 2 17 0

Trunk.
Limbs, 1

2

Feet.

15

6
14

14
12
10
10
18
18

girth.

Inches.

27

22

12

9

76

ft.
53.

30 posts, worth Is. each,
at If foot of timber in
each

2 cord of wood, 10s. perl
cord, equal to .... ,4.. j

40 faggots, Id. each
1 ton of bark, at 8/.

-48

45

80

2s.
8d.

3d.

4 16 0
1 10 0

1 0 0

50 posts, worth Is. each,
say li foot of timber in
each

3 cord of wood, 10s. per
cord equal to. . .

'}

20
14

75
120

34

36

2s.
8d.

£ s. d.
19 0 0

5 2 0

3 12 0
2 10 0

3d. 1 10 0

-125

60 faggots, at Id. each .

25 cwt. of bark, at 8/. per ton

195

0
10

5 0
0 0

3 4
0 0

268 £37 6 4

_ There is 1 cwt. of bark for 9f cubic feet of

timber, including the top ; and the trunk of this

tree is aboutone-fourthof the whole tree, including

the limbs, posts, and cord-wood.

341 £41 19 0

There is 1 cwt. of bark for 9 cubic feet of the
whole tree ; and the trunk is nearly one-fourlh of
the whole tree, including the limb*, posts, and
cord-wood.

Recapitulation of the above three solitary oaks
now growing in Woodchester Park : —

Trunks in

Limbs in

Cord-wood

Cord-wood
and Posts

Posts.

No.

Cub. Ft.

Cub. Ft.

only.

in Cub. Ft.

No.

Faggots.

Bark.

Value.

£ s. d.

4

88

97

0

195

50

60

24

47 1 0

5

76

67

2

125

30

40

20

37 6 4

6

76

70

3

195

50

60

25

41 19 0

240

234

0

515

130

160

69

126 6 4

From the average of the above three solitary
trees the following facts are shown : — the trunk is
not quite one-fourth of the whole of the tree,
including trunk, limbs, posts, and cord-wood ;
there is also 1 faggot for 1§ cubic foot of trunk,
being 75 per 100 ; there is a cord of wood for every
30 cubic feet of trunk, being 3§ per 100 feet;
there is 1 foot of limbs for every foot of trunk ; and
it takes 10 cubic feet of trunk and measurable limbs
to produce 1 cwt. of bark.

Statement of the particulars of the value of the
above three solitary trees : — £ s. d.

240 cubic feet of trunk, at 5s. per

ftjot 60 0 0

83 do. of limbs, at 3s. do 12 9 0

151 do. do. at 2s. do 15 2 0

474 130 posts, at l8. each 6 10 0

8 cord of wood, at 10s. per

cord 4, 0 0

160 faggots, at Id. each 0 13 4

69 cwt. of bark, at 8/. per ton 27 12 0

£126 6 4
If the growth of these three trees had been ac-
cording to that of those three growing in the

thick wood, then the following would have been a

statement of their value : —

We find that the contents of measurable

timber, trunk and limbs, are 474 feet

130 posts, at 1 J foot each 195 ,,

8 cord of wood at 40 feet 320 ,,

989 ,,
Now three-fourths of this wood, if the trees had

not grown single, would have been in the trunk.
Therefore, | of 989 cubic feet is —

£ s. d.

740 feet, at 4s. 6d. per foot 166 10 0

The limbs would amount to the re-
mainder, 249 feet, of which 29 feet
might have been measurable at 2s. . . 2 18 0

And 220 may have been cord-wood,
which, at 40 feet per cord, is 5Jcord,
at 10s 2 15 0

There would have been about 120

faggots, at Id. each 0 10 0

And 98 cwt. of bark, which, at 8/. per
ton, is 39 4 0

Their value, thus calculated, would
have been ...,,... r. £211 17 0

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

247

This shows a loss of upwards of 801. on the
three trees ; and we may accordingly safely infer
that there is a loss on an average of 50/. per cent,
by growing trees solitarily instead of in a thickly-
wooded plantation. This loss would of course be
greatly increased if we were to calculate that duo
to the immense waste of land involved in that
mode of growing ti-ees. A similar loss is of course
sustained where the trees, by over thinning, are
allowed to assume the character of those growing
solitarily, by throwing out lateral branches, and
forming large heads. John Morton.

Chester Hill, August 4, 1840.

ON STRICTURE IN THE (ESO-
PHAGUS OF THE COW.

BY MR. W. HAYCOCK, V.S. (MEMBER OF THE ROYAL
VETERINARY COLLEGE, EDINBURGH), HUDDERS-
riELD.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Sir, — As the magazine which you edit is one
devoted to the best interests of farmers, cattle
keepers, and 1 may add to society in general,
I beg leave to offer you the present paper upon
a case of disease which has occurred in a cow,
and wliich very lately I liad the management of.
The disease to which I allude was stricture of
the sesophagus ; an affection rareh', I believe, ob-
served in the lower animals, which perhaps in a
great measure may account for the silence of writers
upon cattle pathology respecting it. Mr. Blaine,
in his work, the first edition of which appeared at
least eighteen years ago, just devoted seven lines
and a half to the description of its symptoms,
situation, part affected, and mode of treatment ; so
that I leave every inquiring reader to judge for
himself as to the amount of information he would
he likely to derive from the perusal of so short an
article. Mr. Percival, however, does not pass it
over quite so lightly ; he devotes about three pages
to it, but his observations have reference only to
its existence in the horse. Professor Dick, in the
article "Veterinary Science," written by him in
the 7th edition of the "EncyclopffidiaBritannica,"
does not even allude to its existence ; while Mr.
Youatt again, in his work published by the
" Society for the Diff'usion of Useful Knowledge,"
applies about half a page, or scarcely that, to the
elucidation of the disease in question; and he in-
forms us that during the whole of his practical
career up to that period (the period at which he
wrote) — which practice must have been very
extensive — he never met with more than one case
of this affection in the cow. Seeing, then, that so
little is said respecting the existence of such a
disease in the above-named animal, I may deem it
a sufficient apology in thus venturing to address
the agricultural portion of your numerous readers
with the history of a case, together with a few
observations upon the subject — a subject so pal-
pably overlooked, and at the same time I may say
so intimately connected with their interests, that
it cannot fail of proving of some little utility.

The cow aff'ected as I iiave intimated, was the
property of Wm. Brook, Esq.. one of the magis-
trates for this borough. Tbe history of the case is
as follows. The animal was in tbe daily habit of

receiving an allotted portion of cut turnips in a
raw state, and one evening, about two or three
weeks after Christmas last, the usual quantity was
placed before her, and after she had eaten about
one-third of the whole she suddenly exhibited
symptoms of choking. The abdomen became
greatly distended, while evei-y four or five minutes
the hind extremities were brought forwards, the
back thrown into an arch, and the nose protruded
as though endeavouring to vomit. These very vio-
lent symptoms in part subsided, but for some
weeks after, whenever she took food, they returned
with more or less violence; sometimes, in con-
sequence of eating, the animal would be thrown
into such agony, that she would leap or place her
fore feet upon the rack from whence she fed, and
after violently straining for a considerable time,
vomit everything back again ; then again resume
her natural position as though nothing was the
matter. A cow-leech residing somewhere in the
country, was at this time entrusted with the man-
agement of her, but all the medicine he admin-
istered was a pint of castor oil : he saw the case
was a perplexing one, so he altogether abandoned
it. For a time, however, the animal appeared to
have recovered ; her food was masticated and
properly swallowed, and for two or three weeks all
was going on well, when a relapse took place, and
most of what she eat was vomited back. Such
was the account I received from the man who de-
sired my attendance, and accordingly I lost no
time in proceeding to make an examination, and
ascertain if possible the disease under which the
animal laboured. 1 found her pulse beat with mo-
derate regularity, but feeble ; she was in very fair
condition, and lively in appearance; in short, after
the most rigid examination, I was unable to detect
the least constitutional derangement, save the ex-
istence of a slight degree of debility. She ap-
peared desirous of food, and I requested some to
be given, in order that I might perceive its effects
upon her, or if vomiting would be produced ; a
small portion of hay was placed before her, which
she eagerly seized, masticated, and swallowed. I
then stood watching her every motion for a consi-
derable time, but could not perceive any improper
movement, or anything like a desire to vomit ;
more hay was given, which was also swallowed,
but I did not wait long before I saw a mass of
something move very gently backwards and for-
wards in the oesophagus — it moved for about half
a minute, when she jerked forth the point of her
nose, relaxed the lower jaw, and a portion of the
hay she had just masticated was vomited forth,
seemingly witli the greatest ease. These move-
ments were continued until the whole had re-
turned, after which the cow appeared as desirous
as ever for a fresh supply. I was much puzzled,
as any one may be certain I should, for I had
never seen vomiting induced in the cow before;
I had heard of one or two solitary cases, but
doubted their truth. Here, however, to all ap-
pearance, was positive evidence ; and the next step
in the matter was to know the cause. After
weighing the matter over in my mind, I thought
perhaps the whole phenomena, strange as it was,
might possibly be induced by the lodgment of
some foreign substance, or by the growth of a
tumour at the back part of the mouth, or at the
entrance of the pharynx, and that such substances
giving rise to irritation in these parts, vomiting
was produced, or was the consequence of a kind of
reflex action. It is well known that irntation,

248

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

however slight, in these parts in the human being,
will produce vomiting ; and, judging from the si-
milarity of the parts in both, I concluded if the
effect is produced by such a cause in the one, pos-
sibly it may in the other. I accordingly procured
a ball iron, and minutely examined the structures,
but found everything in a normal condition. I
was therefore necessitated, as it were, to suppose
that the cause lay in the paunch or the first sto-
mach— that, in short, a morbid excitement existed
within this organ, whatever might be urged with
respect to its want of sensibility. Medicine was
given to act upon the bowels in the first place and
afterwards produce a sedative effect ; and upon
visiting the beast a second time, the cowman in-
formed me that the vomiting was less frequent,
and that the gruel which he gave her was retained
altogether. I considered this a sign of amend-
ment, but it proved of very short duration ; for
npon visiting her a third time, I found her worse
than ever — gruel and everything she pat took of
was returned immediatelj% and she evidently la-
boured under great depression and feverish ex-
citenaent. It now for the first time occurred to
my mind that a stricture must exist in some dis-
tant part of the (Psophagus. I lost no time, there-
fore, in procuring one of iVIonro's flexible pro-
bangs, which I passed with every necessary caution
down the oesophagus ; it proceeded for a consi-
derable distance without any interruption, when
it suddenly stopped, and force was required to
again send it onwards, and at the moment it pro-
ceeded a quantity of thick and very fetid pus
rushed from the upper extremity of the probang,
which proved satisfactorily that my conjectures
respecting the existence of a stricture were well
founded. In a little time the instrument was
withdrawn, and about two quarts of thick gruel
administered to the cow, which did not return. I
visited my patient again the day following, and
found her worse — the pulse almost imperceptible,
the extremities cold, the eyes sunk in their orbits,
and a discharge of thick yellow mucus came from
their inner conthus, the abdomen distended with
gas, pus discharged from the vagina, and when food
was given to her the greater portion of it wa?, as
usual, vomited back. I saw that the vital energies
were rapidly on the decline— that the undigested
substances within her, in consequence of the decline
of such energies, were beginning to decompose,
and that unless a speedy alteration for the better
took place, the termination would shortly prove
unfavourable. Recourse was a second time had to
the probang, which was again obstructed in the
same part as on the day previous, but vomiting
was never afterwards observed. The cow, how-
ever, in spite of every eflbrt and every assistance,
medical or otherwise, continued to sink, until at
last she died on the Cth of March.

Examination eight hours after death.— I dis-
sected out very carefully the whole of the oeso-
phagus from one extremity to tlie other, and upon
cutting it open and exposing its internal surface,
I found at the commencement of the wsophagean
canal the situation of the stricture. The cuticular
membrane of the canal at this part was gone for
more than an inch, which of course crposed the
muscular fibres entering into' the formation of the
organ ; for five or six inches beloiv the seat of in-
jury, and for two inches aboce it, the whole was in
a state of gangrene.

The abdominal and thoracic viscera were healthy
throughout j the paunch contained a moderate

quantity of food, but the third and fourth stomachs
were empty. In conclusion, then, I would remark
that from the time which intervened from the first
appearance of choking, which 1 mentioned as
occurring soon after Christmas, and from the
healthy condition of the abdominal and thoracic
organs, that if measures of an efficient kind had
been put into force at the first, when the constitu-
tional energies were vigorous, that the animal would
undoubtedly have recovered. The injury in the first
instance I cannot suppose was either very severe
or very extensive, but the food which the cow
constantly received, being of a rough or coarse
nature, would necessarily keep up the irritation in
the part, where probably a sharp piece of turnip
fixed itself when the symptoms of choking mani-
fested themselves, and which exhibited such ex-
tensive disease when exposed after death. Cattle
always, at least generally, when in health devour
their food very greedily, and the sharp angles of
turnips when cut into slices are extremely liable,
from the hasty manner they gulp them, to lacerate
or otherwise injure the interior of the ajsophagus.
I would therefore recommend every owner of
cattle (as I invariably do when called to a choking
cow from eating raw turnips), who partly feeds
his milch cows upon turnips, never to give them
in a raw state, unless they be crushed, but to either
steam or boil them — modes of preparation which
will altogether prevent choking, and perhaps be the
means also of preventing the loss of many a valu-
able animal.

ON MAKING BUTTER.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Sir, — I wish to make a few observations on a
paper read by Professor Traill (who is the author)
at the last monthly meeting of the committee of
the Highland Agricultural Society. The paper
is entitled " Experiments and Observations on the
production of Butter."

Having myself that is, with my own hand — pre-
vious to being thirty-five years of age, when I
gave up that labour — churned considerably more
than 50,000 lbs. of butter; and having watched the
process in the dairy, first under my mother, who
was noted for producing a good article, and then
under my wife, who followed in the same track, I
consider that my experience may be of some ser-
vice. JVIy "experiments and observations" dif-
fer, in some respects, materially from those of the
Professor.

I shall only make remarks on those parts of his
paper wherein we difier.

1st. He says, "The quantity of butter was
smallest (I suppose from a given quantity of milk)
just after calving."

I have found the quantity greatest at that time,
from the same quantity of milk, from the same
animal. The butter is also far more easily sepa-
rated from the milk at that time. The more dis-
tant after calving, the more tardily the sepa-
ration was, under the same circumstances of tem-
perature, &c.

2nd. He says, " That the addition of some cold
water during churning facilitates the process, or the
separation of the butter; especially when the
cream is thick and the weather hot."

Cream should always be thick before tlie churn'

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

249

jng commences; but when it requires cold water
to make the butter separate, it is a proof of the
cream being at too high a temperature; and, in
this case, both the quantity and quality will be much
deteriorated. If the weather be hot, and the cream
churned at its proper temperature, to add a little
cold water, after the separation has taisen place,
will make the butter collect easier into larger
lumps. The churning should continue a little
while with a slower motion, after the water is
added.

ord. He says, " That cream alone is more easily
churned than a mixture of cream and milk.'*

1 he separation will take place sooner, at the
same temperature, but the butter will be of no
better quality, while the buttermilk will be
worse.

•1th. "That butter produced from sweet cream
has the finest flavour when fresh, nnd appears to
keep longest without becoming rancid ; but that
the buttermilk so obtained is poor, and small in
quantity."

No butter can be got from sweet cream while
it remains so. Cream may be sweet when the pro-
cess of churning commences but it will, become
acid before the separation takes place. To com-
mence churning sweet cream is labour lost. It is
because it has taken a long time to churn it makes
the buttermilk lad. The quantity will be the
same. Common sense will tell any one this.
Whatever weight goes into the churn the same
\veii,'ht will come out in the shape of butter or
buttermilk. There will be no more butter, of
course; the quantity of buttermilk cannot be less.

If the butter becomes rancid it is from bad
management in the dairy. If the wife and
daughters ride in their pheatons every day, the
butter is almost sure to be spoiled. There are a
few dairy-women who are proud of doing their
duty without being looked after. Rancid butter is
caused by the cream being kept in too high a tem-
perature, and has become acid too long before
churning. It has " heaved" in the vessel. There
is also what we call, " hinged" butter, which is as
ba;l, or worse, than the rancid. This is caused by
the cream being kept in too low a temperature, and,
of course, has been too long in turning acid, or
too long before the churning has commenced.

5th. " That churning the milk and cream
together, after they have become slightly acid,
seems to be the most economical process on the
whole ; because it yields a large quantity of ex-
cellent butter, and the buttermilk is of good qua-
lity."

Quite right, if the temperature of the mixture be
right when the churning commences, and the
churner does his duty ; but a deal depends upon
these two things. If the temperature be too high,
or too low, or if the churner be a lazy fellow,
(it is no woman's work) or if he dine out, or re-
ceives company ttiree days a week, the butter is
sure to be less in quantity, and both it and the
buttermilk worse in quality than it otherwise
would be.

(Ith. " That thekeei)ing of the butter in a sound
state appears to depend on its being obtained as
free from uncombined albumen, or caseine, and
water, as it can bo by means of washing and
working when taken from the churn.''

To speak in language which every farmer and
dairy-wouiau can understand, the butter, to make
it excellent, and to keep it so, requires to be made
free ot buttermilk or water. Now, how can

washing it in water make it free of wafer ? No-
thing can make butter firm, sound, and sweet,
but well working, and never to let water to come
near it after it is taken out of the churn. 'i"o wash
butter is a wrong notion altogether.

7th. The author states " the interesting fact
that, in the course of his experiments, he found
when sweet milk and cream were churned together,
and though cold water was added after an hour
and a half, and then after three hours churning,
not a particle of butter was obtained."

There is nothing curious in this " interesting
fact." The mixture either had too little cream in
it, or was at too cold a temperature, and made
colder by the addition of cold water, or that the
churner was exceedingly lazy.

According to my ex])erience and observations by
the following rules, if strictly followed, prime
butter and buitcr milk will be produced ; the for-
mer to keep sweet and solid for twelve months.

1st. Let the dairy and everything about it be
kept perfectly clean, and be well ventilated and
shaded from the sun. If the floor be two feet be-
low the surface of the ground the better; but I do
not like a cellar, except to keep the butter in after
being made up for use or keeping.

2nd. Let the cream be taken from, sa)', three
fourths of the milk (that whicli is first taken from
each of the cows), after this milk has stood in
proper vessels in the dairy twenty-four hours.
IVIix this cream with the remaining fourth of the
milk, or " afterings," in proper earthen vessels,
and let them standin atemjjerature of about oC, so
that it will turn acid in about three days. It
should not exceed four days.

;5rd. As soon as it has turned acid, or before
twenty-four hours after, it should be churned.

4th. If the temperature of the room where the
churning is performed in, be below CO", let the
cream and milk be about 65", when the chur-
ning commences ; but if the temperature of tlie
room be above, or at 6t)°, let the mixture be
about tiO".

.'ith. Whether the churning be performed by
steam power, horse power, or by manual labour,
the motion must be quick at first. If by man
there must be a regular supply of what we, in
Lancashire, call " elbow grease." The separation
should take place within the hour, or there is
something wrong either in the temperature or in
the churner. 1 frequently see men or women
dabbling in the churn for half a day, or more,
when there is nothing more required but " elbow
grease" to make the separation take place in pro-
per time.

(Jth. As soon as the separation takes place, churn
slow till the butter collects into lumps. If the
weather be hot, adding a little cold water will ef-
fect this sooner.

7ih. Immediately after the churning is finished,
let the butter be taken out of the buttermilk and
worked a little, to get a great portion of the milk
from it. Then add a little fine salt and work it
again, still taking the milk from it as it springs.
Then add what salt is intended to be put in, more
or less, according to the time it is intended to be
kept, but never make butter without salt if it he
only intended to he kept one week. IMake the
salt fine. The dairy-woman must then use some
"elbow grease" in working the salt in ; and, in
doing this, all the milk will come out. The but-
ter will then be sweetand solid, and will remain so
for twelve months if it be put into proper vessels.

250

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and has had a proper quantity of salt put in it.
Butter washed in water will never keep so v/ell as
that managed in the above way.

I shall conclude with two remarks. 1st. The
very best dairy-women, who make their fingers
into thermometers, will sometimes spoil a
churning of butter. 2nd. Cream which has been
once frozen, will be difticult to make butter of
afterwards, even if raised to a proper tempera-
ture. I remain, Sir, yours, &c.,

Wiiiwich, March 20th. VV. Rothwell.

ON THE MANURES WHICH ARE
GENERALLY FOUND ON THE
FARM.

BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S,

Although there are few farms in our islands
whose profitable culture cannot be assisted by ad-
ditional artificial manures, yet it is equally certain
that it is rarely found that tbe fertilizers which
the land itself produces are used to the extent to
which they are profitably capable. These means
of agricultural improvement, therefore, will be
the subject of this paper. Of the many neglected
sources of fertility commonly met with in most
districts, is the mixture of soils — the rendering
the sands and gravels more tenacious, and more
fertile, since more retentive of moisture, by the
addition of clay, marl, or chalk, and the addition
of sand or ashes, or lime to the clays to render
them more friable. This source of improvement,
and of permanent improvement too, is one that
hardly any farm of any tolerable extent is entirely
without; or if the desired earthy manure is not
to be found on the surface of the farm, or at only
a tolerable depth, yet still within an easy distance,
some earth or other is usually found which is
capable when spread over the fields of more than
repaying the cultivator for the expense of its
transport. It is in this way that the farmers of
some of the clay soils of north Hants bring to
the surface, by sinking deep pits, considerable
quantities of chalk, many cubic yards of which
they with great profit spread over their lands. It
is thus, too, that the farmers of Norfolk have im-
parted a sufficient degree of solidity to their blow-
ing sands, by bringing to the surface the clay and
the marl, which so often forms the substrata of
these now celebrated barley districts. The deep
calcareous sand pits, which the Suffolk farmers
have formed in the craig formation of that county,
betray by their very extent that even the most
ferruginous sand is not without its agricultural
value when carefully spread over certain soils. In
all parts of the island, in fact, this judicious ad-
mixture of earths is to a certain extent carrying
on; it is only the extension of the system that I
am advocating. The farmers of the northern coun-
ties have long burnt their limestones and spread
the lime thus produced over their cold, wet soils.
The peaty lands of Lincolnshire have been long
since, to a large extent, clayed and marled, and
thousands of cubic yards of the calcareous sands
of the shores of Cornwall are annually spread over
its heavier soils.

All these efforts, let the young farmer remem-
ber, have for their object, not only to bring the
three earths— silica (flint), alumina (clay), and

lime — which constitute all cultivated soils, into a
more fertile proportion to each other ; but it is a
very common result, when the soil is chemically
examined, that a deficiency of some essential
earthy constituent of plants is found in it (of car-
bonate of lime for instance), which deficiency
the earthy manure is found to contain. To de-
termine this, careful practical observations can
alone supply the absence of chemical analysis. Of
the invariable presence of the earths — silica, alu-
mina, and lime — as constituents of his ordinary
crops, although in varying proportions every in-
telligent farmer is aware ; thus as I have in ano-
ther place had occasion to remark (and the che-
mistry of the operation cannot be too generally
understood) M. Schraeder obtained from thirty-
two ounces of the seeds of wheat (Trhicum
hybermim), of rye (Secale ce;'ea/e), barley (^Hordeum
vnhjare), oats [Avena sutiva), and of rye straw, the
following substances, the weight being given in
grains — (Gehlen Journ. vol. iii. p. 525) : —

Rye

Straw.

Silica

Carbonate of Lime..
Carbonate of JMa.s?-

nesia

Alumina

Oxide of Manganese
Oxide of IroQ .

Wheat.

Rye.

Barley.

Oats.

13-2

15-6

66 7

144 02

12-6

13-4

24 0

33-75

13-4

14-2

25-3

33-09

06

1-4

4-2

4 05

5-0

3-2

6-7

695

2-5

0-9

3.8

405

47-3

487

131-5

227*8

152 0
46 2

28-2
3-2
6'8
2-4

The earth, silica, or flint, abounds in almost
every description of vegetable matter, especially
in the grasses, and Kquiesetum (horse-tail). In
the Dutch rush it is so plentiful that that plant is
used by the turner to polish wood, bone, and even
brass. It forms so considerable a portion of the
ashes of wheat straw, that when these are exposed
to the action of the blowpipe, ic unites with the
potash found also in the straw, and forms an
opaque glass. Davy found it most copiously in
the epidermis or outer bark of the plants he ex-
amined. Parts.
100 parts of the epidermis of bonnet cane

contain of silica 90-0

100 parts of the epidermis of bamboo cane.. 74-.5
100 parts of the epidermis of common reed . . 48-1
100 parts of the epidermis of stalks of wheat 6".')

In the joints of the bamboo a concrete substance
is found, which Fourcroy and Vauquelin examined,
and ascertained that it consists of 70 parts of silica,
and 30 parts of potassa. This substance, which is
named tahaslier, can only be furnished by the soil. —
{Gehlen, vol. ii. p. llS).

Silica, according to RI. Saussure, constitutes 3
per cent, of the ashes of the leaves of oak gathered
in May, 14'.5 per cent, of those gathered in Septem-
ber, and 2 per cent, of the wood. In the ashes ob-
tained by burning the wood of the poplar, it
exists in the pro|)ortion of 3-3 per cent.; of the
hazel, 20-6 per cent.; of the mulberry 0-12 jier
cent. ; of the hornbeam 0-12 per cent.; 0'5 per cent,
in peas (Pisum icivitnm) ; 61'5 in the straw of wheat ;
0"25 in the seeds; 57-0 per cent, in the chaff of
barley ; S.v.'i in its seeds ; and in the oat plant CO
per cent.

Lime is, if possible, still more generally present
in all plants than silica. " The salsola soda," says
Dr. Thomson, " is the only plant in which we know
for certain it does not existi'' ('^'i/s(. of Chem, vol.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

251

ir. p.l90). It IS, liowever, united with carbonic
acid as carbonate of lime ; or it exists as the base
of some other salt, such as in oxalate of lime, or in
sulphate of linie (gypsum). It was found in the
ashes remaining after the combustion of oak wood,
at the rate of 32 per cent., by M. Saussure. In that
of the poplar at the rate of 27 per cent. He disco-
vered also 8 per cent, in those from the wood of the
hazel ; 56 in those of the mulberry wood ; 26 in
the hornbeam ; 14 in the ripe plant of peas ; 1 per
cent, in the straw of the wheat, but not any in its
seeds; 12 in the chaflf of barley, but none in either
its flour or its bran ; neither did he find any in the
oak plant; but then, in the ashes of the leaves of
the fir (Pijixs «/)/«), raised on a limestone hill, he
found -13'5 per cent.

Alumina is found in most vegetables, but in much
smaller proportion than either silica or carbonate of
lime, and the same remark applies to magnesia. M,
Schra'der found, as we have before seen, in two
pounds weight of the seeds of wheat only fo*''^ °f
a grain of alumina, in rye 1-+^ grains, in barley 4^^
grains, in oats 4.2 grains, and in rye straw 3^ grains.
In 12 ounces of wormwood there are about 5 grains
of alumina. This earth, however, necessarily
exists in all fertile soils as the food of plants ; for
although the proportions in which it is found are
rather small, yet still there is no reason to believe
that its presence is not essential to the healthy
growth of the plant. M. Saussure found the ashes
of the Pimis abies, growing on a granitic and on a
calcareous soil, to contain nearly the same quantity
of alumina (15 per cent, on the calcareous and 16
per cent, on the granitic), although tiiese soils dif-
fered widely in the proportion of the alumina they
contained; for 100 parts of each were composed
oi~{Thomsons Chem. vol. iv. p. 317) : —

The Granitic soil. Parts. The Calcareous soil. Parts.

Silica 75-25 Carbonate of Lime 98-000

Alumina 1325 Alumina 0-625

Lime 1-74 I Oxide of Iron .. 0-625

Iron & Manganes 9-00 Petroleum 0 025

99-24, 99.275

Such are the earths that constitute all cultivated
soils, and such is the proportion in which they
form the elements of some of the plants which
they support. In the soils of the cultivator, bow-
ever, they exist in an endless variety of proportions ;
it is by rendering these proportions more fertile
that earthy manures are so permanently valuable
to the soil : thus, I found 68-5 per cent, of silica
in the gravelly soils of Great Totham, in Essex,
and 62 in those of Kintbury, in Berkshire. Davy
discovered about 50 per cent, in the soil of the
Endsleigh Pastures, in Devonshire ; 54 in that near
Sheffield Place in Sussex ; 15 in the turnip soils of
Holkham, in Norfolk ; 32 in the finely divided
matters of the wheat soils of West Drayton ; and
about 97 per cent, the soil of Bagshot Heath, Mr.
George Sinclair found about 66 per cent, in the
grass garden of Woburn Abbey.

Of alumina, or pure earth of clay, the proportions
are equally varying. I ascertained the presence of
4-5 per cent, of this earth in a gravelly soil of
Thurstable in Essex, and 8-5 in one at Kintbury in
Berkshire. Mr. G. Sinclair found 14 per cent, in
the soil of the grass garden at Woburn Abbej'.
Davy detected 8'5 per cent, in that at Endsleigh,
6'25 in one at Croft Church in Lincolnshire, 7 in
that in Sheffield Place, 11 in that of Holkham, 29
in a field at West Drayton, and about 1 per cent, in
the soil of Bagshot Heath.

Of carbonate of lime, the presence is just as
varying in amount as that of the other earths. I
found 18 per cent, in a soil at Totham, and 19 per
cent, in a soil at Kintbury ; Sinclair 2 per cent, in
the soil of the Woburn Abbey grass garden.
Davy discovered 8 per cent, in that from Croft
Church, 3 per cent, in that of Sheffield Place, 6.'i
per cent, in the finely divided matters of the soil
from Holkham, and about 1 per cent, only in the
soil from Bagshot.

The expense of carrying clay or marl from the
pit, and spreading it over the field, is not so ex-
pensive an operation as is sometimes supposed.
In some extensive trials of Mr. Linton (Jour. Boy.
Ay. Soc. V. ii. p. 67), where marl was added to the
soil at the rate of 150 cubic yards per acre, the
exiicnse was 5/. 9s. 8d. Mr. Rodwell carried
many thousand cubic yards at 8d. per cubic yard
(Fanners' Encyclojjcetlia, p. 8G2) ; and in Bedford-
shire Mr. Overman, who applies about forty loads
(of forty bushels) per acre, pays his men '^d. per
load to fill and spread. And in estimating the ex-
pense, the farmer must not forget that this mode
of fertilising the soil is not like the application of
decomposing manures, beneficial only for a brief
period, but that the very staple of the soil is im-
proved.

When, however, we have accomplished all that
can be effected in adding the simple earths or
mixtures of earths to the soil, there is yet much
to be effected by the use of earth mixed with or-
ganic matters — such as commonly occurs in head-
lands, old hedge-rows, pond-mud, ditch scrapings,
&c. — to which, in order to promote the dissolution
of their decomposing matters, it is a common and
excellent practice to add to each cubic yard a
bushel of lime, or half a bushel of refuse common
salt (the marine variety of the bacon merchants is
excellent) ; or even to saturate the mass with
urine or other concentrated liquid manure. This
compost is generally found to be an excellent top-
dressing for grass lands or for potatoes (especially
with salt), wheat, or spring corn.

The wasteful drainage from the farm-yard, and
the readiness with which liquid manure may be
prepared on all farms, to increase the cultivator 's
stock of organic fertilizers, will be perhaps the
subject of another paper ; for much yet remains
to be accomplished in its extended use ; for, as
Mr. M. Milburn very truly remarks (Trans. Hiy/i.
Soc, V. viii. p. 275), "The generality of farmers
are too apt to allow the whole of the urine made
by their stock, the drainage of the fold-yards, and
the liquid from the mixens, to run down some
sewer, and enrich the rank grass and weeds which
it approaches, or run into some distant river.''

To the collection and preparation of weeds, turf,
roadside parings, &c., the same remarks in general
ajjply as to the use of pond mud, &c. ; and let it be
remembered that this kind of labour has moreover
this superadded advantage, that while manure is
collected weeds are destroyed ; the land is enriched
while the tillage is improved.

And then, again, with regard to the preparation
of " home-made" manures applicable by the drill —
a mode of fertilising the land now advancing with
rapid strides, and which I venture to predict is
an excellent practice, that will annually continue
to extend — much may be done by the farmer
from his own resources ; by a little care in collect-
ing and storing under cover valuable mixtures of
night-soil, ashes, &c., a dry, sufficiently friable,
and valuable drill manure may be readily prepared,

252

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

sufficient for a considerable extent of turnip land.
And if to the ashes procured from burnt earths,
k.c., only a limited proportion of rich animal
matter is added, the supply may be extended to
almost any extent. Mr. Marshall, of Riseholme,
has given (Jo«r. Roi/. Ay. Soc, i. iii. />. I(i4) the
composition of several preparations of this kind
which he has successfully used for turnips, of
which the best varieties seem to consist of, per
acre: — 1. A mixture of twenty bushels of night-
soil and cinder aslies, worked together, with forty
bashels of clay ashes. 2. (3f twelve bushels of
crushed oyster shells, six gallons of whale-oil, with
forty bushels of ashes. 3. Six bushels of crushed
bones, four gallons of whale-oil, and forty bushels
of ashes.

In some trials by Mr. George Sherborne, in Mid-
dlesex, about forty bushels per acre of common
cinder ashes, mixed with three or four gallons per
acre of train oil, was found an excellent drill ma-
nure for Swedish turni|)s.

And then, with regard to the formation of com-
post with the farm-yard dung, much more may be
effected in extending its bulk without mateiially
diminishing its power than is commonly believed ;
f. r instance, it may be mixed before it is fermented
with peat with tanners' refuse, batk, or sawdust,
with considerable advantage. The compost may
In this way be easily increased in bulk, from one-
third to double its former size.

It is by such economical additions to his stock
of fertilizers that the cultivator will readily be
enabled to diminish the necessity for purchasing
the powerful drill manures now importing from
abroad or prepared in this country ; and the intel-
ligent fiirraer will remember that, when he is thus
availing himself of the resources of the land he
possesses, that he is not only saving his money,
but he is giving extended employment to the
labouring population around him ; so that while
he is increasing the internal resources of his farm,
he is adding to the comforts of his poorer neigh-
bours.

TLLOGAN PLOUGHING MATCH.

(from the CORNWALL GAZETTE.)

On Monday, February 12th, a most interesting
display ot agricultural skill took place in Tebidy
Park, where there was a large attendance to wit-
ness the competition, and to promote by their pre-
sence and encouragement the truly English object
of " Speed the Plough." Nineteen ploughs com-
peted, of which no less than twelve were without
drivers. All were drawn by horses except
one, which had two yoke of oxen. The
quantity of ground marked out for each was 12
yards wide, and KiO yards long, being one-third of a
customary acre. Printed rules for their guidance
were delivered to all tliei)loughmen before starting.
The arrangements were made under the direction
of Lady Ijasset's agriculturist, IMr. Peter. The
.Judges were Mr. Gill, of St. (Jlements, IMr. Rose-
warne of Gwinear, and Mr. Davis of Probus.
The merits of the competitois were judged of simj)!}'
J)y the ajipearancc of the work when fmislipd,
without regard to time, the judges not attending
on the field until after the ground was ploughed.
The following were the awards.

WITHOUT DRIVER.

PlouglimeQ. Owner. Time.

1st, 11. BenJ. Rowe. .Mr. Williams, Bosproul 4h. 40m.
2nd, 1/. And. Lumsden.Lady Ba-!set, Park farm 3 85
3rd. 10#. W. Thomas.. J. S. Knys, Esq. Keys 4 10

M ITH DRIVER.

Ibt. 1/. lOs. Rowland White. Mr.Mar in, Carnhill 5 10
2nd. 1,5s. T. Chenowth (oxen) Lady Basset, Tehidy 4 35
3id.7s.6d. S. Parkville,Mr.Carthew,Treg-ogiran4 8

IllGIILV COMMENDED.

John Skew is. Lady Basset, Park farm ; Tho«
mas Chenowth, Lady Basset, Tehldy ; Andrew
Stephens, St. Erth, who would have obtained a
prize if the second half of his work had been equal
to the first. Both the first prizes were won by
Uansome's Rutland plough.

'J'owards the close of the match, Mr. W. Short,
sen., exhibited a plough manufactured by him-
self, which is new to this part of the country, and
indeed has been brought very little into notice,
though it was invented about twenty years ago by
Thomas Brown, Esq., of Kinwarton, Warwickshire.
One of these ploughs was exhibited at the Bristol
Meeting last year, and is very highly com-
mended in the report on the exhibition of imple-
ments, which is ])ubiished in the Journal of the
Royal Agricultural Society. A full description
with plates, will be found in the Farmei's INIaja-
ziue for January 1843. The chief peculiarity con-
sists in the addition of tv.'o pulverizing knives at-
tached to moveable bars extending beyoud the end
of the mould board. 1 he effect of these knives is
to cut off the angular summit of the furrow slice
just raised, and to divide it into two or three por-
tions, thus almost combining harrowing with
ploughing. The additional work is done wiih a
very small increase of power. The action of the
plough, which is called the surface pulverizing
plough, afforded much satisfaction to the practi- 1
cal fiirmers jiresent, and the invention appears
very valuable. The action of the subsoil plough
was also shewn, working at a depth of eighteen
inches. Its power and effect in heaving and break-
ing the subsoil without bringing any to the sur-
face afforded much surprise to those who had not
before seen it in action, and many a stick was thrust
down into the furrow to mark the depth to which
the ground was broken.

At four o'clock M genlemen, farmers, and
others, sat down to an e.xcellent dinner at the Bas-
set Arms, Pool. The Rev. G. Treweeke, rector of
Illogan, presided, supported by W.Reynolds, Esq.,
of Trevenson, the Rev.— Wulff, rector of Gwinear,
the Rev. E. Pridmore, &c. Mr. Hichens of Fair-
field acted as vice-chairman. The usual loyal
toasts were drunk, after which the award of the
judges was read. The Chairman then proposed the
health of Lady Basset, prefacing it with commen-
dations whose justice was fully acknowledged by
all present, and particularly noticing, what was so
remarkable in a lady, her zeal in promoting agri-
culture, and teaching the best methods of cultiva-
tion.

I he Vice-chairman then gave the health of a
friend who bad given the Illogan Farmer's Club im-
portant assistance by a valuable present of books,
and who felt much interest in their proceedings,
and who regretted that he was unublc to attend—
John Basset, Esq.

'Phe chairman next gave the health of the um-
pires, whose great credit as agriculturists, and

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

2o3

their impartial and lionouiable characters, coiihl
leave no doubt of tlic justice and truth of tlicir
award.

Mr. Gri.L acknowledged the conipliinent for him-
self and his colleagues. Tlicyhad ])crfonncd their
duty to the best of their ability. J'he i>loHghing
was very good. He had never seen better. He
feared their award n)i,L;ht not s've satisfaciion to
every one, for the fact was, that three or four of
the numbers came so near together, that the
judges were nearly an hour before ihey could de-
cide.

'I'he successful competitors were then called in,
and the chairman addressed to each some appro-
priate remarks in delivering to him bis prize. J'his
gratifying part of the business of the day being
concluded, the health of Mr. Tcters was drunk,
and the chairman called upon him to deliver bis
Lecture on Ploughing.

" Before commencing the operation of plough-
ing, the first requisite is to have a plough, the
next a sufficient povvcr to draw it along.

"There are many sorts of ploughs now in use,
each Laving its a'ivocates ; and possibly dift'er-
ent descriptions might answer in diflerent locali-
ties. In some places wlieel ploughs are approved
of; in others, swing ploughs. The old Cornish
plough is a swing plough, and a very simple imple-
ment, which, with some improvements, might be
I'endered useful, as it is at any rate very inexpen-
sive,

" There is a description of ploughs which in my
opinion deserves to be more noticed — that is,
'Turiiwrest ploughs', or those which plough the
land all one way, with the mould plate first working
on the right, and then on the left. There was an
iron ])Iough here to-day belonging to Mr. Grey of
Endellion, and exhibited by the maker, Mr. Wil-
liam Short, of Camelford, which seemed to have
some useful improx ements ; the small skim coul-
ter, for paring off the surface, from that part of the
furrow which, when turned, came near the sur-
face, and more especially two furrow slicers, work-
ing on the furrow after it was turned over, and
placed horizontally behind the mould plate, were
calculated to pulverise the ground, and save a
good deal of labour. Such a plough, I think,
might be most usefully employed in ploughing
turnip land on which sheep had been folded.

' Amongst all the dijTerenl sorts of ploughs, my
own opinion is, that a plain iron swing plough
has a decided preference, when competently ma-
naged, being so readily adapted to the various
operations on a farm ; but this opinion on my
part may be strengthened by the circumstance of
my having been most accustomed to such ploughs.

" There is now I believe little difference of opinion
as to what is the most convenient power for draw-
ing along the plough— a pair of horses yoked
abreast, the ploughman driving with reins, being
preferable to most others ; — although we have seen
very good work made to-day by Lady Basset's four
oxen, and even in less time than some of the
ploughs with horses.

"The first thing in commencing to plough a grass
field is to mark off with a slight furrow the inten-
ded breadth for end ridges for turning the plough
and the teams ujion ; aud the next, is marking out,
or opening the ridge. There are different modes
of doing this ; but what I approve of is, first to
plough a small shallow furrow, laying the next or
" backing" furrow over the first, so as to set its
aegle upright ; the third and fourth furrows should

be rather narrower and shallower than the plough-
ing intended, and should meet ibc other in such a
manner as to leave their angles on the same
level. If properly managed, the second furrow
should present the same angle and appearance as
the rest of the furrows, leaving the place of open-
ing almost imperceptible. Tdc breadth of |)lough-
iiig should be regulated by the depth. There is a
difference in this proportion in different jjloughs ;
but a depth being given, the [)lougliman can at
once projiortion the breadth, by seeing that one
furrow is laid upon the other, so that the angle may
stand upright, and that measuring f om the to])
each way the distance may ajipear alike on both
sides after the work is finished. The finishing of
the ridge is of much importance, and the neces-
sity for more attention to this must have been ap-
parent to-day. Another thing is the ploughing of
any corners or angular pieces. This is best done
as for example in a piece shaj)ed like the letter V,
by beginning your work in the middle of the wide
end first making a very narrow opening directed
towards the narrow point, and gradually extend-
ing every furrow, keeping as nearly parallel to
the outer boundaries as possible. Thus not a sin-
gle hoof need to trample on the ploughed land.
No field that is correctly ploughed should have
any part tramj)lcd by the horses in turning after it
is ploughed. Short angles may be laid to the rest
with a single furrow, that is, by returning empty, if
with a common plough.

"The next thing i shall consider is the ploughing
of stubble, or arish. This is done in different ways.
By reversing the order in which it was ploughed
from grass — by ploughing across — by trench
ploughing — by ribbing f or coombing) — by double
ribbing, that is, by first ribbing in the ordinary
way, and then to turn over in the same direction
the ground left unturned before, along with the
coomb previously turned. This is reckoned to give
great facility to the cleaning out of couch, or
" stroil," by laying it open to the operation of the
harrow, tkc. My worst objection to it is, that the
land is not turned to the proper depth before win-
ter— a point I consider most essential.

"In cross-ploughing, or otherwise ploughing the
land for fallow in spring, the openings should be
made by throwing out two furrows — one in going,
and the other in returning to the right of the for-
mer, leaving as little in the middle as possible;
part of these furrows being returned in ploughing
in the fast ground under them, so as to form some-
thing like a ridge drill in the middle. Thus every
part of the ground is broken without being but
slightly elevated above the rest of the field.

" It is of much importance that attention be paid
to having such openings quite straight, and at re-
gular intervals, much time being often occupied
needlessly in ploughing such land, from the sup-
posed indifference as to whether it is done straight
or not. This is the best field for young beginners,
or others learning to plough straight, as correc-
tions can be made without much injury. The
operation of the subsoil plough, which was exhi-
bited at work'to-day, is simple. The upper furrow
being first turned by the common plough, the other
follows, loosening thesubsoilunder, without bring-
ing any of it to the surface.

" The next thing I shall advert to is drilling for
green crops of mangel wurtzel, potatoes, turnips,
&c. This is done in different ways — with the
common plough, making a drill by going and re-
turning; this has one advantage. Although le-

254

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

quiring more time, as by taking on a greater widtli
witli the " taking in" furrow tlian required for
the drill and cutting off this part with our next
furrow, the l<ind is most effectually loosened.
^^ ith the common plough, making the drill with
a single furrow ; this is a most expeditious and in
my oi)iiiion the best way of drilling for turnips,
especially when dung is to be applied.

"The ploughman begins at a short distance from
one side of the field and makes a number of drills,
into whicli is placed the manure. He then, af-
ter making a drdl on the right side of his work,
returns to the drill first made and splits it with the
plough, covering in the manure. He thus pro-
ceeds, alternately making a drill to the right and
splitting a furrow in returning, always leaving a
sufficient number of drills in the interval for the
operation of manuring.

" Any number of ploughs can fol'ow each other
in this operation, the drill being made always to
the right of the last. By some, a simple contri-
vance is used to regulate the width, a rod being
placed over the mould plate, with a fastening for-
ward, to which a small " marker" is suspended.
The required distance being marked off, the
plough is carried along the mark, by which the
greatest regularity in width is secured. The ad-
vantage of this plan is apparent in dry weather,
as the drills being newly opened are moist, and
the manure being applied and covered in almost
immediately insures a regular braird.

" Another mode is by drilling with a double or
banking plough, as it is termed, with a mould plate
on each side, but I have seen but few who could
make very efficient work with this, it being diffi-
cult to manage ; and it does not so well loosen the
giound.as it works much by pressure. Follow-
ing out the working of these crops, there is the
USB of the horse hoe and small plough, and the
banking up, which does not require much tact.
"J here is one thing 1 may mention, that when the
ground is hard and requires loosening between
the rows, when about to bo banked up, both are
most effectually done by using the small plough,
giving three furrows to each drill, taking away
the furrow, first from the left hand drill, and in re-
turning taking it from the other ; but this to be a
larger furrow and thrown over to bank up that
from which the first was taken ; the third furrow
taking away part of the last and deepening the
middle distance, breaking up the other drill at the
same time.

" To finish a course, the next thing I shall advert
to is the ploughing of land after green crops,
preparatory to its being laid down with a corn
crop to grass. Great caution ought here to be
used to render the ground as level as possible.
When not to be ploughed in ridges the turnwrest
plougVi does this to most advantage ; but where
ridges are adopted, the marking off" should be
most correct, for which purpose a small cross
staff should be used to mark oft" parallel lines for
measuring, and two or more poles should be set up
in opening the ground so as to insure correctness.
A ])longhman having two objects to bring in a
line before him can direct his course and open his
furrow straight. Whatever difference of opinion
may exist in regard to the depth or breadth of
])loughing, no doubt in the world can be enter-
tained of the advantage of straight and correct
ploughing, both as regards economy of time, and
efficiency of work. Such land is generally ploughed
rather narrow and not so deep as in other cases,

especially in ploughing where sheep have been
folded.

" There is one other thing to be mentioned — drill-
ing for wheat on barley with the small plough,
which is done in the same way as the single drilling
of turnips, by always going to the right of the last
furrow, leaving the drills at any required distance,
say nine, ten, twelve, or fifteen inches, as may be
required. The corn sown in this after being
properly harrowed appears in drills. Beans and
peas are sometimes put in on the same principle.

" As I expected my friends the ploughmen here
I could not let the opportunity pass of stating the
advantage of, and strongly recommending, the
better education of ploughmen. The necessity of
a certain degree of arithmetical knowledge must be
apparent; a knowledge of some of the first prin-
ciples of geometry will enable them to lay out their
work, and also give them a correct taste for the
execution of it.

" The questions likely to arise to them in those
branches are pretty numerous. 1 may instance,
quantities of seed to be sown in a certain space of
ground — quantity of bone dust or,other manure per
acre ; how far should a bushel or a cwt. extend
either in drill or otherwise at given widths? A
certain number of loads of dung per acre, how
far should a cart load go ? So many tons of lime
per acre, how many heaps (if put into heaps) form
the cart load of a given weight ? These with many
other questions will often occur ; how convenient
for a master, and how pleasant for the farm labourer
or ploughman, if he is capable of executing an or-
der from his master exactly under any of the
above circumstances. So in geometry, a know-
ledge of the rules by which he could most readily
take the lines for determining the contents of ir-
I'egular piece of ground by simple calculations.

" There is another thing, calculatingthe weight of
cattle, hay, &c. by measurement : this enables a
man in some degree to correct his ideas as to
their value.

" Most of the above, nay, all these questions are
learned by simple rules ; and a small work on the
subject, with familiar terms and explanations,
would be very useful. The time and opportunities
of ploughmen would allow them to reap great be-
nefit as self teachers, or by teaching one another.
Adult teaching in the practical rules necessary for
particular trades or occupations is the best revi-
val of the rudiments of education taught in
youth.

" There were several other things which I intend-
ed to recommend to ploughmen and others. The
use of the line for correct work, clearing out water
courses, sides of hedges, &c.; how neat such jobs
look if correctly executed, compared to what we
too often see of work executed at random. The
keeping of ploughs, carts, harness, &c. clean ; a
tidy disposaljof all implements about the farm yard,
so that when any article is wanted they can place
their hands on it at once ; no better general rule
for which could be given than the old one of
" having a place for every thing, and every tiling in its
place."

The Rev.E. PaiDMonE rose topropose the thanks
of the company to the lecturer, and took occasion
to notice the great improvement which had lately
taken place in ploughing in their neighbourhood.
At their ploughing match only two yeais ago,
prizes were refused to those who ploughed deep,
for it was supposed that our soil would only ad-
mit of shallow ploughing, and only one of the com-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

255

pctitors then ploughed without a driver. To-day
the furrows were six inches deep, and prizes were
refused to shallow plou;;hiii!5 ; while of nineteen
ploughs in the field no less than tuelve were
guided b}' the ploughman himself without a driver.
The proposal was responded to by acclamation,
and the chairman with many around him left;
but there were many who remained discussing
the peaceful contests and triumphs of the day to
a late hour.

and as to beaus, the finest quality of old ones in the
market, during the last four months, would not com-
mand 34s. per qr.

I trust that you will institute an immediate en-
quiry into the matter, in order to discover and
expose the parties in whom the error originated, to
prevent a recurrence in future. In haste,

I am, sir, your very humble servant,

Thomas Umbers.

Wappenhwy, Jan. 31«#.

WARWICK CORN AVERAGES.

Webegthe attention ofour readers to the following
coramunication from Mr. Umbers,of Wappeiibury,
on the subject of the returns for Warwick. Should
many sucii inhtakcs occur a serious effect must be
produced on the averages. The subject is of a nature
so serious and important as to demand tlie attention
of the Government, and should be noticed in
parliament. We have no doubt that in this case
it was entirely a mistake ; it shows the necessity
of a check ; but for IMr. Umbers the mistake
would not have been discovered; and if any num-
ber of persons in any other places were to make
false returns, unless there be some authorised
check, or a Mr. Umbers in each place, the law
may be evaded, and injustice inflicted on the
whole agricultural class. The thanks of iiis bro-
ther farmers are due to Mr. lumbers for his
vigilance, and we trust that his CNainple will be
imitated, and a walchtul eye kept on tlie returns
generally. Farmers are too apt to leave the cure
of their intcicsls to others.

(copy).

TO GEORGE JOYCE, ESQ., COMPTROLLER OF
CORN RETURNS, BOARD OF TRADE, LONDON.
First.
Sir, — At Warwick market, on Saturday last,
the 28th inst., I was surprised to see the Insjjector
of Corn Returns list exhibited upon a board in the
corn market, for the week ending the 21st of Ja-
nuary, 1843 — a copy of which I send you here-
with, viz. : —

Average,
qrs. bush. s. d.

851 0 Wheat .... 51 G

460 0 Barley 31 10

163 0 Oats 20 4

62 0 Beans .... 41 G
6 5 Peas 33 4

Being a regular attendant at this market, and ge-
nerally a seller of grain as a grower, my attention
was called to the above return. I called upon the
inspector in order if possible to ascertain how the
mistake originated. I was informed that the re-
turns were correct, as received from parties making
them. I requested to inspect the book or the re-
turns (but was informed that was not allowed) in
the hope of detecting the error. It is a most egre-
gious return, and calculated to prejudice the Inte-
rests of the growers of grain of this country, if
allowed to continue.

I will engage to say that not 50 qrs. of barley
was sold in Warwick market, on the day to which
this return refers, at so high a price aa 3l8, per qr. ;

Second.
Sir, — I addressed a letter to you on the 31st ult.,
and feel very much surprised that I have not re-
ceived an acknowledgment of the receipt from you.
1 shall be glad to be informed, per return of post, if
my letter came to hand. In haste,

I am, sir, your humble servant,

Thomas Umbers.
Wappenhury, Feb. 12.

coi'Y or LrxTtn prom geo. jovce, esq., aiter nt-

CEIVING MY second.

TO THOMAS UMBERS, ESQ., WAPPENBUUV, NEAR LEA.
MINGTON SPA.

Sir, — I beg at the same time that I acknowledge
the receipt of your two letters of the 31st ult., and
the l"2th inst., to apologize for any apparent neg-
lect on my part in not having replied to your for-
mer communication before this. The fact is, that
immediately on its receipt, I addressed a letter on
the subject, to the corn inspector, at ^Varwick, and
from whom I have not yet received any answer.

As, however, this gentleman is appointed by the
Excise, and, consequently, is under their instruc-
tions, it is possible that he will not move in the mat-
ter wiihout their direction. I would, therefore,
suggest (in case such be his feeling) that you shoidd
address the Commissioners of the Excise on the
point, or ascertain from him if such be the fact. I
will, however, write to him again by this post.
I am, sir, yours, very obediently,

Geo. Joyce.

Corn Department, Board of Trade, Feb. 14:

Second.

Sir, — T have just received a letter from Mr.
Hopps, Inspector of Corn Returns for Warwick,
in answer to the one I addressed to hiui on the 1st
inst., relative to the high averages of barley and
beans, which you were so kind as to call my atten-
tion to ; he informs me that the eri-or arose from
the imperfect manner of the dealers' sale ticket,
from which he copied bags as bushels, which caused
the difference of price in his calculations. I have
desired him to give the necessary explanation and
take this opportunity of thanking you for the trou-
ble you have taken on the subject.

I am, sir, your obedient servant,

Geo. Joyce.

Corn Department, Board of Trade, Feb. 17.

copy OF LEITER FI OM INSPECTOR 01 COIIN nElXKNS,
WARWICK.

Sir, — On this morning, 1 received a communi-
cation from the Board of Trade, respecting the ave-

256

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

rages of barley and beans reported on the ilst ult.,
and directing me to investigate the matter.

Upon examination it appears that from the very
confused manner in which some of the corn factors
had made out their returns, and sending them to
nie without remarking whether the quantity pur-
cliased by them were qrs., bush., or bags; I, conse-
quently, mistook bags for bush, and ii'ice versa on
two occasions, which was the cause of the errors al-
luded to. Herewith I have sent you the true ave-
rages for that week.

I am, sir, yours, very obediently,
Hugh James Hopps,
Inspector of Corn Returns.
Excise Office, Warwick, Feb. 15.

COPV OK TRUE AVERAGES FROM INSPECTOR.

COUNTY 01 WARWICK — TOWN OF WARWICK — DATE,
JAN. '2 J, 1843.

An account of the quantities and prices of the seve-
ral sorts of British corn sold in this market, or
the said town, during the week ending Saturday
last, according to the returns made to the inspec-
tor by the corn-faclors. &c. ; computed by the
standard imperial measure : —

Total amount. Price jier qr.
qrs. bush. £. s. d. £. s. d.
Barley 480 0 643 14 9 1 6 D
Beans 88 2 1-28 13 0 1 U 1

The quantity and amount of each article have
been carefully examined and compared with the
entries of all the purchases stated in the returns
delivered to me by the corn -factors, &c., for the
week above mentioned, and the average price of
each article has been duly calculated.

Hugh James Hopps, Inspector.

THE CELEBRATED RED STEER. — An
excellent lithoo;raph of this ox, the property of
R. W. Haker, Esq., of Cottesmore, and which Las
HttracteJ so much attention in tiie agricultural work!,
has just been jiublisbed by Mr. \V. II. Davis, of
Chelse.i, animal pamter to' her Majesty ilie Queen
Dowager. It is said to be an excellent likeness of
the animal. According to the description on the
pruit ibis animal has won eleven priz-s. In \Q[V?,
the second prize in the 7th class at the meeting of
the Rutland Agricultural Societv. In 1810, tbelirst
prize in the ]'.^tii class at the Bourne Agricultural
Society. In 1841, the first prize in the 7th class at
the Bourne Agricultural Society, the first prize in
the 7th cla^ss at the Stamford Agricultural Society,
and the first prize in tbe 6th class at the Waltha'm
Agricultural Society, At the Waltliara meeting the
age of tbe steer was disputed, since which attention
having been called to the question of age, no suc-
cessful opposition has been made, and the following
ing prizes have been awarded to him. In 1841, the
1st prize, ;5rd class, at the Rutlamlshire Agricultural
Society, and the 1st prize, jrd class, in the Leicester
Agricultural Society. In 1812, the 1st prize, in the
Ist class at tbe Stamford Agricultural Society, the
1st prize, in the 1st class at the Rutland Agricul-
tural Society; and the 'Jnd prize, in the 1st class at
tbe Smitbfield Club Show in December last, there
being 23 competitors.

AGRICULTURAL DEPRESSION.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Sir, — Although I may only be repeat ng argu •
ments that have already been much belter explained
in your magazine, still, with your permission, I shall
beg leave to recal the attention of your readers to
tbe following facts.

One apology that is often urged for tbe income-
tax is, that tbe reduction in the price of provisions
caused by the alteratiDu in the duties on corn,
livestock, &c., will enable each head of a family to
save the amount of his income-tax in his household
expenditure. Xow, let us observe how this applies
to the farmers. The reduction in the price of wheat
is at least 2s. a bushel since last year, and livestock
has diminished one-quarter — some say one-third —
in value ; so the farmer has not only his income ma-
terially reduced, but an extra tax on his industry to
pay into the bargain. If this be not "helping a lame
dog over a stile," I do not know what is. It is said
that should prices continue so low rents must be re-
duced ; and this is my opinion. But no reduction
in rents can meet the loss sustained by the present
value of corn. Land in this neighbourhood, which
produces twenty bushels of wteat per acre, is let at
20s.; thus tbe loss of 2s. a bushel amounts to double
the entire rent.

I am not sufficiently conversant with the subject
to say how the corn law question ought to be event-
ually settled ; but this I can positively state, from
sad experience, that tbe present alteration has already
proved of serious injury to the agriculturists ; and I
will add one or two observations on what appear to
ine evident facts. Of late years most of the European
countries, as well as the I'nited States, have been
forbidding the importation of our principal manu-
factures for tbe j)urpose of encouraging their own.
This has been done by means of prohibitory duties,
to enable the natives to compete in price with our
artizans. The late alterations that I have had the op-
portunity of seeing in the tariffs of foreign nations
seem to me delusor}-, and only intended to amuse
this country, witbout being of any material benefit
to our manufacturers. I think when tbe duty on
corn was reduced last year, it should only have re-
lated to those countries that were willing to recerve
our principal manufactures on the payment of duties
equally moderate. I know it is said that, in that
case, corn would be sent from one countrj' to another
that had made a more advantageous treaty with
England, and the introduction of corn from the
I'nited States into the Canadas urged as a firccedent ;
but, with proper care and attention in the arrange-
ment of treaties, surely our experienced statesmen
would be able to conquer this difficulty.

'J'o conclude, as I have already stated the reduced
value of agricultural produce, I will only add tbe
increase in the farmer's expenses tfiken for tbe parish
in which I reside. The poor's rate has increased 95
))er cent, since the establishment of the new poor
law. The tithes are augmented about ten per cent,
by tbe Commutation Act; and a new impost is added
in the form of an income-tax. I have made these
few observations ijuite independent of any party
feeling, intending them for the consideration of per-
sons of all political opinions, and only affirm that
they contain a concise statement of the real state of
things in our neighbourhood.

With many thanks for the information I have de-
rived from the perusal of your magazine,

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
Chepstow, Feb. 27, Veritas.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

257

ON THE PROGRESS OF AGRI-
CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE DUR-
ING THE LAST FOUR YEARS.

BY PH. I'usEy, M.P., r.n., and g.s.

(From the Journal of the Royal Agricullural Society of
England,)

[Concluded.]

There is another root, however, which promises
also to hreak through that inonotonj% and has
benn made known in England since the foundation
of our society, though it has hecn common for two
centuries in Flanders and Germany. I mean tlie
white carrot, of whose produce such surprising
accounts have been published. It has been stated
to give thirty tons to Ihe acre, eacli ton selling in
some neighbourhoods at £2, or double the value
of Swedes. Lord Ducie grows it regularly on
Whitfield-farm, and obtains twenty-four tons to
the acre : the green tops alone, which may be
given to sheep when the root is taken up, arc said
by Mr. Harris to be equal to a second crop of clo-
ver. The only difficulty in its cultivation is the
slow growth of the young plant, which can scarcely
be distinguished from weeds, unless by women
cleaning them on their knees ; but this may be ob-
viated by drilling the carrot ; and I am told it may
be grown on ridges, and tlierefore horse-hoed.
They will thrive on rather strong land, though
light warm land is most natural to them. Sub-
soiling is almost indispensable, which may be done,
however, with a common plough. As this root
seems likely at last to take a permanent ])lace in
English farming, and as it may be interesting to
kno\v in future times how it was introduced, which
has been often ({uestioned with regard to the
turnip, I may put on the records of our .society,
that it was brought over in 1835 by Mr. Rham, of
Winkfield. There is another carrot, the early
horn, of which Lord Ducie obtained sixteen tons
to the acre — no trifling yield — iind which, by its
almost globular shape, appears suited to very shal-
low soils.

\Vith regard to the use of the carrot, it is known
to be good for horses, though too much of itsliould
not be given tbem before spring, as it is supposed
to weaken their eyes in winter. It is also excel-
lent for milch cows. All stock, indeed, is so fond
of the carrot as to produce a difficulty in its use,
for it makes them refuse other roots ; but it may
be mixed with them after steaming. It aj)i)cared
from the account which Colonel Le Contour has
given us of the great bulk of parsnips raised in
Jersey, that we might have had to add this root
also to our field-crops ; but he has since found the
white carrot yet more productive, and the tapering
growth of the parsnip makes it very difficult to
draw from the ground.* I have therefore only to add
the mangold wurtzel potato, which is very coarse
but extremely bulky, and is said to be the only
potato that should be given to pigs without pre-
viously boiling. Of its merits, however, I know
nothing positive.

Such is the information we have received on
those roots by which our stock are sustained in
winter ; and I cannot but look back to the former

* Parsnips have one advantage over carrots, that
cares and rabbits eeem not to touch tbem. — Bbay-

nOOKE.

history of farming on this point. The castles of
the old barons were victualled at INIichaelmas with
salt beeves and sheep, because there was little hay
for iheir winter keep. Afterwards more hay was
made, and fresh meat was obtained through the
year. When our population exceeded the extent
of our meadows, the common turnip was intro-
duced : but as this does not well resist frost, it
would last only till February. Then came the
Swede, which carries us on till the end of March.
Another class of summer food, clover, bad been
also introduced, but would not be ready so soon :
vetches therefore were sown in autumn, to be fed
off in spring. But there is still an interval to be
filled — for vetches do not come in as soon as
Swedes are ended. Mangold-wurtzel indeed will
carry us through this space of time ; but it appears
also that, while winter-feed may be prolonged,
spring-feed may be hastened by growing an early
variety of vetches ; and Mr. Williams, a farmer ot
Ilsley, informs us that last year he had vetches
three feet high in the beginning of May, on a back-
ward soil in a high situation. An account is given
of this vetch in another part of the present num*
ber. Its importance will be seen at once by all
flockmasters ; if it should stand the trial, the circle
of artificial food will be completed throughout the
year, and a wonderful triumph, I must say, be se-
cured by the farmer's skill over the seasons.
Early rye, indeed, has long been used for the same
purpose though some farmers do not approve
of it ; for while young it gives little food, and
it shoots up rapidly to a harsh stalk, which stock
do not relish. Clover of course is the mainstay
during summer ; but it is acknowledged that ge-
nerally land will not bear its recurrence well every
four years though we have not yet found a substi-
tute. The Italian rye-grass is evidently an acqui-
sition, as it gives not only a greater bulk than the
common rye-grass, but is also preferred by sheep.
This is a new plant ; but in the present journal
we have a strong recommendation of an old one,
lucerne, which is the more interesting because Mr.
Rodwell brought it before the Board of Agriculture
in 1811, and speaks of it with unabated confidence
now in 1842. It requires, however, I believe,
some depth of soil, and perhaps a favourable cli-
mate. Rape, the green crop of the fens, is evidently
at home upon poor peaty land, pared and burnt,
or dressed with peat-ashes; for such land has a
tendency to produce leaves rather than roots; and
ashes throw up tlie rape so strongly, that a flock
of sheep is hidden among the stems when at feed
in the pen. Sanfoin, on the other hand, is known
to prefer a soil full of natural lime. There are
many new plants recommended for summer soiling
—the Bokhara clover, the Siberian vetch, the Si-
berian bear's-claw— all three of gigantic growth ;
but of their merits we know nothing as yet, nor
of spurry or of maize (Indian corn), which was re-
commended at the Doberan meeting of German
farmers to be fed ofi" green.

From green crops we are naturally led to the
stock whfch is fed on them ; but so much has been
done during forty years by the Smithfield Club for
our cattle, that little can be expected in four years
from our society beyond a wider exhibition of the
superiority of English breeds. As those, how-
ever, who have not studied the subject undervalue
sometimes tbe show of fat cattle, because the indi-
vidual animals are too fat for consumption, I th'nk
it may be useful to prove what the Smithfield Club
has really done. Grazing animals in a wild state,

S

2-58

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

according to Dr. Licbig, will hardly become fat at
all. Deer in a park, for the same reason, arc not
killed before they are six or seven years old ; and
many may even nowr remember that mutton was
once eaten when five years old. But by selection
of individuals in breeding it was found that this
time might be shortened. First, the Leicesters —
then our larger long-wooled sheep, theCotswolds —
and last, the short-wools, orSouthdowns — have
been cultivated on this great jmnciple of early ma-
turity ; and the Southdowns, as well as the others,
have been brought to market as mutton in four,
three, two, and lately on some farms at one year
of age : so that, to say nothing of root crops having
been multiplied four times in weight, the same
amount of green food which formerly gave us a
sheep only every fifth year is able to produce
us now a sheep every year — that is, five sheep for
one. A deduction must of course be made for the
breeding ewes. It is but common justice to the
Smithfield Club to show this vast good which they
have done to the country. There is also a Scotch
breed of improved sheep, the Cheviot, which I be-
lieve would be better suited than our Southdowns
for the mountainous parts of Southern England.
The same principle has been applied to horned
cattle, of which we have also three established
breeds — the Short-horns, the Hercfords, and the
beautiful Devons. Though early maturity has not
been carried so far with them, no breed out of
Great Britain can compare with them in aptitude
to fatten. It is said, indeed, that better milkers
may be found than even the shorthorns ; and this
may be the case ; but milk alone cannot be made
the test of cattle even for a dairy farm, because
the cows which are necessarily discarded each year,
for age or barrenness, ought to be suited for fat-
ting. In cattle, too, a Scotch breed, the Ayrshire,
may stand by the side of our own, as it appears to
imite in a high degree the two requisites of milking
and grazing, both upon moderate land ; but whether
it be suited to our rich southern meadows must be
very doubtful.

All these breeds are now fatted chiefly, not on
grazing pastures, but on arable ground. The origin
of this practice was no doubt the production of
meat for an increased population ; it is continued
and extended, not from a view to profit in the sale
of the meat, but for the production of dung, and
the consequent increase of the corn crop. It is well
known to farmers, though not to others, that the
dung of an ox fattened with corn or oil-cake is far
more valuable than that of a cow kept in merely ordi-
nary condition— perhaps worth twice as mnch. This
principle is the great distinction of English agricul-
ture, and constitutes what is called high farming.
It is worked out in diiTcrent ways.

Every autumn horned cattle move across Eng-
land, from Devonshire, Herefordshire, parts of
Yorkshire, and Scotland, to the eastern coast,
where they are fattened. I do not know why this
practice should he confined to that side of the coun-
try ; but though it may be known elsewhere to in-
dividual farmers, all the counties in which stall-
feeding seems to be estabhshed lie to the east-
Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Lincoln-
shire, Yorkshire, Northumberland, and in Scotland
the Lothians. There is some variety, however, iu
the mode. The more common method, I believe, is
to tie up the beasts in stalls in close houses. In
Northumberland, Mr. Grey, of Dilston, informs me
that this plan is given up, and that the cattle arc

kept loose (eight or nine together) in small yards,
with an open shed ou one side ; he gives as the rea-
son of this change, that they appear to be more
healthy when so treated ; that they turn the litter
more regularly into manure, do not lose their hair,
and, theirjoints not being stiffened, are better able to
travel to market. In Lincolnshire, again, many
good farmers find it answer not to fatten beasts at
all, but to keep young stock iu straw-yards ; not,
however, upon straw only, as in the old system of
low farming, hut pushing them forward with oil-
cake : for this is one great merit of improved farm-
ing, that whereas, by the old practice, the animals
Avhich serve for our food were kept often ou the
brink of starvation for several years — by the new
one they are maintained in an improving state from
their birth ; and so their comfort, as long as they
live, coincides witli our profit. Such is the high
farming of the eastern side of England — there so
well known that it may appear superfluous to have
described it at all ; but in the counties with which 1
am more conversant — Oxfordshire,Wiltshirc, Hamp-
shire, and Berkshire — a feeding-house full of oxen on
an arable farm is almost, if not quite, unknown ; yet
here, too, we have high feeding, which is high farm-
ing, but it is the high feeding of sheep penned on
the turnip-field, receiving hay, peas, barley, oats,
or oil-cake, with their turnips sliced for them in
troughs (nor is there a better mark of good farming
for the traveller than a turnip-slicer in the fold) ,
and brought to market sometimes at the age of one
year. This is excellent farming : and I have been
repeatedly told by farmers, that where two flocks
have been kept in one field — one fed with corn, the
other not — the difference may be distiuctly seen
along the line where the hurdles had stood in the fol-
lowing croj) of barley, marking the efficacy of high
feeding.* Still, good as the system is, it has this
disadvantage iu comparison with the feeding of
beasts, that the straw grown on the farm is not
made into strong dung, but is merely trampled in
large yards, from which it comes out very little
changed even in its appearance.

But Mr. Childershas brought forward interesting
experiments, which show that sheep, as well as oxen,
thrive much better for warmth and shelter. He
states that " eighty Leicester sheep, ou the bare
field, consumed about fifty basketfuls of cut turnips
per day, besides oil-cake." " On being brought
into the shed," he proceeds," to my surprise, they
were immediately only able to consume thirty bas-
kets, and before a mouth had elapsed the quantity
had decreased to twenty-five baskets; thus econo-
mising one-half the turnips : they also ate less oil-
cake. I found, nevertheless, that their increase was
as rapid this year as it was the year bcforc."t In
the year before, the sheep in the shed had gained
one-third more than tliose in the field : so that here
was a saving of one-half of the turnips, with a
gain of one-third of meat. Now this result agrees
precisely with the most recent discoveries of Dr.
Liebig, who has shown that the natural heat of the
body is kept up by the use of food, and that the
greater the cold the larger must be the consumption

* In one instance, where a very dry summer fol-
lowed, the advantage was in favour of the less
highly dressed land ; a strong instance of the power
of dung to injure barley in a dry summer upon
burning land.

t OnShed-feeding, by Mr. Cbilders— Journal, i.,
pp. 16y »nd 407.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

259

ol' food ; auil he instances the Samoyedes, who eat
ten pounds of meat daily. " Warm clothing," he
adds, "is a substitute for excess of food." Now, I
do not say that wc arc at once to house all our sheep
— because, apart from the labour of cartinj;- home
the turnips and carrying out the dung, the treading
of the sheep is almost indispensable on light soils
for rendering them firm. But I do think Mr. Chil-
dcrs's discovery most important, and well worth the
serious consideration of sheep farmers; and tliat,in
time, it may become the foundation of a change of
practice— that the fatting sheep, for instance, may
be housed, and the Ijreedingewcsbe left on the land,
or the fatting sheep be housed by night in winter,or
as Rlr. Childers suggests, during the heat of the sun
in September. It may be said, indeed, why house
sheep in Ijeat, if cold is to be guarded against?
Partly because heat disagrees with them, as is shown
by their panting beneath the sun and seek-
ing the shade, ami partly because one
advantage of housing them is the saving
of dung ; for many farmers suspect that tliere
is sometimes a great loss of manure when made by
sheep on the land. In dry weather, when the
ground is hard, either from heat or frost, a por-
tion of it evaporates rapidly ; in wet weather, on
light lands, I doubt if it be not sometimes washed
downwards below the reach of the following crop.
The change, however, would be so great that it
would be unwise to make it at once ; and, indeed,
wc require some further experience of its effects
on the health of the sheep.*

There is anotlier principle in Rlr. Cliilders's con-
cise paper, scarcely, if at all, less important than
that of shed-feeding, wLich I confess had escaped
me altogether, until it was ably pointed out by
the Rev. J\Ir. Thorp, in a paper -j- read by him be-
fore " The Yorkshire Society." That principle is
rapid feeding. The lisual course, I believe, in feed-
ing sheep, is to keep them about four months
upon turnips, increasing the additional food,
such as corn and cake, towards the end of the
period ; but Mr. Childers proposes to feed them
to the utmost from the very first. " I think," he
says, " the greatest profit would be made by shed-
ding them for about ten weeks. By giving them
cake and a little crushed barley I think you may
gain from 33 to 40 lbs. per bead in lliat time ;
their increase in value during that time cannot be
less than 15s. to 20s. per head ; and in this way
you may feed off two or three lots during
the winter. In ten weeks they consume half a ton
of turnips each. Thus, with artificial food, an
acre of 30 tons will feed no less than (50 sheep.
The artificial food will cost from 6d.to Is. each per
week."

This would not be exactly a saving of food, as
in sbed-feeding, but a substitution of other and
expensive food for so many turnips, and the fur-
ther tpiestion must be asked, whether this substi-
tionwill pay. Assuming Mr. Childers's figures to
be correct, that lbs. are added to the value of the
sheep, and that the additional food costs about yd.

* Mr. Thompson, of Kirby, has just informed me
that shearlings bear shedding better than lambs, and
that one farmer who tried shedding last year had
considerable loss by purging ; be therefore recom-
mends that the back of the shed should be made of
open wattle, or that moveable sheds should be used
in the lield.

t On the Feeding of Sheep— Supplement of
his Number.

a week for ten weeks, there would be left 7s. (id.
for the half ton of turnips, which nould be enough.
The outlay on extra food is large ; but then the
return would take place in a shorter period,
namely, ten weeks, when the money would come
back, and a fresh purchase be made. If the sys-
tem would pay, it is self-evident that a vast in-
crease of the best manure, tiie whole object of all
feeding, would be obtained ; and though it is
somewhat startling to hear of (!0 sheep being fat-
tened on a single acre of turnips, still it would be
worth doing, and ought to be done for the sake of
the public, if it can be done without loss. This
principleof rapid feeding which Mr. Childers has
brought forward seems well deserving inquiry j
since if it be practicable it must greatly increase
our manure, and consequently our crops, accord-
ing to the bountiful provision of nature, that the
move meat we raise on our land, the more corn we
arc enabled to grow; and that thus, again, having
obtained more corn, the more stock in return we
arc able to feed.

This brings mc to the most difficult subject in
agriculture, which I have therefore reserved for
the last. I mean manure, on which it may he said
that we have learnt a great deal in the last four
years, but know nothing ; for we have learnt many
of the chemical principles on which manures act,
but we do not yet know how to apply those prin-
ciples to the daily work of the farm. It is now
established that the most important ingredient of
farmyard dung is ammonia — the same substance
as common smelling-salts — known to escape very
readily in the air ; and there is a growing opinion
that a great deal of it does so escape from our
farmyards, which is doubtless the case; though
I am not sure whether the alarm on the sub-
ject be not somewhat exaggerated. For ammonia
arises chiefly from the urine of the cattle, but it
does not form itself until after some days; and
by that time in a well-littered yard it has sunk
from the surface, and hasbeen trampled down fast,
so that it can less easily evaporate. Whilst it is
forming itself, too, the straw begins to decay; and
it is the opinion of Sjjrengel that an acid called the
humic acid, formed from the decaying litter, has
the property of combining with the ammonia, and
removing its volatile property.* This must be
doubtful, of course, and various means of fixing
the ammonia have been proposed. Sulphuric acid
is one, either in the shape of gypsum, which has
been found not to answer, or in that of green
vitriol, or as a pure acid ; but these are at present
only suggestions. We have been also strongly
urged to imitate a foreign practice of using liquid
manure, spread from a water-cart ; but this
I believe to be a very doubtful innovation.
For if the urine be collected separately,
it is the opinion of Sprengel t that a still

* Where peat can be obtained, it assists in fix-
ing the ammonia when mixed with the dung, accord-
ing to Lord Meadowbank's process — See Journal,
i., p. 147. — Mr. Dixon on Compost Heaps.

t Dr. Sprengel, after describing the various
methods of employing liquid manure, uses
these strong words: — " AVhoever is obliged for
want of straw to collect the urine separately — who-
ever, if he be compelled to do this, mixes no water
with it, or who fails also to employ some neutral-
ising substance to combine with the ammonia
which is produced in so great a degree during tha
summer — suffers a loss of manure which exceeds

9 2

260

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

greater cscnpe of ammonia takes place, unless
some substance, which is not yet ascertained, be
added to fix it, or it be largely diluted with water,
which occasions great labour in its application.
This last objection lies also against the other form
of liquid manure, the runnings from the yard
collected in a tank ; for after heavy rains they
sometimes do not contain above two per cent, of
salts, and are then rot worth the labour of car-
riage. It appears that this foreign practice has
arisen from two causes ; one, the want of litter,
and where the same cause exists, as on some of
our dairy-farms, the method might be well intro-
duced ; the other motive is the desire in Flanders
of applying a liquid top-dressing ia May to the
corn growing on sandy land, or else to a second
crop, such as carrots sown amongst beans ; but
this last case does not arise in England. Some
loss, however, must arise by the runnings from
every farm-yard j for whether the ammonia be
fixed or escape in the air, there is no doubt it is
still soluble and runs away in the water. One re-
medy is, to prevent the rain from flowing down
the surrounding roofs into the yard, by placing
gutters under the eaves. Perhaps another would
be what I have seen in an old-fashioned yard, a
hollow space, like the basin of a dry pond, three
or four feet deep, with a drain near the top that
prevents it from overflowing. This hollow I was
about to do away with as unsightly ; but when
filled as it now is with couch-grass — leaves or
Btubble would certainly have a better appearance
— it seems likely to answer the purpose of detain-
ing valuable salts that would otherwise run away.
It is also supposed that great waste arises when
dung is spread on a field ; and this theory has
been carried so far that a serious charge has been
brought in a daily publication against the farmers
of the Vale of Aylesbury, for dressing their mea-
dows, not at a wrong season, but for dressing
them with dung at all, as if the whole essence of
the dung must be evaporated, though the farmers
had not yet found out their mistake. Some
waste, I suppose, takes place, for which on mea-
dows there is of course no remedy, but perhaps
not so great as is imagined. ]\Ir. Handley informs
me that he has observed for years a common field,
on part of which, occupied by cottagers, the
dung was sometimes allowed to lie spread for
many weeks, while on the remainder it was
ploughed in at once, but he never could detect
any diflerence in the succeeding crop. Possibly
after the dung has fermented, a great part of the
ammonia is reduced, as Sprengel supposes, to a
fixed state. If so, we must hesitate to adopt what
many have recommended and practised, the
ploughing in of dung in a fresh state. After all,
if the yard be well littered and the dunghills be
covered with earth, I doubt whether, excepting on
grass farms where the tank may be necessary
from the want of straw, the present management
of dung can be greatly improved, though in many
districts the quality certainly may be.

Hut besides farm-yard dung, we have an infinite
variety of artificial manures or hand-tillages ; in-
deed, it may be said that there is no refuse of any
trade, provided it be animal or vegetable, except

all belief. It is indeed only a gaseous substance
and not a solid material visible to the eye, which
thus escapes and is lost ; but for all that, it is of
greater importance to the plants than any other
portion of the droppings."

tanner's bark, which is not or might not be used
for this purpose. It would be useless to enume-
rate all, as they are well known, and the supply
of many is very limited. The two principal ar-
ticles are bones and rape-dust ; the former suited
for light land, and used chiefly for turnips. It is
remarkable how very local is the use of both these
manures ; that of bones, indeed, is spreading, but
rape-dust is not much known in the south ; and
certainly where artificial manures are new, there
is some unwillingness to lay out money upon
them, though dung perhaps is bought at 5s. the
cart-load, and carted with great labour at a long
distance. When bones were first used, it was
thought that unboiled bones must be better than
those from which the animal oil had been ex-
tracted ; but the reverse appears now to be true —
not that animal oil is useless, but that it sheathes
probably the bone, and checks its action upon
the plant. There remains, however, in the
bone another animal compound — gelatine, or
the matter of jelly ; but Sprengel states he
has repeatedly found that bones act as strongly
after they have been burnt,* when the jelly of
course is removed ; and this is well worth remark-
ing, because the body of the bone consists of
phosjjhate of lime, evidently another powerful
principle, which is found also abundantly in
urine, and consequently in dung. But though the
character of bones is established upon light land
for turnips, even this manure fails on some soils
of that quality. I have some light land where it
acts very feebly, some where it does not act at all,
and Oil which many hundred bushels of bones
have been quite thrown away. There is also some
light land near Baldock, on which bones have been
proved to he useless. This shows that we cannot
be too cautious in prescribing even the most ap-
proved remedies for the first time upon land.

Rape-dust appears to be established chiefly among
the farmers of Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire, and
Lincolnshire. As it is one of the few hand-tillages
which can be ajiplied to clay, and as some of our
south-country clays are much in want of assistance,
I may mention that, according to an excellent
prize-essayt by Mr. John Hannam, the best mode
of using it is drilling with autumn-sowu wheat at
the rate of four or five cwt. to the acre, the price
being about 7s. per cwt.

As another instance of the local prevalence of
manures, woollen rags may be cited, which are
the only hand-tillage familiarly known to farmers
in my own neighbourhood. Mr. Hannam states,
" 20,000 tons of rags are said to he used annually
by the farmers of Kent, Sussex, Oxford, and
Berkshire. The price is about 5/. per ton. They

* Since this was written I find that Mr. Hannam,
of North Deighton, near Wetherby, has this year
repeated the experiment with the same result. " In
order to solve the question," he says, " we burnt in
a pit a quarter of bones and drilled them with
turnips (both Swedes and white ones^ ; and on two
other patches we applied a quarter of unburnt bones
from the same stock as tlie burnt ones were taken.
The turnips are now growing, and, as far as can be
determined, seem to thrive with the burnt bones as
well, if not better, than with the unburnt."

t Any member who is desirous of trying rape-
dust will find full information upon it in this prize-
essay of the Wetherby Agricultural Society upon
llape and other Hand-tillages, published last month
at Leeds.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

261

answer extremely well for hops and wheat. They
are usually cut by a chopper into shreds, and ap-
plied by the hand at the rate of half a ton per
acre." Six or seven cwt., I believe, is a fair dres-
sing for wheat tipon light land ; on heavy land
rags arc not used here at all.

With regard to nitrate of soda, from which so
much was oucc expected, there are the most un-
doubted proofs from numerous quarters of an
enormous increase in the produce after its use ;
there are as undoubted instances of its utter fail-
ure ; nor have we any clue to the mystery.* On
the same land where it gave me eight bushels of
wheat one year, it gave barely three in the follow-
ing; and having tried it largely at that time on
four different farms, nowhere with success, I have
given it up- Still there is evidently a principle of
fertility in it which will some day be found out, and
some farmers continue to use it, but in several cases
it has produced mildew in wheat and barley by
forcing the crop licyond the strength of the land.
By the side of the nitrate I tried on several fields
the sulphate of ammonia, extracted from gas-
water, for tlie first time. It acted precisely as the
nitrate of soda, darkening the colour of the plant,
and lengthening the straw and the ear even more
than the nitrate, but it certainly did not pay.
Again we have the principle, and we must learn to
combine it.

I can speak with more confidence of the last
new manure, guano, having used it on a small
scale last year, and to the extent of five tons in
the present season. There are two circumstances
in its favour beforehand : one, that it is in fact
dung, though of very ancient origin, still birds'
dung, which is known to be the most powerful of
all manures — the other, that it has experience in
its favour, though a distant experience certainly,
at the other side of the globe, iu Peru — still an
experience of fiOO years. It appears to be best
calculated for root-crops. On a light loam,
where it has been used here this year for turnips
at three cwt. per acre, costing 45s., it has nearly
equalled twenty loads of very good dung, and has
beaten twenty bushels of bones costing 65s., as
well as several other artificial manures beyond any
comparison. '\\'here it has been broadcast and
harrowed in with late turnips, it has pushed them
on well, while on two patches left without guano
there is no plant at all. Last year, when drilled
with the seed, it killed half the seed. This year,
though mixed with sand and drilled separately,
with earth spread over it, some of the plants have
perished ; and two farmers have told me that,
with the same precaution, though the seed grew,
the plant also died when the root reached the
guano. It is a curious fact that the same thing
once happened to one of our members, Mr. Gra-
burn, when he placed the ordinary allowance of
rape-cake immediately under the seed. Drilled in
with barley on a very poor sand,it has acted very
decidedly; but I find it has only given me one
quarter of barley, so that, unless it acts next year,
it will not have paid back its cost.t It has failed
as a top-dressing on corn and on clover. But bav-

* A full statement of all the recorded experiments
on nitrate of soda is contained in Professor John-
ston's " Chemistry and Geology applied to Agricul-
ture," whose book is the most complete account of
agricultural chemistrv that we possess.

t Mr. Pryme has found guano fail when drilled in
with barley.

ing stated these cases of failure, I must say that
guano seems an excellent manure for root-crops,
if rightly applied,* and, as it is now sold at 12s.
per cwt., a very cheap one ; but I should be sorry
if any of our members tried it largely in conse-
quence on a different soil without success.

Quicklime, again, is so largely used on the west
side of England, that it bears there the name of
manure, to the exclusion sometimes, I am afraid,
of dung ; while on the other side of the country
it is almost unknown. Whether lime could be
adopted elsewhere is a very interesting question,
and what is its mode of operation ! Sir H. Davy's
theory that it dissolves vegetable matter is given
up ; in fact, it hardens vegetable fibre. Some per-
sons think that it should be applied hot to the soil,
founding their view upon chemical principles, but
at present it seems better to follow practice ; and
where it has been mixed heretofore with five times
its bulk of earth, and left so in heaps for some
weeks before it is applied to the surface, it would
be well to do so still. Indeed, I am told farmers
near Totnes, in Devonshire, have given a fair
trial to fresh lime, and have found it act
not at all better than when it is slacked.t Dr.
Liebig has recently discovered that lime has the
power of decomposing clay, and producing potash
and soda, which are manuring principles ; now, if
this be the mode in which lime acts, there could
not be a better course than to mix lime with earth
before it is thrown upon grass-land, and the old
practice would agree with the true theory, as is
often the case. Of all things we must guard
against premature inferences from abstract science ;
but be the cause what it may, the effect of lime in
sweetening sour pastures is wonderful throughout
the districts where it is used, and it is well worth
inquiry whether it could he applied in those dis-
tricts where it is at present unknown.

We have then several substances more or less
simple which produce the effect of dung. The
mode of their action belongs not to the practice
but to the theory of agriculture, into which I am
not competent to enter ; but as important disco-
veries have lately been made in that department, I
will endeavour to state the modern German
theory, as founded by Sprengel, and lately esta-
blished by Dr. Liebig.

Plants consist in the main of several vegetable
substances, which are, however, all composed of
four kinds of air variously combined ; these gases
are named oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen.
Dr. Liebig supposes that the two first are derived

* I think that guano should either be sown broad-
cast (mixed with mould), and harrowed in rapidly
before sowing the seed, if the crop is flat-drilled ;
or when it is ridge-drilled, I have sown the guano
broad-cast upon the first ridges. When these are
split, the guano is brought home to the roots of the
plant as it stands on the second drill.

t On the other hand, at Woburn, I have just met
with a case in favour of recent lime. The soil was
a light sand with a tendency to blackness at top ;
half a turnip-field had been dressed with fresh, and
half with slacked lime, and there was a marked
difference in favour of the fresh lime. As far as
our knowledge goes, which is not far, lime appears
to me to act wherever there is a natural tendency in
the soil to cover itself with heath on waste places,
and also wherever the soil is of a deep red, which
colour indicates a peculiar salt of iron.

262

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

by the p]ant from water ; the thhd, which is
charcoal, from the air; and the fourth, nitrogen,
which constitutes the most nutritious part of our
food, from ammonia ; wliicli substance he has
found not merely in the dung of animals, but in
the water of rain, a new and remarkable fact. But
there exists also in crops a considerable quantity
of earthy matter ; in every ton of oat-straw, for
instance, nearly one cwt. of flint, whence, if a
hayrick be burnt, lumps of a substance like glass
are often found in the ashes. These mineral sub-
stances vary in different plants ns to quantity, but
eight are genei-ally to be found in their ashes, /o?/)'
of the eight being acids, namely, that of flint,
■which is silica ; of bones, phosphorus; of brim-
stone, sulpliuric acid ; of common salt, muriatic
acid ; and also foxir alkalies, potash, soda, lime,
and magnesia.* These, Dr. Liebig says, cannot
of course be formed in the plant, hut must he de-
rived from the soil ; and accordingly there they
are generally to be found when the soil is ex-
amined by chemists, but in limited quantity, so
that the soil may become exhausted of one or
more of them. But further, all these eight mine-
ral substances are to be found in farm-yard
dung, besides ammonia, the source of nitrogen ;
hence the excellence of dung for all crops indiffer-
ently. Some crops, however, require more of one
ingredient than of another ; hence the good
effect of bones upon turni])s, which contain a great
deal of phosphorus, and of gypsum or peat-ashes,
■which contain sulphate of lime, upon clover ; of
Epsom salts also. Dr. T,iebig states, which con-
tains magnesia, upon potatoes. Some soils,
again, may contain so much of one of these eight
minerals, that it may be useless to add any more.
Thus gypsnm is found to be useful in one part of
a field and not in another, and bones are useless in
Mecklenburgh, where the fields are dressed with
a marl full of phosphorus ; or, on the other hand,
a tract of country may be deficient altogether in
some one of the eight ingredients which is neces-
sary for all crops, as in lime; in such a district
lime will be a standing manure. This is a very
superficial view of the new theory of agricidture,
which, though but a theory at present, certainly
promises important results. In order to test it
first, and, if it hold good, to apply it afterwards,
two courses of inquiry are requisite — one, as Dr.
Liebig informs me, a more minute examination of
the ashes of plants, in which these mineral sub-
stances are found, and further a more accurate
analysis of our various soils, in which last parti-
cular English science is sadly defective ; for Dr.
Liebig observes, " Davy has made several analyses
of various fertile soils, and since his time numer-
ous other analyses have been published, but they
are all so superficial, and in most cases so inaccu-
rate, that we possess no means of ascertaining the
conriposition or nature of English arable land."
This reproach on our science ought certainly to
be removed ; and it is easy to see how varied a
field of inquiry is opened by the new theory. At
the same time, though it is a most promising
theory, it would be premature to expect that for
some years to come chemistry should be able to
direct, or materially to benefit, actual husbandry.
But though we have not yet seen the secret work-
ings of nature, 1 believe that we are near the

* A very small quantity of alumine, or the earth
of clay, is also usually detected in the ashes of
plants.

door, and that the veil will soon be raised. Any
young chemist, who will take up the late brilliant
discoveries of general principles and devote his
life to patient research into the means of applying
them, may hope to acquire an imperishable repu-
tation ; and it is evident, from the ardour with
which chemists now embark in ap;ricultural re-
search, that they feel they are making progress.
But we certainly have to thank men of science ge-
nerally for the readiness with which they have
come forward ; Dr. Buckland, Mr. Murchison,
Sir n. Delabeche, have helped us in geology;
Professor Ilenslow has given us a complete his-
tory of the diseases of wheat ; Dr. Daubeny, as
the Oxford professor of agriculture, might be said
to belong to us. Mr. Johnston, of Durham, has
contributed an excellent account of guano, in addi-
tion to his own valuable publications ; and the
Society has engaged Mr. Curtis to write for ns a
complete history of the insects which are injurious
to crops.

Such are the principal facts which have come to
our knowledge in the last four years. I ought to
have spoken of machinery, but the shows in our
implement-yards have spoken for themselves, and
we have most able reports from our judges ; yet I
cannot but advert to two circumstances : one, that
a manufacturer informs me his threshing-machines,
which seven years ago only threshed 15 quarters of
wheat in a day on an average, now thresh 25; the
other, that, in accordance with a suggestion made
in the first number ofour Journal, travelling thresh-
ing-machines worked by steam were brought for-
ward by two makers at Bristol, Messrs. Ransome,
and Mr. Cambridge, of Market Lavington, in Wilt-
shire. I may add that ]Mr. Howden and the Messrs,
Tuxford, of Boston, have each constructed for tra-
velling men similar machines, which are now com-
monly let for hire in the fens of Lincolnshire. The
most gratifying discoveries, however, have been the
discoveries of old practices unknown beyond their
own districts. I am certain that four years ago no
one knew how much good farming there was in the
country. Now that these things are come to light,
we may hope that they will not only be spoken of,
but be practised more generally : that draiuing-
tiles will be greatly cheapened, more drains be cut,
more chalk be laid on the downs, the wolds, and
the clays, marl on the sands, clay on the fens and
lieats, lime on the moors, many of which should be
broken up ; that old ploughs will be cast away, the
number of horses reduced, good breeds of cattle ex-
tended, stock fattened where it has been hitherto
starved (though this is now rare), root crops drilled
and better dunged, new kinds of those crops culti-
vated, and artificial manures of ascertained useful-
ness purchased. It is the knowledge of those
weapons which we actually have in our hands that
may make us look back with satisfaction to the ef-
forts we have already made, and forward, with
cheerful confidence to the improvement of hus-
bandry through the collective experience of our
farmers,

Tusey, Oct. 7, 1842.

ADDENDUM.

Having had the advantage of seeing in Bedford-
shire, since these pages were written, i)ractical ex-
amples of some of the points which I have ventured
to bring before the society, I am desirous of shortly
mentioning them. On the estate of my friend Mr.
Pyni, at the Ilazells, may be seen the admirable
effect of marlbtf/. His neat and productive farm is

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

263

a light yellow sand, which naturally was covered
with licath, as may be seen on a small portion re-
served for the beauty of its scenery, -which strongly
resembles a Highland glen, being not only covered
with heath, but also with grey lichen, like the grey
moss of trees— a kind of vegetation which shows a
great degree of sterility. The whole farm has been
made fertile by means of a dark grey clay, which is
full of lime, situated at the foot of the sandy hill,
and the moderate dose of (10 cart-loads per acre is
found to last at least 20 years. On this sandy farm
both turnips and Swedes were rldge-AvWXed, and
looked remarkably well. In going from the Ha-
zells to the town of Bedfox'd I travelled for 10 miles
across the valley of the Ouse. Here may be seen
on almost every farm admirable crops of Swedes, in
fields of 40 or 50 acres, without a defective spot of
bare earth. The soil is rather a strong loam, upon
gravel not unlike the land near Salthill ; and the
Swedes were/i«^-drilled, not upon ridges. At Bed-
ford I had the pleasure of seeing the county
ploughing-match. There were forty ploughs, all
upon wheels, and, though the land was rather
strong, all two-horse ploughs. Next morning I was
permitted to go over the home-farm of the Duke of
Bedford at AVoburn. Here are two or three fields
of very strong land, which had been thorough-
drained and also subsoil-ploughed ; which latter
operation was thought to have rendered them much
lighter to plough. The land, however, is not clay,
but marl, a more crumbling substance than clay.
But the arable farm in general, which contains 500
acres (besides 700 of permanent grass), is a sandy
hill, resembling Mr. Pym's — indeed a continuation
of the same low range ; and has been dressed with
marl in the same manner. One of the fields had
not only been covered with heath within a few
years, but had been the common turbary of the
neighbourhood, so that the surface-soil had been
carried off" by the poor for fuel. The whole ap-
peared now highly productive. I went over 180
acres of root-crops, and I do not remember a single
bare si^ot. The turnii^s and Swedes on this sandy
land were grown upon ridges. There were also
white carrots, a heavy crop; and I was particularly
glad to see a 14-acre piece of globe mangold-wur-
zel of the most luxuriant growth, on some newly-
broken land indeed, but land which had borne so
rank a grass when in park that no animal would
touch it ; and it was said that even a Highland
Scot, confined to this part of the park, had been
starved. Mr. Burness, the Duke's bailiff", informed
me that he intended to increase the growth of the
globe mangold-wurzel; and that by his highest
farming he could grow 22 tons of Swedes, 30 tons of
turnips, 36 tons of long mangold, and no less than
40 tons of globe mangold — rating the superior yield
of globe mangold over swedes still higher than Mr.
Hillyard. Mr. Burness also told me that the same
exjierhnent with Lord Spencer's on the compara-
tive feeding properties of Swedes and of mangold,
had been tried with bullochs at Woburn, and with
precisely the same result. He also told me that,
whenever he wished to push a beast on in condition,
he changed it from Swedes to mangold-wurzel. The
farm-yard is a vast assemblage of buildings, with
sixty bullocks, chiefly Herefords, fatting in the
stalls — partly on linseed, which is ground on the
premises by the same water-wheel Avhich threshes

the corn. The flock is Sussex Down, but a part
arc crossed with the Leicesters, for one generation
only of course, all the lambs being made up for the
butcher. JMr. Burness stated that for this pur-
pose he thought the half-cross was the best, as tlie
meat fetched tlie same high price with the Downs
(a halfpenny a pound more), while the Leicester
blood gave a greater disposition to fatten. This no-
ble farm is certainly a model of light-land hus-
bandry ; and I did not discover a fault in it. I
should add that on these 1500 acres no waggon is
used. The harvest is brought home and the dung
carried out upon single-horse carts; nor in this
respect is there any departure from the practice of
the neighbourhood, for I find that in Bedfordshire
and apart of Hertfordshire the farmers use nothing
else — so that the advocates of single-horse carts
need not go so far north as Cumberland in support
of their inuovation.

LEASES.

Speaking of leases and covenants, Von Thaer
says—" The proprietor should always direct his
attention to obtain from his land a gradual increase
of produce, or to augment its value continually.
The farmer only desires the greatest profit during
tlie continuance of his lease, without earing for the
value of the land afterwards. Whilst the proprie-
tor can content himself with a trifling produce
during a few years, in order to attain greater and
more durable profit subsequently, the tenant must,
on the contrary, endeavour to obtain the greatest
produce, even though its amount should be dimi-
nished during the latter years of his lease • because
the proprietor who wishes to farm on the best
system, finds at the same time both pleasure and
profit in laying out on his property as much capi-
tal as he can spare, whilst the tenant, on the con-
trary, withdraws as much of his pecuniary resources
as possible, to employ it in other ways, or to place
it at interest. The improvement of the land con-
stitutes the pleasure of the proprietor, while the
mere occupying farmer only thinks of augmenting
his income. Thus the longer the lease may be, the
more do the interests of the landlord and tenant
become identified ; the shorter the term, the more
conflicting are those interests. With a lease of
twenty-four years, a tenant ought, at least during
the first two-thirds of its duration, to follow out
the views of the proprietor. But the time will
come when he will act on different principles, and
endeavour to extract from the land a return in
proportion to liis outlay at the commencement.
To this must be added, that a tenant cannot have
the means of laying out so much on the land as
the proprietor, even if he wished to do so. The
latter must pay the rent, whilst a proprietor an-
xious to improve can economise something from
the net produce to expend on his property. The
first may be compared to a merchant who trades
on Ijorrowed money , the second to one who spe-
culates with his own funds. The former must
first provide for his rent, the latter need only think
of extending his speculations."

264

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

WENLOCK FARMERS' CLUB.

The first anniversary meeting and dinner of the
\A enlock Farmers' Chib took place at the Raven
Inn, on Monday, January lOtli. The president,
Thomas Mytton, Esq., took the chair at three
o'clock. After dinner was over, and a few of the
usual toasts given, the secretary was called on to
read tlie following report.

Your committee, in presenting to you the first
annual report of your club, beg to congratulate you
on the proud position in which you stand, as being
the first to introduce the principle of farmers' clubs
into this great and flourishing agricultural county,
which shows that although the farmers in tliis
neighbourhood may be (as declared by some) the
least conspicuous on all good farming, they are
determined not to be the last in adopting any
means that may have a tendency to improvement";
and your committee think that nothing is so likely
to attain that object as the formation and support
of farmers' clubs, which have of late conferred so
much benefit on those localities where they have
been established. But whilst your committee are
enabled to congratulate you on the steady attend-
ance of the farmers of the surrounding ncighbonr-
hood, they observe with regret that the great ma-
jority of landowners and their agents have as yet
kept aloof from our proceedings. This, if con-
tinued, will tend much to damp the energy of the
farmer to persevere in the good cause; and whilst
your committee witness with delight the steady
attendance of the nobility and gentry at the meet-
ings of the clubs established in other parts of the
kingdom, they are at a loss to account for the
apathy of the great landowners of Shropshire, but
fondly hope that the establishment of this and
similar meetings in different parts of the county
will ere long arouse them into action. Your com-
mittee fear that they have perhaps exceeded their
province in some of these remarks, and have ex-
tended this part of their report to an inconvenient
length ; but before proceeding to lay before you
the substance of your past discussions, they think
they cannot do better than close this portion of
their address with the concluding paragraph of the
Report of the St. Peter's Club, which says—'' We
are living at a time when it becomes every farmer
throughout England to cultivate the most indus-
trious and frugal habits, both in-doors and out.
At your first meeting after the organisation of your
club, you deprecated the conduct of her Majesty's
late ministers in their attempt to remove the pro-
tecting duties on corn, and you may have little
less to fear from the project of those at present in
power. Your struggle, in consequence of the alte-
rations now making, will be a hard one; but for
our own sakes, for the sake of our families, and
tor the sake of our country, let us try, and try
heartily, and try cheerfully, and may tlie sunshine
and the showers, and the blessing of Heaven, sus-
V^^,^'\i^''?''%''^ ''"'' efforts." To which, in behalf
ot the V, enlock Club, your committee sincerely say
amen. *' ■'

The first meeting, on the 23rd of May, was
entirely occupied with the preliminary proceedin'^s
consequent on the formation of the club, which
does not call for any remarks from us.

At the second meeting, the subjects were—" Is

. it advisable to shear lambs ?" and, " On the best

mode of harvesting hay and clover." But before

they were brought forward, a good deal of time was

taken up in a vain attempt to unite the club to
the Wcnlock Reading Society, which induced
many of the members to leave, and the subjects
for the evening were therefore but very indiffe-
rently discussed. The first, as to " the shearing
of lambs," was confined to the observations of
the member bringing it forward, who merely
related an experiment he had tried with sixteen
lambs— the eight shorn produced 321bs. more
mutton than those left unshorn, and at the two
clippings 31bs. more wool ; but owing to the high
price of hogget wool at that time (1839), the two
lots produced pretty nearly equal profit, the eight
shorn having made 18Z. 17s. lid., and the eight
unshorn 18/. 17s. Gd. Tlie next subject, " the
harvesting of hay and clover," was more freely
discussed. The member l)ringing it forward re-
lated his practice at some length, the substance
of which will be embodied in the resolution. The
chairman then took up the discussion, and com-
menced his address by stating, that if farmers
would pay more attention to the condition of
their meadow land they would greatly facilitate
the harvesting of the crop, for by the plants of
grass being kept in a healthy and vigorous state,
they were enabled to throw out a larger quantity
of flowering stems, which not only added very
considerably to tlie bulk and nutritive quality of
the hay, but by the stems keeping the bottom
grass when cut in a less compact form, the crop
was ready for carting much sooner than a thin,
meagre crop would if cut on the same day. He
also very justly observed, that sun and wind were
very great auxiliaries in the harvesting of hay ;
and instanced the injury sustained from high
hedges and overhanging trees. He also pointed
out the necessity of farmers paying more attention
to the formation of their ricks, exemplifying this
by two very ingenious little drawings — the one
showing a cross section of a rick, where the sides
in making had been kept the highest, the layers
sunk down in a concave form, proving admirable
conductors of wet into the middle of the rick ;
the other showing that where the middle was
always in advance of the sides, the layers sunk
down in a convex form, that safely protected the
rick from the ingress of rain : but strongly recom-
mended his brother farmers to possess themselves
of one or two rick cloths. The vice-chairman
followed, and fully bore out the assertion of the
chairman as to the harvesting of a heavy and light
crop of hay from actual experience of several years
on a meadow, part of which was under the in-
fluence of water and part not. After a few obser-
vations from two or three other members, it was
resolved, " That whilst every hand should be got
among the hay when fine, yet that in anything
like uncertain weather it was better to let it
remain in swatli until the weather settled, only
turning when the bottom became yellow, and that
a liberal supply of salt should at all times be
thrown into the rick at the time of making."

At the July meeting the time of the club was
again a good deal occupied with an attempt to
connect it with the Wenlock Library, the previous
knowledge of which, and the hay harvest not being
completed, there was but a very thin attendance
of the members, consequently the subject put down
for discussion ("The best mode of cutting and
harvesting wheat") was but inditlerently inquired
into. It was brought forward by the secretary
in a plain, straight-forward, matter-of-fact form,
he giving it as his decided opinion that mowing

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

265

wheat had the advantage over every other mode
of cutting:, in its being ready to cart home much
sooner, securing the whole of the straw, and re-
moving all annual weeds from the field to be
separated from the grain by the machine, when
they could he burnt or otherwise disposed of.
Some of the members spoke strongly on the
sickle and hackling system ; but owing to the
thin attendance of members the subject was post-
poned without coming to any resolutioi* The
practice of the members present went to show that
mowing wheat greatly facilitated the harvesting,
but that by hackling you got a very superior
sample.

August and September being harvest months,
there were not any meetings of the society.

In October the subject for discussion was, "The
best description of wheat, and the best modes of
pickling and sowing it" — brought forward by the
chaiman. He stated that he had tried several
of the new varieties of wheat, but had abandoned
the whole of them, as being too delicate for our
cold climate, in favour of a white wheat long and
successfully grown in this neighbourhood, called
Rennie's wliite wheat. He had also tried several
modes of pickling, and found them all more or less
defective, except a solution of sulphate of copper,
known as blue stone, which if properly used never
failed to prevent smut. He was not jirepared to
give a decided opinion as to the comparative
merits of drilling or broadcast. The subject was
taken up by the members generally, some advo-
cating the drill system, others as strongly sup-
porting the broadcast mode. The discussion was
ultimately postponed without coming to any reso-
lution, owing to the little experience the members
have had as yet in drilling.

At this meeting G. Pritchard, Esq., placed at
the disposal of the club two prizes for best and
second best ploughmen, the match to take place
before the next meeting, for which your committee
think the thanks of the club are due to Mr. Prit-
chard.

Tlie match idtimately came off in a field belong-
ing to Mr. Pritchard, of Buildwas, when eight
ploughs only started. Mr. Oakley, of Wroxeter,
kindly consented to be judge, and expressed him-
self highly gratified with the way in which the
work was generally performed. Mr. Pritchard's,
of Buildwas, servant obtained the first prize, and
Mr. "Wood's the second, which were given to the
men at the following meeting of the club, with
some very seasonable remarks by the chairman.

The subject for discussion in November was,
" The best mode of storing turnips." There was
a very large and full attendance of members, and
the question assumed a most interesting and ani-
mated form. There were a few roots shown, one
immense large Swede by Mr. Wood, called Laing's
improved. Tlie member bringing the subject
forward urged his brother farmers to adopt some
mode of storing, a subject scarcely ever thought
of in this neighbourhood ; and afterwards related
the several practices that had come under his
observation, and expressed his determination to
adopt Geache's plan (vide prize essay) for the
great bulk of his turnips. Several very novel
plans were related ; but after a very lengthened
discussion, it was finally resolved, 'J That where
turnips were consumed in troughs in the field,
the best plan was to throw a cart-load m a ruck
and earth them up, leaving the top unclosed for

the circulation of air until frost sets in, then
close over with the tops ; and where the turnips
were carted off, that Geache's i)lan appeared to
the club to have many advantages."

December — " The best mode of keeping cart
horses," occupied the attention of the club at this
meeting. Abraham Darby, Esq., read a long and
interesting statement of the weekly expenses
incurred in keeping one hundred cart horses
attached to his iron works. Mr. Darby divided
his statement into three tables, the first showing
the expense of keeping eighty-two horses for foi'ty-
eight weeks. Your committee find great difficulty
in arranging this table so as to meet the views of
the farmer, as tlie period extends over the winter
and summer montlis, consequently the green food
cut and the pasturage are included in the average
cost per week, which amounts to 148. per horse.
Your committee have divided this into two tables ;
first, adding the hard grain and bran together, of
which we find the average expense per week per
horse to be 9s. 7d., and the cut stufi", pasturage,
&c., to be 4s. 5d. And again, we have taken the
bran (which forms a very considerable item in
these accounts, and in some degree partakes of a
substitute for cut chaff, &c.) from the hard grain,
and then the expense will stand thus: — grain
4s. Gd. per week per horse, bran and chali', &c.,
9s. Gd. Or, it may be stated thus —hard grain
4s. Gd. ; bran 5s. Id. ; cut stutt*, pasturage, &c.,
4s. 5d. Mr. Darby's other two tables go to show
a saving which occurred in the keeping of the
horses attached to the Bradley farm, by abandon-
ing the use of the nose-bags. These horses are
chiefly used in drawing limestone ; and in the
first instance were not allowed to bait in the stable
until their day's work was finished, but were fed
out of nose-bags. The expense per week per
horse was 16s. 6d. ; but Mr. Darby conceiving
that a portion of tlieir food was spilt, adopted
the plan of baiting an hour in the stable, and
doing away with the nose-bags, from which a
saving of 3s. 5d. per week per horse was effected.
The great thing to be observed in these accounts
is that everything is cut and charged, which swells
the expense to what would appear to the farmer
a frightful amount. But it should be borne in
mind that a considerable portion of this expense
is charged to cut hay, bran, &c., for Avhich the
farmer uses chaff, &c., as in some measure a sub-
stitute. But Mr. Darby's paper is altogether so
full of useful information, that your committee
have requested the secretary to insert it in the
minutes of your proceedings. Your committee
conceire it to be a matter of high gratification to
find a gentleman so extensively connected with
manufactures and commerce, associating himself
with the farmer ; and your committee are satisfied
they only anticipate the sentiments of every mem-
ber of our club in saying that Mr, Darby is entitled
to our best thanks.

The subject in discussion called forth a good
deal of remarks from the members generally, one
of whom strongly recommended boiled barley,
having used it with every success for the last
two years. The subject was eventually adjourned,
the hour of separation having arrived ; but it
appeared to the majority of the members present,
that a very considerable saving would be effected
if horses were more generally fed with cut food.

Your committee cannot conclude this report
without expressing the obligation which the mem-

266

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

bers of the club arc iindcr to Richard Thuraficld,
Esq., surgeon, for the very great zeal he has shown
in behalf of our club, having given us several very
valuable recipes for horse and cattle medicine,
which have been jjlaccd in the hands of Mr. Horton,
druggist, to be nia<le up for the use of our mem-
bers at the lowest possible rate. Mr. Thursfield
has also shown a most praiseworthy readiness to
impart to the club some useful information on the
probable cause of some of the diseases affecting
iiorned cattle, particularly that frightful one abor-
tion (a most laudable example, which we hope to
see followed l)y others), and for which your com-
mittee need hardly say the very best thanks of the
club are due.

Your committee have thus endeavoured, though
in a humble manner, to lay before you the sub-
stance of your discussions for the year past ; and,
in resigning into your hands the trust you have
imposed upon them, they sincerely and heartily
wisli your society every success, and earnestly
hope that each year may add to its efficiency and
beneficial cfl'ects.

PARLIAMENTARY PAPER.

CORN.

Return to two several Orders of the Hon. the House
of Commons, dated respectively lOtii August,
1842, and 3rd February, 1843 ; — for.

Returns of the Quantities and Aveuage Price, for
each six weeks of all Corn sold in places included
in the Act 5 Vict., c. 14, from the commencement
of the operation of that Act to the latest period : —
Also, of the Quantities and Average Price, for
each six weeks, calculated according to the \iTO-
visions of the Act 9 Geo, IV., c.60, of all Corn
sold in the Towns specified in Section 8 of the
said Act, for the same period.

WHEAT.

RICHMONDSHIRE FARMER'S CLUB.— This
excellent provincial society is progressing rapidly in
public favour, and numbers nearly 200 members; a
reading room and library have recently been formed,—
The following have been the subjects discussed during
the last three months and the decisions respectively re-
corded thereon : — In December, the subject was," The
best method of winter feeding- cattle and sheep," The
decision — " That cleanliness is of the greatest conse-
quence ;— and that, in feeding cattle, loose sheds are
best adapted for bullocks ; (two in each shed,) and that
cows and' heifers fatten best, when tied up. Timt
turnips, and oilcake or meal with a sufficient quantity
of hay or cut straw, answer well for feeding cattle."
Cut turnips and hay were recommended to be given to
sheep, experience having proved tiiat they thrive much
better when the turnips are cut and given to them in
troughs. — Introduced by Mr. John Outhwaite. In
January, the subject was " Agricultural Chemistry."
On which no positive decision was come to, as on the
wiiole there seemed to be much difference of opinion
amongst the members present, as to the benefits re-
ceived by agriculture from the agricultural chemist;
and the majority seemed to be of opinion tliat hitherto
they had derived httle advantage from the labours of
the scientific man. — Introduced by Mr. Raw. In Feb-
ruary, the subject was, "'J'he best method of preventing
llie ravages of vermin in and about farm-slead?;." The
decision — "I'hat traps, ferrets, and terriers might all
be used with good effect in destroying rats and mice.
That it is advisable for the purpose of banishing these
vermin, th .t corn should be stacked upon pillars, care
being taken that nothing is placed against or under the
stack : — and that all holes in buildings should be jier-
set)c»'/;(i,'/j/ stopped with glass and lime, or black slag
from the lead smelt mills." The meeting also recom-
mends that all drains connected with the house and
farm-stead, should have grates properly walled into
them. — Introduced by Capt, Ilarland, The following
are the subjects appointed for discussion during the
three ensuing months :— On Thursday, the 16th March,
" 'I'he best method of managing ewes, especially during
the lambing season," to be introduced by IVIr. James
Bell. On Ihursday, the 13th April, " The properties
and api)licatioti of lime," to be introduced by Air. 1'.
Smurthwaite, Holme House. On Thursday, the 11th
May, " The best method of paying the wages of agri-
cultural labourers," to be introduced by Mr, Lister.

WEEKS ENDED.

'S.S o

<» S o

.t; 2 5 "^
c "i c «

03 — ' .>

"S a! 3 ^

li^

■U -g CO-*

sai o

X> tn -r! <D

— a; a +3

a o °

« S*'

<1> s. c o

fc. " ^ JS

■^ "S ° -
2 " o o

184?— April 29
May 6

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

1843— -Jan.

13

20
27

3
10
17
25

2

9
1()
23
30

6
13
20
27

3
10
17
24

1

8
15
22
29

5
12
19
26

3
10
17
24
31

7

14
21
28

Qrs.
367,487
380,445
396,729
414,433
431.220
447,865
462,489
477,763
481,699
478,829
486,634
513,308
525,015
530,331
543,017
539,591
509,200
454,787
427,773
426,571
437,027
489,376
557,194
609,937
641,795
651,406
637,256
605,664
583,980
581,384
581,054
584,677
603,429
607,293
.599,918
588,551
572,993
572,494
580,298
587,352

s. d.

Qrs.

59 3

367,487

59 8

380,445

60 0

396,729

60 5

414,433

60 9

431,220

61 3

447,865

61 9

462,489

62 3

477,733

63 0

481,204

63 7

476,157

64 1

468,846

64 5

471,028

64 7

460,266

64 7

443,922

64 2

432,557

63 3

410,132

61 10

377,893

60 1

331,357

58 1

307,349

56 0

306,912

54 7

317,750

53 10

358,439

53 3

410,432

52 8

451,155

52 4

474,431

52 2

481,139

51 8

471,344

50 9

449,180

50 0

432,352

49 8

428,649

49 5

428,820

49 1

431,060

48 8

444,419

48 5

447,244

48 2

442,595

47 9

435,671

47 4

425,128

47 2

425,822

47 6

430,280

47 11

434,592

59 3

59 8

60 0

60 5

60 9

61 3

61 9

62 3

63 0

57 8

55 7

54 2

53 3

52 11

52 5

52 1

51 11

51 4

50 5

49 8

49 5

49 2

48 9

48 5

48 2

48 0

47 0
47 4
47 8

George Joyce,
Comptroller of Corn Returns.
Corn Department, Board of Trade, Feb.^10, 1843.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

267

THE CULTIVATION op TURNIPS.

TO THE EDITOn OF THE MAllK.LANE EXPRESS.

SiK, — 111 your paper of the 2iul inst., I observe
that Mv. 11. C. Wcntworth, Harlow, makes a few
remarks on my letters published in the Murk Lane
Express of November 21st and December 19th,
which, in my humble opinion, he has somehow or
other in a great measure misunderstood — and in
more than one instance makes me say what I did
not even dream of saying.

In the first place, it is quite true that the field
upon which I tried the experiment of drilling and
dunging in autumn, was tares in 1841, and turnips
in 1842 ; but I did not state that it was our com-
mon practice to take two green crops consecutively.
And I do think tliat, if INlr. W. had read my letter
of the 21st of November with a little more care, lie
would have seen what was the cmise of my taking
turnips instead of a white crop — viz., that the field
was soiiteichtit foul — as I have no idea of sowing
either barley or any other grain on land where
there is likely to be a contention for the mastery
between the crops sown and the weeds. In one
word, our practice is to take — after turnips — barley,
grass, and oats : this is our common rotation.

In the second place, Mr. W. states that turnips
ought always to be sown on land that would other-
wise be summer fallow. Now, sir, this is one of
the advantages which I have pointed out, and
which I think is not a small one, when summer
fallow would be the only alternative ; but I would
whisper in Mr. W.'sear, that if there were no more
turnips grown in our neighbourhood than on such
land, their breadth would indeed be narroio.

In the third place, Mr. W. states that, if I would
adopt his method, all the difficulties complained of
in working the land in spring would be obviated.
Now, sir, I am old enough to be aware that not only
in working turnip land, but in many other matters,
the old proverb will hold good — that " Every ci-ow
thinJiS his own birds lohitest ; " but I can assure
him that I have tried the plan recommended by
him more than once, and find the one adopted by
me last year, and described in my letter of the 21st
of November, infinitely the best I have yet tried ;
and I am much mistaken that, if Mr. W. would be
persuaded to try a few drills on my plan, cheek by
joivl, with the same number on his own, I am con-
fident he will approve of it as much as I do — or his
land is not of that stubborn nature that mine is. At
the same time, I feel obliged for Mr. W.'s kind in-
tentions.

In the fourth place, Mr. W. says it is an error in
me to suppose that, when manure is drilled in, much
of its virtue is lost. Now, IMr. Editor, if I had said
anything that could be construed into the above
meaning, I most assuredly would have been in
error ; but I have said nothing of the kind, but
have given the opposite as my opinion, and would
again repeat that if, instead of allowing our manure
to lie and decompose in our dunghills and court-
yards, it ought to be carted to the fields intended
either for potatoes or turnips, and covered in by
the plough as often as opportunity ofiers after the
harvest is over. I yesterday finished dunging ten
acres for turnips on the new plan.

In the fifth place, Mr. W. says, turnips are seldom
left in the row more than eighteen inches apart —
consecpiently the plants have only nine inches each
way to seek for the manure. Now, I am not sure if
I uuderstand Mr. Wentworth in what he has stated

above, because I stated in my first letter that wo
draw our drill or ridge with the plough at from
twenty-six to twenty-eight inches apart — viz., from
apex to apex — and when simjling out the young
plants, wo leave them at from nine to eleven inches
apart ; so that in the row they arc, say Um inches
from each other ; but the other way they are
twenty-eight inches apart, and some of our East
Lothian farmers think this too close — that when
the land is in high condition, the drill or ridge
should be thirty inches instead of twenty-seven or
twenty-eight, as it is perfectly obvious that plants
require room to breathe as well as animals.

But if Mr. "Wentworth means to say that in his
part of the country they seldom make their drills
or ridges wider than twenty-eight inches from apex
to apex, I apprehend that this in a great measure
will account for the difference of weight of crop
with him and with us ; and, from what I have
stated above, it would appear we manage things
diftercntly in Scotland.

In the last place, Mr. Editor, I would beg to state
that I would not have troubled you either now or
with my former lucubrations, but from a principle
which ought to regulate our conduct in every in-
stance where we either intuitively or by chance
stumble upon what we conceive to be an improve-
ment, of whatever nature it bo, by which our crops
arc improved either in bulk or quality. This, and
this alone, has been my motive in addressing you.
I am, sir, yours most obediently,

Peffer Mill, Jan. 7. P. Thomson.

OBSERVATIONS ON LIEBIG'S
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.

BY GEORGE THOMPSON, JUN.

This work appears to be a tissue of contradic-
tions ; little is broached that was not long pre-
viously generally known and well established ;
and that which forms the very foundation of the
whole work is a series of ill-digested statements,
so absurdly contradicting each other, as to render
it a matter of the greatest astonishment that so much
respect should be shown to the author's production.
If there is one unfortunate circumstance more de-
manding our regret than another, it is to see men
loaded with temporal honours, which command
our respect, devoting their mental powers to the
promulgation of absurdities, which wear an en-
ticing garb, from being professedly the produc-
tion of individuals whose high order of intellect
has entitled them to be made members of various
learned societies. That this is peculiarly the case
with Professor Liebig needs but a small share of
penetration to discover; since, at page twenty-
one of this despotic writer's composition, he states
— '' One hundred volumes of air have been found
at every period and in every climate to contain
twenty-one volumes of oxygen, with such small
deviations that they must be ascribed to errors of
observation." Now, this is not the discovery of
the Professor, or there might be some grounds for
questioning its accuracy ; but it is the result of
numerous experiments, made by various chemists
at several periods. Then is it not extraordinary,
is it not preposterous, that after thus quoting and
confirming the opinions of men far more eminent
in chemical science than the Professor ever wili

2G8

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

be, that he should contradict, from the mere
fungi of his own brain, the well established ex-
perience of ages ? Rut he does so. For, at page
twenty-eight, we have — " The various layers of
wood and mineral coal, as well as peat, form the
remains of a primaeval vegetation. Tlie carbon
which tliey contain must have been originally in
the atmosphere as carbonic acid, in which form it
was assimilated by the plants which constitute
these formations. It follows from tliis, that the
atmosphere must be richer in oxygen at the present
time than in former periods of tlie earth's his-
tory."

And by way of further proof of this most sin-
gular statement, it is advanced on the same page
that — " In former ages, therefore, the atmosphere
must have contained less oxygen, but a much
larger jjroportiou of carbonic acid, than it docs at
the present time — a circumstance which accounts
for the richness and luxuriance of the earlier ve-
getation."

Here, then, we have opinion vers\i<i fact , and it
might be a question with some individuals as to
which authority was entitled to the greatest respect
— the dreams of Professor Liebig, or the demon-
strations of the host of eminent chemists who have
gone before him — hut that he contradicts his own
opinion, for at page twenty-five he states — " Ani-
mals on the other hand expire carbon, which plants
inspire; and thus the composition of the medium
in which both exist — namely, the atmosphere — is
maintained constantly unchanged."

Compare this opinion with a former one, to the
effect that the atmosphere contains much less car-
bonic acid at the present than at a former period.

All this may appear wonderful — it may seem to
be tlie production of a great genius in the estima-
tion of the learned — but it is contrary to common
sense.

Another portion of this work cannot fail to ex-
cite some degree of astonishment ; for at page
seventy it is observed — " We cannot suppose that
a plant could attain maturity, even in the richest
vegetable mould, without the presence of matter
containing nitrogen ; since we know that nitro-
gen exists in every part of the vegetable struc-
ture." With all due deference to the opinion of
a Professor, it is a well established fact that many
plants exist, into the composition ofwhicli not a
particle of nitrogen enters. But we have a still
more startling statement with respect to this gas ;
for, at page seventy, will be found —

" We have not the slightest reason for believing
that the nitrogen of the atmosphere takes part in
the processes of assimilation of plants and ani-
mals ; on the contrary, we know that many plants
emit the nitrogen which is absorbed by their roots
either in the gaseous form or in solution in water.
But there are on the other hand numerous facts,
showing that the formation in plants of substances
containing nitrogen — such as gluten — takes place
in proportion to the quantity of this element which
is conveyed to their roots in the state of ammonia,
derived from the putrefaction of animal matter."

Thus our author first denies the supposition
that plants obtain their nitrogen from the atmos-
pliere ; and, secondly, attempts to show that it is
obtained by the roots from ammonia contained in
the soil. Very good. But what have we at page
seventy -two ? Why —

" A certain proportion of nitrogen is exported
with corn and cattle, and this exportation takes
place every year without the smallest compensa-

tion ; yet, after a given number of years, the
quantity of nitrogen will he found to have in-
creased. Whence, we may ask, comes this in-
crease of nitrogen ? The nitrogen in the excre-
ments cannot rc-produce itself, and the earth can-
not yield it. Plants, and consequently animals
must, therefore, derive their nitrogen from the at-
mosphere.''

It may be JU'ged by some admirers of this most
extraordinary man, that in denying that the nitro-
gen of the atmosphere contributes to the suste-
nance of plants, he does not intend to include that
portion which exists in the ammonia that has been
proved to fall with the rain, and that this is the
nitrogen referred to in the last extract. But how
will such individuals reconcile this idea to the
statement of the Professor, already quoted, that
those substances containing nitrogen exist in plants
just in i)i-oportion to the quantity of ammonia con-
tained in the soil which has been derived from pu-
trefied animal matter ? They must confess that
there is a most absurd contradiction.

Again, at page fifty-eight — " Substances
containing a large proportion of carbon are ex-
creted by the roots and absorbed by the soil.
Through the expulsion of these matters unfitted
for nutrition, the soil receives again with usury
the carbon which it had at first yielded to the young
plants as food in the form of carbonic acid."

And page fifty-nine — " A soil receives more
carbon in this form" — that is, in the form of excre-
tory matter — " than its decaying humus had lost
as carbonic acid." We must beg the reader to
bear in mind the above, whilst we refer to the
following extract from page sixty-one: — " Large
forests are often found growing in soils absolutely
destituteof carbonaceous matter ; and the exten-
sive prairies of the western continent show that
the carbon necessary for the sustenance of a plant
may be entirely extracted from the atmosphere."
Now, granting that the first theory — of plants ex-
creting more carbon than they abstract — be cor-
rect, what becomes of the second theory — that ex-
tensive forests and prairies of excretory plants
are found to be growing in soils absolutely desti-
tute of carbonaceous matter ? It is manifest that
the Professor must allude to the present constitu-
tion of the soils referred to, since there
is no data to show the composition of
them prior to the existence of the forests ; it is
also quite clear that the plants or trees have been
growing for ages in these soils ; and, as the Pro-
fessor himself propounds the theory, that plants of
this nature return more carbon to the soil than
they extract from it, we may fairly ask what has
become of the excreted carbon in the forests spoken
of? And we must conclude, at all events, that the
author has again contradicted his own statement.

These are not the only errors in the work, for
several eminent chemists and physiologists have
detected and exposed many contradictory state-
ments in the more elaborate portions of the com-
position ; but those we have quoted are the most
palpable. They are those which must convince
the most ignorant of the absurdity of submitting
a work so ill-digested to the perusal of a public
not absolutely unacquainted with scientific truths,
still less destitute of common sense. All previous
critiques upon this work have been so replete with
scientific terms and subtle arguments, that the
practical man has not ventured to wade through
the stream of technicalities which repel rather
than invite the uninitiated i but in the present

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

269

article the object bas been to select such passages
as afford a striking proof of the author's incon-
sistencies, without (living into those portions winch,
although incomprehensible, or rather tiresome to
the unlearned, yet contain even more serious
errors than those exi)osed in this paper — more
serious, because not so easily discovered.

If then the author has shown such marvellous
ignorance of the contents of his own composition
as to contradict on a following page what he has
stated on a preceding one ; if he had but fallen
into this dilemma in one instance only, what re-
spect should be shown to his ])ioduction ? De-
cidedly none! If he had so committed himself
by a train of powerful reasoning, such as the able
counsellor would employ in cross-examining a
witness, until he compelled the man to contradict
his own assertions ; if even this course had been
adopted, the inconsistency would have been less
glaring ; or if any doubt had been expressed as to
the verity of one of the conflicting statements,
little foundation would there have been for ques-
tioning the correctness of the work. But when
one chapter contradicts itself — indeed when one
page contradicts the following — and all without
the slightest doubt being expressed as to the cor-
rectness of either statement, it must be the con-
clusion of every man possessing common sense,
that such a work, instead of being taken as a text-
book by the learned, should be treated with pro-
found contempt.

It is not denied that the object of the work ia
good, that there are many valuable hints contained
in it ; but those valuable parts are of no use, save
to the individual who is already acquainted with
them ; since the man who is ignorant of them, on
discovering such a manifest contradiction in the
early part of the composition, as that the quantity
of oxygen contained in the atmosphere has been
always proportionately the same, and yet increas-
ing proportionately, must instantly conclude that
no future statement of the same writer is entitled
to the slightest respect. Hence, that portion of
mankind who are most in want of the work, will
receive no advantage from it , and the author's
contemporaries in the walks of science will either
merely confirm those statements which are cor-
rect, or contemptuously reject the whole work as
not being entitled to the slightest credit.

It is obvious that the professor has propounded
theories from the fertile resources of his own ima-
gination, to give stability to others equally desti-
titute of any rational foundation. That many parts
of the work are highly valuable is admitted, but
what consistent man can possibly depend upon
them ? The writer of this article did not peruse
the work with a mind prejudiced against its con-
tents ; on the contrary, he had heard and seen so
much in its favour as almost compelled him to
deny the evidence of an ocular examination ;
but of all errors in composition contradictory
arguments and conflicting statements are the most
prominent. It is impossible that those who read
for information, and think on what they read, can
overlook or fail to observe such inconsistencies.
It is indeed a matter of astonishment that this
work should occupy such an enviable position in
the libraries of the learned, and it cannot be fully
accounted for, except by concluding that scientific
men have devoted more attention to the numerous
novel theories contained in its pages, than to the
general connection and conformity of the argu-
ment. The object in exposing these manifest

discrepancies has been solely a desire to promote
the progress of agricultural science ; for it is ap-
parent that if the chief votaries of science are
guilty of propounding adverse theories, that they
must inevitably retard the advancement of the
work they are engaged in. The foregoing re-
marks have not been penned from any conceited
idea of superior, or even equal attainments,
with Professor Liebig ; no vain opinion of self-
sufficiency has actuated the writer in submitting
them to the perusal of an enlightened public ; but
simply a desire to oppose the circulation of those
publications which irretrievably injure the cause
they advocate. It is, therefore, much to be re-
gretted that the work was ever published in its
present ill-digested form, and it becomes a duty on
the part of those who discover its imperfections
to retrieve the cause of agricultural science from
the degradation into which it may be plunged by
its enlightened professors.
Lion Street, Kidderminster,
March 1st, 1843.

TO THE FARMERS OF SUFFOLK.

LrxTEn IV.

Gentlemen, — Before I change the subject, I shall
once more address you on the little experiment I
have suggested to your notice. 1 was rathet sur-
prised, two or three days ago, to hear a practical
agriculturist of this county declare that he was not
acquainted with more than one farmer whom he con-
sidered qnalijied for undertaking the experiment I
have proposed to you. 1 explained to him how very
little was really required, and I hope I convinced
him that even the tenant of any common cottager's
allotment was quite as well qualified for conducting
our experiment to a successful termination, as the
first chemist in the land. A scientitic friend, also,
has written to me, and he says, — " As for hopiog to
get results reghtercd by the farmers, if you succeed,
you will either prove yourself a magician, or else
that your Suffolk farmers are very differeot from the
Shropshire ones whom I have been accustomed to."
Now, I have certainly no desire to be considered
any way implicated in the "black art," but I shall
most heartily rejoice to find the farmers of Suffolk
thus far in advance of the farmers of Shropshire, as
to be willing to attend to the suggestions of those
chemists who would have them try a few simple ex-
j)erimeuts for themselves. All the world knows that
the husbandry of Norfolk and Suffolk is generally in
advance of that of every other county in England;
I am afraid we may not say in Great Britain. But
this will be very little to the purpose, if the Suffolk
farmers have become unwilling to adopt the only
sure steps which have iiuio become necessary for
their carrying to still greater perfection the craft
they follow: and indeed, of converting the art of
husbandry into the science of agriculture. In order
that I may understand whether you are really in-
clined or not toco-operate in determining the question
I have proposed to vou, I shall take the liherty of
requesting every one who is so disposed, to inform
me of his determination. The penny postage, and
the liberal conduct of our provincial journals, afford
us such ready modes of communicating, that I do
not hesitate to suggest the following arrangement: —
Let every gentleman who may be willing to co-ope-

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rate, furnish me with his address by post. I will
prepare precise instructions (or the conduct of our
experiment, leaving bhmks to be filled up by each
experimenter. Provided I shall have received not
fewer than fifty applications for these instructions
before the end of February, I will then get thena
printed, and will forward them by post to all who
shall have favoured nie with their addresses. In the
meantime I will endeavour to persuade some neigh-
bour to allow me to superintend the preparation
of two small manure heaps ; and I shall thus be
able to form a more accurate judgment of the num-
ber of pounds of straw, bushels of dung and urine,
and pints or pocks of gypsum, which may bo re-
quired for manuring a rood of land. I shall not
think it worth while to proceed further in this ques-
tion, unless fifty at least can be found to engage in
it ; but I shall hope to engage your attention by
some other topic.

Although a knowledge of chemistry and botany is
not necessary for any one who may be disposed to
try the description of experiments which are called
for from agriculturists ; yet every farmer who will
acquire a few precise ideas on such subjects will
find himself in a better position for appreciating the
value of these experiments, and will be able to
reason for himself on the propriety of performing
others. I shall, therefore, take the liberty of sug-
gesting to those among you who may bo utterly
ignorant of chemistry, to make a beginning, bv trying
a little experiment illustrative of the subject before
us. On the next market day enter any chemist's
shop and ask for

One ounce of muriatic acid (spirits of salt)
value 2d.

One ounce of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) Id.

One ounce of carbonate of ammonia (smelling
salts) Id.

I'rocure also a small lump of pure chalk or marble,
value nothing : and a tea cupful of powdered gypsum,
value about one fartiiing.

Before I propose the experiment which will serve
to illustrate what may possibly take place in oui
gypsumed dunghill, I shall advise two or three pre-
liminary experiments, for the purpose of your ac-
quiring a little insight into the nature of the ingre-
dients I have mentioned above. Take four wine
glasses, A B C D, and drop three or four drops of
muriatic acid into A and B ; and three or four drops
of sulphuric acid into C and D. Add two or three
times as much water as there may be acid in each
glass. Scrape a little of the carbonate of ammonia,
and drop it into the glasses A and C, you will per-
ceive a strong effervescence take place. Continue
adding more of the carbonate of ammonia till this
eflervescence ceases. The acids are then neutralised,
as chemists say, by having combined with a suffi-
cient quantity of ammonia contained in the carbonate
of ammonia. The effervescence was occasioned by
the escape of carbonic acid set free, and which
appeared under the form of a gas. In glass A, we
have now a muriate of ammonia ("sal ammoniac), and
in glass C, a sulphate of ammonia. We do not see
these new compounds, because they are both dis-
solved in the water ; butif the glasses were set aside
for a time, until the water could evaporate, we should
then find both these salts of ammonia in a solid
form.

Next, into glasses B and D drop a little powdered
chalk or marble, and a strong effervescence will take
j)lace, as before. These substances are composed
of lime and carbonic acid united ; and here also the
carbonic acid has been set free, whilst the lime has

entered into union with the muriatic acid in glass B,
and formed a muriate of lime a very soluble salt;
and in glass 1) the lime has combined with the sul-
phuric acid, and formed the sulpiiate of lime which
is the same thing as gypsum. As sulphate of lime
is not soluble except in a very large proportion of
water, it will appear in this glass as a dense white
powder.

When you have actually tried these experiments,
and have thought about the changes which have been
effected, you will find yourselves in possession of
more accurate ideas of what chemists mean by de-
composition, affinity, and neutralization, than you
would have obtained by merely reading about them.

Having thus made these preliminary experiments,
let us next attempt one which may serve to illustrate
the manner in which Liebig intimates that the
escape of carbonate of the ammonia may be arrested,
during the decomposition of manure. Whilst dung,
but more especially urine, is decomposing, carbonate
of ammonia is continually forming and gradually
escaping into the atmosphere. But you cannot see
this, because the carbonate of ammonia escapes in
the form of invisible vapour. If you smell at the
pennyworth of this substance you have obtained from
the chemists in a solid form, you may be made con-
scious that it is gradually evaporating, just as a piece
of camphor would do. This essence of your pocket
dunghill must, therefore, be kept close shut up in a
box or jar, if you wish to retain it for any length of
time. Ocular proof, as well as nasal, may be ob-
tained, that the carbonate of ammonia is escaping ;
for if you unstopper the phial in which the muriatic
acid is contained, and bring the mouth of it near the
lump of carbonate of ammonia, you will immediately
perceive dense white fumes floating about. These
fumes arise from the muriatic acid ('which is escaping
in the form of vapour from the bottle) uniting with
the carbonate of ammonia (also escaping in vapour),
and the result is the formation of this muriate of
ammonia.

I shall now propose the little experiment I alluded
to. Put about half a tea-spoonful of powdered car-
bonate of ammonia into a wine glass, and add about
a tea-spoonful of gypsum to it j and stir them well
together. Smell the mixture, and you will still per-
ceive that the carbonate of ammonia is escaping.
It is evident, therefore, that the gypsum has not yet
acted in " fixing the ammonia." Next add water
enough to cover the mixture ; stir it up and smell
again. You will no longer perceive the odour of
carbonate of ammonia. Now, water alo)ie will act
in refardiitf/ the escape of the carbonate of ammonia,
though it cannot prevent this gradually taking place;
as you may easily prove by dissolving a little of the
carbonate of ammonia in water, and smelling it. But
where the gypsum is also piesent, chemists tell us
that a mutual decomposition of this substance and
the carbonate of ammonia will occur; and at the end
of a certain time you will find in the glass two new
substances, viz., carbonate of lime, and sulphate of
ammonia. Here, then, you see in miniature what is
supposed may pofsiblu be effected on a large scale by
adding gvjjsum to a dunghill, provided we keep it
sufficiently moist. But this is the very point I wisli
to be settled one way or the other. I have no decided
opinion on the matter ; and it is never safe to feel
positive of success on a large scale, merely because
an experiment succeeds on a small one. The same
precautions are needed in agriculture as in mechani-
cal arts. Many a working model has been contrived
which will act to admiration ; and yet when the
principle it was intended to illustrate, has beer ap-

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271

plied to raacbiueiy, the engiueer has beeu disap-
pointed by sometbing coming into play which he had
not foreseeo, and he has failed in producing the re-
sults upon which ho had calculated.

I am afraid that some persons will consider that
I am descending to matters which are far too ele-
mentary for the columns of a newspaper, and that I
had better refer those wlio are ignorant of chemistry
to some elementary woric ou that science. But my
desire is to convince those who never opened a work
on chemistry, how very little energy is required for
attempting to gain some slight degree of information
ou the subject. I am an old hand at the art of teach-
ing. For several years it was my lot to tutorize men
at Cambridge in the rudiments of mathematics ; and
I know by experience how very necessary it is to
place the first, and most elementary propositions,
in various lights, before some inen can be brought
to catch the idea of what is intended. The first few
difficulties fairly mastered, an advance afterwards
becomes comparatively easy. " Ce n'rst que le pre-
micr pas qid coute," say the French — " The first
step is everything," J.et the first step be made to
the chemist's shop for the four penny wortli of articles
I have named above, and I suspect it will not be the
last. But let not the first step be forgotten towards
performing the experiment I have suggested, viz,,
that I be favoured with the addresses of those who
are willing to try it. — Your obedient servant,

J. S. Henslovv,

Hitcham lieclory, January 28, 1843.

THE GYPSUM EXPERIMENT.

TO THE EDITOH.

Sir, — The objections which I urged against the
experiment proposed by Professor Ilenslow have
not been removed by that gentleman's observations
in his last letter. It is of the utmost importance,
for the credit of that somewhat novel branch of
science, agricultural chemistry, that all experiments
should be conducted upon correct principles ; and,
as Mr. Henslow has invited discussion with the sole
object of arriving at truth, I again trouble you with
some remarks upon the subject.

Professor Henslow proposes that dry powdered
gypsum should be spread between the layers of a
heap of manure, for the purpose of fixing the ammo-
nia which escapes during fermentation in the form
of the carbonate of that salt. I contend that gypsum
in such a position cannot fix ammonia, because the
salts of lime and ammonia are not brought together
in a state necessary for the exercise of chemical affi-
nity. This is the question I propose to discuss.

Mr. Henslow states that his experiment is the
proposition of Liebig. On this point I think I can
prove that Mr. Henslow has mistaken the meaning
of Liebig. I am not sure that many of Liebig's
theories are not open to grave objection ; but we will
not open this subject. The present is a question of
fact ; and, as Liebig as a chemist is justly distin-
guished among the highest authorities, I will be con-
tent to abide by his chemical opinions alone.

But I have looked in vain through Liebig's "Or-
ganic Chemistry in its application to Agriculture and
Physiology" for any recommendation like that of
Professor Henslow ; on the contrary, I think I can
prove from this work that such a proposition is not
founded upon correct principles.

It will be allowed that the principal part of the
ammonia generated ia the dunghill is volatilized

during the process of fermentation, or, as it is com-
monly called, " heating,'' and tlial lliis process is
temporary and dependant upon the (|uantity of fer-
menting matter. In the small heap rccjuired in
Professor Henslow's proposed experiment it would
be over in a few days. If the ammonia is not fixed
in this time it is irretrievably lost. Now Liebig
states, at page 88 of his work, that — " Water is ab-
soliitelt/ necessarij to effect the decomposition of the
gypsum on account of its difficult solubility {one
part of gypsum reiiuircs 400 parts of water for solu-
tion), and also to assist in tlie absorption of the
sulphate of ammonia by the plants : hence it happens
that the iiijiuencc of gypsum is not observable on dry
fields and meadows,"

" The decomposition of gypsum by carbonate of am-
monia does not take place instantaneously ; on the
contrary, it proceeds very gradually, and this ex-
plains why the action of gypsum lastsfuv several years."
Now mark — it results from the above statement of
Liebig that, for every pound of gypsum used, you
must have also present 400 pounds or hO gallons of
water! or else no decomposition takes place. If
you arc to rely upon rain to promote its graduid de-
composition, you must wait " several years ;" and
where in the meantime is the volatile carbonate of
ammonia f

But Liebig expressly states, at page 190, that it is
the liquid excrement which gives to the solid " the
property of emitting ammonia — a property which
they (the solids) possess only in a very slight degree."
Solid dung, where mixed with decayed vegetable
matter in the form of stable manure, does not, as
Liebig has pointed out, act as a manure through the
agency of ammonia. " The peculiar action of solid
excrement is limited to their inorganic constituents,
which thus restore to a soil that which is removed
in the form of corn, roots, or grain," which, he further
states, are " the silicate of potash and the phosphates
of lime and magnesia." p. 181 . By solid manure we
in fact " supply a soil with all that is requisite for
the formation of the woody fibre, the grain, the roots,
and the straw," p, 188. But if we wish to increase
the nutritive produce of corn, we must supply it
with more food in the form of nitrogen, which it
obtains from the atmosphere, from rain, from salt in
the earth ; and it is the object of uyricullural chemis-
try to increase the supply by fixing the ammonia, which
would otherwise become volatilized in the process offer-
mentation — in the liquid excrement of animals. Upon
this principle Liebig recommends the stables to be
spread with gypsum ; because here it obtains its
water of solution, p. 194; or to strew the fields with
gypsum and then apply the liquid excrement; or the
drainage of dung-hills, p. 193. He suras up the
matter thus; —

" From the preceding remarks it must be evident
that the greatest value should be attached to all
liquid excrement, when a manure is desired which
shall supply nitrogen to the soil. The greatest part
of a superabundant crop, or in other words the
greatest increase of growth ivhich is in our power, can
be obtained exclusively by their means."

I think then I have fairly made out from Liebig's
authority the following positions : — ■

First, — That gypsum will not decompose carbonate
of ammonia, unless dissolved in 400 times its weight
of water, or acted upon by the rain in the course of
several years ; and therefore that it will not fix the
ammonia of fermenting manure, if spread between
the diflferent layers in the form of powder.

Secondly. —Thdit Professor Henslow's experiment
must be unsatisfactory, even if the salts were brought

272

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togetber ia a state favourable for the action of che-
mical affinity ; because the ammonia in all manure
beajjs depends cl)iefly upon the fortuitous circum-
stance of the aniouut of liquid excrement they contain
and not upon liie much smaller proportion in tbe
sjlids, or that which results, if any, from the process
of fermentation or beating.

Thirdly. — I'bat as the solid manure supplies to
land the silicate of potash, and the phosphates of
lime and magnesia, which salts are not volatile —
which are essential to the growth of tbe plants, and
which muU be supplied to replace that removed by
the previous crop — we must not look here for our
additional supply of nitrogen, unless we can fix tbe
volatile ammonia by a direct agent.

Fourthly. — That the principal benefit — if not at
present the onli/ benefit which chemistry has been
able to confer upon agriculture — is that of fixing the
ammonia in li'iuid excrement, and in the drainage
from dunghills. This is, however, a most important
improvement ; for Liebig states that for every pound
of liquid excrement with the ammonia fixed, there
will be a produce of a pound of wheat. The ammo-
nia may be fixed either with gypsum dissolved in
400 times its weight of water, or by sulphuric or
muriatic acids diluted with water — 100 parts of
sulphuric acid diluted with 1000 parts of water,
being equal to 175 parts of gypsum.

100 pounds of burnt gypsum will fix the ammonia
of 6250 pounds of horse's urine, — Liebig, p, 88.

I trust that Professor Ilenslow will find that, in
this my feeble attempt to elicit truth, I have attended
to the wise recommendations at tbe close of his last
letcer. — I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

C. R. Bree.
St,)wmarket, January tblh, 1843.

Letter V.

Gentj.emen, — I had intended to have turned over
a new leaf, by discussing, in this letter, some of tbe
functions of the leaf; but I must trespass once more
upon you by a few remarks I wish to make upon
i\Ir, Bree's comments in yesterday's paper. He has
stated that Liebig has not recommended the addition
of gypsum to manure heaps ; and also that he himself
considers tbe experiment I have proposed to you
would be useless, because the carbonate of ammonia
and gypsum would not mutually decompose each
other, under the circumstances of the case. I cer-
tainly did not turn to Liebig's work when I wrote
my letter, to ascertain the precise words under which
he had recommended the application of gypsum to
farm-yard manure, but the impression whicii his
statement had left upon my mind inclined me to
believe that his advice was general ; and that where-
ever the carbonate of ammonia might be forming in
the materials of which dunghills are prepared, there
it might be useful to apply gypsum to decompose it.
I had sent to Dr. Daubeny, the Professor of Agri-
culture and Chemistry at Oxford, a copy of my Ad-
dress to the lladleigh Club, after it appeared in the
papers, with a retjuest that he would point out to me
any errors into which 1 might verv possibly have
fallen, owing to my partial acquaintance witli che-
mistiy. In his reply (Dec. 28j he assured me that
he saw none, but added this remark : " I may no-
tice that Mr. Pusey, in tbe last number of the Agri-
cultural Journal, states that the application of gyp-
sum to stable-yard dung lias proved a failure, I
know not why this should be so, and therefore think
it deserves to be enquired into further." 1 had pre-

viously written to Mr. Pusey to ask his reasons for
tbe assertion here referred toj and in his reply (Dec.
15) he had stated, " A farmer wrote to our Secre-
tary desiring him to inform me that he had used a
considerable quantity of gypsum, and had found it
do no good — 1 did not mean that gypsum would not
decompose the carbonate of ammonia, but that it had
not done so in a farm-yard. Your experiment indi-
cates the cause of failure to have been the absence
of sufficient moisture." Tbe remarks of these gen-
tlemen satisfied me that the question had not yet
received that degree of attention which the interests
of agriculture required ; and this was the reason
which induced me to propose the experiment in tbe
form I did, (Jan 7) — not as one which bad been
suggested in that form by Liebig, but as one which
I thought would test ihs general tenor of his sugges-
tions. I shall quote to you a ievr passages from
Liebig, and Dr. Daubeny, which I consider fully
justify my inference. Liebig says, at p, 192. "In
dung-reservoirs, well constructed and protected from
evaporation, the carbonate of ammonia is retained in
solution," " When it (the carbonate of ammonia)
is lost by being volatilized in tbe air, which happens
in most cases, the loss suffered is nearly equal to
one half of the weight of the urine employed, so that
if we fix it — that is, deprive it of its volatility, we
increase its action twofold ;" and p, 193, " The car-
bonate of ammonia formed by the putrefaction of
urine can be fixed or deprived of its volatility in
many ways. If a field be strewed with gypsum, and
then with putrified urine, or the drainings of dung-
bills, all the carbonate of ammonia will be converted
into tbe sulphate, which will remain in tbe soil,
J3ut there are till simpler means of cffiscting this
purpose; gypsum, cloride of calcium, sulphuric, or
muriatic acid, and super-phosphate of lime, are all
substances of very low price, and completely neutralize
the urine, converting its ammonia into salts which
possess no volatility," And p, 194, " The ammonia
emitted from stables and necessaries is always in
combination with carbonic acid. Carbonate of am-
monia, and sulphate of lime (gypsum) cannot be
brought together, at common temperatures, ivilhout mu-
tual decomposition. The ammonia enters into combi-
nation with the sulphuric acid, and the carbonic
acid with the lime, forming compounds which are
not volatile, and, consequently, destitute of all smell.
Now, if we strew the floors of our stables, from
time to time, with common gypsum, they will lose
all their offensive smell, and none of the ammonia
which forms can be lost, but will be retained in a
condition serviceable as a manure." And Dr. Dau-
beny, in speaking of tbe composition of dung-heaps,
thus comments upon Liebig : p. 83. " Hence Liebig
advises the addition of sulphuric or muriatic acid,
both cheap substances, to the other materials of the
dung-heap, whicli, forming with the ammonia present
the sulphates and muriates of that alkali, would at
once prevent any loss of it bv evaporation. If these
expedients be not adopted, it should at least bo borne
in mind, that unless means are taken to prevent it,
tbe most valuable portion of the manure is constantly
escaping, during exposure to air and sun, by evapor-
ation, and also by draining off into the ground ;
whence, instead of a material calculated to afford a
ready supply of nitrogen to the plant, we obtain an
effete mass, in which that element is in a great mea-
sure wanting, and which, therefore, can only influ-
ence tbe growth of plants, by virtue of the phos-
phoric salts and other fixed ingredients still present
in it ;" and p. 84, " 'i'he above theory of its use, (viz.
of gypsum as proposed by Liebig) being admitted,

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273

we may be eucouragt'd to exteiul its application to
oiber crops besides the Leguiuiuos;u, and also fornix
it with the dany of our stables, so as to |)revent tlie
waste of this valuable material, which is constantly
occurring." Now, whether I am justified or not in
supposing that Liebig intendt-d to recommend the
application of gypsum, and the other materials no
ticed by him, to vour common manure heaps, I still
retain my opinion that it will be highly expedient
for you to try the little experiment I have suggested
to your notice. All your manure heaps contain urine
as well as dung ; and surely they are as moist as the
floor of the stable. No one can deny that a large
quantity of carbonate of ammonia is driven oft" from
them during the process of fermentation ; and even
the solid dung and the vegetable matter assist in
supplying some of it. Whether gypsum will serve
your purpose or not, is the question at issue. I\Ir.
Bree is positive that it will not; because carbonate
of ammonia and gypsum, «/i a (/lu 6(a<c, do not mu-
tually decompose each other. If you will refer to
my address to the Hadleigh Club, you will see that
J expressly stated that the gypsum should be wetted,
"Let a sufficient quantity of water be sprinkled
over it to wet the gypsum thoroughly." Upon re-
ferring, however, to my first letter, I see that I have
inadvertently neglected to repeat this caution ; and
hence I have misled JMr. Bree to suppose tbat I did
not consider the presence of any moisture necessary
to secure the decomposition of the two salts. But
still Mr. Bree has further argued, that as gypsum
requires four hundred times its weight of water to
dissolve it, we could never supply this menstruum
in sufficient quantity to the dunghill, to enable the
carbonate of ammonia and gypsum to act upon each
other. But this, I think, is an incorrect inference.
1 conceive it cannot be necessary that all the gypsum
should be in solution at the same time, and as fast
as one portion is decomposed, the water would he
able to take up another. If this be not admitted, I
can still refer to the known principle, that tbe mutual
decomposition of a soluble and insoluble salt may
take place, provided the former be in a state of solu-
tion. Thus, tbe carbonates of potash and soda, in
solution, are used to decompose the sulphate of ba-
rytas. I read in Ure's Dictionarij of Chemistry, that
in the manufacture of sal-ammoniac, an impure so-
lution of the carbonate of ammonia (obtained from
tbe destructive distillation of animal substances) is
passed through a bed of pulverised gypsura, when
mutual decomposition ensues, and the result is sul-
phate of ammonia in solution, and an insoluble car-
bonate of lime. In this case, the gypsum was not
in solution ; and why should we suppose it to be ab-
solutely necessary that it should be so in the dung-
hill? Provided there is sufficient moisture to dis-
solve the carbonate of ammonia, it seems to me very
likely that the mutual decomposition of the two salts
will take place. Upon such points, however, I do
not feel myself competent to speak positively. Where
Liebig asserts that gypsum strewed over a field re-
mains a long while before it is wholly decomposed,
I had fancied that he meant to say, this was owing
to the very gradual manner in which the carbonate
of ammonia was supplied by the atmosphere ; other-
wise he appears to contradict himself. It was cer-
tainly an oversight on my part, iu not alluding, in
my first letter, to the necessity of moistening the
gypsum in the experiment I have proposed ; and I
am under obligations to Mr. Bree for having noticed
the omission. I shall not dwell upon the further
remarks of Mr. Bree, which are sufficiently inte-
resting to you, as tending to illustrate the use of li-

quid manure, but which do not apply so directly to
the question at issue. Liebig's remark on this sub-
ject is worthy your most serious attention — jk'^01.
" W'hen it is considered that with every pound of
ammonia wbich evaporates, a loss of 601l)s. of corn
IS sustained, and that with every pound of urine a
pound of wheat might be produced, the indifference
with which these liquid excrements are regarded (.s
quite incomprehensible. In most places, only the so-
lid excrements, impregnated with the liquid, are
used, and the dunghills containing them are pro-
tected neither from evaporation nor from rain !"

If I\Ir. Bree is still unwilling to believe that the
experiment I have suggested can be of any service,
perhaps he will be so good as to propose to you an
experiment for testing some other method suggested
by chemists for fixing the ammonia in dunghills.
The objection which occured to me against the use
of free sulphuric acid on a dungheap, was the pro-
bability of the acid entering into combination with
other ingredients than tbe carbonate of ammonia, and
thus not waiting till all of this salt was formed,
which might be afforded by the thorough decompo-
sition of tbe organic materials. However, I shall
be delighted to see some of you attending to Mr.
Bree's suggestion, as well as some of you to my own.
In order that he and I may not be jealous of any
preference you may be inclined to sbow to one or
other of us, I propose that all who intend to co-ope-
rate should toss up, and let heads or tails decide for
each of you, whose experiment he is to try.

I have received a communication from a gentleman,
who informs me that he is a manufacturing chemist,
and that he denies the fact asserted in the extract I
quoted from a newspaper in my second letter, viz.,
that common salt can hx the ammonia formed in sta-
bles. I am inclined to believe that be may be cor-
rect; for, on dissolving common salt and carbonate
of ammonia together, I do not find tbe smell of tbe
latter to be destroyed. If you refer to my letter,
you will see that 1 was merely attempting to correct
tbe informant's theory, and not to dispute his facts;
and that I cautiously rem irked, " Proitrfed, therefore,
our imformant is correct in saying that salt fixes the
ammonia, &c." I should be prepared to assent mora
freely to the contradiction I have alluded to, it 1 had
not perceived that Dr. Daubeny, in his lectures, in-
clines to the same opinion as the anonymous author
of tbe extract — p. 86 : " Chloride of calcium, com-
mon salt, sulphuric and muriatic acids, phosphate of
lime, and other salts, may, it should seem, on the
principles Inid down, be substituted when gypsum
cannot be obtained.'' Who shall decide when doc-
tors disagree ? This is precisely tbe sort of question
which a person like myself, who am not a professed
chemist, is unqualified to decide for you. My ob»
ject in addiessing you is not to dispute with chemists
the facts they assert ; but to emleavour to put before
you the theory which ex()lains their facts, in such a
manner as may convince yoa bow necessary it is(/iat
you should expet'iment for yourselves, with some defi-
nite object in view, and not in that hap-huzard sort of
manner in which agricultural experiments are most
frequently undertaken. My advice is, that you trust
not implicitly to tbe suggestions of the most cele-
brated chemists; nor adopt their notions into your
practice, without previously making a set of compar-
ative experiments for yourselves, in order to test the
value of their suggestions. I feel more and more
convinced that some jjlan for securing co-operation,
such as I have thrown out in these letters, might be
made a most effectual means of greatly accelerating
the progress of agriculture. If you could enlist

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some first-rate chemist into your service, who should
lay down for you precise rules for trying certain
simple agricultural experiments, and you would then
consent to act together by hundreds and llwusnnds in
attending to his directions, and in regisleriny results,
he would soon strike out for you such decided im-
provements in the art of culture, that your important
interests would be able to maintain that state of pros-
perity in which it is so essential to the general well-
being of the country they sliould exist. If the ar-
rangements ofyoiir various agricultural societies were
only as complete for securing abundant returns of
wm/wrafae e.r/j^Tj/iie/i/s, as they appear to bo perfect
for exhibiting fat cattle and fine roots, or even for dis-
cussing good dinners and promoting good fellowship,
I should then hope to live long enough to see the
farming produce of Great Britain double that which
is now extracted from the soil. If you consider me
too sanguine in this expectation, and that my asser-
tions need some qualification, I will, for the present,
fall back upon the declaraiion of the President of
the Iladleigh Club, at their last anniversary, —
"Though we have to compete with all the world, I
/irmly believe, with the aid of science, that theener-
gy of the British farmers will carry them through
every struggle and every diflficulty." Your obedi-
ent servant, J. S. Henslow.
Hitcham Rectory, February 2, 1843.

LETTER VI.

On Stripiiing off the Leaves of Plants,

Gentlemen, — More than one person has fancied
that he could increase the produce of his potato
crop by pulling ofl' the leaves. I have been told by
an experimenter that he once pulled all the leaves
from his potato plants, under an idea that by so
doing he could divert the sap into the tubers, and
thus greatly increase their size, by not allowing any
j)ortion of the nutriment in the sap to be wasted in
developing such comparatively useless appendages
as the leaves. The result of this experiment was a
crop of tubers so minute that it almost needed a
microscope to enable the disappointed experimenter
to see ihera. 'J'lie result of tliis single experiment
renders it highly probable that it is not advisable to
pull off the leaves of potatoes. Pmsibly it may be
expedient to adopt such a practice in certain other
cases. For instance, it may serve some good pur-
pose to pull oft' the leaves from mangel wurtzel ; or
possibly it may be useful to strip a peach-tree or an
apple-tree of its leaves, in order to divert the sap to
the fruit, and thus increase its bulk or flavour. In
the case of the mulberry-tree, indeed, it has been
long ascertained by the experience of those who
rear silkworms in the South of France, and elsewhere,
that such a practice by no means improves the growth
of that tree. On the contrary, such constant pulling
oft' the leaves, which they are obliged to have re-
course to, produces a decidedly bad effect upon the
health and stature of the trees. They become mise-
rably stunted objects, and would die outright if the
Jeaf-puUers did not take the precaution of allowing
a fe\v leaves to remain on the ends of the boughs".
It should seem, then, to bo sufficiently proved that
neither potatoes nor mulberries rejoice in being de-
spoiled of their leaves. But may we safely gene-
ralize from no more than two facts of this description,
and conclude that no plant can be benefitted bv ab-
stracting its leaves ? There are some opposing facts
to be taken into consideration. There are certain

plants, those for instance commonly called cactuses,
which have no leaves; and there are, moreover,
certain agriculturists (so I have been told) who strip
the mangel wurtzel of its leaves; which we must
presume they would not do unless they were well
satisfied the practice was advisable. ^Ve have, then,
potato and mulberry iiersus cactus and certain agri-
culturists. Ought we not to have recourse to fur-
ther experiment in order to test the value of the
practice to which I have referred, since it has not
been universally adopted, and (as I have also been
informed) it is even objected to by some agricul-
turists as useless or perhaps injurious'?' Possibly I
am under some error as to the extent and nature of
this practice. I have been informed that in some
places the leaves are pulled two or three times during
the growth of the plant, whilst in other districts the
practice is to pull them only a short time before the
roots are dug up. 1 Lave, however, been asked
my opinion, as a botanist, what result may be ex-
pected from pulling oflT the leaves of this plant.
To M'hich question I can only reply by alluding
to those particular functions of the leaf which are
connected with the nutrition of plants in general.
What is your opinion, Mr. H., said a practical
gentleman to me, about pulling off the leaves of
mangel wurtzel ? May I ask, was my reply, what
may be your motive for doing so'! I did it be-
cause my excellent neighbour, Mr. So-and-So, had
adopted the practice ; and Mr. So-and-so, it ap-
peared, had seen it recommended in some journal. I
asked whether the object was to diminish the size of
the root-stalks ; because I did not feel quite sure
that this might not be advisable in some cases. But
I was immediately informed that this was not to be
desired in any case. There must, then, be some e.v-
pediency in this practice which more than counter-
balances whatever risk may be incurred of diminish-
ing the size or weight of the root-stalks. I have no
desire to interfere with any approved practice in
agriculture; but it would be exceedingly desirable
that science and practice should not be at issue; and
as this practice, however modified, must still bear
some relation to the functions of the leaf, perhaps
you will not object to hear what botanists suppose
they have ascertained concerning those functions; and
then, possiblv, some of you may feel inclined to try a
\hi\e comparative experiment for the purpose of deter-
mining for yourselves whether their theory is cor-
rect or not. I need hardly invite so many experi-
menters to step forward in this case as for our pro-
jected gypsum experiment. An ordinary petty jury
of twelve may be considered quite sufficient for
adjudicating on such a subject as this ; and I sus-
pect they will find they run less risk of being puzzled
in doing so, than they have sometimes been when
sitting in a jury-box, mystified by the quirks and
quibblingsof opposing counsel. I shall not, in this
letter, enter further upon the subject; but I will en-
deavour to prepare for you, in my next, some little
account of the functions of the leaf, and perhaps t
may then suggest an experiment by which you may
test the utility of the practice of pulling oflf the leaves
of mangel wurtzel. In the meantime I shall be very
glad to know to what extent the different factions of
anti-pull-mangel-leaf and pro-pull-mangel-leaf prac-
titioners prevail. Even if you should consider this
question of too trifling a character for discussion, it
may not be wholly unadvisable for me to oflFer you a
few remarks upon the general functions of the leaf,
which is so far from ever being an appendage of
little or no value, that it is absolutely essential
(^wherever it is provided) to the health of the indi-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

275

vidua!, to tlie full development of tlie tuber or root-
stnlk, and to tlie perfecting of the seed. In leafless
plants, a special provision is made for securing the
purpose for which leaves serve in other cases: tho
resources of Infinite ^V'isdom being as multifarious
in providing tlie conditions essential to the well-
being of each particular species of plant, as we find
them to be in adopting the numerous forms of ani-
mated nature to the variety of circumstance under
which they are destined to exist.

Your obedient servant,

J. S. Hensi.ow.
Hitcham Bectovy, Wlh Feb.,\Q4S.

P.S. — A few more last words, if you please, about
our Gypsum Experiment. I do not wish to add to
the arguments 1 have already brought forward in
urgingyou to co-operate in attempting this liitle ex-
periment ; but I may state that I have received a
second communication from the gentleman to whom
I alluded in my fourth letter, and that he has allowed
me to use his name in support of his testimony. It
is Mr. Burgess, a manufacturing chemist, of Ifp-
well, near Wisbeacb, who informs me that he has
had great experience in preparing both the carbonate
and muriate of ammonia ; and he states positivel}"^
that the carbonate of ammonia in solution will com-
pletely decompose gypsum xvithout the necessity of this
substance being first dissolved. He has suggested the
following experiment, which any one sceptical on
this point may easily try for himself —

"Take an ounce of powdered carbonate of ammo-
nia, and add to it half a pint of soft water : put this
in a phial and shake it occasionally, till it is com-
pletely dissolved. Take two ounces and a half of
finely powdered gypsum and add to the above :
shake the whole occasionally for two or three days,
and the result will be a solution of sulphate of am-
monia, and an insoluble precipitate of carbonate of
lime."

I have been invited to extend the challenge I have
offered you to the farmers of all England, under an
idea that I shall not find fifty persons among your-
selves who have sufficient public spirit to co-operate
in the way I have suggested. I cannot believe this.
But I can readily suppose that I may not be able to
meet with fifty among you who feel sufficient con-
fidence in myself to think it worth their while to
attend to my advice : and if so, I must be content to
withdraw my challenge altogether. I should not
think myself justified in extending it to all England.
Such a proceeding might come with a good grace
from a body like the Council of the Boyal Agricul-
tural Society, acting under the directions of a Liebig
or a Faradaj' : but I am taxing my own opportunities
(to say nothing of my presumption) to the utmost,
in attempting to persuade you to help yourselves in
that way which seems to me the most likely to se-
cure a rapid improvement in the practice of agricul-
ture; I mean by your co-operating in performing
comparative experiments, with a definite object in
view. It is not I, or any mere follower of science,
but it is many among the best-informed of your own
body, who are daily assuring you of the absolute
necessity that now exists for your attending to the
suggestions of such chemists as the late Sir H.
Davy, Liebig, and others, who have directed their
attention to agricultural chemistry. All will be of
no use, or rather worse than useless, if you do not
tdike the right method of testivg the value of tbeir
suggestions. That method I believe 1 have pointed
out to you, in advising extensive co-operation for
making comparative experiments. 1 am still far from

having received the addresses of fifty willing to try
our gypsum experiment ; but there is yet a fortnight
to the end of February. Those gentlemen who have
already favoured me with their addresses, must not
fake it amiss if they find that I decline accepting a
less number than fifty. I am willing to devote time
and attention to a useful purpose ; but as I consider
fewer results would lead to no satisfactory conclu-
sions, I must decline proceeding any further, if I find
that my advice is not capable of influencing a suf-
ficient number of you to make an attempt so simple
and unexpensive as the one I have proposed.

THE GYPSUM EXPERIMENT.

Sin, — When Liebig stated that gypsum and car-
bonate of ammonia cannot come together at common
temperatures without decomposing each other, there
can be no doubt he used the expression as a
chemist, leaving it to be understood that they were
brought into contact in a state favourable to decom-
position. If he did not do this then he contradicts
his own statement — that " water is essential to the
decomposition of the gypsum," and that the process
is " slow" and " very gradual," as there can be no
doubt that, if the cohesion of the sulphate of lime is
overcome — and if there is present " quantity of
matter," which the celebrated Berthollet considered
compensates for a weaker affinity — that decompo-
sition of the two salts will occur. I do not think it
necessary to discuss this part of the subject further,
or to point out the difference between " chemical
affinity" and "chemical decomposition," which are
often opposed to each other, as in the instance of the
carbonate of potash decomposing sulphate of baryta,
the most insoluble salt in nature ; but I will merely
remark that, in the exercise of chemical affinity the
change takes phice at once, as in those instances of
elective affinity where muriatic acid is added to a
carbonate, or sulphuric acid to a muriate; but when
the exercise of aflSnity is produced in instances of
double decomposition, where two salts are brought
into contact, the decomposition which ensues is in-
fluenced by " modifying circumstances." The prin-
cipal of these is cohesion. It is a law in chemistry,
that when two acids and two bases are brought to-
gether, the salt which is most insoluble is invariably
formed. Now sulphuric acid has a greater affinity
for lime than ammonia. But carbonic acid has a
great affinity for lime, and as the sulphate of lime
and the carbonate of lime are about equally in-
soluble, the tendency to insolubility cannot Lave
much influence in the decomposition of the salts;
but upon the same principle that the carbonate of
potash decomposes sulphate of baryta when they are
brought together in water, so will the carbonate of am-
monia decompose the sulphate of lime under thesame
circumstances, and the only rational explanation of
the decomposition is that the water absorbs an ex-
cess of carbonic acid, which thus produces quantity
of matter, which, as we have seen, Berthollet consi-
ders compensates for a weaker aflSnity. Leaving,
however, this part of the subject, let us return to the
question of the extent to which this decomposition
takes place in the dunghill. In the preparation of
sal ammoniac, a solution of the impure carbonate of
ammonia is digested with gypsum, until decompo-
sition takes place, when there is water, time, and
quantity of matter all favouring the decomposition.
In the dunghill water is required not only to cause
the decomposition of the salt?, but also to absorb

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the soluble sulphate of ammonia. When I stated
that a pound of gypsum required 400 pounds of wa-
ter I did not mean llratit was necessary that the whole
ol the gypsum should be in solution before decompo-
sition ensued ; I made use of the expression in a rela-
tive sense, to show the great quantity of water neces-
sity to ensure the mutual rapid decomposition of a
volatile, and an almost insoluble, compound. If it is
urged that it is not necessary to Lave the entire
amount of Nvater of solution to cause partial decom-
position, then I contend, the less water, the longer
is the time required; and as, from the constant eva-
poration, you never can have sufficient water to en-
sure rapid decomposition, so will the ammonia be
volatilized, and the experiment fail, as in the instance
pointed out by Mr. Pusey.

'J'o test the matter, however, fairl}', to prove at
once the power of gypsum in fixing ammonia, and
the relative merit of that salt and sulphuric acid, I
will take the liberty of suggesting lo Professor
Ilenslow's notice, and I hope, through his recom-
mendation, to the farmers of Suffolk, the following
simple comparative experiment.

Procure three vessels made of wood, with lids,
(old beer barrels will do very well) each capable of
holding 36 gallons, and numbered 1, 2, and 3. Into
No. 1, put at different times, three pounds of con-
centrated sulphuric acid and one gallon of water;
into No. 2, five pounds of finely powdered gypsum
and one gallon of water ; and one gallon of water
into No. 3. Let these vessels be filled with urine as
it can be collected eitber in houses or stables, the
former to be preferred, as it contains four times more
ammonia. The acid and gypsum had better be di-
vided into three portions, one pound of acid with
the gallon of water, and a third part of the gypsum,
to be put into the barrels at once. When "about a
third full, add another pound of acid and no water,
and another third of gypsum ; and the remaining
portions when about two-thirds full. Then mark
out, as directed by Professor Henslow, four patches
of land, about the eighth of an acre each, and num-
ber them 1, 2, 3, and 4. As corn crops require the
isalt contained in stable manure, if it has not been
done in the autumn, let each patch have an equal
portion of manure taken from the same heap, and
previously to its being ploughed in let the contents
of each barrel he spread regularly over the portion
of land corresponding to its number— weigh the seed
required for each piece— register every step of the
experiment— note the difference, if any, in the crops
upon each — carefully weigh the straw and grain —
and communicate the result to your respective agri-
cultural associations. Of course No. 4 will have
received no liquid. No. 3 will have had the liquid
without any means taken to fix the ammonia, and
Nos. 1 and 2 will have had that alkali fixed by the
means recommended by chemists.

The trouble will be very little — the expense less.
The price of sulphuric acid wholesale is fourpence a
pound, of gypsum rather more than one farthing a
pound.

I have made my calculations, as to the quantity of
each required, from the statements of Liebig that
100 pounds of gypsum will fix the ammonia of 6250
pounds of horses' urine, and that 100 parts of con-
centrated sulphuric acid, diluted with 800 or 1,000
parts of water, are equal in effect to l?,') parts of
gypsum, and I have put the amount in round num-
bers for the sake of convenience. It is quite pos-
sible, as human urine contains so much more nitro-
gen than horses, that if the former ia used, as

recapimcnded, more acid tind gypsum will be re-
quired. Tliis will be known by the escape of ammo-
nia, which is detected either by its pungent odour,
or by the simple test which I mentioned in a former
letter. If more of either be added, the amount
should be noted and communicated with the result
of the experiment. If Liebig's theory be found
correct in practice, and the experiment be carefully
performed, then we ought to have an increase of
produce in No, 3 over No. 4 of 1 oO pounds of grain,
and in Nos. 1 and 2 of 300 pounds, being at the rate
in the former of 80 and in the latter of 160 stone of
grain per acre. Corn is the best crop to give the
experiment a trial, because grain or beans eliminate
or take up more nitrogen than esculent roots, and an
important fact to the practical farmer arises from
this. It is well known that if land is too highly
manured with stable manure the result is an increase
in the bulk of straw, and, if anything, a decrease ia
the weight of grain. Chemistry easily explains this,
because it proves that that manure supplies the ma-
terial upon which the growth of the stalks, leaves,
and roots depend. But the liquid manure is rich in
ammonia, which gives nothing to the straw, but is
entirely eliminated by the grain, and this circum-
stance not being visible in the growing crop may
have led some to have prematurely laid aside the
use of liquid manure.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

C. R, Bree.
Stowmarket, Feb. 18, 1843.

P.S. — I think there is very little doubt but that
salt will to a certain extent fix ammonia. The law
is, when two soluble salts, the decomposition of
which does not form an insoluble salt, are mixed
together, the two acids are divided between the two
bases, and four salts are yielded, as in the present
case — muriates of ammonia and scda, and the car-
bonates of soda and ammonia.

WIRRIL AGRICULTURAL CLUB.

The Ploughing Match of this club came off on
Monday, the 13th Feb. The ground selected for this
interesting trial of skill was a field of about eleven
acres, in the township of Ness, adjoining the turn-
pike-road leading to Neston. The judges were
Messrs, Longton, of Rainhill, Lancashire ; Simpson,
of the Court House; and Wm, Davies, of Mostyn,
Flintshire,

Reaching the spot we found it laid out in half-
acre allotments, tbat being the quantity of work to be
performed by each plough, and the allotments num-
bered respectively, from one to twenty inclusive.
The surface soil, being an old pasture ley, is loose
loam, well supplied with boulder stones, and rest-
ing upon a subsoil of dry hungry, gravelly ramel. The
time limited for the completion of the work was four
hours and a half, the width of the furrow being nine
inches, and the depth six inches. Only seventeen
teams started, viz., fifteen for the first class prizes
for men of all ages, and two for the second, for young
men under twenty years of age, so that the allotments
10, 11, and 12, were unoccupied. Not knowing and
purposely omitting to enquire to whom the ploughs
belonged, we can oidy remark upon the work in re-
ference to tbe number drawn by each ploughmao,

THE FARMER'S INIAGAZINE.

277

and which corresponded in every case with the num-
bers marked upon the ground.

The work was laid up into three-yard bouts or
ridges, and each ploughman had to clear up five
rains or water furrows — the great test of skill in
the present case, for reasons which we will explain
presently.

The ploughs were all of them swings, and for tlie
most part iron ; made either by Wilkie, or West of
Lundie, though the one used by No. 4 was by
Morelon, of Upton. The horses were double, and
some really splended pairs there were. We par-
ticularly noticed No. 19, a pair of chesnuts, admirably
adapted for the purpose, but rather slow ; they were
not larger than tbe Clydesdale horses, but heavier in
the limbs. The iron ploughs were universally ad-
mitted to run " sweeter" than the wooden ones,
though No. 13, which was of wood, made very good
work. The following is, in our ojiinion, the order
of merit in the several performances, without refer-
ence to time : —

First Class. — First prize. No. 19 ; second ditto,
No. 4 ; third ditto. No. 17.

The work of Nos. 1 j and 18 was also very good,
as well as No. 20 ; but that of No. 14 was equally
bad. There were but two candidates for the second
class prizes ; tbe first of which was won by No. 7,
and the second by No. 8.

The ploughman No. 19, a Scotchman, was deci-
dedly the most business like man of the kind we ever
saw; be husbanded the strength of his horses sons to
leave but two minutes to spare in time, and his ex-
ecution was really beautiful. Ilis |)lough (a Wilkie)
was so set that his furrow-slice was turned com-
pletely, and the acute angle of it (and that too,
with scarcely a deviation) was turned well upwards,
so that the harrow in covering the seed would do it
most effectually. To show that he was completely
master of his implement and its capabilities, we were
informed that he changed the sock of his plough,
after finishing his ridges, and before he began to
clean up his rains or water-furrows, for one with a
narrower wing, which enabled him to finish his
work better. Tbe work of No. 4, too, was very
excellent, and he had also this in his favoui', that
from the superior activity of his nags his work was
done in much less time than that of No. 19. We
observed the best hands invariably left all their water
furrows to bo cleared up after they had finished all
their ridges ; and this was quite the most difficult
part of the work, because the surface soil, being
only about the depth of the furrows, and the sub-
soil being as before remarked, dry, loose, and gra-
velly, the sod roved before the plough, and instead
of being turned over, merely rose on its edge, and
then fell back again, graSs uppermost. " No
handling" then became the cry, and the very best
man amongst them was glad to catch the falling
sod with his foot, and press it to its place ; but
notwithstanding the cry, every man in the field we
believe used his hands for this purpose, more or
less.

The beauty of the day attracted a large concourse
of spectators ; and we observed on the ground
several implements from Messrs. Cartmell's manu-
factory, in Liverpool, consisting of chafT cutters,
bean and grain crushers, horse hoe, &c. &c.

The dinner of the club took ])lace at Neston, C.
Stanley, Esq. of Denhall, in the cliair; but as the
dinners upon these occasions are, in our estimate,
quite the least attractive part of the proceedings, we
make no apology to our readera for omitting an
account of it.

BRAINTREE FARMERS' CLUB.

The annual meeting of the membeis of this club
took place on Wednesday, Feb. l;"),and was respect-
ably attended by the agriculturists of the district.
The following report of the committee for the past
year was read to them : —

REPORT.

The committee of the Braiutiee and Booking Far-
mers' Club, in presenting to the members at their
annual meeting a report of the proceedings for the
past year, cannot but regret that it should be their
painful duty to state that the meetings of the club
for the past year have not been so well attended, the
discussions consequently less spirited, and the in-
formation elicited not of that importance which the
growing intelligence of members, and the continued
influence of the club, would seem to warrant.

Your committee, anxious to ascertain the cause of
the general non-attendance of members with a view
to remove it, cannot be insensible to the altered po-
sition of the farmer, and without enquiry as to the
circumstances which have led to the general depres-
sion, they are fearful such depression has at present,
and will for a time, have the effect of retarding the
progress of institutions calculated to improve and
elevate the British farmer.

Your committee however desire to impress upon
the minds of the members of the club the necessity
of a more constant and unifornr attendance at their
montiily meetings, if the purposes for which the club
was originally instituted are to be carried out, or the
ends it proposes to attain are to be realized. The
necessity for legitimate combination and mutual in-
terch^inge of opinion amongst agriculturists aftbrded
by the Farmers' Clubs, was never more urgent than
at the present moment, and independently of the
personal and individual advantages to be gained,
they are calculated to be mainly instrumental in plac-
ing the agricultural interest in a situation which its
importance demands, and will readily be yielded to
it, if those who "till the land" are not hindered
through prejudice, or enervated by continued pros-
perity. The manifest advantages resulting from Far-
mers' Clubs are so great that your committee feel it
unnecessary to dwell upon that subject at any length ;
they afl'ord'the most simple, yet effective, means for
discussing the various scientific discoveries and im-
provements which those who lack practical know-
ledge are daily making and suggesting, and although
the purely practical farmer may view with apprehen-
sion the rapid strides which science is daily making
in its favourite pursuit, he is as it were by mixing
with his fellow cultivators almost insensibly led to
adopt some of the many suggestions which from
time to time are brought under his notice, and sub-
jected to the severe, but proper, test of practical ex-
perience.

Your committee, with the hope that their endea-
vours to excite a greater interest in the club may be
attended with success, are anxious to press upon the
attention of the members the importance of combined
effort to raise in the scale of society the cultivators
of the soil. The times in which we live, the exer-
tions which are made to educate the lower classes,
the deference pa'd to real knowledge, the rapid
strides which science is daily making, all tend to
show that it can be only by steadily pursuing the
path of inquiry, by diligent research, by patient in-
vestigation, and a careful observance of phenomena
which are daily occurring, that we can hope to main-

278

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tain our position or keep pace with the increased
intelligence of the times in which we live.

The isolated position of farmers, the few oppor-
tunities tliey have of meeting, the limited means of
improvement till lately within their reach, are all
difficulties which can only be overcome by a deep
conviction of the importance of the art they follow,
and its pervading influence in all the other arts of
life. We may not only anticii)ate but be positive
that certain causes will produce certain effects, and
although it may not be our privilege to witness tlie
full perfection of the fruit, nor perhaps may the
opening blossom be apparent, yet your committee
desire to cheer ycu on in the useful path you are
pursuing, and with a confidence not in the slighest
degree abated, anticipate the realization of all and
every the advantages which from time to time have
been stated as certain to result from the increased
knowledge and improvement to be derived from
farmers' clubs.

It cannot but be profitable to every farmer to watch
with interest the progress which agriculture has
made, and is making ; nor can any more satisfactory
proof of such piogress be adduced than the increase
in the general average of the country, which is uni-
versally admitted ; the causes which have produced
this are doubtless various, as well as numerous ; but
surely no one will deny that the increased and in-
creasing intelligence oif the farmers as a body has
had some influence in producing it. Let us then
proceed in the firm conviction that as our knowledge
increases we shall be able to penetrate deeper and
deeper into the secrets of nature, and, as tlie fruits
ef our exertions, induce her to yield still more abun-
dantly the fruits of the earth for the sustenance of
her numerous and hardy sons.

Your committee cannot close their report without
again alluding to the difficulties which seem to sur-
round the farmers' interest ; and although it is no
part of their duty to enlarge upon the causes which
may have produced them, still they would urge as a
means best calculated to dispel the cloud, renewed
and vigorous exertions. 'J'he farmers of the united
kingdom are a numerous, influential, and important
body ; their occupation is the most ancient and the
most honourable; their welfare necessarily influ-
ences every other class of the communityj and in
times like the present, assailed almost on every side,
they must buckle on their armour, and prove that
whatever may await them they at least deserve suc-
cess.

Your committee are inclined to suggest as a means
of improving the usefulness of the club, and making
it more subservient to the purjioses for which it
was instituted, that arrangements should be made
for the delivery of three or four lectures in the course
of the year upon subjects connected with agriculture,
and upon which a discussion could afterwards take
place, but the committee will await the decision of
the general meeting upon this subject. With the
foregoing remarks your committee beg to submit (lie
following brief summary of the proceedings of the
club for the past year.

MAncii 16, 1842.— Subject, " Tlie best method of
preimriny the land for sowiiic/ Mangold Wurlzel,
Tiunips, and other Root Crops."

The discussion was commenced by a member, who
stated he had obtained several prizes for his roots at

agricultural meetings. His plan was as follows :

For mangold wurtzel he ploughed the land as
early in the autumn as possible, and endeavoured to
get it into good tilth, and immediately before the last
ploughing in the spring he applied fermented ma-

nure ; he drilled the seed and applied a very heavy
roller, and afterwards during the growth of the plants
used a horse hoe. He grew Swedes upon nearly the
same plan. Common turnips for feeding he prefers
sowing broadcast, and uses seed of several years'
growth, by which he thinks he is more likely to se-
cure a good plant. Ttie seed should not be more
than three years old, or the crop will run to rose
crowns which crack, admit the water, and the tur-
nips decay. Several other members addressed the
meeting, and recommended that for mangold the
land should be made as solid as possible. That for
turnips the Northumberland balk of 27 inches was
preferable.

The following resolution was proposed and agreed
to: —

" That it is expedient in preparing land for man-
gold wurtzel to get the cultivation as forward as
possible in the autumn, and to put on the manure in
an unfermented state immediately before the last
ploughing, and to scarify and roll in the spring,
keeping the land in a solid state for the recei)tion of
the seed, and using a portion of some artificial ma-
nure for the purpose of forcing the growth of the
young plant. And that the best method of sowing
Swedes is upon the balk, varying the plan in some
degree with regard to the quality of the soil, but
never losing sight of the advantage of having the
land in a good state of cultivation."

Ai'iiiL 13, 1842. — Subject, " The most judicious
a)id efficient method of managing Agricultural Labour."

The importance of this subject was generally ad-
mitted, and a long discussion ensued. 'J'he system
of letting work was strongly recommended, and that
masters should endeavour bv example and precept
to create and maintain a good feeling between them-
selves and their men, encouraging and rewarding the
industrious and steady workmen who were valuable
to the farmer ; to induce their men to join benefit
clubs, as having a tendency to give them a feeling
of proper and manly independence ; to avoid the use
of improper language, and adopt such means as are
best calculated to improve the moral character of
the labourer. A member recommended the master
to be punctual to and regular in all his arrangements
as it regarded his men. After an animated discus-
sion, in which many of the members joined, the fol-
lowing resolution was carried : —

" It is the opinion of this meeting that in all cases
when practicable it is desirable to let the labourers
their work. That day work is not desirable either
for master or man, inasmuch as it is productive of
dissatisfaction to both. That it is also important
to keep the men as regularly employed as possible,
and not to turn them away without ample cause,
'i'o encourage them to join benefit clubs, and to pro-
mote steady, sober, and industrious habits, encou-
raging the honest and good m preference to the idle
and dissolute."

May 18, 1812.— Subject, " The betf method of
feeding Farm horses and other Cattle vpon the green
produce of the Farm."

A member stated that from experience he found
no green food so good as grass, especially that which
grew upon marsh land ; that tares are too relaxing
when young, and occasion much waste bv decaying
at tho bottom when in moreadvanced growth. Mown
clover was recommended in the absence of grass.
It was considered advisable to mix hay with the
green food, to cut the whole, and for a short time
after commencing the green food to give the cattle a
small portion of corn. The feeding in yards was
strongly recommended, and as one of the eflects be-

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279

sides the improvement in, luul ibe increase of, ma-
nure, good beef miglit be produced on heavy land
farms during- the summer months. A difference of
opinion arose as to llie growth of lucerne. One of
the members contended that considering the farmer
lost his crop ot wheat in the usual course, and the
heavy manuring necessary for lucerne, it was not
profitable to grow it. Several who had grown and
used lucerne spol^e of it most favourably, and con-
tended that it increased the quantity of the manure
to a much greater extent than it required if. 'I'he
meeting was addressed by occupiers of soil of almost
every description; and after a lengthened and
spirited discussion, tlie following resolutioa was
adopted : —

''That it is (he opinion of this meeting that the
best method of feeding farm horses and other cattle
upon the green produce of the farm, is by mowing
and feeding in the yards, commonly termed soiling,
and at the commencement of the season to cut it
with a portion of hay into chaff. And for horses,
lucerne is strongly recommended for its substantial
quality, and as yielding early and successive crops,
and being exceedingly healthy and nutritious food.''

June 15, 184?.— Subject, " Ihiy-makhig."

Upon this subject a very interesting discussion
arose, but as the resolution embodied most of tlie
remarks made by the various members, it is sub-
joined without any further explanation.

" That it is the opinion of this meeting that the
proper time for cutting grass for hay is when it is
in full blossom ; great care must then be taken that
it be well strewed out either with the tedding ma-
chine or bv hand, for on ibis in a great measure
depends all the remaining stages of the operation.
It must afterwards be rake-rowed and cocked accor-
ding to the state of the weather, and the nature of
the grasses. This meeting strongly recommends
the use of the tedding machine, and the Leicester-
shire hay rake, which is considered decidedly supe-
rior to the common wooden rake in consequence of
its size and convenience, and its great saying of
time. With respect to clover-hay this meeting re-
commends making it principally on the swarth not
turning it more than once, as mucli shaking it about
has a tendency to break off the leaf, but if '-lie wea-
ther be not favourable, it may be put upon the cock
after being partly made. And as to tare hay, it
recommends that it be made principally by cocking,
beginning with small ones and enlarging them fre-
quently. It is further the opinion of this meeting
that care and vigilance are requisite during the hay
season, and that the farmer ought ever to bear in
mind the old adage, 'to make hay while the sun
shines.' "

July 27, 1842. — This meeting was very thinly
attended, and the subject proposed to be discussed
was adjourned till the next meeting. A conversation
took place amongst those present, upon tiie new
mode of reaping practised by a member, that of
cutting within two inches of the bottom. Tlie extra
cost was stated at 10s. per acre, the advantage in
straw and corn 20s. per acre ; that the extr.i quantity
of manure would amply repay the increased cost of
reaping low. No greater risk from the weather was
incurred, nor if properly managed would the crop
cost more to thrash. The sheaves were more com-
pact and regular than when mowed, and no dirt was
pulled up with the straw as in bagging. Mr. Lung-
ley tried the following experiment, and presented it
to the club ; general publicity was given to it in the
reports of the meeting of the Witham Ploughing

Match, but the committee beg to introduce it into
their report.

[Here follow the tabular statements of the experi-
ments by iNIr. S. Lungley, which we published in
our report of the Witham meeting.]

Sri'TtMUEn 1-1, 181SJ. — Subject, "The coienantsin
Leases flfj'ariits,"

J'his subject was introduced by defining the objects
of leases to be mutual protection, giving to the land-
lord every security, and affording every possible
elasticity to the operations of the tenant. Increased
reserved rents were tliougbt very objectionable, the
offence bearing no proportion to the punishment.
The covenant of re-entry, except in very serious
cases, led to the ejectment of tenants for very trifling-
breaches ; that, unfortunately, the difficulty or loss
in farming, according to the usual specilied cove-
nants in strict leases, led to a general disregard of
them, and that the alteration in the system of farming
rendered necessary differentcovenants to those usual-
ly adopted. Long leases were required to induce
tenants to invest their capital in improving the soil,
and render the land permanently more productive. It
was stated by a member that in one lease which came
under his notice, the tenant was bound to sow one-
fourth of his land in clover every year; by another
that there was nothing in a lease with which he was
conversant to prevent the cropping the whole of the
land with cole seed or wheat in the last year. A
member stated he had let two farms recently, and al-
lowed the occupiers the option of paying interest
during the term upon the amount of the valuation,
which they much preferred to paying the money.
The meeting came to no resolution, as the subject
will probably be discussed again ; but the following
suggestions for farming-covenants were considered
to be generally applicable: —

The tenant to farm the land in a good and husband-
like manner, keeping the land clean and free from
weeds ; not to take two white straw crops in suc-
cession without manuring for the second ; to have
one-eighth of the arable land in clover every year ;
to consume all the hay, straw , and green crops upon
the premises, or bring an equivalent in value of
manure ; to use all the manure where most needed
upon the land.

OcTOBEii 26, 1842.— Subject, " The weeds inju'
rums to the farm."

The member introducing this subject gave a des-
cription of many of the common weeds injurious to
crops, and stated that it was difficult, if not impos-
sible, entirely to exterminate some weeds indige-
nous to certain soils, but by good farming and proper
management their injurious effects would be scarcely
lierceptible. A member suggested a long fallow as
the best means of eradicating weeds, but it was con-
sidered high farming would accomplish the object
much better, and make the crops smother the weeds,
instead of the weeds smothering the crop. The fol-
lowing resolution was carried : —

" It is the opinion of this meeting that the weeds
growing upon the land are much more numerous
and injurious than is generally supposed, and it re-
commends great care and vigilance in detecting and
destroying them in their young state before they
have seeded or become deep rooted in the soil ; the
best remedies appearing to be draining, manuring,
and general good farming."

NovEMBEn 16, 1842.— Subject, " Wheail is the best
season of the if ear for carting manure from the farm
yurdj'or beans, young clover, or clouer layers, h it
desirable to make bottoms ticelre inches thick, with earth
from uuste lands, parings of banks or chalky clay, a year

280

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

previnusly, to stir ihem over and emdicale the %ieeds In
tlicml "

It was recommended to make bottoms for muck
Leaps a year or two bei'ore they are wanted, in order
that the seeds or roots of weeds may germinate and
be eradicated by digging or ploughing the intended
bottom ; it was suggested as a good phm to cover the
bottom of the farm yard with nine or twelve inches
of earth, and about Lady-day to stir over and well
mix the earth with the manure. 'Jlie following re-
solution was carried : —

" In the opinion of this meeting it is a good plan,
where practicable, to cart earth or clay as a bottom
into the yards. But where manure is required fur
beans or young clovers, it is advisable to make bot-
toms a year before they are wanted, as near as pos-
sible to the field to which the manure is to be applied.
The heap is to be stirred over once or twice, and
carted on to the land as soon as convenient after
harvest."

December 14, 1842.— Subject, " The best and most
advantageous method of applying Farmyard manure."

The discussion on this subject was limited, and
the subjoined resolution embodies the opinions ex-
pressed upon the subject : —

" It is the opinion of this meeting that the best
method of applying farm-yard manure is in a
highly fermented state to the green and root crops.
If turnip land to turnips and mangel wurzel ; if not,
to the young clover, beans, and peas. "

January 11, 1843, — Subject, " The best season of
the year for ploughing vp Land for long Fallows, with
a view to the extermination of charlock and other
tveeds."

This meeting was very thinly attended, although
the subject must be most interestina: to the practical
farmer ; a desultory conversation rather than a dis-
cussion took place, and the following resolution was
proposed and carried : —

" It is the opinion of this meeting that the best
time of the year f:^r breaking up land for fallows is
early in the autumn, which causes the seeds of char-
lock and other weeds to vegetate, many of which are
destroyed by the frosts of winter. It is further re-
commended to drill the fallow crop, and hoe it con-
stantly, and to spare no pains to keep the land clear
of all weeds, more particularly of charlock."

The committee was then elected, ]Mr. Baines was
chosen president for the ensuing year, and Mr. \V.
Fisher Hobbs, vice-chairman ; a vote of thanks was
passed to Mr. Wra. Hutley, for his efficient conduct
as chairman during the past year.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMERS' MAGAZINE.

Sir,— Much has been written for the benefit of
farmers respecting the improvement of agricul-
ture, and much censure has been passed on that
class of men, because they are slow to adopt the
improved systems that have been offered to them.
The following observations have been occasioned
by reading a paper in your March number, en-
titled " A Word to the British Agriculturist."
Your correspondent there says, " It is a pitiable
but undeniable circumstance, that three-fourths of
the working agriculturists are men who rest sa-
tisfied with pursuing the customs of their ances-
tors, and who invincibly resist the introduction

of science. Science is a bane to them— the very
word is a nuisance to John Bull." And again —
" If science, then, is a knowledge of the opera-
tions of nature, it must be from some unwhole-
some influence that so many individuals neglectto
profit by it. That influence in the present instance
is prejudice— yes, prejudice — however disagree-
able it may sound to those interested, it is too
true ; for what can it be but prejudice that prompts
men to say, ' Our forefathers prospered without
science, and why should not we ?' What can it
be but prejudice which induces men to believe
that the system they adopt admits of no improve-
ment ?"

My object is not to reflect on your correspond-
ent for using such strong langu-.ige, neither is it to
attempt to justify "three-fourths of the working
agriculturists" in their extreme cautiousness in
adopting scientific methods to improve their cul-
ture ; but simply to endeavour to trace the evil to
its proper source, and then to suggest a remedy.

1. The reason why " thiee-fourths of the
working agriculturists rest satisfied with pur-
suing the customs of their ancestors, and invin-
cibly resist the introduction of science.

Liebig has ofifered to the farmer a " Treatise on
Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and
Physiology," or, in the words of the editor's pre-
face to the second edition of that work, " A
Treatise on the Chemistry of Agriculture." By a
reference to the contents, the working agricul-
turist finds the first part treats on the " chemical
processes in the nutrition of vegetables,'' and then
referring to the contents of the several chapters,
he comes to the " constituent elements of plants"
— " the assimilation of carbon" — " origin and
action of humus" — *' the assimilation of hydrogen"
— "origin and assimilation of nitrogen"— " the or-
ganic constituents of plants, "&c., &c. ; which alone
issuflicienttodeterhim,or any other man similarly
circumstanced, from proceeding to the examination
of the book. Professor Johnston's " Elements of
Agricultural Chemistry and Geology" is a clear
and simple introduction to the subject, but it
must be observed, that even elementary knowledge
cannot be acquired without study. He:e, we
perceive, is the source of the farmer's prejudice —
science cannot he made familiar to him in the
ordinary way by which he receives an increase of
information. The terms used convey to him no
ideas — he can attach no definite meaning to them,
and consequently he is uninterested and unim-
proved. During the whole period of life allotted
to education, he probably never heard the name
of any of the constituents of plants, nor of the
distinction of organic and inorganic. Is it mar-
vellous, then, that the farmer is prejudiced, when
he has had no opportunity of becoming acquainted
with the first lines of science.

This view of the source of the farmer's preju-
dice will be confirmed if Ave take a glance at the
education which he has received. In many in-
stances it has been limited to what instruction
could be had at the village school ; in this respect
the children of farmers have been disadvanta-
geously circumstanced ; and then, the utmost that
was formerly attempted was a knowledge of
reading, writing, arithmetic, and land-surveying.
A tolerable knowledge of these was deemed suffi'
cient for a farmer. All that was connected with
farming was to be learned from the father, who
had learned it from his father, and thus the whole
art had been handed down from generation to

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

281

generation. There is, therefore, nothing sur-
I)risiiig in the fact, that at the market tlinner,
three-fourths of the working agriculturists should
shelter themselves behind tiie plea that their an-
cestors had done wit/iont science.

2. The remedy for this state of things.

If we have succeeded in showing that the source
of the evil is a defective education, then the remedy
is obvious — an improved or extended course of in-
struction.

At this day we are ready to wonder how men
could, by possibility, have thought that so limited
an education was all that was required for a
farmer. Such a conclusion could not have been
arrived at, had there not been extreme igno-
rance of the nature of his occupation. That
knowledge which is merely recreation to the com-
mercial classes, is absolutely vital to the agricul-
turist. There is scarcely a science to which he
ought to be a stranger, 'i'his was strikingly set
forth in Mr. Brown's address to the Fairford and
Cirencester Farmer's Club, on the advantages of
a specific education for agricultural pursuits, in-
serted in the February number of the " Farmer's
Magazine," to which we beg to refer. There can
be no doubt that farmers especially, in their
ordinary education, ought to be made acquainted
with the elements of physical science, particularly
statics, pyronomics, dynamics, mechanics, hy-
draulics, pneumatics, electricity, meteorology,
chemistry, and geology. A question may arise
(vhether such an extended education is practicable
in ordinary schools. Our reply is, if parents and
schoolmasters arc both alive to the importance of
a scientific education for young farmers, it is of
easy accomplishment. Not by thu antiquated
method which teaches and learns cverytiiing by
committing it to memory, and which is as speedily
lost as it was gained. The intellect of the pupil
must be engaged — with the text he must have
illustration — experiment. Time, which is sadly
squandered away upon useless subjects in many,
if not in most schools, must be husljandcd for the
purpose of science. The course of instruction
must be enlarged in ordinary day schools : in
boarding schools the specious must give place to
the solid. Let there be but a groundwork of
scientific knowledge laid — the elements acquired
in the term ordinarily devoted to education, and
then the youths will be fitted either to enter upon
the more specific studies of agricultural colleges
that may hereafter be called into existence, or
they will be prepared to embrace and act upon
those scientific principles which professional men
may propose to them. Liebig will, with farmers
so educated, become a favourite author, and scien-
tific treatises on agriculture will find readers and
purchasers who are able to form some estimate of
their merits.

Before I conclude this letter, I will just observe,
that 1 have to a limited extent adopted the system
of instruction above recommended in my own
school. I have a class of youths studying the
elements of agricultural chemistry. On the con-
clusion of the first division of their subject, the
class gave a cofl'ee parly to their fellow pupils and
a few friends, after which a conversation was

introduced by myself on the organization of

vegetables, and the chemical conditions essential
to their lite and development, which was creditably

sustained by the pupils, and afforded complete

evidence of the practicability of a course of

scientific instruction answering the wants of the
practical agriculturist.

1 think 1 have succeeded in showing that defective
education is the source of the farmer's prejudice,
and that the remedy is an impi-oved and enlarged
course of instruction. If it meet your approval, I
shall on a future occasion endeavour to point out
the means by which this desideratum may be
supplied.

I am, sir, yours obediently,

John Kay.
Grafton House Academy, near Stratford on- Avon,
March lOth, 1843.

ON THE COLOUR OF THE ROOTS
OF SWEDISH TURNIPS AND
MANGOLD WURTZEL.

SiK, — Having been engaged in my early life in
an extensive business of farming, I had not in con-
sequence an opportunity of carrying out by experi-
ment (which I tlien thought trifles), those observa-
tions to whicli my attention had on various occasions
been directed, until having retired to a much
smaller business. I had often been struck by the
preference given by live stock to one colour in pre-
ference to another ; having a lot of wether hoggets
in a pasture adjoining my house, over which I had
a window, from which I had a view, they being-
fed twice per day on mangold, my attention
m the firstinstanee was excited by the sheep running
over the whole quantity given them, merely tasting-
each root, after which returning and remaining
until they quite finished each root that was of the
white flesh kind in preference to those of purple or
mottled. This having been the case for two or three
successive seasons, induced me to cultivate the long
orange with white flesh, which I had the satisfaction
to find to be more nutritious, and not so purgative
as the purple; and stUl further to confirm my opi-
nion of their superiority, in the winter of 1837 I
had half a score spayed Hereford heifers on store
feed of mangold and hay in a warm yard (for I find
warmth to be essential to benefit in feeding with
mangold), having them until the 2oth of January
on purple mangold. I then commenced the orange
coloured ; after having been upon it about a fort-
night, though the weather being not so favourable,
I could perceive a manifest diffierence in their con-
dition ; their coats had altered from a rough hungry
look to a sleek and mellow appearance, with a
decided better feel on the points. This I could not
account for, as the hay was precisely the same
quality, and the weather decidedly colder, with
wet and storms, upon any other cause than the
greater nutritious qualities possessed by the yellow
in comparison to the purple. I in consequence
directed my attention to the land whereon they
grew, expecting to find the succeeding crop of wheat
less whereon the yellow was ; but the contrary was
the case, having, as near as I could judge, from
three to four bushel of wheat per acre more on the
land on which the yellow was, the quality of the
land being the same, as was likewise the manuring
the field, half of one kind and half the other. To
confirm myself of the fact the succeeding year, 1
merely had an acre of the purple in the centre
ridges of the field, and was careful that the manur-
ing was equal. The same result followed on the

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

barley crop ; I found the acre of barley apoii the
land whereon th« purple grew to be Hve bushels per
acre less than the average of the remaining portion
of the ten acres, and tlie same result as I had pre-
viously observed in the beasts doing better on them
when stall fed with cake. I found upon weighing
the crop that there were 3G tons per acre of the
purple, and 32§ tons of the yellow ; this was by no
means in proportion to their respective qualities of
feeding, and the superior increase of the succeeding
crop. The success attending this proof directed
my attention to the more important root, the
Swedish turnip. In 1839 I sowed a field of Swedes,
one half of the common purple, the other half the
yellow skinned kind, with yellow flesh, which I had
previously selected, and which had always been a fa-
vourite for hardness in withstanding the winter.
Here again I had the satisfaction of experiencing
the superiority of the after crop of barley on the
land whereon the yellow grew, and the sheep ap-
peared to do better from their greater brittleness ;
they do not appear to tire so soon as when on the
purple kind ; in their mouths, independently of the
decided greater sweetness to the taste of the yellow,
tlie purple is more of the flavourless taste of the
cabbage stalk. This season has again given me an
opportunity of ascertaining another quality which
I was not aware they possessed, that is, their supe-
riority in withstanding the mildew better than the
purple. I divided a field into three divisions, one
of the Liverpool, one of the Manchester, the re-
mainder of the yellow skinned. The soil being of
a light turnip loam, suffered from the drought in
the month of August ; the mildew followed as a
consequence. The Liverpool being naturally inclined
to run to neck, were in consequence of the mildew
a mere mass of neck ; the Manchester, a much
more delicate sort, were killed in great quantities ;
but the yellow skinned kind, though considerably
affected on the first attack of the mildew, quickly
recovered themselves, and nearly doubled in pro-
duce the other two kinds. I find upon reference
to Dr. Lindley's lectures upon mildew, he there
states that dark or purple colours are much more
liable to be attacked by mildew than light green or
yellow colours of plants generally. This has so con-
firmed my opinion of the superiority of yellow in
preference to the purple, that T shall in future grow
no other than yellow-skin Swedes, and orange man-
gold wurtzel.

I am. Sir, your obedient servant,

A Norfolk F.^kmer.

NORFOLK FLAX SOCIETY.

A meeting of the subscribers to this society was
held at the Norfolk Hotel, on Feb. 25lh. A com-
mittee, to have the entire management and control
of the society's funds, was appointed. Nearly 80
noblemen, gentlemen and farmers have already
joined the society, and upwards of 300/. has been
subscribed.

The following letter, from the Norfolk Chronicle>
will, we doubt not, be read with interest.

ON THF, FATTENING OF CATTI-i; WITH NATIVE mODUCK,
AND ON THE CULTIVATION OF FLAX.

In the pamphlet that I lately published, three iin-
portaut projects were considered, viz.: the fattening
of oattle upon native produce, tho growth of flax

for the sake of the seed ("linseed) as a substitute for
foreign oil cake, and the cultivation of the piolific
plant with reference principally to the value of the
iibre.

With respect to the first. — Three years' experi-
ence has established the superiority of a compound
made of linseed and grain over foreign oil cake.
The instances of success are numerous, while no
cases of failure have occurred. It is impossible to
particularise them, but the inquirer may obtain
abundant references, and correct information, on
Thursday, at North Walsham.

An experiment is being tried with twelve bul-
locks by Mr. John Postle, of Smallburgh, under
circumstances of peculiar interest, to which I de-
sire to make an especial reference, and to attract
particular attention ; because I am confident that
the most prejudiced must be convinced, unless be
is under the influence of some enemy worse than
prejudice.

The North Walsham Farmers' Club off'ered a
challenge, through the county papers, to putthe com-
parative merits of compound and oil cake to the
test ; which challenge not having been accepted,
Mr. Postle determined to satisfy the public him-
self upon that point, under the following regulations
viz. : —

That twelve bullocks should be equally divided
by judges, selected for the occasion ; six to be fed
on Swedish turnips and compound, and six on Swe-
dish turnips and oil cake. Both lots to have an un-
limited (juantity of turnips, but an account was to
be kept on the weight that each lot consumed per
day, and thexost for compound and cake to be equal ;
that is to say, if the cost for compound was only 6d.
per day each for one lot, the other was to be allowed
oil cake to the same amounts Accordingly, the bul-
locks were divided, weighed, and numbered, and
placed in separate yards. I saw them myself last
week for the first time, and so great is the advantage
perceptible on the side of the bullocks fed with
compound, that had I not been acquainted with the
fact of their having been weighed, and the recti-
tude of all the parties concerned, I should have
concluded them to have been unskilfully divided.
Mr. Postle is a gentleman of great experience, has,
undertaken this exjieriment on public grounds, and
has pledged himself to carry it through with the
strictest impartiality. Tbe bullocks are led in a
yard at Worstead, near the church, and are freely
open to inspection.

With respect to the second project, the last year's
crop of linseed, botii as to quantity and quality per
acre, must exceed, according to the best sources of
information, those of any other part of the world,
being in several instances worth from 8/. to 12/. per
acre, inde|)endent of the flax.

The tiiird project originated the Society for the
Promotion of tbe Growth of Flax in Norfolk, which
cannot fail to confer immeasurable benefits on every
class of society, if conducted with spirit and energy,
and in strict accordance with those patriotic princi-
ples which actuated its formation.

An agriculturist fiom Belgium is now actively
engaged as the society's agent, in making prepara.
tionsfor the manufacture of the past year's crop of
flax, examining the soil, and instructing in the ma-
nagement of their land those who intend to be grow-
ers of flax this year in Norfolk.

'J'hus far have these projects proved singularly
successful. In adverting to them my only motive
is to show, that the cultivation of flax primarily for
the fibre, is no more a chimerical scheme than that of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

283

fattening cattle upcn native pioduce, or tliat of
growing linseed as a substitute for oil-cake. I tbink
I shall be excusei for bringing ihein so promi-
nently forward, and for reminding the country that
100,000/. a-week are seat out of Great Britain for
the purchase of flax, and about -lOO.OOOL a-weefc
besides, for oil-cake, linseed, bemp, oil, &c., &c., all
of which can be produced from our own resources.
I think 1 shall be excused for reminding agricultu-
rists in particular, that their property continues to
sink in value, and that the most fatal consequences
are to be apprehentk-d. Again, I think 1 shall be
excused for calling upon landowners, occupiers,
clergymen, and every one who is directly or indi-
recily concerned in the welfare of agriculture, not
only to support the Flax Society of Norfolk, but to
promote the formation of similar societies in every
county in the kingdon), because I am persuaded
that the cultivation of flax only requires to be na-
tionally adoj)ied, to obtain for the redundant popu-
lation the employment, agriculture the support,
and trade the encouragement, which each so greatly
needs. Because the cultivation of linseed, the ma-
king of artificial food to fatten cattle, and the sale of
flax, will be fresh sources of wealth to the British
farmer: because hands must be drawn from the
manufacturiug towns to prepare the flax for market ;
and because an impetus would bo given to home
trade in general by the increased price of wages, and
by the consequent increased consumption of all the
common necessaries of life : — for tliese reasons, and
not for the sake of courting popularity, which at best
is an uncertain privilege, lofter to the i)ublic the in
formation that I have been able to collect during
the last three years, on the subject of flax, and also
my personal assistance in the formation of flax so-
cieties in any part of the kingdom. — I remain, Sir,
your obedient servant, John Waiines, Jun.

Triminyham, March I.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF
AN ECONOMICAL TILE- WORK
ADAPTED TO FARMS OF OR-
DINARY SIZE.

By George Bell, Esq., Woodhouselees,

DUMFRlES-SniRE.

(From the Transactiom- of the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society of Scotland.)

[Premium Twenty Sovereigns.]

When abont to erect a tile-work on the farm of
Woodhouselees, for the purpose of thorough-
draining about 500 acres of land with a very re-
tentive subsoil, 1 found great difficulty in pro-
curing plans or obtaining information to enable
me to construct the work at a moderate expense ;
for the object in view being merely that of making
tiles for the draining of the farm, it was inexpe-
dient that any great outlay, such as might be
necessary for a permanent work, should be in-
curred.

I derived much valuable information from the
papers by Mr. Taylor, Mr. Beart, and others, in
the " Transactions of the Highland and Agricultu-
ral .Society ;" but none of the plans I at first ob-
tained, for a work on such a scale as to admit of
turning out liOO.OOO tiles in a season, could have
been erected foi' less than about 300f.

Finding, in the course of my inquiries, that
much greater economy in the outlay on tile-works
had been practised in Cumberland than in those
generally hitherto established in Scotland, I ad-
vertised amongst the tile-manufacturers employed
in that district, for contractors willing to under-
take the making of the tiles 1 might require for
three years; and desiring that each party oft'ering
to contract should describe the size and construc-
tion of the kiln and drying shed he required to be
erected.

From the information thus obtained, a modi-
fied plan, combining all due economy with eflft-
ciency, was adopted to suit the views of respon-
sible and respectable contractors, who undertook
the manufacturing of the tiles.

The result has been in every respect most sa-
tisfactory.

In the season of 1841, the number of tiles made
was— 286,478 three-inch tiles,

and 29,G71 four- inch do.

Total, 3ia,14y

The kiln was drawn twenty times, giving an
average of l^jSOZ^j^ tiles for each kiln.

Dates of drawing the kiln each time.

April 29 June 14 Aug. 2 Sept. 14

May 10 ..22 ..10 ..25

..18 ..31 ..19 Oct. 2

.. 31 July 10 ..31 .. 16

June 7 ..20 Sept. 7 ..25

The quantity of coals used was 154 tons.
In 1842, the number of tiles made was —
221,79(i three-inch tiles
and 21,204 four-inch do.

Total, 243,000

The kiln was drawn fourteen times up to the
18th September, when a sufficient number for the
season was obtained, giving the average of 17,357i^
tiles for each kiln.

Dates of drawing each kiln-fuII.

May 3 June 11 July 19 Sept.
.. 14 .. 18 .. 29 .. 18

.. 23 .. 27 Aug. 6

.. 31 July 11 .. 19

The quantity of coals used was 113 tons 15 cwt.

There were also burnt, in 1842, 150O soles for
the bottoms of drains. More have not been
burned, as slates, suitable for soles, are obtained
at a lower cost.

It will be seen from the detailed account, after-
wards given, of the expenses of erecting the work,
that the whole cost, exelusive of the carriage of
materials, was 139/. Os. lOjd.

The wood was got particularly cheap, having
been purchased at a sale of trees that had been
blown down in 1838, and was consequently well
seasoned.

No repairs whatever have hitherto been re-
quired, and the only additional outlay has been
the purchase of 500 fire bricks for the flues, which
cost 1/. 16s. 3d.

Coals are delivered at the work at 7s. 4d. per
ton of excellent quality.

The three-inch tiles, the size mostly used, are
delivered to me at I83., and the four-inch at 23s.
per 1000 ; the contractor having a free house and
horse's grass.

It is hoped that the details given may encourage
the establishment of similar economical works, by

284

THE FARMER*S MAGAZINE.

proprietors or tholr tenants, where thorough-
draining is required and clay can be met with ; for
there is not only a great saving, from the compa-
ratively small sum that requires to be added to the
price of the tiles, to repay the cost of the works,
but there is also a saving in carriage to the tenant,
and an advantage afforded of making the time of
leading the tiles subservient (o the other opera-
tions of the farm, in place of interfering with
them.

Copy of Specification of Shed for drying the Tiles.
The shed proposed to be erected to be 105 feet
in length anil 17 feet in width over all. To have
4 lines of shelving, and Jl shelves in each line.
The shelves to be all prepared for putting up.
The space between the lines of shelving to be left
at such distances as the contractor for making the
tiles shall please.

Wall-posts. — The posts which form the walls of
the shed to he about (i inches square, of larch
trees, with the bark either left otT, on, or peeled,
as will be thought best; to be each 9 feet long, and
set at intervals of 7 feet between centres for the
side-walls ; and those at the etui 8 feet. The
posts to be sunk in the ground to the depth of 2
feet below the level of the floor of the shed.
Where the ground may be found soft, a flat stone
of 15 or 1<) inches square to be laid in the bottom
of the pit and the post set upon it. The pit to be
then filled with stones and earth well beaten down.
The heads of the posts to be levelled ofl" at 7 feet
above the floor, and a tenon If inch long formed
on the head of each of the four corner-posts.

Beams. — The wall-head beamsto be 8 by 4inches,
in two or more lengths for the side-walls, scarfed
over the head of a post— those for the end-walls to
be in one length ; to be joined at the corners by
half lapping, and mortised for the tenons of the cor-
ner-posts. The beams to bo secured to the posts by
an oaken treenail 12 inches in length, passing down
through the beam into the head of each post.

Roofing. — The rafters of the roof to be G by 2^
inches. The tie-joist, at the fi<ot, to be G by 2
inches; and the balk, at half height, to be 5 by 2
inches. The couples to be set at 21 inches between
centres, each couple having a tie-joist and a balk ;
the former to be dovetailed at the ends, and let into
the rafter one half inch, and securely nailed with a
strong spikenail to the wall-plate. The couples to
rest on the tie-joist and heel of the rafters — the lat-
ter being notched for that purpose. The roofs to
be formed with pavilion ends, the hip-rafters being
7 by 2^ inches; and these, together with the com-
mon rafters of the ends, to bo all properly tied at
the foot. The roofs to he covered with Welsh slate,
of the cheapest quality that may be procured, con-
sistent with a due regard to strength and durabi-
lity ; to be laid on laths, and the ridges to be
finished with two boards 7 inches broad, spliced to-
gether and nailed down firmly into the rafters.

Shelving. — To be of spruce-fir, all sawn and
squared for putting up. The third of their immber,
or thereabouts, to be of the whole breadth required,
viz., 13 inches ; and the remainder in halves, ^, or 1
inch in thickness, to be supported in manner fol-
lowing:— For th(( single lines of shelving, a post, 3
by 2 inches, to be set up at intervals of 14 feet, an-
swering to the alternate posts of the walls, and at
14 inches distant from the posts. In the double
lines, a set of three posts of like dimensions to be
set up at each of the same intervals — 14 feet. The
distance between the posts of each set to be 14

inches, so that, when the shelves are laid, there shall
be a space of 2 inches clear between their back
edges. The whole of the posts here described to be
set on sleepers of wood laid in the floor, the feet of
the posts being nailed to the sleepers. The latter
to be 3 feet in length for the double lines, and IJ
foot for the single. The other dimensions may be
ii by 2 inches or thereby. The heads of the posts
to be fastened to the tie-joists, care being taken in
setting the roof, that a joist shall fall to answer each
cross line of shelving posts. The beams of the
shelving to be 2^ by IJ inches; to be checked into
the posts not less than ^ of an inch, and well nafled.
The height, from the top of one beam to the top of
the next, to be CJ inches, or equal to G inches clear
between the shelves. The shelving to be farther
supported by two upright lines of beams, placed in-
termediate between each cross line of posts ; the in-
termediate supports to be simply pieces of inch-
board, G inches broad, placed on edge between the
shelves, rising from tlie bottom upwards, directly
over each other, thus reducing the distance between
the points of support to 4 feet 8 inches. The shelves
when fitted into their places, to be nailed to the
bearers to prevent warping. A portion, say 1-six-
teentli, of the shed may be shelved at 7 inches in
the clear, to receive main drain tiles.

Sundries. — No. 1. In order to prevent any ten-
dency to shifting of the roof, waling pieces of 3 by
1^ inches to be nailed to the lower side of the joists,
and bear against the wall head beams. These wal-
ings to run the entire length of the shed on either
side. No. 2. To give stability to the shed, shores
or stays to be applied to each post.

Materials. — All posts, beams, roofing, and sleep-
ers, may be made of larch or Scotch pine timber.
That part of the wall-posts which goes into the
ground to be slightly charred over a fire, and, while
hot, coated with tar.

N.B. — The shed was made 113 feet long. See
note at the end of joiner's contract.

Copy of Estimate for the Joiner Worlt of the Shed.

Woodhouselees, I8th March, 1840.

I hereby promise to put up the shed for the drain-
ing tiles according to the specification, completing
the whole in a strong, workmanlike manner, to Mr.
Bell's satisfaction, or of any one whom he may ap-
point to inspect the work ; also all tools made of
wood, appertaining to the tile work — two bow bar-
rows, and frame of clay pug-mill, and all boards re-
quisite, for the sum of 19Z. 15s. ; and to find nails
(if the best quality, which shall not be scantily used,
for 4/. additional ; which is in the whole 23/. 153.
The whole work to be finished by the 1st day of
May, under the penalty of 2/. sterling.

(Signed) KoBiiRT Bkll, Joiner.

N.B. — Agreed, at the same time, to make the
.shed 8 feet longer for 12s. more.

Woodhouselees, 4th Feb., 1840.
Conditions to he observed in Making Draining
Tiles for Mr. Bell.

The kiln, shed, tools, and every other article
appertaining to the work, will be required to be
kept up in the best order and condition, and left
in the same.

The clay for the ensuing year's manufacture to
be annually turned over in the months of Novem-
ber, December, and .January ; and for this season,
as soon as the contract for the work is made (not
a day to be lost).

The tiles, bricks, or soles to be manufactured of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

285

the very best quality, made in the most proper
form, from moulds to be approved of; and none to
be paid for that do not meet the entire approba-
tion of Mr. Bell, or overseers whom he may ap-
point. The clay to be fairly and properly wrought ;
the whole surface to be cleared off,'before the clay
is thrown out ; no waste of clay to be nllowed, but
wrought to the bottom. No bricks to be burned
twice over, but when properly made, and up to
their full dimensions, shall be paid for by the Ex-
cise gross account, and no more. The tiles shall
at all times be made to the full thickness and
sizes, sufficiently dried, lapt, and kept in good
order before being put into the kiln ; and when
taken out they shall be kinched up in a proper
manner; and when laden, none to be taken but
such as are sufficiently good. No carts to be
loaded out of the kiln. The size or openings of
the tile-moulds to stand as follows at the time of
making : —

2 inch tiles, 13J inches long by 7^ inches broad

3 .. 131 «. 9

And 4 " I3A " 10^ "

All others in proper proportion.

The contractors may engage for three years,
with the power either to them or Mr. Bell, at the
end of any one year, to put an end to the agree-
ment, on giving one month's warning.

Copy of Contract for Making Drain'uuj Tiles, §c.
We, J. Irving and James Little, tile-burners, do
hereby engage, in terms of the foregoing specifi-
cation, to make draining tiles and building bricks,
of a proper and sufficient quality, at the following
prices, viz, : —

3 inch tiles, at 18s. per 1000.

4 " 23s. "
('> " 28s.

And building bricks, 21s. "
The contractors to be allowed any materials that
may be necessary for repairing the kiln. They
shall also be allowed a dwelling bouse, a stable for
their horse, and grass for the same during the
season. Regular accounts to be kept and certified
by Mr. Bell, his overseer, and the contractors.
Subsisting money to be paid as the work advances,
and the balance at the end of the season.
(Signed) J. Yule, witness. (Signed) J. Irving,

And Jas. Little,
List of Tools to be kept up by the Contractors,

4 Moulding Tables

4 Sand-boxes

4 Water-pails

4 Benches for horses

9 Horses for 3-inch Tiles

3 " 4 ■'

3 Moulding-frames for 3-

inch Tiles
1 Do. for 4 do,

3 Barrows

4 Small Iron Scrapers for
Tables

The Kiln.
The construction of the kiln will be better
understood from an inspection of the plan, than
from any specification of it. It is seventeen feet
long by ten feet wide, inside measure ; and eleven
feet in height: built of stone outside, and lined
with brick. It is tied firmly together with large
flat stones, and also above the eyes, of which
there are five ou each side. Gi«at care sfcould be

4 Long Furnace-irons for
putting up Tiles

2 Iron Pokers for Kiln

1 Pair Iron Tongs

1 Iron Scraper for clear-
ing the eyes of the kiln

1 Coal Rake

2 Coal or Ash Buckets
Wheeling Planks

1 Large Pole
Curtains for Shed.

taken to use clay instead of lime in building every
part which the lire reaches. Fire-clay, if to be
had, IS of course best for this purpose.

A shed is placed against the west side of the
kiln, to afford shelter to the fireman.

Detailed Expense of the Erection of the Tile-work.
£ s. d.

Stones for kiln, (>/. Os. 6d.,

common bricks, 7;. 18s. 6d. 13 19 0

3050 fire-bricks (which quan-
tity left sufficient for set-
ting the kiln) 11 3 9

3i3 measures of lime (each
containing 3 imp. bushels)
at lOd., 1/. 99. 2d., build-
ing kiln, 14^ 15 9 2

100 long fire-bricks 113 0

42 4 11

Sheds. — Wood got at a sale,
part of which was left over
for palings and farm pur-
poses 22 0 0

2290 feet of boarding, at l^d.
for shelves, ready to put
up, and laths 16 3 1

Sawing 3122 feet of boards
for shelving, at 2s. 6d. per
100 feet 3 15 6

Joiner work of shed, per con-
tract, including nails ... ■ 24 7 0

Additional sawing of boards

and planks required .... 1 10 0

67 15 7

10,000 AVelsh slates, 13/. 6s.,

slate nails, 2/. 15s 16 1 0

303 yards slating, at SJd. per

yard 3 3 1 1

19 4 IJ

Iron-work for clay-mill, and
all other iron-work, or tools
made of iron, necessary for
the work 4 o 0

Linen for curtains 2 18 9

7 3 9

Coopers' work on pug-mill. . 0 7 6

Cost of shed against the kiln 2 5 0

£139 0 101
The carriage of the materials is not included in
the above.

On the Manufacturing of the tiles.

The best clay that could be procured on the farm
was but of very coarse quality, being mixed with
some portion of sand, and with a good many small
sand-stones ; it is such as most tile-makers would
have been afraid to use if they had not had prac-
tical experience in it, or seen similar worked. To
prove its fitness, I had some tiles made of it in a
neighbouring tile-work ; and it has been found,
with judicious management, to make a strong and
useful, though not a fine-looking, tile.

I mention this circumstance that landlords or
tenants may be encouraged to Lave a trial made of
their clay where they are desirous of erecting
works, although it may not have a promising ap-
pearance.

1. liaising and Turniny the Clay.

After the soil has been removed from above the
clay, and the depth of the bed has been ascertained,
a drain of sufficient depth should be cut to take off
the surplus water.

286

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The contractors by the stipulations, it will be
seen, are bound to turn over what may be re-
quired for the following season early in the winter,
when it is cut out in thin slices, and the stones, so
far as practicable, carefully picked out. A little
water requires occasionally to be thrown over it.
Should the weather be frosty when this operation
is going forward, it is beneficial for mellowing it.

2. Milling the Clay.
When the operations of tbe work are about to
commence in spring, the period for which is re-
gulated by the absence of all frost, the clay that
has undergone the above process is wheeled in
barrows along planks to the pug-mill, which is
driven by a horse, and is of the ordinary simple
construction. The clay is emptied into the mill
from tbe barrows, and pressed out through a hole
at the bottom, where it is again deposited in a bar-
row, and wheeled into the drying shed, where it is
turned out in lumps convenient for the moulders.

3, Moulding.

In the open space in the drying shed, tables are
placed for the moulders, each with a sand and water
box. The milled clay being, as already stated, de-
posited conveniently for the work, the moulder hav-
ing placed the mould (which is described in the
specification) on the table, lifts with both hands a
large piece of the clay, which he brings down with
considerable force into the mould, so as to fill it ;
the clay above the mould is then cutoft'with a wire
stretched on a bow. The small stones, if any, left
with the clay in the mould are picked out, and any
defects that may appear are filled up by beating
small pieces of clay into them.

The surface is smoothed with a flat piece of wood,
about 4 inches broad, and 10 inches long. The
mould is then lifted, leaving a rectangular cake of
clay on the table, a little sand having been previ-
ously used to prevent the clay adhering to the ta-
ble, or to the tile-horse on which it is placed to
receive the shape of a drain tile, and on which the
tile also is smoothed by the hand and a little water.
Some sand is also thrown on one of its sides, to pre-
vent it adhering to the tile next it on the shelf,
where it is now deposited by the boy attending the
moulder. It is necessary for preserving the proper
shape of the tiles that the attendant be furnished
with two tile-horses, one always being left in the
last made tile on the shelf till another is made and
placed close by its side. This has the effect of pre-
venting any derangement of shape that might occur
by leaving the tile unsupported on one side. The
time required for the tiles to stand on the drying
shelves before being removed into the kiln, depends
entirely on the state of the weather, bnt it is of
great importance to have them thoroughly dry be-
fore being removed from the shelves.

If the kiln has been previously emptied, the tiles,
when ready, are carried at once from the shelves,
and placed in it for firing ; but if the kiln is not
ready, or if the weather be unfavourable for filling
it when the tiles are fit to be moved from the shelves,
they arc deposited in the open space in the shed.

4. Method of Filling and of Tiring the Kiln.

It may be mentioned, that when the distance
I'rom the shed to the kiln is short, which should al-
ways be the case where practicable, for the purpose

of economizing labour, it is found speedier and bet-
ter, as doing less injury to the tiles, to carry them,
in place of using barrows, from the shed into the
kiln, where the contractor places them carefully on
end. The whole space between and above the flues
is filled up in tiers, until it gets to within two tiers
of the top, Avhen a space about the width of a tile is
left between tlie walls and the two upper tiers all
round the kiln.

About 24 hours after the fires are lighted in the
flues, this space is filled up with round pieces of
coal ; and the top of the kiln (on which bricks or
other covering had been previously placed to assist
in regulating the draught) is then thinly covered
with small coal. When these are fired, the heat
from the flues, by proper attention on the part of
the burner, is equally diffused through the whole
kiln, the door-ways having been j)reviously bricked
up and made air-tight.

The supply of coals and admission of air to the
flues is the most difficult part of the process to des-
cribe; but a competent practical knowledge of it is
soon acquired by any intelligent and steady work-
man.

During the season of 1841, the fires were kept
lighted 3 to 35 days for each kilnful ; but this sea-
son, by allowing them to burn 4 days, and by some
slight alteration in the method of filling the kiln
with the tiles, tbe average turn out has been very
considerably increased, whilst the consumption of
coal has been slightly diminished; the coal required
for each 1000 tiles made in 1841 having been about
9:i cwt., and in 1842 about 9] cwt.

5. Cost of making Drain Tiles.

It would not, in my opinion, be profitable for
either a proprietor or farmer to carry on the work
in a satisfactory manner by day's wages.

The cost to the contractors for the different parts
of the process is about as follows : —

3-iii. Tilps, 4-iii. Tiles,
per 1000. per 1000.

Removing the surface and cast- s. d. s. d.

ing of clay 0 10 10

Grinding and sand 2 6 3 6

Paid for moulding 3 1) 5 0

(Out of which the moulder pays

the boy attending him lOd.

per day.)

Filling into the kiln 1 2 1 3

Coals— !)^ cwt. 7s. 4d. per ton.. 3 6 4 0
Burning (the fireman attending

day aud night) 1 6 2 0

Taking out of kiln 10 12

Superintendence, incidents, and

upholding the shed, kiln, and

implements 0 9 1 1

1.5s.

19s.

The hands employed have generally been —
three moulders, three boys, two men at the clay,
and assisting at the kiln, and one of the contrac-
tors assisting at moulding and taking a general
superintendence.

(!. Size of the Tiles.

In burning, the length of the tile contracts to
about 12§ in. The thickness of the 3-in. tiles is a
little above I in.; the 4-in. | in.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

287

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

1(7' la; itt

riT"

\a\ i«:

t.

I!-1J lJ'f.J I

!i r

\ii\ \n\ ;<■''. \<t\ i 11

FiG. 3.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

(For Descctptio/i see next page.)

288

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Description of Engravings.

Fig. 1 is an elevation of one side of the kiln,
which is 23 feet in length at the height of the line
a b ; the width over walls at the same height, a a
of fig. ?•, is If) feet, and the height is 11 feet ; c c,
&c. are the five furnaces, 2 feet in height and 8
inches in width.

Fig. 2 is a plan of the kiln taken above the level
of the furnaces and flues. The dotted lines a a
&c. represent the position of the furnaces, and
the continuation of these across the floor of the
kiln are the main flues. These flues are formed
by a wall of brick on bed, built up to a height of 2
feet on each side of each flue ; they are built with
openings or minor flues, as represented by the
darker shaded spaces in these walls, which serve
to admit the flame and hot air from the furnaces
into the spaces c c, &c. The spaces c are each
2 feet wide, except the end spaces, which are only
I) inches, and in loading the kiln they are all filled
with brick or tile requiring to be burnt. The two
doors h b are required for loading and drawing the
kiln, and while the firing process is going on, they
are built up in the usual manner. The inside di-
mensions are 17 feet 1 inch in length, width at the
ends 9 feet, and at the middle 10 feet ; the height,
as already stated, being 11 feet.

Fig. 3 is an elevation of one end of the kiln, a a
the extreme breadth being 16 feet ; b is the door,
4 feet in width, the sole of which is at the height
of 4 feet above the sole of the furnaces ; and c is a
section of the shed for the fireman.

Fig. 4 is an elevation of a part of tbe tile-shed,
or drying shed. The entire length of it is 113
feet, and the height of the side-posts 7 feet. The
protecting cloth screens are represented as brailcd
up to the eaves of the roof.

Fig. 5 is an end elevation of the shed, the width
of which is 17 feet overall ; a is one of the pas-
sages running between the lines of shelving, and
b is the open space allotted for storing up dried
tiles previous to their being placed in the kiln.

Statistical Society, Feb. 20. — T. Tooke,
Esq., V.P., in the chair. A paper was read, entitled
"The Agricultural Statistics of Five Parishes in Mid-
dlesex—Norwood, Greenford, Perivale, Hanwell, and
Eiling,'' by Mr. H. Tremenheere. Norwood contains
2259 acres ; it is divided by the Uxbridge road into two
nearly equal portions ; that of the north is composed of
a heavy clay soil ; that on the south of a light loam,
and of gravel. The rent of land varies from 40s. to
50s. per acre, and the farms in the southern division let
for 20i. per acre more than those in the northern. The
surface of the soil in the northern part indicates that
almost the whole of it was within no very remote
period in a state of arable cultivation. It is now almost
entirely pasture land. The soil is richly manured,
abundance of dung being procured from London ; but
there is a very general inattention to the preservation of
manure made on the firms. The liquid produce of the
stables and outhouses is permitted to run into the larm-
yards, and to stagnate in black ponds in the winter, and
evaporate in the summer. There is a strong prejudice
agaiast all modern inventions for facilitating or abridg-

ing labour. The wages of labour vary from 125. to ISs.
per week. A farm of 250 acres gives permanent em-
ployment for 14 labourers. The produce of Wheat, in
1842, was 32 bushels per acre. Barley, 40 ; oats, 32 ;
potatoes, 7 tons ; and hay, three-fourths of a ton. The
number of live stock was 886. Greenford consists of
2,032 acres ; it contains about twelve hirras, the largest
22l acres. The rent of land varies from 32s. to 3/. per
acre. There are 1.605 acres of meadow-land, 371 of
arable land, and 54 of woodland. I'he soil is a strong
clay, well calculated for the growth of wheat, beans,
and tares. Much of it is susceptible of improvement
by a good system of draining. In some parts the land
in winter becomes so saturated with water as to be
unfit for the support of cattle. No modern machinery
of any kind was observed. The agricultural produce,
in 1842, was as follows :— wheat, 24 bushels per acre ;
barley, 38 ; oats, 40 ; and potatoes, 74, The number
of live stock was 673. Perivale consists of 626 acres.
It belongs entirely to one proprietor, and is divided
into five farms. The soil is a heavy clay, requiring four
and occasionally six horses to plough it. The most
profitable mode of manasjing the land is found to be
the production of hay for the London market. The
drainage is very defeciive, and the farmers are little dis-
posed to attempt any mode of improvement. The wajfes
of labourers vary from I2s. to 14s. per week. The
agricultural produce per acre was, wheat 22 bushels,
and hay three-fourths of a ton. The number of live
stock was 599, of which 531 were sheep, these aniinals
being taken in to feed at the rate of 2s.6d.per score.
Hanwell contains 1,363 acres. The rent of land is
about 50s. per acre. Manure is supplied from London.
The agricultural produce, in 1842, was, wheat, 48
bushels per acre ; rye, 24 ; oats, 48 ; potatoes, 6 tons ;
and hay 1 ton. Tbe live stock amounted to 186. Eal-
ing consists of 3,807 acres. It is composed of two
different descriptions of soil ; the heavy, or clay and
light rich loam, the former constituting meadow or
pasture land, the latter arable farms and market-gar-
dens. The rent paid for arable and pasture land varies
from 40s. to 60s. per acre. Farms are generally held on
leases for 21 years. Little use is made of modern agri-
cultural machinery. The implements of husbandry are
of the same kind that were in use 30 years ago. A con-
siderable portion of Ealing consists of market gardens,
and forms a part of that large area in the vicinity of the
metropolis, lying on both sides of the western road,
which may be regarded as the great fruit and vegetable
garden of London. The fruit gardeners have an upper
and an under crop growing on the land at the same
time. The soil is an excellent dry loam, and is abun-
dantly manured. The number of labourers employed
on these gardens is vei y great, and is estimated at 30
persons to each acre. The average rent paid is lO/. per
acre. The wages of labour vary from lOs. to l5s. per
week, and the proportion of women to men employed is
as two to one. An important benefit was conferred on
the labouring population, and on the poor of this parish
in the year 1832, by the I3ishop of London, as lord of
the manor, who granted 20 acres of waste land for the
purpose of enclosure and allotment. The proportion
allowed to each person is 20 rods, at a yearly rent of 5s.
The land is now divided into 146 allotments, and so
great is the demand for those that are vacant, that
there are, at the present lime, 50 applicants. This sys-
tem is found to be attended with most beneficisil results.
The occupier undertakes to live soberly, and to abstain
from working on the Sabbath, on pain of forfeiting his
allotment in case of non-compliance. The average
assessment for the relief of the poor, from 1827 to 1833,
was 4s. in the pound, and from 1835 to lS4l it has been
reduced to 2s. 8id. The wages of labour vary from
I2s. to 1 5s. per week. The agricultural produce of
1842 was, wheat, 35 bushels per acre ; barley, 50 ; oats,
43 ; potatoes, 85 ; and hay, 1 ton per acre. The num-
ber of live stock was 1,430, of which 1200 were sheep.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

289

EOFCHARA CLOVER.

TO THE EDITOR OF THK M \RK I.ANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — I observe ia your report of tlie proccediuj^s
of the Council of the Royal Agriciiltiiriil Society,
that Joshiui Rodwcll, Es(j., presented some dried
speciiiicns of the Bokhara clover, some of which
were lo feet in length, kc.

As this plant is little known, any information
upon its feeding properties must be beneticial to
agriculturists.

Some seed was presented me in the spring of last
year, whicli I had sown upon a piece of rich garden
ground ; the progress it made was vigorous and
rapid, and in the space of two months many of the
plants reached y. height of 4 feet, the leaves being of
light jiea green, more resembling lucerne than any
other plant I have seen, and equally tempting in
appearance for the purposes of food.

Upon examination I found if bruised it gave out
an unpleasant odour, very much resembling the
scent of melhlot, or heart liver, and to' which it
bears some resemblance in the leal', but whether of
the same class or not my investigation did not lead
me to examine.

I had portions of the plants cut and offered to
various kinds of stock, none of which, except horses,
would partake of it, and even those that did refused
to eat it in any quantity, rather tasting than eating
it ; and so convinced was I of its inutility as an
article of food, that I took no further pains to pre-
serve it.

I am ready to admit that the cattle to which it
was offered had the usual access to other food ; but
tares, clover, grass, &c. weie taken with avidity
after the Bokhara clover had been lefused by them.
The Alsike clover 1 have grown with considerable
success upon a small scale ; it has a property un-
usual with other varieties of clover, as it grows
readily by transplanting ; is eaten freely by
cattle, and is very productive ; a single plant has
covered a space four feet in diameter, with a great
number of closely set stems of a creeping character,
and bearing a resemblance to the white or Dutch
clover ('upon a gigantic scale^, and to ai)pearance
quite as productive as the red clover. It shoots
again quickly after cutting, and formed the prin-
cipal food through the summer of some tame
rabbits, which however, entirely refused the Bok-
hara clover when presented to them.

As similar experiments have probably been car-
ried out by others, they would oblige me, as well as
your subscribers in general, by communications
upon the subject, through the columns of your
paper. I am, sir, your most obedient servant,

Writtle, March 17. Robert B.^kek.

CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE
FOR APRIL.

A few retrospective remarks may lead to useful
comparisons. The early days of March were bra-
cing, sunny, and frosty ; the ground not being pene-
trated by frost remained open, and free to tlie spade,
and we receive evidence by distant reports that
everywhere throughout the kingdom the condition
was similar. The season, however, which promised
to be precocious, had become late, and though lo-
calities, and differences of soil and exposure, must
produce some effect, we believe, as a general fact,

that few wall-trees had expanded their bloom in the
middle of the month. Even the berry-bearing
shrubs were backward ; but such is the influence of
a really genial spring, that an apparent retardation
i)ecomes not (uily a point of security, but is con-
verted into early productiveness. In the

Culinary Department
most of the operations of March will be still per-
Ibrnied ; but there are others which are more pecu-
liar to the season, thus :— Asparagus plants can be
put into the beds prepared in the way lately des-
cribed (p. -227) ; many persons are of opinion that
there is but one sort of this vegetable, and as a spe-
cies this may be true— but of varieties, produced by
culture and treatment, there are several. The large
giant asparagus is unquestionably the most rapid in
its growth: it was introduced by a person of the
name of (Jrayson, about twelve years since, who also
gave written directions forplanting it in single-row
beds. Much depends upon soil and situation ; the
rich alluvial beds of Fulham, and near the banks of
the Thames, within a few miles of London, being
most favourable to it. But in any garden, provided
the plot have been properly prepared, it will thrive,
and yield luxuriantly. Two years old plants are
preferable, set in double rows, twelve inches apart*
but the plants alternating in the rows, as in quin-
cunx. If the season prove dry, copious watering
should be given till the growth be assured.

Sea-kale is sown about the same time, namely,
the first or second week in the month, the plot hav-
ing been deeply prepared during the best weather
of the winter. A very good (tried) method is that
described by Rlaher :— " Divide," he says, " the
ground into beds, four feet wide, with alleys of
eighteen inches; after which, at the distance of
two feet, sow five or six seeds two inches deep in a
circle of about four inches diameter. If the seed be
good the plants will rise regularly in about six
weeks."

Sow cabbage, Brusscl's sprouts, for the second
crop ; cauliflower in the first week, to come in use
in August; brocoli for 1844, thrice, and purple
Cape about the 12th, or thence to the 15th. Some
do not transplant Cape brocoU ; but in that case
future directions must be given. Savoy (the small
green globe is preferred) early and late in the month,
to prolong the season for ftimilies, where this best
of winter brassicas is much used.

Sow silver-skinned onions twice, for drawing
young ; and all the salad herbs; also radish, the ta-
per and turnip-rooted.

Summer turnips, as the Dutch or early stone,
make two small sowings.

At the third week, or even earlier, if the season
be mild, sunny, and the ground merely moist, but
quite warm, begin to sow the varieties of kidney-
bean.

The artichoke is now, in some of our best gar-
dens, treated as a biennial, or almost annual plant.
Instead of the mouldings, coverings, and other la-
borious winter operations with old stock plants, the
strongest rooted suckers are detached from the
best stocks, and planted out, about two feet asun-
der, in rich deep beds of light loam.

Showery genial weather, like that of old fash-
ioned April, is almost essential to success, for a dry
spring is very inimical. Whenever the weather is
favoumble, early or late in the month, the trans-
planting should be made, and the variety called
the globe ought to be preferred; these young plants
will bear one or two fine heads, and that is suffici-

U

290

THE lAUMKU'S AJAGAZINE.

cut. Older i>laiit5 arc only retained to i'lirnibh
Slickers, and tliii!, a constant .succession is main-
tained. By eouibiuing the euUiire of new plants
with some two or three years old, heads may be ob-
tained from June to October.

Transplant cabbage, cauliflower, and lettuce, but
ill respect to the last, it is always preferable to sow
the seeds after the middle of March, for these late
transjjlantings generally fail, as the plants speedily
run to flower.

Plant second crops of potatoes to succeed the
early varieties ; these come in after September, and
arc very desirable. After all that has been said or
written, no kind of potato surpasses the early
" Shaw" and true " Champion," unl«ss it be that
mealy delicate variety called, in Avest Wiltshire, the
" early purple-eye."

Fkuit Dei'Artmemt.

\Vhile we write (18tli IMarch) though the tempe-
rature has been nearly GO", currant bushes have not
started a leaf, raspberries are equally bare, and
gooseberries arc only so forward as we have many
times seen them in Tebruary ; thus a winter of the
mildest character may be ultimately followed by a
very late spring. The fruit, however, promises to
be most aljundant.

M^all-trecs are also late, and wc hope secure ; the
peaches and nectarines must be attentively watched
after the fruit sets, to prevent, by fumigation, wash-
ing with tobacco-water, or frequent syringing, the
ravages of the aphis.

The bladder-blight is, wc fear, irremediable j it is
a disease by which the leaves become bloated and
horribly distorted; these subsequently inny become
the nidus of insects, but the cause is" either in the
sap, or perhaps may be traced to a chill, Avhich des-
troys the pores, and thus produces a plethoric sur-
charge of the cells.

As peach liorders arc repeatedly trodden by the
workmen, they should not have any crop near the
trees, nor ever be deeply digged.

Apple and pear trees on walls or espaliers ought
speedily to have the best regulation : and in tliis
we include close spurring and cutting back all the
long projecting spurs ; tluis those unsightly stag's-
horn processes, which so disfigured the old trained
trees, will be avoided. The same direction a]jplies,
in a degree, to dwarf standards, and finally a dust-
ing with powdery lime, or copious syringing with
fresh lime-water, will remove mosses and lichens,
and keep the bark clear and bright.

The early vinery will in some instances be so for-
ward as to have its clusters colouring ; air is more
lequired in this stage than at any other, and the
heat must be strong by day — Cj" is ample during
night ; moisture is to be abated, and no water
should fall on the fruit while colouring.

The pine stoves and pits must be kept active, and
now succession plants must have their spring
potting; the best soil for which is an unctuous fria-
ble loam, with one-third of decayed manure and
some bone dust. If the roots be white and healtiiy,
not one should be removeil ; if black and inert, that
portion may be safely amputated. After these ope-
rations the plants cannot i)ekcpt too close in shaded
pits at a heat of 80". Here it is a duty to observe
that a good hot-water apparatus is the safest and
most effectual mode of heating, and it can be con-
structed at a most trifling cxpence

Any common second-hand or old topper can be
fitted with two tubes by a brii/.ier, oi;e above the
other, about the middle, and flush with the mctal»;

these orifices should be three or four inclicb in dia-
meter. These j)ipes should pass into a range of
common tile drainage tubes, made to lit by joints,
one within the other, each su])ported by a brick
set off, let into the back, end, and front walls of the
pit or house, and cemented, water-tight, by Parker's
cement. The upper copper pipe should pass into
the carthern pipes that run along the back wall,
then across the further end, returning by the front
wall, and by a bent copper pipe, terminating in the
copper, which thus receives the water at the lower
of the two orifices.

The entire descent need not exceed four inches in
a range 30 feet long, and the merits of the appara-
tus will consist in its extreme simplicity, economy,
and perfect applicability to all the processes of cu-
cumber, melon, and pine growing, and the propaga-
tion of dahlias and other tender plants, by cuttings
or shoots.

Hot water so employed, offers one great advan-
tage ; it will flow through a properly constructed
range of pipes, so long as two different degrees of
temperature are maintained, however high or low
that temperature may be ; thus a house can be kept
at 4.5" or 30" throughout its length, or be raised to
75" or 80" ; and, if Moira coal be used as fuel, a lire
can be kept up for twelve hours, by the simple re-
gulation of the ash-pit and chimney damper.

A smoke-flue varies in its heat throughout, and
is far less under coutroul.

Stove plants can be propagated by cuttings, at
the end of the month, and so may all the tribe of
geraniums. Air, water, strong day temperature,
with a vaporous condition of the house, raised by
almost deluging the floor early, are essentials.

The greenhouse plants grow freely now, and will
require great attention; some must be repotted,
all will need due supplies of water, and free air iu
dry and sunny weather. Dead leaves should be
removed, and if aphis appear, the house should be
closed, fumigated by tobacco smoke twice while
dry, after which the plants should be thoroughly
cleaned by the dexterous use of the syringe.

Camellias like moist heat (GO" or more), shade,
and abundance of water, while growing, for thus
they form their growth, and develop their flower-
buds early in the summer.

In the open gi'ound departments, the shrubberies
and parterres should be kept quite clean; numbers
of annual plants, raised in pots, may be planted
out in appropriate situations, and, at the same time,
herbaceous perennials may be divided and re-
planted.— March 21.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCI ETY
OF ENGLAND.

At a Council held on Weduesday, the 22ik1 of
Pebrunry, present — Philip Pusey, Esq., M.P., in the
chair, Colonel Austen, T. Raymond Barker, J>q.,'J'.
M. Bartlelt, Esq., T. W. Bramston, Esq., M.P., F.
Burke, Esq., Colonel Challoner, F. C, Clierry, Esq.,
H. Gibbs tlsq., B. Gibbs, Esq , VV. G. Hayter, E-^q.,
M.P., Rev. C. Keene, W. Miies, Esq., M.P., W. W.
Page, f:sq., W.Shiiiw, Esq., and G. VVilbraham, Esq.

Mr. John Gillott, a farmer, residing at Bridge Nor-
ton, near Witney in Oxfordshire, communicated to the
council the result of his trial of the Bokhara clover,
and expressed his intention of traa-mittin^ to the so-
ciety the result of his trial of the April wheat Inst year.
This cnmmunication was received with thanks and
referred to the general committee; the author beinff
requested to s'ale the nature of his soil and the result
attending his trials during the ensuing summer. Mr.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

291

Puicy and Mr. Milci5 expressed their intention oi
instituting trials of the Bokhara clover and Klielat
lucerne on peat soils, and Mr. (jibbs undertook to ob-
tain for the society luriher information on the subject.

Mr. Illingworth, of Bristol, submitted to the council
liis suggesiion (or a systematic establishment of farmer's
clubs in connexion with the poor law unions and local
associations throughout tiie country, tor the purpose of
collecting and transmitting to the Royal Agricultural
Society of England the result ot their practical inquiries.
The Council returned their thanks to ftlr. Illingwovih
for the favour ot his communication, but did not feel
justified in entering on so extensive an undertaking as
as the one he proposed to thetn.

Mr. Pusey reported, as chairman of the Journal
Committee, the result of a correspondence with the
Duke of Portland and the Rev. \V. Thorpe, and the
reception of various other papers for the Journal.

J\Ir. Stratton, of Bristol, presented to the society a
series of lithographic drawings, of his collection of
waggons and implements exhibited last year at the
meeting at Bristol.

The Council then adjourned to Wednesday, the
1st of March.

At a monthly Council held at the Society's house in
Hanover Square, on the 1st of March, present— Philip
Pusey, Esq., M.P., in the chair, Earl of Euston, David
Barclay, Esq., M.P., Thomas Raymond Barker, Esq.
.Tohn Benett, Esq., MP.. French Burke, Esq., Col.
Challoner, F. C. Cherry, E?q., Humphrey Gibbs, Esq.,
i'>randreth Gibbs, Esq., Stephen Grantham, E?q.,
H, Goodenough Hayter, Esq., M.P., C. Hill-
yard, E«q., W. Fisher Hobb'S, Esq., Rev. C. E.
Keene, John Kinder, Esq., Francis Pym, Esq., Pro-
fessor Sewell, and W. R. Cromptoa Stansfield, Esq.,
M.P.

Mr. Raymond Barker, Chairman of the Finance
Committee, presented to the Council the monthly re-
port of the Committee's examination of the accounts,
and the stale of the funds of the Society ; from which
it appeared that in addition to the invested capital of
the Society, the current cash balance in the bands of
the bankers on that day was 1,593/. 'i'his Report, to-
gether vtitli the recommendations of the Committee, in
reference to the additional clerks and oificial arrange-
ments, was adopted and confirmed.

On the motion of Mr. David Barclay, M.P., it was
unanimously resolved, " That in (uture the carriage
shall not be paid for the Journals of Members whose
subscriptions have be'-n in arrear ; but that, on receipt
of the said subscriptions, a letter shall be addressed
to the parties by the Secretary, informing them that
the Journals to which they may be entitled are ready
for delivery at the Office of the Society, in Hanover-
Square, on application, with un order in writing ; and
can either be forwarded immediately at their own ex-
peace, or witn the next number of the Journal, at the
expence of the Society."

Colonel Challoner, as the la%t year's Chairman of the
Finance Committee, presented to the Council the
general balance-sheet of the accounts connected with
the Society's Meeiiug at Bristol, from which it ap-
peared that, independently of the amount of 1,300/.,
given by the Society in prizes for stock, implements,
&:c., and the vaiious sums offered for the Prize Essays
of the year, the Society had contributed out of its own
funds the sum of 573/., to promote the objects of the
Meeting, and supply the deficiency arising from the ex-
cess of the expenditure over the receipts on t hat occasion :
the total receipts being 4,202/., while the outlay re-
quired for various arrangements of the meeting had
amounted to 4,775/. Colonel Challoner then pro-
ceeded, as Vice-Chairman of the General Derby
Committee, to read to the Council the Report of the
Committee in reference to the arrangements for the
meeting. This report was unanimously adopted, and
the contract with Mr. Manning for the execution of
the whole of the works connected with the show-
yard and Pavilion for the sum of 2,20o/. confirmed.

Mr. Raymond Barker obtained leave to postpone
his motion on the appointment of a permanent House
Committee, until the Special Committee had made
their final report to the Council.

Mr. Gibbs gave notice that he would move at the
next Monthly Council, "That all annual Members
shall be considered to be in arrear of subscription after
the 1st of June in each year."

Mr. Pusey, M.P., gave notice that he should move
at the next Monthly Council, "That in fiilure the
Journal should be issued in half- volumes twice in the
year, containing the same amount of matter as hereto-
fore."

Mr. Pusey, having then informed the Council that
the Reports on the Model Experiment on the
growth of Turnips, furnished by the Hon. R. H. Clive.
JM.P., and Mr. R. Westwood Baker, had not been
made use of in the Journal, on account of the parties
not having complied with the regulations of the expe-
riment proposed ; proceeded to inform ihe Council that
agreeably with their request he had applied to the
E-ir! of Aberdeen for letters of introduction and safe-
guard in favour of Dr. Daubeny, who in a few days
would proceed on his tour of enquiry through Estre-
madura and other districts in Spain where the phos-
phorite mineral (containing so large a proportion of
the earth of bones) was known to abound.

Mr. Pusey informed the Council that Dr. Playfair
having declined to accept an appointment of the value
of 500/. per annum, in order that he might remain m
England to devote himself to the study and profession
of Agricultural Chemistry, he should propose at the
next Monthly Council that Dr. Playfair be appointed
the " Consulting Chemist" of the Society, giving to the
Society his gratuitous opinions on all questions of a
chemical nature transmitted to him through the Secre-
tary, making a charge, according to a given scale, only
for such analyses as might be required. Mi. Pusey
stated to the Council the important advantages that
would accrue to the Society and its members at large
in their thus securing the talents of so distinguished au
individual as Dr. Playfair.

Profesior Sewell reported to the Council that he had
communicated, as requested by them at a former meet-
ing, with the Duke of Rutland respecting the cow which
he had ofl"ered to the Society, and whose case had at-
tracted the notice of the Membeis; and that, with his
Grace's permission, Mr. Batchelder, Veterinary Sur-
geon at Grantham, liad examined the animal, and ascer-
tained the case to be thut of a ventral or abdominal hernia.
Professor Sewell having informed the DuVe of Rutland
that such diseases not being common in the London
dairies, the ca<e in question would be instruc-
tive to a large class of pupils attending the Veteri-
nary College. His Grace had expressed great satisfaction
at the opportunity thus offered to him of contributing to
the promotion of the objects of the Society and of the
College, and sent the animal to the College infirmary,
where she had safely arrived by railroad.

Alsikf, Clover.
Mr. Fisher Hobbs informed the Council that he had
lately met with a kind of clover which he thought
might prove useful to practical farmers, although, as
he found Mr. H. Gibbs was well acquaicited with it, he
could not bring it before the Council as a new variety.
His attention had been called to this plant by a gentle-
man of the name of Sewell, residing in the county of
Es^ex, who had originally sown with great care in his
garden a few of the seeds pre?enled to him by a friend,
the same plants being seeded two or three conse-
cutive years with the slightest apparent exhaustion ;
a fact which Mr. Sewell assumed as proving the plant
to be a perennial. He described the growth of this
clover as being very strong, the plant throwing out in
some instances as many as thirty stems from the same
root, these stems resembling those of the common red
clover, while the blossom had a pink hue, bearing, with
the seed-pods and leaves, the greatest analogy to the
white or Dutch clover ; the roots throwing down tap*

u 2

292

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

roots like the one variety, and s-hootiog out numerous
small lateral fibres like the other. From these striking
similarities to the two common varieties, Mr.
Sewell concluded that tlie clover he liad thus cul-
tivated must be a hybrid between them. Mr, Hobbs
stilted that Mr. Sewell strongly recommended this
hybrid clover to b3 sown in conjunction with
the red clover, on account of its great length of
stem, especially when grown on rich land, and its in-
adequacy consequently to support itself erect ; the plant
becoming bent and trailing, and thus difficult to mow
without loss, excepting by very careful and expert
labourers ; and that, on account of the smallness of the
seed, he considered tlie common quantities per acre as
quite unnecessary ; from six to seven pounds per acre,
carefully distributed, being' quite sufficient, or half that
quantity mixed with half a peck of red seed.

IMr. Humphrey Gibbs stated that the clover alluded
to by Mr. llobbs, was ihe AUike Clover, or Trifolium
hybridum. A foreign correspondent of IMessrs. T.
Gibbs and Co., had cultivated it for six successive years,
and had found it an excellent article, as it withstood the
greatest degree of frost, which the other clover would
not do over there. On middling descriptions of soils it
produced fair crops, on richer sods very heavy ones.
The italks are said not to harden like those of the red
clover, but remain soft. Alter being cut it soon shoots
again, and seed crops had been taken tliree successive
years from the same plants — giving the plants a top
dressing- of stable manure in Ihe winter. The habit of
the plant is horizontal in its growth. Messrs. T. Gibbs
had also received some of the seed and specimens from
IMr. Sewell, the gentleman from whom Mr. Hobbs had
the seed pre?ented to the Councd, and that ftlr. Sewell
had stated that, " It is, 1 have no doubt, likely to prove
a very valuable acquisition to that class (clovers) of
plants. It is a perennial and possesses all the good
qualities of the common red and white (clover) as a
sheep feed, &c., but its produce is very considerably
more than the latter, 1 should say nearly or quite
double." Mr. Sewell grew some acres of it last year,
which were fed all summer with sheep, and he had rea-
son to be highly satisfied with it, both for quantity and
quality; he considered from 61bs. to 7lbs, amply suffi-
cient seed required for an acre.

Mr. Hobbs having stated that he intended to make
trial of the Alsike clover, the Council requested him to
furni-h the Society with the results.

The Duke of Richmond transmitted to the Council a
communication from the Moray Farmer's Club ; Mr.
Read, of Regent's Circu<=, various specimens ofcyhn-
driac tiles, with an account of the manufacture, price,
and peculiar ineiit.--; j\Ir. Squarey, of Salisbury, a
specimen of phosphate of lime ; Mr. Francis Clowes, of
Hemsby, a communication of experiments with various
manures ; and Mi'. Danson, Dr. Die's Report on
Analysis of Guano; all of which were received wiih
thanks, and referred to the Journal Committee.

Mr. Cherry submitted and explained to the Council
the advantages of his equalizing roller for land, and his
portable forge, which he had employed for twenty
years.

The Co'.-mcil then adjuurned to Wednesday, the 8th
of March.

At a weekly Council, held at the Society's house in
Hanover-square, Wednesday, March 8 ; present, Phdip
Pusey.Esq., M.P., in the chair ; W. R. Browne, Esq.,
Frenih Burke, E-q., John VVulbanke Childers, Esq.,
M.P., Humphrey Gibbs, Esq., Brandreth Gibbs, Esq.,
Sir Jd/n V. H. Johnstonp, Bart., M.P., Rev. Edmund
C. Keene, W. Woods Page, Esq., William Shaw, Esq ,
John Spencer Stanhope, Esq., and Henry Wilion, Esq.
Bokhara Clover,

A letter wa* read from Joshua Rodwell, Esq., of
Alderton Hall, near Woodbridge, Suffolk, informing
the Council that he had forwarded by the Wuterhui,
Captain Laws, from Woodbridge, a packet of dried
?pecinaeas of the Bokhara Clover ("«lba altissima"),

of his own growth in the years l84l and l842, which
he hoped the Council would accept for the use of the
Society, as an interesting exhibition to the members in
the rooms of the Society, and at the Derby meeting.

The plants measured nearly thirteen feet in length ;
specimen No. 1 being of the growlh of 1841, from seeds
sown in April ; No. 2, the growlh of 1842, from the
roots of plants sown in 1841, gathered and pressed
when in bloom ; and No. 3, the growth of 1842, from
the roots of plants sown in 1841, gathered and pressed
when in seed.

Mr. Rodwell expressed the satisfaction it would give
him, if in any way he could furnish details as to the
properties or growth of that gigantic plant.

This present was received with the thanks of the
Councd, and arequeit for all the information Mr. Rod-
well could supply on this subject, especially in reference
to the point whether the plant was liked or diiliked by
cattle.

VETEIlINAnv PriEl'ARATIONS.

J. Allen Stokes, Esq., of Harvington, near Evesham)
Worcestershire, iiddressed to the Council a communi-
caiion on the subject of the loss he had just sustained of
a five years old thorough-bred mare, apparently from
common inflammation and constipation of the bowels ;
but on a post mortem examination, as it was found,
from an extraordinary strangulated hernia, the intes-
tines having passed thiough the diaphragm, and thereby
caused inflammation and death. Dr. Lloyd having-
thought the specimen a valuable one, had preserved it
in spirits ; and the case being the more curious from
the hernia bavins' evidently e.\isted at least twelve-
months. Mr, Stokes was desirous of presenting it,
with Dr. Lloyd's particulars of the case, to the Vete-
rinary Depaitment of the Museum of the Society,
fchould the Council think it desirable.

On the motion of Mr. Shaw, the Council accepted
the present with the thanks of the Society, and directed
that it should be deposited under the charge of Pro-
fesior Sewell at the Veteiinary College.

Cottage Tracts.
The Secretary informed the Council that in addition
to the 6,000 impressions of Mr. Main's paper on Cottage
Gardening already reprinted from the Journal, for
cheap distribution, at the prime cost of one penny each,
among the labouring cottagers of the kingdom by
members of the Society, the 3,0'JO impressions of Mr.
Burke's compilation on Cottage Economy and Cookery,
was nearly exhausted, and a new re-print of a further
similar number of impressions required.

Bavaiuan AgriCultuue.

The Baron de Cetto (the Bavarian Ambassador)
having signified to Ihe Society on a former occasion his
willingness to promote the objects of the Society to the
utmost extent of his opportunities, by effecting a com-
munic.-itiun between the Society of the Royal Academy
ol Sciences of Munich, the Council received at this
meeting the valuable donation of the various Transac-
tions of that disiingui*hed and learned Academy ; con-
taining, in their several volumes, many papers of an
agricultural character, along with a separate treatise
(with coloured plates) on the potato-sickness, or injury
from diuase to the potato-crop of Germany.

The thanks of the Council were voted by the Council
for these communications, which were specially referred
to the notice of the next Monthly Council.

Specimens of Wheat.

Professor Henslow transmitted to the Council 33
Specimens of Wheat for the Library of the Society,
each specimen (with its root, plant, ear,and seed) being
arranged with great care on a while papered ground,
and tiic frame enclosed with glass ; the particulars re-
lating to the specimens being recorded on the back of
the respective frames.

Mr. Pusey informed the Council of the great labour
and devotion of time these specimens had cost Pro-
fes'or Ilcnslow in their due arrangement, and that they,
formed a i)ortion only of the series of specimens that

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

293

gentleman had so kindly undertaken to arrange for the
Society.

Mr. Pusey informed (lie Council tliat as their week-
ly meetings ('namely, all meetings of the Council
during the session, not held on the first Wednesday of
the month, and which any member of the society -was
priviiei^ed to attend^, were intemlcd to be set apait lor
the reception and discussion of papers on topics of
agricultural interest, lie would on that occasion pro-
ceed to read to them an account of a series of experi-
ments with various manures, presented at the last
monthly Council, and made by Mr. Francis Clowes, of
Hemsby, near 'Vermouth, in Norfolk.

The reading of this paper excited much interest
among the members present, who, in the course of
tiieir discussion on the various points to wliicii J\Ir.
Clowes called the attention of the Society, s'aied such
facts within their own experience as had a bearing
upon the subject.

The Council then adjourned to Wednesday, the 15th
of March.

At a weekly Council, held at the Society's house, in
Hanover Square, on Wednesday, the IStli of March,
present, the Duke of Richmond in the chair, E-irl of
March, tarl of Essex, Lord Camoys, Thoma^^ Alcock,
Esq., i5ari!ffh Aimack, Esq., Col. Austen, Thomas
Raymond Barker, Esq., W. R, Browne, Esq., French
Burke, Eiq., Colonel Challoner, F. C. Cherry, Esq.,
Charles Robert Colvile, Esq., M.P., A.E. Fuller,
Esq., M. P., Humphrey Gibbs, Esq., Brandreth Gibbs,
Esq., W. Gnodenougrh Hayter, Esq., M.P., Sir John
V. B.Johnstone, Bart., M.P., W.Woods Page, Esq.,
Henry Wilson, Esq., and Colonel Wood, M. P.

The Duke of Richmond informed the Council that
a successful operation had been performed at the Royal
\ eteiinary College, by Mr. Simmonds, the Professor
of the Cattle Pathology in that establishment, on the
cow presented to the College by ihe Duke of Rutland,
and whose remarkable case of hernia had already ex-
cited so much interest on account of the extent of the
protrusion, the long- standing of the case, and the
healthy condition of the animal ; when it was decided
that Professor Sewell should be requested to recom-
mend to furnisli a detailed account of the case to the
Journal Committee.

Francis Hart, Esq., of Alderwasley, informed the
Council of his intention to introduce the Dyock Oat on
the Derbyshire-hills, in consequence of the favourable
account Mr. Pusey had given of it in the Journal, as
suitable for high and light lands ; and tiie rev. R. W.
Fisher replied to the inquiries made of him as to the
best mode of obtaining the seed for that purpose.

Richard Illingworlh, Esq., of Bristol, suggested the
publiotion, under the sanction of the Society, of con-
cise practical tracts on particular topics of agricultural
interest, as the best mode of applying Guano, &c.

Edward Oldfield, Esq., of Ashill, near Waltcn, Nor-
folk, communicated the case of one of his foals, which
had died from the obstruciion causf d by the accumula-
tion of a compact substance, 2jlbs. in weight, 9 inches
long and 13 inches in circumference. This communi-
cation, and the specimen enclosed, was referred to
Professor Sewed.

Professor Johnston, of Durham, transmitted for tlie
members of the Council, several copies of the third
number of his printed " Suggestions and Experiments
in Practical Agriculture," containing the results of ex-
periments made in 1843. Professor Johnston considered
these papers of great value, not merely for the actual
information they contained, but on account of the new
suggestions to which they gave rise, and the hopes they
held out for the future.

Mr. T. E. Hardy, of Liverpool, transmitted a copy
of his correspondence on the subject of Guawo, and the
results obtained from its application.

Mr. Rlacgregor Skinner, Secretary of the Flax
Improvement Society of Ireland, presented several
copies of the printed Reports of the proceedings of that

Society ; informing the Council that through the agency
of the Flax Society two similar institauons had been
established in England in the counties of Norfolk and
Essex.

Mr. V/^alrond, Secretary of the Gloucester Farmers'
Club, presented the Third Annual ]{eport of that Asso-
ciation, containing a detailed account of their proceed-
ings during the year 1842.

Earl Fiizwilliam applied, through the Rev. J. W.
Harman, (or copies of the tracts on Cottage Gardening
and Cookery— reprinted from the Journal— for the pur-
pose of distributing them among his labourer.--, and
leave was granted accordingly.

]Mr. Fuller, M. P., Col. Challoner, Sir John Johnstone,
and Mr. Browne, having reported to the Council their
experience in the amount of the turnip crop grown on
different soils, under diflferent management, and with
difterent manures, the Duke of Richmond explained (o
the meeting the success which, in Scotland, had at-
tended the trials made with bones converted by che-
mical agency, and at a cheap rate, into a manure of a
modified character, the details of which he had com-
municated to the Journal Committee.

The Council then adjourned to Wednesday, the 2-2d
of March.

At a weekly Council, held at the Society's House,
in Hanover Square, on Wednesday, the 22nd of
March, present, Ihomas Raymond Barker, E*q., in
the Chair; Hon. George Henry Cavendish, M.P. ;
Thomas Alcock, Esq.; W. R. Browne, Esq. ; French
Burke, Esq. ; F. C Cherry, Esq. ; E. D. Davenport,
Esq. : C. Hillyard, Esq. ; Robert Henry Hurst, Esq. ;
Rev.'C. Keene; Sir Francis Mackenzie, Bart.; W;
Woods Page, Esq.; William Shaw, Esq. ; T. Spencer
Stanhope, Esq.; and W. R. Crompton Slansfield,
Esq., M.P.

Model and Experimental Farms.

Sir Francis Mackenzie presented to the Council a
detailed statement ol his plan for the establishment of
a Model Farm in each county of England and Wales,
by a public subscription, at an estimated sum of

117.297i.

Henry R. Sandbach, of Hafodunos, near Llanrwst,
in North Wales, communicated to the Council his offer
ofany quantity of landin North Wale?, on any reasonable
terms, for the establishment of an experimental farm,
provided it were managed under the immediate
direction and responsibility of the Society.
Red Water in Sheep.
C. Hillyard, Esq. informed the Council that he had
received information of the great loss of turnip-feeding
sheep which had recently occurred in the county of
Northampton, in consequence of an accumulation of
red-water in the abdomen ; at the same time stating
that, from information he had received on the previous
day, the following recipe, taken from an old author,
had' been employed with the greatest success :—
Epsom salts, six ounces.
Nitre, in powder, four ounces.
Boiling water, three pints (poureJ uj on the
salts and nitre).
When new-milk warm, add

Spirits of turpentine, four ounces.
Bole Armenian, in powder, half-an-ounce.
Mix and shake the whole ■veil together, when given.
The dose is from three to four table-spoonfuls.

N.B. The sheep must be bled befoie administering
the medicine.

" When this medicine is intended to be given to a
considerable number of sheep, they must be taken
from the turnips, or whatever they are feeding on, and
put into a pen or fold-yard for two hours before it is
given. Then, a small horn should be provided that
will just hold the quantity proper for each sheep. Let
the bottle be well shaken each time it is poured into
the horn. This method of giving drinks will be found
very advantageous when many require it at onetime.

294

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

They must be kept from food two hours after the me-
dicine is given, either in a fold-yard, or a pen; after
•which, they may be put in their pasture as usual.
When this disease is so severe that several die every
day, it will be necessary to repeat the medicine every
third day, for three times or more, if thought proper,
and to change their diet, and remove them into a
more elevated situation. This medicine, together with
bleeding, will be found a powerful preveiuive to most
inflammatory complaints which sheep are liable to,
while feeding on turnips, or in a luxuriant pasture."

Experiments with Guano.
William Gibbs, Esq., of 13, Hyde Park Street, Lon-
don, communicated the following results of the trials of
guano with Swedish turnips and wheat : —

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Mr. T. E. Hardy, of Liverpool, transmitted the Re-
ports of recent Experiments made with Guano in va-
rious parts of the country.

Captain Shedden of Bittern Manor House, near
Southampton, presented a box containing a sample of
very fine field-peas grown by him last year ; and the
Secretary was directed to request of Captain Shedden
the favour of all the information he could supply con-
nected with thfcir character, history, and cultivation.

]\Ir. Benjamin Bond, of Draycot, SlafTordshire, pre-
sented a copy of the list of premiums offered by the
Draycot Parochial Agricultunal Society for October in
the present year ; and an impression of the mezzotint
engraving of two Durham Oxen, reared and fed by the
late Mr. Joiin Bond, of Brancott, nenr Stafford.

Professor Solly, of the Horticultural Society, pre-
sented a copy of his Rural C7;f»i/s7r!/, and Mr. Culh-
bert John-on a copy of his Agricullurul Chemistry for
Yimng Farmers; Mr. Shaw, copies of the Farmer^ s
Magazine ; Sir James Rlurray, of his Trial* and Efftcts
of Chemical Fertilizers ; Mr. A. Low, of Overgate,
Dundee, copies of his treatises on the Potato Crops,
and the Cultivation of Flax; and Messrs. Lawson, of
Edinburgh, a copy of their treatise on the Cultivated
Grasses, and other Herbage and Forage Plants.

The following papers were referred to the Journal
Committee: — Sir Francis Mackenzie's Suggestions on
the Establishment of Model Farms ; Mr. Sandbach's
offer of Land for an Experimental Farm ; Mr. White's
Reports on the operations of Thorough-Draining and
Subsoil-Ploughing, together witii a statement of the
crops on the farm of the Hon. R. H. Clive, M.P., at
Priors Halton, in 1841, and the result 'of experi-
menl« with different Manures in the {growth of Turnips

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE

295

and Barley ; auJ Mr. Rodwell's paper on tlie result
of liis cultivaiioii of the Bokhara Clover,

The Council then ailjounied to Wednesday, the 29th
of March.

NEW MEMBERS.

Tlie following gentlemen have been elected

members of the Society during the month.

Ailchisou, E., rTn., Ciroombridge, Sussex

Anderson, James, Gortleck, N. B., and Mount Ver-

noD, Hampstead
Alcock, Thomas, King's Wood Warren, Epsom, Surrey
A llsop, Joseph, Woodington Faim, East Wellar, near

Romsey, Hants
Andrews, Cliarles James, Reading, Berks.
Ba^s, Abraham, Burton-upon-'J'rent, Slaflbrdshire
Bass, Michael, Burtou-on-Trent, Staft'ordsliire
Bates, the Rev. C, Castleton, Derbyshire
Beardsley, Samuel, Callow, near Wirksworth, Derby-
shire
Belcher, Robt. Shirlay, Burfon-upon-Trent,Siaflbrdsh.
Blane, Sir Seymour, liart., the Pasture, Derby
Bond, Benjamin, Draycot, Stone, Staffordshire
Brodhur,Nt, John, Crow Hill, near Mansfield, Notts.
Brown, John Lees, Farewell, near Lichfield, StaH's.
Burne, U'illiam, Alfreton, Derbyshire
Cantrell, William, surgeon, Wirksworth, Derbysiiire
Champion, the Rev. I., Edale, Castleton, Derbyshire
Champion, Francis Beresfoid, Edale, near Castleton,

Derbyshire
Charge, John, Chesterfield, Derbyshire
(Jiarrington, Nicl)ola«;, Leylonstoae, Essex
Clark, John, Kirby Ilardwicke, near Mansfield,

Notts.
Clement, Hampden, Suareston Lodge, Alherstone,

Warwickshire
Clowes, William Lcgh, Spondon, near Derby
Cocking', Joseph, Tupton, near Chesterfield, Derby-,hire
Coffin, Captain Henry Edward, R.N., Firtree Cottage,

Bartley, near Southampton
Cox, Edward Soresby, Brailsford, Derbyshire
Cox, William, Brailslord, Derbyshire
Cox, Henry, Parkfield, near Derby
Cox, John Henry, Parkfield, near Derby
Cremorne, Loid, 3, Great Slanhope-street, and Dartry,

Rockcorry, Ireland
Darwin, Sir Francis S., Sydnape, near Mailock,

Derbyshire
Doneaster, George, Middlethorpe, near Newark, Notts,
Erne, The Earl of. Crumb Castle, Lisniskea, Fer-
managh, Ireland
Evans, Rev. Charles, Blackwall, near Wirksworth,

Derbyshire
Evans, Samuel, Darley Abbey, near Derby
Fielding, Rev. H., Langley Rectory, near Derby
Filder, James Moses, the Pages, Bexhill, Sussex
Forbes, Sir John Stuart, Leamington
Foster, John, Rumbridge, near Southampton
Fox, H. W., solicitor, Derby
Foxwell, Thomas, Shepton Mallet, Somersetshire
Garton, John, Lumsdale, Matlock, Derbyshire
Gill, George, jun., Daccombe Court, CoflBasweli, near

Newton Abbot, Devon.
Godwin, Richard Bennett, Long Eaton, Derbyshire
Grant, Henry John, Gnoll Castle, Neath, Glamorgan.
Hale, Gervoise Cressy, Alfreton, Derbyshire,
Herring. John Barnwell, Watering Farm, East Dere-
ham, Norfolk
Rigg, Samuel, Abbey Holme, near Wigton, Cunaber-

land „ , ,,

Holden, Rev, James, Pleaseley Rectory, near Mans-
field, Notts,
How, John, Beech Farm, St. Alban's, Herts.
Huddlestone. Peter, Little Haiigh, Norton, near Ix-

worth, Suffolk ^, , ^ , -•

Hughes, John.Doaington Priory, Newbury, Bcrksbire

Ilulme, James Hilton, CUfle House, nesv Baslow,
Derbyshire

Hunter, John, Stanton Hall, Derbyshire

James, Henry, M.D., Treton Wood, near Wirksworth,
Derbyshire

Jessop, Michael, Alfreton, Derbyshire

Johnson, Rev. Nathaniel Palmer, Ashton-on-Trent,
Derbyshire , , t^ ,

Johnson, Samuel, Somersall Hall, Chesterfield, Derby-
shire

Johnson, John Goodwin, Bentley, near A,hbournc,
Derbyshire

Lambard, William, Buech Mount, Sevenoaks, Kent

Leach, Francis Edwardes, Kylybebil, Swansea, S. W.

Mason, William, Neeton Hall, Swafl'ham, Norfolk

Masters, Charles L. H.. Barrow Green House, Oxled,
Godstone, Surrey

Maynard, Edmund Gitting, Chesterfield, DerbysLire

Meynell, Godfrey, Langley, near Derby

-Meynell, John, Langley, near Derby

IMeynell, John, Tapton Grove, near Chesterfield, Der-
I) vslur6

Meyrick, Owen Fuller, Bodergam, Anglesey, N. W.,
and Clifford-street, Loudon

Mills, John, Castlegate Nottingham

Moore, Thomas, Syston, Leicestershire

Moss, John, Derby

Meusley, John Hardcastle, Derby

Mousley, William Eaton, Derby

Murton, Frederick, Slurry, near Canterbury, Kent

Oxford, Earl of, Eywood, Kington, Herefordshire

Parkinson, William, Sawley, near Derby

Phillips, Rev. ^V. J. G., Eling Vicarage, near South-
ampton

Pollard, George Augubtu?, Brockhurst, near Coven-
try, Warwickshire

Rammell, Edward Wootlon, Dent-de-Lion, Margate,
Thanet, Kent

Read, John, Hopton, West Ilarling, Norfolk

Ricardo, David, GatcombePark, near Minchin Hamp-
ton, Glouc.

Robinson, George, Winthorpe Hall, Newark, Notts.

Rushout, Captain, first Life Guards, Hyde Paik

Sampson, ^Villiam, Church Broughton, Derbyshire
Sampson, Benjamin, TulHmaar, near Truro, Corawall
Shaw, Francis, surgeon, Wirksworth, Derbyshire
Simpson. Frederick, Spondon, near Derby
Sitwell, Robert Sacheverell, Merley, near Derby
Smeddle, William, Ordnance office, Tower of London
Smedley, John, Lea Bridge, Matlock, Derbyshire
Smith, Francis, Saltbill, near Chichester, Sussex
Smith, The Right Hon. Robt, Vernon, M.P., 20,
Saville Row, London, and Farming Woods, near
Thrapstoue, Northamptonshire
Spence, Rev. Isaac, the Plantation, Acomb. near York
Spun-, Jeremiah, Wigthorpe, near Worksop, Nott«.
Stedman, Dudney, Horsham, Sussex
Stevens, Henry Isaac, Derby
Steventon, Richard, Barton, near Nottingham
Stokes, John Ruddington, near Nottingham
Strachan, J. M., Teddington Grove, Middlesex
Swan, James, High, near Stone, Staffs.
Sylverwood, William, Somercoates, Alfreton, Derby-
shire
Thomas, Thomas Edward, Glennor, Swaujea, S. W. ^
Thornhill, Thomas, jun., Pakenham Lodge, Ixworth,

Suffolk
Timson, Rev. Edward, Woodlands House, near Soulh-

amptoD
Tongue, Edward, Aldridge, Walsall, Staffordshire
Townsend, Henry, King's Newnham, Brinklow, War-
wickshire
Tweed, Thomas, Bowater Crescent, Woolwich
Walkden, — Rushall, near Pewsey, Wilts
Walker, William, Compton, Abdale, Glaucestershire
Walker, George, Wootton Park, near Ashbourne,

Derbyshire
West, Williim Henry, Gliffia^s, Ciickhowell
\NbeUmm, Colooel, KuUing'on, Southwell, Notts.

296

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Wilier, George, Hungerford Park, Hungerford, Berks.

Wilson, Edward, jun., Lydstep House, Tenby, Pem-
brokeshire, S. VV.

Withers, Henry, 10, above Bar, Southampton

Woodbourne, James, Kingsley, near A'isoa, Hampsh.

Woodhouse, John, Over Seule, Ashby-de-la-Zouch,
Leicestershire

Woodhurst, Lieut.-Col. M. L., Oxted, near Godstone,
Surrey

Wright, Charles, Bilham House, near Doncaster,
Yorkshire

Yeates, James, Mint Cotfage, near Kendal, West-
moreland

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FAR-
MER'S MAGAZINE.

Sir, — I am accused (by a correspondent to your
Magazine for Alarch, who subscribes himself
*' N."}, of having '' dogmalicalli) asserted that the
same law which influenced the progress to perfec-
tion in animals and in plants, did not hold good
when applied to the improvement of the mental
faculties in man." Now, whether I so dogmati-
cally asserted this theory or not will be better
judged of by your renders, after a perusal of the
passage in my communication, to which " N.'
refers. It is as follows: — " One other quotation
only : — ' Those who have been attentive observers
will be led to conclude that when vegetables, ani-
mals, or even the mental powers of man, attain
an extraordinary degree of perfection, degeneracy
in those particulars in which they have been supe-
rior seems invariably to await their offspring.' It
is an extraordinary fact, that the offspring of men
gifted with great mental powers are generally defi-
cient in that respect ; but what has this to do
with vegetables or animals ? What comparison
can possibly be drawn between the mind of n.an
and a plant? None whatever ; and it ought not,
therefore, to be cited as an example.'' Should
your readers decide that I have too authoritatively
disputed the accuracy of the quotation, they can
only do so under the impression that there is
cause for doubt upon the subject, since error can-
not be opposed with too much firmness; and no
rational individual, I apprehend, will for one mo-
ment entertain the idea that, if my argument be
substantial, I have maintained it immoderately.

Well then, in order to p)-op up my unstable
theory, I am content to refer the reader to an ad-
mission of the very individual who attempts to
disprove it: — "I admit," writes "N.," "that
numerous instances may be cited where ' the off-
spring of men gifted with great mental powers are
deficient in that respect,' but the cause of that
deficiency can generally be traced by the phreno-
logist." Did I question the ability of the phreno-
logist to explain the cause ? " Dogmatically" not.

I merely propounded the theory that animals
and plants did not necessarily degenerate. " N."
has admitted that there are numerous instances of
mental degeneration ; yet he has not questioned
the possibility of preventing the deterioration of
plants and animals ; consequently it is a prema-
ture and exceedingly dogmatical deduction that I
am either ignorant of the science of phrenology, or
incorrect in my theory that " no comparison can
possibly be drawn between the mind of man and
a plant." The former argument is insupportable ;
the latter is disproved by " N.'' himself.

But, probably, " N." intends it to be understood
that, if by the geaeral cultivation of the science of

phrenology, as much attention was devoted to the
object of maintaining incessant and constant im-
provement in the mind of man, as is paid to that of
animals and plants, this extraordinary but too
certain mental degeneration would not ensue.
This is the only argument that can justify the
statement that the law of nature is the same in
both cases. If such should be the argument I
would humbly beg to submit the question, whether
" N. "entertains aconviction, thathy thecultivation
and application of the science of phrenology, the
mental powers of the son would* bo necessarily
equal, or superior, to the mental powers of the
parents 1 If he does not entertain this conviction,
his attempt to disprove my theory is manifestly
nugatory. Whilst, if he does entertain it, I re-
spectfully solicit his proofs of it.^ correctness ;
and in the absence of such proofs I shall still retain
my former opinion, that ivocreation has no in-
fluence on the mental facultiis, and that no com-
parison can possibly he draion betweeii the mind of
man and a plant.

I am, sir, your obedient servant,

George Thompson, Jun.,
Practice loitli Science.
Lion Street, Kidderminster,
March I3th, 1843.

TRIALS AND EFFECTS OF CHE-
MICAL FERTILIZERS, WITH
VARIOUS EXPERIMENTS IN
AGRICULTURE.

BY SIR J. MURRAY, M.D.

When we reflect upon the following alarming
statistics (for England alone), published by the
Commissioners in their Report on the Condition
of the Labouring Population, we should try to
augment land produce, and furnish food and em-
ployment in proportion to the increase of our
people : —

" The extent of new territory required annually
by the annual increase of the population, viz.,
2.''.0,000, would form a county larger than Surrey,
or Leicester, or Nottingham, or Hereford, or
Cambridge, and nearly as large as Warwick. To
feed the annually increasing population, supposing
it to consume the same proportion of meat that is
consumed by the population of Manchester and its
vicinity (a consumption which appears to us to
be below the average of the consumption in the
metroi)olis), the influx of 230,000 of new popula-
tion will require for their consumption an annual
increase of 27,.327 head of cattle, 70,31;) sheep,
()4,7ir) lambs, and 7,894 calves, to raise which an
annual increase of upwards of 81,000 acres of good
pasture land would be required. Taking the con-
sumption of wheat or bread to be on the scale of
a common dietary, i. e., 5() ounces daily for a
family of a man, woman, and three children, then
the annual addition of supply of wheat required
will be about 105,000 quarters, requiring 28,058
acres of land, yielding 30 bushels of wheat to an
acre ; the total amount of good land requisite for
raising the chief articles of food, will therefore be
in all about 109,000 acres of good land annually."

At a time when half our poor arc unem-
ployed— when we have scarcely any manufac-
tories but land, and in a country where land was

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

297

not hitherto considered a manufactory at all, it is
our sacrpd duty to open up new resources of work
for our people, and to make them producers rather
than consianers.

Seed, taxes, and rent, cost nearly as much for
half a crop as for a whole one. Our damp clay
land is not half monided, hroken, or pulverised ;
we trust too much to horse lahour, and too little
to manual. Steady boys and girls, having each
the care of a field of crop, and encouraged bi/ ■pre-
miums, could soon become as expert in the charge
of a series of drills, as in the management of a
number of spindles in a factory.

We hope that our chemical efforts will lead to
this result, that thousands of children, now
blanching in work-houses, will be engaged in
drill-husbandry— become little farmers, and earn
at least fid. per day each for themselves, and as
much more for their employers.

For this purpose it is necessary that garden hus-
bandry should be established in our fields ; let
every farm be made a garden, and we shall have
plenty of work for all our people, and plenty of
bread for them to eat.

Manual labour can accomplish many objects
which macliines and horses cannot effect. As
plants require weeding, hoeing, moulding, and
sprinkling, the hand can effectually dress the earth
round the stalks— put them into a condition of
fertility, and feed, weed, and nouri^ih every indi-
vidual plant, as if it were a little tree.

The feeding of plants separately during their
growth in small mounds of earth, and the deep-
ening of the intervening space around them,
would soon convert our fields into gardens — gar-
dens of Eden to the health and morals of our
people.

Children feed poultry in pens. Why are fowls
crammed, and vegetables stai-ved? Were the
spirit of the above system carried out, farmers

> ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦

would become more reconciled to their present
high rent, because they could soon well afford to
pay it.

Although, for the sake of emulation, it is best to
put an acre or field under the management of each
particular boy or girl, yet wiien such field is being
planted, or sown, four or five boys should be em-
ployed together, so that the seed may be all intro-
duced in one day.

One lad spaces tlie lines, opens a thin groove,
trench, or drill, and breaks and levels clods. A
second follows, scooping out the seed-holes (as in
the plan below at A). At any defined distance,
marked upon the handle of his scoop, he rapidly
turns out a pint, quart, or other quantity of mould,
which he leaves in a little heap. The third youth
blends this pile of earth with a small measure of
the ^' acidulous and alkaline fertilizers ; t\\\% tiny
compost, when well mingled, is scooped again into
the seed hole, and covered with a thin s[)rinkling
of earth, to separate the seed from the compost. A
fourth lad follows, plants his seed, covers it over,
presses it down, and advances to the next little
hot-bed. In this manner an acre can be effectually
planted in a day, for 2s. wages. The seed-bed is
thus brought to a much finer tilth than hv the
common plans, and therefore less seed and ma-
nure will suffice in land properly ])repured. The
boy's feet press down the surface sufficiently to
solidify the mould o\er the seeds, and prevent
them from being lost by the depredation of birds,
or dried up by the sun, when they have first begun
to vegetate. All this accelerates and secures the
certain and uniform germination of the plants.

" In our wet clay lands, the wells left by the
feet of horses would then be avoided, and slugs,
weeds, and stones picked up, whilst white carrots,
chicory, and many valuable vegetables would be
brought to perfection by hand, which are out of
the way of horse-work.

A shews the opens or seed-holes made in the small
trenches when ready to receive the fertilizers and
seed. B shews the banks or mounds raised around
each plant during its growth. The intervening
white spaces, or trenches, are to be turned up, on
the pi-incipte of subsoiUng m diagonal cuts or fur-
rows, crossing each other, as represented in the
above plan B.

Were all culinary and green crops dibbled, sown,
or transplanted at a proper distance, and earthed
itp regularly, by young persons, the produce could
be increased to almost any amount. A single po-
tato plant thus reared and fed by hand, yields from
seven to fourteen pounds of tubers.

THE EDEN HALL OX.— A striking likeness
of the short-horn ox, the property of .Sir P. Musgraye
Bart., of Eden Hall, Cumberland; which obtained a
prize from the East Cumberland Agricultural Society
two years in succession, has just been published.
It is a lithograph by I. W. Giles, from a painting
by Mr. T, Bland, a young artist who displays much

talent. The ox, 6 yrs. old, was killed at Ed«=n Hall
and weighed 160 stone. In accordance with his
well-known kindness and beneficence Sir Phillip
Musgrave distributed the greater part of the meat
amongst the poor.

Liquid Manure. — We (luote from the Bos-
tou Cultivator, (America,) of Dec. 17th, 1842, the
following portion of an address delivered btfore the
members of the Housatonic Agiiculiural Society : —
'' By an accurate experiment, made by I\Ir. Young,
with fourteen cattle, in one year he made two hundred
and eighty-eight loads of compost of loam and muck
simply from the urine of these cattle. During the same
time, their solid excrements and litter amounted to two
hundred and forty loads. With compost saturated
with urine, he manured seven acres, and with the solid
excrements, five acres. After ten years' accurate trial,
he came to this result, that the liquid excrement of this
stock would manure as many acres of land, last as long-,
and produce as large crops as their solid excrements.
Let this experiment, of one «hose good deeds in this
great cause speak to us from the grave, teach all a
lesson never to be forgotten in the ecanomy of the ma'
nure heap."

298

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

AGRICULTURAL QUERIES.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Sir, — In pursuing the enquiries I purposed on
addressing you on the 21st of January, I am happy
to find I am already joined by two of your sub-
scribers— one requesting a plan of a cow-house on
the most improved ])rinci|)lo, and " whether the
cattle are to be tied up or left at liberty", the
other requesting to be instructed in the best mode
of steaming fodder, the best api)aratus for that
purpose, and in what state the fodder is nu-
tritious ? In both tliese enquiries I cordially
join, adding to the tirst a request that the plan
may be extended to a greater number of cows, with
liquid manure tanks of size suflicient to contain
each one week's liquid. To tlie second, the queries
— are not all descriptions of fodder rendered more
nutritious by steaming; and should the different
kimrls, hay and turnips, or mangel wurzel, be given
in each feed together'? I would be Inclined to
follow up these queries by at once requesting your
opinion on the important question of house feed-
ing; but as I have already trespassed on your
space, and am expecting answers to my former
questions on the use of gypsum and urine, I defer
this for a future communication. Your last num-
ber contains two valuable letters recommending
the use of common salt in dung-heaps instead of
gypsum ; and two from Professor Henslow in favour
of gypsum. 1 hougli late in adopting the use of
liquid manures, I trust that from sucii discussions
we may find out the most beneficial mode of fixing
their volatile properties, and applying them.
Allow me to suggest the propriety of your giving a
leading article on house-feeding for railcb cows. I
am sure it would be approved of by all your nor-
thern subscribers, who would have the benefit of
your knowledge to guide tliem as to the best prac-
tice in feeding and rotation of crops.

I am, Sir, yours very respectfully,
A Cumberland Yeoman.

TO THE EDITOR OP THE FARMER S MAGAZINE.

Sir, — On looking over j'our mag^azine for the
present month I perceive the attention of your
readers particularly directed to the use of guano
manure. From Mr. .lohnson's article on the sub-
ject, I should imagine this description of manure
particularly adapted to moist situations ; I also
perceive it is best applied with wood or sod ashes.
Being the holder of a large tract of old bog, which
J am now in the act of draining, and which I hope
to have sufficiently drained to till with turnips and
mangel wurzel this season, I would feel much ob-
liged to you — or such of your friends or readers as
may be able to give me any information on the
subject — if you will let me know whether yon
would think guano calijtdated for such ground ?
The quantity of ashes which will be raised oft" the
bog will be by no means sufficient to insure a fair
crop. I will, therefore, be under the necessity of
using other manure; and, from what 1 have just
read of guano, I am induced to solicit your opin-
ion on iti Say whether I am right in supposing
that four cwt. of guano, mixed with the sod ashes,
would be likely to procure a fair crop of Swedes or
mangolds ; and whether you would prefer laying
l)Oth on the soil before drilling, or fiist drillingand
putting in the manure with the seed.

1 can scarcely conclude without expressing my
sense of the many and great adyantnges I Lave de-

rived from two years constant reading of your ma •
gazine. I have no doubt if many of my neighbours
and countrymen would follow my example of sub-
scribing to this publication, they would soon have
reason to be glad of it. Quite sure that you would
do everything in your powerto circulate useful in-
formation, I beg leave to remain, sir,

Yours sincerely,
March 10. An IriSH SUBSCRIBER.

YARDING OF SHEEP.

Sir, — At a meeting of the Maidstone Farmer's
Club it was stated that the custom of '■'winter
yarding sheep" was much increasing ; and that
many flock-masters had abandoned the use of
cattle in their straw-yards to make manure, and
substituted sheep. That a portion of the turnip crop
should be consumed in the yards is obvious, in order
with the straw to make good manure for the en-
suing turnip crop ; but it is on this account only
that many farmers keep cattle stock, who would
much prefer giving the entire of their turnip crop to
sheep, if they could substitute them for cattle in
the yards during winter, but the fear oi foot rot,
Sec, has prevented. If any of your correspondents
accustomed to the yarding of sheep will state the
particulars of the winter management of them in
yards where it has answered, and whether best
adapted to the breeding ewes, or feeding sheep, the
information will be useful to many farmers, as well
as to Your obedient servant,

Feb. 20, 1843. Enquirer.

Mr. Editor, — For the last two seasons the
gooseberry and currant trees in our garden have
been completely stripped of their leaves, and the
fruit In consequence entirely spoiled, by a common
green and black caterpillar which have infested the
trees and all the surrounding beds in myriads, de-
stroying almost every thing before them — peas,
beans, cabbages, &c., &c.

Can you, or any of your correspondents, inform
me what would be likely to destroy them ? Could
the trees be fumigated, or washed with any prepara-
tion which would destroy the enemy before it be
hatched, as my idea is, the larva lies concealed in
the branches and stems of the trees ?

These caterpillars do not range over the whole
garden (which is one of considerable size), but
confine themselves almost entirely to one-half of it,
and this has been the habit of these voracious little
creatures for the two last summers.

Any information on this subject, will oblige,
Mr. Editor, your obedient servant,

Wellin-jborongh, Feb. 20, 1843. G. Q.

Sir, — By mixing common salt with lime it is
said that an excellent fertilizer is produced, in the
shape of carbonate of soda and muriate of lime. I
would feel greatly obliged by an answer to the fol-
lowing queries: —

First — Is muriate of lime not of so extremely
subtile a nature as to pass very rapidly through the
soil to a considerable depth below the roots of
vegetables? If so, how does it act as a manure?
Is it by leaving some fertilizing property behind
in filtering throiigli the earth ? or by entering into
some new combination with some of the compo-
nent parts of the soil? And in what way is it
beneficial to vegetation ?

Second— What would be the result of mixing

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

299

soot along willi salt and lime ? Would the com-
pound be a still more valuable manure ? And if
so, would its increased value be in proportion to
the additional expense ?
Feb. -22, 1843. An Old Farmeu.

ON CHANGE OF SEED.

Sir, — I should be glad, through the medium of
your journal, to learn something about the changes
of wheat for diflerent sorts of land. For example,
supposing I have been in the habit for many years,
of using my own seed wheat, on a gravelly soil, on
which I am now recommended to try a differently
cultivated seed ; I should like to know whether
such fresh seed should be from a heavy or a lighter
soil. I am, sir, your much obliged,

Vorh, Feb. 24, 1843, Economist.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK-LANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — I have read with considerable interest in
your paper, the letters of Professor Henslow to
the farmers of Suffolk, and think he has clearly de-
monstrated the principle of gypsum being the best
mode known at present of fixing the ammonia in
manure heaps.

I believe I express the sentiments of all your
readers, when I say the Rev. Professor merits the
warmest thanks of every person interested in agii-
culture, for the indefatigable trouble he has taken
in investigating experiments, as well as for the
popular and lucid style in which he communicates
the results to the public.

There are some men who, the moment they hear
of a scientific subject, seem to think it a necessary
qualification to make a grand parade of chemical
terms and vei'biage(as quacks formerly'quoted Latin
without much attention to its precise meaning)
which sounds " prodigiously fine," as Dominie
Sampson would say, in print, but is in my humble
opinion much less effective in its practical applica-
tion and its desired ends, than the Professor's sim-
ple and easy mode of teaching.

But the questions I wish most particularly to ask
some of your readers are — would not the application
of gypsum be equally eftective to clover leys when
that pecuharly volatile manure of the sheep-fold is
exposed to the greatest heat of the sun's rays for
perhaps four months ? And would it not be
equally useful as a food to the clover plant, by sup-
plying to the soil what the growth of the plant ex-
hausts? And also what quantity is it necessary to
sow per acre ?

By inserting the above in your next number,
you will oblige,

Your obedient servant,

Sandon, Hants, March 17. R. D, \V.

TO THE EDITOn OF THE MARK I.ANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — I have procured several hundred bushels
of pure charcoal dust from the skreenings of wood
charcoal used in a forge, but I am quite at a loss
what ingredient to mix with the dust for turnips.
I shall therefore be most thankful and deeply in-
debted to any of your readers for the necessary
information, saying what to mix with (say one
hundred bushels) of charcoal dust, and how many
bushels per acre should be drilled with the seed to
insure a good crop of .Swedes. The soil is a light
sandy loam ; the field was wheat last year, and
was limed with one hundred and twenty bushels
per acre in the autumn of 1S41, The wheat wa^

top dressed last spring with one cwt. of nitrate per
acre, but the crop was a poor one, and the nitrate
was not of the least good.

I have a field of wheat growing upon the same
description of land, and limed in the autumn. I
shall feel greatly obliged by being informed what
top dressing this should have.

I cannot suffer this opportunity to pass without
returning Mr. Rogerson my humble but grateful
thanks for his admirable letter in your valuable
paper of the 13th instant, calling upon the Royal
Agricultural Society to send us farmers " lecturers."
I sincerely and anxiously hope Mr. E.'s plan will
be carried out at once, with the addition that the
professors give lectures wherever a farmer's club is
established. Ardently wishing you every success
in the great cause you have taken up,

I am, Sir, your's very truly,

March 2Srd. ' P.

" A Constant Reader " will be very much obliged
if any of our readers will inform him how to apply
the following manures for growing turnips : —

Guano, what quantity per acre, and how deep it
should be covered in the drills.

Urate, quantity and depth.

Gypsum, quantity and depth.

Sulphate ammonia, quantity and depth.

Daniel's patent manure, quantity and depth.

Nitrate of soda, quantity and depth.

"A Correspondent" inquires if the water iu
which mangel and Swedes arc boiled is injurious
as food for pigs ; and if so, why and what is its
deleterious property. Also, where he can get the
best and the cheapest portable one-horse threshing
machine. And also, a light implement to skim
the surface after the corn has been removed, as well
as the spine of grass ley.

ANSWERS TO AGRICULTURAL
QUERIES.

TO THP. EDITOR OF THE FARMER's MAGAZINE.

Sir, — I observe in your last number a letter ad-
dressed to yon, wishing some of your correspon-
dents who have tried guano to send you the results
of their experiments, and by so doing they would
confer no small benefit on the farmer and the pub-
lic, r communicate to you the result of my ex-
periment with guano and other manures on various
kinds of crops : if they are of any service to you
they are quite at your disposal.

I tried last season four different kinds of ma-
nures on potatoes; the produce of eight yards of
a drill each, were as follows : —

Animalised Carbon 23§ lbs.

Farm-yard Dung 21^ ,,

Guano 19| ,,

Bone-dust 15^ „

Carbon, at the rate of one ton per imp. acre.

Dung If) tons.

Guano 2 cwt.

Bones .'iO bush.

1 sowed six drills of the small tick bean — length
of each drill l/.'J yards— two with guano, two with
carbon, and two with farm-yard dung, all at the

300

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

same rate per acre as with the potatoes ; the re-
sult was as follows : —

Guano produced 244.* lbs. of beans.

Carbon 224

Dung 130 ,,

The bulk of straw on the drills manured with
guano and carbon was much the same, but on the
dunij tbere was much less. The three samples
looked beautiful, and to the eye there was no
difference; but their weight after the guano was
701bs. per bushel ; the carbon and dung ()71bs. —
3ibs. more per bushel in favour of guano.

I used guano pretty extensively last season for
turnips along with farm-yard dung, and they have
produced very good crops. Our land being a
heavy clay soil, I was afraid to risk the guano
alone; I tried it on a small scale by itself on a
few drills, and it raised a splendid crop. I intend
to use it more freely this season on turnips, as I
have seen its effects proved. The way that I deposit
the guano is with Sydney's dibbling machine,
(procured from Messrs. Drummond of Stirling)
which deposited it in parcels at nine inches apart,
and partially covered with earth a few seeds be-
ing then drop|ied directly over each parcel.

When I used dung along with guano (the drills
being made), 1 put in about seven and a- half tons
ot dung per acre; after the dung was covered in
the drills by the plough, the machine followed with
the guano and seed — the guano at the rate of two
cwt. per acre.

I tried guano at the same rate i)er acre as before
on two l8-fcet ridges with oats, sown with the hand,
and harrowed in with the seed, which produced
an excellent crop. Another part of the field was
manured with carbon, one ton an acre ; the crop
was superior to the two ridges manured with
guano. Two ridges of the same field got no ma-
nure, and were much deficient to either the guano
or carbon. I tried guano on a ridge of barley. I
could perceive no difference between that ridge
and the other parts of the field ; hut the weather
was uncommonly dry at the time, which was
against it.

I have this year a ridge of wheat manured with
guano, harrowed in with the seed, which looks
better than any part of the field, although ma-
nured with good farni-)'ard dung.

" A Correspondent" withes to know which is
considered the best mode of feeding horses with
Swedish turnips— steamed, or in their natural
state ; and what quantity per day should be given ?

After an experience of twelve years, I am con-
vinced that steaming or boiling them with chaff is
the best mode. I have always found horses very
fond of them in that manner, and very healthy. A
common stable pailful, or half an imperial bushel,
mixed with chad', should be given once a day;
oftener scours them too much. At night I prefer
them to be given.

1 am, Sir, your obedient servant,

Castle Muliju'iin March 11. J. HENDERSON.

[Land steward to A. L. Gower, Esq.,
Castle Malgwyn, South Wales.]

TO THE r.DITOR OF THE VARMER's MAGAZINE.

Sir, — In reply to "Enquirer" respecting the
plant he calls " hard-heads," I have little doubt it
is what in the northern counties are sometimes
called " haid-irons" by the peasantry. Some years
ago, part of my fields — which had for many years
been mown — produced thii pest, which no stock

will touch whilst growing, and is a nuisance in the
hay ; which I got rid of most completely by
the following means : — During the winter months
I pastured the fields with sheep, principally young
ones, of about a year old. With their
sharp cutting front teeth they scooped out the
root, which destroy the plants ; and in two years
not one was to be found, nor ha\'e they ever ap-
peared since, though it is now many years since it
occurred.

I shall be very glad if this information is of any
service to your correspondent, and am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

3rarch 12. S. W.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER S MAGAZINE.

Sir, — In your Rlarch number a " Young Far-
mer" wishes to know if subsoil ploughing gravelly
or light soils is at all benefician He also gives
his opinion that it is not of any benefit to subsoil
gravelly soils.

As I have had a four years' pi-actice in subsoil-
ing — having subsoiled above two hundred acres,
both on gravelly soils and those of a very retentive
clay, the clayey parts being previously well fur-
row-drained at a depth of thirty inches six yards
apart, having done above 120 miles of such drains
in the four years — I have found subsoil ploughing
both desciiptions of soils to answer most admirably,
the crops on the subsoiled parts having far ex-
ceeded those on the same description of land not
done ; and I find when again ploughed up, after
the crops have been removed, the soil is much
deeper, being nearly doubled. With regard to the
Sandon correspondent's doubts in having what he
terms the pan in gravelly soils broken, formed
under the old ploughings, it is by breaking through
that very pan where I c:onsider the greatest bene-
fits are derived. 1st. You allow the stagnant water
there lodged to escape, which in all cases must be
very injurious to all descriptions of plants. Any
person at all interested in the growing of plants
in pots must have seen the injurious [practice of
allowing water to remain in the lower pot or
saucer after filtering through the soil in the pot
where the plant is growing, carrying with it all
the cxcrementiiious matter (if I may use such a
term) from the roots of the plant ; which, if not
drained away, will again be drawn up by the
plant, which will in a short time appear yellow
and sickly from living on their own filth or excre-
ments. Suc'i is the case in a great measure with
all plants living on a gravelly soil, where the pan
retains wet. In Brown's work on Rural Affairs
he writes : — " The consliintional qualities of gra-
vels, also, point out the propriety of deep plougii-
ing (i. e. subsoiling) ; so that the surface soil
may be augmented, and greater room given to the
growth of the plants cultivated on them. A shal-
low ploughed gravel can stand no excess of wea-
ther, however enriched by manure. It is burnt
up by a day or two of drought, and it is almost
equally injured by an excessive fall of rain, unless
the pan, or firm bottom which such soils easily
gain, be frequently broken through by deep plough-
ing."

An " Enquirer" requests information on the best
method of destroying what he terms "hard-heads,"
or " hard-tops" — what we in this county (Stafford-
shire) call " hard-irons." Let " Enquirer" stock-
bis fields (infected with "hard-heads") thickly with
sheep up to the middle of .Tune, and I have no
doubt but all his "hard-heads" will soon disappear,

THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE.

301

unless they have harder heads in Hereford jhiie
than any other county. I have tried the above
mode, and have always been successful.

If you, sir, think any of the above remarks
worth a place in your valuable journal, I shall be
obliged. I remain, your obliged servant,

March 10. A Two-years' Subscriber.

THK MURRAIN.

SiK, — A correspoudent, who signs himself " A
Constant Header," wishes to know how the niurraiu
is treated with us, both as regards sheep and
cattle. I most willingly contribute my mite of
information on this score, and if what I advance
tends ill any measure to the alleviation of that ma-
lady, I shidl consider myself as amply remunerated.
First, then, as regards cattle. The symptoms are
with us— considerable prostration of strength ; the
animal particularly dull and lowering ; an ichor
issuing from the eyes ; a constant flow of saliva
from the mouth ; the tongue and every part of the
mouth ulcerated, and frequently more or less in-
flammation of the throat; the animal throws up its
bead wildlv, and makes a low, pitiful moan ; lame-
ness does sometimes (not always) attend as a con-
comitant. The mode of treatment is to give doses
of Epsom salts, varving from four to sixteen ounces,
according to the size of the animal, with a few-
drachms of nitre, and subsequent doses to be
given, varying in quantity as the state of the bowels
may require it. Violent purging should be avoided
on the one hand, and constipation on the other.
To keep the intestines gently acting is the best, and
with all doses of opening medicine a few drachms
of ginger should be given. A gargle or wash for
the mouth should be used, consisting of one pound
of chloride of lime (an article cheap, and purchase-
able at any druggist's shop) dissolved in six times
its weight of water, and with a large paint-brush or
a sponge fastened to the end of a short stick to wash
the mouth twice or thrice a day. as the severity of
the case may require. It is a most jiowerful anti-
septic, and probably the cheapest we have. The
walls of the outhouses, and ibe troughs or mangers
of the same, should be daily sprinkled with the same
solution, cleanliness in all its departments closelv
attended to, and the animal kept waim. When
lameness occurs, the hern of the hoof should be
pared away so far as any division of the parts has
taken place, and if any virus has formed, a slight
portion of the butyr of antimony should be applied
with a feather to the paits, and the animal prevented
from placing its feet in any dirt or moisture. Bleed-
ing is seldom or ever necessary ; there is generally
debility enough without it. The animal should be
fed with mashes of bran and split oats in equal
proportions ; turnips, cut with a sheep cutting ma-
chine, if the time of the year will admit of it, may
be given, or cabbage, or in fact anything the animal
will eat that is not restriugent in its properties.

The animal must have all its food so that it can
throw it up against its grinders; for the tongue and
mouth are so sore from ulceration that it will rather
pine than lick up its food. I was fortunate in hav-
ing a good supply of turnips at hand, and cut them
up small with an engine ; the animals would get a
mouthful, and then, lifting up the bead to allow the
food to fall into the lower part of the mouth, would
by such means feed very well ; and I think from the
effects of medicine, that they have done better since
than before they were affected. As regards the
sheep, the treatment is somewhat similar. I bring

down to the point of saturation a given quantity of
salt, say 141bs., and then calculate to give every
sheep at the rate of one ounce to every animal, and
cut all their food. Sheep suffer much more from
lameness than do cattle. From some cause or
other, probably from something connected with the
nature of the disease, there is considerable inflam-
mation in the feet, and when that inflammation sub-
sides, the horn of the hoof is found starting off fiom
the foot on the ujiper side; sand or dirt gets into
the parts — inflammation is the result — suppuration
lakes place — and nature struggles to throw off the
hoof. I perceived this after the disease had appa-
rently run its course, and I immediately assisted her
by cutting the horn completely away, and placing
the animals in a grass layer for the course of a few
weeks, and it was astonishing how speedily they
recovered. 1 have now, sir, given you the general
mode of treating this complaint, and if further
knowledge is required which I am in possession of,
I am ever your humble servant at any future period,
and beg to remain Yours, &c.,

S. Gill.

Newstead Plains, Nottinghamshire,

P.S. I would observe that it is always wise to
consult the best veterinarian in the neighbourhood,
and not to rely too much on your own knowledge.

Reply to " Enquirer," in " Mark Lane Ex-
TRESs" OF 27th Feb., by Sir Francis A. Mac-
kenzie.

Sir F. winters sheep in all the folds of his farm-
yard, and finds from several years' experience that
they will fatten on one-third less food, and in one-
fourth less time than when fed on a field, if exposed
to the inclemency of the weather. He has always
portable icooden sheds for his sheep when feeding on
turnips in the field, and it will be found on trial that
all animals — horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs — fatten
more speedily and consume less food when not ex-
posed to cold or hardship, than when left without
any consideration for their warmth and comfort.
Jloljield Grange, Essex, Feb. 28.

Si r, — A gentleman who signs himself " Agrieola,' '
is desirous of some information on the now fatal
disease in cattle. He says it is not the same that
was a year ago. No, certainly it is not tlie same,
but, sir, " Agrieola" may be convinced that it is
what the late epidemic left lurking in the systern.
Then he says the veterinary surgeon is lost in this
complaint; and well he may be. Now, sir, I have
vii-ited a great many cattle uudcr the present
fatal disease, and have been at the examination of
most that have been killed, and found all of them
previously diseased, from the shameful neglect of
farmers letting their cattle take their luck, as they
term it; and " O do nothing to theia, they will get
well of themselves," &c. Now, these are the beasts
that arc now dying all over the country, chiefly
with diseased lungs, some the liver, some the kid-
neys, and all for not having the cattle, in the late
epidemic, properly attended to by the veterinary
surgeon or farrier, who properly knows how to treat
them in the different stages of the complaint; and
now the prevailing influenza lays hold of unsound
cattle, and they quickly die. Farmers must lay the
great loss they have caused to this country to them-
selves, solely because they let the poor beasts lay
from day after day, letting them suffer cruelly to
save them the expense of a few shillings, and be the

302

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ruin of many others, who arc in the habit of buying
cattle instead of breeding.

An Old Subsckiber.
Park Hill, Feb. 10, 1843.

SiK, — Noticing in your paper of the loth iust.
sonic remarks from " A Young Farmer," relative to
subsoiling, may say tliat I do not see the justice of
tliem with regard to its effects on light lands. He
states, " that by plougliing to a certain depth a jjan
is formed whicli much prevents the water soaking
lower," the which he appears to consider an evil.
Now, I have experienced that by holding the mois-
ture in the surface soil till such time as it cau eva-
porate (such being the principal means of its dimi-
nution, owing to the said pan), it not only forms a
cement of the angular silicious particles of which
light lands chieily consist, thereby resisting the free
action of the atmosphere, but chills the soil to such
a degree that the strength and growth of ])lants are
much checked and weakened in hot weather. I
have found the heat penetrate even to the pan,
though the plough had entered 8 or I) inches, which
of course entirely dispelled every portion of mois-
ture at such times as the 'plants most needed it.
Again, I do not consider " deep ploughing" equally
advantageous, as it mixes the raw unoxidised sub-
soil with the mould, which cannot but injure vege-
tation ; whereas, by subsoiling, the under stratum
is mei'ely moved, and in time that will become use-
ful mould from the vegetative properties of the
surface mould continually soaking into it.

I have been thus led to believe that in most cases
the subsoil plough may be used as profitably on
light as on the more adhesive and retentive soils.
Yours, truly,

Sundown, Surrey. Rkseakcii.

Si K, — In reply to your correspondent " Enquirer,"
from the best information that I have been able to
procure, his object will be most readily obtained by
burning the sods and twitch to ashes, which can be
done by making piles over a fire of straw and wood,
open to the wind, taking care to add more as the
fire burns through, so that they may be kept in two
or three days.

Sixteen bushels of ashes so obtained, mixed with
six bushels common salt, and one cwt. guano or
nitrate of soda, would make a valuable fertilizing
top-dressing for grass land, or other green crops,
at a cheap rate, with the advantage of being free
from seeds of any kind.

I remain, yours, respectfully,
John Clarence, M.R.A.S. of England.

•Jl, Cullam Street, Feb. 18,1843.

TO THE EDITOR OF TUB MARK-LANE EXl'KESb.

SiK, — In your paper on the 21t\\ of Feb., a Wel-
lingborough correspondent, signing himself "G.G.,"'
wishes for some information respecting the cater-
pillar which so commonly effects the work of des-
truction on the gooseberry trees, currant trees,
cabbages, iScc. The following remarks have only a
reference to that species of caterpillar which infest
the gooseberry tree.

It appears that your correspondent lias formed
an idea respecting them which is void of any foun-
dation. Ue thinks that the larva (as he calls it)

lies concealed in the branches and stems of the
trees ; but I think I shall be able to prove to him
in the following lines, that his opinion is not
grounded on facts.

The propagator of the above named caterpillar is
a kind of a butterfly, called by some the magpie
moth ; it inhabits the hedges and small bushy trees
in the day time ; it is not so large as the common
butterfly ; its body is dark, its wings white, with
a streak of black across, and spots of black irregu-
larly scattered over them ; its time for flying is at
sunset, unless disturbed in the day, when it flies if
any one strike at it with a stick or any thing else ;
if they do not hit it, it will fall to the ground as if
it was dead. This destructive fly lays its eggs on
the under side of the leaves of the gooseberry tree,
all along the ribs of the leaves ; the eggs are so
small that they cau scarcely be discerned, being
nearly the same colour as the leaf ; when the eggs
have remained there for a short time, they hatch
into small black caterpillars ; as soon as hatched
they commence their work of destruction by eating
small holes through the leaf on which they are
hatched, and by the time they have eaten that, they
have acquired sufficient strength to roam over the
whole tree, and divest it of its foliage.

The best receipts for destroying them is a strong
decoction of foxglove, or strong alum water
sprinkled on the leaves when they are dry. Some
recommend to take a chafiing-dish with hot cin-
ders, and place it under the bush or tree where the
caterpillars are, and throw a small quantity of flour
of brimstone on the hot cinders; the vapour of the
sulphur will cause them to fall off".

As respects cabbage caterpillars, I am not pre-
pared to give a minute detail with reference to them,
not having made any experiments on that subject,
but I have seen the following receipt in print: — -
" To guard cabbages from caterpillars. — If the bor-
ders of the ground where cabbages are planted, arc
sown with hemp, although the neighbourhood be
infested with caterpillars, the space included by the
hemii will be perfectly free from them.

Yours, respectfully,

J. Moon.

JEcclcston, near Charley, March 9th.

Sir, — If your correspondent who enquires the
best mode of feeding horses with Swedish turnips,
does it with an economical motive, he will give each
horse one-and-a-half bushel per day, or six stone in
weight ; and if they work hard, one peck of oats
per day with cliafl'. This is unquestionably the
best and cheapest mode of feeding, with those who
have really a regard to economy for horse keeping ;
as is usually pursued, it is ruinous to farmers. 1 keep
upwards of twenty horses, and they never taste hay.
The turnips given in their natural state.

I remain, dear sir, yours, faithfully,

John Brown.

Norton Hall, near Fakenham,
Norfolk, Feb. 22, 1843.

P.S. Seventy to eighty rods of ground ought, if
well farmed, to produce sufficient for one horse
thirty weeks the winter months ; and if the land is
excellent in quality, sixty rod is sufficient, on the
Northumberland system.

THE TARMEli'S MAGAZINE.

303

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS.

SOMERSETSHIRE.

Spring is just coinnicticiiig, and we can speak of
the winter as past, and it may be written down on
record as a mild one, less moisture liaving fallen than
is common in a season with so little frost; the late
check we have had has been very seasonable, and kept
vegetation in about its average forwardness. One
consequence of the season has been, as regards
stock (especially sheep), that they have done well ;
never atiner or more successful lambing season; the
increase this year is likely to be raucli greater than an
average. There is great complaint in the dairy dis-
tricts of such a large proportion of the cows proving
barren ; calves have fallen unusually fine and strong,
and there is a good many likely to be weaned.
Although (except the very prime) fat cattle have
been selling low, and there seems no prospect of
high prices, good barreners have sold high, as I
consider 12/. to 14/. per head to be, even for the
best ; but old rough stock sell proportionably low.
There is much less apparently done in stocking in
for grazing than is usual; the price is not con-
sidered low enough, and is by no means abundant.
We have had very little complaint of disease
among stock, less by far than the two previous win-
ters ; but complaint enough of low prices, particu-
larly of mutton, pork, and veal. Tlie present price
of mutton is 4d. to 5d., extra down O^d. ; last year
Gd. to G^d. Pork, os. to 6s. ; last year 7s. to 8s.
per 'iOlb. Veal, S'd. to LHd.; last year, 4id. to Gd.
Bacon, by the side, last year, 5^d. to Gd. ; this
year 3^d. to 4d. per lb. Surely this is coming down
in the meat way. I have not noticed beef, the
price of which varies so much, according to quality ;
but I should say prime was worth Id. and other
sorts full 2d. per lb. less. Cheese from SGs. and
G;33. to 46s. and SGs. prime; and from 45s. to 38s.
per cwt., and even lower, secondary descriptions,
with a large supply at our market. Butter has
varied less, being now worth lOd. to 1 Id. per lb.
I must now pass on to the appearance of our corn
crops : in some instances the wheat on ground has
been attacked by the grub, but the greatest danger
is its being too forward ; it is thick in plant.
Vetches are looking well, and so are our pastures.
Beans and peas are mostly put in ; and oats and
barley are just commenced sewing under very fair
prospects, the laud working remarkably well for
it. Considerable quantity of spring wheat, but not
equal to last year, has been put in ; and expect there
will be more barley than last ; of this article the
consumption has been very great for grinding, and
although less used for malting, expect it will
run very near out before the next crop, and the
price advance. Do not think the quantity of beans
planted is equal to last ; there has been a great falling
off of the ordinary consumption, but lately, owing
to the very low price, they are more used for cattle ;
the yield was better than expected, but still much
under an average crop, and the price lower than I
ever remember— from 3s. to 3s. 4d. and 3s. 6d. per
bushel, but they are not now so much pressed on
the market. Barley, 2s. 9d. to 3s. grinding ; and
3s. to 3s. 3d. for malting. Oats, 14s. to 18s. per
quarter. Peas, 4s. to 4s. 9d. Vetches, 4s. Gd. to
OS. The supplies of clover seed have been very
large; and some very prime secondary and low
sorts have been selling at from 32s. to 30s. per cwt. ;

middling for this, but very prime for the average of
years, 42s. to 46s.; prin)e and very superior 48s. to
i>(js. ; the last are easily disposed of, but the others
are difficult to sell. Prime lots of wheat, white,
are scarce, but for those of G41bs. per bushel 6s. Gd.
is hardly obtainable; I should quote Gs. to Gs. 3d.,
white ; Ss. 9d. to Gs., red, 62 to (>41b. per bushel.
Flour, 34s. to .3.js. per 28()lb. ; some millers sold at
33s. Some of our large farmers have thrashed and
hold in dust. In some districts the stocks have not
been lower for years ; but in others, although in few
hands, there is considerable, except potatoes,
the best of which are by no means plenty or very
cheap. Few substitutes for bread stuff have been
used, and altogether, though not perhaps through
the millers and bakers, a fair average consumption
has been going oh. Labour has been very short ;
the price given to able-bodied meji vary from Gs. to
7s., shepherd and carter 8s., per week ; there are
some privileges besides, about two quarts of liquor
per day to accord with the wages, and much work
is done by the piece. The winter has been fa-
vourable to out-door labour, and it has not cost
much in firewood ; this has prevented much suffer-
ing which the scarcity of labour produces ; but it
must be acknowledged that our poor rates are on
the increase ; whether this arises from the times or
the new system may be a question, but I am rather
inclined to think the latter has most to do with it.
The alteration of the tithe system has been the occa-
sion of a greater quantity of land coming under the
plough, and this we might have supposed would
have created a demand for labour,and I think it will
if the occupier be not drained of his capital, which
is the great cause of want of employ ; and we are
to be made believe this drain would cease, and our
labourers would find more employ if the price of
wheat was lower still, and that it is possible by
lowering rents to sell our wheat at 40s. per quarter,
and even less, to meet foreign competition, and pay
the direct and indirect taxes which a capital cm-
ployed in agriculture is subject to, and do better
than we have. The Corn League wishes us to be-
lieve, and pretend to show us by iigures, and they
take care to be sure to be right, come what will, a»
the consequence of the experiment ; for if it fails it
will be because it was delayed too long. Take oft"
all our import duties ; this, if it can be done, will be
the free trade we want; but then the public creditor
will be minus their interest, and both the manufac-
turer and agriculturist will lose their best customer.
If we were to put our shoulder to the wheel, each in-
terest being willing to sacrifice for the good of th«
whole, things would work themselves right; but
as it has taken time to get out of the way, it will
take time to get right. — Street, March 17, 1843.

DURHAM.
The past month commenced with very high winds,
which have done considerable damage to tbe shipping
on this coast, and also in unroofing buildings, stacks,
and uprooting trees ; tbe temperature was exceed-
ingly low, and a great deal of snow and rain fell
during the month ; the sharp frosts have materially
checked vegetation, and the young wheats that were
so luxuriant in January now assume a fallen and
withered appearance. We consider this will have
rathei' a beneficial effect than otherwise j wc do not

304

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

observe tlio plants Laving that tendency to turn out
or loose stock, which we have had frequent ocia.sii ii
to notice after long and severe frosts. An unusual large
breadth of wheat is sown, and should Providence
favour us with fine and genial seasons a bountiful
crop may be fairly anticipated. The last month was
very unfavourable for out-door work ; since then we
Lave experienced weather unusually fine for the
season. Spring sowing has commenced upon dry
soils, but on stronger land it is raw, cold, and damp,
and works unkindly. We think it is of the greatest
importance to have land in a proper state when the
seed is deposited. Clover and seeds are well taken,
forward, and promising. The last hay crop was an
extreme short one, but we do not apprehend there
will be any scarcity ; ibe open and mild winter has
prevented its consumi)tiou 3 but we have frequently
observed that where there exists an impression that
there is a scarcity of any crop, it induces the farmer
to be as careful as possible, and generally cures
itself; but what does good crops now avail? they are
of no value. Sir Eobert Peel has ruined and broken
down the spirit of the British farmer and pauperised
the agricultural labourer. Sir Robert Las increased
that distress in tLe same ratio as he Las reduced the
price of agricultural produce. The farmer has lost
all confidence in the present governnaent ; his capital
is disappearing every day, and he cannot help it;
there is no redress, no sympatLy, no abatement of
rent. No, landlords don't like that; they say, you
must exert yourselves, you must drain, subsoil, re-
duce your expenditure, and must not stand idly by
when your team is in a hole, and call upon .Tuiiiter
for help ; and what is the result of all this ! The
poor deserving, honest, and peaceable labourer is
discharged ; and to go in search of another job, he is
only wearing the shoes off his feet and to no purpose.
He can Lave beef at 3d. per lb. and wheat at 5s. per
bushel ; but, alas ! he cannot obtain either. Few can
contemplate on tLe present prospect without the
greatest anxiety and alarm. Our cattle markets
exhibit anything but animation ; graziers have given
about a year's keep away; the money laid out for
bones, rape dust, &c. is thrown away ; we cannot
go the pace again ; as the old proverb says, "burnt
childreri dread the fire." Large numbers of poor
labourers are employed by voluntary subscription,
in making roads, footpaths, &c. at one shilling per
day, which might all be profitably employed ic the
cultivation of the soil, to produce provision for our
increasing population, and prevent that constant and
unnecessary drain of specie sent out of this country
to purchase foreign grain, beef, &c. Sir Robert has
opened our ports to the foreigners' production, and
they have raised their duties on our manufactured
goods. The lambing season has partially com-
menced ; ewes, poor in condition, and short of milk,
consequently lambs appear weak and small. Fat
sheep that have been turniped are making lOs. per
Lead less than they did last year. At Darlington,
on the first Monday in March, there was a fair at-
tendance of buyers. Stock of every description sold
at ruinously low prices. — March I6lh, 181a.

AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR
MARCH.

So entirely seasonable was the weather to the end
of the third week of the present month, that its efl'ects
have been felt throughout the kingdom. A degree
of check was maintained by the night frosts, but by
the power of a brilliant sun the ground was kept

open; and thus agricultural labours were continuous.
Never do we recollect anything more completely
propitious throughout; the crops are strong, and
wheat superb — sufficiently verdant, but not gaily
luxuriant, and the promise is great.

One circumstance we lament: a gradual atmospheric
change was in progress for several days prior to the
21st ; the wind inclined more and more to the south
by the east, the mercury receded, and just at the
equinoctial period, tLe fine weather gave way to
rain, which fell profusely all the night of the 21st
and till 7 a.m. of tLe 22nd.

This rain in itself is useful, especially as the
temperature never was depressed below 45", and ad-
vanced to 58^^ ; the 22nd day being verv fine and
sunny. But rain, and a renewed depression of the
barometer took place again at night ; and thus, if the
equinox is to be regarded as a prognostic, not fre-
quently deceptive, we fear there is some cause to
anticipate a changeable summer.

All else is cLeering, and accounts are nearly con-
sentient from every part of tLe United Kingdom ;
even tLe flocks appear better, and in Liglier condi-
tion than usual. The lambing has been without
complaint, and the animals grow and thrive upon
the fine turnips, and othergood aliment tbey partake
of, with unwonted rapidity.

Perhaps some check may be necessary, yet we
would fain hope to see the gathering in of a harvest,
which promises to be profuse, perfected without
impediment.

We perceive by referring to tLe letter of Mr. Baker
to the editor, that the question of BekLara clover be-
gins to he reagilited ; we thought it Lad been set at
rest, and the plant abandoned, but in fact others it
appears, besides Mr. Rod well, are stirring, for a
neighbouring farmer known to us, Las just had seeds
and directions sent to him. We have grown a little
of it, and Lave observed it elsewLere, but deem it,
if not wortLless, so niucL inferior to lucerne, tLat
v/e sLould be grieved to see a biennial supersede a
crop of vast utility, and of amazing prolificity during
seven years. TLe Bokhara is no clover at all, bo-
tanically it is melHotus leucantha major, or tLe great
white-flowered Asiatic melilot; and therefore Mr.
Baker is right in Lis conjecture.

If a fine and tried legume — one easy of culture,
certain in its qualities, and bountiful to profusion — be
required, do let us return to tLe lucerne, for in it we
possess fodder equally good for milcL cows, and
horses. Well managed, it can be cut ovur, four,
five, six times, between April and November ; and
it will stand drougbt better than any other fodder
crop.

The land has turned up in the finest manner; con-
sequently amazing breadths of oats, &c. are already
deposited therein. Barley will soon be in progress
unless wet be profuse; and potatoes will be begun.

We would suggest early |)lanting, and by all
means the introduction of soot where obtainable.
This manure contains a quantity of an ammoniacal
neutral salt, which manifests itself if the smallest
portion of quick lime come in contact with it. Soot
remains long in the soil, and is inimical to vermin,
and it is carbonaceous matter, chiefly, in its finest
form. With that, and farm yard dung, and the
proper economising of niglit soil (sadly overlooked^,
Britain would soon supply its own fields witL all
tlie elements tLat can be contained in imported ma-
nures. Of this fact, a more intimate knowledge
of chemical principles would soon convince the en-
quiring and liberal minded agriculturist.
March 22ml.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

305

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR
MARCH.

This has proved , wc have very great pleasure iu
intimating:, one of the finest months, not only for
farm labours, but also vegetation in general, almost
ever remembered. From the first until about th(>
20th we were favourcnl with remarkably fine, and
truly vegetative weather, the wind mostly lilowing
from the southward and westward, accompanied by
light showers of rain at night. Tliis state of the
atmosphere had, as might be anticipated, a most
beneficial influence upon the young wheat plants in
all parts of England ; and it is gratifying to ob-
serve that the accounts, in respect tliereto, which
have come to hand, in the course of the month,
from the whole of our numerous correspondents in
the wheat growing districts, state that though tbe
winter's frosts appear to have somewhat nipped
those growing in exposed situations, taking the
country through, they are of regular and steady
growth, of good colour, and with every prospect
of a large forthcoming yield. There is one circum-
stance which our farmers ouglit not to lose sight of
during the coming season, viz., the large increase
in the breadth of land under wheat culture this
year, both as relates to winter and spring sown.
That this fact, coupled with a considerable falling
off in the consumptive demand at Mark Lane and
our leading country markets, cannot fail to have a
depressing influence upon prices, no doubt what-
ever can be entertained ; hence, so far as the future
prospects of the home pioducers are concerned, it is
but too evideiit they are of a very gloomy character.
It is far, very far from our wish to represent matters
worse than they really are, but, as public journalists,
we feel it incumbent upon us to lay before our
readers such statements as from which they may
he the more readily enabled to draw their own in-
ferences to prove as a guide to their future opera-
tions. The stocks of wheat now on hand are, we
find, tolerably extensive, the time of year considered.
But in making this remark it must be observed that
we are making allusion, not to those in any parti-
cular county, but to England generally, as we are
quite aware that in Essex the supplies of wheat are
small; but in Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshii'e, &c. —
as is in part evidenced from the very large shipments
which have been, for some time past, made thence
to the London market — the quantities on hand are
certainly above an average. In warehouse, in the
various ports of the United Kingdom, we have still
large supplies of free foreign, and for which buyers
can with difficulty be found at any price. The
latter description of wheat will, in a great measure,
have the effect of causing prices to have a down-
ward tendency. This at once shows the necessity
that exists for the legislature to pass such measures
as will positively protect the interests of those who so
much require protection in the strictest sense of the
word — the British yeomen ; and we arc firmly con-
vinced ihat should the presentalmost-fVee-tradeprin-
ciples be suffered to go on in full vigour, tljat tbe ruin
of that higbly-iraportant body will be inevitable. It
should therefore be the duty of our niinisteis — and
indeed that of all who have the true interests of their
country at heart — to attempt the amelioration of
our farmers, who are now suffering to an extent un-
known for some years past. That these are not un-
supported statements, we would refer to present
prices, not only of corn, but also of stock and other
descriptions of farm produce ; and it will be found
that they are now fully tlirtii percent, lower than at

the corresponding period last year ! Here, then, is
the necessity for our agriculturists to bestir them-
selves in sending up petitions to both Houses of Par-
liament, claiming justice at their bands.

It being now well ascertained that a decidedly
small quantity of barley has been sown this year, we
tliink iliere is a probability of an increased value
being realised next year for that article ; but not to
the extent that can by possibility make up for the
actual losses upon wheat and most other gram.

Sucii has been the activity apparent in the fields,
under tlie auspices of splendid weather, that in
some parts the Lent crops have been finished ; and a
general conclusion is fully expected to be arrived at
by, or very shortly after, the lOth proximo.

The lambing season, notwithstanding the prevail-
ing epidemic has committed serious ravages amongst
the cattle, has been productive of a fine fall of
strong lambs ; and we have very good authority for
statin'g that the quantity of stock in the country is
e.xtremely large.

The various corn markets have been tolerably well,
but not to say heavily, supplied with wheat, both of
home and foreign produce ; but the demand for all
descriptions has ruled extremely inactive, and prices
in consequence have suffered a decline of from 2s.
to 43. per qr., without effecting scarcely any pro-
gress in sales. The barley trade has also ruled dull,
and the currencies have given way quite 2s. per qr.
In malt no new feature has occurred, and the rates
have remained about stationary. On account of the
large supplies of oats brought forward, the sale for
them has ruled dull, and the rates have fallen Is.
to 2s. per qr. The same observations may be applied
to beans and peas ; while flour must be called 2s.
per 280lbs. cheaper.

The advices from Ireland and Scotland state that
the weather there has been equally favourable as
with us. Sowing has gone on with a degree of
rapidity almost hitherto unknown, and the grain
plants are represented as very promising. The corn
trade, however, has been iu an unusually depressed
state, and the quotations of all grain have fallen from
Is. to 3s., in some instances 4s. per quarter.

Although the supjdy of turnips has been nearly
exhausted" we find that the stock in our grazing
districts has fared well, but not without a larger use
of cake and other artificial food.

The following is our usual monthly statement ot
the supi)lie3 an'd prices of fat stock exhibited and
sold in Sraithfield cattle market. The former have
been composed of 11,920 beasts; 110,215 sheep and
lambs ; 1040 calves; and 2400 pigs ; while the lat-
ter have ruled as follow -.—Beef, from 23. 6d. to 4s. ;
mutton, 2s. 10d.to4s.; bmb. Is. 8d. to 6s.; veal,
3s. lOd. to 4s. 8d.; and pork, Ss. to Is. per 81bs., to
sink the offals.

As to the trade, this has ruled miserably dull, with
comparatively low prices. This state of things is
chiefly owing to the supplies of stock in Smilhfield,
and to the a^rrivals of slaughtered meat up to IS'ew-
gate and Leadenhall markets from Scotland and
various parts of England being unusually great, and
by far more than adequate to meet the wants ofUie
buyers ; upwards of fifty thousand carcases having
thus come to band— and so long as such large re-
ceipts continue, so long will prices rule low. One
of the most important features in Smithfield, m
the course of the month, has been the exhibition ot
about 30 German beasts, which were imported about
four months since, and which have been, durmg that
period, fed in a large distillery in the neighbourhood

306

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of Brenlfoi-d, by way of experiment. The beasts
ill question, when first iiiijiorieci, were worth
about 181. jjer head ; but such was the miser-
able condition in wliich they n\ ere brought to this
market, we considered them jiosilively dear at 10/.
each; while we are given to understand the actual
loss upon them was about 8/. per head ! The only
imports since our last statement, have been 24 oxen
from Hamburgh, 12 at Hull, and the same number
in London.

A STATEMENT and COMPARISON of the SUP-
PLIES ami PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibited
and sold iu Smithfield Cattle Market, on
Monday, March 28, 1842, and Monday, March 27,
1843.

At per 8lbs. to sink the offals.

Marcli 28, 1843. March 27, IS-).").

s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.

Coarse & inferior Beasts 3 4 to 3 6 .. 2 8 2 10

Second quality do 3 8 310.. 3 0 3 4

Prime large Oxen 4 0 42. .36 38

Prime Scots, &c 4 4 4 6 .. 3 10 4 0

Coarse & inferior Sheep 3 6 3 8..210 3 0

Second quality do 3 10 4 2,32 34

Primecoarsewoolleddo. 44 48.36 38
Prime Southdown do. . 4 10 5 0 .. 3 10 4 0

Lambs 6 0 7 0,. 5 o 6 0

Large coarse Calves ..48 56. ,36 40

Prime small ditto 5 8 510., 4 2 4 6

Large Hogs 46 4 10. .30 36

Neat small Porkers .,50 52,. 38 40

SUPPLIKS.
March 28, 1842. March 27, 1843.

Beasts 2.472 2,610

Sheep and Lambs ... . 18,270 23,350

Calves 42 60

Piss 319 439

The dead markets have been positivelv glutted
with meat, ©wing to which, the trade has ruled dull,
and prices have fallen quite 2d. per 81bs. Beef has
sold at from 2s. 2d. to 3s. (Jd.; mutton, 2s. 4d. to
3s. 8d. ; lamb, 4s. to 5s, Cd. ; veal, 3s. Cd. to 43.
4d. ; and pork, Ss. to 4s. per 81bs., by the carcase.

APRIL WHEAT.

TO THE EDITOll OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — We are desirous of laying before your
readers the following brief statement of the valuable
properties of the April wheat, which we are now
selling for this year's sowing ; see advertisement in
the present number of the " Mark-lane Express."

The April Wheat, while it may bo sown a month
or five weeks later than any other wheat, will gene-
rally be the first to rijien in harvest. Our corres-
pondents mention having sown it in the last week
in April and the first week in May, and even so
late as the 20 th of May with good success. This
wheat is found less liable to blight than any other
wheat.

It is very productive, having produced in land of
moderate quality 3G, 40, and 42 bush, per acre. The
quality is good; we have heard of some weighing
04ilbs per bushel. The sample we are now selling
weighs 631bs., and some 041bs. ; and in one instance
which has come to our knowledge, it commanded
for grinding the highest market price.

The only care required in sowing it is to have the
land sufficiently fine ; it should be prepared as for
barley. The best mode of sowing it is by drill, at
the rate of two bushels, or two and a-half bushels
per acre.

We are, sir, your obedient servants,
Smyth Sc Co.

77, King Williarn- street, London.

COMMUTATION OF TITHES-
ENGLAND, 1842-43.

'I lie foUowinfT Report of the Tithe Commissioners in
England and Wales to her Majesty's Principal Secre-
tary of Slate (or the Home Department, pursuant to
the act 6 and 7 Will. IV., c. 71, has been presented to
both HoutCj; of Parliament by command of her Majesty :
"To Sir James Graham, &c.
" Tithe Commission Office, Blarch 6, 1843.

" Sir,— It is our duty to report to you the progress
of the commutation of tithes in England and Wales to
the close of the year 1842.

" We have received notices that voluntary proceed-
ings have commenced in 9,510 tithe-disti'iets ; of these
notices 129 were received daring the year 1842.

" We have rec. ived 6,694 agreements, and confirmed
6,211 ; of these 346 have been received, and 407 con-
firmed, during the year 1842.

"3,035 notices for ranking awards have been issued,
of whicli 857 were issued during the year 1842.

" We have received 2,006 drafts of compulsory
awards, and confirmed 1,613; of these 651 have been
received and 583 confirmed during the year 1842.

" We have received 6,451 apportionments, and con-
firmed 5,695; and of the?e 1,231 have been received
and 1,347 confirmed during the year 1842.

" In 7,824 tithe districts, as mill be seen from the above
statement, the rent-charges to he htreafter paid have been
finally established by confirmed agreements or confirmed
awards,

" We have in our possession voluntary agreements
and drafts of awards, as yet unconfirmed, which will
include 876 additional tithe districts.

" The proceedings under our act are going on
regularly, and, on the whole, very tranquilly.

" The proportion of compulsory to that of volvmtary
commutation i?; increasing, as must now be expected.

" Notwithstiuifling this fact, however, the number of
rent-charges established in 1842 slightly exceeds the
number established in 1841.

" We have ao-ain to regret that the apportionments
follow the establishment of rent-charges more slowly
than the interests and wishes of some of the parlies
make it ilesirable ihey should.

" We adhere, however, to the opinions expressed in
our former reports, that it is prudent to exercise great
forbearance in interfering with the privilege of the tithe-
payers to apportion the rent-cliarges by agents of their
own selection.

" The power we now have of giving security to the
tithe-owner for the payment of unapportioned rent-
charges has assisted us in our endeavours to exercise
such forbearance.

'' la flagrant cases of delay, however, we do not and
shall not hesitate to exercise our powers of apportioning
compulsorily.

(Signed) "Wm. Blashue.

" T. Wentwoutii Buixer.
" Rd. Joke?.''

GUANO. — Attached to this number of the Farm-
er's Magazine will be found a pamphlet on guano,
detailing its effects as illustrated by the latest ex-
periments. At a time when the use and advantages
of artificial manures, and especially of this fertilizer,
are becoming so general, it is highly desirable that
agriculturists should be put in possession of all the
known facts and experiments bearing on this sub-
ject, and we vs-ould, therefore, invite a careful peru-
sal of all the statements brought forward in favour
of this valuable manure, in order that a correct judg-
ment may be formed as to its merits.

A correspondent, under the signature of a" Colo-
nial Proprietor," enquires — Can you, or any of your
readers, inform me if Melvin's Stonehaven Ploughs
are to be obtained in London, and if so, where? —
March 28.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

307

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE MONTH OF MARCH.

Since our last publication the weather has been
as favourable to the spring operations of the far-
mer as could well have been desired. It was dry,
and generally frosty; and yet the ice at no period
penetrated deep enough into the ground to pre-
vent the preparation of the fluids for the reception
of the spring seeds of all descriptions. The sjiring
wheats therefore generally, and barley, oats, pulse,
and potatoes, are either in a great measure already
or speedily will be committed to the ground in
most excellent order; and of course, therefore, in
so far as the season has at the present time pro-
gressed, there exist strong grounds indeed to ex-
pect that their produce will in due season be
most abundant. But the advantages of this fa-
vourable beginning of the spring quarter of the
year have not been entirely confined to the prepa-
ration of the fields for and to the sowing of tbem
with spring seeds ; for they have likewise, in a
material degree, been extended to the improvement
of the winter wheats themselves. In the beginning
of the year the young wheat plants had sprung up
much too rapidly, and in many instances they had
even assumed that degree of luxuriance which ren-
dered their future fate rather critical. They how-
ever, since then, received a most opportune check
in their too rapid growth towards maturity by the
frosty, yet at the same time mild, weather which
occurred in the end of February and in the begin-
ning of last month. They must, from this fortunate
event, have now gained that strength at their roots
which is necessary to an abundant crop, and in
which they were certainly deficient previous to
that period. In as far, therefore, as the spring
season has advanced, expectations may reasonably
be entertained that the ensuing crop will be a large
one ; but in the present depressed state of the
agricultural interest, great doubts may be, and
actually are now entertained, whether this circum-
stance— should it really occur — can be of much
benefit to any class of Her Rlajesty's subjects.
Wheat is already considerably cheaper than it can
be grown in any part of the United Kingdom ; and
as .an abundant crop this year must still cause a
farther material decline in the value of this the
most important article produced by our home in-
dustry, the farmers must suffer still more severely
in their property than as yet they have done,
should the wheat crop now in the ground prove,
in the event, to be an abundant one. Undoubtedly
a farther reduction in its value must be the conse-
<]uence, and then they may have the privilege of
supplying all our markets for a time with cheap
wheat ; and if, by a further sacrifice of the capital
embarked by them in their agricultural operations,
even one benefit can be extended to any interest
within the British empire, then indeed patriotism
may, perhaps, offer some consolation to them for
any further sacrifice of property which they may
be doomed to make for the public good. But as
it is a moral certainty that, in the present state in
which British .society is constituted, the agricul-
tural interest can neither reap the advantages of
prosperity nor undergo the pains of adversity
without communicating a full share of their good
or of their bad fortune to every class of society
within Her Majesty's dominions — to whatever

department of industry their eftbrts and pursuits
may be directed — we entertain strong doubts, in-
deed, whether an abundant wheat crop, under
present circumstances, may not be as fatal to the
best interests of the United Kingdom as a really
deficient and damaged one most undoubtedly
would be. The depressed value of agricultural
property at present — which an abundant crop this
year must inevitably further increase — must be
followed by a more than jiroportionable decline in
the wages of labour ; for the amount of labour to
be performed would be considerably decreased
by the decreased means of the agricultural interest
for following out agricultural improvements ; and
thus must by far the most valuable property in
the British dominions — we allude to that of pro-
ductive labour — be injured very materially by any
further depreciation in the value of agricultural
produce. This most unnatural state of our in-
ternal affairs has been, Ave may say, entirely
created by the illustrations of the doctrines of
modern political economy now practised by Her
Majesty's Ministers, and supported by the farmers'
friends — as the representatives ot the farming in-
terest in the Commons House of Parliament lately
miscalled themselves. By the unfortunate with-
drawing of effective legal protection to home in-
dustry, we have transferred a great deal of the
best property which any country can possess to
foreign states and communities. We now give a
considerable portion of the pi'operty which our
agricultural labourers previously possessed in the
production of food for the use of the British people
to the field labourers of foreign nations ; and we
are thus oppressively reducing the wages of at least
one-half of our own agricultural workmen, and ra-
pidly driving the other half either into union-houses
or that state of life which is so closely allied to
destitution and to starvation. It is therefore, we
repeat, a subject of considerable doubt whether an
abundant crop, in the present internal circum-
stances of the English empire, would not add to
that depression which, for some years now, has
been so severely felt by the British people, and
which we fear much must continue to be experi-
enced until effective protection be given by law to
the products of industry at home, of every descrip-
tion. The wages of labour are already considerably
too low in this country for the comfortable living
of our workmen, and for the payment of our heavy
taxation, and consequently for the real and best
interests of the British community. It is from this
source alone that we must date a declining revenue,
and the collection into few hands of immense sums
of unemployed capital. These are the necessary
consequences of employing foreign field labourers
instead of those of the United Kingdom, in the
productive labour of growing food for the consump-
tion of the British people. It is not, however, solely in
agricultural matters that this most insane principle
is permitted to exist, for it is likewise to be found
in various departments of trade. In the fish trade,
for instance, the actual value of which has already
been deteriorated by the tariff bill upwards of fifty
per cent., and from which some of the most eminent
factors are about to withdraw that part of their
capital which may yet remain to them. Our fisher-

308

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

men have most just reason to complain that even
in the London market tlicy tiud the produce of
their labour, and of their dangerous profession, in-
terfered with and undersold, by large supplies of
fish of every description, foreign caught, or foreign
cured. In the boot trade, in that of hats, in silk
goods, and indeed in all the higher grades of manu-
factured goods, the workmen find themselves also
defrauded of their property by the transfer annually
now of a considerable portion of their labour to
foreign workmen and to foreign artizans. AVhilst
this ungenerous principle in our foreign trade is
permitted to exist, little hope indeed need be enter-
tained of an improving revenue, or of a returning
prosperity. The destruction of the only wealth of
nations, a productively employed people, must
eventually be attended by consequences most pre-
judicial to the national debt itself, for it may even
lead to the necessity of Americanizing the Bi-itish
half-yearly dividends. That reciprocity in trade
between the corn-producing districts in Europe and
America, and the United Kingdom, cannot exist, is
perfectly established by the events which have oc-
curred in our trade with these communities during
the last four or five years. Within less than that
period we have paid in cash upwards of thirty
millions sterling to foreign nations in exchange for
foreign grain alone, and at the same time the value
of our exports to those nations has annually been
on the decrease. This money is now embarked by
its now foreign proprietors either in the improve-
ment of foreign agriculture or in extending foreign
manufactures, fisheries, and commerce. It is
by the means which our liberal system in trade has
conferred on them that they are now enabled to
supply themselves at home witli manufactures
which previously were shipped to them from this
country, and that they now endeavour to increase
their revenues by increasing annually the rates of
duty previously imposed on the importation of
goods from the United Kingdom. This is a kind of
reciprocity Avhich we cannot comprehend, for it is
all on one side. In Germany, Russia, and the
United States of America, internal industry is now
amply protected by law, and the governors of these
states display profound wisdom in encouraging
their export trade, and limiting as much as possi-
ble the amount and value of their import com-
merce. Had this money which we have remitted
abroad during the last five years been retained in
this country no commercial complaints would have
been made at the present time. It would have
continued in circulation at home, encouraging all
departments of industry, and our former valuable
export trade to ths corn-producing districts in
Europe and in America would not have suffered
any diminution in its amount, in as far as these
communities would not have had the means of com-
peting with us in their own markets in manufac-
tures, or indeed in any tiling else. The property
which our industrious population possesses in
labour would not have been deteriorated as it has
been latterly, and wages would have been fully sup-
ported at their previous rates. Consumption of all
articles, cither of agriculture or of trade, would
have gone on at profitable prices to the producers,
and wheat never would have fallen to the miserable
prices which arc now obtained for it, and which
depreciation is entirely occasioned by employing
foreigners to do that labour for us whicli can be well
lierformed by our workmen at Innne. The farmers
cann(jt at present purchase their usual (luantify of
Iiiaiiuf'acturLHl goods, because (hey do not obtain re-

umnerating prices for iheir produce. The master
manufacturers cannot pay lair wages to their work-
men, because the value of the home consuiDptiou of
goods is reduced by at least one-half, in conse-
quence of the transfer of productive employment
from our own countrymen to those of foreign na-
tions, and also because tbe demand for their products
for shi[)ment to foreign grain-growing communities
is annually becoming less; the money ■which we now
pay for foreign agricultural produce enabling these
states to manufacture for themselves on cheaper
terms than we can do. It is because our legislators
are labouring under this strange delusion, or rather
monomania, respecting free trade, that tlie British
farmers are at present suffering so materially in the
capital which ihey have embarked in the cultivation
of our fields at home by the present wretchedly low
value of all descriptions of agricultural produce, par-
ticularly that of wheat. This important article of
agricultural produce has been again gradually on
the decline during the greater part of last month ;
and at the present moment the farmers' spirits are
not cheered by the slightest prospect of any imme-
diate amendment. Even the holders of free foreign
wheats are now shewing some anxiety to reduce
their stocks in granary, and they permit not any
favourable opportunity for making sales to pass from
them. Wherever, therefore, the supplies of English
wheat have been of late inadequate to the demand,
the deficiency has been amply made good by the im-
porters of foreign wheat ; and thus has the late pros-
pect of future improvement vanished — for a time,
at all events — from the view of our agricultural in-
terest. To sacrifice the interests of millions of in-
dustrious families to those of a dozen of cotton lords
is a policy far beyond tbe general comprehension of
mankind ; and it is also an extraordinary circum-
stance that these gentlemen do not see that all the
money which they may have gained by the reduction
of wages, they have lost bv the severe depression in
the home market which low wages chieflv have occa-
sioned. The eyes, however, of the greatest portion of
the master manufacturers are now opened to the real
causes of the existing general distress.; and the doc-
trines of tlie Anti-Corn Law League are becoming,
even amongst them, as unpopular as they have always
been amongst the manufacturing workmen them-
selves. Until the agricultural interest in this coun-
try, however, be rendered again sound and healthy,
that of manufactures cannot generally be expected to
improve ; and so long as encouragement is given by
British laws to the cultivation of foreign lands, no
alteration for the better need be looked for in the
general circumstances of the inhabitants of tbe United
Kingdom. W'e fear much, however, that the time
is still distant when proper protection will be again
extended to the cultivation of our own fields. In-
deed, it is notorious that a bill will, during the pre-
sent session of parliament, be introduced, and be
passed too, under the auspices of her Majesty's pre-
sent ministers, for the admission of grain of every
description from our colonies on the payment of
only nominal duties. This prospect is most cheering
to our fellow subjects in Canada, from whence our
information is to the middle of March. To them it
not only opens an almost boundless market for any
grain which they can produce above their home con-
sumption ; but the transit grain trade between the
United States of America and the United Kingdom
must also confer on them advantages of the utmost
importance to their future prosperit v. The expenses
attending the carriage of grain and flour from the
most productive banks of the Ohio to Montreal are

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

309

at least one-tliird lower tLaii they are from tbesanie
districts to A'ew York; and on tbe payment of os.
per qr. of duty, their wheat immediately will gain
all the advantages which the new act of parlia-
ment, to which we now allude, must confer on
wheats of colonial growtii. This duty is to be
applied to the finances of Canada alone, and not
one farthing of it will be applied towards the
public expenditure of the mother country. We
strongly suspect that this proposed alteration in the
colonial grain trade is intended by the ministers of
the British Crown as only a preliminary measure,
either to the entire repeal of the corn laws, or as a
step to the imposition of fixed rates of duty on
the importation of foreign ^^raiu from all (piarters.
This colonial bill, when passed into a law, as cer-
tainly it speedily must be, wiTl not yield in national
importance to that corn law which was .adopted
last year by the Parliament, nor can its conse-
quences be less injurious to the agricultural interests
of the United Kingdom. In very few instances,
indeed, will the import duty into Canada be paid
on the American grain and Hour thus introduced,
for the vast proportion of it will be smuggled across
the lakes. Tiie shores are by far too greatly ex-
tended to admit of revenue protection by Custom-
house olBcers, and thus another immense boon will
be given to the admirers of freedom in foreign
trade, at the farther expense of the British agricul-
tural interest. Our shipping interest will,howevei',
derive some benefit from this trade, in so far as
wheat, or any thing else, cannot be imported into
this country, unless under the British flag, from any
of our colonies. To the agricultural interests in
America, however, our new colonial corn bill will
be of the deepest importance, inasmuch as it will
place before them the British markets for the con-
sumption, duty free, of the produce of by far the
finest and largest corn districts within that union.
To them it will be advantageous in proportion to
the injury which it will infiict on the cultivators of
our fields at home ; and in our legal export ship-
ments of goods to these States no increase can be
made by this further concession to the unintelligible
doctrines of freedom of trade, for the American
tarifl' of import duties will be still maintained for
the protection of American internal industry. In
this field folly^ and wisdom are arrayed against each
other, and it is not difficult to foresee to which the
advantage will finally belong-. The British farmer's
friends in the House of Commons, if such men
there be, no doubt will pay due attention to
this colonial corn importation bill when it is sub-
mitted to the legislature for their sanction, although
we very much doubt if their influence now be
powerful enough to prevent it from being, during
this session of parliament, registered among the
laws of the British empire.

From the continent of Europe, the information
received since our last publication has generally
been in due course of post. In the Baltic ports the
prices of wheat have not yet fallen exactly to their
level with those in Mark Lane, but it was generally
expected that, as the season for activity approached,
they would still undergo a farther depreciation. Be
this as it may, how-ever, we shall be overwhelmed
again with Polish wheat during the next summer
and autumnal months ; for, should the British mer-
chants decline to purchase Polish wheats abroad,
the foreign proprietors of that article will consign
it for sale to all the great corn markets within the
United Kingdom. At Dantzig the latest nominal
price of high-mixed Polish wheats was 30s. per qr.

free on board. Shipping was exceedingly plentiful,
and the rates of freight demanded were conse-
quently unusually low. Several foreign ships had
been, at that date, chartered for London, at from
3s. to 2s. (id. per qr. ; and the British farmer will
before long therefore, by sad experience, discover
that, under no circumstances, can our maximum
import duty of 20s. per qr. protect his property in
the Britisli'market from competition with the pro-
prietors of the best descriptions of foreign wheats.
Several vessels have likewise been chartered already
in Great Britain herself, to proceed to the Baltic
for grain; a clear proof that eventually the pur-
chase prices of wheatabroad must assort themselves
to the sale ones here. All the markets without
the Baltic will also be regulated by the same causes,
and therefore, in the face of an abundant growtli of
grain at home, the cultivators of our fields have
but a cheerless prospect before them. From the
Jlediterranean, and from the southern ports in
Europe without that sea, no advices have latterly
been received of any importance to British agricul-
ture, excepting that preparations were making in
the north of Spain to send us, in great abundance,
live cattle, and throughout that ])eninsula cured
provisions were in progress for the consumption of
the people in this country. This extreme kindness
towards us by foreign nations will last as long
as our money does, but not one moment longer.
The value of barley has undergone extremely little
variation since our last review of the state and pros-
pects of the corn trade. The distiller's consunaption
is rather increasing, whilst, on the contrary, the
maltster's demand is regularly on the decline, and
the one takes oft", at present, about the deficiency of
the other. Still, however, the distiller's trade is by
no means in that healthy state in which the wisdom
of our Legislature, if directed into a right channel,
might place it. Double the quantity of barley now
used would be requisite to an improved system,
and no reason whatever can be adduced for not
amending one of the most important departments
for the consumption of barley, for improving public
morality, and for increasing the national revenue.
If the ministers of the crown paid only a little more
attention to our excise duties, and a little less to
those of the customs, they would far better serve
than they now do the best interests of the British
empire. To the admission of foreign wines at re-
duced duties, no person can object ; for this article
is not, and cannot be produced in this country, but
the reduction of the existing duty on foreign spirits
is a widely difterent question. In Portugal and in
France various descriptions of wines can he made,
the quality of which is so extremely inferior, that
consumption for them, neither abroad nor at home,
can be found in that character. The object, or at
all events the consequence, of the proposed reduc-
tion here in the duty at present imposed on foreign
spirits, must be the future conversion of these dele-
terious foreign wines into foreign spirits, for the
consumption of the inhabitants of the United King-
dom. I'be raw material of these spirits, too, is of
foreign growth, and the profits of their manufacture
will belong to foreign distillers. To suppose that
these spirits will be paid for in British commodities
of any description, is a stretch of fancy nearly bor-
dering on what is called the insane. Like every-
thing else which we now import from Europe, and
from the United States of Korth America, the pre-
cious metals chiefly must be remitted in exchange for
any additional quantity of foreign spirits which we
may import under the reduced system of duties, nn4

310

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the wages of the workiuen engaged in distilling them
will be paid to foreigners, and not to the subjects of
the British Queen. This policy is not of easy com-
prehension at a period when nearly every class in
British society is complaining of the want of a suffi-
cient quantity of productive employment, and the
transfer to foreigners of even the smallest portion of
labour wiiich can be accomplished at home, is a
positive injury inflicted on the property of the in-
dustrious classes in the United Kingdom, To re-
duce th3 duty now levied in England on home-made
spirits, on tlie contrar}', must be speedily attended
by results of a widely different character; it will
lead to the entire suppression of tlie spirit smuggling
trade, which is the great root of crime amongst the
British people. It will likewise be the means of
improving public health, because pure and healthy
home-made spirits, drawn from British grain, will
afterwards be consumed in England, instead of the
foreign spirits now consumed under the present sys-
tem, and distilled on the worst principles, and to a
certain extent from the worst descriptions of foreign
spoiled wines, or from inferior qualities of foreign
fruits. Th;it our distillers are as scientific as those
of Holland, and infinitely more so than those of
Fr.mce, tbe experience of many years now has very
sufficiently established ; and that the spirits manu-
factured by them are better suited to the people of
this kingdom, is proved by the higher state of good
health which their consumers enjoy, than those do
who confine themselves to the use of foreign spirits
only, whether they be of French or of Dutch origin.
The Chancellor of the Exchequer has the means
now within his power of applying an effectual
remedy to the imperfections at present exhibited in
our distillery and rectifying laws ; he has only to
equalise the spirit duty throughout the United
Kingdom — to laise that now charged in Ireland and
Scotland to 5s. per proof gallon, and to reduce the
charge in England to the same figure. By a mea-
sure of this description he will improve very mate-
rially the revenue, in as far as the smuggler's trade
must cease, being rendered no longer a profitable
one. He will open also a farther channel for the
consumption of British grain to the extent of at least
iialf a million of quarters ; and ho may likewise
vastly increase public morality and the public health
by the reduced quantity of ardent spirits, of Ine
worst description too, which are now illicitly put
into consumption, which the alteration in the duty
we now allude to, would inevitably occasion.
To increase the growth of barley in this country
would be to increase the quantity of the most
important tax-paying article in this country,
and would, even on that account alone,
be an important national advantage. In the
malting trade, however, is the great channel for
the consumption of an additional quantity of barley
to be found ; but this too depends mainly on the at-
tention of the legislature being directed toa revision
of the excise laws, for the consumption of pure and
wholesome beer is now, we may say, in a state of
annual decay, and the quantity of barley consumed
by the puldic brewers is, consequently, annually be-
coming less. Excessive taxation is the sole cause
of this effect, so extremely injurious to the agricul-
tural interest, to the public revenue, and to the great
body of the English nation. The malt duty is more
than one-half too high, and the public taxes paid by
the licensed victuallers compel the great majority
of that class of society to protect their property in-
vested in their leases at the expence of the con-
sumers' health. It is utterly impossible for the mi-

nor publicans to sell beer at its present price, and
to pay, at the same time, the large public expences
to which under the present system they are sub-
jected. In this cause originate the namerous con-
viction, for adulterating beer, which are weekly
occurring at the excise office, and the still more
numerous cases of the same evil, wJiich meet not the
public light. When we say, that by a mixture of
coarse sugar and salt, and most frequently of very
deleterious ingredients themselves, which we need
not here enumerate, two barrels of beer from the
public brewer are converted into three by the re-
tailer, we are raordlly certain that our statement is far
within actual bounds, and the finance Minister can-
not be better employed than in the inmediate appli-
cation of a remedy to this rapidly increasing evil —
indeed, common justi(!fe to the people demands that
he should do so. It has its orjj^in, we repeat, in
heavy taxation, and he alone has the power of re-
moving it; to impose a charge of one shilling per
bushel on the raw barley, when sent into the malt
house for conversion into malt, instead of the heavy
duty now charged on malt itself, would in a few
years double the revenue now collected on malt,
would triple the quantity of barley now actually
converted into malt, and would spread universal sa-
tisfaction throughout every pait of the British Em-
pire. The benefits, however, of the imposition of a
moderate rate of duty on malt, would not be confined
to the revenue or to the comforts of the consumers
of beer. They would take a far more extended
and far more important r.-.nge even than these
are; for they would eventually penetrate into the
whole system of British and Irish society. They
would render absolutely necessary the cultivation of
at least two millions of acres of sandy soil, in addi-
tion to the quantity of land now under barley-tillage
in this country. This description of land is at
present valueless, but by its conversion into utility
it would increase the rent of land eventually by as
many millions sterling annually. It would proper- '
tionably increase the quantity of field labour now to
be done, and thus it would add to the j)roper(y of
the agricultural labourers themselves. Its annual
produce and profits also would do far more than pay
for the additional expenses which the additional
consumption of beer would occasion. It would
produce an universal good, unalloyed by one solitary
evil ; and it would in a sliort time indeed perfectly
prove that within the United Kingdom we have, in
great abundance, the means for maintaining our
population, were it three times greater than it now
is, without transferring to foreign labourers (unless
for a few luxuries) even the smallest fraction of
work, with the view either of comfortably feeding,
or of respectably clothing, the people of this coun-
try. On the exorbitant duties, however, now
charged on manufactured barlej', amounting, as they
do, to nearly one quarter of the public expenditure,
the members themselves of the Anti-Corn Law
League aie entirely mute ; although their silence on
this most important subject expresses far more elo-
quently than language could do, the real motives by
which their conduct heretofore has been, and still
is regulated. It is apparently neither to pro-
mote the prosperity nor to increase the comforts
of the productive labourers, that they at present
labour ; else the excessive excise duties on manu-
factured barley would form the leaders in all their
addresses to the public. By the total repeal of the
corn laws, their silence on the subject of overtaxed
barley clearly proves their object not to bo the im-
provement of the condition of the working classes at

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

311

borne, but the increase of ibe fortunes of a few cotton
lords at tlio sole expense of the multitude. 'J'he
productive classes, however, now pay Hitle attention
to these lecturers on modern political economy.
They already repudiate their false principles of
philanthropy, and soon — indeed now — will they
solicit from the Legislature of the United Kingdom
legal protection to home labour, which is their pro-
perty, and !)y far the most valuable one too in tlio
British empire, against the interference of foreign
labour in all our markets of consumption, whether
they be at home, in the colonies, or in any part of
our foreign possessions. The real friends to the
people at present are those who oppose the modern
dogmas of free trade, and who prefer the use of
articles of home manufacture, and of home produc-
tion, to any article of the same description which
can he imported from foreign nations. They are the
real friends of the British people who employ home
labourers in the production of most articles con-
sumed by them, and who purchase from foreign
states only those commodities which cannot bo
grown nor manufactured in the British empire ;
who confine their annual expenditure as much as
possible williin the United Kingdom, and who ex-
pend not their monej'^ on foreign labourers, unless
for some luxuries which cannot be produced here ;
who, in short, are neither Quakers, crusaders
against landed property, nor wandering citizens of
the world, but who are in the most extensive mean-
ing of the word the true protectors of native indus-
try, talent, and capital. This is the only plan by
which prosperity can be restored to the British
empire ; and by the reduction of the present rates of
duty imposed on manufactured barley the Minister
will at all events make a good beginning in again
leading the people into a rational mode of acting in
their future commercial relations with foreign na-
tions.

During the last month no improvement has oc-
curred in the value of oats ; but prices previously
were so very low, that lo cause any additional depres-
sion in them would have certainly been an operation
of considerable difficulty. The consumption lias not
in any manner fallen away in its usual amount, and
consequently the demand has always cleared away
the weekly supplies, which however have not gene-
rally been extremely abundant, though still in the
value of them no improvement Las been the result
of this state at all the large oat markets throughout
Great Britain ; any deficiency in supply whi< h may
have at any time existed being amply provided for,
under the present liberal system of our corn laws,
by oats of foreign growth, 'i'his is the low con-
dition into which ihe cultivators of oats have latterly
been placed by the reduction of those import duties
by which their capital invested in agricultural ope-
rations was previously protected from the inter-
ference of foreign oat-growers in all our oat-markets
of consumption. To the farmers in the North of
England, and throughout the principal counties in
Scotland, this circumstance is not now of the same
importance which it would have been thirty years
ago; because agricultural improvements in those
districts have made, during that period, won-
derful progress indeed. In Lincolnshire and its
neighbouring counties, for instance, the culti-
vation of wheat has so much superseded that
of oats, that instead of supplying the London
market, as was formerly the case, with at least one
third of the oat consumption there, the same mar-
ket is this year positively swamped by heavy sup-

plies of north-country wheat and flour. During
the last quarter of a century, howeyer, the gra-
dually decreasing supplies of British oats in all
our markets for their consumption have been most
amply made up by the gradually increasing im-
ports'from Ireland. Until this season this circum-
stance has been the great spur to agricultural im-
provement in the sister kingdom, and most admi-
rably have the Irish landed interest and their
tenantry availed themselves of the road to pros-
perity thus presented to them for the proper culti-
vation of their beautiful and prolific country. By
the progress made in Ireland in the production of
oats in particular, the value of that article has
been, comparatively speaking, kept low in (jrcat
Britain ; whilst the prices obtained for their pro-
ducts have not only remunerated the growers, but
also given them the means to pay for still more
important improvements. An entire stop, how-
ever, is put, for the present at all events, to these
most cheering prospects to Irish agriculturists, for
at the present average prices of Irish oats in Great
Britain this most valuable article cannot be pro-
duced by their farmers. Oats cannot be grown
on the western coast of Ireland, rent of land and
farming expences, preparing them on the kiln to
stand a lengthened voyage, and the expense of
cartage to and shipment in an Irish port paid, to
which likewise must be added freight and sea in-
surance to London, and the heavy charges made
on them in the British markets of sale, if they arc
for the future to be sold here at from 14s. to 16's.
per quarter on the average, as has been the case
during the present corn season. If the public
generally, or one class in our society, could receive
even the slightest benefit from the deterioration in
the value of agricultural property which is now in
progress, some excuse might exist for the violent
alterations made in our former custom-house
duties on the importation of foreign agricultural
products of all descriptions. But to sacrifice the
interests of the multitude to the aggrandisement of
a few individuals, to transfer even the smallest
portion of the productive labour in grooving oats
for the consumption of Great Britain from Irish
to foreign agricultural labourers, and to permit
foreign flags and foreign seamen to participate in
the advantages in our oat carrying trade, at the
expense of our commercial navy, is a policy which
is perfectly unintelligible to common minds,
although to those who are gifted with uncommon
sense it may be perfectly comprehensible. In the
meantime a more favourable month for oat sowing
than the last has been, is not iu the me-
mory of any living farmer, and the prospect of a
large crop towards the close of last month caused
a farther decline of Is. per quarter, which previ-
ously was considered to be impossible, in the
value of the finest descriptions of this previously
too much depressed article of agricultural produce.

COMPARATIVE PRICES of GRAIN.

WEEKLY AVERAGES by
the Imp. Quarter, from the
Gazette, of Friday last,
March 21th, 1843.

s. d.

Wheat 47 G

Barley 27 11

Oats 17 4

Rye 2G 10

Beans 20 8

P£A3 ^8 G

AVERAGES from the corres-
ponding Gazette in the last
year, Friday, March 25tli,
1842.

s. d.

Wheat 58 4

Barley 26 6

Oats 18 4

Rye., 33 5

Beans 29 9

P£AS ;,r.,, •• 82 0

312

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

CURRENCY PER IMP. MEASURE.

March 27.

Wheat, Essex and Kent, red 42 48 White 46 60 52

Iri?h 40 42 Do 40 44

Old, red — — Do — —

Rte, oM 32 — New.... S'i —

BARLEr, Grinding 21 27 iMuIting 30 33 Cheralier 30 34

Irish 21 23 Bere . 19 20 22

Malt, SufVoIli and Norfolk 56 58 Brown.. 50 54

Kins&ton and Ware .... 50 CO Clievalier 60 —

Oats, Yorksli. & Linrolnsli., feed 18 20 22 Potato.. 23 24

Youdiall and Cork black 15 17 Cork.wliite 16 19

Dublin 15 17 Westport 18 19

Waterford, wlxite 15 17 18 Black.. 15 17

Newry 18 19 20

Galway 14 15 16

Scoteli feed 21 — Potato.. 21 24

Clonmel 16 17 18 Limerickl7 18 19

Londonderry 18 19 Sligo .. 18 19

Beans, Tick, new 23 26 Old 30 32

PEA3, Grey 27 29 Maple . . 20 28

White 80 31 Boilers. 30 82

Floch, Town-made 42 45 Sutl'olk 84 36 pr sk. of SSOlbs
Stork Ion and Norfolk, 34 86
FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND.

Wheat, Dantzic — — ■)

Hamburg 32 34 V nominal.

Rostock 32 35J

Barley 20 —

OATS.Brcw 15 17 Feed... 12 14

Beans. 14 15 19

Peas 20 22

Flotjr, American, per brl 22 24 Baltic.. — 22

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

Week endin? |Wheat. Barley. Oats. iRye. Beans.l Peas.

Feb.

nth

18th

25th

March 4th

lltU

18th

Agcrefjate average
of the six weeks
which regulate>

the duty I 47 11

Duties payable
in London till
Wednesday next
inclusive,and at
the Outoorts till
thearrival o( the
mail of that day
from London . .
Do. on grain fram
British posses-
sions out of
Europe...

20 0

5 0

27 1

27 1
27 2
27 4
27 7
27 11

27 5 8C 1

U 6

27 0
26 11
26 7
26 6
26 8

26 10

29 5

80 1

28 6

29 4

28 0

II 6

10 10

Account shewing the Quantities of Corn, Grain, Meal,
and Flour, imported into the United Kingdom, in the
month ended the 5th JNIar., 1843 ; the Quantities upon
which Duties iiave been paid for Home Consump-
tion during the same month, and the Quantities re-
maining in Warehouse at tlie close thereof.

Foreign Grain and I Quantity Quantity en-, Quantity
- ' • I tered for remamnig ni

consumption, warehouse.

Flour.

imported.

qrs. bush,
Wheat, from Biitisli |

Possessions 1 12C0 0

Peas, from do i 0

Indian Corn, do. ... I —

Wheat, foreign ..... 8026 4

Barley, do.

Oats, do

Rye, do

Peas, do

Beans, do

Indian Corn, do. .
Buck Wheat, do.
Malt

10

822

533

9902

Flotir and Meal from

British Possessions

Flonr & M eal^foreign

cwts. (jrs.lbs,

1489
2136

S 4
0 16

qrs. bush,

1095 3

1 0

55 S

754 6

11^4 0

846 2

1701 0

2598 C

203 0

cwt?. <irs. Iba.

U738 1 S
98 1 16

qrs. bush.

4443 4

679 8

1221 6

221248 6

51651 0

51683 2

1026 6

20521 0

112153 7

12661 1

cwts. qrs. lbs.

60985 0 21
42901 3 IS

PRICES OF SEEDS.

IMARcit 27.

Clover, English, red .... 42 60 white 44 62 por cwt.
Flemish, pale.... 44 48 fine.. 62 68
New Hamburgh .. none do.. 42 64

Old do .42 4") elo.. none

French 42 50 do., nona

Linseed, English, sowing 48 56

Baltic — — crushing 42 45 per qr.

Mediter. k. Odessa 45 46
Large, foreign.... — —

Coriander 10 10 old.... 16 20 per cw».

Mustard, brown, new .. 9 11 white.. 9 10>0dp.b\isb

Trefoil, new 18 21 old 12 16

Rapesecd, English new.. S2l. .So/, per ton.

Linseed Cakes, English.. 9/. 10s. to 10/. per 1000
Do. Foreign.. 51. 10s. to 6/. per ton.

Rapeseed Cakes 5Z. 5s. to 5Z. 10s.

Hempseed, small 85 38 large.. 48 48 per qr.

Rye Grass, English 30 42 Scotch 18 40

Tares, winter — — New 4s Od 5s Od p. bush.

Canary, new 02 G3 tine 04 65perqr.

Carraway, old — — new -12 44

PRICES OF HOPS.

BOROUGH, Monday, March 27.
We have a steady demand for Hops of the last
year's growth, at last week's prices. The stock on hand
has become very limited.

Pockets, 1842, Wealds,...

East Kent.,

Sussex....

Farnhara. .

Pockets, 1841, Wealds, good

. . East K'=nt choice

Bags, 1841, do

Pockets, Old olds, do. ....

POTATO MARKET.

SOUTHVVARK WATERSIDE, March 27.
The supply of Potatoes to tlie waterside, during the
past week, amounts 10 3,770 tons, viz. — From York-
shire, 1,305 tons; Scotland, 1,155; Devons, 440;
Kent and Es?ex, 290 ; Jersey and Guernsey, 405 ; Wis-
beach, 175. Our sales earlier in the week were dull,
owing to the mild weather, but the recent change to
cold easterly winds being more beneficial to sales, and
preventing fresh arrivals, will no doubt cause the de-
mand to be more active, and a continuance would pro-
bably lead to improvement in the price of the best
samples.

s.

s.

80 to

90 per cwt

100 —

140 ..

77 —

84 .,

140 —

150 ..

60 —

70 ..

70 —

80 ..

60 —

(0 ..

30 —

50 ..

Per ton.
s. s.

York Reds 60 to 70

Scotch do 40 to 60

Devons, early 50 to 55

Ditto, late.... — to fiO

Kent & Essex Whites 45 to 50

Kent Kidneys — to 55

Wisbeach do — to 50

Per ton.
s. s.
.Jersey Blues ....... — to 50

Guernsey do ~- to 45

Yorkshire Prince

Regents 45 to 50

Ditto Shaws, (or
planting — to 00

ERRATUM.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Sir, — On reading the letter in the Far7ner's
Magazine which I addressed to you on the subject of
Mr. Smart's essay, I find that you have, by mistake,
described the figure as representing the work per-
formed by the " turn-wrist plough'^ as to represent
that performed by the " fixed-wrist plough," and
Die*" versa. I would feel obliged by your taking an
early opportunity to correct the error.

I have the honour to remain, sir,

Your obedient servant,

Harrv FLOWEROrW.
Suffolk, March ;}, 1813.

Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 24, Norfolk-street, Strand,
London,

I

■^

N;

V

„(i(S r«Si(^S!HS«i^ ■SKjfpf;K<Jsm am - ■- i'!ln r,

m

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

MAY, 1843.

No. 5.— Vol. VII.]

[Second Series.

PLATE I.

A Cart Stallion, five years old, the property of C. Neekl, Esq., M.P., of Grittleton,
near Chippenham, exhibited at the meeting of the Royal Agvicultural Society, held at
Bristol, in July last, to which a prize of thirty sovereigns was awarded, as the best horse
for agricultural purposes.

PLATE II.

H A R K A W A y.

CFor Description see page 328. J

ON THE THEORY AND GENERAL, SPECIAL, CHEMICAL, AND
PRACTICAL ACTIONS AND USES OF THE WATER OF IRRIGA-
TION ; MORE PARTICULARLY AS THEY APPLY TO THE WATER
MEADOWS OF ENGLAND.

An intimate acquaintance with, and due appre-
ciation of, the beneficial uses of irrigation we are
enabled to trace back to ver}' ancient times. This,
like many other primitive practices, must liave
sprung from an intimate observation of the opera-
tions of nature, and her inexhaustible and ever-
ready resources for promoting fertility and increase
in otherwise hopeless conditions of soil and climate.
It is only what might have been expected then,
that, among the earliest authentic records of the
human race, we find allusions to tljis piactice. In
the sacred writings we are told that Egyjjt was the
great storehouse of Asia, and that in times of
scarcity and famine the surrounding tribes and
nations resorted to her granaries ; for even at that
period she was distinguished for the cultivation of
the arts and sciences, and in a remarkable degree
for the perfection of her agriculture — the venerable
parent of all art and refinement j and, notwith-
standing all the revolutions she has undergone
during so many ages, her fertile territory still teems
with luxuriant abundance, so deep does agricultu-
ral industry strike her vivacious and indestructible
root.

But the great resource on which all this fertility

OLD SERIES.]

depends is copious irrigation. What a striking
example on a mighty scale is afforded, in this lux-
uriant territory, of the benefit of inundating the
parched and thirsty soil ! Laden and turbid with
his rich burden of mineral and organic wealth,
gathered in his lengthened course through central
Africa and the luxuriant valleys of Abyssinia, and
swollen by the heavy rains poured into his in-
creasing flood by a tbousaiul streams, from a thou-
sand hills and plains, the beneficent Nile rises
j.roudly over his level banks, and scatters wealth
and plenty with bounteous and unspaiing liberality
over the length and breadth of this favoured land.
So that the idolatrous natives in their blind and
enthusiastic gratitude were fain to become wor-
shippers, and deified the spirit of this mighty
stream.

In those years in which the waters of this
mighty river did not reach a certain height the
miri, a tribute, was not exacted — a sufllicient evi-
dence of the importance attached to this periodical
phenomenon. For before the flooding, Egypt is
but a plain of arid dust. On the rising of the
river, it assumes the appearance of a boundless
lake, and, on the subsidence of the waters, it is
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speedily clothed witli verdure and bloom, a luxuri-
ous paradise of voluptuous beauty and smiling
loveliness.

During the aututnnal season the Delta is laid
completely underwater ; and this is easily accom-
plished by means of numerous canals, the princi-
pal branches siii)ported at the public charge. Rice,
which forms the chief support of the greater pro-
portion of the human race, and which cannot be
cultivated without irrigation, was originally in-
troduced by the Saracens, and is peculiarly adapted
to these low grounds, on which it is sown in June,
after the soil has been softened hy tbe water, so as
to resemble the consistence of mud ; and being
laid completely under water, the grain grows lux-
uriantly in that element, and yitlds a harvest in
October. None but the courser varieties of grain
produce, such as the Holcus dlwurra, can, in this
land of sunshine, be cultivated with scanty irriga-
tion. Wheat and barley are grown on the higher
grounds, but, even to these heights, the fertilizing
element is raised by machinery, where at all possi-
ble, by the persevering labour of man and brute.
It is clear that without water this productive land
would comparatively and speedily become a
desert.

Let us now look further cast, and regard the
magnificent products of Hindostan ; and, wherever
water abounds, we are unfailingly refreshed with
evergreen shade and perennial luxuriance. Watered
by copious streams, even with her sandy soil, Hin-
dostan must ever surpass in richness and variety of
vegetation, all the most favoured regions of the
temperate zone. The original covering of sand
with which she is overspread, along the courses of
her mighty rivers and numberless streams, by in-
undation and culture, has been covered over with a
thin layer of fertile clay ; and this is the case in the
rich tract of Bengal, watered by the Ganges and
Burhampooter. The Indus performs a like service
in the west. We have noticed that rice, the great
staple of this favoured land, cannot be cultivated
without irrigation ; so that, without a copious
supply of water, India, like Egvpt, would com-
paratively and speedily become a desert.

Let us turn again in the oi)posite direction to the
naked hordes of central Africa ; to those regions
where the plough has never reached — for we can-
not much regard the Niger expedition— and we
shall find that by the mere scratching of a hoe, the
only implement of culture, the thankful soil, re-
freshed by copious, and in some cases but scanty,
irrigation, freely yields the grateful tribute of an
abundant harvest to its rude and unskilful lord
and husbandman. Of the truth of this statement
the ample harvests of rice on many parts of the
banks of the Niger bear ample testimonj'. We
shall pass over the noble rivers and countless
canals of China in the east ; the South American,
Amazon, and Paraguay rivers, with their fertilizing
and sea-like floods; and the Missouri and Missis-
sippi of the northern division of the mighty west,
down to the Sandwich Islander of the Pacific with
the fruitful Toro-root, his chief subsistence, and
the produce of irrigation, and shall content our-
selves with stating, preparatory to a consideration
of the beneficial uses and modes of operation of
this fertilizing process in different climates and
different soils, that the art of irrigation is more or
less practised in all the countries of Southern
Europe ; and that in Piedmont and the Austro-
Lombardian valley of the Po, containing the mag-
nificent ancient cities of Milan and Venice, this

art is still pursued with surprising energy and suc-
cess ; and that there the moment a spring is dis-
covered, it is appropriated by the lord of the soil,
as would be a precious jewel, and its waters forth-
with directed to various distd'nt surfaces in tiny
rills, which are apportioned by the scientific engi-
neer with scrupulous accuracy, and paid for even
by the day, or hour, or quantity, like any other
precious, because familiar and indispensable, com-
modity of domestic consumption. The gigantic
canils, and aqueducts, and triumphal feats of en-
gineering, for tne purposes of extensive irrigation
in this European Paradise, may be still viewed,
amongst all the splendid relics of art, as some of
the mf)st enduring and honourable monuments of
the palmy days of the once mighty Queen of the
Sea — republican Venice.

We have seen then that the art of irrigation is
very ancient ; that it is practised in temperate as
well as in tropical regions ; and we shall now pro-
ceed, step by step, to the scientific consideration
of the subject, as regards its uses, and the various
modes and beneficial principles of its operation.

When the water of irrigation deposits a percep-
tible sediment, and this by accumulating forms a
distinct layer of rich soil on the surface, we may
at once ascribe its enriching effects in a great mea-
sure to this deposit of mixed mineral and organic
matter ; making due allowance for the refreshing
coolness and restorative general effect of the pre-
sence and contact of the element under a tropical
sun. In our own island in the estuary of the Hum-
ber the brackish water, where the salt and fresh
waters meet, is conducted for miles inland, and
deposits yearly nearly a foot of rich fertilizing se-
diment, but its beneficial effects, of course, de-
creasing the further the water flows inland. This
is termed warping, and is practised with great
profit on the Don, the Trent, and the Ouse rivers
in England, and in various other localities of
Europe.

But when the water contains no visible or sensi-
ble sedimentary matter, but appears perfectly clear
and limped, it is used with great success for the
purposes of irrigation. In the watered meadows
of England, (Gloucester, Wilts, &;c.) it is made to
pass in a continuous and uninterrupted flow over
every part of the surface, and often, having per-
formed its fertilizing oflice to one surface, it is in-
troduced to another, and finally permitted freely to
escape and be restored to the parent brook, or
river, at a lower level.

In this way the waters of natural springs, and
brooks, and livers are used in this and other
countries of the temperate zone ; and it shall be
our special purpose to enquire how these limpid
waters are enabled to communicate and dispense
with such facility and certainty such wonderful
increase.

In tropical climates, and hot countries generally,
due allowance must be made for the general re-
freshing influence of thecool current, and indeed in
such circumstances nothing seems necessary but
a copious supply of water everywhere to ensure fer-
tility. But it must be borue in mind, that in warm cli-
mates, where every material atom seems instinct with
life — animal, insectjor vegetable, no portion of the soil
is deficient from the death and decay of these count-
less animated hordes— these constant but epheme-
ral myriads— in a sufficient abundance of the or-
ganic elements necessary to support the most lux-
uriant vegetation.

There are many characteristic points of dlfFereuce

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315

arisiug from climatic influence, and tlicse cluivnc-
tcristic points of diftercuce, and otlicr attendant
circumstances and conditions, peculiar to tropical
climates, must ever preserve a marked distinction
in the general and specitic actions of the practice of
irricration, in producing beneficial results, and as a
means of insuring fertility and increase in such
climates, to what is observed in the various climates
of the temperate zone. Our present object is, how-
ever, not to give any particular explanation of these
difi'erences of action, but to endeavour to show, on
scientific principles, liow we arc to account for the
extraordinary and magic fertility produced by the
so frequently perfectly clear and limpid currentof the
water meadow of England.

In the present state of advancement of the sci-
ence of agricultural chemistry, it is held to be proved,
by satisfactory analysis, that all soils, fertile in grain
or herbage, must contain, in some form, sutficieut
supplies of certain elementary substances, organic
and inorganic. It will become necessary, therefore,
before proceeding much further, to show what these
necessary elementary bodies are believed to be.

Tlve organic parts of plants are composed of four
elementary bodies, in various proportions ; and
these are named carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and ni-
trogen ; the first compact and solid, the others gas-
eous, and the last being present in proportionably
smaller quantity than the rest. The presence in the
soil, therefore, of deconcposing organic (animal or
vegetable) substances, in sufficient abundance to
supply these elements in the necessary proportions,
is absolutely indispensable to form a fertile soil ;
although a considerable proportion of the organic
matter of vegetables is believed to be derived from
the atmosphere in the form of carbonic acid, ice,
the common air we breathe being composed

By measure. By weight.

Nitrogen 77-5 77" 5

Oxygen 21-0 23-32

Carbonic acid 0-08 0-10

Watery vapour .... 1'42 1 03

100 parts. 100 pts.

The portion derived from the atmosphere is ob-
tained by absorption by the leaves direct, and the
various combinations formed by the action of the
atmospheric influences in promoting the decompo-
sition of the organic matter of the soil, and in aid-
ing recomposition, But, on combustion, all this
organic matter disappears, and an ash is left, which,
on examinatioTi, is found to be composed of various
mineral or inorganic elements; the proportions and
numbers of these substances present varying in
difterent individuals, according to order, genus, and
species, though less considerably the more nearly
in relationship the individuals stand to each other.
The ordinary mineral substances found in vegeta-
bles— either oxygenated, i.e. in combination with
oxygen gas, or with one another — are those given in
the various tables a little further on ; though some
others do occur, but so rarely as scarcely to merit
notice.

It is natural to conclude, then, that a soil, to be
considered fertile,^must be capable of supplying all
the elementary bodies, in some form, to the vegeta-
tion on its surface in healthful abundance; and ex-
perience amply confirms the investigations and
results of scientific enquiry. It has been proved
from careful analysis, that the mineral components
cannot vary much, and for a long time, in a plant
of a particular species, without producing attenua-
tion, sickliness, and death; and that all the more

vaUinble products from the most celebrated soils are
nearly alike in chemical constitution. That differ-
ent plants require different soils ; and this is proved
beyond dispute by the natural distribution of plants
over the different formations within the limits of
the different zones, and even from their distribution
within the small geological circle of our own islands.
Without going too far into this subject, but just
saying so much as appears to be necessary for our
purpose, we shall presently proceed to exhibit,
among the tables we have promised, a detailed
analysis of a German soil, found particularly favour-
ableto the growth of herbage, and producing a vege-
tation celebrated for its powers of fattening stock
(/). 320). The difference in climate between our
islands'and this part of Germany can have no very
important influence ; and, if any, more in degree
than in principle.

Having premised so much, we shall proceed to
enquire whether it be possible that the clear and
crystal-like fluid, with which we are all so familiar,
can by possibility supply in its volume any and
which'of those various substances, or their elements,
included in Sprengell's analysis of a fertile grass
soil, which will be found a few pages forward; and
we may just turn to, and consider it for a moment,
(p. 320.)

We shall first proceed, then, with a view to this
discovery, with a necessary preliminary enquiry, and
endeavour to trace the sources from which the fluid
of irrigation, and a supply of water in general, is
permanently obtained.

The whole fresh water of our rivers is derived
from the immense reservoir of the ocean, which
covers three-fifths of the surface of our globe, with
the trifling secondary exceptions to be afterwards
noticed. This is accomplished by the process of
evaporation, which proceeds with greater or less
rapidity as the temperature of the atmosphere rises
or falls. Pure water consists of the gasses oxygen
and hydrogen in chemical combination.
Relative proportions necessary for forming water of
the gasses oxygen and hydrogen in 100 parts :

By measure. By weight.

Oxygen .... 33-34 .. 1 .... 88-9 .. 8
Hydrogen .. G6GG .. 2 .... IM .. 1

Mixed 100-00 .. 3 100-0 .. 9

Combined .... 06-66 . . 2 .... 1000 . . 9
Tims we sec, that in combining to form water,
these gasses contract in bulk.

But, from tlie relation of its component gasses to
heat, water is easily converted into vapour by ex-
pansion, and with greater rapidity as the tempe-
rature of the atmosphere is increased ; and thus,
the warmer the air becomes, the more capacity does
it acquire for containing moisture. The atmos-
pheric air is composed as follows :

Composition of atmospheric air.

By measure. By weight.

Nitrogen "77-5 80 77-5

Oxvgen 21-0 20 23-32

Carbonic acid . . 0-08 .... — 0-10

Watery vapour 1*42 .... — .... 103

100 parts. 100 pts.

And 100 cubic inchesof air of the earth's surface,at
the temperature 32^, 50^, and 60° Fah., are capable
of containing of watery vapour :

Watery vapour, Fah. 32^ 0137 grains

" 50^ 0-247 "

« eC^ 0-339 "

Y 2

316

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

However, the quantity of vapour may bo less at
this temperature, though more wouhl be contlnused
and fall as rain, or the purest natural water. Near
the ocean the air has been found to contain a trace
of muriatic acid; and near hirge towns, from the
combustion of fuel, sulphurous acid, sulphuric acid,
sulphate of ammonia, and even charcoal in suspen-
sion, and in the neighbourhood of marshe? those
pestilential vapours so detrimental to animal ex-
istence ; but these arc merely local and accidental.
But the waters of the ocean, besides the constitu-
ents of watery vapour and pure water, which can be
procured by the artificial distillatory process alone,
are known to hold in solution certain other com-
pounds ; and the question arises, what becomes of
these, and what are they? The composition of salt
water is found to be in the following cases —
By Dr. Murray's examination of the water of the
Frith of Forth, it was found to contain, in 10,000
parts, 303 of saline matter in the following pro-
portions :

Common salt 220-01

Sulphate of soda 33"10

Muriate of magnesia 42-08

Muriate of lime 7"84

Total quantity of saline matter 30309

Dr. Marcet found tiic composition ff the waters of
the Atlantic to be as follows :

Water 478-420 grains, or 480-rjOOths.

Common salt 13'3 13- '•'

Sulphate of soda . . 2-33 2- "

Muriate of lime .. 0-995 1- "

Muriate of magnesia 4-955 4- "

500 grains 500

Dr. Marcet also found the waters of the lake As-
phaltites, or the Dead Sea, to contain in 100
grains :

Sulphate of lime 0-054 grains

Muriate of soda 10-676 "

Muriate of lime 3800 "

Muriate of magnesia 10-100 *'

During the process of evaporation all the saline
matter is left behind, and the watery vapour — com-
posed of oxygen and hydrogen — ascends in vapour,
from the influence of heat and the repulsive
principle.

The evaporation goes on also from the surface
of all solid bodies as well, which coniaiu water.
Thus the watery vapour ascends from the ocean,
and is wafted along the atmosphere ; and, when-
ever it encounters a diminisiiecl tempeiature in its
progress through the air, it is immediately con-
densed, and, from its acquired gravity by conden-
sation, it is precipitated as dew on the surface of
objects, or from a greater height as rain, sleet,
snow, or hail, according to the precise degree of
reduced temperature thus encountered in its a?rial
flight. As dew it is deposited in sparkling bril-
liants on the verdant leaf and bud, which in well-
known circumstances part quickly with their ac-
quired heat by radiation. From the surfnce of
the earth thus bedewed, or radiant and sparkling
with rain or snow, or hail-clad, the process of
evaporation is resumed ; so that it is in constant
progress from the surface of all bodies which
contain water. Hut th's siip[)ly, which may be
well called secoudaiy in every sense, must be very
inconsiderable, even including what is derived

from fresh wafer pools and hikos, when compared
with that derived fioni the vast ocean.

The ocean and other vapours, being condensed
in their course through the air iiiul dejiosiicd and
distributed over the surface of the carlh, in the
manner and from the causes we have been des-
cribing, must necessarily either remain on the
surface, or sink below it and disappear.

VViien they descend, condensed and in the form
of rain-water, anl remain on the surface, it is of
course owing to its being of an impenetrable na-
ture, by which they are prevented from perco-
lating freely through it, and they pass along any
convenient descending level, gradualiy acquiring
force as they ])roceed, until they block up some
valley and form a lake, either with or without an
outlet, as it may happen, and, if without any
outlet, like the Caspian Sea. 'I'he surface ot the
Caspian, which is the largest known laUe without
an outlet, is 334 feet below the level of the Black
Sea ; and the Dead Sea of Judrea, also without an
outlet, is similarly depressed, its surface level
being below that of the Mediterranean in its
neiglibourhood, and of coiii'sc jnuch more below
the higher level of the Red Sea. Lake Aral, which
seems to have been at one time connected with
the Caspian — a tract of land of little more than SO
miles intervening, and the ends of these seas being
very shallow where they approach each other— is,
next to the Caspian, the greatest inland collection
of water in western Asia, receiving the two rivers
Oxus and Jaxartes, and having no visible outlet.
A\'hen these lakes have rivers proceeding from
them, their waters are quickly restored to the
ocean ; but when they have none, the evaporation
fiom the surface kec])s them at a pretty uniform
level, and prevents their overflowing — being made
to equal the supj)ly from their tributaries.

When the surface is porous, the rains, as they
descend, sink down and re appear either in the
form of springs or rivers. When the water, in
seeking its way, suddenly meets with an obstruc-
tion, it boils up in the form of a spring. Where
it meets with a hollow or convenient channel, it
is formed into a river — in both cases restoring its
comparatively tiny flood to the great source from
whence it came. In some case? — in flat situations
on the earth's surface, when (he descending va-
pours can find no escape downwards, or a conve-
nient channel and level of escape — tbeir retention
and stagnation jiroduce shallow ])onds and
marshes, exhaling pestilence and death.

The vapour from the sea has, no doubt, some-
times been found to contain a trace of muriatic
acid gas, and rain and snow-water sometimes
contain a trace of muriate of soda and muriate of
lime. But we have shown the precise composition
of the atmospliere, and we have mentioned that it
often contains foreign accidental substances.
From this it may be naturally concluded, that
these watery vapours, derived from evaporation
from the surface of the ocean, lakes, and from
other sources, in ])assing through the medium of
the air to the earth's surface, must be impreg-
nated, in some measure, with any elementary or
compound substances with which they have been
in contact; and analysis proves the truth of this
conclusion.

We find rain and snow-water — the purest
quality that can be obtained from natural sources
— when procured near towns, containing in solu-
tion the various gases and vapours — exhalations
from animal and vegetable decomposing substances

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317

— which ahouiu] in such situations ; and from the
roofs of houses, &c.,itis always impure, from hohl-
ing in solution tlie various suhstances set free by tiie
combustion of fuel ; but even when caught in the
country, before it comes in contact with the
ground, it is found to be impregnated witli ilie
elementary gases of the atmospliere, which we
have shown to he oxygen, nitrogen, and caibotiic
acid. But various other substances — for instance,
nitric acid, a most virulent poison — have been de-
tected in rain water. This substance, of such a
deadly and corrosive nature tliat it immediately
decomposes and destroys all animal and vegetable
substances with which it comi'S in contact, and is
fjund in the air during thundery weather, is
formed by tlie atmospheric air being momentarily
subjecte.l to the agency of tlie lightning-flash— to
the magic influence of electricity. The air we
breathe is by the electric agency instantaneously
converted into a virulent jioison, and, as rain ge-
nerally accompanies a thunder-storm, the nitric
acid just formed is washed out hy the rain and de-
posited on the ground, where it becomes, by foim-
ing various combinations with the elements of the
soil, a fertilizing agent, instead of an ir.satiable
destroyer of animal and vegetable life. This
wonderful phenomenon — this Protean transmuta-
tion—is explained hy the fact that the two gases,
oxygen and nitrogen, forming ahuost the whole
hulk of the air we breatlie, are, in the atmos[)hero,
merely in a state of mechanical mixture; but
under the influence of the electric sparU they be-
come chemicallt/ combined; and thus simi)ly is
the change effected. This is one of the many
startling truths which science has disclosed. Tlie
vajiorous exhalations, too, in very hot weather,
when evaporation is very active, are often tainted
witii traces of the substances which afforded them,
and at such seasons have tlicir effVct. Thus we find,
that before even touching the surface of the earth,
the purest natural waters of evaporation become im-
pregnated with foreign substances, and are not in
real ty by any means so pure as their limpid and
sjiarkling appearance would lead us to suppose.

When talking of raii-,-water, v,'e may mention,
rather as a matter of curiosity than otherwise, in our
zone, that the salutary effects of aqueous vapours
on vegetation — so necessary indeed to organic ex-
istence— are in some situations still further modi-
fied by their chemical qualities. In tlie vicinity of
tlie Caspian Sea we find salt rains and dews,
owing to the vapours which are exhaled from the
soil, and which are believed in a great measure to
contribute to those saline eftloiescences which are
oversjireading the fabled foniliiy of Persia ; and
the bait fogs of Jutland, nearer home, are des-
tructive to trees, without doing any injury to the
grassy herbage. Substances, approaching nearly
to animal and vegetable, have been detected in
rain, colouring it variously— sometimes even red
like blood. Sometimes sulphur is present, and
dry fogs frequently occur which contain no mois-
ture, and, having been observed to occur contem-
poraneously wish volcanic eruptions, have been
referred to this cans;', and are said to contain the
vapours and ashes rejected by these great safety-
valves of creation.

But, if this be the case, how very much more
impure rnnst water become after it has been
brought into contact vi.'ith the various elementary
and compound bodii^s on the surf ice of the tjlobe.
We shall proceed then to rea.aik, that spring
water, which comes from a great depth, and

reaches the surface after draining through various
strata and dissimilar layers of earth, even in the
highest and most rocky situations, where it meets
merely with almost insoluble quartz and beds of
sand, or granite rock, is never so pure even as
rain or snow-water, hut contains carbonate of
lime or sulphate, a little muriate of lime, sul])hate3
of soda or jiotassa, a little muriate of soda, or
some magnesia. In spring or well water the sul-
phates and carbonates predominate. The alkalies
have been found to be present in larger quantities
in river water, and the earths, more particularly
lime, in spring water. As carbonate and sulphate
of lime abound in nature among the various geo-
logical strata, the tvater rising from any depth
must come in contact with some of these calca-
reous strata ; but, though it is undeniable that
sulphate of lime is sparingly soluble, and carbo-
nate insolulile in water, unless it should contain
carbonic acid, yet, from what we already know of
the composition of the atmosphere, we are pre-
jiared to answer, that any description of water
which has been flowing in contact with the atmos-
phere, and more particularly if it have drained far
through earthy strata, where it would have, of
necessity, occasionally met with decomposing ani-
mal and vegetable substances, cannot be destitute
of caibonic acid, which such vegetable and animal
substances in the progress of decomposition give
out in abundance ; and, thus impregnated, it must
therefore he capable of holding the first mentioned
substances in solution, in jiroportion to the (luan-
tity of carbonic acid it coniaius. W^e siiall pre-
sently sliow that water is capable of absorbing i's
own bulk of carbonic acid. The most abundant
substance brought out by abrasion and solution
from the crust of the earth is lime, which is fre-
quently deposited in the form of tuffa, and many
excavations observed in limestone masses ba\e
originated from this agency and cause ; and fre-
quently from the soluiion and abstraction of
gyjjsum or rock-salt, and other soluble subs'ances
from various formations , such considerable
changes of interior structure have been wrought,
as to occasion subsidences — the superincumbeiit
strata yielding over the subterranean hollows.

We shall now say something of the character
and properties of river water. River water is fre-
quently muddy, particularly during and for some-
time after floods, containing earthy particles in
mechanical suspension. It is stateel by Gerard
that the annual floods of the Nile had raised the
surface of Upper Egypt about G fe^et 4 inches since
the commencement of the Christian era, or 4 inches
in a century. Where such large rivers enter the
*ea, triangular pieces of gronnel are formed called
deltas ; anel these are more perceptible in lakes
than even in land-locked seas like the Mediterra-
nean, and more marked in such than in the open
ocean, where the continuous progress of the depo-
sition is interrupted by currents. The eleltas of
the other Mediterranean rivers, the Rhine and the
Po, show a yearly perceptible increase ; and we
nceel only mention the magnificent ocean elelta
formations of the Mississippi, the Orinoco, and the
Ganges, to illustrate forcibly the surprising trans-
porting power of river currents, and the extraordi-
nary transformations vt'hich their increasing agency
is silently working on the face of our globe.

But even when fluwing over heels of cfuartz and
gravel, it is still founel to be more or less impreg-
nated with foreign substances, yet being deriveel
chiefly from melting snow and rain water, it con-

318

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tains less lime than sprins; or well water. It is equal bulk of water will be greater from the in-

thus enabled to dissolve more easily and perfectly creased pressure or diminished temperature.

common soap; and is thus so far distinguished No. II. will show the elementary bodies com-

from spring or well water, which, containing much posing the 07-ganic substance of all vegetables.

carbonic acid, is capable of holding in solution, as No. III. will show the organic substances found

we have seen, both sulphate and carbonate of lime, in the soil which are supposed to minister to the

River water then is familiaily called soft, from this growth of vegetables.

quality of dissolving soap with facility ; spring iS'^o. IV. v.iil show the elementary bodies most

water hard, as it is deiicient in this quality. But frequently met with in vegetables, and forming

numerous springs, we will be told, flow into and their inorf/cmlc substance.

partially fill the river channels, and must, in such No. V. will show the elements and elementary

cases, tend to render the water hard. But it has compounds which enter into the circulation of

been ascertained beyond dispute that, when spring vegetables, and are afforded by their residue or ash

water has been flowing for some time in contact after combustion, with character and properties of

with the air, it absorbs a large portion of it, and elements, and where foimd in nature.

gradually, at same time, deposits a large proportion

of its earthy matter, becoming proportionally soft No. I.

by the change, as the earthy matter is precipitated. Table of the quantities of a few of the different

The water of the Clyde in Scotland was found to gases which Water is capable of absorbing at the

contain in an imperial pint, weighing 8750 grains, ordinary tenqjerature and pressure af the atmo-

and measuring 34^ cubic inches, sphere.

fMuriate of magnesia of ammonia water absorbs . G70 times its own bulk

balme matter 1 .04<( Sulphate of soda Muriatic acid fjOO „

LMuriateofsoda(com- Sulphurous acid 33 „

^,.,. , mon salt) Cyanogen 4* „

fedica (or earth of flint) 0.1 J Carbonic acid l-20th Chlorine 2 „

Gases I-35th of its volume \ Cmmon.air 19-20ths Carbonicacid Its own bulk.

The water of marshes and pools or ponds is gene- Nitrous oxide „

rally impregnated with the various gases arising Sulphuretted hydrogen. . ,,

from vegetable and even animal decomposition. Clossant gas l-8th its own bulk.

Of the following tables. No. I. will show the Oxygen l-27th „

exact quantities of various gases which water is Nitric oxide „ „

capable of absorbing at the mean temperature and Nitrogen 1-G4th „

pressure of the atmosphere. As the temperature Hydrogen „ „

of the water is lowered down to freezing, or the Carbonic oxide „ ,,

pressure increased, the quantities absorbed by an &c., &c., &c., &c.

No. II.

Table of elementary bodies composing the organic substance of all vegetables.

Name. Bywhom discovered. When. Exists in Nature.
OvvD-en J Priestly "1 ,_,, /In air, water, earths, and all organic bodies, most

■^^ .. -j^schecle / ^"* \ abundant (gaseoHs).
Hydrogen. . Cavendish 176G In water, all organic bodies, and some minerals (gaseous).

Nitrogen.. Rutherford 1772 In air, organic bodies, and some minerals (gaseous).
Carton I Known to 1 J In organic bodies, air, in union with oxygen in form of
|_ ancients. J \ carbonic acid, and some minerals (solid).

No. III. bonic acid, of which water absorbs its own

TaUeof organic substances found in the soil, which Y^^' ^^ ^°^^ important element of the

are sujmosed to minister to the growth of vegetables. ^^od of all vegetables. Composition in 100

parts — carbon 03, hydrogen b, oxygen 31 ;

NAME. Character and Qualities. a^j,, producing humates witli various bases.

Humus — Formed from decomposing vegetable Ulmic Acid — Ditto, ditto, ditto, and producing

matter. ulmates, with ditto; composition — carbon 57,

Mild Ditto — If a soil be washed with water, hydrogen 4f, oxygen 38^-, in 100 parts.

colours the water brown, but docs not sour Cuenic Ditto \ — If a soil be washed with hot

it; evolves ammonia when headed with Apockenic Do. /water, colours //oMvater brown,

caustic potash or lime; and on combustion and are thus in union with two preceding

leaves an ash aflording lime and magnesia acids and various bases ; and being dried at

(favourable to vegetation). 230'* Fab., ulmates and luimates left become

Sour Ditto — If ditto ditto colours the water insoluble, but crenates and apocrenates solu-

brown, and sours it, reddens litmus, a pig- ble in water; contain nitrogen; when they

ment ot jiarellus (less favourable to vege- meet with lime in soil, give off ammonia and

tation). carbonic acid, water being capable of absorb-

C0AI.Y Ditto — If ditto ditto colours v/ater faintly, ing 070 times its own bulk of the former,

ash affords little lime ; occurs in poor soils, and its own bulk of the latter,

and is corrected by application of an alkali Mudesous Ditto — Has a strong affinity for alu-

(very unfavourable to vegetation). mina, and in this state easily distributed by

HuMic Acid— Soluble in ammonia, of which water, and very completely as an acid in

water absorbs 070 limes its own bulk, and solution.

carbonate of potash ; on being exposed to N.B. Other acids occur, but it appears unnecessary

air becomes carbonate, and gives out car- to specify them.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

319

No. IV.

Table of the elementary bodies most freqxientlif met loith in vegetables, and composing their Inorganio

suhdance.

Name. Discovered by

Iodine Courtois

Sulphur Known to ancients

Chlorine Schecle

Phosphorus Brandt

Potassiuna Davy .

Calcium
Sodium

Do.
Do.

Aluminum Woler

Silicium Brezelius

Magnesium Bussy

Iron "1 Known to ancients "I

Manganese J Guhn and Schecle J

When.

1812

1774

lOGO
1807

1828
1B24
1830

1774

No. Y.
Table of elements and elementary compounds which
enter into the circidation of vegetables, and are
afforded by their residue or ash on combustion,
with character and properties of elements, and
ichere found in nature.
ELEMENT. ) Character and Properties, and wliere found
NAME. J in Nature, and elementary compounds, &c.

Iodine — Solid, lead grey colour, heat converts
into violet vapour ; Davy found rather to
assist vegetation ; present in form of iodide
of sodium in some salt springs, in water of
Mediterranean, in sponges, oysters, and
other shell-fish, sea weeds, but has not
hitherto been detected in any of the crops
of agriculture (slightly soluble in water).

Sulphur — Native, yellow, solid ; in native sul-
phuric acid, gypsum, heavy spar, alum,
alumstone, iron pyrites, green vitriol, sul-
phurets of arsenic (realgar, orpiment), sil-
ver, copper, antimonj', lead (galena), zinc
(blende), quicksilver (cinnabar), bismuth,
cobalt; and in small quantities in other
minerals less frequently met with, and in
springs; also sparingly in organic bodies,
acids of sulphur (see Table II.) ; sulphurous
acid, sulphuric acid, and sulphuretted hydro-
gen, have a great affinity for water, and are
beneficial to clover and pulse, &c., crops
(Sprengel, Chemic. ii., p. 355, says, sulphu-
rous waters of irrigation produce lu.xuriant
vegetation). Sulphates used as manures.

Chlorine — Gas, Greenish yellow colour; in com-
mon salt (chloride of sodium), and of course
sea water, salt lakes and springs, rock salt,
sal ammoniac (muriate of ammonia), horn
silver (muriate of silver), muriate of copper,
horn quicksilver, and some rare ores of lead,
and in animal substances sparingly, in sea
weeds, has great affinity for water (see
Table I); found by Davy to promote ger-
mination of seeds, and favours the growth
of plants when it occurs in due proportions
in the soil ; very frequent in rocks of islands
and in land near sea, being deposited by
ocean exhalations and deposition of spray
by the winds ; combines with hydrogen,
forming muriatic acid, has a great affinity
as we have said for water, dissolving the
alkalis and alkaline earths, and those sub-
stances which are insoluble, or but sparingly
soluble, ia water alone.

In combination with And forming

Metals Iodides.

Do Sulphurets.

Do Chlorides.

Hydrogen Sulphuretted hydrogen.

Oxygen Sulphuric acid.

Do Phosphoric acid.

Do Potash.

Chlorine Chloride of potassium.

Do Chloride of calcium.

Oxygen Soda.

Chlorine Common salt.

Oxygen Alumina.

Do Silica.

Do Magnesia.

Do Oxides.

Sulphur Sulphurets.

Phosphorus — Solid, pale yellow, like wax, and
burns in common air with pale blue flame
visible in dark ; in animals chiefly bones,
wavellite (phosphate of alumina), apatite
(phosphate of lime), bag iron ore, some
other ores of iron, some ores of manganese,
uranium, copper, lead ; exposed to common
air is converted into phosphoric acid,
has a great affinity for water, and attracts
moisture, and dissolves substances insoluble
or sparingly soluble in water ; unites with
alkalis and earths, and forms phosphates,
and generally diffused, in some form, through
good soils, and necessary to healthful and
profitable vegetation.

Potassium — Metal, abundant in land vegetables,
and in sea weeds and animals, mica, talc,
felspar, chlorite, pumice, obsidean, soap-
stone, and other components of rocks, nitre,
alumstone and soils, chloride, jihosphate,
nitrate, carbonate and sulphate of potash ;
very favourable to the growth of plants,
and particularly to red clover, lucerne,
esparsette, beans, peas, flax, potatoes, &c. ;
all soluble in water, or organic acids of the
soil, and aid water powerfully as a solvent
of other substances, and present in most fer-
tile soils.

Calcium — Metal; in augite, hornblende, felspar,
and other constituents of rocks, slates, clays,
earth, earth of lime, marble, limestone, finer
spar, gypsum, apatile, garnet, asbestus,
bones and shells of animals, &c., &c. ; car-
bonate of lime present in all fertile soils,
and most useful fertiliser known, and the
most abundant earth after silica and alu-
mina, and soluble in water containing car-
bonic acid ; chloride and sulphuret of cal-
cium detected in soils ; sulphates of lime
of general occurrence, and sometimes found
free of water, as anhydrites, and soluble in
organic acids of soil, and powerful fertilizing
agent; nitrate of lime very soluble, and
almost deliquescent ; phosphate of lime
ibund native masses in England, Bohemia,
Spain, and Finland, and important to cru-
ciferous and leguminous plants an<i others j
present in many soils, soluble iv water con-
taining carbonic acid slightlj, and in the
ficids of the soil ; lime, an r.<ide of calcium,
iu the form of carbonate forms one-eighth of
the crust of this globe.

320

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

SoMUM — Metal, in sen wccils, land vegetalilca, nnd
animals, sotla'itc, albite, jiitchstone, ]»iimice,
obsidian, and other conipoiienis ot igneous
rocks, mition, sidpbatc of soda, nitrate of
soda, borax, common salt (chloride of so-
dium), carbonate, sulphate, phosphate, sul-
phuret, and chloride, occur in soils, and
are important agents in promoting fertility,
soluble in water, water containing carbonic
acid, or in the organic acids of tlie soil.

Aluminum — Metal, inconundum, topaz, sajjphire,
emery, ruby, garnet, slates, clays, horn-
blende, ashestus, mica, felspar, chlorite,
snlphate of alumina, vavellite (phosphate
of alumina), alum, alum- stone, clay, iron
ore, and in soils generally, alumina (oxide
of aluminum), with silica (oxide of silicon),
forms 6-8ths of crust of globe, and is called
earth of clays, soluble in caustic potash or
soda, and in most acids of si>il ; the most
abundant eaith next to silica, and forming
a large proportion of the common soil, and
all mineral substances nearly on the face
of the earth, sulphate of alumina deliques-
cent, phosjjhate of alumina(vavellite) some-
times occurs in soils, but difficult of detec-
tion ; alumina always i)rcseiit in consider-
able proportion in the best agricultural soils.

Silicon — Solid, resembling a metal, in quartz,
opal, calccdony, flint, jasper, garnet, topaz,
hyacinth, beryl, cinciald, augete, felspar,
hornblende, mica, soijjstone chlorite, a
component of the vegetable tissue, in most
rocks, earth, and sands, some ores of iron,
hot springs as the Geysers of Iceland, the
most abundant clement next to oxygen,
silica (oxide of siliconj in combination
with oxide of iron, &c., enters into compo-
sition of about 2-3rds of all the earthy
minerals, very insoluble unless in combina-
tion with an alkali, an(i afterwaids exposed
to an acid action ; excessively jilenty in
rocks and soils, iri combination with potvish,
soda, lime, magnesia, &c., &c., in the form
of silicates, and these by the atmospheric
action and it>fluences, decompose, and afford
silica, &c., in abundance in the soluble state
for the wants of vegetai)les.

Magnesiuji — Metal, in augite, hornblende, arbestus
talc, soapstone, chlorite, hiiterspar, niagne-
sian limestone, some clays, mica, carbonate
of magnesia, boracite, magnesia in super-
abundance injurious to vegetation, particu-
larly when free, or in loose combination with
acids, and thus in the form of soluble salts,
but necessary for the perfection of certain
vegetables, particularly grain crops ; the
salts of magnesia are very soluble, but
carbonate of magnesia requires water con-
taining carbonic acid for its solution; silica,
alumina, lime, magnesia, and oxide of iro:),
form 19-20ths of the crust of the globe.

Iron — Metal, in union with nickel, in meteoric
iron, iron pjrates (sulphate of iron), sjjecn-
lar iron ore, haematile, &c. (oxides of iron),
clay iron ore (carbonate of iron), mixed
with many other metallic ores, augite, talc,
ftlspar, mica, hornblende, soapstone, chlo-
rite, and most components of rocks and
preciujs stones, eartlis in general, and
sparingiy in animals and vegetables, oxide
and peroxxle, soluble in water containing
the acids of the soil j the first oxide injuri-

ous to vegetation, sulphate of iron very
injurious, and corrected by lime and ex-
posure to atmospheric nir, carbonate of iron
soluble in water containing carbonic acid,
and not injurious.
RIanganf.sk — Metal; oxide, sulphuret, sulphate,
carltnnate and chloride; oxides, first light
green, does not occur in nature, so far as
known, unless combined, but second and
third oxides present in most soils, insoluble
in water, hut soluble in organic acids of
soil ; oxides and carbonates, however,
slowly soluble in these acids, in sufficiency
for the wants of vegetables.
■When we compare these tables with one another,
and consider the great quantity and fertilizing
nature of the foreign matter contained in rain or
snow, spring or well, or river water, we can easily
imagine how powerfully these waters must act,
by transporting and depositing, as they pass over
the surface of the water meadow, their burden of
jirecipitate. But when the temperature sinks to
32", or the freezing point, at which water solidifies,
the benefit of irrigation temporarily ceases, as the
gases are expelled in the process of congelation ;
and oxygen, that essential to animal and vegetable
life, may often be detected forming little globules
in the mass of ice, in which it Las been entangled
in its escape upwards. On comparing the tables
which we have jast given of gases and solids,
organic and inorganic, elementary and compound,
entering into plants, soluble in water, or water
containing carbonic acid and the other organic
acids of the soil — the results of decomposition
constantly in |)r(:gress in the soil — which might
have been extended, with that also given showing
the substances detected in the ashes of plants, and
the elements, orgain'c and inorganic, of which
they are com;)osed, and thereafter the constitution
of the celebrated grass soil for fattening stock
now to be given, it will be at once apparent how
very efficiently the water of irrigation must act in
transjiorting and depositing fresh supplies of ferti-
lizing matter, and preparing rich food for the
meadow plants, by biinging the different ele-
mentary substr^nces, already present in the soil,
into closer contact with each other, and thus dis-
posing them to, and directly promoting various
combinations, in which its own elements are fre-
quently absorbed, combined, and lost ; thus per-
forming in succession the several good offices of
carrier, chemical agent, and chemical element of
composition as required.

Constitution of a pasture soil from the banks of
the Weser, near Hoya, from Sprengel's analysis
(Die Bodcnkunde), and celebrated for fattening
stock : —

Silica, quartz, sand, and silicates 71-849

Alumina 9-350

Oxide of iron 5-410

Oxide of manganese 0-925

Lime 0-987

Magnesia 0-245

Potash of soda extracted by water 0-007

Phosphoric acid 0-13 1

Sul|)huric acid 0-174

Chlorine in common salt 0-002

Humic acid 1-270

Insoluble humus 7-550

Organic matters containing nitrogen ... 2*000
Water OlOO

100-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

321

Our tables, when carefully studied, distinctly show
how the water of irrigation, aideil by carbonic acid,
the alkalies, and the other organic acids of the
soil, is capable of dissolving, lioldiiiu: in suspen-
sion, and thus presenting to the absorbents of
jilants, in the most favourable form for their nou-
rishment, all the substances tiiat occur in this
analysis ; and thus necessarily, in a rich soil, smj)-
plying the only deficiency, the natural menstruum.
In a ])0or soil, the same water of irrigation must
operate beneficially in its passage over its surface,
by depositing its |)recipitate, and thus gradually
assist in bringing: it into a state of fertility.

Hy means of the water of irrigation, the plant is
abiinduntly nourished a:id supplied by the selec-
tion, absorption, and appropriation of the viirious
substances that constitute its food, through the
medium of its leaf and stem pores, at the same
time that this same water of irrigation deposits, as
we have seen, fresh substances in the form of pre-
cipitates, and ])repares those raw substances, al-
ready existing in the soil, for tlie easy absorption of
the root pores or radical spongioles.

It has been proved beyond dispute that in (his
climate a great proportion of the carbon contained
in the substance of plants has been ahsorded by the
leaves from the atmosphere, in the form of car-
bonic acid. A growing healthy plant has been
found to absorb the carbonic acid gas from a given
quantity of atmospheric air in the sunshine, with
more or less rapidity. Carbonic acid gas is very
abundantly supplied by the water of irrigation,
which is capable of holding a great quantity of
this gas in solution, absorbing, as we have seen,
as much as its own bulk of caibonic acid, if it
meets with orgnnic substances in favourable cir-
cumstances for its production in its course to or
over the meadow herbage — a pr.iportion of whicii
is ever decaying and aidinp: in furnishing addi-
tional supplies of carbonic acid. So that the water
of irrigation, thus impregnated, must be ca[)able
of promoting vegetable growth in a veryimjjortant
degree, so much of the organic substance of plants
consisting of carbon. This carbonic acid, in ordi-
nary circumstances, is absorbed from the air, and
decomi)oses within the pLuit by the vital action,
aided by the light j and the oxygen is exhaled and
returned again to the air, whde the carbon is de-
posited and elaborated into the substance of the
growing plant. We have also seen, from the sol-
vent powers of water, that it affords from its own
substance, aided by the absorption of atmospheric
air alone, all the other elementary gases, consti-
tuting, with carbon, the oiganic substance of all
vegetables.

it is unnecessary to dwell on the wonderful
effects which are found to be produced by the sow-
ing of soot and other specific soluble manures, in
powder, over^the damp leaves of young and tender
corn, turnip, jjulse and clover plants, in a dewy
or drizzling morning, when the powder readily
adheres, and is dissolved and appropiated ; neither
need we expatiate on the known efficacy of liquid
manures. However, when we consider that water
is capaljle of dissolving almost all the elementary
substances constituting these manures, whether
liquid or solid — and, in fact, does and must occa-
sionally encounter these constituents in its pro-
gress through the various strata to the surface in
springs, or in its lengthened course as it passes
over the variously-compounded beds and banks of
rivers and brooks, acting upon an infinite variety of
bodies, organic and inorganic, and selecting libe-

rally from each, how can we regard the water of
irrigation in any other light than as a powerful
and im[»ortant liquid manure '

We have seen, then, that water, or water im-
pregnated with carbonic acid — a very plentiful and
constantly-occurring substance, is capable of hold-
ing in solution and i)resenting in the form best
adapted for the absorption of jdants, nearly all the
known substances which are believed to be neces-
sary for forming the elements of their abundant
and healthful nourishment and sustenance. In
fact, that it furnishes wholesome food in abundance,
nnd tliat food ready jnepaied in the form best adapt-
ed for the immediate satisfaction of their various
wants and appetites. But, whniever is wanting in
this way is amply supplied by the powerful decom-
posing action of the various organic acids that occur
in most soils, themselves the products of decompo-
sition ; for instance, the sulphuric, the nitric, muria-
tic, fluoric, phosphoric, &c., &c., which supply,
without exception, to aid the water, any deficiency
in solvent action.

We hope, then, we have made the modes of bene-
ficial action of the waters of irrigation sufficiently
clear and intelligible. It opera'es as a powerful
solvent, and in the most comprehensive sense as a
clteup and efficient liquid manure.

In high situations and latitudes, the process of
irrigation will not be so efficient or productive as in
lower situations and more genial climates ; and in
the first place, and more particularly, because the
substances presented to the water in its course, such
as quartz, sand-beds, and <;r!inite, are all very diffi-
cult of solution, and contain but sparingly (and fre-
quently not at all) the elements of fertility ; and in the
next place the influence of a genial climate is indis-
pensable to the full development of the beneficial
effects of irrigation.

It must be at once admitted, on a review of all
we have said, that in rich soils the water of irriga-
tion, affords the special menstruum provided by na-
ture, alone calculated for holding in solution, and
presenting to the absorbents of plants their natural
food in the form in which it is believed to be most
easily absorbed by them, besides that, it acts in dis-
posing substances to enter into favourable combina-
tions, and in distributing these chemically combined
or compound substances, and bringing them within
the range of the ajjpropriating energies of the roots
of plants.

That, to an infertile soil, on comparing the sub-
stances, elementary and compound, capable of solu-
tion and absorbtion by water and the organic acids
of the soil acting in concert with water, and at the
same time considering their constituents — on com-
Tjaring, we say, these substances with the elementary
analysis of a fertile grass soil given above, we can
easily see how the water of irrigation acts power-
fully in transporting and supi)lyiDg the means of
fertility; and should thesoil contain any deleterious
substances, it operates powerfully as a solvent
and detergent, thus purifying it and washing out
tlie noxious impregnations, at the same time that it is
constantly adding to thebody of the soilan unceasing
tribute of wholesome and fertilising matter.

It is absolutely necessary, before applying irriga-
tion to a surface, to ascertain that it either overlies
a sufhciontly pervious subsoil ; or, if the subsoil
should be stiff and impervious, to have the portion
of meadow thoroughly under-drained, else a very
favourable result can scarcely be anticipated. When
this is not attended to, the surface has a teadency to

322

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

become overspread with coarse and comparatively
useless subaquatic plants.

It has been stated by Sir Humphrey Uavy that
water at -10 degrees of temperature (which we know
well to be the point of its greatest density^ is of
greater specillc gravity than when at a lower tempe-
rature ; and that lience when it tends to the freezing
point, the warmer portion is next the ground. But
what great sensible eflect can this difference be ex-
pected to produce in a current a few inches in depth ?
And at any rate the water must be discharged when
it nearly approaciies the freezing point. We know
indeed, when its internal movements -.ue impeded,
water is a very slow conductor of heat, and a very
imperfect conductor of electiicity ; whereas, running
water has a very different relation to both these
principles. So much for the benefit of tlie current
being jireserved ; but tliis is only stated by us as
subsidiary to the benefits already mentioned.

We may remark too, as of importi.nce, and with
some confidence, that on occasions, af.er the water
is let off" at intervals from tha meadow, ihe heat of
the atmosphere operates powerfully on the surface,
and the contained water ascends by capillary attrac-
tion, depositing in its passage about the roots of the
surface herbage, and the upper stratum generally,
and on the surface on some occasions, after the man-
ner of an effiorescence, a rich store of fertilizing
matter, which it had held in solution until, in its
ascent, it had become disposed to evaporate bv more
intimate contact with the atmospheric air.

This may in a great measure satisfactorily account
for the magical growth which succeeds the tem-
porary discharge of the water from the surface in
genial weather, and also tends to establish and con-
firm, further — if, indeed, it were at all requisite or
necessary — the truth of the explanation we have
already given of the modes of beneficial operation
of the water of irri • ation.

THE MANAGEMENT OF FARM
YARD MANURE.

By CuTHBERT W. Johnson, Esq., F.R.S.

There is hardly a single operation in the manage-
ment of a farm which can compnro in importance
with the preparation of farm-yaid ni-inure. And yet
it is an operation which is very commonly lelt to
chance rather than systematically carried on with
anything like scientific precision. A few facts, which
have been collected with much laborious accuracy
will perhaps therefore assist the young farmer in
arranging his operations. The manure commonly
collected in the farm-yard, as I liave in another ])lace
Lad occasion to remark, is compounded of a mixture
of animal and vegetable substances, chiefly of the
straw of various descriptions of grain, mixtd with
the ficces and urine of cattle, horses, and swine.
The mixture of these different substances does not
form any new substance, neither by the putrefaction
which ensues is anything added to the bulk of the
dung; on the contravv, it causes a considerable loss
of weight. Neither is the manure produced equal
to the amount of food the stock consume. " If,''
says Dr. Sprengel, wo weigl) the dry food given the
cattle to eat, and also dry and weigh tha resulting
excrements, we shall find the weight of the latter
considerably less than that of the former."' Rlock,
who has lately made a great number of experiments

on this circumstance, found that lOOlbs. of rye
straw j'ielded only 431bs. of dried excrement (liquid
and solid), while lOOlbs. of hay gave 411bs. Food
wliich contains many watery parts fui'nished, as may
be naturally supposed, a still smaller proportion.
Thus, to give one or two instances, lOOlbs. of
potatoes gave only 141hs. ; lOOlbs. of mangel vrurzel
Gibs.; and lOOlbs. of green clover (ijlbs. of excre-
ment.— (Jouvn, lioii- Ag. Soc. Eng., v. 6, p. 460.)

The dry straw of wheat is composed chiefly of
carbon, hydrogen, and water, and about five per
cent, of saline and earthy matters. 100 parts of
these solid matters usually contain :

Various salt*, principally carbonate and

sulphate of potash 22g

Phosphate of lime G^

Chalk (carbonate of liine^ 1

Silica (flint) GlJ

Metallic oxide (principally iron^ 1

Foss 74

The urine of the cow contains various salts, such
as phosphate of lime, the muriates of potash and
ra ignesia, sulphate and carbonate of potasi), car-
bonate of ammonia, and urea, but by far the largest
portion is water, of which it contains about 65 per
cent. That of the horse, however, contains a still
larger proportion of water; a specimen ana'yzed
by M. INI. Fourcroy and \'auquelin yielded 94 per
cent.; that of the pig contains 92 per cent.; Knd
that of the she:'p kept at grass 9G percent.; and
human urine affords nearly as much, some that
was examined by M. lierzelius, the great Swedish
chemist, yielded 93 per cent, of water.

The fajces of cattle also contain a large aqueous
proportion. 'Fhat of black cattle fed on turnips
was found by Al. Einhof to contain about 72 per
cent, of water.

By good management, and under ordinary cir-
cumstances, one ton of dry straw will produce three
tors of manure; so that as the common weight of
straw ))er acre is about one ton and a half, the straw
grown upon that extent of laud should yield about
four tons and a half of compost.

The proportion of manure produced by stock,
however, necessarily varies wiih the quantity and
quality of the food upon which the animals are fed.
In an experiment made at the Cavalry depot at
Maidstone, a horse consumed in a week — of oats
701bs., hay 841bs., straw 561bs.=210lbs. He drank
within tjjis time 27 gallons of water, llie weight
of the dung and litter produced was 327ilbs. In
another experiment, on a large-sized Yorkshire milch
cow, she consumed in twenty-four hours — of brewer's
grains 811bs., raw potatoes SOlbs., meadow hay Inlbs,
=12.5Ibs., and during tluU period she drank two
pailfuls of water. The urine was allowed to escape,
and she had no litter of any kind. The weight of
the solid dung she produced was 431ba. When fed
on another day witli raw potatoes 170ibs., hay 281bs.
:=l981bs., she produced, under the same circum-
stances, 731hs. of solid manure. — (Brit. Hush. v. 1.
p. 255). Taking, therefoie, the average produce to
be equal to 601bs. per day, it follows that a cow will
make about nine tons of solid manure in the course
of the year.

Few operations appear at first sight so simple as
the manufacture and collection of farm-yard manure,
and yet there are several errors into whicii the cul-
tivator is very likely to fall without he is ever vigi-
lant to avoid them. Mr. Francis Bhikie, in Jjis
valuable tract upon the management of farm-yaid
manure, alludes to several of these : he highly dis-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

323

approves of the practice " of keeping the dung
arising from dift'erent descriptions of animals in
eeparftte Leaps or departments, and applying them
to the land without iiiteimixtiire. It is customary,"
he observes, "to keep the fattening neatcattle in yards
by themselves, and the manure thus procured is of
good qualit)'', because (he excrement of such cuttle
is richer than that of lean ones. Fattening cattle
are fed with oil cake, corn, Swedisli turnips, or some
other rich food, and the refuse and waste of such
food thrown about the yard increases the value ef
the manure ; it also attracts ])igs to the yard. These
rout the straw and dung about in search of grains of
corn, bits of Swedish turnips, and other food, by
■which means the manure in the yard becomes more
intimately mixed, and is proportionately increased
in value. The feeding troughs and cribs in the yard
should for obvious reasons be shifted frequently."
The stid)le manure should be S])read about the yard.
"The horse dung," continues Blakie, "is usually
thrown out at the stablo doors, and there accumu-
lates in large heaps. It is sometimes spread a Utile
about, but more generally not at all, unless
when necessary for the convenience of in-
gress and egress, or perhaps to allow the water to
drain away from the stable door. Horse-dung
lying in such heaps very soon ferments and heats
to an e.\ces3, and the centre of the heap is charred
or burned to a dry white substance, provincially
termed ' fire-fangeth' Dung in this state loses
from 50 to 7.t percent, of its value. The diligent
and attentive farmer will guard against such pro-
fligate waste of property, by never allowing the
dung to accumulate in any considerable quantity
at the stable-doors. The dung from the fatting
hog-sties should also be carted and spread about
the store cattle-yard in the same manner as the
horse-dung." (Blaine on Farm-yard Dung, p. 6.)

"Some theorists," he adds in another place," re-
commend the yards to be so concave as almost to
amount to a well shape, giving as a reason in sup-
port of their opinion, that the virtues of dung can
only be preserved by being saturated in urine, or
some other moisture." Others, again, assert that
dung yards sliould be formed convex, and assign
as their reason that farm-yard dung should be kept
dry. Practical experience points out that a medium
between those two extremes is tlic best ; and a
yard a little hollowed is the most common shape.
When the dung is siifiiciently prepared to be
ready to be carted to the compost heap, considera-
ble attention is necessary in its removal and mix-
ture. These observations had not escaped Blakie :
he tells lis, in a subsequent page of his essay,
*' When it is found necessary to empty the dnng-
yards early in the season, I recommend that pre-
paration should be made in the usual way for the
reception of the dung-heaps in the intended turnip
fields, by collecting large heaps of clay, marl, or
such other materials. The bottoms of the heaps
should not, however, be laid above six or eight
inches thick with the earthy material, and a good
quantity of it should be placed in rows, on each
side of the bottoms, marked out. The dung should
then be drawn out of the yards, and placed upon
the bottoms, but not in the usual way of throwing
it up loosely, to cause fermentation; on the con-
trary, by drawing the carts \\ith their loads upon
tiie heaps, for the purpose of compressing the
dung, and thereby retarding fermentation. One or
two men should remain constantly at the heaps,
while the teams are at work, on purpose to spread
and level the dung regularly, so as to render the

ascent easy for the succeeding teams as they come
with their loads. If the dung has not been previ-
ously mixed in the yards, it should be so in draw-
ing to the heaps, by taking uj) a few loads from
one yard, and then a few from another alternately
— and even from the same yard the loads of dung
should be taken from dilTerent j)arts alternately
— for the dung is not of equal quality, nor made
with the same regularity, in all parts of the yard.

The coal-ashes, road-scrapings, and all other
collections of manure about the farm house, should
be also carried to these dung-heaps; and when the
heaps are raised as high as convenient for the
horses to draw up. several loads should be shot up
at tbe end of the heaps, for the puri)Ose of making
them up to the square of the centre ; the whole heap
should then be completely covered with the marl
and clay, or the soil previously collected in rows
by the side of the heaps, so as oifectuaily to enclose
the dung-heaps in crusts; and they are thenceforth
denominated ;j«e*. In these the dung will be ))re-
served in a very perfect state, with little or no fer-
mentation, and without loss by exhalation or eva-
poration.

The pies, within ten days or a fortnight of the
time the compost is wanted for the turnip land,
should be carefully turned over, and the crust, top,
bottom, and sides, intimately mixed up with the
dung. When the turning is completed, again coat
the heaps over with the natural soil around the
heaps ; the pies will then undergo a gentle fer-
mentation ; the earth intermixed with, and cover-
ing the dung, will absorb the juices and gaseous
matters produced, and the compost come out in a
fine state of preparation for using on the turnip
lands.

When the dung is taken out of the yards late in
the spring, or only a short time before it is required
for the turnip ground, the preparation should be
somewhat different, because of the compost heaps
having less time to incorporate. Thus the dung
should not be carted upon the heaps to compress
them, and prevent fermentation as in winter ;
on the contrary, the dung should be thrown up
lightly with the fork upon the bottoms, and the
side-heaps of earth mixed intimately along with
the dung. Turf turned up for a year preceding
on wastes, by the sides of roads, makes excellent
pie meat. (Farmers' Encyclopcedia.)

There is no doubt of the advantages of the plan
of forming layers under, and of covering compost
heaps with earth in the way described by JMr. Bla-
kie ; for, by this mode, not only is the fermentation
of tlie dung retarded, but the earth itself is enriched,
all the grub and other insects are destroyed, and the
seeds of weeds, whicli commonly abound in the soil,
are stimulated into life, and destroyed. This result
is produced chielly by the ciFcct of the gases of pu-
trefaction and the carbonate of ammonia, which,
generated in the dung, is volatilized by the heat.
To prevent the escape of this, it is a good plan to
mix the earth with gypsum (sulphate of lime) in
powder, for, by this means, if any carbonate of am-
monia is escaping through the soil, it is decomposed
by the sulphate of lime, and sulphate of ammonia
is formed; this latter salt, not being volatilized by
heat, remains in the soil, and when afterwards spread
over the fields, is decomposed, and its constituents
become the food of the growing crop.

It is very desirable that the farmer should have
some ready means of ascertaining when the dung-
hill is fermenting to an injurious extent, and it for-
tunately happeus that there are one or two easy

324

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

experiments by which this can be easily determined.
If a thermometer, wlien placed in a dunghill, does
not rise above 100", there is little danger of too
much gaseous matter bcina; evolved ; if a thermo-
meter is not in the farmer's possession, a piece of
ra'i wetted witli spirit of salt (muriatic acid) and
hekl over the dunghill, will pretty accurately deter-
mine the state of the fermentation, for if the tempe-
rature is too high, dense fumes of ammonia become
visible.

In many situations, where the farmer has access
to peat, it will be desirable to mix it with the farm
yard compost ; to this end the peat should be pro-
cured in as dry a state as jiofssiljle, and if it can be
placed in situations where it can absorb the drain-
age matters of the yard, the economy will be the
u-reater. Peat also mixes admirably with night-
soil, as is well described by Mr. Dixon, of Hather-
shaw, in an essay which I commend to the perusal
of all those farmers who have access to peat.—
(Jour. Itoy. A (J. Soc. v. L, p. 135).

These precautions, it will be seen upon very slight
reflection, tend not only to increase the quantity of
the compost of the farm-yard, but to improve its
quality, both effects of the highest importance to
the farmer — for if he succeeds in attaining these, he
can hardly fail of sustaining and increasing the fer-
tility of his land. These, too, were the conclusions
of almost the earliest tillers of the soil, for M. Plato,
the earliest agricultural writer, whose works we
possess, many centuries since told the Italian
farmers, in his fourth chapter : — " Study to have a
large dunghill, keep your compost carefully, carry
it out in the autumn, and when you carry it out,
scatter and pulverize it." After an interval of more
than eighteen centuries, the observations of Cato
still apply as forcibly as ever, and it should be one
of the axioms ever borne in mind by the English
farmer — " Study to have a large dunghill," and if in
attaining this very desirable oI>ject, lie does not neg-
lect to preserve and improve its quality, he can
hardly ever be very far wrong in his tillage.

ON MANURES.

The Stewponey Agricultural Society have pub-
lished a new edition of their rules and regulations,
included in which is the "Essay on Manures,"
by Mr. Daniel Banton, of Seisdon, a member of
the society, which gained the prize at their last
anniversary meeting. This essay contains the
result of certain experiments tried with various
manures in the cultivation of wheat.

" I have used guano and nitrate of soda as ma-
nures for wheat and turnips rather extensively
this year, tlic particulars of which, upon wheat, I
shall give below, and have only to state here, with
regard to turnips, that guano promises to be an
efl'ective manure. I have applied it both for com-
mon turnips and Swedes, and it appears to answer
well in both cuses. Part of a field for Swedes had
half a dressing in the wiuicr with fold yard ma-
nure, not of the best quality, and ploughed in
immediately, before being ridged up. I had sown
on the surface scarcely one cwt. of guano per
acre ; the otlier part of the field was dressed with
butcher's manure. The Swedes are not early, but
still growing fast, and promise to be a big crop.
The part where the guano was used is quite as
good as the other, and perfectly free from mildew.

I applied one cwt. of guano upon a plot of spring
vetches, but could see no effect.

" 'J'he following manures were made trial of in
a field of land (in tolerable good condition) situate
at Seisdon, within the limits of the Stew[)oney
Agricidtiiral Society, in the county of Stafford. The
soil a light sandy loam, commonly called ' turnip
and barley land,' subsoil a gravelly sand, based
on a red sand stone. This field has a gently slo-
ping aspect to the north-west, a year old clover
root, flay-plou;.;bcd, and drilled seven inches wide
wit!) white wheat, on the lyth of October, 1841, at
the rate of 2^ bushels per acre, 38 quarts to the
bushel. The plant ol wlieat was thick and strong
through the winter, and at the time of applying
the manures, was rather forward for the season.
On the 23rd of April six plots of land were accu-
rately measured with a chain, each containing one-
eighth of an acre, and manured as under : —

No. 1, with guano, at the rate of 1| cwt. per
acre.

2, guano and nitrate of soda, equal propor-
tions, l^cwt. per acre together.

.S, nitrate of soda, 1^ cwt. per acre.

4, white caustic lime, at the rate of 4 tons

per acre.

5, lime and salt, in proportion of 5 cwt. of

salt to 10 cwt. of lime per rcre, mixed
a week before being applied.

6, had no manure.

"There was no roin for (en days after the ma-
nures were applied ; the days being hot and the
nights gf'nerally trosiy. Seven days after the first
rain a slight difference in colour was visible in
plots No. 1, 2, and 3, where the nitrate and guano
were wpplied ; and on the Iflth of May a striking
difference was seen in those plots to the rest of the
field, the nitrate assuming tlje deepest, the nitrate
and guano the next shade, and the guano the palest
green of the three. '1 here was no visible effects
where lime alone, and lime and salt were put.
From May, till tlie wheat shot into the ear, which
it did at the same time all over the field, the plots
No. 1, 2, and 3, might be distinctly traced by the
eye -.u a considerable distance."

Mr. Banton then proceeds to notice that the red
rust, which generally prevailed in the neighbour-
hood, attacked the plots 1, 2, and 3, particularly
that on whifh the nitrate of soda alone was s|)read.
He considers that white wheat is more subject to
rust than red, but though white wheat is yearly
more or less attacked by it, the sample or yield is
very rarely injured.

" The crop was cut by Welshmen, with hooks,
on the 12th of August, and the jiroducc of each
plot kept by itself, and so thrashed. The result of
which was as under : —

Produce of

Weight of

Straw per
Acre.

Wheat per

Wheat pel-

Straw.

Wlieat per

Acre the

Imp, bushel.

Imp. bushel.

Imp. bush.

No. bush.pl;s.

lbs.

lbs.

cwt. qr. lb.

bushels.

1, 5 21

479

62

34 0 24

45

2, f) 2

428

62

30 2 8

44

3, .^) Oi

43()

62

30 2 16

41

4, .'■) U

42fi

62

30 2 6

42^

r., 4 3,i

32C

62

23 1 4

39

«, 4 31

326

61 1

23 1 6

39

•' I have not calculated the tail corn, which wag
very trifling, not exceeding a quart from each lot.
it appears that the lime and salt did not produce

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

425

any >^ft"cct, except half a poiuul per bushel in the
weight. It peiliaps will appc.ir singular that each
lot was thescime weight per huslicl in the five first,
but such was iho case. The nitrate and i^nano
were procured tlirect from the importer, and I
believe were genuine. Nitrate 24s. Gd., and the
guano 2O3. per cwt. The lime 123., and salt i;)s.
per ton, exclusive of carriage : —

r- n

2;zc

3 3 £.

^

". P

0

(BOO

p

P 3

a

3

Q

a

|o

C/:

A-

eg

p

c.

= 2

t/3
0

s :

gt

C B .

• . .

P

0 •

0 W H-

-'-'Hi

(J5 [^

>—* *-*

H^

0

*. QD W

0 ^> •

5

©CO

WO.?-

2© 0

CH-t+i

Increased value of

3 OC 00

S^S"

St

raw per Acre at

a

2s.

6d. per cwt.

to >^

tE 0 r^

05 O

>-' M t*!

ooF-

tc w

00 rf>.

wHi

»c o'

O !-■ O
4i V ©

Hi

Increased value of
Hrain per Acre at
7s. per bushel, im-
perial measure.

Total increase in
value of Crop per
Acre.

Net Profit per Acre
after deducting the
expense of manure.

Loss per Acre after

deducting cost of

" The foregoing summary, I think, clearly proves
that the cost of lime and nitrate of soda, and in-
deed of most other manures, is at present dispro-
portionately high, comi)arcd with the price of grain,
and imless considerably reduced cannot long con-
tinue to be used for agricultural purposes.''

The summary of the results of this clever far-
mer's experience is, that gtiano produced the
greatest increase in the croj), both of straw and
grain, at the smallest cost. We observe he cotn-
plains that the cost of lime and nitrate of soda, and
indeed of most other manures, is disi)roportion-
ately high : 20s. a cwt. he appears to have paid for
the guano emjjloyed in the above experiments. It
Is now regularly quoted at I4s. a cwt., and may
be purchased, we are informed, in Worcester at
that price, or even lower when a large quantity is
taken. Estiuiating, therefore, guano at 14s. a cwt.,
the result would be (we make the same allowance
for carriage as Mr. Buiton, which, we presume,
includes the cost of putting it on the land), that
20s. of guano per acre gives si.x bushels, or two
bags an acre, more than the average of No. (i,
which had no manure ; and eleven tons more
straw, or a net profit, after deducting the cost of
manure of 21. 9s. per acre ; the reduction which,
we presume, h.is taken place in the cost of guano
making a difference of 7s. 6d. an acre in the cost of
applying it. We think it right to state these facts
for the information of our agricultural readers.

FORMATION OF FAT.

(From the Annals pf Chymhlni.)

LIF.BIG V. DU:MAS.

These two eminent continental chemists are
again engaged in a lively dispute concerning a
subject of great interest — viz., the formation of
fat in the animal body. Frcim observations,
which tend to show "that carnivorous aniniMls do
not consume any sugar, starch, or gum, with their
food; that therefore these substances are not ne-
cessary for nutrition, or, what is the same thing,
for the formation of blood ; that they disa[ipear,
on the other hand, from the body of herbivorous
animals, escaping in the form of carbonic acid
and water, and that, therefore, they appear to
serve only as means of respiration for the creation
of animal heat; tliat the fat of the animal body
disa])pears, too, in consequence of disease, or in-
creased absorption of oxygen in the form of car-
bonic acid ; and that, therefore, this azotic sub-
stance is, in the animal body, applicable to the
same end as sugar, gum, or starch, replacing
other azotic substances for the purposes of respi-
ration ; that, further, the flesh of carnivorous
animals, although, of all animals, they consume
the greatest quantity of fat, does not contain any
fat ; whilst it accumulates in the body of her-
bivorous animals during the process of respiration,
the absorption of oxygen being retarded at the
same time, Liebig arrived at the inference, that
the fat owes its existence to those parts of the
food which do not contain azote, the carbon of
which remains in the body in the form of fat, pro-
vided the oxygen necessary for its transformation
into carbonic acid be not present in sufficient
quantity. The fat has, therefore, its principal
source in those constituents of food not contain-
ing azote, although the fat contained in food may
tend to increase the amount of fat in the animal
body.

Respecting these views of Liebig, the following
remarks, by M. Dumas, occur in the Annales de
Chhnie et de Physique : —

M. Liebig is of opinion that herbivorous ani-
mals create fat, from sugur and starch, whilst
Messrs. Dumas and Lioussingault state it as a ge-
neral rule that animals, of whatever kind they
may be, do not create any fat or other substances
than those serving for nutrition, and that they
receive their nourishment, be it sugar, starch, or
fat, direct from the vegetable kingdom.

" If the supposition of M. Liebig be accurately
founded, the views of Messrs. Dumas and LJous-
singault, stated as a general formula of the che-
mical equilibrium of both kingdoms, would he
erroneous."

The " Commission de la Gelatine," however,
has removed any doubt on the point as to whether
animals consuming fat are the only ones in the
cellular tissue of which fat is observed to accumu-
late.

The origin of fatty matter in the animal body
has thus become a point of dispute, and M. Liebig
has develoi)ed, in the Annalcn der Chcinlc vrid
Pharmacie of January, 184;5, the reasons which
decided him in attributing to the fatty constituents
of the food of herbivorous animals only a slight, if
any part at all, in the accumulation of fat in the
animal body. It is acknowledged, observes M.
L., that those substances which contain a large
quantity of starch, sugar, and similar matter."?,
have the greatest influence on the production of fat

326

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ill tlic animal body. Thus, for instance, rice,
Indian corn, beans, lentils, and peas, potatoes, the
marrow of beet-root, &c., are employed in Iius-
l)andry on a large scale, and with decided success,
for the purpose of fattening, that is to say, to se-
cure the accumulation of flesh and fat ; and there
is no doubt that animals fed with these different
substances, if under certain conditions, as, for
instance, abundance of nourishment, absence of
motion, high temperature, &c., will, after some
time, contain much more fat tlian before. Now
we have several analyses of rice, beans, and peas,
by trustworthy chemists. Braconnot found in
Carolina rice O'log, in Piedmont rice 0'2.5j|, and
Vogel, in another tind of rice, l"03j; of oil ; for
every thousand pounds of rice the animal organ-
ism then receives 1'3 pounds, or 2-5 pounds, or,
according to Vogel, 10.^ pounds of fat from every
thousand pounds of this food.

Peas contain, according to Braconnot, 1-2Q\] of
a substance soluble in ether, which he terms
chlorophylle ; beans ( Phaseohis vulgaris), 0'70J|
of a fat soluble in ether; and Freseuius obtained
from peas S*]^, and from lentils l-SJ], of that sub-
stance. The organism, then, receives from every
thousand pounds of peas 12 pounds, or, according
to Fiesenius, 21 pounds, of fat, whilst the same
quantity of beans yields only 7 pounds.

By further experiments made in the laboratory
at Giessen, it has been ascertained that 1,000 parts
of dry potatoes furnished 3-Qo parts of a substance
soluble in ether ; and although these ])arts possess
all the properties of resin or wax, we may admit
that potatoes contain j^\^ of their weight of fat.
Let us, then, compare the effects which a certain
(juautity of these substances produces on the ac-
cumuliition of fat in the animal organism.

One tlionsand pounds of peas and 6,Qi5 pounds
of fresh boiled potatoes (corresponding to 1,638
pounds of dried potatoes) are sufficient for per-
fectly fattening three pigs of one year old in the
course of thirteen weeks ; each of them has then
increased from 80 to 90 pounds in weight, weigh-
ing, on an average, from 160 to 170 pounds, and
yielding, after being killed, from 50 to 55 pounds
of fat. The three pigs, however, consumed, in
the thousand pounds of peas, il pounds of fat, and
in the 6,825 pounds of fresh potatoes (= to 1,638
of driedj, 6 pounds of fat; altogether, then, 27
pounds. Their body, however, contains from 150
to 165 pounds of fat; from 123 to 135 pounds
more have been gained than was contained in
their food. A pig of one year old weighs from 75
to 80 pounds ; supposing, now, that it contains
18 pounds of fat, there still remain from 69 to 7i
pounds of fat, the formation of which in the ani-
mal organism cannot be doubted.

Other and still more weighty reasons, in favour
of the opinion that fat must be created in the
animal body from certain binds of food, which,
not being fat in themselves nor containing fat, are
furnished by the observations of the influence of
the food of cows on the quantity and elements of
their milk, as made by Boussingault, the friend
and collaborateur of Dumas.

A cow at Bechelhrunn received for eleven days
= 83^- pounds of potatoes daily ; as food in eleven
days, therefore, 921 pounds. Besides this, 84-
pounds of chopped straw ; in eleven days, there-
fore, 91 pounds.

During these eleven days she gave 95 J pints of
milk, containing 78 ounces 135 grains of butter.

As, now, 921 pounds of fresh potatoes are equal

to 220^ pounds of dry potatoes [potatoes contain-
ing, according to M. Boussingault, 76-8 of water
and 23-2 of solid substances. — Annales de Chimie
ct de Phys., 1838, Avril, 408] ; further, as 35
ounces 121 grains of potatoe'? and straw, 0*0325J of
matters soluble in ether (as crj'stallizable was), the
cow consumed during that jieriod 10 ounces 124
grains -\- 12 ounces 44 grains := 22 ounces 168
grains of substances soluble in ether. The milk,
however, contained 5 pounds 251 grains of fat.

In another instance, when a cow consumed in
six days 198^ pounds of fresh (= to 44 pounds of
dry) potatoes, and 99 pounds of hay, the milk
contained 109 ounces 404 grains of butter. Sup-
posing that these 44 pounds of potatoes contained
2 ounces 51 grains of fat, the remaining 107
ounces 353 grains of butter must have been
derived from the 99 pounds af hay; the hay,
therefore, should contain nearly 7^ of fat. This
may easily be ascertained by experiment. The
best quality of hay of the description consumed
by the cow yielded only 1'56|] of its weight of sub-
stances soluble in ether ; and, therefore, not more
than 24 ounces 164 grains of butter could be fur-
nished to the animal from 99 pounds of hay. It
therefore remains to explain whence the other 103
ounces 189 grains of butter came from, which M.
Boussingault found in milk.

M. Dumas observes, in the Comptes Rend, of
Oct. 24th, 1842, that " hay in the condition as
consumed by a cow contains almost 2|} of fatty
matter," and that he is about to prove, that a fat-
tened ox and milch cow "furnish less fatty matter
than is contained in the food." This, however,
compared with the above facts, may prove a
failure.

If, in addition to this, it may be presumed that
animals receive the fat contained ia their food
precisely in the same condition as it is afterwards
found in their body, the proof would be completely
impossible ; for the question as to whether butter
furnished by the cow is contained in hay in the
form of butter or not, is easily decided.

Hay digested in ether yields a green liquor, and
after the ether has been removed, a green residue
of a strong but agreeable odour of hay, not pos-
sessing any of the properties characteristic of fatty
substances. This green residue consists of several
matters, one of which, of a waxy or resinous ap-
pearance, is known under the name of chlox'ophylle
(leaf-green.) Another of its elements deposits in
the concentrated etherial solution, in the form of
fine crystalline laminic ; it is a crystalline wax,
occurring likewise in plums, cherries, the leaves
of cabbage, &c. ^I. Dumas submitted this sub-
stance to analysis, but he found its composition
and properties entirt'ly differing from those of
other known fatty substances, wherefore he termed
it by the name of Cerosin.

Straw digested with ether, and the fresh herb of
Faniaria officinalis digested with alcohol, like-
wise yielded a crystalline wax very similar to
Cerosin.

The chief components of the fat of animals,
margaric or stearic acid, occur neither in the
seeds of corn nor in such herbs or roots as are
used as food. It is therefore evident that if those
parts of the food which arc soluble in ether can
be converted into fat, the margarine and stcarine
must be formed from wax or chlorophylle. We
know, however, that the chlorophylle of fresh
green vegetables passes from the body without
undergoing scarcely any change : the same pre-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

327

sumption applies to wax. In order to remove,
then, any doubt concerning this question, the fol-
lowing experiment was made : — The excretions of
a cow fed with potatoes and aftermath, were dried
and exhausted with ether; tlicy yielded a green
solution, which, when concentrated to a certain
degree, consolidated to a mass, owing its solidity
to a white crystalline and waxy body, surrounded
by the dnrlv green mother liquor. This extract,
when further condensed by evaporation, evolved
an unpleasant odour, and, dried at 212*^, left be-
hind vM19^ of the weight of the excretions in (at
or similar substances. According to M. Boussin-
gault, stating* that the solid excretions, if dry,
amount to ^J, of the weight of the dry food, it is
evident that these excretions contain very nearly
the same (piantity of fatty matter as the food con-
sumed. Sixteen and a half pounds of hay contain
(at 1'5(>}}) 4 ounces 403 grains of fat ; the 33
pounds of potatoes further contained loi grsiins ;
both together, therefore, 5 ounces 120 grains of
fat. The solid excretions daily removed weigh 14
ounces 480 grains, containing (at 3 119'|j) 4 ounces
175 grains of fat. A milch cow who furnishes
109 ounces 404 grains of butter in the course of
six days, consumed in the same space of time, in
her food, 26 ounces 293 grains of substances so-
luble in ether ; 26" ounces 154 grains of the same
substances are removed by excretion ; and this
leads, therefore, evidently to the inference that those
elements in the food had no part in the formation of
the 109 ounces 404 grains of butter contained in the
milk. It is, then, evident that the fat accumul.itingin
the body of animals whilst they are fattening, as
well as that which is daily removed in the form of
butter, contained in the milk, cannot be derived
from the wax or chlorophylle of (he food, but from
other elements contnined therein.

Another difference of opinion between both che-
mists concerns the amount of oil contained in
Indian corn (maize). Dumas and ISoussingault
found therein 9j{ of a yellow oil ; Gorham only 3J]
of a peculiar substance which he termed Zc-ln, but
no trace of oil ; Bizio, however, l'475'i; of oil ; and
Liebig himself 4'67|]. These statements differ so
considerably, that any inference based on the
contents of oil and Indian corn, when used as food
for fattening animals, cannot possibly be admitted
as general.

[In reducing the above weights, &c., we have
made use of imperial weights and measures.— I'd,
A. C]

ON THE USE OF LIME.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER's MAGAZINE.

Sin, — Having had some experience in the use of
lime, I wish to make known to your readers the
advantages that may be derived from the judicious
application of it as a manure to most soils.

It is not at all my intention to enter into a
scientific account^of the manner in which lime pro-
motes the decomposition of vegetable substances
so as to render them fit food for various plants — a
subject on which some of the first chemists have
held different opinions — but merely to state to
practical men my reasons for concluding this to
be one of the beneficial effects it produces.

» Annales de Chim. et de Phys.,t. lxxJ.,p.322.

Some of the largest and most opulent farmers in
this district object to the use ol lime on the ground
that it is no manure, and tiierefore is not required
for the jjroduction of any crops they cultivate ; the
error of which must be evident to any one who
will be at the trouble of ascertaining that all the
plants grown by farmers contain lime in a greater
or less degree. In fact, cliemists have only found
one plant in which they could not trace the presence
of lime. Such of your readers as are desirous of
obtaining further information on this subject, I re-
fer to the works of Davy, Liebig, and otliers, on
agricultural chemistry, as well as the excellent
writings of Cnthliert Johnson.

If it be proved tliat plants contain lime, it is
natural to conclude that they must absorb it from
the soil, because the atmosphere does not contain
it; consequently, if the lime taken from the soil
be not renewed, the subsequent crops either fail
from want of it, or are deficient in some jjropcrty
from the same cause. I have found that wheat is
not so liable to be laid by the wind on land that
has been limed, and the reapers always say it is
harder to cut.

AVhen I first began to cultivate some of the high
land in this county, I only grew 12 bushels of
wheat to the acre, Vvcighing about 541bs. Ihebusb.,
and 20 bush, of barley of a very poor quality. Last
year I had 22 bush, of wheat, and 40 bush, of
barley per acre. The wheat weighed 621bs. to the
bush., and the barley is a very fair sample. By
persevering in a regular course of crops, and
liming for wheat, I expect to grow 30 bush, per
acre after another year or two. My first crops of
clover failed, but since I have taken to the use of
lime I have not had a bad piece of clover.

Some of my neighbours who are in the habit of
using bone dust do not approve of lime, and are
surprised when told that bones contain a very con-
siderable portion of it in chemical combination.
Others are talking of trying gypsum on their clo-
ver, but object to the usq oi lime In iofo. I am
well aware that lime is combined with an acid (the
pliosphoric) in bones, that renders it peculiarly
adapted as food for the turnip plant, which pure
lime is not ; and therefore I should never recom-
mend any one to drill turnips with lime as the
sole manure, because then the crop would most
probably fail ; but where the practice of liming
for wheat is followed, I think there would bo no
occasion to use gypsum for the clover — at least it
should be tried with caution, not to incur needless
expense. In situations where lime can only be
procured at a very great expense, and gypsum is
found to succeed as a manure for clover, it is in-
valuable, being so easy of carriage.

There are many cottagers in our neighbourhood
who cultivate one or two acres of land, growing
potatoes and wheat alternately, with no manure
except lime, as long as they consider the crops
worth growing ; and then sow oats two or three
years running, till no crop of any kind can be
produced for some time without a different mode
of cultivation. This plan I have known quoted
by some large farmers as a proof of the inutility
of liming; but on some of these patches, where,
by forming a compost dunghill, they make manure
enough for potatoes, with the aid of lime the
occupiers succeed in raising good crops on this al-
ternate system ; though it is certainly not a course
to be recommended. I have used iime successfully
with every kind of crop on land that had not been
limed for some time ; but my general plan is to

328

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

spread the lime on the clover Icy about Midsummer,
and plough it in hot. This, I consider, promotes
the decomposition, or, at any rate, the very mi-
nute division of all ihe vegetable matter on the
surface, so as to render it fit food for the wiicat
plant; at the same time it renders the soil more
mellow, and very much facilitates the process of
making a good fallow ; and I have observed that
those farmers who follow the same plan always
have the best crops — not only of wheat, but in the
whole succeeding rotation.

]My land is a poor shallow soil on the mountain
or carboniferous limestone, which in many jjlaces
crops out to the surface, and is obliged to be re-
moved before I can procure sufficient depth of soil
to grow anything. As it is situated on a hill, and
varies from three to four hundred feet above the
level of the sea, I find the five course rotation succeed
the best, and always fallow the second year's clover
ley for wheat; but on land vehere ley wheat is gene-
rally sown, I should recommend the lime either to
be put on for turnips or for barley in the spring.

Lime also appears to have a double kind of me-
chanical action on the soil. It very much serves
to lighten stiff lands, so as to make them work
more easily, while it renders liglit sandy lands
firmer ; so that by its use wheat may he grown on
a soil for which it is not naturally adapted.

When limeis put into headlands, heaps of weeds,
&c., it should be covered up immediately; and
when slaked, turned up together, so as to mix the
lime well through the heap. When put on a ley
it should he spread as soon as it is sufficiently
slaked, and ploughed in hot. The same should be
done when it is used on a tallow, taking care to
drag it well in as soon as it is spread. Both these
last shoidd always be done in thesunmier; for when
lime is put on the land late in the autunui, and
becomes nearly mortar before it can be worked in,
I consider it to be worse than useless.

Chepstoio Ajn'il 11. Veiutas.

HARKAWAY.

Plate II.

A celebrated roadster, the property of Mr. John
Harrison, of Cottingliam, Yorkshire. i lie horse
which forms the subject of our second plate, will be
recognised by many of our renders as the one which
obtained the first prize at the late Agricultural Exhi-
bition which took place at Hull. Harkaway is a strong,
vigorous, and active animal, capable from his forma-
tion of enduring great fatigue ; his bodv is round and
compact, as will be distinctly seen by the engraving,
and his limbs are remarkable for their strength.
Although the roadster has been greatly neglected of
late years, and almost totally superseded by horses
of a lighter character, too nearly allied to the race-
horse to please us, ue cannot help congratulating
the Vorkshire Agricultural Society on their spirited
exertions to insure im[)rovement in breeding tlie
roadster, which we rejoice to find is again likely to
be brought into notice. We do so the more w!)en
we consider that Yorkshire, of all other counties in
England, stands pre-eminently distinguished for the
su])eriority of its difl'erent breeds of horses ; and
hope to see the same laudable spirit of emulation
more general throughout the empire.

The roadster should have good fore and hind legs,
feet sound, be even-tempered, and (juiet in whatever

situation he may be placed ; not heavy in hand, and
never disposed to stumble. 'J'he general notion that
the hackney should lift his legs well and he will
never come down, is erroneous ; the higher the feet
are raised the greater the force on coming to the
ground, and the greater the danger in case of a stone
or other casualty in the road ; in addition to which,
is the unpleasantness which the rider feels, as well
as the battering and wearing of the feet: more de-
pendence is to be placed on the manner in which the
horse puts his feet to the ground than on the knee
action in raising them up ; more on the foot being
placed at once flat on the groutid, or perhaps the
heel coming first in contact with it, than on the high-
est and most splendid action.

There are some points in forming a judgment of a
roadster, that may prove valuable to our readers, and
which should he strictly observed : — A horse, whose
shoulders are proi)erly formed and placed is not
liable to fall ; and his soundness chiefly depends
upon his legs and feet. The shoulders should not
be too upright, but should slope backwards from the
slioulder-point to tlie withers. It is desirable, if
tile horse is intended to carry a man of much weight,
that the shouldprs should he ratluT thick than thin ;
but it is essential tliat they should not be too large
at tlie points. A horse whose s!«oulders are good,
stands, when in a natural position, with his fore-legs
in a line perpendicular to the ground ; it is, there-
fore, very desirable that tho ])urchaser should see
him in the stable, and before he has been moved, for
be will then find him in his natural position, in
which it may be difficult to place him after ho has
been once disturbed. Another mode of ascertaining
whether the shoulders are properly placed, is by
allowing the horse to walk past you, and observing
whether he places his fore-foot more forward than
the shoulder-point when he puts it on the ground.
A horse whose shoulders are ])roperly formed, will
always do so ; one whose shoulders are Ujirigbt,
cannot. The fore quarters of a horse intended to be
used as a hackney, constitute an essential point; his
carcase should be round, and his ribs deep. A
horse's fore-leg of tlie proper form should be flat,
and as large under the knee as it is just above the
fetlock. The pastern should be subjoined to the leg
at the fetlock, that the iiorse should neither turn his
feet out nor in ; but it is less objectionable that the
horse's feet be turned outwards than inwards, ])ro-
vidinjr he hits not his fetlocks.

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF
WEIGHTS.

Stones,

Stones,

Hundreds,

Scores.

141b.

811

1.

1121b.

St.

lb.

St.

lb.

cvvt.

qrs. lb.

20 equal

28

8 .

50

0 .

3

2 8

25 —

35

10 .

52

4 .

■1

I 24

30 —

42

12 .

7i^

0 .

5

1 12

35 —

50

0 .

87

1 .

6

1 0

40 —

57

2 .

. 100

0 .

7

0 16

45 —

64

4 ,

, 112

4 .

8

0 4

50 —

71

6 .

. 125

0 .

8

3 20

55 —

78

8 .

. 137

4 .

y

3 8

60 —

8.5

10 .

. 150

0 .

. 10

2 24

(j5 —

9i

12 .

. 162

4 ,

, . 11

2 18

7 0 —

100

0 .

. 175

0 .

. 12

2 0

75 —

107

2 .

. 187

4 .

. 13

1 16

80 —

114

4 .

. 200

0 .

. 14

1 4

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

329

REPORT ON TRIAL WHEATS.

nV MR. W. MILES, M. r.

(From the Journal of the Roiial Agiicultuml Societii I'f
EnglaniL)

Having been appointed, witli !\[essr3. Handley
and Kimberley, to try tlie four wheats selected for
prizes at Liverpool, and a wisb liaving been ex-
pressed by some members o( the Council that I
should drill in several other approvpd soits of wheat
together with those selected, all subject to precisely
similar conditions, in Sejitember last 1 chose for the
experiment a one-year-old clover-ley on a sandy
loam, gently sloping to the N. N. \V. The crop of
clover had been very good, nearly 50 cwt. an acre ;
from some part of the field I had taken a second
crop, feeding the remainder ^vith sheep and young
beasts; no visible difterence, however, was after-
wards apparent in the grain crop, either in quantity
or quality, from these distinct modes of treating the
second crop of clover.

The field was ploughed on the 20th of September,
and, having been laid out in half-acres for the
ploughing-match of the Bath and West of England
Society, was continued in the same state for the ex-
periment, each half-acre being separated by 27 inches
of grass-balk.

The sorts selected for trial were — of white wheats —
From Liverpool, .... No. 1, Belle Vue Talavera.
From ditto, . . . ^ . . . .No. 2, Chidham,
From Mr. Kimberley, No. 3, Silver-drop.
From Mr. Jones, .... No. 4, a seedling, Jonas's Pro-
lific.
From Lord Ducie, . . No. 5, Sheriff's.
From Mr. Pusey, .... No. 6, Golden Svran.

And of red wheats —
From Liverpool, .... No. 1 , Burwell.

From ditto, No. 2, Red Champion.

From Lord Ducie, . . No. 3, Britannia.

From Mr. Pusey, .... No. 4, Mr. Fisher Hobbs'sRed

Rlarigold.
From Wilts, No. b, Old Red Lammas.

To each of these wheats 3 half-acres were allotted ,
except to Mr. Jonas's seedling, of which 1 bad but
sufficient seed for an acre •, the quantity sown per
acre was 2 bushels and 1 peck. On the 27th of
September, previously to breaking up the clover,
10 bushels of ^-intb bones were sown broadcast
over the field. On Tuesday the 12th of October, I
commenced putting in No. 1 white, with a Suflblk
drill, and finished No. a red on the Friday following.
On Tuesday the 26th, No. 2, white, appeared ; on
the following Sat-jrday all the whiles were up ; on
the 3rd of November the red wheats were partially,
but without any apparent priority of germination,
showing. The appearances of the white wheats
were — No. 1, sixth ; No. 2, first ; No. 3, fourth ;
No. 4, third ; No. i, fifth ; No. 6, second. No. 1
came up very indifferently ; indeed, it seemed, from
the incessant rains, which had continued almost
without intermission from the lime of sowing to this
period, to have perished in the ground ; and as this
wheat never afterwards improved, but was entirely
hoed in again in February, it may be considered as
having totally failed with me. Last year, however,
in which there were several very sharp frosts and
a good deal of catching weather, I reaped a most
capital crop of Belle Vue Talavera — nearly ;j qrs.
an acre, which had been sown in October, 1840.
This wheat, in our climate, I consider essentially a
spring wheat, and as such invaluable ; for in the
parts of the trial-field this year, where the plant was

very deficient, or had totally failed, I hoed it in from
the 6th of February to the beginning of Rlarch, and
the wheat so sawn was ready for the sickle as early
as those sown in October. On the 21st of Novem-
vember 1 found the appearances of the wheats thus
noted : — Whiles, No. 2, third; No. 3, fourth; No.
4, second ; No. b, fifth ; No. 6, first : Reds, Nos.
1 and 2, first; No. 3, fourth ; No. 4, second ; No. .3,
third. The first fortnight in January was very try-
ing to the plant, as we had alternate sharp frosts
and sudden thaws without snow. On the 22nd the
wheats were going off terribly, and the wire-worm
was general in its ravages : 1 immediately put the
heaviest roller I could get on the field, and rolled it
till the surface was as hard as a turnpike-road ; still
the dnmiige apparently done was immense, and a
neighbouring fanner guessed that the product of the
field would not be above 16 bushels per acre ; the
rolling, however, stopped the progress of the wire-
worm. On the .')th of t'ebruary 1 began hoeing in
Belle Vue Talavera on those spots of the trial-pieces
where the plant had nearly disappeared ; of the whites
the whole of No. 1 was put in afresh ; of No. 5, about
two-thirds of an acre : of the reds a little was put in
in Nos. 1 and 2 ; nearly all in No. 3 ; and about half
an acre in No. 6 ; so that of the white wheats. No.
2, 3, 4, and 6, and of the reds. No. 4, were the
only wheats which stood the winter for crop as first
planted. On the 2nd of April, 1 find that the wheats
on the whole were very bad ; but from the 25th of
March until the 23rd of April, not sufficient rain
fell at King's Weston to wet the ground, and at this
period the wheats began to mend ; their improve-
ment being gradual, but extraordinary. I was ab-
sent from home during the blooming, but was in-
formed by my farming-man that very little difference
was perceptible between the flowering of the whites,
and that the reds came into bloom from a week to
ten days after the whites. On my return from Lon-
don at the end of the first week in July, I found the
general improvement still progressing; the tillering,
considering the nature of the soil, had been extraor-
dinary, and the ears were upright and full ; I there-
fore carried out the experiment as far as practicable,
selecting, as had been agreed upon at Liverpool, 16
perches from each variety, cutting it with the scythe,
and accurately weighing the grain and straw. On the
2nd August, 1 marked out, as nearly as my eye could
enable me to judge, 16 perches of average equal
growth, and occupying relatively similar positions
in the field, from Nos. 2,3,4,5, and 6 white; and
from Nos. 1, 2, 4, and 5 red, similar quantities, but,
excepting No. 4, not in relative situations to the
white wheats ; yet still, had the season been gene-
rally favourable, such 16 perches, as I estimated,
would have been fair samples of the produce of these
wheats. The white wheats, however, throughout
appeared better suited to my land than the reds ;
and the result of the experiment has convinced me
that, in soil and climate, similar to that on and in
which I have made the trial, the growth of the
former should be encouraged rather than the latter.
Before reaping, the appearance of the different
wheats was as follows: — Whites, No. 2, third ; No. 3,
fouith; No. 4, first; No. 5, third ; No. 6, second;
Reds, No. 1, third; No. 2, second; No. 4, first ;
No. 5, fourth. For the reason before specified, viz.
the almost total destruction of the plant of No. 3, no
portion of that wheat was measured ofl' for the expe-
riment.

On Friday the 5th of August, I cut with the scythe
the whites, on the iMonday the reds, and on tlie fol-
lowing Wednesday and Thursday carted the respec-

Z

330

THE I'ARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tive lots. J'be subjoined tiiblc will show you Ibe
results of the jnoduce of wbeat-sUuw iiiul tlour per
acre of each kind, estiuiated fioiu tlie product of 16
perches of each. I conceive, however, tliat, were
the whole of the produce of each sort to be thrashed
out, none of the crops would come up to this aver-
age ; but the appearances of iV'os. 4 and 6 white, and
No. 4 red, were generally good, and the tabular re-
sults would not at most give 2 or .'3 bushels per acre
above their respective produce. Every attempt,
however, as far as the season permitted, has been
made to carry out the experiment \vitli perfect fair-
ness. I consider for the bulk of straw the yield of
grain was e,\traordinary, and the samples of wiieat
of each kind can scarcely be surjiassed, subjected as
they were merely to the usual dressing. The miller
declared that he had never ground better flour ; but
stated that, if he had any preference, lie should give
it to No. 2 white, and No. 1 red. In the process of
converting the flour into bread, better than which
1 never have tasted, tbe plan recommended by Col.
Le C'ourleur in vol. I. p. 11 j> of the Journal, was
adopted, viz." 18 lbs. of the flour of each sort was
placed to rise or sponge ovei-night with i a pint of
yeast and 2 quarts ol water. At nine o'clock the
next morning 4 oz. of fine salt were added, together
witii as much water, milk warm, as each kind would
imbibe to tit it for the oven, which was well worked
up, druioi up (as it were) nito strings to expose it
to the air as much as possible, in order to render it
light, left to rise for 20 minutes or half an hour,
baked and weighed next morning." J ho subjoined
tabular statement will, I think, prove tbe necessity
of carrying out all our experiments to the utmost, as
otherwise great danger will arise of discarding va-
luable sorts, merely from their being in one or two
instances less productive than others; which may be
accounted for from the chances of the season, or
other disturbing, but not sufliciently investigated,
causes. Of the white breads No. 6 was the wliitest.
No. 4 the closest, and No. 2 the ligbest ; of the
brown, or rather that made from the reds. No. 5
was the whitest and lighest : the others were much
the same in colour and quality.

Numbers of AVlieats.

ei 3; 51 OS 0-. t» ci cr. 3> j;
li ti ti, *- w i-s i« W M °^

~ ti 4JI 3 I^ W X O ~ .N

Weight per Bushel.

— tSCCX li4-M14lC^g
(4 ',■■ V) ■* VI 14 K i o S^
^^ = C K. W « O = *- p- K

Produce jier Acre, estimated
from sixteen perclies, cut,
weiglicd, and tluashcd by
hand.

>_«_^ _.->_„,H. Tons.

«H-t4l4 OWOSO <H'S-

Wt'iglit of Straw per Acre, si-
milarly tstiuiated.

CO « * X o ce !o tc VI •

Weight of best Seconds Flour
jiur Acre, cstinuitcd Iroui two
biisliels of eacli.

AVclglit of Ourguons and Bran,
ditto, ditto.

^S^S. K?®,^?^ Pints.

Quantity of Water imbibed by
each sort in worliing up.

Quantity of Itread from 18 lbs.
of Flour, of cacli sort.

It will be perceived that No. 4 whet was by far
the most productive of the trial wheats, and as Mr.
Jonas, when he presented this prolific aeedling to
me, sent me an account of its origin, I think I can-
not do better than insert an extract from his letter,
as it may encourage farmers sbould they accidentally
discover amongst their crops ears of corn of extra-
ordinary productiveness, dissimilar to the bulk of
the crop, and of apparently new habits, to preserve
and cultivate such more generally than they do at
present, for the purpose of raising valuable varieties.
Mr. Jonas thus wrote in September, :!841 : — " You
will oblige me by accepting 3 bushels of white
wheat, which I have raised from a single ear, and
by growing it side by side with the trial-wheats of
Liverpool. I have no fear of tbe result; but should
the Liverpool selected wheats be more prolific and
valuable than mine, I shall be highly gratified, as 1
sbould cease growing the sort 1 have thus raised,
and have some of that which was better. I would
thank you not to sow this wheat before the latter
part of October, or the beginning of November, as
it is inclined to tiller early. I send you tbe exact
quantities grown each year from this single ear, and
I do so that you may avail yourself of any opportu-
nity or way you please of showing to my brother-
farmers how short a space of time is required to
raise a good sort of any grain : —
Years. I'roduce.

1S3S dibbled in ."lO kernels 1^30 of wliich only grew) 14Joz.

1.S39 njoz 1 bush. 1 pli.

1810 Ibush. Ipecl^ .. 45 bush.

1841 45 bush 537 bu-Ii.

And had this wheat not been as much red-gummed
as my other sorts, I believe I should this year have
had lOO bushels more."

'i'his concludes my rejjort, and it will be for the
Council to determine?, after the recei|it of the rejjorts
of Messrs. Handley and Kimberley, whether or no
the}' think the wheats selected at Liverpool for the
])rizes are so superior to tbe sorts in general u^e as
to entitle them to the stamp of a[)probalion whicli
the award of the premiums from the Royal Engli'ih
Agricultural Society to either would confer. 1 con-
sider all the tour wheats remarkably good, and well
worthy of general attention ; and from my tabular
results should be inclined to say that, if a premium
is to be given to any, it should be tbe red No. 2, tlie
produce of which was much greater in quantity than
from the other reds.

King's Weston, 22nd Heptember, J842.

SECOND ANNUAL REPORT 01'
THE RUGELY FARMER'S CJ.UJi.

In reviewing the proceedings of the club your
committee regret that from unforeseen circum-
stanci s the subjects proposed have not been taken
in the order in which they stood on the list; seve-
ral have been entirely omitted, and these your
committee recommend for discussion at an early
period in the next year.

The first subject brought forward was — '*0n
the best method of making summer fallows."

The gentleman who proposed it divided the sub-
ject in the following order. 1st, the advantage
to be derived from a summer fallow ; 2nd, the
best method of making; ord, the expence ; and
lastly, the abuses to which the system is liable.
He observed, if summer fallows were now to be in-
troduced as a new system of fertilizing, and pre-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

331

paling the earth for a crop, they would he thought
be rejected on account of the heavy expence of
making tliem ; still on very strong land he be-
lieved it imtnactieablc to grow wheat extensively
without summer fallows.

ON MAKING SUMMER FALLOWS.

First commence by ploughing the land to the
full depth in the autumn, opening: the furrows so
that the water may pass ofl' freely ; thcu reverse
the ploughing as e.uly as possible after spring
sowing, when diligent use should be made of the
scuffle and harrow; cross plough once to a mode-
rate depth, again using the scuffle and harrow.
If the weather be favourable, the land will by
these operations be freed from weeds. The dung
should thcu be applied and covered immediately ;
after this no more working should be allowed for
some time, until it is drawn into huts ready for
sowing. On the expenees : — These consist of
two years rent, rates, labour, wear and tear, and
interest of capital. If these items are fairly cal-
culated they will prove a fallow crop of wheat to
b3 not very profitable.

The abuses of fallowing are, subjecting the
land to it moi-c frequently than is necessary, and
applying it to a great breadth of land that never
ought to he subjected to it. He had often seen
farms in the foulest, worst condition where the
system is jjractised to a great extent. 'J'he farmer
comforts himself for his previous neglect in not
cleaning his land by the idea that the fallow year
is at hand, when all things will he put straight.
He stated, that be considered it the duty of every
farmer to think well by what means he might
lessen this most ruinously expensive system, and
he conceived these were by efficient under drain-
ing, by drilling, hoeing, and ado])ting the best
rotation of crops tiie nature of the farm and cir-
cumstances will allow. It was remarked by a
member that he was more convinced every day of
the necessity of effectually under-draining strung
land; and until this was done, and the land
pulverized with subsoil ploughing, he despaired
of seeing fallows dispensed with.

Several members agreed with the proposer in
all his remarks, except the one recommending
cross ploughing, because we could never lay the
land, even where the furrows had been in the
cross ploughing, for some years ; and in a wet
season this part of the field would be wettest, and
of course injure the growing- crop. Several mem-
bers stated they had always been in the habit of
cross ploughing their fallows, but should omit it
for the future.

The meeting resolved, " that tbey agreed
with the plan projjoscd of making summer
fallows, except tliat pr-rt of it that recommends
cross plougliing; this they conceive may be omitted
by using the scuffle across the land."

The next subject that occupied the attention of
the club was— "The soiling of cattle in lieu of de-
pasturing in the summer." The member intro-
ducing the subject stated, that for the purpose
of soiling or summer stall feeding, it was desir-
able to begin in the previous months of August
and September to sow a succession of rye,
vetches, and rape, i hesc will be fit for use in the
spring before the clover and natural grasses
are ready. He considered, by always having
a regular succession of green crops, that he
could keep a greater quantity of stock on an
arable farm than he could on that which was

termed a grazing farm, and thequantity of manure
he made, amply repaid any extra trouble and ex-
pence. That the plan was not only applicable
to feeding cows, but also to milking cows.
His maxiui was, that without green crops few
cattle can be kept ; without cattle no manure ;
without nranure no corn.

It was stated the system had been tried at
Teddesly, by Mr. Bright ; and he had had sufficient
manure made from the soiled cattle to dress all the
clover-leys on that extensive farm intended for
wheat.

Very few of the members had tried soiling, but
it was' the opinion of all present that a portion of
the stock on every farm n)ight be soiled with ad-
vantage. It was resolved, " It appeared to this
meeting, that two benefits arose from soiling — 1st,
the extra quantity of manure that can be made ;
•2nd, the saving of food : these they consider are
e(iuivalent to the expence, and they recom-
mended a trial of the system at first on a limited
scale."

At a subsequent meeting the discussion was —
"On the best selection and mode of preparing
seed wheat." The member who proposed the
subject stated, he considered it one of the most
important that could occupy the attention of the
club. He first noticed the dift'erent species of
wheat, their subdivision into varieties, and stated
his opinion that these differcut varieties were fre-
quently produced from a change of soil, climate,
and cultivation. He would commence with the
selection of seed for the very best strong land ; on
this he considered it of little consequence what
kind of wheat was grown. For the strong clay
soils he preferred the old red Lammas, and taking
the average of seasons, he thought it would produce
more bushels per acre, and of better quality than
any other variety, and was also a more hardy plant.
For light soils he preferred the different varieties
of white wheat ; they were equally productive with
the red, and generally sold at a higher price. For
spring sowing the white Talavera, and though he
had heard it said that it was not a productive
variety, he had always found it to yield quite as
many bushels per acre as he expected. He recom-
mended the selection of the very best sample of
wheat for seed, and thought it false economy to
sow an inferior article ; also, often to change the
seed, and always to procure it if possible from land
that was earlier than that intended to be sown.
Every member present thought that a frequent
change of seed was desirable, but that it was of
little consequence where the seed was grown if
the sample was clean and good. One advantage
of changing seed was, that weeds which grow on
light land will not flourish on strong soils, and
vice versa.

It was resolved, "that for the strong
clay land in this district the old red Lammas
wheat is the best variety to cultivate; that the
Golden-drop and Salmon are uncertain, and depend
much on the season. For the light soils the white
wheats are in the opinion of the meeting the most
profitable to cultivate." Several members had
practised spring sowing ; those that had, thought
the white Talavera wheat an early variety and
equally productive with the other spring varieties.
The second part of the subject— on preparing-
seed wheat— was afterwards considered. The pro-
poser stated that what was now considered indis-
pensable was first discovered, according to TulJ,
from accident. A cargo of wheat was sunk near

Z 2

332

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Bristol, and lecovered at the ebb tides ; beiug un-
bt for food, it was sold for seed, and at the fol-
lowing harvest all the wheat in th;it part of Eng-
land was smutty except the produce of this
brined seed. He thought there was nothing that
required more care and attention tiian the prepa-
ration of the seed previous to sowing, he had for
some years used fermented urine and caustic lime
and bis wheat had been free from smut. He had
a strong objection to chemical preparation, from
the great danger of destroying vegetation.

The club at length decided that a preparation
for seed wheat was requisite ; the majority
were in favour of fermented urine and caustic
lime. Several were named, all of which ap-
peared to be efficacious. A wash of lime-water
had been used by some, who had never had
smut since using it, though previously they had
been subject to it.

At the meeting of the lOth of November —
" What is the best rotation of crops for the light
soils of this district.^" — the discussion was pro-
posed by the chairman of the club. He stated
that without the powerful aid of chemistry we
could do little in producing the fruits of the earth ;
that increased fertility was to be mainly attributed
to the liberal but proper use of manure. In de-
tailing on the rotation of crops, he considered the
broadcast system entirely exploded ; that the seed
is never committed to the soil when in a foul or
unfit state to receive it ; that he was fully con-
vinced that a much greater breadth of oats and
barley was grown than was profitable to the
farmer. Wheat was the crop to be debited with
all our liabilities. He never grew what was called
loose or spring corn, but under extraordinary
curcumstance ; as, for instance, after having
grazed afield of seeds for two years, and folded
sheep thereon with turnips during the winter ;
such land will be in a condition sufficient to
gron* a crop of peas prior to the wheat. The
rotation of crops he recommended was what
was generally known as the four-course sys-
tem, but sowing a crop of Talavera wheat
in lieu of barley; thus wheat, turnips, Ta-
lavera wheat, and seeds ; or if the seeds bad been
treated as he before stated, a crop of peas may be
taken. Many will be inclined to say, this is severe
work. Wheat every second year ; where is the
evil, if the land remain in good heart? He had
adopted the practice he now recommended on a
field for six years, and in this the sixth year he
had more than 35 bushels per acre. Its last crop
was 41j bushels, but every one knew that the
wheat plant was this year generally too thin on
the ground. Each crop during the term had been
an abundant one, and the pioduce was to him a
proof that the land was neither impoverished nor
out of condition. He contended that by applying
those chemical ingredients, in the shape of
manure, which the previous crop of wheat had ex-
hausted, wheat might be grown every alternate
year without impoverishing the fertility of the
boil ; and he also contended that if we had the
knowledge to destroy the offensive excrements
left by plants in the ground, be saw no reason why
wheat or any other corn should not be grown crop
after crop as regularly as in any other rotation.
For the turnip crop, he recommended the manure
to be applied in the autumn. The land intended
for Swedes to be sown with rye, to be eaten ofT
with sheep in the spring. If for white turnips
with vetches; the former he found useful for early

eating with ewes and lambs, thelatterfor mowing
for horses and stock in the yards. The rye is
eaten off by May-day. The land must then be
worked and pulverized, drawn up into ridges, and
the Swedes sown as soon after as possible. It was
contended in the rotation recommended, that the
wheat crop came too often ; and an enquiry was
also made why the proposer of the subject objected
to oats being taken in the rotation. To this the
reply was, that he thought oats an exhausting
crop, and did not for that reason cultivate them.
A member thought that turnips could not be
grown after rye or vetches ; this was decided to be
practicable to some extent. An objection was also
made to the manure being applied for turnips in
the autumn ; but again several members had tried
the plan, and approved of it. After a long discus-
sion, the meeting separated without coming to any
resolution.

At the December meeting, " the best mode of
sowing corn" was proposed. The member who
undertook the subject stated that the remarks he
should offer were the result of his own experience.
He was of opinion that all kinds of grain should
be drilled or sown in rows to admit the sun and
wind to the soil between them. He thought this
method produced a strong stem, a heavy ear, and
a superior quality of grain. The space between
the rows should not be too wide ; seven inches
was sufficient for all white-strawed grain, for the
crop to cover the land, and wide enough for horse
or hand- hoeing. He was in favour of sowing
wheat on light soils when the land was moibt ; on
strong soils sowing was more hazardous, and it
should not he delayed till late in the autumn ;
still, he preferred the land being moist, if the
operation could be done early. In conclusion, he
said that, though there are sometimes instances of
crops failing on land well prepared and manured,
which may be attributed to (he mode of sowing or
the land being unfit for the growth of the kind of
grain sown, still be thought that many such disap-
pointments might be prevented by a careful obser-
vation of facts, by comparing them together, and
reducing them to simple and general rules. Se-
veral strong land farmers contended it was the
better system to plough the wheat in on fallows ,
they thought if the crop was drilled the land was
apt to be too fine, and the plant did not tiller so
well in the spring. It was admittedthata vcrygreat
advantage was derived from being able to horse
and hand-hoe all crops sown in rows. Some of
the light land farmers preferred using the presser
instead of drilling in the seed, but if the crop was
drilled, it should on light soils always be across
the furrows. The meeting resolved that it is the
opinion of the strong land farmers, that the best
system of sowing wheat on fallows is to plough it
in. Resolved, "thaton light soils grain of all kinds
should be drilled or sown after the land has been
jnessed, so that the crop may be jdanted in rows.
The meeting consider the systenr of drilling and
hoeing all kinds of grain cannot be extended too
far; that all white strawed crops should have in-
tervals of from seven to nine inches, beans and
peas from twelve to eighteen inches between each
row ; with these spaces, the horse-hoe may be
used effectually."

Several new members have joined the club
during the year, and an intimation was given at
one of the meetings that Earl Talbot had ex-
l)ressed a wish to be elecicd a member. Your
commiltce congratulate the club in having so dis-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

333

tinguished a nobleman and practical farmer en-
rolled amongst its honorarj' members. A consider-
able uuniber of svorks on agricnlturchavc been pur-
chased for tbe library during tbe year, and jour
committee beg tiie attention of those members
who are in arrear with their subscription to the
society of prompt payment, or your committee
will be deprived of the means of oidering any new
works that may come under their notice, and will
also be obliged to curtail the number of the perio-
dicals now taken in. A subscription has been
given to the testimonial presented to Wm. Shaw,
Ksq., a gentleman to whom this club and the
farmers of Kngland are indebted for his efforts to
improve the cultivation of the soil, and to support
the cause of agriculture. One pound has been
subscribed and paid to the fund for erecting a
monument to the memory of the late l^arl of
Leicester, the man who did more, during a long
life, than any other to improve the poor light
lands of this kingdom.

For the Committee, James Wvley, Jan.,

Secretary.

ON THE PROPOSED REMEDIES
FOR THE PRESENT DEPRES-
SION IN TIIE AGRICULTURAL
ANDCOMMERCIAL INTERESTS
OF THIS COUNTRY.
Paper I.

BY CEOnCE THOMPSON, Jl'N.

It is undeniable that the present distress, which
appears to affect all classes — to be felt in every cor-
ner of this great and important kingdom, is calcu-
lated to create general alarm, and eventually to
produce that lack of energy which must inevitably
tend to increase the evil it laments. In such a
state of society, at such an important and truly
awful period, it is perfectly natural that there should
rise up a swarm of conflicting country Premiers —
country Secretaries of State — country Chancellors
of the Exchequer — in fine, numerous political
quacks, who have each of them some favourite nos-
trum, which they can highly recommend as being
calculated to remove the disease under which
" John Bull" suffers. Nor is it intended to decry
such futile attempts at legislation, since it is obvi-
ous that it forms the " hobby" of many undoubt-
edly well-meaning individuals; and so long as their
efforts are confined to literary effusions, no great
danger need be apprehended from them ; still less,
when it is observed what a chaotic mass of mutually
correcting "heal-alls" they submit to an cnlightenerl
public. But, while on the one hand, we are wiUing
that such unlicensed physicians should prescribe,
and administer their inoperative medichics, we must
claim, on the other hand, a perfect right to apply
correctives in such cases where an injurious effect
may be produced. AVitnessing then, with feelings
of poignant sorrow, the too frequent application of
the same (apparently remedial, but really) poison-
ous " lotion," without, of late, the usual correctives,
we are constrained by a patriotic impetus to apply
a counteracting " blister," which may extract, or
rather nullify, the alcohol-like influence of a covet-
ous prescription.

Among the numerous schemes broached for the

restoration of our long-enjoyed and almost unprece-
dented prosperity, the total repeal of our present
corn laws stands most conspicuous. Witli this pro-
ject, therefore, we purpose first to deal ; not with
any pre-existing partiality for one side of the ques-
tion or the other — not with any determination to
make it appear that this or that opinion 1* the cor-
rect one, but solely with a desire to arrive at a cor-
rect conclusion, with the fair and honest purpose of
artbrdlng an answer to the great question — Are our
present corn laws beneficial or injurious?

In order that we may discuss the question impar-
tially, we must thoroughly weigh the arguments on
each side ; and as the propriety of the continuation
of the present law naturally became a controverted
point from the circumstance of some party having
first contended that its repeal would be advantage-
ous, wo will first examine tlie arguments which are
adduced to show that the present corn laws should
be repealed.

It is contended by the corn law repealers that as
the nations on the continent of Europe and America
are naturally capable of producing more than suffi-
cient corn for their own consumption, and as we
possess natural facdities for manufacturing to a
much greater extent than is requisite for the sup-
ply of our home markets, as we also produce annu-
ally less food than is required for the maintenance
of our own population, it is apparent that it would
be attended with manifest advantages to allow the
free and unrestricted importation of the surplus
agricultural produce of other countries in exchange
for our own surplus manufactured articles ; that
we should find full employment for all classes, from
the unlimited demand for our manufactures which
would inevitably ensue on this extension of our
markets ; that the grain-producing countries
would be too eager to exchange their agricultural
produce for our manufactures, at an advantage to
us ; that, at present, we import uncertain quanti-
ties of foreign corn, purely on speculation as to the
possibility of selling it in this country, owing to the
ever varying nature of our sliding scale of duties,
which renders it imperative on us to pay cash for
the corn we require; that this paying cash or bul-
lion to other countries, diminishes our own pecuni-
ary resources, and produces stagnation in our com-
mercial affairs ; that the only class the present corn
laws can possibly benefit, are the aristocracy and
other landed proprietors, by maintaining corn at an
extravagant price, and tlms enabling them to ob-
tain a greater rent at the cost of the remaining por-
tion of the community : these are the arguments
usually urged by the advocates of a repeal.

The supporters of the present corn laws contend,
on the contrary, that the British farmer is a mem-
ber of a community more highly taxed than those
foreign nations which woidd supply us with food,
and that the free Importation of comparatively un-
taxed foreign corn must have the effect of driving
the home grower out of the market, and of thus de-
priving the British manufacturer of his best cus-
tomer.

Such are the strongest arguments broached by
each party in favour of their respective views, and
such are the arguments we purpose taking into our
consideration.

It is undoubtedly correct that the continents of
Europe and North Airierica are capable of, and in-
deed are at this time, producing more than sufficient
corn for their own consumption ; it is also unques-
tionable that Great Britain can produce a much
greater quantum of manufactured articles than

034

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

13 necessary for the complete supply of lier
own inarkels. We ailmit also that. Great Bri-
tain lias of late years produced an insufficiency
of corn, but we by no means admit that she
is incapable of producing more ; on the con-
trary, we shall, in a future letter, endeavour to
show that the British Isles may, and will, be made
productive of one-half more agricultural produce
than they at present afford ; indeed, we should
imagine that the most staunch supporters of a
repeal would readily admit that Great Britain has
not yet reached her utmost extent of agricultural
productiveness ; and if they once admit this, what
an argument they supply for checking the intro-
duction of foreign pi-oduce, for preserving our-
selves as long as possible from a dependency on
those nations who look on our supremac)' with an
envious eye— but more of this in a future letter.
It is sufficient for us to Itnow that England is ca-
llable of producing a larger quantity of grain than
is required for the sustenance of her people.

The next argument of the repealers is, that by a
free importation of corn we should extend the
markets for our manufactures, and that, Great
Britain being a manufacturing country, her legis-
lators should encourage the extension of the mar-
kets for her chief productions. 'Jhis is the
principal argument in favour of a repeal, and will
therefore require the greater attention.

We observe that the nations from whom our
supplies of grain would be chiefly obtained are
those contiguous to our shores — nations jealous
of our greatness, who, distinctly perceiving that
we owe our superiority in a great measure to our
manufactnring skill, are of course desirous of
imitating our internal policy, and of thus arriving
atour enviable position. Germany, Poland, Prussia,
and southern Russia,[are the countries from which
our chief supplies would be drawn. It is con-
tended by many that America would afford our
principal supply ; but a little consideration must
convince such that the European nations would
be enabled to afford corn at a much lower rate on
our shores, as the cost of transport would be con-
siderably greater from America than from the
continent of Europe. Hence, the neighbouring
states would afford the chief supply. Now, would
they take manufactured articles in return for
their corn? We might suppose that the past
would answer this question satisfactorily to all,
and if it would but be admitted as a lesson by
those who advocate a change, we flatter ourselves
a repeal of the present corn laws would no longer
be advocated, since we find, on reference to un-
questionable authorities, that the years in which
we imported the greatest quantities of corn were
marked by no increase in our exportations — in
fact, that they would not take our manufactures
in i-eturn for their corn. They would have gold.
If they wanted our manufactures, they would
take them. But what is the fact ? They witness
— and have long witnessed — ourcommercial great-
ness, and they arc determined to become manu-
facturers themselves. If it be true that they
require our goods — that they have a desire forour
productions, would they not take them in ex-
change for their corn? If they had any desire to
promote reciprocal dealings, would they not have
taken the first step towards a system of recipro-
city, by allowing our manufactures to enter duty-
free ? Decidedly they would. Hut have they
done so? They have not. They have invariably
taken the opposite course; for in 182;5 wcicpcalcd

the navigation laws, with a view to satisfy
Prussia, and that nation immediately formed the
Prusso Germanic League, which imposed a duty
on ISritish manufactures, practically amounting to
fifty per cent. Many other instances could easily
be quoted of concessions made by England, but
met by other countries with the imposition of
duties calculated to compel their respective popu-
lations to manufacture for themselves. Is it ra-
tional, then, to suppose that they will adopt a
different course with respect to the corn laws ?
Would it be wisdom on the part of our legislators,
with these lessons engraven upon their minds,
rashly to repeal the corn laws, when, judging by
experience (and experience is the better guide in
such cases), it would be followed by the imposi-
tion of prohibitory duties on British manufactures ?
It is of no avail to contend that it would be to
their interest to act reciprocally ; we have not to
legislate as though mankind were disposed to do
as they onght to do, but we have to legislate with
mankind as they are. Nor is it surprising to
the inquiring mind that such difficulties should
I>resent themselves. Unquestionably other na-
tions have as great a right to manufacture as the
British — unquestionably observing, as they must,
our greatness, they will imitate the means by
which we have attained thit greatness. It will
occur to them, that if they have cheaper provi-
sions, and natural facilities for manufacturing,
they need only our mechanical knowledge to com-
pete with us. Being naturally jealous of us, their
rulers will assuredly throw every obstacle they
can in the way of any encouragement of our trade.
All political exjierlence tends to show that we
should not extend our markets hy repealing the
corn lairs. But, that we may not be accused of
coming to a premature conclusion, we will endea-
vour to show that, supposing we should have a
demand for manufactured articles to the value of
the corn imported, still that the increase would
not bo worth so great a sacrifice. We will grant
that much of the poorer land in this country
would be thrown out of cultivation. The grain
which has hitherto been supplied by this poor
land would then be grown on richer soils in other
countries; hence, so far as this took place, we
should merely remove the market for a cpiota of
our manufactures from this country to another ;
inasmuch as the most violent repealers do not for
one moment anticipate that other nations will take
more than an equivalent, in manufactured articles,
for the corn we import. Consequently, the only
increased demand we can fairly expect will be to
the amount of the grain wc already import, which
the repealers expect other nations will then take
manufactures for, instead of bullion, as at present.
The quantity of wheat (foreign and colonial)
which was imported in 1841 was 2,78:^,002 quar-
ters, the average price of which, in the foreign
ports, we may estimate at 35s. per quarter j this
will make a gross amount of 4, 871, .30.')/. 10s.,
which we will call t),0O0,O00/.,by way of including
all other importations of grain, &c. Thus, it ap-
pears, we would run the risk of obtaining a less
certain market for our manufactures, for the sake
of a foreign demand to the amount of t),000,000/.,
which is not quite one-twenty-funrlh of our annual
production. Supposing, which we have no ra-
tional ground to suppose, that foreign countries
would lake manufactures in return for their corn,
yet the value of that corn would only amount to
one-twenty-fourth of our annual production in

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

535

manufactured articles. In order to obtain this,
\vc must sacrifice a large proportion of our home-
consumers — those who wonld be thrown out of
emp'o)'ment from the siidilen influx of foreign
grain consequent on a repeal of the corn laws.
And it would be well to bear in mind the fact,
that the rich soils of other countries, even if they
should grow our corti, would not require such a
proportionate number of hands to cultivate them
as the poor soils of tin's country do. Hence, con-
ceding that they would take the same quota of our
manufactures per head as the LJritisli take, still
there would not be the same number of individuals
employed in raising one thousand quarters in their
rich soils as in our poor ones. By this we must
eventually be the losers.

It is maintained by the advocates of a repeal
that the grain-producing countries would he too
eager to exchange their agricultural produce for
our manufactures, at an advantage to us. ^Vhat
are tjie advantages which arc expected to be at-
tained by the free barter of our manufactures for
forpign corn .' An extended and almost unlimited
demand for our productions, with cheaper food
for our artisans. We have already endeavoured
to show that we should not extend our markets by
a repeal of the corn laws ; but we will illustrate
and confirm this deduction by a farther conside-
ration of simple facts.

If, by the oi)eration of a free trade in corn, ten
million quarters of grain were supplied by foreign
countries instead ot our own, it is obvious to the
unprejudiced that we should throw the producers
of that quantity of grain in our own country out
of employment, and call intoexistence that number
on the continent. Thus we should merely remove
the market from home to another land, since no
one has yet dared to suppose that other nations
will take more, in proportionate value, of our
articles, than the corn we import. Indeed, one
strong argument of tlie anti-corn-law party is,
that they (foreign nations) have not money to
purchase our manufactures, and can only take
them to the amount of the corn we import. We
must look for the advantages, then, in the re-
duced price of corn. Now, would corn be
reduced in price by a free trade ? That it
would be so reduced in the outset is undeniable,
since vast quantities of foreign grain would rush
into the English markets — grain i)roduced on the
most fertile soils in the world — on land cultivated
by men whose condition is not far removed from
that of slaves, and in countries far less burdened
with taxation than our own ; the consequence of
which would be, that for a few years they would
sell corn at a less price than our poorest class of
wheat soils could be made to produce it, even if
they were rent-free. Four or five years of non-
remunerative prices would ruin the majority of
our farmers. The land would inevitably go out
of cultivation. An increasing population would
demand increased supplies of grain. An increas-
ing demand for foreign grain would raise the
prices, and it is by no means certain that the
price of grain would not ultimately be raised
above that at which we now purchase it. As our
land went out of cultivation, our agriculture would
decline, and we must eventually be placed at the
mercy of foreign governments. It is not itnpro-
bable that, under a free trade in corn, Russia
would subjugate this country, for the nations
which would be our chief resource are those that
live under the influence of that power.

But it is argued that we should have abundant
employment for all our population in providing
manufactured articles for those countries. Bear-
ing in mind that we should only import a sufllcient
([uantity of corn to feed our population, and con-
sequently that we should have a foreign instead of
a home market, we will ascertain what proportion
of manufactures is consumed per head, per annum,
by our own countrymen, and what by our sup-
posed new customers. The returns of the exports
in 1R3(1 show that the Russians consumed eight-
pence-haH'penny- worth of our manufactures per
head, and the Prussians three-pence-hnlfpenny-
worth ; whilst the British at the same period
consumed ^;?i'<' pounds, thirteen sliill in gs, and eight •
penre fnrihing-wnrth per head, of the manufac-
tures of their own country. Even the inhabitants
of the United States of America consumed but
seventeen shilling.'i'-^'orth each of our manufac-
tures. Would it, then, be consistent to allow the
inhabitants of Russia, Prussia, or America, to
supply us with corn, when they, rone of them, con-
sume one-sixth the quantity of our manufactures
that those individuals do who now raise corn for
us * Yet it will he contended that they would take
a much greater proportion if we would take their
corn. We already take as much of their corn as
we require; but do they take an equal quantity ot
our productions ? If they did, we should not
have had such a serious drain upon our curreiicy.
Again, are they in that advanced .state of civiliza-
tion to rt quire so great a proportion of our manu-
factures as we ourselves consume ? Wliat occa-
sions the great consumption of our manufactures
in the home market .' Nothing less than the un-
interrupted enjoyment of liberty, wealth, comfort,
and education, by our industrious classes, for a
long scries of ages. And nothing less than the
same time, the same liberal laws, the same exten-
sion of refinement, will produce the same capacity
for the enjoyment of luxuries in the corn-produ-
cing people of the continent of Europe. It ap-
pears, therefore, that ve should neither extend the
demand for our manvfactnres, nor ultimately be
enabled to purchase corn at a less price, by a repeal
of the corn lairs.

The next argument we shall consider is, that at
present we import uncertain quantities of foreign
corn, purely on speculation as to the possibility of
selling it in this country, owing to the ever-vary-
ing nature of our sliding scale of duties, which
renders it imperative on us to pay cash for the
corn we require. That this paying cash or bullion
to other countries diminishes our own pecuniary
resources, and produces stagnation in our com-
mercial affairs. Very good. All this is perfectly
correct. But, instead of being an argument
against the corn laws, it is one in their favour.
^Ve know, or at least ought to know, that the corn-
producing countries are more eager for our money
than they are for our manufactures. Yet, say the
anti-coni-law party, the cause that prevents our
goods from entering foreign ports is, that they
impose high duties upon them, which would be
taken off" if we rcnmved the duty on their corn,
and that we should then be enabled to effect ex-
changes, and no longer be subject to the ruinous
consequences of an incessant drain on our specie.
Again we assert, experience is our best monitor ;
and what docs experience tell us ? That our con-
cessions—our attempts at a system of reciprocity
—have been invariably met with no similar con-
cession on the part of other countries. We made

33G

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

concessions to Prussia— they were met by a League,
who practically prohibited our manufactures. We
did the same with Portugal and Belgium— they
met us with increased duties on our articles. We
have recently lowered the duties on all foreign pro-
ductions : have they shown the slightest disposition
to act reciprocally ? Decidedly the reverse. They
show a disposition to impose increased duties on
those articles in which we have the advantage of
tbem. Then how absurd — how irrational — for us
to imagine that they will adopt a different course
for the future. They have abundance of natural
power, cheap labour, no combination amongst the
lower orders to maintain wages; and is it probable
that they will sacrifice all these manifest advan-
tages to promote our prosperity 1 Their course is
a different one. They distinctly perceive that
commercial and manufacturing pursuits are the
foundations of national prosperity, and they will
steadily but unflinchingly persevere in their efforts
to supplant us in those branches. It is most pro-
bable that the continental states will continue to
prevent, by fiscal regulations, the importation of
our manufactures. Even if Russia and Prussia
■would take our manufactures in return for their
corn, still the inhabitants of those countries are
not in that state of civilization which would render
them so great proportionate consumers as those
individuals who now grow corn for us— our own
people. Consequently, if our own agricultural
population expend the value of five million
quarters of grain on our manufactures, the pro-
ducers of that quantity of grain, even in civilized
America, would not expend one million quarters
for the same purpose; the remaining five million
quarters must therefore be paid for by us, with
British money. Hence, as it is obviously the pur-
pose of other countries, at least those countries
who are jealous of our power, to rival us in ma-
nufacturing—to oppose our commercial prosperity,
they will not take our manufactures in return for
their corn. Such being the case, as ihey have
abundance of corn and want money, they will
undersell, for a time, our home-growers ; we shall
thereby lose our best customers, and be compelled
to give money for grain, instead of manufactures.
The result will be a never-ceasing drain upon our
currency. We shall have that commercial em-
barrassment perpetuated amongst us, which we
now experience occasionally. A repeal of the corn
Unas would Increase our commercial depression.

The argument that the only class the present
corn laws can possibly benefit are the landed
proprietors, by maintaining corn at an extravagant
price, and thus enabling them to obtain a greater
rent, at the cost of the remaining portion of the
community, is as absurd as it is groundless. The
introduction of foreign corn would cause a tem-
porary reduction in the price of grain and other
agricultural produce, which would probably con-
tinue a sufficient length of time to cause the ruin
of many British farmers, and the general reduc-
tion of rents. When this had taken place, foreign
corn would rise in price, and would assuredly
become higher than it is, on the average, under
thepiesentlaw. It is needless to state that this
would benefit no class. Then, if this did not
ensue -if corn remained permanently lower in
price, who would be benefited by it ? What ad-
vantage would it be to the .Manchester operative
to puivhase corn at five shillings per bushel of the
Prussian, who bought threepencc-halfpenny-worth
of his goods per annum, rather than at seven

shillings of the Englishman, who bought more
than five pound's worth? If the labourer could
obtain food at a less price, he would be compelled
to work for less wages. The price of food regu-
lates the price of wages from ten years to ten
years. \\'hat would it benefit the manufacturer to
lose his best customers ! Then who are his best
customers .' The following calculation will show :
— In 18.':i7 the total value of British manufactures
was more than 148,000,000/., but the average ex-
portation for three years ending 18157 was only
48,300,000?. We perceive, therefore, that Great
Britain consumes more than two-thirds of her
own manufactures. And who are her greatest
consumers ? The aristocracy and landed pro-
prietors. They are the greatest consumers of
British manufactures, yet the repealers would sa-
crifice them for the remote chances of a foreign
trade. We must conclude, therefore, that the
corn laws are for the benefit of all classes — that
their benefits are not confined to the aristocracy,
but that they are essential to general prosperity.

Our nest paper will be devoted to an equally
searching investigation of the arguments usually
urged in favour of the corn laws.

Lion- Street, Kidderminster,
March 20th, 1813.

PRIZE ESSAY ON MANURES,

FOUNDED ON EXPERIENCE OB OBSERVA-
TION ALONE.

AWARDFn TO MR. DANIEL BANTON, OF SF.ISDON,
OCTOBER ] ITH, 1842.

Experiment.1 with Several Artificial Manures,
Applied to Wheat.

It must be gratifying to the friends of agricul-
ture to see the rapid progress it has made of late,
now that it has for its patrons most of the noble of
the land, and assisted as it is by men in the highest
rank of science; and I hope 1 may add, gratify-
ing to see also the British Farmer of the present
day free from prejudice, and anxious to test, by
practice and experience, any theory that he believes
likely to lead to beneficial results. The farmer
has naturally enough of caution (which by some
has been called by a difl'erent name) to prevent
him straying too far into the field of theory, but
courage enough, I trust, to engage in, and assist
by his practical knowledge, the discovery of a
more sure and certain application of manures ; so
as to lead to unerring conclusions as to what is the
cheapest, the best, and the most profitable to
apply to the different landj and different crops of
his country.

I have used guano and nitrate of soda, as ma-
nures for wheat and turnijis, rather extensively
this year ; the particulars cf which upon wheat, I
shall give below, and have only lo state here, with
regard lo turnips, that guano promises to be an
effective manure. 1 have applied it both for common
turnips and Swedes, and it appears to answer well in
both cases. Part of a field for Swedes had half a
dressing in the winter with fold-yard manure, not
of the best quality, and ploughed in. Immediately
before being ridged up, I had sown on the surface

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

337

scarcely one cwt. of guano per acre : the other
part of the field was dressed with butcher's manure.
The Swedes are not early, but still growing fast,
and promise to be a big crop. The part where
the guano was used is quite as good as the other,
and perfectly free from mildew. I applied one
cwt. of guano upon a plot of sj)ring vetches, but
could see no eftect.

Tiie following manures were made trial of in a
field of land (in tolerable good condition ) situate
at Seisdon, within the limits of the Stewponey
Agricultural Society, in the county of Stafford.
'J"he soil is a light sandy loam, commonly called
" tuinip and barley land,'' subsoil a gravelly sand,
based on the red sandstone. The field has a gently
sloping aspect to the north-west, a year old clover
root, flay-ploughed, and was drilled seven inches
wide with white wheat on the l!)th of October,
1841, at the rate of 2j bushels per acre, ;>8 quarts
to the bushel. The plant of wheat was thick and
ftrong through the winter, and at the time of
applying the manures was rather forward for the
season. On the 2;^5rd of April si.v plots of land
were accurately measured with a chain, each con-
taining one-eighth of an acre, and manured as
under : —

No. I , with guano, at the rate of 1] cwt. per acre.

" 2, guano and nitrate of soda, equal propor-
tions, li" cwt. per acre together.

" ;5, nitrate of soda, ]| cwt. per acre.

" 4, white caustic lime, at the rate of 4 tons
per acre.

" r>, lime and salt, in proportion of 5 cwt. of
salt to 10 cwt. of lime per acre, mixed a
week before being applied.

'■ (i, had no manure.

There was no rain for ten days after the manures
were applied ; the days being hot, and the nights
generally frosty. Seven days after the first rain,
a slight diff'erence in colour was visible in plots
No. 1, 2, and 3, where the nitrate and guano were
applied; and on the 16th of May a striking dif-
ference was seen in those plots to the rest of the
field, the nitrate assuming the deepest, the nitrate
and guano the next shade, and the guano the
palest green of the three. There were no visible
eftects where lime alone, and lime and salt were put.
From May till the wheat shot into the ear, which
it did at the same time all over the field, the plots,
No. 1, 2, and 3, might be distinctly traced by the
eye at a considerable distance. 1 he red rust at-
tacked the wheat prttty generally in this neigh-
bourhood, and I think the white wheat more
subject to it than the red, notwithstanding which
1 have seldom grown red, finding that although
the white wheat is yearly more or less attacked by
the rust, it rarely injures the sample or yield. I
find the produce of the white not inferior to the
red upon the same land, and the sample worth
more at market.

In passing through the field in question it was
perceptible that the rust had attacked the three
first plots more than the rest of the field, parti-
cularly the plot on which the nitrate of soda alone
was spread ; and there was also some red gum to
1)6 seen in that plot, from which the rest of the
field was nearly free.

The crop over the whole field was a fair one,
and stood well. It was cut by Welchmen with
hooks on the 12th of August, and the produce of
each plot kept by itself, and so threshed. The
result of which is as follows : —

Produfc of Wheat

per

Imiieiutl Bubliel.

Straw.

Ihs.
479

Weight of

Wheat per

Imp.

lillshel.

straw per
Acre.

Wheat
per Acre
the Imp.
bushel.

bush.
No. 1, 6

l.ks.
21

lbs.
62

f.v/t. qr. lb.
34 0 24

bush.
45

" 2, .y

2

428

62

30 2 8

44

" 3, .-)

1

■2

436

62

30 2 16

41

" 4, 5

u

426

62

30 2 6

42.1

" .'). 4

3h

326

62

2.J 1 4

39

" (], 4

31

326

6H

23 1 4

39

I have not calcidated the tail corn, which was
very trifling, not exceeding a quart from each lot.
It appears that t!ie lime and salt did not produce
any effect, except half-apound per bushel in the
weight. It perhaps will appear singular that each
lot was exactly the same weight per bushel in the
five first, but such was the case. The nitrate and
guano were procured direct from the importer,
and 1 believe were genuine. Nitrate 24s. 6d., and
the guano 20s. per cwt. The lime I2s., and salt
19s. per ton, exclusive of carriage.

Guano . .
Nitrate an
Nitrate of
Lime . . . .
Lime and

5"
0

Cost 0

1

d Guano .. 1

o

Salt 0

c
a.
□ '

p'

a
c

d

>

2 CO 03 O N "

o o o w a, .^

O O O M J+j

i^

Increased Value of Straw per

r-^

3 CO CO CO -J •

acre, at 2s. t

d. per cwt.

§

^s *- (S o P'

>

'- o '^ '^ irt>
5;

Increased Value of Grain per

0 I-' '-' ai
a li- 4- On t-o •

acre, at 7s.

per bushel,

CD

Oi 0 c 0 P'

imperial

measure.

6S t-' 60 03 J-(j

h^ M 01

Total Increase

in value of

6S tS 00 'O •

Crop, p

er acre.

CO rf^ (-2 0 P"

^ii-i^

Net Profit p

Br acre after

t.3 Ki •

deducting the espence of

'^cy^e-

Manure.

C^ 0 f^

Loss per acre a

fter deducting

>i^ Q' 0

cost of Manuie.

The foregoing summary, I thinic, clearly proves
that the cost of lime and nitrate of soda, and in-
deed of most other manures, is :it present dispro-
portionately high, compared with the price of
grain, and unless considerably reduced, cannot
long continue to be used for agricultural purposes ;
as there is but little prospect, I fear, of grain or
other agricultural produce taking a higher price
for any length of time than it does at present,
under the altered corn laws and new tariff.

It is much to be wished that no untoward cir-
cumstances may occur to damp the energy of the
British farmer, which at present is §0 manifest

338

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

throughout the country; and that he may still he
enabled to make a living profit, and continue his
course of improvement, which cannot fail nlli-
mately to henefic all classes. If a single brother
farmer can gain one usernl hint from theexperi-
montn on mamircs before recited, itwill gratify and
well rcpny the attempt at an essay by the humble
writer, A Memukr or tiik Stewponky

AnRicui.TURAL Society.
Sei9doi,, OcU>\»-r Is/, 1S12.

GLOUCESTER FARMERS' CLUB.

FJeventh Meeting, November 12, 1840.
The Cultivation of the Potato.

Mr. J. B said, that owing to the frequent

injudicious attempts which had been made to grow
potatoes on soils to which they were unsuitable,
the cultivation of this plant had become out of re-
pute, nevertheless he could not but think that on
loose and friable soils with a porous substratum, lo
which they were best adapted, it was a crop well
deserving the attention of the farmer.

He was in the habit of ploughing the ground on
which they were to be planted, in the autumn, and
in this state it was left till the dry weather set in
the following spring, when after it had been
ploughed and worked till it was thoroughly pul-
verised, dec;) farrows were struck 27 inches apart
with the double mould-board plough, and at the
bottom of these furrows the sets were planted 12
inches from each other, and immediately covered
with hoes. Whole potatoes were to be preferred
for seed, as they were less liable to failure from
drj'-rot or other causes. As soon as the plants
appeared, the rows were cross-hoed, and the horsc-
hoe followed in the intervals, working as deep as
possible, and in this way 10 or 12 inches of mould
was obtained. The potatoes were then moulded
up by means of a small i)loiigh of a peculiar con-
struction, which left the tops of the drills rather
flat, and thus retained the moisture for a greater
length of time, tircat care was taken to perform
all thesi^ operations, if possible when the ground
wa". quite dry. A friend of his (the late Mr.

D ), had been accustomed to plant his po-
tatoes thus —

and thought that by the room given for the exten-
f,ion of the end-roots, a greater produce was ob-
tained, but it appeared to him that the circulation
of the air among the plants would be prevented,
which must be prejudicial. The potatoes were
dug with a three-pronged fork, and the roots col-
lected by women and children, and at the same
time those Vvfhich were small or injured were se-
l)arated. The heaps were made on level ground
of a moderate size, about a waggon load in each :
ihey were covered with straw, and soil dug from
round the sides was thrown over them and
smoothed down. He recommended the '' bread-
fruit" as a very valuable variety. "London
purples" and " Worcester selks" were also good,
but the soit of potato should be adapted to the
soil. In planting, it might be taken as a general
rule that the larger topped varieties should be
grown f\u-ther apart than those which were less
luxuriant. He wa=! not in the habit of manuring
for potatoes, as he found the quality of those
grown without manure was very superior.

JVtr. M was accustomed to have his land

raftered in the autumn, and during the winter's
frost the manure was laid in the hollows, and
covered by turning back the furrows upon it. Jn
the spring, the sets (whole potatoes) were planted
24 inches apart, and covered with a breast-plough .
He found it useful to harrow the ground after the
plants appeared, and they were then weeded and
moulded up in the usual way.

Mr. H submitted to the meeting the

following account of a series of experiments which
he had tried upon the cultivation of the potaio
during the season just ended, and gave in the fol-
lowing tables of the results of his experiments on
the growth of potatoes on a light soil (stone brash
on the upper oolite), in the parish of Painswick.
The produce is given in bags, the weight of each
bag being 2i cwt., or 2801bs. The tubers described
as " full sized" were those set apart for the fable.
The "small sized" were those sepatated for the
pigs, but perhaps rather larger than they would
be when such a selection is made for market.

TABLE No. 1.
For 1841.

Distance

Distance

1
Produce per acre. 1

Sorts.

c;pts

Manure per
Acre.

Rows

Plants.

FiiU-sizcJ

Smull

Tubers.

Tubers.

Total.

Ffct.

Feet.

Bays.

Bags.

nags.

Welsh

Whole, mid-

20 bushels

kidney:-

dle size

soot

f;

J

60

2.>§

85J

; Ditto

Ditto ditto

12 tons long

1

dung

V>

1

772

lOi

88

Purples

Cut sets

Ditto

3

1

•^H

18

97 J

Ditto

Whole, mid-

dle size

Ditto

3

1

863

2.5

111 J

Ditto

Ditto ditto

Ditto

4

I

872

262

114^

Ditto

Ditto larae

Ditto

:;

3

97-

17^

1142

Ditto

Ditto ditto

Ditto

4

2

83

If)

102

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

339

These figures aftbrd four subjects of comparison.

1st. The effect of soot aa a manuro compared
with that of long dung.

Thus the A\'elsh kidneys treated with 12 tons of
long dung gave a total of 88 bags per acre, but
treated with 20 bushels of soot, only SoJ. The
crop also in the first case was of better (luallty, for
the soot gave not only a less total produce hy 21
bags, but 25J bags of that produce were under-
sized and unfit for the tabic, while the long dung
gave only 10^ small sized.

2nd. The effects of cut sets as compared witli
whole sets.

The whole sets of the purples of a middle size
yielded 13:| bags an acre more than the cut sets on
the gross crop, when both were planted at .''■ft. by
1ft., but only ()| more of the full sized tubers.
When the whole sots were increased in distance to
4ft. by 1ft., and compared with cuts at .'. by 1, the
excess in favour of wholes was increased to 16f
on the total crop, but to only about 8 bags of the
full sized. When the plants appeared above
ground, not a blank could be observed among the
whole sets, while several of the cut sets rotted and
never came up. During the summer a marked
difference in the growth of each was observed, a
much less bulk of haulm but a greater profusion
of blossoms being produced from the cut than from
the whole sets.

;'<rd. The produce of different sorts compared.

The Welsh kidneys and the purples being
treated in every respect similarly, the former gave
a "total produce" of 88 bags, but of " full sized
tubers" only ""g, while the latter gave a total of
lllq', and of "large tubers" SCj. So that tliis
year the purples gave a better yield than the
Welsh kidneys on the " total crop" by 2:3 bags,
and on the "full-sized tubers" of ;1.

4 th. The effect of distances on produce.

The middle sized seed of the purples planted in
rows .'} feet apart, each plant being only 1 foot
from its neighbour in the row, giving ;i square
feet to each plant, yie'ded a gross crop of 111|
bags, but when the rows were increased to 4 feet
apart, tiie plants in the rows in each case remain-
ing at 1 foot, giving 4 square feet to each plant,
the total produce was increased to 114i bags, the
proportion of small tubers being very nearly the
same. So that while the smaller distance took 9
sacks per acre for seed, and the greater took (lif ,
there was also an increase in produce at the
greater distance of 2,'., bags, making in all a gain
of 4^ bags an acre; but when the distance of the
plant in the row was increased from 1 to 2 feet,
although the large and probably more prolific seed
was used in the latter case, both rows remaining
at 4 feet apart, the crop was reduced from 114 to
102 bags an acre, showing that at this point the
increased distance of the plant in the row began
to diminish the produce ; but which is important,
the large seed of the purples planted 15 feet apart
every way and hoed up all round, each plant con-
sequently occupying !) feet superficial of ground
gave 114^- bags, while those in rows at 4 feet apart
and plants at 2 feet, each plant occupying only 8
superficial feet, gave only 102 bags, while the loss
on the " small sized" is still greater. So that,
although 8 square feet are too much for each
plant when the rows are 4 feet apart and the
plants 2, 9 square feet are not loo much when the
plants are set tliree feet apart every way, and lioed
all round.

The following table shows the general results of
the crop of 1842 ; —

TABLE No. 2.

Distance

Distance

Prodnce per Ac

le.

Sort«.

'W^]io1p S6tS,

bfitwcpii

between

Rows.

Plants.

I^uU-sized

Small

Feet.

Tut)ers.
Bags.

Tubers.

Total.

Feet.

Bass.

Bags.

Purples

Large

3

3

85

lU

9^

Ditto

Ditto

3

2

8(i3

I5i

lOJ?

Ditto

Ditto

4

2

70|

16|

87

Ditto

Middle size

4

1

82J

19i

101 J

Ditto

Ditto

3

1

6C§

20|

87

i Welsh kidneys

Large

3

3

84

2

86

! Ditto

Ditto

3

2

1081

4J

113

Ditto

Ditto

4

2

9ii-

H

94|

Ditto

Middle size

4

1

85a

(ii

921

Ditto

Ditto

3

1

101^

m

113|

Jerseys

1

Large

3

1 (iin.

105

HI

iin

This year there was no comparison as to the
effect of manures, each trial being treated alike in
this respect with about 15 tons of rotten dung to
the acre, nor was there any further comparison as
to cuts and whole sets— the result being in con-
formity with that generally obtained by others, it
was taken for granted that whole sets are more
prolific than cuts, and nothing but the former
were planted.

The above table, however, offers the two fol.
lowing points of comparison :—

1st. The produce of Welsh kidneys again corn-
pared with the purples.

2nd. Th2 produce of both at different distances.

1st. What was the relative proportion of pro-
duce from the two sorts ?

340

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

Large Seed :
Distance 3 bv 3 ft.

3 by 2 ft.

4 by 2 ft.
Middle sized seed :
Distances by 1 ft.

4 by 1 ft.

A verage ....

Full-sized Tubers.

Small-sized Tubers.

Total

Crop.

Purples.

Welch
Kidneys.

Purples.

Welch
Kidneys.

Purples.

Welsh
Kidneys.

Bags.
85

8r>?
7i)i

G6h

82f

Bags.

84
108J-

91 i

101§
85|

Baais.

16i

201
191

Bags.
2

3k

12i

6i

Bags.

961
1012

87

87
lOlf

Bags.

86
113

94|

113|

921

39085

471i

82/a

28J

4733

500

781

94i

161

3|

94?a

100

So that at all the distances (except 3x3, and
tbere the difference is only one bag in favour of the
Purples), the Welsh kidneys were more prolific in
" full sized tubers" than the Purples ; and upon the
average of the crops from the several distances,
the proportion in favour of Welsh kidneys was as
94} to 781, or 16 bags excess. In three out of the
five different distances the "total crop" of Welsh
kidneys was the largest, and upon the average of
all the distances, the total crop per acre of the
Welsh kidneys was to the purples as 100 to 94^^, or
an excess of 5 j)^ bags. The proportions of " small"
also among the Welsh kidneys compared with the
purples was as 5^ to 16J bags per acre, thus
showing ibe sample to be much better, while the
quantity was greater. This result, however, is at
variance with the single instance of comparison
for 1841, which gave on the " total crop" 23, and
on the " full sized" 9, bags in favour of the pur-
ples ; a discrepancy which shows how rash it is to

draw general conclusions from a single experiment
in a particular year, or indeed from any such ex-
periments without repeatedly verifying the facts.
Indeed, when it is considered that a very slight
difference in the soil, the season, or in the treat-
ment of any of these subjects of comparison, may
produce diametrically opposite results, we see at
once the use of frequently registering, and record-
ing, and publishing experiments of this sort, in
order that at last we may be able, from numbers
of similar results, to lay down some general rules.
The difference in treatment of the two years in
the present case was, that in 1841 both sorts were
manured with only 12 tons of long dung, and in
1842 with 15 tons of rotten dung. The inference
therefore is, that purples require a less rich soil
than the Welsh kidnej's.

2nd. The comparison of produce at different
distances.

Purples, large
seed

Welsh kidney
ditto

-

Full-sized Tubers
per Acre.

Small Tubers
per Acre.

Total produce
per Acre.

3 X 3ft.

4 X 2ft.

3 X 2ft.

3 X 3ft.

4 X 2(t.

3 X 2ft.

3 X 3ft.

4 X 2ft.

3 X 2ft.

Bags.
85
84

Bags.
70J

91§

Bags.

86?

1081

Bags.
2

Bags.
3|

Bags.
151

Bags.
961
86

Bags.
87
94a

Bags.
101 1
113

The result of last year's trial went to show that
by increasing the distance of the rows from 3 to
4 feet apart, the plants in each case remaining at
1, there was an increase of crop; but when the
distance of the plant was further increased to 2
feet, there was a diminution, showing that the
space allotted to each plant cultivated in rows
might be increased up to 4 square feet, but that 8
feet was loo much.

The experiment of 184'2 just quoted shows again
that 4 X 2, compared with 3 x 2, is too much —
thus the purples at 3 x 2, each plant having 6
square feet, exceeded those at 4 x 2, or 8 square
feet to each plant, in "full sized tubers" by 16
bags, and in " total produce" by 14 bags. But the
plants 3 x 3, or 9 square feet to each, gave neatly
an equal quantity of " full sized tubers" with those
at 3 X 2, and ITi bags more than those at 4 x 2,

and In " total produce" only 5 bags less than those
at 3x 2, and 9 more than those at 4 x 2 — show-
ing the sample to be superior.

With the \Velsh kidneys the smaller distance in
every case gives the greater produce. Those at
3x2 giving 17 bags of " full sized tubers," and
19 of " total produce," more than those at
4x2; and those at 4 x 2 giving 7 bags '* full
sized tubers," and 8| of " total produce," more
than those at 3 x ;^^ §0 that in this case the space
of 9 square feet to a plant, although hoed up all
round, seems considerably too much, leaving the
inference that the Welsh kidney, with a richer ma-
nure and probably on a richer soil, bears much
closer planting than the purples.

The last comparison had reference only to large
seed. With middle sized seed the comparison
stands thus : —

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

341

Purples, middle

sized

Welsh kidneys

Full-sized Tubers
per Acre.

Small Tubers
per Acre.

Total Produce
per Acre.

4 y- ift.

3 X 1ft.

4 X ift.

3 X Ift.

4 X 1ft.

3 > Ift.

Bags.

82^
85i

Bags.
101^

Bags.

m

6|

Bags.
20J

Bags.

101 J
92i

Bdgs.

87
113i

It should be observed that the spaces are now
less than in the ]irecedmg comparison, and it
seems, by reducing the space of the purples from
4 ^ 1, or 4 squaic feet to each plant, to .i x 1, or
3 square feet, that they are brought too close, for
the excess of produce in favour of the larger space
is considerable. The reverse, however, prevails
with the Welsh kidneys, which still bear the
closer planting in the richer manure, confirming
the observation pre\iously made ; for the excess
here is 15 bags of "full sized, and 21 of " total
produce," in favour of the lesser distance.

Mr. H also gave in the following results

of similar experiments made by his friend Mr.

B , of Cirencester, in 1842, which afford —

1st. A comparison of the produce of different
sorts. The soil on which this trial was made was
generally a strong stone-brash, but, as it varied in
quality, and some parts of the ground were more
shaded by trees than others, the experiment is
unfortunately deprived in some instances of much
of the weight to svbich it would be otherwise en-
titled. The ground was cleared of larch the pre-
vious winter. No other manure was ap[)lied ex-
cept the ashes of the natural weeds and of the
roots of the larch.

Sort.
Whole Sets.

Bags
per Acre.

65

97

98

101

118

125

Mr. B- states the quality of the Axbridge

kidney to be the best, but tlie deficiency of its
produce induces him to prefer the Prince of
Wales, the quality of which is excellent, and the
produce abundant. He recommends it as a
second early crop. For winter store he thinks
the quality of the Champion as good as the quan-
tity great.

2ndly. A comparison of whole and cut sets.

Whole.
Bags per Acre.

Old purples.
Champions .

98
125

Cut.
Bags per Acre.

84
102

Exhibiting as usual the great increase of crop
derived from planting whole sets.

.'Jrdly. A comparison of the effect of manures.

The following trials were made on an orchard
which had received no manure for 15 years; the
seed used in all the cases was cut sets of Cham-

pions, and the result is an average of five trials
with malt-dust at the rate of 960lbs. an acre, 8
with guano at the same rate, and fi with ashes,
quantity not given.

Bags per acre.

Malt-dust 121

Guano 117

Ashes 106

The details of the above experiment are parti-
cularly satisfactory, inasmuch as a comparison
being instituted between four alternate rows
treated with each manure, all disturbance of the
result from the inequality in the soil was avoided.
Thus —

Malt Dust.

Guano.

1 gave

2

132
120
123
109

120

4

126

5

6

120

7

8

106

Average

121

118

4thly. A comparison of the effect of quantity of
manure. Bags.

Guano, 960lbs 117

Ditto, I920lbs 100

Showing in a very marked manner the positive
mischief of an excess of so strong a manure as
guano.

The apparent effect of the guano was that of
rendering the haulm a darker green, but the pro-
duce, as will be seen, scarcely equalled the malt-
dust. The guano and malt-dust were strewed
upon the sets when planted. The sets dressed
with guano came rather later into leaf, and in the
instance in which the double dose was given, some
sets were wanting. Salt was tried at the rate of
filbs. per perch, but with a decidedly injurious
effect.

Now, although nothing can be more certain than
that in all agricultural experiments such as these,
a complicated variety of circumstances may have
disturbed the results, no general rules will ever
be arrived at but by frequent noting apparent
effects, and (without presuming to dogmatize
upon them with any certainty) explaining as well
as we arc able the uniformities or anomalies
which present themselves. Thus, it may perhaps
be useful to recapitulate shortly some of the ge-
neral conclusions which these experiments seem
to indicate.

1st. The improvidence of the common custom

342

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of planting " cut sets," under the mistaken notion
of saving seed, as exemplified by Mr. H 's ex-
periments, where the gain in the " total produce"
upon the *' whole," as compared with the " cut
sets,'' varied from 13} to i&i bags, or from 'SI. to
4/. difference in value of the crop per acre, and

again still more strongly by Mr. B 's trials,

where the difference in favour of the whole sets
was in one instance as high as 23 bags, or perhaps
5/. per acre.

2udiy. The vast advantage not only of selecting
a prolific sort, but of ascertaining exactly how
that sort should be treated, which the comparison
between the purples and Welsh kidneys in the
years 1841 and 1842 seems to illustrate ; in one
year tbe purples giving an excess on the " total
produce" of 23 bags, and in the next the AVelsh
kidney exceeding tlie purples by 26 bags an acre,
and making a difference of from bl. to (iL in the
value of the respective crops. Now it certainly is
very possible that the season of the first year may
have been more favourable to one sort, and of the
next to the other, but still the difference of treat-
ment, viz., 12 tons of long in the one case, and of
15 of rotten dung in the other, seems the more
probable cause, and would lead to the inference
that the Welsh kidneys give a much larger in-
crease for richer manure, and the puiples do better
with poorer treatment.

3rdly. The probable advantage of giving more
space to each jilant than is usually done, and of
regulating the distances according to the habits of
the particular sort of plant. The usual distance
at which the potato is jjlanted is believed to be
about 27 inches at the ontside between the rows,
and y inches between the sets ; but it seemed from
the trials with the purples that the rows at 4 feet
apart were better than at 3, even when the plants
were separated a foot from each other, but that
this foot could not be increased to 2 when the
rows were either 3 or 4 feet apart without consi-
derable loss. But still, that though a space of
') square feet to each plant thus seemed too much
when planted in rows, !) square feet, when the
purples at 3 x 3 were hoed all round, did not give
a much less crop. The Welsh kidneys, on the
other hand, gave the greatest crop when the dis-
tance between the rows was 3 feet, and between
the plants 1 ; no less distance being tried, it re-
mains uncertain whether the crop might not be in-
creased by diminishing the distance still more. It
seems therefore probable that in richly manured
land the Welsh kidney would bear closer planting
witl) profit than the purples ; and generally it may
be presumed that ihe jdauting at equal distances
every way and hoeing up all round is preferable
to the comn)on niodc of setting in rows. Tlough-
ing with a double mould-board plough in one di-
rection might economically supersede a part of the
hoeing, \^hich being followed by a labourer with
the hoe would complete tlic work. The distance
of a yard every way between the plants is pro-
bably too great ; 2 ft. (i in. for plants like purples
requiring the wider distances, and 2 ft. .3 in. for
such as the Welsh kidney, which bear being
closer, would probably be suthcient.

TO THE FARMERS OF SUFFOLK.

Letter VII.

Funclioiis of the Leaf.

Gentlemen, — The crude sap introduced at the
roots consists of nearly pure water, containing
only a very small and variable percentage of
certain saline, earthy, and gaseous mat-
ters in solution. It is a very common notion,
and one upon which most erroneous conclusions
are sometimes built by practical men (gardeners
and others), that this crude sap is directly em-
ployed in the nourishment and development of
the various parts of the plant. There is much
plausibilty in such an opinion. Every one acquain-
ted with the practice of pruning is aware that by
cutting away some parts of a plant, he contrives to
throw the rising sap into other parts ; and he finds
that in consequence of such treatment, these latter
parts are better nourished, and become more de-
veloped than they otherwise would have been.
But, in spite of so plausible an experiment,
the crude sap is not nutritions. We might as
well declare that we can receive nourishment our-
selves from a weak dose of Epsom salts, or fatten
our bodies upon soda water. Living bodies,
wliether vegetable or animal, can only be nourished
and developed by organic matter. Now, crude
sap may very possibly not contain a single 'parti-
cle of organic matter. The mystery is explained
by the fact, which the science of physiological bo-
tany has ascertained, that plants are endowed with
the j)eculiar faculty of preparing organic matter
for themselves out of the materials which the
crude sap contains. They are mighty agricultu-
ral chemists, surpassing Liebig himself in their
power of effecting combinations and alterations
among the elements of material substances. That
justly eminent chemist, and many a one less emi-
nent than he, can now manufacture sugar out of
brown paper, and bread out of sawdust j and they
can beat all the ablest conjurors of the good old
times, when alchemy and astrology directed the un-
donbting faith of wondering admirers, by the mar-
vellous extent to which they can carry their trans-
mutations. But not one ot all the chemists whom
the world has yet seen, has been able to contrive
how he might combine the elements of inorganic
matter, so as to form out of them a single organic
compound. They can change one organic body
into another, as starch into sugar ; but they can-
not make either starch or sugar directly from the
elements of which they consist. It is to the ve-
getable kingdom alone that this wonderful faculty
belongs; and it is by the leaves of plants that the
operation is carried on. By certain pi'otesses,
which 1 liopeto describe to you (so far as they arc
at i)resent understood), all the leaves of a plant,
whilst they arc endowed with life, a.i\<}i slimulated Ini
liglit, are enabled to combine three or four out of
the fifty-six elements with which chemists are ac-
(piaiuted, into some one or other of tlie j)ecnliar
substances found in its juices, and distinguished as
oi'ganic compounds. It may be gum, or sugar, or
starch, or some other of the numerous vegetable
compounds which the leaves prepare in the first
instance ; and then, such matters being carried in-
to the system, and undergoing various modifica-
tions according to the constitution of different
plants, become subservient to their nourishment
and development. The crude sap, then, is merely

THE 1-AUMEIl'S MAGAZINE.

243

instniinenfal in supplying tlie leaves with tlic ma-
terials necessary tor the (brination of organic
matter : it is the " proper juice"' (as hotanists call
it) created by the lea\cs, and in which such va-
riety of organic matters arc dissolved, whicii forms
the real nutritious fluid of the plant, as blood does
of the animal. The importance of retaining all the
leaves (whilst they are stil! living) on a jdaut is
sufficiently evident. Not one of them can be ab-
btracted or injured without the plant being depri-
ved of a certain amount ot " power" for genera-
ting its" proper juico". A man might as well ex-
pect to live without lungs, or a fisii without gills,
as a plant without leaves. It would be ill-timed for
me to dwell, in this letter, upon the important re-
lation which the leaf bears to the animal creation,
but it may be permitted mc to observe how won-
derful is the economy of nature — that all the
myriad forms of animated beings, from the most
minute invisible animalcule to the gigantic whale
of !)0 feet length, are entirely dependant upon the
vegetable kingdom for the organic materials of
which their bodies are constructed. Among the
various functions of leaves, I propose to direct
your attention more especially to the two which
are immediately concerned in the organization of
brute matter. One of these is termed " exhala-
tion"~a function by which a large jjortion of the
water introduced by the roots, as crude sap, is dis-
charged from the system in a peculiar manner.
The otiier function has been called " respiration"
— from an analogy it has been considered to bear
to the breathing of animals. Before I can enter
satisfactorily upon an explanation of these two
functions, so as to render them thoroughly in-
telligible to those among you who have never
turned their attention to these sort of enquiries,
1 shall beg your permission to say a few words
upon one or two of those inorganic substances out
ot which the leaf prepares the organic matter to
which I have alluded. This will oblige me to
j)ostpone to another letter the actunl discussion of
tlie functions themselves. I think, however, you
will find my proposition of greater ultimate advan-
tage than if I proceeded at once to that discussion.
i shall, therefore, entitle the remainder of this
letter

A dii^ressioii on ihc luiture of Carbonic acid,
i'he substance, above all others, with which
you should make yourselves well acquainted for
rightly understanding the functions of the leaf is
carbonic acid. Acquainted, indeed, with it many
of you have doubtless long been in a glass of soda-
water : the bubbling gas which escapes in that
pleasant draught being carbonic acid, which had
been forced by artificial pressure into the water,
and there retained in solution till the pressure was
removed by uncorking the bottle, when the gas
again had a struggle for its liberty, and escaped.
I mentioned in my fourth letter, how you might
cause an escape of carbonic acid to take place from
chalk, or marble, or carbonate of ammonia. Car-
bonic acid always exists as a gas under ordinary
circumstances, though chemists, by means of
jjressure, can cause it to assumea liquid form, and
can even, by intense cold, reduce it to a solid
state. The gas we call steam is much more ma-
nageable in these respects : we all know that it is
easily condensed into water, and that water is
easily reducible to the state of ice. It may not be
impolitic for me to I'emark here upon a very com-
mon popular notion, that certain substances arc
essentially cither gases, or liquids, or solids j

whereas, you are to understand, that every sub-
stance may be considered capable, under certain
conditions, of assuming each of these three forms.
Thus, quicksilver is a licjuid at ordinary tempera-
tures : it becomes a solid during the winters of
more northern climates : it is readily converted by
the heat of a common fire into an invisible gas.
1 must not dwell upon this subject, but you will
find the remark I have made assist you in compre-
hending how it is that carbonic acid e.xists as u
gas, whilst one of its elements (carbon) appears
under a solid form; and that carbonic acid itself
when united to lime, forms the solid substance,
chalk.

The two elements of which carbonic acid is
composed arc carbon and oxygen. With the for-
mer of these you are well acquainted under the name
of charcoal, which is very nearly pure carbon.
With the latteryou are still more familiar, though
some of you may not be aware of it, since every
breath of air you inhale is nearly half composed of
this element, oxygen. W'e are all great carbonic
acid manufacturers. The oxygen we inhale is lixed
in the l)lood through the instrumentality of the
lungs ; it is after a time united with carbon, and the
carbonic acid thus formed is discharged from the
lungs every time we exhale our breath. There is an
easy mode of proving that we are all continually
exhaling carbonic acid. Procure some lime-water ;
or rather prepare some byjiuttinga few lumps of
fresh burnt lime into a bottle of water, and cork it
up for a liltle while, the water will dissolve a por-
tion of the lime, and you will have lime water.
Pour some of this, quite clear, into a tumbler, and
so place a tube in it (a tobacco pipe will do) that you
may breathe through it, whilst the breath can rise in
bubbles through tlie lime-water. As you continue
breathing, the lime-water will gradually become
milky. This is owing to the carbonic acid in your
breath uniting vvith the lime dissolved in the water,
and thus forming carbonate of lime (or chalk). As
this substance is not soluble in water, like the lime,
it appears in the form of a milky cloud, and gra-
dually falls to the bottom of the tumbler. By the
breath of your mouth you may thus call into ex-
istence a deposit of chalk.

It may seem strange that a solid black substance
like charcoal should form an ingredient in the invi-
sible gas, carbonic acid ; but we may not argue from
the condition of one element what will be the condi-
tion of a compound body in which it forms a con-
stituent jiart. Charcoal itself cannot be rendered
liquid, much less gaseous, by the most intense heat
which chemists can command ; but when carbon
combines with oxygen, the new substance, carbonic
acid, is gaseous. A chemist could decompose this
substance btforeyour eyes, and you would (hen see
the carbon fall down in the form of a black j)owder,
apparently called into existence cut of nothing,
though in reality coining from an invisible gas— a
very striking experiment. The union of carbon and
oxygen lakes place when charcoal or other substan-
ces composed of it are burnt. The charcoal gradu-
allv disappears but is not annihilated ; it is now
part of the compound whicli has been formed, (liiis
same important material carbonic acid) and which is
invisibleto mortal eyes. When woody matter decays
and disappears, a similar union of carbon and oxy-
gen takes place, only the process is now effected by
very slow degrees, and no heat or light are deve-
loped, as in the case of actual combustion.

Your obedient servant, J.S. IIenslow.

Ililcham Rcctori/, Fehnuinj lolh, iai3.

344

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

P.S. — Mr. 13ree and myself have come ».o the
cocclusijn that it would be needless (o ducus-j ;iny
further the abstruse chemical considerations involved
in the fixation of ammonia by gypsuiu. In a letter
from him, he enters, with every appearance of cor-
rect inference, into further explanation of his reasons
for believing tliat we shall not be able to fix am-
monia in dunghills by means of gypsum. Veiy
possibly he may be perfectly ri^ht : we rr.ust wait
the result of our e-xperimonts to know whether he
is so. Mr. Bree has also recommended you to try
certain experiments for fixing; ammonia in liquid
manures: and I most cordially second his lecom-
mendation. Not that 1 havemuch doubt, or any doubt,
what will be the result of those exi>erimfnts. 1
shall be veiy much surprised if they fail iii fixing
the ammonia generated duiing the putrescence of
the urine. I have never scrupled to advise that
gypsum should be applied to liquid manure for this
purpose ; for Liebig (as well as other chemists)
has spoken so positivelv on this point, that if there
is any error here, the value of his work would indeed
be greatly diminished in the eyes of all who may
be inclined to trust him. Still I am perfectly
agreed with Mr. Bree in thinking that you ought to
try these experiments also; and to test for your-
selves the value of gypsum or some other substance
as a fiser of ammonia in liquid manures. But I
have been entirely misunderstood if any one has
supposed that 1 have been advising how manure
is to be prepared. This is quite another question
from how it may be improved under the (brin in
which it is almost universally prepared in England,
AVhatever may be the result of the experiment 1
have proposed, I conceive it will be of value to you.
If we find that gypsum can fix ammonia in an open
dunghill, then the long approved system of pre-
paring muck in this manner may be continued : but
if we find that such is not the case, then it will be a
subject of most anxious and serious consideration
to you, whether you ought not entirely to change
your present system, and prepare your manures in
dung-reservoirs, or in some other way in which you
may be able to prevent the escape of that important
substance, upon the presence of which the amount
of produce so much depends. In proposing to try
only gypsum, 1 have endeavoured to confine your
attention to one of the simplest forms of experiment
which I could devise. Should this substance fail,
we must not forget that Liebig has named other
substances, as 1 noticed in my fifth letter, which
may serve the purpose— chloride of calcium (bleach-
ing powder), superphosphate of lime, muriatic and
sulphuric acid. It tnay he worth while to have these
tried also. If we can only raise our volunteer corps
of fifty Suffolk gvpsum-powderers, we shall very
possibly stimulate fifty ormorc in each of the neigh-
bouring counties to try one or other of the remain-
ing substances. We may then have a corps of Cam-
budge bleaching-powderers, an Essex corps of super-
phosphate-of-limers, and a whole army of Norfolk
6ulphuric-and-muriatic-acidulators, All may be
simultaneously attacking the common fortress — the
old dunghill— with one or other of the weapons
which Liebig has suggested as most likely to deter
the ammonia from attempting its escape ; and for
retaining it in durance vile to serve a bettor purpose
than merely offending the nostrils of such delicate
constitutions as have no particular delight in the
pungent odour of fermenting muck.

Llttlk VIII.

Genilkmen, — I must allow the leaver to go on
^vilh their exhalations and respirations, without in-
terfering further with these functions for the pre-
sent, whilst I request your serious attention to a
iew observations I wish to make on the result of my
appeal to you. When I announced my intention of
calling for not less than fifty to co operate in the way
I have proposed, I found a very decided opinion
expres^3ed iii all quarters that 1 should not be able
to prevail ni)on so large a number. I had calcu-
lated on the well known spirit and energy of Eng-
lishmen, whenever fairly convinced that any parti-
cular course is the right course to be adopted : my
only fear being that 1 should not succeed in per-
suading many of you to see, as clearly as I do my-
self, what your present course ought to be for
securing the speedy improvement of agriculture. I
had also witnessed, during the last two years, the
great desire expressed by the members of the Had-
leigh Farmer's Club for any description of informa-
tion which might bear directly or indirectly upon
your pursuits. I find that I have not miscalculated
in the inferences which 1 drew from these premises.
I have received the addresses of forty'-three gen-
tlemen who are willing to accept my challenge, and
1 find from two quarters that 1 can calculate upon
receiving from ten to fifteen more. Before another
week has expired 1 hope 1 shall have superintended
the prejiaiation of the proposed experiment on two
or three farms in this parish. I will then print my
promised circular, with precise 'directions how you
are to proceed, and with it I will transmit a Schedule
A. (for rotten (huighills ! ) containing blank spaces to
be filled up by each experimenter. Ibese schedules
will be returned to me some months hence, when the
results have been obtained.

Now that I consider we are fairly embarked, I
must be allowed to speak a little more gravely than
I have always found myself inclined to do. I must
feel myself quite sure that you correctly understand
all that I am aiming at. One point, certainly, is to as-
certain whether the addition of gypsum to a common
dunghill will improve the quality of the manure —
which is putting this question in its simplest agricul-
tural shape, divested of all chemical and theoretical
notions. I?ut the decision of this question i hold to be
a very subordinate purpose to one of still gieaier im-
portance which 1 have had in view. 1 am chiefly de-
sirous of giving you an example of the manner in
which your agricultural exj)eriments ought to be
conducted, if you would hope to render them
available for scientific purj)oses. I believe our
gypsum experiment to be only one of several which
must be tried before the question at issue can be
fully settled. But every such experiment, thus
tried by a numerous body of experimenters, upon a
correct princii)le, will add som.ething so positive to
the general stock of knowledge, that it is impossible
it should not become of real importance to your
interests. The little trouble, or very trifling ex-
jiense, which each individual experimenter may
happen to incur in such cases, is no way increased
by his having forty-nine co-operators, whilst the
value of his single experiment may jjossibly be aug-
mented more than fifty-fold. It would bo a ridicu-
lously trifiing tax upon any faimer to perform
yearly one such exi)eriment. We can all appreciate
the advantages which flow from a division of labour ;
and many who may not be qualified for suggesting
correct methods of experimenting for themselves,
might be prevailed upon to act upon the suggestions

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

345

of others, proviiled the precise mode of peiforminij
an experiment were laid down for tliem. The old
proverb declares that "lazy folk take the most
pains,*' and I almost question whether this proverb
was not made prospectively, to apply to the manner
in which certain so-called experiments have been
conducted in our times. There is no lack of agricul-
tural experimenters. It should seem that we are
overstocked with them in England. A gentleman,
high in your confidence, writes thus to me : — " The
fact is, that whereas farmers were formerly averse
to all change, many of them are now ready to try
every thing which is recommended, and it is neces-
sary to be cautious not to mislead them into ex-
pense." Now, this struck me marvellously as a
very lamentable necessity. You are to be restrained
in your anxiety to improve, and to be prevented
from doing what science has been urging you to do.
1 have no doubt the remark was just, from the high
authority from whence I received it ; but it is
equally obvious, that the reason it was so, must be
because farmers in general have not qualified them-
selves for experimenting in a safe and judicious
manner. Most certainly there have been many expe-
riments of late, conducted in a correct and skilful
manner by eminent and practical men, but too many
even of these were undertaken with no other than
some economical object in view, and not with any
scientific aim. The results have mostly been tested
by pounds, siiillings, and pence, without regard to
what might be the real cause of success or failure.
Hence no new principles have been worked out.
But it is only when these shall have been disco-
vered, that it will be time to test their application to
])ractice by the pocket argument. For instance,
the following comparative experiment was lately
placed in my liands by an intelligent gentleman of
this neighbourhood. It is performed in the approved
way of obtaining comparative results ; but from
want of detafi, and from standing single, very little
can be inferred from it with respect to the nature of
the influence exerted by the nitrate of soda.

Half an acre sown with, and half without the ni-
trate of soda.

cb. bl. Ilk. lbs.

With the nitrate, wheat .. 3 2 3 Straw .. 840
Withoutditto 3 1 2 746

Increase from nitrate.

0 1

94

d.

6

Cost of nitrate of soda 13

Value of the Ibl. Ipk. of wheat, at 7s. 6d.,
9s. 42d.j 911bs. of straw, at "21. per ton,
]s.8d .■ 11 0^

Loss on the half acre .. 2 5^

Here the balance being against the pocket, no
more attempts were made with nitrate of soda. The
inspection of the above induced me to ask the ex-
perimenter whether be had thought of trying only
one-half or one-fourth the nitrate of soda, to see
whether the increase might not still be the same.
If it should have turned out that such was the case,
the pocket would then have pleaded in favour of its
application. Before we can expect to understand
the precise relation which nitrate of soda or any
other salt bears to the effect it produces on a parti-
cular crop, there must be many well-digested expe-
riments performed in many pans of the kingdom,
and their results registered with a sufficient degree
of uniformity to admit of their being compared to-

gether. Now, with the ready machinery of your
numerous local agricultural societies, and the great
central society in London, together with the inva-
luable advantages offered by the penny postage, you
might very easily organize a system of co-operation
throughout Great Britain, which I am persuaded
would work with a rapidity and an efficiency that
would surprise you all. Of course, every one who
may bo desirous of promoting such a system mustbe
at some trouble, hut this will generally not be greate r
than is required to direct and superintend a labourer
for two or three hours, whilst he is trimming a
hedge or digging n ditch. The personal trouble to
the farmer himself would literally be no greater than
that. The intellectual part of these proceedings
might be all transacted within the skulls of a few
chemists, who would suggest, and within those of
the more active members of your various agricultural
societies, who might busy themselves in preparing
and circulating the different schedules to be filled up
by the several experimenters. All that is now-
wanting to tlie adoption of such a scheme, is to
convince the farmers of England generally, that un-
less they will consent to co-operate, they cannot
expect to avail themselves (otherv/ise than by very
slow degrees) of the information which modern
science has placed at their disposal. I am no en-
thusiast in this ojiinion— I am speaking the words
of sobriety. I am only repeating what others, wiser
than myself, have continually asserted. I have
already referred you in my address to the Hadleigh
Club, to the opinion of De Candolle, and I have
within these few days met with a similar declaration
in an agricultural work in course of publication by
Mr. Johnston, of Durham. This gentleman is a
chemistof high reputation ; and, in his "Lectures
on Agricultural Cliemislry and Geology," he has
suggested several experiments in practical agricul-
ture. In speaking of the effects produced by special
manures, either on particular soils or on particular
crops, he remarks, '' Now, neither of these subjects,
which it is so important to investigate, can be de-
termined, either from theory or from experiments
devised and executed in the laboratory of a chemist.
The aid of the practical firmer, of via»}j praclicat
farmers, must be called in. Nnmerotis experiments
or trials must be made in various localities, and by
different individuals ; all, however, according to the
same rigorous and accurate method, in order that, from
the comparison of many results, something like a
general principle may be deduced." The whole
question, then turns upon this — whether the
farmers of Great Britain are prepared to co-
operate in making experiments under the guidance
of persons qualified for directing their efforts.
There is, in fact, an important link yet wanting in
the chain which is to connect science with practice ;
and if science is only permitted to hold the pincers
whilst practice plies the blows, that link may be
forged and fastened. My hopes are now much
strengthened that this will soon take place. I shall
in future listen with impatience to any desponding
surmises about your not being sufficiently awake to
the importance'of co-operating for such a purpose.
" My own experience ("says a valued correspond-
ent^ in this neighbourhood (Surrey) is against ex-
pecting the present race of adult farmers to become
much of readers ; and so my hopes rest on their
sons." But I conceive it is not necessary, for that
description of co-operation which is required of you.
that the present race of farmers should become
" much of readers." Let them act upon the sugges-
tions of others ; and then, whilst Liebig is uttering

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346

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

lamentations over Iiis (iermiins, and consoling
himself by talking of what ^W] be done by a genera-
tion to come, tiio present race of British farmers
will have forestalled that generation of foreigners yet
to come, and have left the present generation behind.
^Vhy should we doubt that the farmers of Great
Britain generally would be less prepared to co-
operate than the farmers of Suffolk have shown
themselves to be "! No doubt there are some, and
probably not a few, among you, as among every
other class of men, wlio would indolently prefer a
shorter road than that which science points out to
them. Perhaps it would have been easier for me to
have enlisted twice fifty co-operators if I had as-
sured the agricultural world that my past studies in
botany had led me to the discovery of a marvellous
composition, a certain incomparable vegetable
elixir, in which it was merely necessary for the
sower to steep his seed, and he would at once be
able to double his crops! But to have found more
than fifty willing to proceed in the legitimate spirit
of ])hilosophy, and without anything promised about
reaping an immediate return, is an event which. 1
must consider of most excellent omen. From what
I have heard since my last letter, 1 believe a little
further delay would have greatly increased our
numbers; for I find that several farmers of this
neighbourhood have not seen my challenge, and had
only heard of it through others. If not more than
twenty-five of you had come forward, I should still
have asked each man to procure a double, and I make
no doubt that we should thus have got our number
completed. As it is, I think it will be advisable to
increase our numbers, rather for the sake of experi-
mental instructifln , than for the issue of the experi-
ment ; and I shall have a hundred copies of Schedule
A struck off, that I may be prepared to supply any
additional recruits.

Whilst you are performing this experiment, I must
call upon you to toss all prejudices and antiquated
opinions to the winds ; and to proceed as closely as
possible upon the instructions with which you will
he furnished. There must indeed be a certain
latitude allowed, because it may not be conveni-
ent for one person to use any but littered straw,
or for another to apply it to a particular crop. But
the very object of requiring so many as fifty is to
merge the inconvenience of such contrarieties as
these in the general results obtained. We are not
in the position of chemists operating upon weights
which it is necessary to test to the tenth of a grain ;
and we require no costly apparatus for determining
our quantities. For the present experiment, your
agricultural laboratory need be furnished with no
more than the following instruments : — 1, A dung-
fork. 2, Pair of scales or steelyard. 3, Bushel and
quart measures. 4, Sieve. 5, Watering-pot. The
gypsum must be finely powdered, and not burnt
into plaster of Paris.

Your obedient servant,

J. S. Henslow.

Hitcham Rectory, February 25th, 1843.

Letter IX,
GENti-EMEN,— Since my last letter, I have been
present at the preparation of our gypsum experiment
on tliree farms in this parish, where the occupiers
had volunteered to try it. I now feel myself a lit-
tle better prepared than before for giving you pre-
cise instructions in the schedule I am about to cir-
culate. I had intended this letter to have served as
a comment upon that schedule, and to bare been cir-

culated with it. My engagements during the week
have unluckily prevented me from putting my me-
moranda together in time for the editor, under so
precise a form as I should wish to see them, and,
tiiercfore, I must beg leave to defer communicating
them publicly until next week. In the meantime,
I hope I shall be able to forward both the
instructions and the schedule to those gentlemen
who have favoured me with their addresses, which
now amount fully to fifty, without some ten or twelve
promised from the neighbourhood of Ipswich. I
find the experiment even easier to be prepared than
I had myself anticipated; and every farmer hereto
whom I have mentioned the amount of time and
material consumed in prepaiing the three I have
superintended, said with surprise, "Is that all!"
Oii-i\ large scale, the experiment requires less than
two tumbrils of straw, and forty baskets of dung,
and not more than twenty pints of gypsum !

I must request those gentlemen who are preser-
ving my letters, as I find some are, to correct two
errors which have crept into the seventh. In the
digression on carbonic acid, I have carelessly stated
oxygen to form nearly one-half, instead of one-
fifth of the atmosphere ; and in the postscript I have
supposed that chloride of calcium was the common
bleaching powder, having in my eye at the mo-
ment the chloride of lime, and forgetting that chlo-
ride of calcium was the muriate of lime, by which
name it was more familiar to me in my chemical days,
I cautioned you, in the end of my third letter, that I
should very likely be caught tripping in these sort
of details ; for my chemistry is very rusty, and
though one gentleman, in the Sujf'olk Herald, has
been pleased to refer to the learned leisure oi Hitcham,
I can assure him that my opportunities do not al-
ways allow me lime for turning to a chemical author
to ensure perfect accuracy about numbers and com-
ponent jiarts, &c. I hope, therefore, that all such
slips of pen and memory may be excused. A pub-
lisher has Informed me that he intends to speculate
upon your purchasing copies of my letters, which
he proposes to print in the form of a pamphlet, and
I hope he will not correct any of the errors of the
sort I have just alluded to, further than by adding
a little note at the bottom of the page. If he (or
any one else) shall acquaint me when lie means to
reprint them, I will supply him with any critiques
of this sort which I may happen to think necessary ;
and I shall be obliged to any correspondent who
will be kind enough to point out such errors.

I have obtained Dr. Daubeny's permission to
print the annexed letter from him to me. I think
this advisable, as it contains a similar apology to the
public for an error of the same class as my own ; and
it also contains an important caution to the public
against an error of a much worse character.
Whilst I am in the humour for apologising, let me
express a hope that I have given no oft'ence to any
one by my seeming, on some occasions, to treat my
subject too lightly or too frivolously ; and on other
occasions, to press it with too much ofhciousness or
censoriousness. There is no body of men of such
varied character as those who are engaged in agri-
culture. From the very subject nearest the throne
to many a subject very near the work-house, from
every occupation, from every party in the state,
from every grade of intellectual cultivation, we have
persons who apply their thoughts to enquiries con-
nected with yonr most important profession; and
though these letters have been more especially ad-
dressed to the farmers of Suffolk, I have considered
the insertion of a few bints which might appljr in

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

347

other quarters, might not be unadvisable. What
may possibly have engaged the attention of some
may not Lave been approved by others : but the
end hiis been that our corps of co-operaters lias be-
come more than fifty strong. It is wiih great satis-
faction that I find the editor of the widely-circulated
Gardener's Chronicle taking the same view as myself
of the importance of your attending to experimental
co-operation. Let your example spread a little
further, and let us only see a regular system of co-
operation organizing itself through other counties,
and I shall be very glad to make ray bow as a che-
mist, and leave it^to abler hands to prepare for you
schedules B, C, D, &c., &c., to the end of the alpha-
bet. Perhaps I may still be allowed to gratify an
itching for discussing some botanico-agricultuial
question or other, as I may see occasion ; but,
though I believe it is good practice to concentrate
one's tire upon a single point, and never to slacken
till the breach is made, I cannot pretend to main-
tain so rapid a discharge as heretofore, now that the
chief outwork has been gained.

Your obedient servant,

J. S. Henslow.
HUcham Rectory, March 3rd, 1843.

obvious, but 1 do not believe them unnecessary,
when 1 find that a chemical manufacturer, who of-
fers to farmers, for manure, an article which he
has ibouglit pro[)er to call " Dr. Daubeny's Sulphate
of Ammonia," appears to have so mistaken tiio di-
rections I had given, (wbici) I bad conceived to have
been plain enough) that, according to the statement
of a chemical friend, who has examined this pro-
duct, it does not coataiu a particle of ammonia.

Had he consulted me on the subject, before be
made free with my name, I should have told him
that I had no wish to claim as my own, a process
which was nothing more than the application of a
well-known chemical process to the case of the
ammoniacal liquor obtained at the gas-works ; but I
can assure you, that I am quite as little accountable
for this, as I am for the ill success that appears to
have attended the process, and that I do not even
know the name of the maker.

1 am, dear Henslow, &o.

0.\ford, Feb, 24, 1843. ChaulesDaubeny.

TO THE REV. J. S. HENSLOW.

Dear Henslow, — I fear I may have led the
public into an error by mentioning, amongst sub-
stances that .At carbonate of ammonia, common
salt.

It is probable indeed, that when this substance in
solution is mixed with carbonate of ammonia, also
in solution, a partial decomposition of both salts en-
sues, the acids being divided between the two bases in
the ratio of their respective affinities. But I doubt
whether this principle can apply in the case of ma-
nures, for when the salts become dry, the carbonate
of ammonia would volatilize, and then the carbonic
acid, united with the soda, would be divided be-
twixt this base and the ammonia, producing a
fresh dose of carbonate of ammonia, which would
fly off, and thus cause a repetition of the same pro-
cess, until the whole of the muriatic acid reverted
to the soda, and the whole of the ammonia was dis-
sipated. 1 do not think, therefore, that any such
advantages will be gained by adding muriate of
soda as by adding muriate of lime, and the other
bodies I bad enumerated ; and, if you will mix
the two salts together, and apply heat, or even
dissolve them, and then evaporate, you will find
that carbonate, and not muriate of ammonia will
be (at least principally) evolved.

I regret, therefore, that I published this statement
iu a lecture, which has gained so much publicity
through the medium of the Journalof the Royal Agri-
cultural Society. In other respects I see nothing to
correct, either in my statements or in your com-
ments upon them ; though, considering that prac-
tical men deny the efficacy of gypsum in fixing
ammonia, it would be wr:Tig to speak with perfect
confidence on the matter, aotwithstanding Liebig's
authority.

Those, however, who intend to make experiments
with a view of settling this question, should recol-
lect that the gypsum must be added, not in lumps,
but in fine powder, and that a certain amount of
water must be present, in order to bring about the
decomposition.

Such hints as these may be considered trite and

Letter X.

Gentlemen, — Some persons will consider this
letter to be a scene in Much Ado about Nothing;
but experience had convinced me that I cannot be
too minute in pointing out the precise conditions
under which our experiment may be carried on ;
and, therefore, if I am a little over-circumstantial
in recounting to you the mode in which the three
experiments referred to in my last letter were per-
formed, I trust you will excuse me ; and I believe
you will be the better able to see how very little
skill and trouble is necessary for conducting such
experiments as these. What is really required of
you, is to have a little faith in what chemists and
others have declared to you, viz., that such expe-
riments must be tried, if you wish to help science,
in order that science may be able to return the
compliment, and help you. Perhaps I may find
occasion for saying a few more words on this sub-
ject some other time ; but to-day I had better
confine myself to an account of the manner in
which our three Hitcham Experimenters have ful-
filled their parts ; and then proceed to give you a
few instructions for the filling up of Schedule A.
Provided this letter and the schedule are read
attentively two or three times over, I think no
one can possibly mistake what it is he is required
to do ; but if it should appear that I have not
suflSciently explained myself, I beg there may
be no scruples about applying for further informa-
tion.

Mr. HitchcocFs Experiment.

I went to the ground accompanied by the expe-
rimenter, his brother, and my own gardener; and
there found that preparations had been made by
shooting down a tumbril load of soil under the
name of " good ditch stuff;" a tumbril load of
littered straw ; a tumbril load of clean and fresh
horse dung, two pails of house urine, with a ditch
full of water to dilute it, and a bushel of gypsum
in a sack. Over these materials was presiding a
labourer, apparently somewhat puzzled to account
for our proceedings. The first step was to mark
out two spaces, each five feet square, and upon
them to place a bottom of the " good ditch stufi""
half a foot thick. It should seem that clean straw
is a scarce commodity in Hitcham just at present,
and so we were obliged to put up with such as had

A A 2

348

Till': I-ARMEK'S MAGA/INt:.

been soaking iu a cow-yard for two months amidst
all the et ccteras of that description of locality.
Some sort of rough calculation had been made of
the amount of this straw, and also of the horse
dung, by weighing a bushel skep of each ; but I
looked grave at the idea of our being satisfied wiih
any estimate obtained by weigliing only a single
bushel, and so the steelyards were sent for. It is
not necessary to weigh the whole of the materials
used, but four or five baskets-full at least should
be weighed in order to obtain an average for mea-
suring out the rest. I suppose it is not necessary
to remind any one not to forget to deduct the
weight of the basket in making his calculations ;
but I find it is right and just to hint that the
weight of a basket-full should not be altered after
it has been prepared in order to coax the average.
Let each be filled by guess as nearly alike as may
be, and weighed ; and then the whole weight, di-
vided by the number of baskets-full, will give the
average for further estimate. Our zeal, however,
on the present occasion was sufficient to keep us
warm enough for three hours, and through two or
three snow storms, until we had weighed out the
whole of the materials, and completed our task.
We began with the dunghill to be gypsumed, and
placed it to the south of the ungypsumed,and fi-
nislied one first before we began with the other.
Two baskets-full of the straw were spread over the
bottom, each weighing between 40 and 50 lbs.
Then two baskets-full of the horse dung were
spi-ead out, each weighing somewhat less than the
wetted straw. A pint of gypsum was then sifted
over the horse dung ; and the coarser particles of
the gypsum which did not pass througli the hair
sieve were preserved, in order that they might be
weighed and deducted from the weight of a 'pint of
gypsum, for the purpose of ascertaining the exact
weight of the gypsum used. A gallon of liquid,
half urine and half water, was then poured over
this first layer of materials through a rose watering
pot. Seven layers were thus prepared in succes-
sion, except that the topmost had only two gallons
of water, there not having been any urine left. The
whole was then covered over with two baskets-full
of the wet straw. The other dunghill was then
])rcpared in the same way, except that no gypsum
was used— but the amount of materials employed
was exactly the same. The two stood now about
three feet high, and their appearance was such that
it was presumed they would certainly attract any
one curious in cucumbers to step out of his way to
examine them. The experimenter was also of
opinion that they would be objects of curiosity
to his cows; and therefore he thought fit to enclose
them with hurdles lest these gentle quadrupeds
should amuse themselves by poking them into the
neighbouring ditch. I think it right to record his
precaution here, because it seems a cow is a very
inquisitive and experimenting creature. I well
remember that a cow once made a tolerably suc-
cessful attempt at devouring a waistcoat of my
own, which I had thrown off in a field whilst 1 was
occupied in chasing the splendid swallow-tail but-
terflies, which no one with tlie feelings of a natura-
list can ever possibly resist running after in the
districts about Cambridge, where they are to be
met with. JNIy waistcoat looked very much as if
it had visited the cow's first stomach, and required
only a little further ruminating to render it suffi-
ciently digestible for being re-swallowed. But,
besides the precaution against cows, the experi-
menter found it necesaary a clay or two afterwards

to protect our hillocks against (he rooks, who had
taken a fancy to them, and were doing their best
to pull them to pieces. A covering of " good ditch
stuff " stojiped their pi'oceedings. In this condi-
tion, then, the hills are intended to repose until
next October, when they are destined to bo applied
to land reserved for a wheat crop.

Mr. Pilgrims Experiment.

Here I found two bottoms, each seven feet by
five, had been already prepared of fresh turf and
mould. There were also on the ground two tum-
bril loads of very wet litter from the farm-yard,
two months old ; two tumbril loads of horse dung
with a little litter also intermixed ; a supply of
mixed house urine and much rain water, somewhat
high in odour, which had been collected in a tank.
Forty lbs. of ready sifted gypsum was an improved
mode of bringing this material to the field of ac-
tion ; but only 20 lbs. of it were used. Four large
baskets of the vvetted straw, averaging 62j lbs.
each, were sjiread out as a bottom layer ; and upon
them were spread four baskets of the horse dung,
averaging 57 lbs. each. An improvement was in-
troduced in the mode of applying the gypsum, by
continually sifting it over the straw and dung as
they were spread out, so that it became more tho-
roughly incorporated with these materials than in
the former instance. Two waterpots of the liquid,
each holding ten pints, were then poured over the
layer. The two dunghills were proceeding at the
same time, as we did not weigh out more than the
materials for one layer, and could measure out the
rest sufficiently rapidly to allow of this improve-
ment also. Each was comi:)osed of five layers like
the first, and covered over with a layer of the
wetted straw. The experiment occupied about
one hour and a half in preparing, under the engi-
neering of five i)air of hands. The hills were co-
vered over with turf and earth, and arc intended
to be applied in June, to land which is to lie
fallow till next spring, when it is to be sown with
barley.

Mr. Carter's Experiment.

Here we found some clean straw in the barn-
loft, and proceeded to tie uji two large bundles,
each of which weighed 61 lbs. Notwithstanding
the very great difference between the weight of
this clean straw and that of the wetted litter in the
former experiments, we built two hills with it of
the same size, or nearly so, as those of Mr. Hitch-
cock. Tlic bottoms, of five feet square, were pre-
pared with soil taken from a mangcl-wurtzel bed.
The clean straw proved to be rather an awkward
subject to deal with in preparing so small a heap ;
and the result sadly att'ronted those notions of pro-
priety which good workmen possess about turning
out a job in a workmanlike manner. It may,
therefore, be as well in other cases, where clean
straw can be got at, to chop it up into three or
four lengths to make it more manageable. The
straw was spread out into five layers, and on each
were placed three bushel baskets of horse dung —
the gypsum being continually sifted among the
materials as in the last exiieriment. One watcr2)ot
of pure horse urine from a stable tank was poured
on each of two of the layers, and two waterjiots of
much diluted drainings from the farm-yard were
poured over each of the other three. The cstmiate
for the whole quantity of dung used was made by
weighing out six baskets-full, at 274 lbs., which
gives an average of 45J lbs. for each basket. The

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

349

capacity of the watering* pot used was ascertained
to be nineteen pints. Tliese licaps were hurdled in
and covered over with nionld, and are to be aj)-
plied in October for wlicat. Altliough I consider
this rough mode of performing the experiment will
serve our purjiose, 1 strongly recommend to all
who possess the opjiortunity, to be careful in ob-
taining the separate materials as pure as possible.
Clean straw, as in i\Jr. Carter's experiment ; clean
dung and pure urine, as in Mr. Hitchcock's ;
sifted gypsum previously weighed out, as in Mr.
Pilgrim's and iMr. Carter's. Attention to these
sort of niinutiu' always enhances the value of the
experiment ; and I dare say that the chemists who
are preparing schedules 13, C, &c., will be more
positive on such points than 1 have been in this
first attempt.

Instructiens for filUvcj up Schedule A.

There will be five separate occasions for referring
to the schedule as the experiment progresses ; and
tlie memoranda have consequently been arranged
under five heads. Most of the memoranda under
the first head seem to be too simple to need a com-
ment, and a mere reference to the three experi-
ments already detailed will explain them readily.

No. 3 may perhaps seem to be unnecessary ; but
once for all, I must recpiest tliat experimenters will
be content to submit. The noticing whether A lies
to the north, south, east, or west of B, is to avoid
any error or doubt tliat may hereafter arise, as to
which of the two dungliills was gypsumed. Some
people have very short memories.

Xo. 11. The whole sliould be secured of the same
quality by mixing in one vessel.

No. 15 will need a little explanation. The
chances of tixing the ammonia will be increased
in proportion as the gypsum is more tinely pow-
dered. That which I have seen is rather coarsely
so, and on sifting it through a flour sieve many
large particles are left behind. Tliese coarse par-
ticles may be thrown into a tank where they will
probably be useful. I should very much like to
find the experiment has been tried by some persons
with gypsum artificially prepared. I have been
asked by more than one correspondent whether he
could not prepare gypsum for Ids farm by dissolv-
ing chalk in diluted sulphuric acid, which is a very
cheap substance ; but I have replied that I should
conceive there can be very few localities where the
native material might not be purchased at a still
cheaper rate. It would, however, be very easy to
prepare artificially the small quantity required for
a dunghill ; and I think it would be loell worth
while for some of you to try our experiment with
gypsum procured in this way, because the particles
would be in a mucli finer state than we can hope
to procure them by mere grinding.

I do not wish it to be supposed that I have been
deluding the experimenters to attempt more than
I originally proposed ; but it has occurred to me
that tlie value of the experiment will be very ma-
terially enhanced without much additional labour,
by dividing each dunghill into two equal parts, and
then proceeding to apply these halves in the man-
ner set forth in the schedule. Nothing further
need be done to the two halves of A. But one
half of B may be thoroughly mixed up with half
as much gypsum as was employed on A, so that
we shall be able to compare the effect of applying
gypsum (as in half of A)Z*e/(!»e decomposition, with
applying it (as in half of B) after decomposition.
Also there should be six pieces of land marked out

of equal size, to one of which " nothing" should be
applied ; and whilst one half of A is ajiplied to one
piece, the other half of A might be applied through
two pieces. Still I do not press this mode of per-
forming the experiment, though I inost strongly
recommend it.

No. 20. The column headed "Nothing" means
where nothing has been done to the land. If A
and B are not divided into lialves, the entries can
easily be made to that etlect ; but if they are, then
the length under (A 2) will be twice as much as
under any of the others, provided all the pieces of
ground are exactly the same shape.

No. 21, 22. The usual terms in which these are
expressed in practice is all that is required.

No. 25. It will be better to experiment on a seed
crop, if convenient ; but still a little variety in this
respect is advisable.

No. 27,28. The columns headed "leaves on"_
refer to a root crop ; which should be given, if
possible, both with leaves off (under the first co-
lumns) and leaves on.

No. 30, 31. In using the more general term
" stalk," I mean it should apply either to the
straw of a grain crop, or to the stems of flax,
fodder, &c. — Your obedient servant,

Hitcham Rectory, March 9. J. S. Henslow.

SCHEDULE A, EXPERIMENTAL CO-
OPERATION.

QUEUE — THE EFFECT OF GYPSUM ON DUNGHILLS?

* Preparation of Two Dunghills, one {A) with, and [he
other (B) without gypsum.

N.B. Be very careful to make memoranda at the time,
and trtist nothing to memory.

1. Prepared by Mr.[ ] county [ ] parish [ 1

2. Date of preparation, year [184 ] day [ J

3. Posiiion of A is to the [ ] of B.

4. Bottom for each is [ ] feet by [ ] feet,
and [ ] ihiek ; composed of [ ]

5. Quality of straw [ J
C. Quantity of straw actually weighed is [ ] lbs.,

and henee the

7. Weight of straw in each dunghill is estimated at

[ ] lbs.

8. Quantity of dung [ J

9. Quantity of dung actually weighed is [ ] lbs.,
and hence the

10. Weight of dung in each dunghill is estimated at
[ ] lbs.

11. De>;criptioa of urine [

12. Quantity of urine added to each dunghill f

13. Quantity of water added to each dunghill [

14. If 12 and l3 are uucerlain, then state quantity of
liquid (described under 1 ]J added to each dung-
hill [ ]

15. Quality of the gypsum [ J

16. Ciuantity sifted among A [ J

17. The dunghills covered over with [ ]

* * Manuring the Land.

18. Date of applying the manure. Year [184 ] day [ ]

19. State of the muck [ J
N.B. — If possible (and unless very inconvenient^

let each dunghill be now divided into two equal
portions, viz., A into A 1, A 2 ; and B. into B 1,
B 2. Let B 2 be thoroughly mixed with half as
much gypsum as was applied to A. Let A 2 be
applied to a space of land twice as great as A l is

20. Spaces manured I Nothing I A 1— A 2

Length .... \ done. |
Breadth | |

21. Character of soil [

22. Condition of soil [

23. Previous crop [

* * * Nature of Crop manured,

24. Date of sowing year [184 ] day [

B1-B2

350

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

25. Name of seed [ ]

26. Quantity of seed I Nothing I A 1 -A 2 [ B 1— B 2

Sown where | done. | |

* * * * Rfsulls obtained.

27. Date of gathering the crop. Year [184 ] day [ ]

28. Quantities actually measured and weighed.

As obtained With leaves on

I Meas. I Wght. I Meas. I Wght.
from Nothing done I I I I

ill I I I
iil I I I

29. Estimate of whole measure and weight.
As obtained

from Nothing done I I

Al I I

A2 I I

Bl I I

30. Quality of crop f

31. Quality of stalk [

32. Average length of stalk [

***** General. Ohservations.

33. Any general memoranda may be inserted under

this iiead.

DUTY ON HOPS.

An Account of the Duty on Hops of the Growth of
the Year 1842, distinguishing the Districts, and the
Old from the New Duty.

£ s. d.

Barnstaple 14 0 8^

Bedford 113 14 3i

Cambridge 6 5 3^

Canterbury 58,287 18 8

Chester 1 3 9|

Cornwall 7 5 9^

Derby 508 18 4

Dorset 14 12 ll|

Essex 1,297 12 10

Exeter 1 0 3i

Gloucester 9 5 1^

Grantham 91 7 4

Hants 11,546 10 6|

Hereford 27,310 7 0^

Hertford 929 18 3|

Isle of Wight 9,675 1 9|

Lincoln 2,518 2 7

Lynn 43 5 8J

Northampton 3 17 0

Norwich ., 7 6 7^

Oxford 77 15 9

Reading 29 9 0|

Rochester 107,395 19 0

Salisbury 70 10 8

Salop 0 18 Oi

Stourbridge 1,926 6 6|

Suffolk 1,511 9 3|

Surrey 34 10 2|

Sussex 79,546 17 5§

Wales, Middle 32 16 8|

Wellington 48 4 llj

Worcester 6,932 16 6|

Total 310,025 8 10|

Old Duty. at 1 12-20d per lb. 169,676 6 0| 12-20
New Oj 8-20(1 " 125,486 14 7j 8-20

Additional Duly of Five per

Cent,, per 3 Vict,, c. 17 .. 14,762 6 2*

Tolal 310,025 8 lOff

G. A. CoTTHia.L, Accountant-iGeneral.
Excise-office^ Loudon, March 10, 1843.

The quantity of British Hops exported from Great
Britain to foreign countries, from the 5th of January,
1842, to the 5ih of January, 1843, was 662,882 lbs.
weight. G. A. CoTTiiELL, Accountant-General.

Excise-office, London, March 10.

Quantity of Hops exported from Great Britain to
foreign countries, in the year ended 5th of January,
1843 (so far as relates to hops of foreign growth.
Nil.

Quantity of Foreign Hops imported into the United

Kingdom in the year ended 5th of January, 1843.

Nil.

William Irving,
Inspector General of Imports and Exports.
Inspector-General's Office, Custom House,
London, March 22, 1843.

MALT.
An Account of the total number of quarters of Malt
made between the 10th day of October, 1840, and
the lOih day of October, 1842, in the United King-
dom ; distinguishing each year ending the lOth day
of October, and the quantity made in each country,
and the quantity used by brewers and victuallers, and
retail brewers.

Year ended Oct. 10, 1841.

Quarters
of Malt
made.

4340873
517564
156568

5015005

Qrs. of Malt used.

England ..
Scotland ..
Ireland ....

By
Brewers
and Vic-
tuallers.

3099250
115016
132514

3346780

By
Retail

Brewers.

395098

Total.

3494348
115016
132514

United 1
Kingdom J

395098

3741878

Year ended Oct. 10, 1842.

England
Scotland
Ireland .

United
Kingdom

}1

Quarters
of Malt

made.

3654850
484778
130297

4262225

Qrs. of Malt used.

By
Brewers
and Vic-
tuallers.

2976199
105715
124139

By

Retail
Brewers

382431

3206053 3S2431 3588484

Total.

3358630
105715
124139

G. A. Cottrell, Accountant-General,
Excise-office, London, March 10, 1843.

TORRINGTON FARMERS' CLUB.

The attention of ae;riciilturists is especially in-
vited to the following paper, which was read before
the Great Torrington Farmer's Club on Saturdaj'
lltli inst., by Mr. Joseph Risdon, of Speccott, near
Torrington.

" On the present occasion I shall say but little,
and that rather to promote discussion than venture
on any particular essay of my own: the fact is, we
are living- in very precarious times, so that much
practical information that would be followed in
• ordinary occasions, cannot now be proceeded with

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

351

but with great caution. Politics are very properly
excluded by onr rules, yet there are questions
arising out of the strictures under which we labour
that may with great propriety form subjects for
free discussion.

" The state of the markets are such at the present
time (with the exception of live stock) that the cost
of production is greater than the value of the articles
produced, a state of things that cannot continue, I
repeat that cannot continue, as under existing cir-
cumstance, the most fearful calamities must follow.
AVe see before us but little to cheer us as to the
future, as all concomitant charges on the land, such
as labour, manure, parochial taxes, and almost
every other impost, instead of diminishing is on the
increase. What then is to be done ? Is it possible
to cut down the cost of production to the present
value of the articles produced? Can the price of
labour be reduced ? I think not, although I do
believe that agricultural labourers in this neigh-
bourhood are generally as well off as they ever were,
and in most instances where the husband is indus-
trious and the wife has any just notions of domestic
economy, I believe I may say they are better off
than they were twenty or thirty years since. It is
true we meet with many instances where much dis-
tress prevails. Yet I am persuaded they are as I
before stated, better off than heretofore, although
they are not in circumstances that will enable them
to part with the smallest portion of their present
hard-earned pittance, so that no relief to agriculture
can possibly be looked for from a reduction of
wages. The labourer is worthy of his hire, and the
humble individual who now addresses you, wishes
to see the farm labourer enjoying in his cottage the
necessaries of life with the consolations that arise
from honest industry, aided by economy and reli-
gion, the sure leaders to peace. I am opinion, how-
ever, that the agriculturists near this place do not
uniformly give the same wages or emoluments to
their labourers. I therefore venture to request a
free discussion on this head, in order that it may be
seen what is most advantageous, not with a view of
diminishing the comforts of the labourers, but to
make the best plan more generally adopted, and let
what will await us, we cannot do without the
labourer, nor do I believe any advantage can be
taken of him to ameliorate the present agricultural
panic.

" We have heard much in the last four or five
years of different manures, guano, nitrate of soda,
bone-dust, &c., besides lime, and the best method
of getting dung from the farm-yard. That expen-
sive manures cannot be successfully used under de-
pressed prices is, I believe, so readily admitted that
I need not dwell upon it, and that the land cannot
be cultivated to advantage without manure is also
well known to every practical man. The best and
cheapest manures must therefore be of the greatest
consequence to know how to be procured and used
to advantage. I believe that much can be done to
produce more manure from tlie farm-yard than is
usually done in this neighbourhood, und I recollect
a gentleman who I gleaned many useful hints from,
telling me in the depressed times, about 1821 and
'2, ' that farmers must continue to grow corn, to
keep cattle, to make dung — to grow more corn, to
keep more cattle, to make 7yiore dung, to grow more
and keep more, and so on udinfadtum.' I confess I
never think of this but I feel more strongly upon it,
and reflect as it were upon the advantages that
must arise in a national point of view if this was
more fully carried out : we should not have occasion

under this arrangement to send our working classes
to cultivate distant hinds, but plenty might be pro-
duced at home ; and if our internal arrangements
would admit it, we might look downward with
prospects of happiness and peace — enough may
arise from this to pass off a short time to great ad-
vantage, and I trust some of the gentlemen present
will favour me and the company with their views
upon it.

" I stated at the commencement that parochial
taxes and other imposts instead of diminishing were
increasing, a fearful sort of contemplation with low
prices before us, but this is as I believe the cause of
an increase of population, and must increase as we
progress— order must be preserved — the indigent
must be maintained — the lawless must be punished
— the wicked if possible reclaimed — the young
taught their duty to God and man — all this must
be carried on for the good of the general weal. It
is therefore idle to fancy that any material relief to
agriculture will be affected by any diminution in
this way. I presume you will say if those are your
views how will you advise ns to act, or xmder the
circumstances act yourself. My answer is, let us
be united, and continue to unite more and more for
our mutual good ; let us impart to each other that
which experience teaches us to be the most likely
plan to be pursued with advantage. Increase of
productions has enabled us to meet difficulties un-
known to our forefathers. Let strict economy be
practised without parsimony, and industry without
slavery, and let us show all classes that surround
us that we are deserving of their confidence and
mutual protection, and that the progress we have
made and are still making in the advancement of
Agriculture does not arise from selfish motives, but
from minds properly elevated to the greatest pos-
sible good, and that we claim that station in society
without prejudice to others, intelligence, wealth,
and numbers deserve,"

PROBUS FARMERS' CLUB.

On Saturday evening last, a lecture on the " Pro-
duction of Fat and Muscle," was delivered by Mr.
Karkeek, of Truro, to the members of this institu-
tion. This is an interesting and important lecture
to agriculturists, as may be supposed from the cir-
cumstance of the English Agricultural Society hav-
ing lately offered a premium for an essay on the same
subject, explaining the causes which appear to de-
termine tbe production of fat and muscle respec-
tively, according to the present state of our know-
ledge of animal physiology.

]\Ir. Karkeek stated, at the commencement of his
lecture, that some of the physiological views which
he had adopted were those of Professor Liebig, they
having yielded the most valuable results, in relation
to the connection between organic chemistry and
dietetics — under which head was comprised the
nulritiveness of particular vegetables on the feeding
ofcatile.

With the view of his lecture being clearly under-
stood, he first directed the attention of liis audience
to some of the phenomena cotmected with grouLh and
assimilation, in vegetables and animals, showing the
manner in which tlie former producu the blood and
flesh of the latter; and tliat man, in consuming
animal food, consumed strictly speaking, the vege-
table principles which have served for the nutrition

352

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of cattle. This part of the lecture was explained in
an easy manner by reference to tables containing
tbe analysis of the elementary and proximate prin-
ciples ot the food of herbivorous animali by Bous-
singault and others, which proved that vegetable
librin, albumen, and casein — the true nitrogenised
principles of their food — were in fact identical in
composition with the chief constituents of blood —
animal librin, which is tbe fibrin of flesh ; animal
albumen, from eggs ; and animal casein, from milk.
He next showed the difference which existed in the
aliments of cattle as far as they were concerned in
the production of fat and muscle. This portion of
the lecture was clearly explained by reference to
Professor Liebig's theory, that one of the effects of
respiration was to remove some of the carbon from
the blood, by the oxygen of the atmosphere and the
forming of carbonic acid gas. In which process a
separation of two essential parts of the blood took
place — the one being composed of nitrogenised
materials, capable of assimilation to tbe various
organs and tissues, muscles, nerves, bones, &c. ;
tbe other part being composed of non-nitrogenised
materials, which were employed as elements of
respiration and in the production of animal heat.

'i'he cow, he said, according to Boussingault, con-
sumed in twenty-four hours 69 oz. of carbon, which
were the combustible materials of tbe food ; and she
required, in the same period, to inhale lllb. lOoz.
of oxygen, which was the supporter of combustion.
But should it happen — as it does in all animals that
are stall fed — that a less quantity of oxygen was
inspired than was necessary to convert the carbon
of the blood into carbonic acid gas, the superabun-
dant carbon was returned into the circulation, and
went to the production of fat.

This was a very interesting part of the lecture, as
it was clearly shown tliat all the carbon of the food,
not consumed in the lungs, was actually used in
producing fat ; and that the amount of nourishment
required for an animal must be proportioned to the
quantity of oxygen taken into the system. And as
air was expanded by heat, and contracted by cold,
it was evident that equal volumes of hot and cold
air must contain unequal weights of oxygen — ergo,
a larger quantity of food is required when animals
were kept cold than when they were warm. This
was clearly explained by reference to tbe voracious
appetites of the Arctic savages for train oil, tallow
candles, and animal food, compared with that of the
Hindoo, living chiefly on rice and vegetable food.

The practical deductions which he drew from
these facts were the necessity of keeping animals
warm and perfectly quiet whilst in a state of feed-
iiig. 'J'he effect of exercise being to increase the
circulation and quicken the respiration, and tbe con-
sequent consumption of a greater quantity of food.

He then described the mode of rearing calves for
yeal in Holland, which was done by keeping them
in a small, dark, clean, and dry bouse, so narrow that
they could not turn, and this was said to be very
successful.

He also related the method of suckling bouse
lambs, of the early Dorsetshire breed, for tbe Lon-
don market. The dams were fed with hay, oil-cake,
corn, and cabbage, which is given in an enclosure
adjoining the apartments where the lambs are con-
fined. The lambs are excluded from the light, ex-
cept at intervals, when the shepherd suckles them
on tbe ewes. It was by these means that they
speedily fatten, and their flesh became exceedingly
wiiite and delicate, and fbtch a high price in the
London market.

The lecturer produced many other examples, in
the feeding of sheep at different temperatures, and
under different conditions, clearly showing that by
affording animals warmth and shelter, particularly in
tbe winter months, that the saving of food would
be very considerable.

The next part of bis lecture went to show the
manner in which muscle or Jlesli was produced. 'I'his
was also clearly exhibited to the farmers by refer-
ence to tables containing analyses of difl^'erent kinds
of food, which proved very satisfactorily that an
immense difference existed with reference to some
kinds producing fat and others producing muscle.

According to those tables, which were the result
of tbe analyses of Professor Playfair and Boussin-
gault, pease contained fifteen per cent, more of the
muscle-forming principle than barley-meal. Barley-
meal twelve per cent, more than potatoes, and pota-
toes one per cent, more than white turnips.

He strongly recommended that barley-meal, when
it was cheap enough, as it is at present, should be
given to growing stock, particularly to sheep when
feeding on white turnips, a pint of barley-meal a
daj' would increase the quantity and quality of the
flesh and wool at the same time. It would also
tend to prevent scouring — the frequent consequence
of so much watery food. For the rearing of breed-
ing animals of all descriptions, he recommended the
use of barley-meal or ground oats ; and strongly
condemned the practice which was frequently pur-
sued of feeding young stock on linseed-cake, which
is a very excellent food for producing fat but not
flesh. He also condemned the very common prac-
tice of tying up the young bull at so early an age as
eiglit or nine months old, and fed at the same time
as a calf intended for the butcher. Too much li-
berty, he considered, could not possibly be given
for the first two years as far as was consistent with
warmth and shelter in the winter months. Where
the pastures were small and convenient, there was
no difficulty or danger in allowing the young animal
to graze during the second summer ; and if not
convenient, a large sheltered shed, with a straw
yard attached, would answer the purpose, with a
comfortable loose box adjoining a straw yard in tbe
winter, in which he might be allowed to range when
the weather permitted.

Without exercise, in a moderate way, the young
animal could never obtain that proper development
of muscle which is required. This, be said, was
dependent on an admirable law, that within certain
limits, in proportion to the exertion which it is re-
quired to make, a part increases in strength, fitness,
and size. It was the want of a proper supply of
nitrogenised food, and the want of sufficient exer-
cise, that so many of our best bred animals, parti-
cularly cattle and pigs, were prevented from breed-
ing at a time wlien the greatest benefits and profit
might be expected by increasing their race. He
alluded, more particularly, to the North Devon
cattle, those of the improved breed, as well as to a
number of the Chinese breed of pigs.

The lecturer then showed that tbe distinguishing
character of a well-bred animal depended not so
much on the external as on the internal structure —
such as the lungs, liver, spleen, kidneys, stomach,
intestines, &c.

Here the lecturer made a singular statement,
" that Professor Playfair, in his lecture before the
Rnglish Agricultural Seciety, had proved what all
butchers knew perfectly well, that an • ox or sheep
having small lungs and small livers, will fatten
more readily than those Laving large lungs and

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

353

large livers;' " but be, the lecturer, was also con-
vinced, ilial ill proportion us an aniin3l becume fat, did
those organs aclually diniinisli iu size. He drew his
conclusions, he said, from examining a great num-
ber of stall-fed cattle, chiefly of the Devon breed,
averaging- from 6 cwt. to 10 cwt. of beef. lie had
seen ihem slaughtered at all st:iges of feeding, from
four to eight months, and invariably found that
according to the amount of fat which they possessed
were those organs reduced in size. Ibis was a cir-
cumstance never stated before by any author, al-
though the butchers knew this also from frequent
experience, and be had gathered his information by
visiting their slaughtering-houses.

lie explained this by reference to the changes of
particles constantly going on in the majority of the
tissues of a living body, instancing the cft'ect of
exercise on the size of the muscles in that of the
arm of a blacksmith, and in the arm of a person
unaccustomed to labour. 'I'iie production of fat lie
had already shown to be the consequence of the
organs of nutrition not performing their natural
offices. The lungs, then, of a stall-fed animal
adapted their size to the quantity of oxygen con-
sumed, and the liver to the quantity of bile se-
creted ; and it was also a remarkable coincidence,
whicli would account for the diminution of the
intestines in a fatied animal, that the fatter it be-
came the less food it consumed.

The lecturer drew some very important practical
deductions from these cbservations, for if they were
true, he said, the eflect of breeding from fat animals,
or from animals disposed quickly to become so,
Junction here would react on organisation. By reac-
tion, he meant, when an organ, as the lungs, for
instance, became diminished in consequence of the
animal becoming fat, from not performing its natu-
ral office, its diminished structure in breeding would
in some degree be produced in the offspring — hence
the reaction ; and if the same system be pursued,
particularly in breeding from the nearest affinities,
at the same time the effect would be more speedily
produced. The lecturer here alluded to the im-
proved short and long-horned cattle, the improved
Herefords, the improved Devons, as well as the new
Leicester sheep, all of which were originally pro-
duced by this method of breeding. Alluding to the
effect of breeding from fat animals in this manner,
he said, that early maturity, which was very desira-
ble to be obtained, was the consequence. But he
was of opinion that sometimes it was cairied too
far, as he believed that extreme early maturity, and
the certainty of propagating their kind, were seldom
compatible, and he also believed that the loss of a
trifling degree of fat, which would be compensated
for by an increase of flesh, increase of health, and
an increase of strength, with the certainty of propa-
gating their kind, would he excellent substitutes.

At the conclusion of the lecture, which was rather
long, occupying an hour and a half in delivery, it
was resolved that another evening should be appro-
priated to the discussion of the various interesting
subjects advanced by the lecturer, and accordingly
Saturday, the 8ih of April, was appointed for this
purpose.

CHEPSTOW FARMERS' CLUB.

The committee, in introducing the first annual
report, cannot commence better than by expressing
their satisfaction at the success which has already
attended the establishment of the Chepstow Far-

mers' Club, which has already a list of 78 members,
and there is every probability to expect a conside-
rable addition to the number in the course of the
ensuing year.

The committee consider it at once, both a plea-
sure and a duty incumbent upon them to express
their gratitude to those gentlemen, who, in becom-
ing honorary members, have so kindly contributed
to the separate fund for the encouragement of
ploughmen, labourers, &c.

The committee are decidedly of opinion, that
nothing can be so conducive to the promotion of
good farming in a neighbourhood as periodical dis-
cussions among practical agriculturists, whose real
knowledge of the subjects must furnish much in-
formation in the form of manifold well-founded
opinions, necessarily varied, owing to the great
diversity of soils and situations ; and which will
eventually prove of mutual benefit to the members.

The committee, though they refer with pleasure
to some very well attended monthly meetings at
which subjects of great interest were discussed,
still they cannot avoid expressing their regret,
that sometimes no discussion took place owing to
the insufficient attendance of members.

The committee have now only to lay before the
members a concise statement of the proceedings
at the monthly meetings during the past year, as
well as a short account of the finances of the club ;
both of which they hope will prove satisfactory.

At the meeting in December, when the club was
established, the time was entirely employed in ap-
pointing officers, ordering books, and forming
rules for the management of the society.

At the January meeting, the subject entered upon
was — " The breed, management, and best mode of
heejnng farm horses."

After some discussion it was resolved, that a
clean-legged cart horse of not less than 15 hands
high is the most useful for agricultural purposes
in this district; and it is much to be regretted
that the Clydesdale breed or the Cleveland is not
introduced into this neighbourhood.

Mr. Baker, V.S. stated, " that a heavy cart horse
with hairy legs is more subject to disease, such as
blindness, farcy, and grease, than the lighter
breeds ; and that black horses are more subject to
diseases than others."

It was resolved, that cart horses should be kept
in a warm shed and open fold-yard, with a suffi-
ciently large manger and no rack, in preference to
a stable ; because horses kept in that manner are
not so liable to distemper.

The best method of keeping farm horses was
stated to he, to cut all their fodder into chaff,
which should consist of two-thirds clover or hay
and one-third wheat straw, with half a bushel of
barley or bean meal and a bushel of bran, with
I401bs. of Swede turnips per week.

At the February meeting, iVIr. Baker, V.S. in-
troduced— " The causes and treatment of the pre-
vailing distemper in cattle and shee])" in the fol-
lowing able paper : —

" The subject you have selected for this evening's
discussion, although not strictly agricultural, is
one of vast importance to the farmer. It is a dis-
ease that has made its appearance amongst our
horned cattle, sheep, and pigs within the last few
years, and has been attended with very serious
and fatal consequences : it is commonly called
"The Distemper."

" The first thing we have to do is to inquire
what is the cause, and if we can remove the cause

354

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

we shall effect a cure ; and I call upon you all for
your knowledge and observations, inviting you to
a free discussion of the subject.

" I confess it is out of my power to account for
it, unless it be produced by more than an ordinary
quantity of wet weather which we have had for
three or four years past, and other atmospheric
changes, which render all animals more susceptible
of disease.

" The symptoms of this complaint I need hardly
describe, as, I believe, there are but few present
who are not acquainted with them, and Lave not
felt their ill effects. If we cannot ascertain the
cause we must try to effect a cure ; and I think, in
most cases, with attention and perseverance this
may be done. The best mode of treatment that
Las come to my knowledge, with horned cattle in
good condition, is, to bleed moderately at the first
onset of the disease, at the same time giving a lax-
ative drench — not a strong purge — as the latter
would tend to debilitate the animal ; nor should
we bleed after the second or third day if there be
much weakness, but depend upon laxative and
fever medicine till the bowels are moderately open,
giving such food as the beast will take most
readily.

" There is one of the effects of this disease which
proves very troublesome, that is, the inflammation
of the feet and the sloughing of the hoofs. When
the beast becomes lame his feet should be searched,
and if you finil the toes or sole soft, pare them
carefully, let out the matter if any has formed, and
apply a Hntseed meal or turnip poultice, and should
any pipes or sinuses he found, dress with a solu-
tion of chloride of lime. Now let me caution you
against using any hot or caustic applications, as
much misciiief has been done by ignorant pre-
teiiders from applying vitriol, butter of antimony,
&c. to the already inflamed parts, which will pro-
duce irritation, fever, and death ; whereas, if
milder means had been employed, nature would
have effected a cure. Warmth and cleanliness
throughout must be strictly observed.

" The foregoing statement applies to more than
ordinary cases, as there arc thousands of animals
affected, which are ill, and get well, unobserved.
The same treatment applies to sheep and pigs as
to the ox.

" Should the few remarks I have made in any
way contribute to the benefit and advancement of
knowledge of this society, and tend to relieve the
sufferings of the brute creation, it will afford me
much satisfaction."

Owing to the small attendance of members, the
discussion was adjourned at the March meeting.

The subject introduced at the April meeting
was — " The best xystem of (/rowing and storing root
crops:" — when it was agreed, that

The land intended for turnips should be
ploughed immediately after harvest ; and, if foul,
the ploughing should be shallow, then dragged,
harrowed, &c., and the weeds taken off or burned.
Before Christmas, as deep a jjloughing should be
given as the nature of the soil will permit.

If the land be clean, then a deep ploughing
should be given at once, and a deep cross plough-
ing before Christmas, taking care always to have
plenty of water furrows, so that the land may lie
dry through the winter.

In the spring, the land should be well dragged
and scuffled, and, if necessary, ploughed again :
should there be any weeds or filth remaining, the
land must be cleaned before the turnips are put in.

Swede turnips, mangel wurzel, and the white

or Belgian carrot, should always have the best
land of the rotation. The wurzel and carrot
should be planted the latter end of March or the
beginning of April ; and if the seed be mixed with
sand, by rubbing the seed and sand together,
these j)lants will come up at once, and get the
start of the annual weeds. Swedes should be
sown from the middle of May to that of June.

It was agreed that the drill system was the
best ; the drills to be from 24 to ;^)0 inches : the
carrot i)lants to be singled out eight or nine inches
apart, and the wurzel and Swedes from ten to
fifteen inches.

In the summer the horse-hoe should be freely
used, particularhj in dry toeather, so long as the
horse can pass between the rows without in-
juring the plants ; the hand-hoe should occasion-
ally be used to cut up any weeds that may escape
the horse-hoe.

The discussion then turned upon the best and
cheapest manure for root crops. One member
stated that he had for the last seven years used
one hundred quarters of bones per annum, half
dust and half half-inch, and that he considered
three quarters per acre (the quantity he uses) was
fully equal, if not superior, to 15 two-horse cart-
loads of good three-quarter rotten dung; and
that he had tried both manures in this proportion
on the same field, and the crop of Swedes, as well
as the after crops of the rotation (barley, clover,
and wheat) were by far the best on the land ma-
nured with bones. The soil was a good loam
resting on limestone. It was unanimously re-
solved, that 20 bushels of bone manure is equal to
15 solid yards of good farm-yard dung, these
being the quantities generally used in this neigh-
bourhood jier acre.

A question then arose as to the value and ad-
vantages as to time in sowing turnips with dung j.
or bone manure, when it was agreed, that with ■
much less labour three times the quantity of land "
can be put in with bone manure.

At the May meeting, few members attending,
the subject of Storing Root Ci-ops was adjourned
to the next meeting.

The June meeting was entirely taken up in
fixing the premiums to be given in October for
ploughing, &c., and in agreeing to send a memorial
to the Royal Agricultural Society to apply for
lecturers. It was also unanimously agreed to re-
commend that the Chepstow Wool Fair in future
shall be held on the 22nd day of June, the present
day often interfering with Monmouth and Cole-
ford fairs.

Owing to the harvest, no meeting took place
either in July or August.

At the meeting in September, the members were
engaged in making arrangements for the plough-
ing match, and naming the judges for the plough-
ing, and to award the other premiums.

At the anniversary, October 18th, the plough-
ing match excited a good deal of interest, and the
ploughing, considering the dry and hard state of
the ground, was well done under three hours, the
quantity being half an acre. The match took
place in a field belonging to Rlr. R. Philpotts.

After the match, upwards of 40 gentlemen dined
together at the George Inn, and spent a very ra-
tional and i)lcasant evening. Mr. S. Matthews,
chairman for the year, presided, and Mr. R. W.
Purchas (for his sen, who was ill) took the vice-
chair.

At the October monthly meeting, a discussion
took place, "On the Vest varieties of Wheat for soiV'

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

355

ing 171 this district, and the best method of pre-
paring the Seed"

Resolved, that the old red Lammas, and a red
wheat called the golden ball, are the best for
winter planting; and the golden ball, giant-
headed, Scotch white, and Hertfordshire white,
are the best for spring planting.

In preparing the seed for planting, many mem-
bers continue the old practice of wetting the seed
with stale urine, and drying with hot lime. Other
members make brine with salt strong enough to
swim an egg, drying with hot lime. Other mem-
bers dissolve 21bs. of blue vitriol in boiling water,
and then add sufficient cold water to saturate a
quarter of wheat ; all of which answer the desired
purpose of preventing smut.

At the November meeting, the chairman intro-
duced the subject of Storing and consuming Moot
Crops, by stating his \>\ax\ to be — to draw the
Swedes when ripe, an:! if possible in dry weather,
and to put one or two cart-loads in a conical heap,
with the roots inside and the tops outside, spread-
ing a bolting of straw on the top to throw offthe
rain. Supposing the crop to be from 18 to 22
tons, the price paid to store as above is 5s. per
acre, labourers' wages being 10s. per week.

It being the day after Christmas-day, so few
members attended in December, that it was ne-
cessary to adjourn the meeting.

In conclusion, the committee wish to impress
on each member, individually, the importance of a
regular attendance at the monthly meetings, as it
is only by keeping up discussions on subjects of
general agricultural utility, that the prosperity of
the Chepstow Farmers' Club can be insured.

The committee also consider that the best
thanks of the club are due to those members who
introduced the various subjects of discussion
during the past year. For the Committee,
R. N. PuRcHAs, Honorary Secretary.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS
AND DISTINCTION OF SOILS.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE EXETEE FLYING POST.

Sir, — There is probably no means more effective
than the periodical press lor promoting and accele-
rating practical improvements. Suggesting experi-
ments as they occur; recording and diffusing the
results as they arise ; and favouring comjiarison and
discussion; it works like a main-spring upon so-
ciety at large, and keeps the whole in activity. To
the present condition of the farmer it is especially

suited. He needs improvement, and is anxious for
it, but has neither means nor time for much study.
It is in the agricultural periodicals, and in the weekly
newspaper, that he must seek his information of
what is going on to his advantage. In these lie finds
suggestions enough ; but, unfortunately, witli re-
sults so often inconsistent, or even contradictory,
that they tend to embarrass and discourage, rather
than to help and excite him.

This is due, in great part, to the indiscriminate
and indefinite names by which the soils are called
in different places; so that it is impossible for the
farmer to be sure on what kind of soil the recorded
experiment was really made.

Thus, any loose clay is called " Marl" in some
parts of England, and "Loam" in others; whilst
the latter name is explained by one writer to mean
a fat earth, by another a mixt'ire of clay, lime, and
sand, without stating proportions ; and by others
differently again. " On referring to books on hus-
bandry," says Sir G. Sinclair, " we read of a hazel
loam, a humid sandy soil, garden mould. Sec; but
owing to the perplexity arising out of the want of
proper definitions, we find it utterly impracticable
to determine what kind of soil is meant; so that of
fifty different kinds I have myself examined, in
various parts of the kingdom, those under the same
name appeared to differ greatly in their respective
qualities."

This disheartening confusion may, happily, be
obviated without much difficulty, by giving the soils
systematic names, according to their properties, and
the proportions of their charucterislic ingredients.

Soils consist chiefly of sand and clay, with more
or less of lime and humus (vegetable mould). Sand
gives porosity and dryness ; clay, compactness and
tenacity; humus, attraction for moisture, warmth,
and nourishment. Lime corrects excess of the others,
and promotes vegetation by decomposing the humus
(and other means). On the proportions of these
four, therefore, depend the general characters of the
soil. (The ingredients also present, in minute quan-
tity, were treated of in my last, and do not require
further notice here.)

Hence we are supplied with a basis for a tabular
arrangement of soils, distinctly intelligible to every
one who uses it ; and by means of which the results
of experiment may be clearly reported, and con-
sistently repeated, from one end of the country to
the other. Distributing them into classes and orders,
according to their proportions of lime and clay, and
subdividing into species, according to the quantity of
humus, all the names will acquire definite meanings,
descriptive of the qualities of the soil : —

Names OF the Different Desckiptions of Soil. Proportions of Ingredients in every 100 Parts.

Classes.

I Orders. | Species. | Clay. | Lime. [ Humus.

1. Argillaceous Soils.
Above 50 per cent, of Clay. .

fPoor

Without Lime.< Middling,
LRich ....

<

Not more than 5 per cent, of Lime. .

fPoor ...
With Lime. ^ Middling
L LRicb ...

Above 50
ditto
ditto

ditto
ditto
ditto

0
0
0

0-5 to 5-0
0-5 to 50
0-5 to 50

0- to 0-5
0-5 to 1-5
1-5 to 5-0

0- to 0-5
0-5 to 1-5
1-5 to 50

2. Loamy Soils.

Not more than 50 nor less than 30
per cent, of Clay •<

fPoor

Without Lime.-( .Middling.
LRicb . . . .

Not more than 5 of Lime,

fPoor

With Lime. -{ Middling.

L LRich ....

30 to 50
ditto
ditto

ditto
ditto
ditto

0
0
0

0-5 to 50
0-5 to 5-0
0-5 to 50

0- to 0-5
0-5 to 1-5
1-5 to 5-0

0- to 0-5
05 to 1-5
1-5 to 50

356

Classes.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

I Orders. | Species. | Clay.

Lime.

Humus.

3, Sandy Loams. f PPoor

—1 — 1 Without Lime.-< Middling.

Not more than 30 nor less than 20 | l^Ricb ....

per cent, of Clay •{

fPoor ....

Not more than 5 of Lime With Lime. -^Middling.

LHlch . . . .

20 to 30
ditto
ditto

ditto
ditto
ditto

0
0
0

0-5 to 50
0-5 to 5-0
0-5 to 50

0- to 0-5

0-5 to 1-5

1-3 to 5-0

0- to 0-5

0-5 to 1-5

1-5 to 5-0

4. Loamy Sands.

Not more than 20 nor less than 10
per cent, of Clay -^

fPoor

Without Lime.<( Middiing.
1 Kich ,..,

("Poor.

Less than 5 per cent, of Lime | With Lime. -( Middling.

L LRich ....

10 to 20
ditto
ditto

ditto
ditto
ditto

0
0
0

0 5 to 5-0
0-5 to 3-0
0-5 to 3-0

0- lo 0-3

0-5 to 1-5

1-5 to 5-0

0' to 0-5

0-5 to 1-3

1-5 to 5-0

5. Sandy Soils.
Not more than 10 per cent, of Clay

f rPoor

Without Lime.< Middling.
LRich ....

Less than 3 per cent, of Lime | With Lime. <{ Middling

L U^ich ...

fPoor.

0' to 10
ditto
ditto

ditto
ditto
ditto

0
0
0

0-5 to 50
0-5 to 50
0-5 to 30

0- to 0-5

0-5 to 1-3

1-5 to 5-0

0' to 0-5

0-3 to 1-5

1-3 to 5-0

6. Marly Soils.

Argill

{Poor
Middling
Rich . . . ,

rPoor. . . .

Loamy. < Middling

LRich ...

More than 5, not more than 20 per
cent, of Lime -^

P.elouging to fPoor. . . .
the Sandy^ Middling
Loams. \_Rich . . .

Belonging to ["Poor. ...
the Loamy<^ Middling
Sands. [_Rich .. .

Humous.

f Clayey..
•^ Loamy .
l^Sandy ..

Above 30
ditto
ditto

30 to 50
ditto
ditto

20 to 30
ditto
ditto

10 to 20
ditto
ditto

Above 50
30 to 50
20 to 30

5 to 20
ditto
ditto

ditto
ditto
ditto

ditto
ditto
ditto

ditto
ditto
ditto

ditto
ditto
ditto

0- to 0-5
0-5 to I'D
1-5 to 5-0

0- to 0-5
0-3 to 1-5
1-3 to 5 0

0- to 0-5
0-5 to 1'5
1-5 to 5-0

0- to 0-3
0'5 to 1-3
1-5 to 5-0

Above 5-0
ditto
ditto

7. Calcaremts Soils.

fPoor

Argillaceous.-^ Middling,
LRich . . . .

Containing more than 20 per cent, of
Lime

rPoor

Loamy. < Middling,
[.Rich ....

Belonging to fPoor

the Sandy< Middling,
Loams. (^Rich . . . ,

Belonging to fPoor

the Loamy< Middling

Sands.

Sandy.

Pure.

LRich ...

{Poor
Middlinc
Rich ...

fPoor

■( Middiing,
L.Rich ....

{Clayey. ,
Loamy.
Sandy . ,

Above 50
ditto
ditto

30 to 50
ditto
ditto

20 to 30
ditto
ditto

10 to 20
ditto
ditto

0 to 10
ditto
ditto

0
0
0

Above 50
30 to 50
20 to 30

Above 20
ditto
ditto

ditto
ditto
ditto

ditto
ditto
ditto

ditto
ditto
ditto

ditto
ditto
ditto

Above 99
" 98
" 94

Above W

" 20
(, 20

0- to 0-5
0-5 to 1*5
1-5 to 30

0- to 0-5
0-5 10 1-5
1-3 to 5-0

0* to 0-5
0-3 to 1-5
1-5 to 5-0

0- to 0-5
0'3 to 1-3
1'3 to 5-0

0- to 0'3
0-5 to 1-3
1-5 to 5-0

0- to 0'5
1-5 to 1'5
5-5 to 5-0

Above 6'0
ditto
ditto

Classes.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 3o7

I Orders. | Species. | Clay. | J.iine. | Humus.

8. Humous Soils.

r

Soluble milil
Humus.

rchi

lyey .

oamy ,

niiy .

Insoluble car- fClayey.
C oiitaiuing more (ban .t per cent, of-^ bonized or acid-( Loamy.
Humus Humus. l^Sandy .

and

Insoluble f Bo

I fibrous Vege-«^ Peat

l^ table Matter. L Eartb

Above 50
30 to 50
'20 to 30

Above 50
30 to 50
20 to 30

Witb or

without

Lime.

Witb or

witliout

Lime.

Witb Lime.
Witliout Lime.

Above 5*0
ditto
ditto

ditto
ditto
ditto

ditto
ditto

Tbe remainder of the 100 parts, in each case, is
Sand.

If (bis table, which we again owe chiefly to Dr.
Daubeny, were in the hands of every intelligent
farmer in tbe kingdom, it would surprisingly obviate
the inconsistencies and disappointments, so perplex-
ing in agricultural experiments. To make it clear
at first, however, some explanation is requisite.

EXPLANATION OF THE TABLE.

The reader will bear in mind that tbe general
l)roperties of soils depend on the iiroportions they
contain of sand, clay, lime, and hunuis. The
classes and orders are generally regulated according
to the lime and clay ; the species according to the
humus. — (See the table.)

The table begins with those soils which contain
little or no lime; at the utmost, less than five per
cent. ; of which there are five classes, depending on
the proportion of clay they contain.

Tliose which possess fifty per cent, of clay arc
classed under the head of Argillaceous Soils,
and are distinguished into two orders ; the first
wholly destitute of lime, the second containing less
than five per cent, of that earth. Each of these
orders are then subdivided into three 5/)ccie5, distin-
guished as rich, poor, and intermediate, according
to the proportion of humus or vegetable mould
present in them. If the amount of this mould be
not more than one-half per cent., the soils are called
poor, as the fertility of a soil is in all cases greatly
influenced by the proportion of this ingredient; if
it varies from 0' 3' to I' 5* per cent, it is called
middling; if from 1' 6' to 5' 0* per cent, it is dis-
tinguished as rich.

The second c?«55 of soils comprehends those which
contain from 30 to 50 per cent, of clay, and is deno-
minated Loamy. These likewise are divided into
two orders, the one with, the other without lime ;
and again into three species, according to the pro-
portion of vegetable mould present in them.

The third class embraces those soils which con-
tain not more than 33 nor less than 20 per cent, of
clay. They are called Saxdy Loams, and are sub-
divided into orders and species, on the same prin-
ciple as before.

In the next, or fourth class, under the denomi-
nation of Loamy Sands, are ranged those soils
which contain from 10 to 20 per cent, of clay ; the
remainder, with the exception of the small per cen-
tage of limestone and humus they may contain,
consisting of sand.

The fifth class, designated as Sandy, includes all
those soils in which the proportion of clay does not
exceed 10 per cent. ; and here again the same sub-
divisions are adopted.

Hitherto the amount of calcareous matter present
is not supposed to exceed b per cent. ; but the next

two classes are dependent on their contents of lime;
their orders being determined by the clay.

Marly' soils, the sixth class, contains 5 to 20 per
cent.of carbonatcof lime; andai'C to be distinguished
into five orders ; of which the first, called argilla-
ceous, or clayey, contains above 50 per cent, of
clay ; the second, loaimj, from 30 to 60 ; the third,
sandy loamy, from 20 to 30 ; the fourth, loamy
sandy, from 10 to 20 ; and the fifth is distinguished
by the larger proportion of humus, which exceeds
in quantity five per cent, of the whole, and is there-
fore denoted as humous Marl : which last is divi-
ded into three species — viz., argillaceous, or clayey,
whicli contains above 50 per cent, of clay ; loamy,
which contains from 30 to 50 per cent. ; and sandy,
possessing from 20 to 30 per cent, of the same in-
gredient.

We next arrive at that class of soils which con-
tains more than 20 per cent, of carbonatcof lime,
and which is therefore distinguished as calcareous,
or limy. These are subdivided as the marly class,
according to the proportion of clay they may con-
tain. When this earth exists in more than the pro-
portion of 50 per cent, they are to be called argilla-
ceous, or clayey ; when it is from 30 to 50, loamy ;
when from 20 to 30, they are said to belong to the
sandy loanis of the calcareous class ; when from 10
to 20, to the loamy sands ; and when either desti -
tute of clay altogether, or containing, at most, only
10 per cent, of it, they are called sandy.

Lastly, a calcareous soil, which contains more
than five pre cent, of vegetable mould, belongs to
the seventh order ; that of humous calcareous soils,
of which there are three species — viz., the argilla-
ceous, the loamy, and the sandy — characterised, as
before, by the larger or smaller proportion of
clay present in them.

A short recapitulation will make all this very
clear and simple.

Thus the reader will sec that the name rgilla-
ceous, or clayey, is applied to all soils containing
above 50 per cent, clay ; loamy to all between 30 to
50; sandy loam to all between 20 and 30; and so
of the others to whichever class they belong.

That the term marly applies to all soils contain-
ing from 5 to 20 per cent, lime ; and calcareous or
limy, to all above 20 per cent. lime.

That the terms rich, middling, and poor, apply
to all soils according to their proportions of humus,
under five per cent., and the term humous to all
above that proportion.

The first five classes being named after the clay
they contain, and their orders after the lime.

The sixth and seventh classes, after the lime and
their orders after the clay, and the species, in each
class, (except the 8th) after the humus.

There is also a clwss termed Humous, of which
the whole contain above 3 per cent., sometimes a

358

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

great deal more, and from which they derive their
n-dmc. This is the eighth and last class, and is dis-
tinguished into three orders. The first consists of
soluble mild humus, that is of that description of
vegetable mould which is in a fit condition to nour-
ish the plants that grow in it ; the second of acid
humus— viz., containing a free acid, which by its
presence is highly destructive to most kinds of ve-
n-etation. A third order consists of fibrous vegetable
matter, such as peat, which, though not acid, is yet
in a condition little fitted for imparting nourish-
ment to plants. These orders are again subdivided
into argillaceous, loamy, and sandy, according to the
proportion of clay present in them ; and lastly, dis-
tinguished into two species, the one containing, the
other destitute of, calcareous matter.

But the question will now naturally arise — how is
the farmer to know the proportions of clay, lime,
humus, and sand, in his soils; and of what use is
the table to him until he can ascertain them ? We
must answer this by showing him an easy and sim-
ple method of separating them and determining
their proportions. Such is the following

Rough and Rapid Analysis.

Take a glass tube three quarters of an inch in inter-
nal diameter, and three feet long ; fit a cork into one
end, and set it upright ; fill it half full of pure
water ; take nearly as much water as has been
poured into the tube, and mix with it the portion of
soil which is to be examined, in quantity not more
than will occupy six inches of the tube (say three-
quarters of an ounce,) pour the mixture rapidly into
the tube, and let it stand in a corner of the room, or
supported upright in any way. In half an hour
it may be examined. The earths will have been de-
posited according to the size and specific
gravity of their particles. The portion still sus-
pended in the water may be allowed to settle ; and
there will appear in the tube layers of sand, clay,
and humus, which may be measured by a scale (a
common carpenter's rule will do), and thus the
proportions nearly ascertained.

See Example at foot. (1.)
AVhen a farmer is about to hire a farm, of which
the quality is not well known to him, he may be
much assisted in his judgment by this experiment,
if he has no time or opportunity for a more accurate
analysis. For the glass tube may be sub-
stituted one of tin or zinc, two feet in length, with
a piece of glass tube, a foot long, joined to it by
means of a brass collar or ferrule, with a screw cut
in it, which is cemented to the glass, and screws
on the metal tube; and thus the instrument may
be made more portable : or still cheaper with sliding
joints tightened with twine, like those of a flute,
instead of the screw. When the water has been
poured off, and the earths only remain, the cork
may be taken out, and the contents pushed out on
a jdate, by means of a rod and plug which fit the
internal diameter of the tube. They may thus be
more particularly examined.

Thus Avc have a rough estimate of the proportions
of sand, clay, and humus ; there remains still to de-
termine the proportion of lime.

For this purpose some of the soil must be dried;
spread out thin on a saucer or plate, put over a
saucepan of water kept boiling for half an hour, or
till the soil loses no more weight : or over a gentle
fire, stirring with a chip of wood, which should not
be discoloured by the heat, 200 grains of this
dry soil (weighed exactly) must he put into a cup

and a little aqua fortis, or muriatic acid, diluted
with four times its weight of wafer, poured on it. A
table spoonful of the mixed acid and water will be
generally enough for 200 grains. If there is any
sensil)le proportion of lime, there will be an efier-
vesccnce ; and if this is considerable, a little more
diluted acid may he added, when it is quiet, and re-
peated as long as it renews the effervescence ; but
this will only happen on very limy soils. When all
is quiet, the water should still taste sour, to prove
there has been acid enough. iVlore water is then to
be added, and the solution well washed out of the
soil, on a filter. The residue is then to be dried
just as before, and weighed again. The loss will
give the carbonate of lime carried off by the acid.
Say 3 grs. = !§ per cent. — (See Example at foot.)
(2).

This very simple and easy method is, however,
neither very complete nor distinct. As in other
cases, practice will give skill and facility : and
with practice it may be sufficient for our present in-
fant state of agricultural science.

But for those who have patience and skill to go
through with it, I hope to send the details of a more
accurate process for your next, or when you have
convenient room for it.

Being, Sir, &c.,

J. Prideaux.

(1-)

Depth of

Sand ,

Clay

Humus. . . .

Example.

Tenths of

Inches, Inch. Per Cent.

3i 35 58-3

2j 23-3 38-9

I 1-7 2,8

60 100

(2.) Suppose the lime to have come, 1 grain from
the sand, and the 5 grain from the clay, the
soil will be named and classed in the table, as
follows : —
Sand, 57-3.

Clay, 38-4, between 30 and 50 -loamy. Class 2.
Lime, 1.5, with lime. Order 1.
Humus 2-8, between 1,5 and 5 rich, species 3 ;
and it will be a rich loamy soil, with lime.

THE GYPSUM EXPERIMENT.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Sir,— Allow me to offer one remark on Mr.
Bree's letter, respecting "the Gypsum Experiment"
which appears in your paper of the 13th inst. He
recommends the liquid collected in the tubs to be
spread regularly over the land, previous to plough-
ing in the stable manure. Now, would it not be
more beneficial, and its eff'ects more certain, if ap-
plied when the crop is somewhat advanced ; the
decomposition of the ammonia and the assimilation
of the nitrogen being perfect only when the plants
are in a growing state 1 Considering the small pro-
portion of nitrogen required by the straw in com-
parison with that contained in the grain, would
not the influence of the weather on the soil so far
modify the eff'ects of the sulphate of ammonia as to
render it almost useless, if the directions of Mr.
Bree were followed ?

I am, sir, your very obedient servant,

Hy, Jno.Turnek.

Bishopsgate-sireet, \bth March.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

359

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.

At a weekly Council, iieM at the Society's House,
in llanovur Square, on Wednesday, the 29th of
ftlarch, present, Thomas Raymond Barker, Esq., in
the Chair; J5arous;h Almack, Esq.; David Barchiy,
Esq., INI.P. ; VV. ^R. Browne, Esq.; French Buri<e,
Esq.; George Cottatn, Esq. ; Humphrey Gibbs, Esq.;
Sir John Johnstone, Bart., M.P. ; John Kinder, E<q. ;
Sir Francis Mackenzie, Bart. ; W. Woods Page, Esq. ;
Rev. W. G. Rliam; Piofes.sor Sewell ; I, Spencer
Stanhope, Esq. ; and Colonel Wood, M.P.

JMr. BuUen, Secretary of the Royal Agricultural
Improvement Society of Ireland, transmitted to the
Society the Prize Sheet of that Society, and informed
the Council that the next Cattle Show of the Society
would be held in Belfast on Thursday, the 31st of Au-
gust, on which occasion it was confidently iioped that
many members of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England would be able to attend as well a^ to send over
some stock to the Meeting ; the time of meeting, in
order to suit all parties, having been chosen to come
after the English and Highland Shows, and the locality
such as to be easily reached from all quarters.

Mr. Alexander Nicholl, of the Royal Exchange Court,
Glasgow, transmitted to the Council a statement of the
peculiar advantages attending the use of the Concrete
Furrow Draining of Lord James Hay, of Seaton, in
Aberdeen.'hire.

Mr. Baker, of Cottesmore, transmitted to the Coun-
cil a collection of facts, illustrated by coloured plans,
relative to the capabilities and cultivalioa of the soil
upon the Small Allotment System in Rutlandshire. This
communication was referred to the Journal Committee.

The Council then adjourned to Wednesday next the
5th of April.

At a Monthly Council, hell at the Society's House
in Hanover Square, on Wednesday, the 5th of
April, present, Philip Pusey, Esq., M.P., in the chair ;
Earl of Euston ; 'I'homas William Bramston, Esq.,
M.P. ; French Burke, Esq. ; Colonel Challoner ;
Charles Robert Colvile, Esq., M.P.; Humphrey
Gibbs, Esq. ; Brandreth Gibbs, Esq.; Stephen Grant-
ham, Esq.; William Goodenough Haytcr, Esq.,
RI.P. ; Vrilliam Fisher Hobbs, Esq.; Samuel Jonas,
Esq. ; John Kinder, Esq. ; Sir Francis Mackenzie,
Bart.; Sir Robert Price, Bart,, M.P.; Rev. W. L.
Rham ; Johua Rodwell, Esq.; Professor Sewell; and
William Shaw, Esq.

Finances.

Colonel Challoner presented to (he Council the
Monthly Report of the Finance Committee, held that
day; from which it appeared that the receipts during
the month of March had been 1,180/., and the current
cash balance in the hands of the Ijankers, on the last
day of that month, had amounted to the sum of 2,065l. ;
the Committee accordingly recommending that a fur-
ther purchase of IjOOOZ. stock should be mjide in the
New 31 per Cents, in the name of the Society.

This Report was confirmed by the Council and its
recommendation adopted.

PnizE Essay on Stuong Land.

]\Jr. Pusey reported, on the part of the Journal Com-
mittee, that the prize of 20Z. offered by the Society for
the best Essay on the Rotations of Crops for Heavy
* Lands, had been adjudged to Mr. William Stace, of
Berwick, near Lewes, Sussex, for his Essay on that
subject, which would appear in the next Part of the
Journal.

Meeting at Dekbv.

Colonel Challoner, Vice-Chairman of the General
Derby Committee, laid before the Council the Report
of the Committee held that day, on the airangements
of the ensuing Meeting, connected with the Show
Yard, Dinners, Trial of Implement Field, the free ad-
mission of exhibitors to the Yard, the advertisement

relating to Certificates, and the Conveyance of Pas-
sengers, Stock, and Implements to the Meeting by the
various lines of Railway in junction with the Derby
Station.

Mr. Colvile, BI.P., Chairman of the Derby Local
Committee, informed the Council that the Committee
of Directors of the Midland Counties Railway, ap-
pointed to arrange the Trains and Fares for the Society's
Meeting at Derby in July, had decided to sui)ply any
number of special trains which might be required on
that occasion, requiring only the usual fares for passers,
and only half the fares for cattle and farming im-
plements.

These Reports were adopted and confirmed by the
Council.

AnnEAn of Subscription.

Mr. Gibbs obtained leave to postpone his motion, on
the date at which subscriptions should be considered as
in arrear, until the next monthly council.

Publication of Journal.
I\lr. Pusey, M.P., brought forward his motion on
the publication of the Journal, when it was resolved,
" That in future the Journal shall be issued in half
volume* twice in the year, containing the same amount
of matter as heretofore."

Analysing Chemist,
Mr. Pusey also brought forward his motion, of which
due notice had also been given, on the appointment of
an Analysing Chemist to the Society, when Dr. Lyon
Playfair, of the Royal Institution, Manchester, was
unanimously elected to that office. Mr. Pusey informed
the Council that Dr. Playfair was at that time engaged
in establishing at Manchester a chemical laboratory for
the purposes of his scientific investigations, connected
with the subject of Agricultural Chemistry, and where
he would receive from the Society all enquiries the
Council might think proper to make of him, charging
all business referred to him by them a' the mere cost of
manipulation, and icplying, without charge, to all their
letters of consultation ; individual applications of a
professional character, being subject, according to the
special nature of the enquiry and consequent investiga-
tion, to a certain scale of charges, which would be left
with the Secretary lor the information of the Members.

Model Farms.

The following gentlemen were appointed a Com-
mittee to examine into the details of Sir Francis
Mackenzie's suggestions for the establishment of
Model Farms in England and Wales :— Earl Spencer,
Earl of Euston, Earl of Ducie, Mr. Browne, Mr.
Burke, i\lr. Hobbs, Sir Francis Mackenzie, Rev. Mr.
Rhim, and Mr. Shaw.

Mr. Sandbach's ofl'er of land for an experimental
farm in North Wales was referred to the same com-
mittee.

Bokhara Cloveu and Luceune.
Messrs. Thomas Gibbs and Co. presented specimens
of the Bokhara clover, Lucerne, spotted chicory, Pas-
tel, and Swiss chard beet. Mr. H, Gibbs stated that
the specimens on the table were intended to illustrate
the comparative earliness of Bokhara clover, Lucerne,
&c., and had been grown on a sharp mould on a gra-
velly subsoil, at their Experimental Garden at Bromp-
ton : the Lucerne appearing clearly from this trial to
be earlier in its growth than the Bokhara clover. He
further stated that he had that morning offered some of
the fresh Bokhara clover to one of his father's horses,
which was at hard work but upon good keep, and that
it had refused to eat it. That he then offered to the
same horse a portion of the Lucerne, which was taken
with avidity. The two being mixed, the horse picked
out the Lucerne, and could be made to eat only two
small portions of the clover.

CoUNinY Meeting of 1S45.
Mr. S. Brittain, Secretary of the Chester Agricul-
tural Society, communicated to the Council a memo-

360

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

rial from the Chyirman and Committee of that Sociely,
soliciting Ihc Society to hold its Annual Country
Meeling of 1845 in that City.

Alderman Copeland presented, through Mr, Jona-:, a
sample of Wheat from Lima; Mr. Stokes transmitted
the preparation of Hernia with Dr. Lloyd's statement
of the peculiarities of the case; Mr. Wills, a commu-
nication on the employment of the Poor; Mr. Spencer
Stanhope, a statement of the weight of an ox in 1732 ;
Mr. Shaw, a copy of Mr. Hannam's Essay on Rape
Dust ; Professor Sewell, a copy of the last Number of
the 'J'ransactioDS of the Veterinary Association ; and
the Pioprittors, the last No. of the Annals of Chemistry.

The Council having then ordered a completed set of
the Society's Journal to be transmitted to the Royal
Academy of Sciences at Munich, adjourned over the
Easter Recess to Wednesday the 26th of April,

NEW MEMBERS.
The following gentlemen were elected members of
the Society : —

The Honourable Colonel E. G. Douglas Pennant^ of
Penrhyn Castle, near Bangor, North Whales, was
elected a Governor.

Abney, William Wootton, Mea^ham Hall, near A»hby-

dc-la Zouch, Leicestershire
Allsiip, Henry, Burton-on-Tient, Staffordshire
Avery, Thomas, Gloucester
Bainbrigge, Thomas Parker, Derby
Bateman, Thomas Osborne, Stanley, near Derby
Brookes, John, EastHallon, near Barton-on-Humber
Chesterfield, The Earl of, Brclby Park, Dcrbyshiie
Copestake, Thomas Goodall, Kiik Langley, Derby
Crewe, Edmund Lewis, Repton Park, near Derby
Dean, Henry, Weston, Petersfield, Hanti
Freebody, William Yates, No. 9, Duke-strecf, West-
minster
Fosbroke, Thomas, the Hagg, Stavely, near Chester-
field
Gething, William, St. Julian's, 'Newport, Mon-

moutiishirc
Hammond, Thomas, Pen&hurst,nearToiibrid!re, Kent
Hodgkinsoo, John, Hardwick, Derbyshire
Holding, Henry, Shaldon, near Alton, Hants
Jepson, John, Rowthorne, Derbysiiirc
Jessopp, Francis Johnson, Derby
Knowles, Joshua, AttcrclifFe, nrar Sheffield
Llewellyn, William, Court-colman, Bridgend, Gla-

moreranshire
Lloyd, William, Ludlow, Salop
Marsland, Thomas, Henbury Hall, Rlacclcsfield
Mold, Charles John, Makeney, near Derby
Morley, James, Stanton Hall, Slanion-by-Dale, near

Derby
Mousley, Jolin, Derby
I'wlgrave, Charles Frederick, Bedford
Pelhain, the Hon. Capt. Dudley, St. Lawrence, New-
port, Ible of Wight
Poystr, George, Weston Underwood, near Derby
]logerson, Joseph, Algerkirk, near Boston, Lincoliish.
Shaw, William, the«Great Hotel, Buxton, j^erbyshire
Spencer, John, Udstone Hall, Rleasham, near Ashby-

de la Zouch, Leicestershire.
S|)iUbury, Ihe Rev. Francis Ward, Wil'.ington, near

Derby
Stevens, Henry, Duffield, near Derby
Thornewill, Robert, Burton-upon-Trent, Staffordshire
Turner, William, Derby

Turner, Thomas, Castwood Farm,Rotherham,Yorksh.
Walker, I.Ewart, M.D., 23, Edward- street, Portland-
place
Wass, Joseph, Lea, near Matlock Bath, near Wirks-

worth, Derbyshire
Wheatcrolt, Da»id, Buckland Hollow, Derbyshire
Wilmot, the Rev. Richard Coke, Edenson, near Bake-
well, JJerbyshire
Wyley, William, Vineyard, near WclliDgton, Salop.

EFFECTS OF PUTRID VEGETA-
BLES, &c,, ON THE GROWTH OF
PLANTS.

It is well known that in adding decomposing ve-
getable matter to the soil, we supply to plants
those substances which enter into their composi-
tion, and which exist in different states of combi-
nation. When such matter is to be applied as a
manure to plants whose roots arc confined in pots
or any other given space, it must be made soluble
in water ; and chemical analysis plainly shows that
all plants are resolvable into a certain number of
simple bodies, and that these bodies enter readily
into combination with water. Water, therefore, is
apparently the source through which tliis nutriment
is to be conveyed to the absorbent vessels : and
wishing to have ocular proof of the effects of such a
liquid, and tliat too in as economical a way as pos-
sible, I had an upright cask, with one end taken out,
filled with leaves of cabbage and any other snccu-
le)it plants ; tlicse were pressed down, and rain-
water was added until the mass rose level with the
surface. In this state putrefaction proceeded quickly,
and in three or four weeks it was complete; this,
however, depends entirely upon the state of the
weather. That I might be the more certain of its
fertilizing effects, 500 scarlet Pelargoniums were
subjected to an experiment. These had been ex-
posed for the greater part of the year to all the va-
riations of the weather, being pot-bound, having
literally nothing to subsist on but what was sup-
plied to them in a fluid state. One-half of them
weic supplied with the liquid from the cask, the
other half with rain-water, and this experiment was
carried on for upwaids of a month — a sufficient
time to prove its usefulness. At the expiration of
that period, no oncignorantof their treatment could
liave believed that they were all of the same age,
and had been treated alike in every other respect;
the difference was so much in favour of those that
had been supplied with vegetable liquid; they had
not only grown more vigorously, but their leaves
were larger, and of a darker green. However fer-
tilizing this liquid may be of itself, it is made still
more so by the addition of animal urine in lien of
rain-water.' I also found that the vegetable fibre
decomposed with greater facility when acted njion
by the urine of cattle in a fresh state, at the same
time that the latter forms a liquid, holding in solu-
tion all the ingredients that constitute the food of
plants, and fitted to supply nutrition in that form
in which it can be received by the most minute
spongioles. When orange-trees, that had been
sickly for some years, were supplied with this ]i(]uid,
their leaves turned from yellow to green, they
bloomed freely, and set their fruit the same year.
That this fluid may not receive more than its due,
I will subjoin the previous treatment of the above ■
plants. Early in spring, uU the earthy matter was fl
washed from their roots ; they were ]-epotted in J
fresh soil, and plunged in a gentle hot-bed, where
they made ninnerous fibres. The liquid was then
copiously given ; and at no time shonhl this or any
other artificial liquid, unless in a very diluted state,
be applied to plants where a deflciency'of fibres ex-
ists. I have supplicfl this liquid to numerous stove
and green-house plants, with very beneficial results,
more especially to those with succulent roots, and
at no time did it destroy or foil in its effects. Un-
less sulphuric acid, or some other fixing substance
is mixed with it, this liquid cannot be used in any
confined apartment, on account of the noxious ef-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

3G1

fluvitt thiit is given oft". Wlierc a constant supply
is required, two casks or cisterns are uecessarj', that
the contents of one may be putrifying wliile the
other is in use; tlie portion that remains after the
liquid is drawn oS, if mixed with light loam, forms
an excellent compost. — jR. P. Drummondf foreman,
Minto House, Roxburghshire.

THE CHALLENGE— SCOTCH
FARMING.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE HLHEFORD TJMES.

Sir, — I observe in your paper a letter headed
" Scotch Farming— a Cliallen>?e." There are certain
facts animadverted upon in that letter, which hive
often formed the subject of my own observation.
Scotch farmer^ in England h<ive been more remarkable
for want of success than otherwise ; and that nearly in
proportion as they attempted to intioduce Scotch
modes. The inhabitants of a di>lrict must always
know v.'hat is best adapted (or that district. They are
indebted for thi« knowledge to experience. The tarmer
who has been trained in one district, therefore, culti-
vates land to a disadvantage in another. This observa-
tion is applicable to farmers who migrate from one
county of England to another, as well as to those who
come from Scotian 1, altiiough in a lers degree. But
are we to allow error to steal its way into our mind?,
side by side with truth, and do the greater harm be-
cause it keeps such re>n.ictable company? Are we,
from the undeniable facts stated above, to assume that
agriculture has never been benefited by the migration
of farmers from one distric to another ? or that England
has derived no advantage from Scotch larming? Scot-
land lies under similar obligations to England, and
they have been to each other as two individuals in so-
ciety deriving mutual advantage from an iaterchangc
of good offices. Has it never come within Alessrs.
Winnyl and Pierce's own observation, that the success-
ful farmer is seldom the introducer of a new improve-
ment?—that, the experimental farmer (and every
stran^-er is one lo a certain extent) has made his experi-
ments at hi? own cost, and to his serious loss? — that
lie has been laughed at by his neighbours? who, never-
less, have profited by his experiments. Let us make a
supposition, the opposite of what usually take.^ place :
let us suppose that the English farmer migrates into
Scotland ; suppose also he takes with him his two-
wheeled plough, his team of four horses or six cattle,
and conducts his other operations on a corrcponding
i^cale of slow-pactd magnificence- Now, do Messrs.
Pierce and \Vinnal suppose that the English farmer
will be one whit more successful in Scotland than the
Scotch generally are in England? Will he be better
able to contend with a late and precarious climate than
the natives themselves aie ? I am afraid not ; and yet
I will venture to assert, that one of those champion
agriculturists — those Goliaths who are to stand forth
and frighten the armies of Scotch farmers in England,
shall not go into Scotland and teike a farm, without
\ conferring an advantage upon the district he goes to.

Messrs. Pierce and Winnal assert that "we beat
I them upon the ploughing system, so far as expenses
) go.'' Efficiency must always be an element in our cal-
! culations, in comparing the expenses of two ditferent
modes of husbandry. In that vicwv, I will stake 10/.,
that with four-horse teams they cannot match Scotch
ploughing, so far as expenses go. I will farther as-ert
that, in all llerefordsliire and Worcestershire both, they
will not find ten contiguous parishes so efficiently
ploughed with four-horse ploughs as ten I will find in
one of the smallest Scotch counties, where no more
than two horses have ever been used, I will lay ex-
pense out of view in this last instance, and assume alone
the test of efficiency, depth, and regularity of furrow.

R.

HIGHLAND and AGRICULTURAL
SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND.

MONTHLY MEETING IN THE MUSEUM.

(from the epinburgh evening courant.)

The monthly meeting was held on Wednesday
last, Sir William Jardiue, Bart., in the chair.

» * « # *

The next paper was a "Report of Experiments
on the comparative value of some manures in rais-
ing turnips," by John Dudgeon, Esq., Spylan, read
by iMr. Stephens. Tlio object of the experiments
was to ascertain the value of guano as compared
with some other kinds of manure; and so satisfied
is the author with the feitilising powers of that sub-
stance, that he has made arrangements to have this
season upwards of sixty acres of turnip lands pre-
pared with it alone.

'J'he comparative trials were made in three diffe-
rent fields, the conditions being varied in each. The
first experiment was upon a field lying upon a slope,
with a southern exposure, the soil consisting of a
gocd loan upon a retentive subsoil ; the upper jjart
of the field, for about a fourth of its length, gradu-
ally becoming shallower in soil, and resting upon a
hard niuirland pan, so that the value of the lower
portion of the field, as compared with the upper, may
be estimated at 3 to 1. This field had been but im-
perfectly drained. It was dunged in the usual way,
immediately before sowing, with well-prepared farni-
} ard manure, at the rate of about eighteen cubic yards
to the acre, with the exception of that portion to
which guano was applied. Two ordinary drills for the
latter were selected at random, and the guano distri-
buted in them by the hand, without any mixture, at
the rate of three cwt. per acre ; leaving an interval cf
three drills, which were manured like the rest of the
field. Two other drills were treated with guano at
the rate of four cwt. per acre ; and finally, with a
similar space intervening, two drills with guano at
the rate of fully more th-in five cwt. per acre. No
difference a])peared in the turnips (which were the
variety named Dale's Hybrid) previous to singling,
or thinning the plants with the hoe. After that,
however, the superiority of the drills with the guano
became manifest, and continued to increase with
the growth of the turnips, particularly in those
drills which received the greatest quantity, till the
whole were carted off in October; when the produce
(topped and rooted) of the whole six drills was
weigheJ, each two, as differing in the quantity of
guano applied, compared with two drills immedi-
ately adjoining, on which the farm-yaid manure had
been used. 'I'he following was the result : —

cwt. St.

Two drills with guano, 5 cwt. per acre. . 25 5

„ dung, 18 yards „ .. 18 7

„ guano, 4 cwt ,, . . 22 6

„ dung, 18 yards „ .. 19 7

„ guano, 3 cwt. ,, . . 20 6

„ dung, 18 yards ,, .. 19 i!

In the second experiment a comparative trial was

made between guano and bone-dust mixed with coal

ashes. The ashes were sifted, and in imately mixed

with the bones some days before being applied, in

the proportion of sixteen bushels of bones and eight

of ashes per acre. Tlie quantity of guano appliei

was at the rate of three cwt. per acre upon four

drills, two and two together, at an interval of eight

drills manured with bones and ashes. '1 hen, at a

similar interval, followed two drills operated upon

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362

THE FARMEii'S MAGAZINE.

with guano, togetlier with sulphate of soda (^'lauber
salts), at the rate of four cwt. per acre, beinc^ tha
only instance in tlie course ot these experiments
ill which any foreign substance was used with tlio
guano. The turnips w^-vc drawn about the end
of November, and on a couijiarison of the weight of
the crop on two of the four drills done with guano
alone, with the produce of tlie average of four
drills nearly immediately adjoining, manured with
bone-dust and ashes, the re.sult stood thus (the
plants being topped and rooted^ : —

cwt. St.

Guano 23 2

Bone-dust, &c 19 2

Guano and sulphate of soda 23 0

In the third experiment guano was used against
bone-dust alone, applied, as is usual in that district,
at the rate of 16 bush, per acre. The guano was used
at the rate of two cwt. only per acre. Tlie drills ma-
nured with the latter showed a very decided supe-
riority, and were ready for the hoe fully eight days
earlier than the rest of the held. This more vigorous
growth they maintained throughout ; and when the
turnips (the white stone globe variety) were weighed
on the 22nd March, after standing throughout the
■winter, the result was as follows (the roots and tops
being in this instance retained) : —

cwt. St.

Two drills guano 31 4

" " bone-dust 24 7

Mr. Dudgeon mentions in a subsequent communica-
tion, that he has applied guano as a top dressing to
■winter wheat after potatoes, and that the ridges
which were thus treated are now showing a decided
superiority to the others; and in contradistinction
to that first rush of vegetation which follows upon the
use of nitrate of soda, it is only of late that the
guano has exhibited its effects, though applied with
the seed in October. From all that he has seen,
Mr. Dudgeon is of opinion that the effects of guano
will not be so evanescent as some suppose, but that
it will impart a benefit to the soil of considerable
permanency. He had the gratification of showing
the efiPects of some of his experiments to Professo'r
Liebig, who seemed much delighted with the style
of their operation, and declared that no experiments
could be more accurately and fairly performed, even
in the laboratory. Dr.' Traill made a few remarks
on the production and probable endurance of the
supply of this valuable manure.

Productiveness of the Vine. — Mr.
John Mearns, F.H.S., curator of the Leeds Zoological
and Botanical Gardens, in a recently published book
on the " Pot-Culture of the Grape," savs— " I have had
berries of the black Tripoli kind frequently above two
inches in girth, and perfectly formed. A good sized
bunch of some of the best sorts will weigh from one
to (our pounds ; but bunches of the Syrian grape have
been grown that have weighed forty pounds, and in
this country, (rem ten to nineteen pounds weight. A
single vine in a large pot, or grown as a dwarf stan-
dard, in the manner practised in the vineyards in the
North of France, generally produces from three to
nine bunches ; but Mr. Loudon observes, that by supe-
rior management in gardens in England, the number
of branches is prodigiously increased, and that one
plant ol the red Hamburgh sort, in the vinery of the
royal gardens at Hampton Court, has produced 2200
bunches, avera^ng one pound each, or in all nearly a
ton. That at Valentine's in Essex (j/,s parent), has pro-
duced 2000 bunches, of nearly the same averajre
weight."

LANDLORDS AND TENANTS.

TO THR EDITOR OF TtIR NORTHAMPTON HEHALU.

i^iR, — Through ths kindness of a friend, I have
had your paper forwarded to me, in which you
give (you say at the urgent request of several
most respectable farmers,) my remarks on the pre-
sent unjust system of farm tenure. You have not,
however, thought proper to leave your readers to
form their own unbiassed opinion, but have gone
into some lengthy, but I think rather flimsy argu-
ments, condemnatory of the principle advanced.

Now, sir, as you claim to be regarded as the
friend of the farmers, in contra- distinction to
" your Anti-Corn and Anti- Agricultural contem-
porary," you must allow me to test your since-
rity and love of fair plav, by requesting the inser-
tion of this rejoinder. You say, " it would not be
politic to effect the proposed change if possible,
nor possible if politic ; that it would rouse the in-
dignation of great landlords, and also of little far-
mers." How little farmers more than great ones,
by-the-bye, could be injured by reaping the fruit of
their own improvements, I confess I am quite at
a loss to divine.

But it will save the reader perplexity to give
at once the summary of our proposition. VVe
state fearlessly then, that the statute law of the
land, as at present existing, does not hold the
scales of justice with equal hand between landlord
and tenant. Take an example — let a farmer, being
tenant at will, commence the most spirited im-
provements, first at home, by planting a beautiful
orchard, put down a pump where none existed be-
fore, add never so many buildings to the farm
homestead; and is it not notorious that on leaving,
if he were to attempt to touch a particle of them,
an action at law would lie against him for injuring
the freehold 1

But let him also be as spirited in the field as at
home — let him employ the whole of the surplus la-
bourers of the neighbourhood in draining the
strong land, marling that which was too light, pur-
chase manures on the most extensive scale ; and
then be unlucky enough to kill an old fat bare, fat-
tened, by-the-bye, on his own Swedish turnips; or
be naughty enough to thinkfor himself, and give an
adverse vote at an election, and in six short months
this tenant may be sent adrift. And where, I ask,
is the statute that will award him a single farthing
for his improvements ? although the farm may be
very cheap to his successor at a greatly advanced
rent. But even in the absence of any of the above
causes, an avaricious man may, under existing
circumstances, avail himself of all these meliora-
tions with impunity; as also in the event of a
change of proprietors, which is constantly occur-
ring : the tenant is thus often plundered of his pro-
perty. And all this, sir, it would seem, according
to your keen and penetrating perception, is quite
right, just as it should be ! But, sir, be assured of
one thing, that with all the anxiety you may feel to
serve your landlord readers — sophisticate the sub-
ject as you may — you never will convince the in-
telligent farmers of Northamptonshire, or the com-
mon-sense men of England, that this is a state of
things which ought to be allowed to exist another
year.

At any rate, sir, you say, '• it is a very delicate
and dangerous subject to touch ; that it would
rouse the indignation of great landlords, and they
might be tempted to farm their own estates." For
my own part I have not the slightest fear of this

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

363

sort. Rest assmed the times are pretty much
gone by for landlords to begin to farm very largely,
unless it be from necessity. Besides, how many
of them could conveniently spare the necessary
cipital ? and I think tbey would reflect on tLe mat-
ter twice before they would sell one fifth or sixth
part of their lands to enable them to farm the
remainder.

You say, " that farming is no longer the secret
it was." Well, and what now the secret is out ?
Let any fanner draw his balance-sheet between the
close of 1840 and 1842, and a pretty secret he
will discover. But to go back to our picposition ;
what is there in it, I ask, to rouse the indignation
of honest landlords.' Hold they any moral liglit,
in virtue of their high station, to put into their
pockets what in justice belongs to the tenant?
and yet for the last thirty years many of them have
done so, and are doing so coutiunally. AVhatelse
has enabled them to keep their rent roll stationary,
or even ascendant, ever since the French war,
while the price of produce has gone down about
one-half? The answer is obvious — the improve-
ments of the tenantry have done it.

But I contend for some modification of the law
of landlord and tenant, not merely for the sake of
the tenantry, but on public grounds. A great cri-
sis seems near at hand. The men on whom the
farmers had relied are going pretty well the
" whole hog" in favour of free-trade, and we are to
be called upon to grow corn in this highly-taxed
country pretty much upon the same terms as in
countries where land is about one-tenth of the
value. Or else the people arc to be fed from
thence, although our own sturdy and rapidly in-
creasing sons of agriculture stand looking on, or
are cooped up in district workhouses !

Sir, I have been telling the landlords of Englai\d
that the latter will be the case, so long as the peo'
pie will bear it, unless they generously meet the
difficulty by granting a new Magna Charta to the
British farmers. Still it is said, and said by the editor
of a country paper, a paper, too, circulating amongst
the farmers of England, " that it would be im-
politic to impose by law fresh conditions on the
letting or quitting of farms." And why? Be-
cause, forsooth " bad men vrould try to evade such
laws;" as they do at present by throwing the land-
ta.^ and all other burthens possible upon the ten-
ant. But is this argument ? Upon this principle
there ought to be no law against theft, for every
now and then a villain will manage to evade it !
I know well, and no one is more ready to make
the acknowle^'gment, that there are many noble-
minded and generous landlords, who would not
willingly gather into their own garner what strictly
belongs to others. And such a man could lose
nothing if our proposition was carried into effect
to-morrow.

If such a person wish to have his lands improved,
and the poor located thereon employed and happy,
he has nothing to do but to give a liberal lease,
securing to the tenant the benefit of his own im-
provements, and he is left untouched. If, on the
other hand, he prefer a yearly tenure, we take no-
thing from him; for if he wish to get rid of his ten-
ant, he receives back his land, and the tenant is
awarded such improvements only the benefit of
which he shall not already have received ; and if
indisposed to grant that compensation, then he
has only to allow the tenant to farm on. To such
landlords only could the new law be irksome
who wish to hold their tenants in a state of com-

plete vassalage, pocket their improvements' and
drive them to the county hustings as the^ farmer
drives his unconscious herd to the fair.

In rej)robating my proposal, Mr. Editor, you
have cast imputations upon the farmers for their
inattention to the moral and religious improvemeiit
of their labourers. Now, sir, since you name
religion, I will just tell you what I think it is, as
appearing in the bible without mystification. The
first part of it consists in honouring and gloving
God ; the second in giving that honour to our
fellow-man which we should wish to have awarded
us in like circumstances.

Upon this latter principle (theprinciple by which
all human laws should be tested) I am quite willing
to place my proposal for amending the law of land-
lord and tenant, more especially as affecting agri-
culture. To this subject I^ am committed ; to it I
shall adhere; and if my brother farmers will only
respond to my efforts, feeble though they be, we
will be heard in the high places of the land. Sir,
however unpalatable that little rough draft of an
act of parliament contained in your extract might
be to you and some few of your readers, I have no
hesitation in saying, let it only become the law of
the land, and it would shortly do more for agricul-
ture, and the country at large, than all the societies
which have been formed, and all the folio acts of
parliament which have been passed for a long
series of years!

I can make no apology for this reply, but must
rely upon your sewse of justice towards the more
numerous portion of your readers to give it inser-
tion. I am. Sir, your obedient servant,

The Bedfordshire Reporter.

BURTON FARMERS' CLUB.

" The advantages of growing turnips on strong
soils," was the subject which came under the no-
tice of the club at its meeting on Thursday, the
l6thJMarch. Air. Daniel, the proposer, said —

It is very probable, gentlemen, that the subject
I have ventured to enter for this evening's discus-
sion has fallen into hands less able to give it effect
than are many of the members of this now exten-
sive and effective farmers' club ; but I trust the
facts I shall relate will lead to an opinion that the
growth of Swede turnips, upon the drill system,
on strong soils, is of an advantage^far exceeding
any injury to a succeeding crop of corn, that the
most opinionated farmer can adduce. The sup-
posed injury I allude to is the carting over the
land in winter, when removing the turnip crop in
wet weather, should the soil have become very
tender; but to obviate this objection the practice
I adopt is early sowing, say between the 25th May
and the 10th of .June, beyond which period of the
year I would not sow Swedes on strong clay soils,
unless I meant to let them stand on the ground
through the winter for consumption in spring. To
cultivate the land effectively for the early sowing
above mentioned, the best practice I know of is
to begin to prepare it early ; that is to say, plough
it or scuffle it as soon after harvest as you can;
take the most favourable opportunity to pulverize
and clean it, and if possible plough it again before
winter, laying it in a sound state, and the water-
furrows well cleared out ; begin with it again as
early in spring as other farm business admits. But

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364

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

as I consider a good crop of Swede turnips is often
of greater value per acre tlian a crop of barley or
oats, I have on one or two occasions left off sowing
spring corn to cultivate and prepare the land in-
tended for S"ede turnips rather tlian be too late
with that operation, especially if the latter end of
March or the beginning of April should be favour-
able from its dryness to effect the desired object.

It has been my usual practice to carry out my
farm-yard dung as made, on to bottoms of soil
already prepared in or near the fields intended for
a turnip crop; this, upon heavy soils, cannot be
better done than when a frost admits of the cartage
being easy, as the land does not then sustain any
matcrialinjury by the carting over it; and I think it
of advantage to the dung-heaps to cover them three
to six inches over with soil to keep in the heat, or
rather to prevent the evaporation of the essence of
the dung, which is too apt to pass off, and the
drainage too, unless soil is likewise laid along the
sides to suck it up, if I may so term it. A heap
thus formed, T turn over and mix altogether but a
short time before using it for the turnip crop, and
I lay on 10 to 15 Scotch cart-loads per acre, spread
out of the carts into drills ploughed 25 to 30 inches
apart, which being immediately levelled is ploughed
under with as little exposure to the sun's rays as
possible, and the seed drilled in under this manage-
ment I have succeeded in producing capital and
luxuriant turnips, but I have not had sufficient
leisure to test the weight of an acre. I did, how-
ever, make the attempt by measuring off 30 yards
square, which yielded a weight equal to 23 tons 2
cwt. per acre ; but beg to observe that my best
field of Swedes (grown in 1842) was cleared before
I thought of weighing ; and I am of opinion that
on comparison with my best crop, this would have
given 30 tons per acre, as I had the number of
turnips counted necessary to fill up the deficient
parts in the rows where the 30 square yards were
measured off as above staled, which would take
yOG turnips, weighing 12J tons.

Having thus for some years obtained good
crops of Swede turnips, another principal object
has been to secure them for consumption, which
has generally been by a sufficient covering of
stubble and straw, having found the turnips heat,
and of course become rotten, if covered too soon
with soil.

The land having been cleared of my early sown
crops of Swedes in October and November, is
ploughed and well water-furrowed, to lie till spring,
when it is sown without any further ploughing on
the stale furrow, the surface made of fine tilth by
the scuffler or scarifier, and the harrow.

As the spring crops on this land are usually
drilled in at nine inches, I do not sow the grass-seeds
till the corn is up sufficiently, so as to admit the
horse-hoe, when the sowing immediately follows,
and the seeds rolled in. On this plan I have not
yet failed to obtain a full plant of grass seeds on
the heavy soil I farm. The stock now kept, in
consequence of an ample supply of winter food,
produced mainly by the management thus brought
under your notice, I may safely assert to be one-
third more ; and this circumstance may, I trust, be
a sufficient apology for taking up so much of the
time of the club, and rendering my details prolix
v.ithout adding to its previous knowledge, though,
perhaps, not the usual practice.

The extra employment (let me in conclusion,
observe) of labour on a farm must of course he
considerable where this increased cultivation is In

practice; and in my case I feel has been of service
in keeping tlie labourers, their wives, and families
independent of parochial aid — a circumstance
niucii to be desired at the present time.

The meeting passed a vote of thanks to the pro-
poser for the able manner in which he had brought
forward his subject.

FARMING AND FARM STOCK
AT ELLON, ABERDEENSHIRE.

Extracted from No. XLII. of the New Statistical
Account of Scotland, just issued, containing the
conclusion of the County of Aberdeen.

RiiN'T. — The gross rental is within a trifie of
10,000L being about seven and a half times the
amount of rent paid at the date of the last statistical
account in 1792. It must be observed, however, to
pi event mistakes in a matter of so much statistical
importance, that the augmentation of the rental,
though undoubtedly very great, is yet not quite so
great as from the above statement it would appear to
be. When the last Statistical Account was drawn
up, a considerable number of the farms were held on
leases, for which, in addition to the annual rent, a
premium, or, as it is usually termed, a grassum,
haJ been p.iid at the period of entry. Still, due
allowance being made for the item of grassums, the
rental at present cannot be less than four or five
times its former amount. Two of the largest farms
in the parish are still rented much under the full
value, — the old leases by which they are held, and
for which grassums we;e originally paid, having
not yet expired. On the expiry of these leases the
gross rental will amount to upwaids of 10,000/.
Some of the land in the immediate neighbourhood of
the village is rented at the high rate of upwards of
51, per Scotch acre ; but its actual annual value
probably does not much exceed one-half of the rent
which is now paid. It is farmed by the villagers in
small parcels, less with a view to profit than pleasure
and convenience. The average rent of land of the
same quality, in more ren.ote parts of the parish, is
from ^21, to 21. lOs. per acre. On the inferior soils,
the rent per acre varies from 10s. to l.>s. The
average rent of arable land for the whole parish
will be found, from the data already furnished, to be
within a small fraction of 17s. perScotch acre.

Live- Stock, — The breed of work horses has of
late years been much improved. Superior isares
have in several instances been brought from Cly-
desdale and other parts of the west country, cele-
brated for breeds of horses of good bone and action.
]\luch has been done also for the improvement of
the breed of hoi ses by the spirited exertions of the
Highland and Agricultural Society. The horses
chiffly sought after for agricultural purposes are not
those of the largest size, but such as are of good
mettle, and easily kept in good condition.

Until of lato years almost the only breeds of
black-cattle tnown in this district of country
were the Aberdeenshire horned and Angus polled
breeds. But what is called the short-horned or
Tees-water breed is now prevailing to a con.siderable
extent, and seems, in spite of the opposition which
its introduction has encountered from various quar-
ters, to be daily gaining ground. O])inion, however,
is still divided between this recent importation and
the ancient breeds of the country, and it is not for
the writer to presume to determine which party bag

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

365

tbe rigbt side of the question. One tbing is matter of
fact, and forces itself upoa the attention of even tbe
most ordinary observer, that our farmers now bring
their cattle to a much greater weight than in former
times, and receive for tbem a price proportionally
more remunerating. Various causes have contributed
to bring about (iiis result; one of which, and un-
doubtedly not she least important is, that much more
attention and skill are now apijlied not only to the
feeding off of full-grown stock, but also to tbe
equally important departments of breeding and of
keeping the riting cattle in a thriving condition.
Had tbe same attention been formerly given to these
important parts of the farmer's occupation, there
can be no doubt tli.it ca.tle even of the ordinary
breeds of the country might have been brought to
much greater weight than what, under the less per-
fect mode of management heretofore adopted, they
ever attiiined. Still, as it seems to be admitted on
all hands that the short-horns both attain to a great-
er size, and are cripable, from their less active
habits, and probably other concurring causes, of be-
ing fed off at a much earlier age, it is questionable
whether, at least on a good farm, the same amount
of profit could be realized by the breeding of cattle
o( the Angus or Aberdeenshire breeds. Tbe beef of
the short- tiorns is said to be inferior, which is pro-
bably the fact. Nevertheless, as no preference
seems to be given to the pure Aberdeenshire breed
in the London market, an inferiority in the article
exposed by him, so long as that inferiority does not
aflect its exchangeable value, cannot be supposed to
have much influence with the Scottish farmer. An
apprehension now generally entertained is, that se-
cond and third crosses between the 'i'eeswater and
Aberdeenshire breeds may be attended with a de-
terioration of both. Indeed, tbe most intelligent far-
mers seem to be of opinion that the two breeds
should be kept as distinct and pure as possible, and
no intermixture allowed beyond a first cross. Sheep
farming is but little pursued in this district of
country, and in the parish of Ellon is aliogetber un-
known.

ON MOULD, OR ITS PRINCIPLES,
IN THE JUICE OF PLANTS.

(From a Letter of Mr. Hermann, of Moscow.')

I have just made a discovery which will cer-
tainly prove to be of great importance in many
respects, viz., that the chief part of the extractive
components of the juice of plants, and therefore
those of officinal extracts of plants likewise, con-
sists of the principles of mould ; and I distin-
guished in these juices the following substances in
particular, as —

Humic acids.
Mould deposit acids,
Apocrenic acids,
Crenic acids, and
Extractive humus.

This discovery will, I hope, decide the question
at present so much agitated, on the nourishment
of plants, as it is highly improbable that these
mouldy substances contained in the juices of
plants should not have been absorbed from the
mould earth (humus), but formed from carbonic
acid, ammonia, and water, by the vital process of
the plants.

I request you to give publicity to this notice ; I
shall in a short time give a more detailed account.
— From Erdinanns Jotirn.f.pr. Pharm.

SUBSOILING.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK-LANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — Noticing in the last number of the "Far-
mers' Magazine" a letter by " A Two-years' Subscri-
ber," who states therein that subsoiling gravell}'
soils with a subso"l of gravel is very beneficial, which
I questioned in my last upon this subject ; I cannot
reirain from offering a few remarks upon his reasons
for so thinking. He says, by subsoiling, "you allow
the stagnant water there lodged (alluding to a pan
which is formed by tbe plough,) to escape, which in
all cases must be very pernicious to all descrip-
tions of planis."

Agreed, if what he has stated be correct, viz., that
water stagnates upon this pan, which though I
deny. Who ever heard of water stagnating upon a
gravelly soil with a subsoil of gravel ? Ifhemeaus
to infer that I considered this to be the case, he is
greatly mistaken, as I think a pan only prevents the
moisture from sinking with such precipitancy below
the roots of plants.

I cannot conceive how water will stagnate upon a
gravelly soil ; as it cannot be made of sufficient
firmness as to prevent the moisture from soaking
through it; but I can perceive how the moisture
may be prevented from sinking so fast into the soil,
which is all that we require.

I may make bold to say also, that he never saw
plants turn yellow on a gravelly soil, with a subsoil
of the same material, from the cause he has stated,
I doubt too whether plants will absorb their own ex-
crement, unless they have not a sufl^cient quantity
of sustenance (although then it is a doubtful ques-
tion), as it is not conformable to nature and reason.

The excrementitious matter of one kind of plants
is food to another. Subsoiling will allow the wa-
ter to carry along with it tliis matter and also ma-
nures into the subsoil, and below the reach of the
roots of plants, there to remain of no use.

No doubt subsoiling is beneficial to those lands
whese subsoil is clay, for the purpose of carrying
away the superfluous water, although there is to be
taken into the account the loss of manure, which is
carried below the reach of the roots of many plants.

Should these few lines be found worthy of a
place in your valuable paper, you will oblige,
Your obetlient servant,

.S'«h(()». a Young Farmer.

We again repeat, that amongst modern inven-
tions calculated to be of essential service to our
agricultural readers, in an architectural point of
view, are the patent stucco cement and paint,
invented by Messrs. Johns ami Co., of Plymouth,
whose sole agents are Messrs. Mann and Co., of
INIaiden-lane, London. The former of them is
used as a certain preventive to the intrusion of
wet through walls and roofs, and the latter as a
chaste and ornamental application, as well as
being highly preservative in its character ; and
the moderate prices at which they can be pro-
cured renders them staple articles of consumption.
Amongst the number of those who have expressed
their high satisfaction with these inventions, we
may mention the Hull Dock-yard Commissioners,
those of Greenwich Hospital, the Dukes of New-
castle and St. Alban's, the Earl of P'.ssex, Lord
Wenlock, and many other influential agriculturists
in various parts of the United Kingdom. We
therefore conceive it proper to direct the attention
of the landed interest to these facts.

366

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE CURRENCY.

THE PRESENT STATE OF THE CURRENCY
—INCREASED ISSUES BY THE BANK OF
ENGLAND.

(to the editor of the midland counties herald.)

Sir, — The indifference exhibited by Sir Robert
Peel in his replies to the Birmingham Chamber of
Commerce, and his absolute denial of the correctness
of the conclusions of that body with respect to the
causes of the prevailing distress, were evidently in-
tended to lead the public to the conviction that the
currency question was one of minor importance.
Under ordinary circumstances, this might be a pro-
per conclusion upon the re.^larks of the minister.
In the present case, however, Sir Robert Peel ap-
pears to have satisfied himself with touching; the
mere surface of the matter; he avoided grappling
with the question. On reading the correspondence"
we were certainly more than ever satisfied that cir-
cumstances would arise to compel Sir Robert to
adopt measures for giving stability to our monetary
system ; and that he would find it necessary to take
a course exactly opposite to that he has hitherto
pursued. We imagined that he might attempt to
restore prosperity by an indirect action on the cur-
rency— by using the influence of the government
upon the bank of England. This is a course by no
means unusual ; and it is now uell 7inderstood to have
been the actual plan resorted to.

It is probable, however, that (his measure, which
is always of limited operation, and uncertain in its
efifects, will be found to be insufficient. It will not
restore confidence to the commercial interests, still
suflering^ from the terrific eflects of the panic of
1837. The Bank is no more to be relied upon now
than it was at the period named. Events not yet
foreseen— mercantile changes which may be contem-
plated by the minister — may lead to results as im-
portant as those which followed the attempt of the
Bank to replenish her coflers in 1836 and 1837. Sii-
Robert Peel must therefore apply more vigorous and
intelligible measures; and these we apprehend he
V ill ere long not be unwilling to do, as the necessity of
the case will remove all scruples about consistency.

We had hoped that the Chamber of Commerce of
Birmingham would continue the discussion of the
currency question, after so vigorous and well-timed
a commencement. But in this we are disappointed.
The matter has been suffered, as on all former oc-
casions, to disappear from before the public. TheCham-
ber, like their friends, allowed the sophisms of the
minister and the absurdities of the press to go forth
without comment, or at least without that search-
ing examination and exposure which it was their
interest to have undertaken.

The Birmingham economists want a currency of a
fixed and steady character, and of ample amount ;
but they allow their opponents to represent that they
seek to establish a currency which would be liable
to endless fluctuations. The Chamber of Commerce,
and others who have addressed themselves to the
question, say to the minister, ' Relieve us rnoji

THE terrible evils CAUSED BY THE FLUCTUATIONS
TO AVHICn OUR PRESENT MONETARY SYSTEM IS CON-

OTANTLY LIABLE ;" and their opponents at once charge
them with recommending the'estabiishmcnt of a cur-
rency which would be subject to great fluctuations,
and actually attempt to lead the public to the belief
that the jjresent currency possesses that "fixed and
steady value indispensibly requisite for the public
welfare." This was done by the Manchester Guar-

dian during the late discussion, and after we had
repeatedly called the attention of that journal to the
Rlanchester Report, in which the evils of the present
system are most forcibly detailed.

The Chamber of Commerce assert, and truly, that
the Bank of England, in promising to pay her notes
in gold, commits a monstrous absurdity. The at-
tempt to keep the coffers of the Bank tolerably well
supplied with gold, in order to give a seeming truth
to this deception, is, as the Chamber explains, at-
tended with the most grievous results, producing a
bad state of trade when all other circumstances are
favourable; and even within a tew months reducing
the country from a state of prosperity to a state of
general distress and embarrassment.

Such are the eft'ects of fluctuations. The Chamber
at the same time, offer what they are willing to have
taken as a test of the soundness of their views as to
the advantages of a steady currency. Thej' remark,
" experience has shown us that 20,000,000/. of Bank
of England paper steadily kept out lias been suffici-
ent to maintain the general circulation of the coun-
try, and sufficient also to find profitable employment
to the labouring classes." We consider this to be a
very important sentence ; and it has received ad-
ditional value since the publication of the correspon-
dence. The Bank, as we have before remarked,
under the gentle influences of the government, has
increased her issues to the amount named. The
return dated Rlarch 31, 1843, shows that the insti-
tution had notes representing 20,093,000/. in circu-
lation ; and it is known that the circulation of the
private and joint stock banks amounted to, at least,
the average of the last few years. The Bank, at the
date named, had no less than 11,054,000/. of bul-
lion in her vaults. It is clear from this return that
the institution is in an easy position. It is also
made evident that the ''screw'' has b( en relaxed,
and that the Bank is prepared to afford such assis-
tance to the commercial interests as would cause a
rapid revival of tiade, and a rise in prices by no
means gradual. The statement made by the Cham-
ber, above quoted, is, we repeat, a test whereby to
ascertain the soundness of their views.

The public have consequently the means pointed
out of estimating the effects of the currency on ge-
neral business. In our opinion, there will be no re-
turn of general prosperity until the mercantile classes
have some assurance that our monetary syateni shall not
be subject to thejluctuations by which it has hitheito
been distinguished. If this guarantee is not given,
low prices of labour and of all manufactured arti-
cles must and will continue. The manufacturer
will not, by employing capital freely, place himself
in a position in which he may suflFer all the evils
which befel his class in 1837. He will not use his
capital in the manufacture of goods which may by
an operation of the Bank on the currency be decrea-
sed forty per cent, in value, as was the case in 1837.

In the period referred to, we must also bear in
mind that the effect of the panic was in some degree
lessened (perhaps most materially, especially with
reference to Birmingham and Liverpool,) by the
assistance which the Bank of England afforded in
supporting loading houses by advances upon ma-
nufactured and other goods. This was a proceeding
which entitles the institution to the highest credit ;
yet it might be actually necessary for its own sccu-
rii}'. It would seem, however, that the bank lost by
this well-timed aid to the coniniercial classes no less
than 234,000/. This loss, although, when speaking
of the resources of the Bank, of unimportant amount,
appears to have been not very patiently endured by

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

'^/

C:

367

the sbarebolders, one or two of whom at the late
meeting were disposed to recotnraend that the direc-
tors should have an eye to the profitable working of
the affairs of the institution, without reference to the
effects of its measures upon individual interests.
Occupying the position which the Bank of England
holds, it would have been difficult to have given
advice less deserving of attention. *

The publication of the loss sustained by the bank
from the advances in 1836-7 will certainly lead to
the impression, among mercantile men, that under
similar circumstances it would be hardly safe to cal-
culate upon assistance from the same source; and
that, in fact, no such assistance would be afforded.
Where, then, the currency being left in precisely
the snme position as it was in 1836 and 1837, and
liable to fluctuations from the same causes, are the
commercial interests to look for security? How
forcible do these considerations show the importance
of that steadiness of character for our currency which
the Birmin<:liam economists have so long advocated.

Without this fixed character being given to our
monetary system, there appears but little hope that
the condition of the masses of the people will be
permanently improved. On the other hand, were
it at once known that the circulation would be kept
up to the present amount for the next seven years,
and that there would be no sudden change at the
end of that period, we venture to affirm that there
would be a rapid improvement in every branch of
trade, and a greatly increased demand for labour, at
higher wages, both in the manufacturing and agri-
cultural districts, t With a fluctuating currency,

* At the meeting referred to, Mr, Blackmore said —
He desired to impress upon the proprietors to regard
the establishment as a trading- comp;iny, and not oc-
cupy their minds with the visionary idea that the Bank
was the great motive power in the affairs of the nation.
To look upon the bank as the regulator of the currency,
and the manager of all the financial matters of the state,
was, in his opinion, the height of absurdity. He was
sure it was not profitable to waste lime in the discus-
sion of the policy of ihe conduct of tne directors from
such a point of view, and should therefore recommend
the proprietors, instead of dealifig with the Bank as
the regulator of the currency, or with its power to
make one man rich and another poor, to confine tiiem-
selves to the mere mechanical part of the business
brought before ihem.— Times report,

t We are disposed to rate perhaps more highly than
many persons would do at the present day, the im-
portance, in a national point of view, of applying the
capital and labour of the country to increase the pro-
duce of the j-oil. We could show, by many examples,
bow muck the national wealth has been, and may be,
increased by these means, but for the present one must
suffice. Mr. Pnsey, M.P., in the Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society, says : —

"The average produce of wheat is stated at 26
bushels per acre: if, by a better selection of seed, we
could raise this amount to 27 bushels only, a supposi-
tion by no means unlikely, we should by this appa-
rently small improvKinent have added to the nation's
annual income 475,000 quarters of wheat, wor'h, at
50s., about 1,200,000/. yeaily, which would be equal to
a capital of twenty four md lions sterling gaiced lor
ever to the couniiy by ihi; triflingircreasein thegrowih
of one article alone, and that in Englmid ami WiJts
only. * * » ^

'* We may consider, in another point of view, the
national effect which might result from a gcufral
improvement of Rgricultuve: that is, thv^ additional
employment that would arise f.-ora any general effort
made on the part of the landowner or ih^ tenant to
improve permanently, as by drainage, for instance, the
texture itself of the soil ; we do not mean of waste

the population must continue in a state of general
distress, aggravated by various natural causes over
which we have no control, and unrelieved in a per-
ceptible degree by any other changes which may be
introduced.

THE AGRICULTURAL INTEREST.

We staled in our first letter that the distress which
was then felt by the manufacturing population
would soon extend to those engaged in agricultural
pursuits. In making this declaration, we did not
overlook the many speeches which had been de-
livered at agricultural meetings, by members of
parliament and other landowners, as well as by some
l»racticid agriculturists, during the recess. From
these addresses the public might be led to the con-
clusiou that low prices of agricultural produce, with
high fixed payments, had no effect upon the welfare
of the farmer, who was to make up the losses caused
by a falling market, by increased energy and by im-
proved systems of cultivation. The Premier, fol-
lowing the example of other landlords, exhibited
great zeal for the promotion of agricultural know-
ledge, recommending the circulation of works treating
upon this important branch of national industry,
and inviting learned professors from Oxford and
Cambridge to iliscuss with his tenantry the merits
of new manures and the advantages of different sys-
tems of drainage. All this was most praiseworthy,
and calculated to produce the best results. It is
surely high time that the discoveries of scientific
men should be applied to a branch of industry which,
in its most minute details, as well as in its most ex-
tensive operations, must depend for success upon
unerring princijjles.

The lectures of scientific men, and the encourag-
ing words of the landlords, appeared for a time to
sustain the spirits of the farmer under falling ave-
rages. This happy state of delusion was not, however,
destined to continue for a long period. Rent-days
come round very rapidly, and the landed interest
usually expect their tenants to be punctual in their
payments. The produce of a farm we need hardly
state, (although we question whether even this ex-
planation be not necessary, so absurdly do some peo-
ple talk,) will not sell for so much money with
wheat at 18s. per bag as it will with wheat at 26s.
per bag. The low range of prices for agricultural
produce which were realized during the half-year
ending at Christmas last, was sufficient tojustify our
opinion as !o the inability of the farmer to meet his
fixed payments. During the first three months of

ground, hut of that wi.ich is already, and has been
perhaps for centuries, in course of cultivation. If a
pound only were thus laid out on each acre, a very
moderate supposition, we shall find that, since there
are 48 millions of cultivated acres in Great Britain and
Ire/atid, a demand for country labour amounting to
48 millions sterling would thus be created. The
assumed outhiy, however, of a pound only, for the
jjermanent improvement of each acre, is probably far
too low. 3/.,4i,, or even 5/., would be scarcely too
much. Thereis much wet land, on which 8/., or perhaps
lOZ. might be laid out to jidvantage ; but at 4/. only, the
new progressive demand for the villager's only com-
modity, the work of his hands, would hi about 2oO
millions. So large an outlay as this last must indeed,
in part, be ntci:;!iirily deferred for a long course of
years; but in vvhatever <Kgrce it may arise, it has, on
the oilitr hand, the further advantage, arising from the
nature of the work to be done, liUittiie demand would
necessatily take place in the winter months, when
labour is most difficult to be obtained, not in the
summer, when the crop? are in progress, and the
labourer finds already sufficieat employment."

308

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the present year, prices of every description of pro-
duce have been still fuiijier reduced ; and at the
[iresent time the agriculturists in every part of the
country, (exce|)t in a few favoured instances,^ are
carrying on their farms at a serious loss — aloss which,
■we believe, we can demonstrate to be considerably
more than the gross rental of the land lohlch they
are odtivating. This is a point which can be easily
settled, and it is one of vital importance to the
landed interest.

Our views of the present position of the landlord
and of his tenants are supported by abundant evi-
dence ; and we are enabled to lay before our readers
the opinions of a gentleman of great experience,
resident in this county, who is himself a landowner.
He writes — " With wheat at or about 2/. per quar-
ter, or 15s. per bag, in Birmingham market, the rent
of three-fourths of the land in England will be
annihilated. * * There is no other alternative
but to immediately alter tiie standard •, there is no
other course. It is nonsense to offer the working
man cheap provisions when he has no money to
purchase the cheap food."

How far these opinions aredeseiving the attention
of the landed interest will be further shown by the
following extract from the Circular to Banhers of
the 31st of March. It would appear, lh;it if prices
have not already receded to the point named by our
correspondent, there is a probability that they will
soon be brought still lower.

" What we said last week regarding ihe measure of
letting in flour through Canada was intended to direct
attention to it, by alluding to what might happen in ex-
treme cases. The stale ot the market for Egyptian
wheat is one of these cases ; and we have the authority
of the best-informed houl^es in the Canada trade for
re-asserting', that under peculiar circumstances like the
present, when so little timber is brought from Canada,
and when a smaller quantity of British manufactures
than even last year— a fact which surprises us -is likely
to be sent out to that couniry, ships might be pro-
cured to couvey wheat from England to Canada, and
back to England, in barrels of flour, at a charge for
freight altogether not exceeding six shilling?, the quarter.
We know that this is an unprecedented itate of thing?,
and that the freight out and in would ordinarily cost
perhaps double that sum. We have no doubt, however,
that under the proposed law, when the trade can be
carried forward on the basis which it will establish, the
cheap ships— the cheaply-worked ships of the northern
nations of Europe— will convey wheat from the Baltic
to Canada and back to England in the shape of flour, in
barrels, at an entire charge of twelve shillings the quar-
ter: then what may happen under that law? If the
price of wheat should come down to the point at which
it once stood in the Lower Baltic ports for three suc-
cessive years, viz., from 16s. to l8s. the quarter— me-
dium price, 17*.— it wouhl be cnrried to Canada, and
let mto consumption in England at a lower price thai
flour made from Canadian and United States' wheat.

"The price of good red wheat may now be bought at
Dantzic at 28s. the quarter, free en board, (See Civ-
cnlar of 17th of March.) That and the Pomeranian
wheat -will probably be reduced to 2ls. within twelve
months. Supposing it to be prepared, as all the Dantzic
wheat (as a rule) is prepared- so as to bear long
voyages without injury— add 12s. for freight and 4s. for
duties, and we shall have foreign wheat laid down in
England, in the shape of flour, at a nominal price of 37s.
the quarter; but actually lower than this, because the
best qualities of their respective kinds will be selected
for this purpose ; and wheat of tliose qualities is worth
more than the average wheat of England, of Canada,
and the United States, by 3s. or 4s. ihe quarter. Do
the government deliberately intend to bring down the
price of wheat in England to 35s. the quarter, or less,
and lo pass a law which shall prevent it ever rising
liigher for any length of lime than 48i. the quarter (

If they do, the niea3ure for letting in Canadian flour,
produced from wheat of any couniry, is a good mea-
sure for that object.''

It appears from the returns of the average price of
grain for the years 1B41 and 1842, that wheat was 7s.
2d. per qr. cheaper in the latter than in the former
year. 'J'he averages were 64s. 5d., 1841, against
578, 3d., 1842. Allowing that the average produce
of wheat is twenty-six bushels per acre, the loss
sustained in 1842, by the fall in prices on this one
description of grain (and all articles were subject to
an equal reduction), was at the rate of about 23s.
per acre. It furtht'r appears, from the returns for
the week ending March 31, in the present year, that,
as compared with the price of wheat per quarter in
the corresponding week of 1842, there had been a
fall of no less than 10s. 6d. per quarter; the average
being .57s. 8d. in 1842, and 47s. 2d. in 1843. This
would show a diminution in value exceeding 33s.
per acre, a sum neaidy double the average annual
rental per acre of the cultivated land in the United
Kingdom.

Some of the landlords at the meetings to which we
have referred, generously offered to relieve their
tenants of the burthen of the income tax, a payment
amounting on the average to about Sjd, per acre.
But how absurd it is to exhibit great anxiety about
this trifling payment, when a considerable number of
the landlords were at the same time obstinately un-
mindful of the consequences of a bad currency
system, owing mainly to the effects of which the
produce of the land will be this year reduced in
value at least 30s. per acre. If the farmer was not
in a position to bear the addition of S^d. per acre
to his yearly rental, we can hardly expect that be
was prepared to suffer this serious loss in the value
of his products.

We have before observed that as a means of in-
creasing the national wealth it is most desirable that
additional capital and labour should be applied to
the cultivation of the all-bountiful earth. It may,
perhaps, be contended, that if the gross produce of
the land were greatly incieased, the farmer would
be enabled to sell that produce at a reduced rate,
and still meet his present fi.ted payments. Allowing
this to be the case, it does not follow that this in-
crease could be obtained without the employment of
additional labour, and other expenses ; nor could it
be effected at once ; the jirocess will be gradual. It
is, consequently, clear that any measure which in
one year reducei ihe value of agricuUural produce to an
extent exceeding the whole rental of the land must have
a most serious effect upon the capital of the farmer,
and tend to a considerable reduction in the wages of
labour. Such a reduction in the profits and capital
of the farmer, and in the wages of labour, would
have at the same time no really beneficial effect upon
the other interests in the country. It is advan-
tageous to all interests that the prices of agri-
cultural produce as well as of manufactured goods
should be at a remunerating level. At the present
moment we have cheap food and a starving population:
and the United States, where food is nominally
much cheaper than in England, exhibit the same
melancholy picture*. The views which we put

* The following extracts from a letter on the
present condition of the United States, which ap-
peared in the Manchester Guardian of the 29tli
lilt., will be read with interest : —

" You have also heard of the abundance and cheap-
ness of provisions here (Cincinnati), 'i'his place, in
this respect, excels any that 1 was ever in before.
Beefy roulton, and pork, have been regularly selling at

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

369

forih last week with respect to the effects of a bad
system of currency in the United States are, to a
great extent, confirmed by tlie extracts we have

a halfpenny to a penny a pound while 1 have been here.
'I'be beef and mutlon are good, the pork excellent.
The aver.tge price of fine tat liogs duiiaq: the vea'on,
lia=; been one dollar and seventy cenl'=i, or abaut If. each
hundred pounds ; small and Itan hogs have been lower
itt price. The mutton is not so well flavoured here as
the Englidi mutton ; but still it is good. For the
choicest pieces of beef you must give three halfpence
a pound. Chickens and ducks arc fourpence each ;
geese, a shilling ; turkey*, one and sixpence each ;
butier four to fivepenee a pound ; e^-gs are a halfpenny
each, but in the spring they wdl be five for a penny.
Ves^etables are very low. Apples (you know what our
apples are) have sold last season at fivepenee the bushe).
Sugar and coffee are at half the price they sell at in
England. Flour, eleven shillings the barrel. Wines
and spirits are very cheap, but the prevalence of tem-
perance habits has now greatly lessened their use.
Fuel, both coal and wood, is very cheap and abundant.
Coal is cheaper than with you, and quite as good.
House rent is very high, perhaps twice as high as at
Manchester. Clothing is a!»o very expensive. Ser-
vants vsages are high ; say one to two dollars a week.

"The land hereabouts i« excellent. Farms are on
sale in abundance. I jaw a list of some, for which
forty to forty-five dollars was a?ked per acre; improved
land, of course, and not very far from this city. At a
greater distance it is still cheaper, and in the interior
extremely low. Cows, horses, and sheep, are very cheap.
Real estates are said tobe selling at very reduced prices.
Money very scarce, and sometimes loaned at
twelve per cent. Real estate, they say, yields six per
cent, per annum.

"And yet, amid all this abundance, there is a great
amount of distress in this place. Lectures, concerts,
iScc, are given, vvi!h a view ti) raise money for the re-
lief of the poor ; and in one street here there is a soup
kitchen, as there is at Manchester. The farmers are
badly off, as you may readily conceive, with produce at
such prices. Indeed, I feel much for them, a« I see
them with hundreds of loaded waggons in the streets,
shivering in the cold, and waiting anxiously for those
who will kindly become their customers. SometiniCs
they are heard complaining that they can hardly give
their produce away ; and yet there are poor people,
not many yards perhaps from those very farmers, who
are starving, from the want of such food as can hardly
be given away, 'i'hey cannot have it without money,
and money they cinnot have without employment,
wiiich is very scarce. Ai to agricultural labourers, the
land i; too fertile to need many of these ; and why raise
produce, if it cannot be sold? There is too much al-
ready. The superabundance of produce is just as
great an evil here, as your' over production' is in Man-
chester. The great fertility of the suil i» positively an
evil; for, if it were otherwi-e, and required many la-
bourers, there would be labour for them, and higher
prices for produce. Such is the anomalous state of
things hereabouts. As to other places, I read in the
papers that in Philadelphia matters are worse. Peo^
pie there contrive to get inlo prisons, in order to satisfy the
cravings of hunger. A paper lying before me says, of
that city, ' the back gates of our hotels are fairly broken
in now-a-days, from morning till night, with a hungry
crowd, whose eyes gloat eagerly over, and who^^e hands
fight convulsively for the bits of bread and cold victuals
ejected from the kitchen table. Even the slop barrels
into vvhicli are thrown the scraps and offals, have been
the scene of a diuiual siege ; while the little ragged
boys and girls, with their thin wan faces, their long
bony fingers, and the elder specimens of shivering
humanity that cluster with ihem around the spot,
gra*ping at food from which the rich man's dog would
turn away contemptuously, all form a picture of want
and wrelchcilness which makes the heart sick.' This is
the state of things in Philadelphia, where provisionj are
cheap and superabundant. And these evils prevail in a

given below. Similar stateinents were also made
by Lord Ashburtou, in a late debate in the House
of Lords. It is a circumstance deserving the most
serious consideration of every one, that countries
having entirely different forms of government — the
one possessing unlimited natural resources, and un-
incumbered with debt ; the other possessing enor-
mous wealth and unlimited means of production,
which make even its great national debt a burthen
of unimportant amount — should be so long in dis-
covering the means of adequately distributing these
blessings amongst their ])eople ; and yet, without
this means of distribution being brought into opera-
tion, it is clear that there can be no national pros-
peiity or individual security. We have, we be-
lieve, satisfactorily shown that a country, whatever
its advantages, cannot be truly prosperous under a
monetary system liable to fluctuations which affect
the value of the whole of its property, reduce the
wages of labour, and increase the burthen of its
fixed obligations.

There is reason for hoping that the progress of
opinion on the currency question is proceeding
much more rapidly than has been generally sup-
posed. It is found to be a question affecting in an
extraordinary degree the welfare of every class of
the community. .The advocates of a fixed and
stable monetary system have only to persevere In
their efforts to furnish the public with accurate in-
formation as to the evils of the present system, and
a party may be created in the country unequalled
for influence and authority, and which would be
supported and not opposed as at present by the
press. The currency question is not a mere abstract
question, but one altogether practical; and its ad-
vocates have tliis advantage — that they have not to
deal with opinions and theories, but with facts and
figures, which enable them to communicate positive
information in every sentence. — We are. Sir, your
obedient servants, Gejiixi.

Birniinghain, April II, 1843.

country where there is no taxation, oricarcely any ; no
despotic monarch, no aristocracy, no soldiers to enforce
bad laws, and keep the people down ; no blue police ;
no hard masters, nobody to ' grind the faces of the
poor'. The poor themselves are the masters ; it is a
pure democracy, where the lower orders are always the
real governors, always can carry the elections: they
have things their own way, and have nothing to do but
to set to and correct the evils they are suffering ; cor-
rect them at once, if they can.

"The distresses of this country are occasioned, mainly,
by a deianged state of tlie currency. First, the United
States Bank, which had an immense amount of paper
afloat, failed some five years ago. Then other banks
were suffered to inundate the country wiih paper money,
which caused a wild system of speculation ; gave to
property a false value: people thought that making
notes and issuing them, was making 7noney — and
they made them to their hearts content. At length
they found out their mistake: a panic came and hosts
of bankers, unable to re leem their issues of paper,
failed. Some twenty-three thou and bankruptcies of
one kind and another took place. Hence a great stag-
nation of business, which has caused the present dis-
tress. The first remedy to be applied is to regulate the
banking system, or the issues of paper money ; but
how to do this is the difficulty. One party will have an
extensive paper currency ; one will have a moderate
one ; and a third party will have none at :ill, but a
currency of hard money. One will have a national
bank ; another will not have it. Legislators contend
about these matters, and come to no decision. If they
do decide, their decision may be rescinded by some
other party soon coming into power. Thus are they
embarrassed, and basiness is paralysed ia conse-
quence." . ,— J - V. V

370

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE AGRICULTURAL INTEREST.

DINNER AT WALLING FORD.

(from the times.)

April 20, being tbe annual cattle and .sheep fair at
Wallingford, advantage was liikon by the agiicuhuiisls
of the district to ;m';enible together at the Town hall,
for the purpose of giving expression to their feelings on
the present prospects of agriculture ; according to the
wording of ihe placard calling the meeting — " the at-
tendance of the farmers and olhers favourable to the
cause of British agriculture, now threnteiied with abso-
lute ruin, was particularly requested.''

Mr. W. S. Biackstoae, the member for the borough,
took the chair.

About 200 respectable farmers and yeomen of llie
neighbouihood diued together. There were also pre-
sent at the Chairman's table, Karl Stanhopf, Vifcoiint
Barriugton, M.P., Mr. B. Cochrane, M.l^., Mr. P.
Pusey, M.P., the Mayor, Ihe Rev. J. Hillyard, Mr, Q.
Dick, M.P., Sir 11. Willoughby, Bart., the Rev../.
Dixon, and several other gentlemen of disliaction in
the neighbourhood.

Judging from the cordial reception of the Chairman
and the Conservative gentry who .■supported him, they
had no ground of complaint that the aura popularis
amongst the sturdy yeomen and substantial larmers by
■whom they were surrounded was against Ihem.

The dinner was held at the early hour of half-past two
o'clock, and after the substantial fare provided had been
discussed and the cloth removed,

The Chairman proposed the health of " Her Must
Gracious Majesty Q,ueen Victoria," which was most
enthusiastically cheered.

The Chairm.-vN then gave "|Her Most Gracious
Majesty the Queen Dowager." and " Hi* Royal Iligh-
ne.ss Prince Albert, Albert Prince of Wales, and the rest
of the Royal Faiiiily," each of wiuch toasts was drunk
with repeated shouts of enthusiastic loyalty.

'ihe ChAirm.an then said, that being cdled upon to
preside over so numerous and important a meeting as
he saw before hira, he should claim at tlieii- hands some
little indulgence in proposing the next toast, not be-
cause he (eared any want of unanimity amongst them,
but because he was aware of the important and ciitical
pobiticuof theagricultuial inteiestsat this time. [Cheers )
He approached with the greatest difHdence a subject
affecting so materially the interests of so large and im-
portant a portion of tlie community — not a class subject,
but one involving Ihe interests of high and low, rich
and poor. In proposing to them, therefore, the toast of
" Adequate protection to Biiiish industry," he did not
intend to limit it to the agricultural cla^'^es ot the coin-
munily,but to extend it to e«ery per.^on engaged in
British enterprise, who ought to be protected by the
laws of his country. (Hear,) He trusted that, what-
ever sentiments might be promulgated within that hall,
there would be no blinking of the question {hjud cheer-
ing), that it would be fairly discusse I ; and he was sure
that every gentleman would have an opportunity given
of stating why British industry ought not to be pro-
tected. ( Hear, hear.) He did not wish to see taken so
low a ground as he had .seen taken at many .ngricul-
tural meetings — namely, that the occupiers of the land
should be persuaded that il was their duty to employ
fewer horses in drawing their ploughs, and that they
should turn their minds to a belter mode of cultivaiiou
of the soil. He was not going to a^k thtm if ihey
agreed with him in raising iheir voice so that it might
be heard beyond that Guildhall to recommend any such
procedure. But he wished them to shov; ihut there was
a party, and a strong one, in the country that wished
for protection to the iodustrious classes of the cimmu-
nily, and ihat they should not blindly advocate ques-
tions for the employment of capital, vi'hen capital would
give no return to its employer. (Loud cheers.) He
must for a short lime ask theirnttention to the proceed-
ings of past years as ad'ecting tile interests of agricul-
ture, He would allude now caory particularly to a re-

port emanating from a committee of the House of
Commons, appointed at a time when it was supposed
that tlie agricultural interest waB in a state of depres-
sion. They had not at that time reached the point
whicn lliey afterwards saw of agricultural distress; he
alluded to the year 1833, at which time the average
price of wheat was 54?'. and some few pence. The
members who composed liiat committee had for their
chairman the right lion, barcntt the Secretary of State
for the Home Department, Sir James Graham, and he
might mention the names of Sir Robert Peel and of Sir
Edward Knatchbull. 'i'lie report that they drew up
was, that "They are duly impressed v\iih the caution
which appears to them necessary in drawing any ge-
neral conclusion, or iu oll'erin.g any positive opinions,
where national interests of su( h vital importance aie
concerned, where doubts so reasonable exist, and « here
errors so fattlraay be committed; and although it is
in the power of the Legislature to do much evil, yet it
can do little pofitive good by frequent interference with
agricultural iiidu-stry. The comniittee of 1821 expressed
a hope ' that the great body of the occupiers of the soil,
either from the savings of more prosperous times, or
from the credit which punctuality commands in this
country, possess resources which will enable them to
surmount the difficulties under vvhich they now labour.'
Your committee with deep regret aie bound rather to
express a fear that the difficuUies alone remain un-
changed, but that the savings are either gone or greatly
diminished, the credit failing, and the resources being
generally exhausted {hear, hear) \ ind this opinion is
formed, not on the evidence of rent-payers, but of many
most respectable witnesses-, as well owners of land as
surveyors and land-sgent'. It should, however, be
remembered that legis^lative measures once taken and
long established cm rarely be abandoned without dan-
ger, and that the reti-eat is occasionally more dangerous
than the advance. In conclusion, jour committee avow
their opinion that hopes of ami;lioration in the condi-
tion of the landed interest rest rather on the cautious
forbearance than on the rctive interposition ot Parlia-
ment." (Cheers') Such were the sentiments then
avowed by a member of the existing Administration ;
but since that time there had been another declaration
from the noble VJ?count lately at the head of affairs in
this country. Lord Melbourne said that certain at-
tempts were being made to alter the late Corn Law
Act of the present Government ; but, in his opinion, the
agitation of that question would stir society to its
foundations. (Hear, hear.) But, unfortunately, the
late Administration had not acted in accordance with
lhat very sound and vcise opinion. They found them-
selves in a great difficulty. Their strength was daily
diminishing; they felt that their hopes of letaining
office were very slight unless they could appeal to the
country in some way calculated to arouse the passions
of the people, and thus give Ihem a chance of recruiting
their exhausted forces. Well, the nalion was appealed
to. The cry of cheap bread was raised throughout the
land ; and what was the response of the nation ? First,
turn to (he city of London. Lord John Russell was
anxious to have the suflVage.s of the citizens of that great
commercial city. I'jie noble lord was returned, cer-
tainly, but although at the lime of the dissolution of
Parliament there were four representatives tor London
who supported the then Adniinistration, the tables were
turned ; and although the noble lord was returned, it
was by the greatest chance tliat he obtained even the
smallest unit of a majority. (Cheers) Then look to
Liverpool, one of the largest commercial cities in the
land. At Liverpool the Government candidate was
defeated by an immense majority. At Bristol and other
great towns there were the same results. That gieat
province of England loo, the VVist Riding of York-
shire, which contained more tiian 30,000 inhabitants,
also rejected the cry of ch(;ap bread and cheap provi-
sions. And how were the laie Minislera received in all
the Counties of England 1 Why, was there any supporter
of theirs so audacious as even to go to the poll with an
avowal of their principles ? (" No, not one," and

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

371

cheers.) The counties of England rose to q man,
the farmers showed their strengtli, and tliey placed
the present Rlinitters in the si;ualions they now
held. (I.oud cheers.) Being- so placed there, what
was the course taken by Sir R. Peel ? Why, he took
the first opportunity of soliciiiu^ the Duke of Bucking-
ham to form one of his Administiatioa — that noble duke
who was known at the tim^ to possess the confidence of
the farmers of Enjj'land. (A cry of "Shame on him
for deserting us !") For what reason did the Premier
then solicit the duke, who was known as " the farmer's
friend," to join his Government ? Did he think io
meanly of liis Grace's consistency as to suppose for one
moment tiiat he would turn round and support tiie fiee
trade measures that the Governnient were about to pro-
pose to Parliament ? Or did he think it an opportunity
to lull and keep quiet the farmers of Englai d until lie
got so firm in the saddle that he could salely brinfj for-
ward the measures which he was even then devising ?
{Cheers.} The farmer; of England did exhibit much
patience and modei ition upon the occasion (bear), but
that patience miAn be exhausted. (Cheers.) It misht
happen that tlie worm would turn upon the heel timt
trod upon it. (Loud cheers.) lie (iN'lr. Blackstone)
maintained from that place that the farmer required
adequate protection. {lienewed cheering.) What was
the language of Burke on that head? He said, " It is
a perilous thing to try experiments with the farmer,
whose capital is Riore feeble in its nature, whose trade
is more subject to risk and lasses, whose capital only
turns once in a year ; in some brandies it is three years
before the money is repaid.'' 'i'hose were the words of
Burke. Why did lie quote them? Because they were
inserted in that report on agriculture which was made
by the committee of which Sir J. Graliam was chair-
man, and of which Sir 11. Ptel and Sir E. Knatclibull
and other membeis of the Government were members.
Those opinions were quoted in that report lor the pur-
pose of showing how dangerous it was to ir,terfere with
the industry of the British farmer. (Loud cheers.) But
suppose the people of this countiy were to agree te
abandon the protective duty on agricultural industry,
the farmers would have a right to call on those who re-
moved the protection on industry, to make at least
an adequate reduction of the burdens to which they
were subjected. (Loud cheers.) There were many of
those burdens. One was the malt tax (c/ieers^ a tax
of nearly 100 per cent, on the raw article. If that tax
were removed it would be a benefit not merely to the
grower but to the consumer abo. (Cheers.) It would
increase the consumption. See to what compeliiion
the farmer was exposed with the foreigner in fattening
his catile. Remove the tax, and how much cheaper hj
could fatten them on barley than on oilcake, wliich he
now was obliged to employ. I'herefore, he said, give
the English farmer the opportunity of fattening his
cattle at the cheapest rate. (Cheers) But there was
another whicbhe ha;dly dare call a burden on land, but
which was a most important item in the cost of pro-
duction—he meant the price of labour. He was sure
that there was not one gentleman in that room who
would accept the boon of cheap provisions if he thought
he was to have it on tlie condition that wages should
fall. (Cheers.) But when Sir Robert Peel introduced
the late corn law he liad the candour and honesty to
state what were the prices of continental labour, and
more especially where the agricultural labourer was
supposed to receive more than elsewhere on the conti-
nent, lie alluded to Belgium. Sir R. Peel said: —
" Additional information has been recently laid upon
the table with respect to the condition of the wcrkiog
classes in Ijelgium. I invite tl^e house to tlie prices of
manual labour as stited in this document, 'ihe average
prices of labour are— agricultural labourers, lid.;
weavers, Is. ; masons, is. ;3d. ; locksmiths and carpen-
ters. Is. 3^d. ; operatives wor,ving in quarries, mines,
&c.. Is. 4J. ; jewellers, goldsmiths, and others, Is. 8d.
per diem. That is tiie rate of wages in Belgium. Now,
what is the price of coin in that country ? La-t year
at Oslend wheat was from 51s. 9d. to &3s. per quarter ;

at Antwerp it was 5ls. to 51s. 2d. a quarter. Taking
the general average prices of labour in Belgium, and
comparing them with the amount of wages received by
the labourers, it does appear loiuethat notwithstanding
the amount of the manufacturing wages, and notwith-
standing the amount of the agricultural wages
which are received there, it does, I say, clearly ap-
pear to me that those wages do not give the labourer
there such a command of subsistence as that given
him by the rate of wages usual in this country." Now
Sir Robert had told them that by his last measure he
wished to keep the price of corn between 54s. and 58s.
Yet the English farmer was paying lO'J percent, more
wages th;in the farmer in Belgium. (Hear hear.) J\lr.
Brotherton, the wise member for Saltord, proposed to
have a fixed duty ol 'Id. a quarter, lie knew, he said,
that a million of acres of land might be thro.vn out of
cultivation, but he looked to the produce of the four-
penny duty to provide a fund for the labourers who
would be thrown out of employment. This was the
view of the wise member for Salford. What was it
worth? Look to the figures. He had calculated the
probable charge. It took about 40s. the acre to culti-
vate the land, so that to pay the labour thrown out of
employ on 1,000,000 acres, 2,000,000/. would be re-
quired. To eliect the object oi the member for Salford
it would be nec^^'ssary that 120,000,000 qrs. of wheat
should be annually imporlcd. Nov, the people of this
country consume about a quarter of corn a head per
annum. Thus the whole consumplion of the country
would be about 25,000,000 quarters. So that in order
to carry out the scheme of Mr. Brotherton, it would be
necessary to import 95,000,000 quarters more thaa
there was any demand for. But he would turn from
the past measures of the Government to the present
state of affairs and the probable future. It could not
for a moment be doubted that very general consterna-
tion liad been produced through the agricultural dis-
tricts by the announcement that Government intended
to allow the importation of wheat from the United
States, through Canada, at a nominal duty of about Is.
the qr. Into the subjtct of that ineasuie he v;as not
going to enter at length, because there were others who
would be better able to do so ; but he did wish to draw
the p.tteniion of the meeting to the language used by
the Prime Minister on the subject. Sir Robert Peel had
tried to slate, as significantly as he could (a laugh) that
it was not his intention to make at present any luither
t;lleration in the corn law. On one occasion, a few
weeks since, in the House of Commoiif, he went a step
further than even that, and what he then said caused
so much satisfaction in his ( Mr. Blackstone's) mind,
that he could not help rising in his place and express.
ing his feelings, at the !^arae time adding a hope that
Government would not procetd with the threaiened mea-
sure as to Canadian corn. lie did express his thanks
to the right hon. baronet on that occasion for an an-
nouncement that he knew would gladden the hearts of
the farmers ol England. (Hear, hear.) 15ut great
indeed was his difappointraent when Sir R. Peel
immediately rose to reply to the few observations he
made, and altogether repudiated such an interpretation
of his sentiments. (Hear J Really alter such a
proceeding as this he would hardly know how to trust
the right hon. baronet's future statements. (Great
cheering.) Frorti the Ministers, however, he appealed
to the farmers of England. He felt assured that they
would do their duly — woull arouse them?elve,«, and
comniunicate in a marked tone, to ad vise those to whom
they entrusted their interests to look to their safety.
(Hear, hear, and a cry of " You must not look to Bobby
Peel then.") Last year it was said that the farmers of
England were contented with the measures proposed
by the Government. Except from this county of
Berkshire, there wns no demonstration to the Govern-
ment that their measures were not deemed favourable
by the agricultural interest, not merely to the
farmersof Berkshire, but to the agriculturists through-
out the country. On them the blame would rest if they
suffered any furtlier steps to be taken to the prejudice

372

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of British agriculture. He was glad to perceive
that, at the nomination at the East Suffolk election
Lord Rendlesliam was compelled to state to the electors
that he would offer the utmost oppoMtion to the pro-
posed measure of the Government wiih respect to the
importuiion ot Canadiiin wheat. Ea^t Suffolk had
done itsduty.aud he liope<l iliat examplewnuld impress
on the agriculturists throughout the kingdom, that the
blame would rest with them, if they did not speak out
their seutiraunt'j in a voice ot thunder. [Cheering.] He
would not further occupy their time. Tf he felt that
the measures about to be proposed by the Government
would really relieve the distress of the manufacturing
interest, lor which no one felt more than he did, then
he -would not hold this language with regard to them,
and he felt that the meeting would sympathize with
him in that sentiment. If by lowering the protecting
duty on agriculture the grcit mass of the people could
be relieved, then he would not be found saying what he
had there said to day, nor would he refuse to co-operate
in Parliament lor the attainment of that object. But
believing as he did, that in the highly- taxed state of
the country, and with a view to the existing arrange-
ments of society throughout the kingdom, it would be
found impossible to compete v.iiii the low wages of the
Continent, lie did call on them all to join in the toast
wiih which he would conclude, "Adequate Protection
to British Industry.''

The toast was drunk amidst the most enthusiastic
cheering.

The Chairman then gave " the County Members."
Two of the members were present. Mr. Palmer
was prevented coming in consequence of having long
before engaged to lay the foundation stone of a church
in his own parish.
The toast was diunk amidst very general cheering.
Mr. PusEY rose to acicnowledge the toast. He said
on ordinary occasions, when he met hU consliiuenls at
agricultural meetinss, they were forbidden, andveiy
properly, by the rules of those societies, from entering
on the subject of politics, and this was the first oeca?>ion
on which he had met a portion of his constituents for
the purpose of political discussion. He could assure
them he had accepted the invitation to be present at
this dinner with much satisfaction, because he felt that
in such a critical time for British agriculture [hear, heat-]
it was necessary for him, whose comluct was iw some
measure implicated in the recent change in the Corn-
law, to show his opinion on this sut'ject. At the last
election he bad stp.t.d to them that he was convinced
that any seriou* innovation on the protection which the
British farmers received would be fatal not only to
them but to the labourers cf the country at large.
He adhured to that opinion, and retracted not one word
of it, and he had endeavoured to act on that conviction.
He had had no wish that the Corn-laws should be
altered at all ; but he had no part in the government of
tiiis country when the plan of the Government had been
propoed. He had considered deeply and for many
years the working of the Corn law, and it had appeared
to him that the present law would not infringe seriously
on the protection given to the farmers. That was his
in^lividual conviction. They had the declaration of the
Goveinment— not only of Sir R. Peel, but sanctioned
also by the opinions of old friends of theirs— of the
Duke of Wellington, of Lord Stanley, of Sir J. Gra-
ham, and of the Duke of Richmond, that the presetit
law would give ample protection, and it had been his
opinion that the farmers of England would derive the
same amount of protection from it as under the
old law. It had been stated by Sir R. Peel, that the
new Corn- law would give them an average protection
of fifty-six shillings a quarter, and that, as far as he
could calculate, had been the average protection given
thenn by the old law. [A cry of " .sixty-four siiillings."]
He liien felt it his duty to give his asstnt to that mew-
sure, and they now had a right to call oi him lor an
account why the new law appeared to have produced
such very different effects from those which had been
anticipated frona it. IHear.] He could only say, that

though he had not so soon expected a fall in the price
of corn, he had for years expected that there would be
a fall in the price. He had never doubted but that he
should see corn at 403. a quarter under the old law.
He did not pretead to any gift of foreseeing future
prices, he had only looked to the course of experience
under the old law. It had been s.hown a few years
ago by Mr. Wilson, in a, pamphlet extensively circu-
lated, that the price of corn rose and flowed in this coun-
try as regularly as the ebb and flow of the sea. It
therefore required no far-sightedness to calculate
that when the price of corn was at the highest it
must soon begin to be at its ebb. For a number
of years ilown to 1823 the prices of corn were high,
but in 1823 prices fell from 83s. a quarter, which
was the flow, down to 44s. a quarter, which was the
ebb. The tide of the prices then again rose in 1829,
and in 1832 corn was at 66s. a quaiter. In 1839 again
came the ebb, and corn fell to 39i. a quarter; then,
again, the price of corn ro*e to 64?. According to a
statement made by Messrs. Sturge, of Birmingham, in
a circular issued by them, dated January, 1840, they
stated that " they did not think there would be a per-
manent fall in the price of corn till the year 1842." But
there was in the working of the new corn law a prin-
ciple which would hasten the tall of prices. In May
and June last there had been an e.\pectation of a bad
harvest, and at that time 2,000,000 or 3,000,000 of
quarters of corn had been introduced into this country.
Those who introduced the corn were of course not
aware of what would happen ; and he had heard that
they had been obliged to sell their 3,000,000 of quarters
of corn at a very great loss. If thi^amount of corn had
been sold at a profit, with the crop of last year, he
should have seen much more cause for alarm. He had
been told that those who had introduced this quantity
of corn had lost by it about 2,000,000/. sterling; he
therefore did not think that what had happened last
year would be likely to happen again with regard to
the reduction of the price of corn to a similar amount.
His belief was that there was al.so another cause for
the price of wheat being lowerat this moment— namely,
from there being a much larger quantity of land sown
with it la.«.t autumn, and now growing ; and he believed
also tiiat the crop^: were looking remarkably well. He
believed that there wjs another cause which now tended
to lower the pi ice of com, and that the anticipation of
a most bounteous harvest kept the price of corn down:
He entered into these particulars to justify the vote
wliich he had given. He trusted he was not mistaken
as to the effect of the new corn law ; nothing would
give him so much regret as to find that he had mis-
judged wIku the interests of the farmers were con-
cerned; and for his own sake also he wished it lobe
known that a permanent blight was not inflicted on the
country in consequence of the new corn law. When
the new tariiF had b.en proposed he could no longer
agree with her Majesty's Government, and he had
called together his constituents in many towns in that
county to state his reasons to them for opposing it, and
had offeied to the passing of that measure, he knew, a
powerless, but a most sincere opposition. There was
another measure which was proposed to be adopted by
her Majesty's Ministers, namely, the introduction of
corn manufactured into flour from Canada. He had
consulted every document to which he could obtain
access, aud had endeavoured to make up his opinion
upon this question ; and he assured them that there
was the greatest want of information regarding it. He
would say at once, that he did not consider that measure
to be sate, and, unlets he did, nothing should induce
him to give his vote in its favour. (Cheers.) There
were two views of this question. He was certain
that when las.t year the Government had propoted
this question they had not intended indirectly to do
any harm to farmers. ( Laughter and hisies.) They
might not all agree with him, but he knew they
would allow him, as an old iriend, to say what he
thought. {Hear, hear.) lit would tell them both
sides of the question. On the side of the Government

THE TARMER'S MAGAZINE.

O/O

it was said that in order to bring corn into this country
from the upper provinces of Caniula il would cost 25s.
per quarter, and it was also itated, that in order to bring
corn from the Uuiied Slates from those places I'lOm
which it would come it would cost 10?. more, wliich
would be 35s. a quarter. This wns one »ide of ihe
question. On the otlicr side it was stated that new
canals would be soon opened, which would greatly
reduce the expense of carriage, and that corn might be
regularly admitted at almost a free trade price,
namely, at a cost of 5s. a quarter, and to a measure
which would enable this he should feel bound to give
his most decided opi)o<ition. He would venture to con-
sider the object for which the meeting was convened,
namely, the present slate of the agricultural interests,
and how the condition of those interests could be
ameliorated. His view wa<, thai the salvation of the
British farmer depended on two means — first, on msin-
taining adequate protection ; secondly, on an increased
growth of corn. JVeiiher of these principles could stand
alone. It was impossible that they should maintain
protection if population increased at the rate of
2,000,000 every 10 years, unless they were able to grow
more corn than they liad hitherto done. It was equally
impossible that they should adopt improvements in
agriculture if th y were to have recourse to e>o reckless
a measure as to sweep off at once the present gener;;-
tion of British farnn rs. How, then, were they to re-
ceive protection? He thought it must be doae by union
(Cheers). He thought they might sometimes learn a
lesson from the enemy's camp, and he might say that
the main object of the Anii-Corn-Luw League at th.s
moment was to sow division amongst the Britisii far-
mers (Cheers). He would not say anything about
the Anti-Corn-Law League which he would not say of
them if Mr. Cobden were present, nor so much. He
saw it stated, on the one hand, by them, that Sir Robert
Peel was desirous lo concede free trade in corn, but
that the county members would not allow him to do so.
On the other hand, he saw it stated that Sir Robert
Peel dragged the county members througli the dirt
wherever he wished them to go. It was evident that
these two statements could not be true. He believed
that neither was true. Then again it was said—" that
the question of the corn laws was a landlord's question
only — that it was a niere question of rent— that all the
landlords would have to do was to lowf r their rents, and
the farmer with a perfect free trade in co^n would then
be as well off as ever" (Hear, hear). Others well ac-
quainted with the Sco'ch system of farming told them
of the high rents paid in Scotland— us much as 5/. per
acre, and they told them that it was not a landlord's ques-
tion only, but a farmer's question; that the farmers ought
to farm better than they did. Then they were told by
Blr. Cobden that they were to have troubles in Ihe south
of England amongst the labourers. He (Mr.Pusey)
believed that Mr. Cobden was mistaken, and knew noth-
ing of the character of the population of that part of the
country. He (Mr. Pusey) believed Mr. Cobden would
not succeed in separating the labourers from the far-
mers any more than he would in separating landlord and
tenant. The Anti-Corn Law League had threatened
that if any country gentleman should dare to use the
argument that the repeal of the corn law would injure
the labourer, the League would immediately send down
an emissary into his neighbourhood, and examine into
the whole state of his property. He (iMr. Pusey) did
not wish for any emissary or spy in his neighbourhood,
but he would not be deterred from stating what they all
knew — that though the price of bread had been much
lower last winter than it had been the year before, the
agricultural labourer had not been any better off, but,
on the contrary, had been much worse ofi (Hear, hear).
His wages had fallen, and by no fault ot the farmer ; for
the farmer had given the utmost that he could give ; but
wages had fallen, not so much from a failure of wages
as from the want of employment \Cheers'\. A> to the
point of increased produc'.ion by the farmer, he begged
to say, that he did not recommend improvement in agri-
culture from any notion or theory of his own. The rule

he had laid down on this matter was to listen with the
utmost attention to the opinions of the farmers, and to
consult their views and experience. It was in this mari-
ner that he cultivated his own little farm ; ami his
belief reas, that Scotch farming, excellent as he be-
lieved it was in that country, did not excel the (arming
of the touth of England. The more he sr-.w of the sys-
tem of farming in the south, the more he vvas eoovimed
ot its excellence. The only thing required was, that
the farmers of the different districts should communi-
cate to each other the results of their experience
(Hear, hear.) As to the farmers cultivating better, he
was sure that they could not afford to make expensive
improvements, unless with the help of their landlords
( Cheers). It was a common saying in the British army
that " there wi.re two kinds of ofhcers, one of which
said ' Go alon?,' and the other ' Come along,' and that
the oflficer who said ' Come along' vvas generally the
most successful" (Cheers and laughter). He said the
same of the landlord ; he believed it to be the duty ot
the landlord to lay out money on his farm, and to help
his tenants by every means in his power. He believed
that the landlord ought to take upon himself the em-
ployment of the labourers on his estate for two or three
months in the winter ; and if two or three wealthy pro-
prietors in each union were to do this, and employ
some 50 or 60 labourers each, they would do great good,
relieve the farmers from the pour-iates, benefit
their farms, and their children would reap the fruits of
their well-considered benevolence (Loud cheering). He
trusted that they would believe that he had been most
anxiously concerned in considering how the prospects
of the British farmer and of his labourers could be ad-
vanced. He might have been mistaken, but hoped he
had not. He could only say it had been his most
anxious wi?h to secure prosperity to the farmer. He
thanked them for the attention with which they had
heard him, and felt that the kindness with which they
had so often received him was an ample reward for any
toils which he might have undergone. (Cheers.)

Viscount Barrington, as one of the county mem-
bers, also rose to acknowledge the toast. He should
at all times be most anxious to forward the interests of
his constituents, an I the moment he found that he
could not do ?o, that moment he would resign bis pre-
sent position. During the first session of the present
Parliament he had had very little to do but to drive
away from the helm those who at the close of the ia.st
election had charge of it, and he believed he had per-
formed this duty to the satisfaction of his constituents,
{Cheersanda few hisses.) He did not care the least
for a few hisses. It was perfectly imposMble in an.
assembly of that kind, where were many hold-
ing a variety of opinions, to give satisfaction to
all. It was a great thing for him to have given
satisfaction to the majority of his constituents
who sent him to Parliament. (Cheers.) He had
given no vote in ttie House of Commons which
he had not hoped would be of use to his constituents.
There had been during the present Parliament three
great measures atfecting agriculture, submitted by the
Government to the House of Commons. One was an
alteration in the corn laws, another was an alteration in
Ihe import duty on cattle, and the other measure was—
whether it was to be p'oposed this sea-ion or to lie over
he could not say— the bill to be introduced on the im-
portation of American wheat through Canada. The
first opportunity which had been presented to him and
his colleagues of hearing what was the opinion of their
constituents on this last measure had been given them
by the farmers at a meeting at Reading, and they were
generally opposed to it. They had heard complaints of
the general distress which existed in this country. He
did not hesitate to state that the distress had been
caused by the infamous conduct of the late adminis-
tration. (Cheers.) He had told them that they ought
to speak out, and speak out he would, whether with
their approbation or disapprobation, because he did not
speak from any interested motives. When the affairs
of the country had been laid before Parliament, and the

374

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

great debt we had incurred from the mismanagement
of the late ministry hnd been brought before them,
he did not see how it was possible that there should be
any preat alteration in the commercial tariff of this
country, or how the agricultural interest was to be left
out of bearing the burden. When the farmer suffered
tlie liindlord suffered, for the farmer could not even-
tually pay his rents. There had been some allusions
made lo the malt tax and to its repeal. If the country
were in a flourishing state he for one should be most
happy to vote for the repeal of that tax ; but, under all
the circumstances, rather than have its repeal, he would
have the beer tux again imposed, for, if one thing- were
better than another for the labourmg classes, it was
that they should return to those habits of sobriety for
which they had formerly been so noted {hear). If the
labourer could brew his own beer, and brew it good,
it would be much more for his advantage than as now
{hear, hear). He now opposed the repeal of the malt-
la.\ because they were in debt. If that tax, bringing
in 4,000,000 of money, was to be repealed, where was
the Minister to look to fur any thing to supply its
place ? It might be said, " Make an addition to the
income-tax.'' lie doubted whether that would be a
very popular measure ; and they would recollect that
the income-tax was not paid by the people of Ireland,
though the malt-tax was, and he thought that they
ought to call upon the people of Ireland for a fair pro-
portion of the expenses of this country {hear, hear).
Considering that the gupp'y of cattle in this country
did not keep pace wi h the increase of population,
he was not prepared to resist the importation of
foreign cattle under some duty : whether the duty was
too low was another thing ; but lie never could con-
scientiously say that the peopieof this country should be
debarred from using meat because the supply of cattle
did not keep up with the increase of the population. If
the proposed bill for regulating the introduction of
American corn would tend to injure the farmer, there
could be no doubt that it was the duty of those who
represented the interests of the British farmer to oppose
it. Ti.e last question he had heard put in the House of
Commons on that subject had been put by Mr. Ewart
to Mr. Gladstone, the Vice-President of the Board of
Trade, and from his answer it appeared that whatever
might be the fate of the provi-ions of this Canada Bill
at present, there was no power to prevent the corn of
the United States being imported into this country in
the shape of Canada flour, i'his was no new law— it
was as old as the JVavigaiion Act. They were told
that whatever was brought from any one of our colo-
nies, which had been there manufactured — and wheat
ground into flour was considered as a manufactured
article— the colonies had a right to introduce into the
mother country; and they were told by the Colonial
Secretary, that ample means would be taken by the
bill to prevent the smuggling of United States' corn by
thii means. H_- could only say with his lion. colleague,
that he had no interest on earth that was not bound up
wiih their own, except a small interest in the coal
trade. He l.np d and trustf^d that as ths prospects of
trade revived, their prospects aieo would revive. No
doubt the manufacturers must hentfit by it, and the
more the great consumers of agricultural produce flou-
rished the more he was sati»fied the farmers would
flourish. [^Heur, hear.~\ He did not look on any duty
imposed on corn as a duty for the purposes of revenue,
merely conceiving that agriculture was entitled to pro-
tection. [Cheern.'] He begged to thank them for their
attention, and should now sit down to hear his noble
friend Earl Stanhope address them. [Loud cheering.]

The Chairman then proposed " the health of the
Members for the county of Oxford."

Letters were lead from Mr. Henley, Lord Norrey?,
and Mr. Harcourt, explaining the reasons of their ab-
sence.

The following U a copy of Mr. Harr ourt's letter : —
" Dear Sir,— I was not aware that an Agricultural
Association existed at Wallingford, though I have had

the pleasure of seeing you sometimes at one of ours in
Oxfordshire. Belonging to three in my own county, I
should find it very inconvenient to make any exccp'.ion
to the rule on which I have uniform'y acted, of de-
clining invitations to public dinners, with that or any
other object in adjoining counties, alihough many of
my constituents m^ght attend them. That motive would
exist wiih respect to any public dinners at Reading,
where I have canvassed 40 electors. Many of my con-
stituents go to Aylesbury on such occasions, but I have
excused myself from joinii.g them. It is solely on this
ground that I must beg you to inform the committee of
my regret at being obliged to decline their invitation ;
for^if any meeting of an agricultural body took place in
Oxfordshire over which Mr. Blackstone should preside,
I should be anxious to attend it, although my avowed
difl^erenee of opinion from him, which is shared entirely
by one of my colleagues, and in part by the other,
would afford little prospect of unanimity, and there-
fore I should say of advantage from such meeting.
" Yours faithfully,
" J. AUnatt, Esq." " G. Harcourt."

The letter of Lord Norreys was not quite so lengthy.
He said —

*' Sir, — I am sorry I cannot avail myself of your
invitation to dine at Wallingford on Thursday next.
" Yours respectfully, " Norreys."

The reading of this laconic epistle caused a general
laugh. The toast having been duly honoured.

The Chairman said, the next toast he should propose
was the health of the noble Ear! (Stanhope), who had
that day honoured them with his presence. He re-
joiced that they had received his name with acclama-
tion, for although a stranger to the county, yet they
could not but remember that he had the higher claim on
their attention of having been an uncompromising
champion of protection to British agriculture. He had
also a claim from his having so lately presided at that
meeting in Buckinghamshire where the farmers unani-
mously supported resolutions in favour ol protection.
He was quite sure the toast would be drunk with all the
honours. [Cheers.]

The toast was then drunk in a very enthusiastic
manner.

Earl Stanhope said, he was inexpressibly gratified
by so flattering a mark of their regard, which he valued
the more because, as he was unconnected by property
or otherwise with the county, he could only attribute it
to approbation of his public conduct in defending the
rights of the agricultural classes and the producing
cla^se3 generally. He regarded it as a proof of their coii -
curreiice in those j rinciplcs which lie should never cease
stedfAstly to avow. Witli regard to the late corn law ot the
Government, he had not allowed an hour to pass before he
protested against it. The report of the debate on tlic subject
readied liini by express, and by anoUier express he iiHme-
diately forwarded a letter to ;the editor ot tlie Fanner's
Journal, containing his protest. He wa^ not one of those
who invited the farmer to exhibit that patience and forbrar-
ance on which the Chairman liad so expatiated. He consi-
dered tliat it >vas in pait to that patience and forbearance,
which he had never loiinselled — (hear) — whicli he liad
never ri commended, and which he never would recommend—
(/tear)— that the farmers owi d their deplorable, if not desti-
tute condition.— (//car, hear.) — He rememl)ered a story in
the Spectator of a girl who was asked hy a young fellow to
take a walk in the evening, to whicli, as she rxpected it
wonld end in sjine love affair, she had no objection —
{Laughter.) — But the lellow, after taking some innocent
liberties witii her, endf d by picking her pocket. — {Laugh-
ter.)— He was taken before a magistrate, and she was asked
why she did not put a stop to the thing when lie first began ?
" Oh,'' said she, '• I wislied to see how far his impudence
would CAuy h\m." —{Laughter.) — Now, that w. s cxnctly
the case with tlie farmers. Tliey had waited to see how far
the impudence of Sir R. Peel would carry him. — {Laughter)
Wlien he first proposed his com bill lo the House ol Com-
mons he evidently had misgivings as to how it would
l;e received. He did not pledge himself to it as a Oovern-
inent measure, but rather seemcl to i-uggest it to the House,
when it would be lor them to deal witli it as llipy thought fit.
If at that time they had had such men in I'ariiainent as Mr.
Biackstoue and Mr. Cochrane had proved themselves to be.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

375

thf y wauld have defeated the cern kill, and never heivnl any
thing :it .'ill of the tiiriS.— (Li ok cl cheers.) The Chairman
liad talked about Lord Reiiaifsham. He (Earl Stanhope)
won lered that he had not noticed the ignorance displayed by
the noble <an ii^laie in ihat part of his speech wliere he said
that (hf l<)\v price of corn wa* not altogether aitributable to
the late measure of the Government. The hon. member lor
the county (.Mr. Pusey) hal, to his astunishmc. t, saidaiim st
the sa.ne thing. Why, the last crop was not on the whole
mere than an average cro^i. ( Expressions of assont tlirough-
out the room )— In SulTolV, Norfolk, and Essex it was con.
siderably below the averjge, and he knew that in his own
immediate neighbourhood th • crop was one-third less than
it was the year ijifore. (Hear.) Lord Remllesham told
them that there had been a great importation of corn, and
Mr. Pus'-y seemed to liim as if he hal re-echned that state-
ment. C.\ cry of " Yes, he did.") Why, the farmers knew
thit by putting their hands in thfir pickets. (lAinghter.)
After the passing of the corn bill, no le-s than 3,0*10, 000
quarters ot corn had bem imp rtC'l, 2,000,000 ol it in live
weeks, at a duty of 8s. Now, would any person venture to
contend that there could have been such an iniport.ttion as th^t
under the old duty ? (Chicrs, and a cry of " .Vo, it Hever
could.") Then, again, it was argued tliat the f^!l in the
price rf c;ittle was caused, not by the tariff, but by a panic.
He maintained that it was cause<l solely by the opening of
the ports to foreign catlU" ; but, if it was caused by a i^anic,
pray who gave occasion for the panic itself: (Cheers and
laugh'er.) If tlie new tariff had net been proposed, there
would have been ne panic. And proposed by whom? By
the Minister who was placed lie office by the agricultural in-
terest, in the belief that he would support their interests.
If Sir H. Peel had told the country at Tamworth that he
meant to introduce foreign cattle, an! lower the protection
on corn, could any man doubl that his party would not have
been in the ascendant? He (Earl Stanhope) was not a par-
tisan of eiiher faction, but acted ou his hor.est, independent
conviction ; and if Sir llobert had not i;een placed in power
these measures could i.ever have been carried. He passed
from this, however, to entreat them to consider tlieir real
situation, which was very imporfectly undevstood. It was a
mistake to snpp'ise that a repeal of the malt t^ix would re-
stoie the fanners toth^ir former pro-perity. Another delusion
was that put forth by the Agricultural Society, that by new
mO'Ies of drainage, or by other such means, they ceuld stave
olf the inroad ot free trade opinion^ that W3re rapidly iie^troj-
ing them and ruining their faoilies. But by whom was the
expense to be paid of these improvements? The tenants
■Were already impoverished, and the landlords would soon
be ; but woull they lay out the money required unless they
felt seme belief in the permanency of the existing laws ? Who
could rely on their permanence r Under such circumstances
what were Ihey to do ? (" Turn them all out !") A mo;t
excellent suagcstion that, bnt the question was, how were
they to do it? (Cheers and laughter.) One of the Cabinet
Ministers was known to have said, not lotig since, that the
Government must make another plunge into free trade, and
that the present corn law would not last another year. The
Government did not pretend that there was any difference of
principle between them and the Opposition ; on the contrary.
Sir J.Graham had said, that free trade principles were the
principles of eonnnon sense, and their adojition was now
only a question of time. (Cheers ) Both he and another C. hi-
net Minister, in neither of whom ce-ild confidence be placed,
told the agriculturists, as their only remedy, to take ano-
ther dose of tlie draught they had fount do better be-
fore. (Hear, hear.) It was like t!ie case of a man
who got drunk, and next msrning maintained that
all would have been well if he had only taken
enough ; se, also, the agricultuiists were tn d that the only
cure for the ruin whicli free trade principles had brought
upon them was for them to gulp down a large dose of them.
With regard to the Canada corn hiil, whiiO.i was to be brought
in soon after Easter, it was said that it did not alter the pre-
sent law. Why, the present law certainly adn.itted wheat
at adiictuating dutv of from 5s. t> /s., but before the corn
coul I be shipped from Canada, there was required a regular
certilieate that it was the growth of Canada, and nit the
United Slates. (A voice, " Tlour.") Well, flour; it was
all the same thing. What was sauce for the goose was sauce
for the gander. They would find what he had stated in the
5th clause, and, moreover, they would also find that where
there was no such eeitificate corn was forfeited to the criwn,
but by the proposed measure corn might be imported intoCa.
nada at 3s. per qr., and re-imported here as flour at a nomi-
nal dutr. Was not thatan infraction of the corn law ? The
farmers', in fact, had not yet been brought down low enough
to suit the Government. Haviug come downtoa state at
which rents were for the most part pail out of capital and
n«t out of profits, they were still to be brought down lower.
He would not ask now'how farthis result was owing t-> the in-
timiditioHof the corn law league; hut he could tellthein what
were the private designs of the league, as avowed to a friend
of his by a member of the body when he spoke with less re-
serve than prudence usually imposed upon :Lem. That per-

son said that their real object w*s to get the land out of the
hands of the landlord, and having got posse.-sion of it they
would re-enact another corn law ; lh*y hoped by this means
to compensate themselves for the losses they pretended to
h'.ve -nlTered throngli protection ; theiefore it w»s that they
sought to g't the land into their own hand-. Buttiiey went
further; they desi el to have retrilmtion, as th''y called
it, on those who had hitnerto made the laws. (Cheers).
The time was come for tlie farmers to look to themselves.
There would be no hope for improvement of prices. He
spoke the opini-in of a most intelligent and well-informed
man, Mr. Joserh Sanders, of Liverpool, who said, when Sir
Robert l^eel lelused to keen the prices between 54s. and 58s.,
that af.er a few seasons hi» expected that the average would
he l-ls. or 'i8s. The averages pubiiahed \n\.\if Gazetle vtexa
far above the prices actually received by the grower. He be-
lieved that not long h-'ucc the piices wouid be, for corM
3Ss., for oats 123 , and for barley 18s. He believed that in a
short time the public would be made acquainted with infor-
mation on this sttt'jeet by .Mr. Rolle, of Beac ju^tield. One
thing he wauld show— that on a farm for which no rent was
paid on 200 acres, tijere hid been a loss of 50/. per annum.
If he were to offer them advice it would be to trust to
themselves alone, not to rely on those who conscienliously
differed from them in opinion, but to woi k out their own
temporal salvation tnrough their own independent exertions.
The Butkinghanisliire meeting offered them encouragement.
He (Earl Stanhope^, unconnected with Hu.kiiigUamshire,
but standing solely on his avowal of public principle, had
succeeded in obtaining the sanction of an overwiielming
maj<irity. That was not a packed nieetini;-. It was one of
the freeholders and resident inhabitants of the county. He
would be glad to see such meetings, not only of counties,
bnt of every town and village ; and he hoped, ab-ive all,
that they would intrsst their petitions to persons who would
make them heard in Parliament. He would recommend
thorn to ask, not for a diminution of burdens, or for any-
thing of that kind, but for that full protection of British
industry to which they were entitled— they should not,
indeed, so mncli ask as demand it. (Cheers). Whatever the
the result mi^ht be, thev would have the inestimable satis-
faction of kno'wing that they had discharged their duty to the
country at large, a feel ng that would sustain them, what-
ever privations might be in st^re f.ir them, or whatever
calamities mi^ht !a.l upon them. (The noble earl sat down
amidst enthusiastic ch?ering).

Mr. Pdsey, in explanation, stated, that he had beea
misunderstood with reg'ard to the views he entertained
as to the proposed measures of the Government. He cer-
tainly would not vote for X\\m (cheers), unless he sawthat
it would be for the benefit of tke agricultural interest, (Dis-
approbation and some hisses).

Mr. Allnatt rose to propose the next toast. He
sail he was about to propose the health of two
members ol Parliament who had honoured them with
their compiny — " Mr. (^. Dick and Mr. B, Cochrane."
'Ihfty were men who had stood by the farmers man-
(ully whc-n go i:viny of their pretended friends had
deserted them in order to m lintain the unanimity of that
great apostate — Sir Robert Peel. (Loud cheers). He did
not come there to atlaeU their county members on the score
of want of sincerity, but he did charge them with a want of
ccnsistency. He well remembered what occurred atthelast
election, and the pr.ifessions those members thui made. Lord
Barrington and Mr. Pusey ni'ght be very sincere in the pro-
fessions thev then made, and in the course they now pursued,
but he would tell them to their faces that if they had dared at
the hnstingj to tell theelectois- what they intended to do with
respect to Government measures ;hey would not now hold
the high position they d.d. As a farmer, he cottld say that no
ctin!awwas fatal to the existence of British agiiculture.
Tae rent was no longer paid out of profits— it was paid out
of capital. Mr. Pusey had told them that the depression of
the agriculture of the country was not caused by the new
corn law. If it v/as ii t cause.l by that, by what was it
caused ' The landlords seemed to suppose that the farmers
would go on cultivating the country for the mere pleasure
of payiii?the rent, while they were losing their capital. If
they did think so, they would soon receive a severe lesson to
the contrary. (Cheers) After some further remarks of the
same character, the speaker concluded by proposing the
toast.

Viscount Barrington was then heard in explana-
tion of what the last speaker had said as to his conduct
on the hustings. He denied having made any professions
which he had not fulfilled. He had declared himself oppo:cd
to the principle of a fixed duty.

Mr. Pusey made a short explanation of a similar cha-
racter.

Mr. Q. Dick then acknowledged the camplimeut {aid (o
him in a brief speech.

Mr. B. Cochrane next rose to respond to (he toast,

376

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and was received with loud cheering. Hesaid he wa? much
flattered at having' the opportunity of addressing so in-
fluential an assembly, and one met for the purpo-e of
upholding such important interests as those represented
by their hen. chairman. (Hear). Unconntcted with
their town, unknown to tlieni save as tin' limnble advocate of
tliose interest?, he should liavc liesitated to appear I) 'fore
them, had it not been that the prine.iples wliieh they niutn-
ally supported formed a greai bond of union between them.
{Hear.) Surely, at the present time it were idle to dilate on
the importance of such meetings : the rsost careless observer
of the times must perceive that a crisis was at hand, though
what that crisis might be, and how it might be best met,
must mainly depend upon their own energies and on their
own exertions. (Cheers.) it was true that there was an
apparent calmness, almost a stagnation of political feeling.
To say tliat this was the calm whicli preceded the storm was
to make use of a trite illustration, instead of an argument;
but it was certain that there were natural causes lor a periad
of delusive tranquillity, while yet the affections of a nation
were not entirely alienated, and the great darkness is still
gathering in the distance. (Cheers.) If history were in-
deed philosophy teaching by examf e, surely the history of
all parties would show that the aggressors were ever ener-
getic and vigorous — the defensive careless and indili'eient.
{Heiir, hear.) This, then, was their danger — that they
would sacritice too much to popular clamour, and make con-
cessions which tliey might hereafter repent of. Let them
avail themselves, ihen, of this opportunity, to invigoiate
their resolutions and rouse tlieir energies. (Loud cheer-
ing.) They would pardon him if he troubled them with a
tew arguments against further change, nut new, indeed, but
which, from their truth, would well bear repetition. WInt
was the great stiength of all countries ;- Was it not national
faith? (Hear, hear.) The Anti-Corn Law League would
violate* not only the rights of landlords, but the rights of
investment and the rights of prescription. When cash pay-
metils were resumed after the war, wlut was the great ar-
gument made use of in opposition to Mr. Huskisson ? That
the national faith wms pledgi'd to the natioiial creditor.
Well, but was not the same faith pledged to the landlord?
Had not jointures, mortgajes, and stUlements been made
upon lands, under the full un lerstamhng that Die principle
of the then present laws would be upheld ? (Hear, hear.)
The landlord trusted to his land contract as the annuitant
trusted to his fund contract. If they leiealed the cirn law?,
did they not increase the income of the annuitant? (Hear.)
Do awaywith thc30,OnO,000/. paid annnally to the fun.'U
holders, and then he believed tlie landlords would not object
to a repeal of the corn laws. (Hear). It was a sad thing
to shake national faith, to teach people that when they said
Parliament was omnipotent, they meant to say it had the
power of being unjust. (Cheers.) In times of danger,
who was the least selfish — the .mnuitant or the Ian Iholder ?
He had heard men say, " Oh, but we owe a good »!cal to cir-
cumstances." He aho looked to the circumstances of the
case, and he knew it required the nicest discrimniation to
make concessions to circumstances without sicrilicing prin-
ciples. Could they compare the circumstances of this coun-
try with those of other countries? What oilier country had
a debt of 900,000,000/.? What other country subsidized all
nations dui ing the war ? What other country had so great a
popul-.tion? They could no more compare the political fea-
tures of England and Amfrica than they could the Tlianies
and the St. Lawrence. (Load cheering.) Was this the
lirst time they had heard the cry of ciieap bread ? Had it
not been raised in Rome and Athens ? They might call for
cheap bread, and say the landlords were in fault, and cry for
a repeal of the corn laws ; again they would hear the cry of
cheap bread, and the aristocracy would be sacrillccd, and
soon after the monarchy would fall at the cry ; so that bread,
which should furnish them with subsistence, would furnish
the arguments of their ruin. (Great ehecrins'.) But the
lirst principles upon which these free-ti'aders started weie
absurd. It was not true that it wa^ desirable that bread
should be chi'ap, if, in I'rder to obtain t!iis cheapness, t icy
reduced the means of purchasing it. (Hear, hear.) Why
did not the manufacturers see that their interests were in-
separably united with the interests of the landlords ? Take
the ye^r 1824. The manufacturers were most prasperous,
because the landlords tvere so. This was not owing to fo-
reign commerce, for in that year the exports fell off 500, O&O/.
Hut even the Anti-Corn Law League must admit that the
landlords were not the only persons who benefited by the
corn Ian s— that the larmers and lalrourers reaped some ad-
vantage, anil surely these classes foruuM no unimportant part
of the community. (Great cheering.) A certain supply of
corn was wanted ; the question at isssue was where it was to
be grown ? " Oh, but," tlieir opponents said, " you need not
growcorn; trust, like the Israelites, to traffic. Go from the
land of Canaan to the land of Uoshcn with money iji your
jiacks, and buy food; turn the land to pastiue." B'lt did
they not know that many years must elapse before the pasture
would be worth anything? (Cheers.) Then they laid—

" England is a manir fact.uir.g country ; i-he has greit facili-
ties : she has her mine", her rivers, her seas ; and she has
;idded to these wide canals which intersect the country, and
railroads, which spread the intercourse between nnn and
man." -iut, he would ask, had England no other features
than these ? (Hear, hear ) Who was there who had not
seen the traveller, borne rapidly through the country to the
great city, point to the rich soil, the luxuriant and yellow
crops waving in long ridges to the horizon, to the land stud-
ded with happy fariits, atid felt il.at this was t!.:e great glory
of England, and that her tenants were her best bulwark ?
(Great cheering ) No one pretended to say that wages
must always rise with the price of food ; but what was cer-
tain w's, that they always fell with it — a fall in prices was
almost ahvajs associated with diminisi ed deina'id for labour,
and lower w.ges, (Hear, hear.) Of course it was the
interest ef all Oovrrnments to keep rents as low as po-sible,
for this gave them the power of raising rents by an alteration
in the lav/ when they obtained a greater margin for taxation :
if farmers could exist when wheat was at4rs., it was evident
that when the prices, as in war, rose to 80s., they were ap-
parently well able to bear heavy taxes. One great mi-take
geirerally nrade wis, in imagining that the happiness of a
cousUywasiu proportion to its wealth. Why, the gri atest
misery existed in Spain at the time Cortes and l^izano were
sending hoiBe galli ons laden with the spoi's of Mexico and
Peru. Di-. Sinithers had said, "No dou' t maHufactures add
to the apparent wealth of a country, but iifl a much greater
degri'e they lessen its happiiifss and security.' And Mr.
Huskisson, upon the question of the resirmption of cash pay-
mmts in IS17, said — " It is painful to see, that whi'e public
prosperity has increased, atrd the wealth of the country ad-
vanced, the comforts of the labourers have much diminitfhed,
the population has kept pace with the circulating medium,
and now, though there is increased employment, there are
diminishel wages." (Hear, hear.) He was not one of those
who said that all machines had done harm ; but he did say,
its excess was most objectionable. Why, even Mr. >>'aid
had owned this a few days since, when he said, " No doubt
the first introduction of machinery into any trade was cal-
culate! seriously to injure the workmen." What were the
remarks of tlie Vice-President of the Board of Trade on this
subject? — '• It is certain that ni uhii cry maybe some cau<e of
this over-production, by the excess of supply over demand.
So long as men labour with their own hands or inert iistru-
ments the supply will be in proportion to the denmnd, bfit
when steam p jwer is a|iplied, which i» not a consumer, this
proportion muft frequently be exceeded." He knew well
what advantages the Anti-Corn Law orators possessed in the
topics by which they a|ipeal to men's feelings. When they
talked of the plains in the far west — of the wide-3pre>ad
prairies of the Illinois, covered wr.h luxuriant crops — when
they spoke of the Mississippi, of the Sf. Lawrence, rolliirg
down their mighty waters to the ocean, which, no longer a
barrier between man and man, had been converted by the
genius of a Watt into the highway of com nercial industry —
when they spoke of .\11 this, and then told them that it was
the rude will of the latrdlord alone which prevented them
sharing these advantages, he nuijt express his dissent from
such a doctrine. He minded not that the ignorant southern
calledioudly for justice, bntthis did not tell tiiem that no ad-
vantages could compensste for national industry, and that
wealth and prosperity were ill-secured which were dependent
on the will of others. They did not tell them that a gi e.^t
nation must have great resources, an I that without indepeir-
dence of position there cou'd be no independence of feeling.
He remembered a fable of an indolent man, who dreamt of
a wealth which he was too idle to pursue. He imagined one
night that a vision put a spade into his hand, te ling him to
dig in a garden and he would there fitrd wealth. Me dug
some time, uirlil the latent truth dawneil upon him that a
man's industry was his wealth, and that the sinews ofa nation
were the sinews of men. (Cheers.) Need he point out to
them how greatly the manufactures of the CBUUtry affected
the feelings and affections of the people ? Did they not know
that the social relations, like transplanted flowers, withered
away in the atmosphere of crowded ciiies? The labourer
loved his native villajje, and he turned from his work in the
field to look at its spire. In that spot his forefathers lived —
there those he loves were born, and perhaps some he loveil
best weie buried. So even the churchyard, with its narrow
path and grassy mound, was to him a pledge ot future rest
and future hoine. (Hear, hear.) When he said tliat the al-
terations in the corn law had even now affected the content-
mentaiid character of the people, he said that if it were pos-
sible they ought to return twthe old system ; but vestigia
nulla retrorsuM, and this should teach them to be carelul
how they adopted reforms, when return was impossible.
He met with a pa'-.sage in a book written in 1825 singularly
applicable to the preserrt time. It said, "The la.idlords and
fanners know not what to trust to; they exclaim, ' if we
sow we know not who shall reap, all improvements are
stopped." The farmer saysto the labourer, ' 1 will not expend
a shilling until I know whether I shall be ruined or not.
What we fear is, that the Legislature will adopt the wild an I

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

377

luiscliievoiis tlieorie^ of ihc mob.' " He (Mr. Coclnanc)
would apply to Sir Robfit Pf el the sane language which the
Roman orator applied t.) Antony :—" Whence coiiica tliis
great change ? I cannot afribute t« yo:i any paltry motives.
No ; whatever other men may say, this will 1 not believe.
For I hrve never kno«n in vou .inything dastard or mean,
althbugh high power sometimes debases the uiider'tandin" ;
but I have known your energy, atid I wi-h tl.at you would
avoid not only the reproach ol having committed a f.iult, bat
also the suspicion of evil intention." In conclusion he would
say, give us action —

" Rightly to be great
Is not to stir without great argument.''

Now, we had the greatest. Let them not underrate the in-
fluence of the League, the energy of its leaders. He respecied
popular passions ; there were some great and noble, some
like these to be dreaded, but ihey could not be despised. It
was action which they wanted; between v:>sue good inten-
tions and fixed, indomitable action, what a difference I "All
action," said the Duke of Wellington, 'is attended with
risk, but the greatest of all risk is the risk of inaction ;" if
men would meet together as they had done that day, the
consciousness of strength, the sense of unity, must insure a
conlidence which would insure success. And, now, having
presumed to point out what he considered to be their duty,
they would peruiit him also to show that he understood his
own. He was too well aware that while, in some respects
the agriculturists had been wanting to themselves, their re-
presentatives had also been wanting. They knew with whiit
jeers and sarcasm any man was met who presumed to think
differenily trom the niiijority of his partv ; but what they
wanted was gallant men like their chairman, who would re-
deem in the House the pledges of the hustings. (Great
cheering.) Ill- judging was that man who entered into
politic* as a mere abstract speculation, unmindful of all the
passions, prejudices, and sympathies which act on men iu
common life. After all, what were politics ? if trulv de-
fined—the science of making men happy. Alas!" saiil Mr.
Carlyle, " the beginning of all things is iove, and the wise'
head never was without the generous lieart." He (Mr. Coch-
rane) knew with what tatmts any man was met who ventured
to limit— some would e.xpress it to extend his views— to the
sympathies and feelings ol more than those for wliom ke legis-
lated ; but he thought, as a being having to account here and
hereafter, it was his duty so to act, and that that Government
was most stable which was based upon ihe affections of the
people. That all nations, like all men, must pass away, was
most true, but could this bean argument for national any
more than it was an argument for individual indifference' We
built up columns, we erected statues, knowing full well that
their ruins would one day arrest the footsteps of the stranger
Should we not hudd up the nol lest of all monuments- our
national prosperity, because some convulsion, near or distant
might one day sweep nway all classes and all orders in one'
overwhelming ruin? {Cheers.) The hon. gentleman con-
cluded with these words :— " Sursum corda. Be of good
cheer, have strength within yourselves ; but to succeed we
must cast off all private interests, luxuries, and pride. In a
word, we must forget ourselves. All selfish feelings which
are not based on public happiness must be avoided. We must
be united ; and united we shall go triply armed to the fight,
remembering always, ' That the race is not to the swift, nor
the battle to the strong,' but that the victory is to the most
enduring. (Loud cheers.)

Several other toasts appropriate to the occasion were after,
wards given, and the meeting separated.

CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE
FOR MAY.

The beauty of tbe early part of April, the warm
genial showers, and alternating gleams of sun,
produced a stimulus throughout nature, and
brought vegetable growth forward with surprising
rapidity. A check, of course, followed, and severe
night frost occurred about the second week, with
considerable quantity of snow in some parts.
Every occurrence of this kind indicates caution,
and therefore our first advice will be to avoid the
full exposure of several choice plants, shrubby
and annual, till after the middle of this month.
Every geranium and shrub of like habit, which is
now employed as the chief ornament of modern
gardens, ought to be gradually inured to the open

air, in cold pits and frames, or even in open pits
of brick or turf, covered at night with straw mats,
eanvas screens, or common mats ; otherwise, the
labour of a winter may perish in a few hours.

The VEGETABLn Garden.

Sow kidney beans on the first warm and sunny
day, in drills heated by the sun ; cover the seed
three inches deep : repeat the sowing of dwarf
French beans about the middle of the month ; and
sow, or transplant from pots for a full crop of the
runners.

Potato planting of the late winter keepers should
be completed. The varieties differ in their habits,
and therefore it is impossible to say whether deep
or shallow planting should be adopted. Those
varieties which work laterally, always below the
surface, ought to be planted four inches deep,
using two-eyed sets of fine tubers ; on the con-
trary, the potatoes which raise their tubers above
soil must be set rather more shallow, in soft, well
pulverized earth, trusting to future mouldings-up
for protection from the light.

The " Irisli tread- fruit," if we may trust to a
specimen just received, promises to gratify every
wish ; it is white, extremely hard, and perfectly
solid in the pulp. Every country has its favourite,
but this is a very fine potato indeed. Ash-leaved
kidneys are, however, appropriate to every part of
the kingdom.

We want to ascertain the efi'ect of autumnal
potato planting, for it promises some advantages,
which have been asserted by some writers to exist,
but which experience is required to establish.

Peas. The imperial and Woodford marrows should
be sown, always keeping the rows far apart. The
tall growers bear most certainly ; and if the soil
be digged, watei-ed, raised in a sort of flat ridge,
according to Knight's plan, and the soil saturated
with water along the drill prior to sowing, the
plan twithstands the driest weather. Last summer,
when all the dwarf had given in, and become dry,
we saw tall rows, all of which had borne in suc-
cession from July early to the middle of August.
Persons of forethought will act wisely by making
a resolute and accurate trial of profuse watering
of the ground, prior to sowing or planting almost
any kind of crop : surface waterings parch and
harden the soil ; but the irrigation now recom-
mended is deep and eff"ectual.

Lettuces, spinach, radish, and every salad vege-
table can now be sown in succession ; the first
should never be transplanted, excepting the first
spring plants from autumnal sowings, because
lettuces are almost certain to run to seed if re-
moved ; but the seedlings must be thinned to ample
distances.

The whole cabbage family may be propagated :
hearting cabbage by transplanting young seedlings ;
Capo broccoli, and Brussell's sprouts, borecole,
and savoy by seeds ; and a slight sprinkling of
early turnip may be made.

Asjjaragus : yearling plants will yet succeed if
planted immediately from the seed-rows into pre-
pared ground, and well watered every warm eve-
ning. The same treatment will apply to the rooted
suckers of artichoke plants ; but droughty weather
is at all times very adverse, to the latter par-
ticularly.

Sea-kale of the last cuttings will be backward on
account of the extreme winterly weather of mid-
April ; therefore, when the crop is taken, the
plants may be cut through just below the surface,

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378

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and tho ground levelled : by this treatment, it
appears that more laterals are produced, not so apt
to run to seed as those wiiicli are first developed.
We have practised tbis mode for sis years on the
same plants.

Every crop should be carefully hoed, and the in-
termediate ground kept free trom weeds. Peas
must be sticked when a few inches high ; the taller
growers will require branchy shorter props, be*
sides those of the full height.

Young growing potatoes are frequently injured by
May frost ; no mode of protection is equal to
trench-planting, because the earth can be applied
jound the rising shoots, as in celery trenches; but
in ordinary cases, the earth must be drawn up as
a ridge against the plant, till danger be past ; and
then the ground between the rows should be
either fork-digged, or grubbed with a mattock, to
render it light and permeable to the lateral expan-
sion of the roots.

Fruit Department.

Peach and nectarine trees must be timely dis-
budded ; that is, the supernumerary shoots are to
be cut off close to the fruit-bearing wood, leaving
one of the lowest for a next year's bearer, another
at a point beyond the uppermost fruit, and all those
that have fruit at the base. These last may be
pinched back, when a few inches long, to within
two leaves of their fruit ; and all twin fruits should
be reduced to one.

Apricot, plum, and cherry trees admit of a some-
what similar regulation, keeping in mind that
they bear their fruit upon spurs. No tree, how-
ever, should be crowded with growing shoots.

Mulberry trees like the spade, or rather, they
prosper by the ground being opened a yard or
inore round their bole, a few inches deep, when
a layer of littery dung may be laid over the
earth, and a bucket or two of soap-suds, poured
occasionally over that.

Fig-trees should be nailed neatly and regularly
to the walls, and the earth lightened and mulched
as above directed, for the fig.

The grafts that have succeeded should be ex-
amined, and when the shoots advance boldly, the
clay may be removed, and the ties loosened to per-
mit the wood to expand. All that have failed
ought to be cut back to a well situated bud, which
will supply a fresh leader.

Forcing Department.

Examine and keep active the cucumber and
melon frames. As the fruit of the former sets,
acme gardeners stop at that point, others leave two
joints. Melo7is must be stopped two or three times
from the first shoots to produce a sufficient num-
ber of fertile leaders, which are then permitted to
run on till they reach the limits of the frames or
trellises. Air is indispensable to fertility. No
doubt, the farina is conveyed to the female blos-
soms by the opening of the lights permitting the
ingress of files and bees.

The/ntiet«g- pine-apples now advance rapidly,
and the fruit begins to ripen : 80 degrees is not too
Lot for this department. Succession plants should
enjoy an atmosphere of 75", saturated with watery
vapour. Patrick's pits, the linings heaped to the
frame with warm dung, mowings of the lawn, &c.,
are exceedingly appropriate; they are narrow,
long, and deep, and in them the plants grow
rapidly.

The early vinery colours its grapes ; and now free

air and plenty of sun (but softened by a light can-
vas covering) are essential. Steam and syringing
should be abated. Here a question occurs. Are
these appliances useful or detrimental ? As to the
Jiavour of the fruit, all evidence is in favour of a
dry atmosphere ; but the ac&rus (called red spider)
is generally present, and flourishes. It is the
greatest pest of the vine, and the only real and
proper remedy is hot vapour. Sulphur is offensive,
and its eflacacy, however applied, becomes more
and more questionable.

Peach-hnuse and pits, the fruit of which is ex-
pected to ripen about the middle of July, should
be assisted by moderate fires and plenty of moist
vapour. We have repeatedly proved the great
error of early fire heat : protection by coverings,
and a gentle dung lining during the period of
bloom is advisable; but fires, however cautiously
managed, are apt to cause the destruction of the
blossom. Solar heat, free air, and early closing
before sun set, are the safest appliances till the
fruit be fairly set, and the storing process ad-
vanced. Then, and after the first regulation of
the spring shoots, artificial heat with vapour,
raised by afternoon syringings ovei the tree, walls,
flue, and paths, aided by pans of water upon the
flue, will cause the fruit to enlarge, and accele-
rate its growth.

Flower Department.

We have alluded to cautionary measures, but
preparations should be going on by potting off
the annuals and perennials intended to bloom in
parterres, 6cc. If verbenas, for instance, have been
established in the size pot, called sixty, for a
month past, and kept under glass, the plants
with entire balls can go into the ground after the
middle of May, and not a leaf will flag. This
remark applies to the endless variety of floral
beauties which may be selected.

If persons desire to excel, fresh soil in all the
small beds is the sine qua nan. We are acquainted
with a gardener who has, by fidelity and skill,
maintained his situation for 30 years. He has
always adopted this method, and never fails.
His lawns are dotted and varied with beds of
chaste figure, which sparkle like gems — foliage
and bloom being always superior. A fine mellow
loam, blended with the manure of expended
mushroom-beds, is the staple ; the soil of every
bed is digged out early, carried to other situations,
and renewed prior to bedding out. Common dung,
leaf-mould, or heath-soil, are used appropriately,
of course ; and in the instance of lobelias, leaves
reduced, not exactly to mould, but to a dark
pulpy mass, are used in profusion. Experience
must instruct according to local capabilities, but
as a general principle, the foregoing statement
may be received as undeniable.

Roses, particularly the common China, can be
budded with the choicer sorts, and will bloom
early. Great care should be taken to remove the
caterpillar that infests the rose, otherwise bloom
and leaf will be disfigured.

Every department will require assiduous atten-
tion. Shrubbery, flower- border, lawn, box-edg-
ings, and gravel walks, all ought to be kept in
neat order : slovenliness is the opprobrium of
the gardener, and produces ultimate trouble. All
mowings of grass are extremely useful, as cap-
ping to dung linings ; they communicate heat
rapidly, and re-eicite that decomposing, electro-
chemical action which develops heat. Leaves

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

379

swept up are very useful also : in a word, nothing
should be wasted. As to slugs, everywhere, we
believ*", that a very few grains of finely powdered
salt, scattered over the soil, would destroy the
vermin, or reduce them, and sufficiently salify the
earth.

AGRICULTURAL QUERIES.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMEk's MAGAZINE.

Sir, — Some of your numerous and highly respec-
table correspondents will perhaps inform me of tlie
best plan of keeping milch cows, for the supply of
milk in the vicinity of large towns ; I imagine that
in the great metropolis, where artificial food is dear,
there must be great economy in order to afford a
livelihood for the cowkeeper. Now, sir, I am only
young in the business, and my capital is so small
that I have great need to go in a right track with-
out running any risk by trying experiments. My
plan is as follows— and if any one will suggest
another that will enable me to procure more milk
at the same cost, they will confer a lasting obliga-
tion upon me : — each cow has one gallon of bran and
four pounds of bean meal a day, made into a mash
and mixed with chopped hay and straw, and half a
bushel of grains per cow if I can procure as many,
but it is the want of grains that 1 am desirous of
making out for. This mash forms two feeds, and
they have hay twice and turnips or mangel once a
day — the cost per head is 8s. 6d. a week, and my
cowsaverage eleven quarts each per day, which is
now retailed at twopence per quart. Thus you will
see when the loss between buying the cows in, and
the price out when barren, there is not much left for
profit. We have been selling at 2id. per quart all
winter, but do not expect ever to make over 2d.
again while provisions are so low. Hay is selling
at 6^d. per stone of sixteen pounds, straw S^d., and
turnips were bought in at los. a ton.

^Ve must force cows more, or we shall be compel-
led to give up a trade which has hitherto aflforded a
comfortable maintenance. But what food to give
them to obtain it, I cannot tell ; and I think there
arc many besides myself that will gladly avail
themselves of any practical suggestions thrown
out in your excellent journal.

Your humble servant,

A BiNGLEY Milkman.

TANNERS BARK.

Sir, — Allow me in your next number to enquire
whether any of your readers have tried the ashes
of tan (thoroughly burned and sifted,) as a ma-
nure, and with what success.

It is generally known that wood ashes are va-
luable, particularly in combination ; and I am
much inclined to think that the ashes produced
by burning tan, must be more or less so, and
worth the attention of the farmer — if not alone,
as an auxiliary.

Your obedient servant,

April 17, 1843. Querist.

A correspondent asks — Can any of your numerous
readers inform me what is the best and cheapest
substance for fixing the ammonia which exists in
gas-water, that it may be used or sown out of the
hand, in the same manner as grain, upon grass or
grain crops ?

Sir, — Can you, or any of your numerous readers,
inform me if it is too late to sow barley bigg", and
how it is cultivated, and where the seed is to be ob-
tained, and the price per qr ? as I believe it an-
swers well in a late situation, being earlier than the
other barley, and it answers quite as well for cattle
feeding. I remain, yours,

A YORKSHIREMAN.

" A Young Gardener" will be obliged by your
horticultural correspondent stating, in your next
number, what land is best adapted to the giant as-
paragus, how the land should be prepared, the best
time to plant it, and where the plants can be ob-
tained genuine ?

Sir, — Having a friend abroad who is anxious to
grow clover-seed extensively, I should feel obliged
if you, or any of your readers, would, through the
medium of your journal, do me the kindness to in-
form me whether or not there is a good apparatus
for cleaning and shelling clover-seed, and the price
of it? as my friend has not the opportunity of send-
ing it to grist mills, as I believe is frequently the
practice in England.

Begging the favour of your inserting this request
in your next journal,

I am, sir, your obliged servant,

April 19. A Young Subscriber.

Would some of the numerous readers of your very
interesting and valuable journal give me a little in-
formation on the use of salt and lime, as an ap-
plication for a rough coarse pasture ?

1 have thought one bushel of salt mixed with
two bushels of slacked lime, applied at the rate of
•25 to 35 bushels per acre, would be a good dressing.
At what time would it be best applied 1 An answer
to this will much oblige — Yours,

A Warwickshire Subscriber.

A correspondent not having sufficient yard ma-
nure, wishes to be informed which of the very many
artificial manures is best adapted for him to make
use of; the soil of his farm is a wet, cold, stiff red
clay, and when well drained, with a good season for
planting, will produce a good heavy crop of corn.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMEr's M4GAZINE.

Sir, — May I, through the medium of your excel-
lent magazine, enquire whether cart horses of the
true Suffolk breed are more or less liable to greasy heels
than those of other breeds, or those of Lincoln-
shire and the heavy hairy heeled horses of the
Midland counties ? And remain, Sir, yours,

April 26. Bedfordiensis.

ANSWERS TO AGRICULTURAL
QUERIES.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER's MAGAZINE.

Sir, — In the present month's number of your
excellent periodical, I observe an enquiry from
your correspondent "P." as to the best ingredient
for mixing with his charcoal dust, for turnips.

I would reeommend the use of some one of the
ammoniacal manures, such as guano or sulphate
of ammonia, and having used the former for a like
purpose myself, with success, I can speak with
confidence as to its valuable properties.

Charcoal, it is well known, will absorb and re*
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380

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tain fully nine times its own weight of ammonia
and fertilizing matter, and is theiefore particularly
eligible for admixture with ammoniacal manure.
I should think from three to four cwt. of guano,
mixed veithaboHt an equal proportion of charcoal,
would be a sufficient dressing for an ncre ; and I
would advise that the manure should not be drilled
with the seed, but should be first deposited in the
ridges, which should tben be closed, the seed drill
following after all. This plan has been successfully
adopted on the sand lands of Nottinghamshire, &c.,
as by this means the seed does not come into im-
mediate contact with the manure, which from its
very powerful nature would be apt to destroy the
vegetative power.

I am, Sir, very truly yours,

James Napier, Jun.
Hachenthorpe, near Sheffield, April 14.

A correspondent, in the last number of your
valuable magazine, wishes to be informed where
he can procure " the best and cheapest portable
one-horse thrashing machine.'' I have much plea-
sure in recommending him to Mr. Ferrabee,
Phoenix Ironworks, near Stroud, Gloucestershire.
I some months since had a machine of the kind
from blip, which is decidedly the best and cheap-
est implement I ever had on my farm. It has
been tried by several of my neighbours, and gives
general satisfaction. It clean? the straw perfectly,
without breaking it, and will get over rather more
than a quarter of wheat an hour, with one horse,
for several days together. 1 found the average
work performed was ten quarters of reaped wheat,
or eight quarters of mown. The price of the ma-
chine, portable and with the horse-power, is 35Z.

Your correspondent also wishes a light imple-
ment to skim his stubble. I know of none more
likely to suit him than the Herefordshire horse
breast-plough ; with tvv'o horses it will skim from
four to live acres a day. I believe it has long
been in use in that county, but not to much extent
elsewhere. The price is about 4/., and it is very
valuable on small farms, from requiring so few
horses ; otherwise, I do not consider it possesses
any advantages over Earl Ducie's or other culti-
vators, when worked with their shears fixed.

I consider the introduction of the cultivator one
of the greatest of our modern improvements, not
only as a saving of horse labour, but in cleaning
the land. By using it with the shears, immedi-
diately after the crop is taken, all the seeds on the
surface will vegetate, and one deep ploughing will
destroy them ; after which, working it without the
shears will get most descriptions of land into
much better tilth, moister, and in every way
more suited for the turnip crop, than the old sys-
tem of repealed plougbings, which (as was often
the case) under a scorching sun must be attended
with injury to the land.

I remain, truly yours,

Edward Bowlv,

Siddington House, near Cirencester.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Sin, — In reply to the question of a " Constant
Reader," in your widely-circulating paper of last
week, I beg to state that for turnips the urate of the
London Manure Company should be applied at the
rate of (3 J cwt. per acre, not more than one inch
under the seed. Guano is to be applied at the same
depth, at the rate of 3 to 4 cut. per acre ; nitrate of
soda, broadcast, 1^ cwt. per acre. Both gypsum and

sulphate of ammonia are more adapted for grass and
clover than turnips.

I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,

Edward Purser.
40, 'New Bridge street, March 29.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Sin, — Having perused in your paper of Monday,
the 20lh of February, a letter from " Grazier,'' re-
questing information as to the establishment of a
herd of shorthorns; I beg, throupfh the medium of
your valuable journal, to inform him that I have this
week returned from a tour amongst the most emi-
nent breeders in the north ; and have been highly
gratified with the different herds I inspected, par-
ticularly those of Messrs. Bates (Yorkshire), Crof~
ton (Durham), Ridley (Durham), and VVatkin
(Cumberland), 'J'he two latter gentlemen have
advertised their stocks for sale by the northern
Rohins (Mr. AVetherell), very shortly ; and from
the healthy character, first-rate blood (combining
Colling, Mason, Crofton, Sac), with every appear-
ance of being useful to the dairy, as well as good
breeders ; and above all, possessing plenty of hair
and a strong robust constitution ; 1 will venture to
recommend '' Grazier" to take a trip down to their
sales. Their herds appear to have been reared upon
ordinary vegetable food; and as to the outlay he
will be better able to form an idea on his return.
I am. Sir, your obedient Servant,

March 26th. A SuBScniBER.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — In the last number of your journal I observe
a letter from a correspondent, in which he asks what
is the best substance to mix with a quantity of char-
coal dust, which he has by him for the purjiose of
raising Swedish turnips.

I would advise him to mix with his ashes an
equal quantity of bone-dust by measure, and by
the application of twenty-five bushels per acre of
this mixture to land of moderate fertility, I could
ensure him a good crop.

1 can with confidence recommend the above mix-
ture, as I personally had an opportunity of testing
the experiment last season. Part of a field destined
for turnips I manured at the rate of twenty bushels
of bone-dust per acre ; the remainder of the field re-
ceived per acre ten bushels of bones and ten bushels
of finely-sifted coal-ashes. Upon examining the
crop, after the turnips had attained their full
growth, I considered that the mixture was quite
equal in its effect to the bones used alone.

If any of your correspondents have ever used as
a manure any of the lime used in purifying coal-gas,
I should be glad to hear from them, if it is attended
with any beneficial effect ; and if so, what is the
best method of applying it ; and what alteration
does the lime undergo after the gas passes through
it. I remain, your obedient servant,

March 30. A Subscriber.

Sir, — In the Farmer's Magazine for this month, a
correspondent enquires where he can obtain the
best and cheapest one-horse portable thrashing-
machine. I have one of that description, which
may also be worked by hand (by two men) ; it is by
far the best manufactured and efficient article of the
kind I have ever seen, and reflects the greatest credit
on its maker. It will thrash about ten bushels per
hour of wheat or barley, cleaning the straw remark-
ably well ; and works with so little noise, that at
fifty yards off the only sound heard is the humming

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

381

of tbe drum. TLe horse machinery is also very ex-
cellent, as may be supposed from its almost-noiseless
working.

The chaff-cutting machines, by the same maker,
are of a very superior description.

For any furiher information required, I must beg
to refer your correspondent to the manufacturer, Mr.
John Ferrabee, of the Phoenix Iron Works, near
Stroud, Gloucestershire, whose machinery will, on
inspection and use, prove itself to be of the very
first order.

1 am, sir, your obedient servant,

John B. Smart.

Farnhnrsi, Haslemeie, April 6th,

Sir, — A correspondent wishes to know where he
can get the best and cheapest thrasliing-machine.
1 strongly recommend bini to Mr. Daniel Haines,
machine-maker, Long-street, Devizes. I have had
one of his for three years ; it is of three- horse power,
breaks the straw very little, and cleans it admirably.
I can, of our wheat, which yields about twenty-five
bushels per acre, thrash twenty quarters a day. The
price is now, I believe, about £30.

I wish to fix a bone-miil on to the horse-power :
would any body kindly give me their advice — whe-
ther it will answer, the expense, and where it might
be obtained. Yours, truly,

April 7th. A Farmer.

STRIPPING MANGEL WURZEL.

Srn, — Having read the observations of Professor
Henslow on pulling mangel wurzcl leaves, I take

the liberty of adding the result of my own practi-
cal experience on the subject, which was acquired
some time ago by superintending a considerable
growth of that root in Devonshire for several suc-
cessive years.

In the same field a part had the leaves pulled
three times in the course of the summer ; another
division had them taken twice, a third portion
once, and the leaves were left on the remaining
part of the field till the roots were taken up. The
result was, the oftener the leaves were taken ihe
smaller were the roots, and the keep obtained was
by no means equivalent to the loss of weight in the
root, caused by the process of pulling. iNly own
conviction is thut the leaves of mangel wurzel shou'd
never be removed till the roots are taken up, which
should be done as soon as the leaves show signs
of approaching decay ; when the tops should be
twisted, not cut oflf, and the roots stored.

I also observed that every time the leaves were
removed, the plants ceased growing till fresh leaves
were produced ; and where they were taken
three times, the roots never increased in size after
the first pulling. Of course the leaves were not
stripped off entirely, but only the outside foliage,
leaving a cluster at the top of each plant. One
great objection I have lo stripping mangel wurzel
is , it exposes the land to the action of the sun. 1
observed where the leaves were not removed, and
the plants were growing luxuriantly, even in the
heat of the day they kept the ground damp between
the rows. I am. Sir, your obedient servant,

Veritas.

AGRICULTUR/VL REPORTS.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR
APRIL.

Notwithstanding the temperature of this month
has been characterised with considerable variations
almost throughout its whole period, it has been not
to say unseasonable. However, compared with
many previous corresponding months of the year,
vegetative progress has certainly been slow, arising
from the prevalence, at nights, of cold north and
north- easterly winds ; yet we have great pleasure in
stating that the general tenour of our accounts
from the agricultural districts, in relation to the
appearance of the wheat and other crops on the
ground, is highly satisfactory ; and there is every
promise of a rich and an abundant harvest.

In our last month's report we took occasion to
direct the attention of our readers to the then i)revail-
ing heaviness in the demand for most descriptions of
agricultural produce, and the consequent decline in
their value ; urging at the same time the neces^ity
for the legislature to protect the fanners of the coun-
try from undue foreign competition. These re-
marks appear to have caught the eye of the senti-
mental editor of the Morning Chronicle, who, in
one of his recent publications, has come forward to
refute them. He commences by hashing up a
crudity from one of Moliere's plays, about "a
projector who had a plau for adding enormously to
the revenue of France, by making the whole coast
into ports, but who forgot the capability of the peo-
ple to pay for the additional goods that would be
thus imported !" and further intimates, " We are
reminded of this mad scheme by the call now made
by the agriculturists for legislative aid to keep up

prices!" The writer of the Chronicle, be it ob-
served, is for a iolal repeal of the corn laws, and
would, by such a mad scheme, ruin the whole of
the agricultural body, by allowing the foreign grow-
ers to undersell the former in their own markets.
All that our farmers require are fair prices for their
corn and cattle ; and we see no reason why they
should not demand the total repeal of all imposts
upon the manufactured commodities, as well as the
Anti-corn Law League should require the abolition of
the corn laws. The C/iz-oMic/e further tells us that
prices are fallinsr, not because foreign food finds its
"way into the English markets, but because British
consumption is diminishing." This assertion is a
direct evidence to our minds, that the party writing
such nonsense — evidently concocted to tickle the
hiimunity -mongers ,ioT whose edification an'l amuse-
ment he is employed— knows nothing, or, at least,
pretends so to do, of the subject matter at issue.
What! foreign food not finding its way into the
English markets! Pshaw ! Every school-boy is
aware that last year the duty was paid on upwards
of three millions of quart ers of foreigmcheat alone,

of ichich MORE THAN TWO MILLIONS AND-A
HALF HAVE GONE AND BEEN ALREADY CON-
SUMED! Is this an evidence that it does not find
its way into consumption here? Is this a proof that
consumption is diminishing? Prices, we admit, are
still falling, but from what cause? Abundant sup-
plies and unwholesome competition with the foreign
grower; for it needs not a philosopher to tell us
that the eflPect would be otherwise with such large
quantities of foreign produce thrown upon our mar-
kets, and which has passed the customs at almost
nominal duties ! We do not deny the existence of

dss

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

distress amongst the industrial portion of the com-
munity, but we do not find that the aggregate
quantity of -wheat of either home or foreign
growth has, on a comparison with that of for-
mer years, in any way decreased during the
past quarter, as tlie returns positively show an in-
crease in the arrivals of wheat up to Mark-lane
from our corn-growing districts, over those of the
corresponding period in 1842, of net less than
twenty-two thousand quarters'. The heaviness in
the demand has, we contend, been almost wholly
produced by the immense supplies of foreign press-
ing upon the market, and which have been the sole
cause of the present depressed state of the quota-
tions. Our reason for urging the necessity for pro-
tecting the British yeoman, arose from several
causes. First, the knowledge we possess of the
capabilities of the soil of Great Britain to produce
an adequate quantity of corn to meet every demand
from the consumers, on an average of years; se-
cond, to prevent, as much as possible, the drain
upon our stock of the precious metals to satisfy the
cravings of the grasping foreigner, who seldom or
never allows any portion of them to return to this
country ; for in no one single instance can it be
proved that from those countries whence we have
derived the most corn in any stated season, have
the exports of our manufactures increased ; and we
would observe that we make this assertion with a
view, if possible, to make those who "do" the
Chronicle, again enter the lists of controversy, as
■we shall be always ready and willing to cross hands
with them at any time ! Sir Chronicle says, " the
farmers of Scotland, who send so many carcasses of
meat to London, cannot have made any great addi-
tion to their stocks of cattle in a year or two."
Cannot they? What does our friend know about
stock, we wonder ? Compare the present with the
old, and perhaps good system of feeding, and it
will be found that the time now requiredlbr send-
ing a fat bullock to market, arising from the free
use of oil-cake and other artificial food for stock,
is fully one-third less than in years gone by ; hence
arises the rapid increase in the supplies, which are
more than keeping pace with that of our popula-
tion. But the Chronicle goes on to state — and
mark the absurdity of the doctrine— that "the
prices cf agricultural produce can only be kept up
in this country by a successful foreign competi-
tion !'" We are confident our readers will pardon us
for indulging in a hearty laugh at this balderdash-
Foreign competition keep up prices!! We think
the best course for our contemporary to have
adopted in this matter would have been' silence, as
he has given publicity to doctrines and statements
wholly at variance with facts, in order that his
crotchet about the corn laws may not be forgotten.

The state of the corn trade, since our last — if we
except the month's commenceraent, when a slight
improvement took place in it— has been that of ex-
treme heaviness, and prices have fallen from 2s. to
43. per qr. at Mark Lane, as well as most of our
provincial markets. This circumstance induces us
to refer here to the available stocks of wheat in the
hands of our growers, in order that they may be the
better enabled to form an accurate opinion as to
their future prospects. That they are nearlv, or
quite, an average for the time of year, we have no
hesitation in asserting ; and we see but little chance
— especially as there are upwards of 800,000 quar-
ters of foreign wheat now in this country— of any
important rise in the value of corn during the next
three months. Barley, from its limited arrivals, Las

been selling at full quotations, and the same re-
marks may be applied to malt. Extensive supplies
of oats have been forwarded, yet the prices have
ruled about stationary. Beans, peas, and flour have
commanded very little attention.

It is now well ascertained that the whole of the
Lent corn has been sown, and we might venture to
observe that the period just concluded for that im-
portant operation, has been the finest known for a
series of years past.

Sheep shearing has been generally proceeded
with, and the produce of wool is stated to be very
large.

We regret mucli to observe that the epidemic has
committed serious ravages amongst the stock in our
grazing districts ; indeed, its virulence does not appear
to have abated in the least : while the losses sustained
by the flock-masters and others have been truly
alarming.

By letters received from different parts of Ireland
and Scotland, we learn that, with the exception of a
few atmospheric visitations in the shape of snow and
rain having retarded the progress of the plough,
sowing of grain l)as gone on well, and is now nearly
completed. The corn markets have ruled dull, on
lower terms.

The following is our usual monthly statement of
the supplies and prices of fat stock sold in Smith-
field cattle market. The former have consisted of
12,464 beasts ; 135,360 sheep and lambs ; 1,100
calves ; 2,712 pigs; while the latter have ruled as
follows : — Beef, from 2s. 6d. to 4s.; mutton, Ss.lOd.
to 4s. ; lamb, 5s. to 6s. ; veal, 3s. 6d. to 4s. '6(1. ; and
pork, 3s. to 4s. per 81bs. to sink the offals.

The increase which Las taken place in the sup-
plies of stock for this market, and the large arrivals
of dead meat up to Newgate and Leadenhall, liave
caused the trade to rule excessively heavy, and
prices have declined quite 2d. per 81bs., and large
numbers have been turned out unsold on each
market day. Not a single head of foreign stock
has been offering, and no imports have taken place
in the United Kingdom ; but nearly 200 sheep, and
a few beasts, have been shipped to France from
London and Hull.

A STATEMENT and COMPARISON of the SUP-
PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibittd
and sold iu Smithfield Cattle Market, on
iVIonday, April 25, 1842, and Monday, April 24, 1843.

AtperSlbs.to sinkthe offals.

April 25, 1842. April 24, 1S43.

s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.

Coar3e&inferiorBeasts2 10 to 3 0 .. 2 6 2 8

Second quality do. 1^.. .. 32 3 4.. 2 10 3 2

Prime large Oxen... . .. 36 38. .34 36

Prime Scots, &c 3 10 4 0 .. 3 8 3 10

Coarse & inferior Sheep 34 36.. 2 10 30

Second quality do 3 8 3 10. 3 2 3 4

Prime coarse woolleddo, 3 10 40.34 36

Prime Southdown do. .42 46. .38 40

Lambs 5 8 6 8,. 5 0 6 0

Large coarse Calves ..4 0 4 10.. 3 6 4 0

Prime small ditto 50 54. .42 46

Large Hogs 44 48. .30 36

Neat small Porkers .,4 10 52.. 3 8 40

SUPPLIES.

April 25, 1842. April 24, 1843.

Beasts 2,871 3,022

Sheep and Lambs .... 23,700 34,680

Calves 63 67

Pii?3 312 427

The quality of the Norfolk droves, which have
amounted tu nearly 6,000 Scots and homebreds, has

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

383

been by no means first-rate ; and the same may be
said of those from other quarters. From tbe Isle of
Wight, about 600 lambs have come to hand ; and
from Scotland, nearly 700 Scots have been received,
in but moderate condition.

Newgate and Leadenball Markets have been libe-
rally supplied with both town and country-killed
meat, tbe receipts of tbe latter having comprised
nearly 18,000 carcasses ; while the trade has
ruled dull, at tbe annexed low rates : — Beef, from
2s. 6d. to 3s. Id. ; mutton, '2s. 6d. to 3s. 8d. ; lamb,
5s. to 6s. ; veal, 3s. 8d. to 4s. 8d. ; and poik, 3s. 2d.
to 4s, per Slbs. by the carcass.

potato pits have this year turned out fewer decayed
potatoes than I have ever known ; they are selling
at 3s. per sack of four bushels."

It would be superfluous to say much more ; but
in the infancy of our science, it may be urged
with propriety, that experiments ought to be
perseveringly made to discover the inorganic con-
stituents of all plants, in order to determine the
appropriate manures, and in the meantime com-
pound manures ought to he generally adopted,
which, by combining all the requisite elements,
may furnish each plant with aliment suitable to
its own habits.

AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR APRIL.

April was introduced with rain, so seasonable,
abundant, and fertilising, that nothing could be
more benign. During one week were those de-
lightful showers granted ; on the 5th the wind be-
came northerly, and the temperature gradually de-
pressed to below tbe f.i .ting point. Snow also
was abundant from the metropolis, westward to,
at least, the heart of Somersetshire. As to con-
sequences we may observe that had the registers
of tbe Chiswick garden applied to all localities,
some serious damage must have been sustained,
for 8 and 10 degrees of frost, with cold piercing
wind from the 10th to the 14tli days, could hardly
he sustained by young juicy vegetables or shoots.
However, our own registers are totally at variance,
and exhibit no such depression; and the letters of
observant practised correspondents are altogether
void of complaint. One indeed says that wheat
and oats had been a little discoloured, but were
rapidly recovering; and that the grass was luxu-
riant and beautiful. Barley sowing had been pro-
pitiously finished in the finest bed imaginable, and
the plants were not then in a state to be injured.
Northamptonshire and Bucks have advanced
their testimony to general luxuriance ; our friend
in the county last named has no common experi-
ence, he is indeed an authority upon the large scale.
His report tells us that the agricultural crops
were never recollected to be looking so vigorous,
and that in fact the frost had operated as a most
wholesome check upon ratlier too rapid a vegeta-
tion. Barley sowing was completed at the very
period. Beans and peas are observed by all to be
healthy and in fine growth. The prospects, in a
word, for crops and fruits, and also in respect to
the health and abundance of live stock, appear
more than encouraging ; and as to the spread of
science, the land rings with the reports !

In evidence, we beg to cite the neat and
unaltered statement of an observant correspondent,
residing in a very (naturally} ungenial district of
Wilts, north ofChippenham.

" The wheats here ('April 8th) are looking re-
markably well, in some instances too luxuriant,
and the farmers have therefore fed them off with
sheep. On one piece of twenty-three perches I
have sown sixteen pounds of nitrate of soda (i.e.
in about the proportion of one hundred weight per
acre), and the effect has been wonderful. Three
of our large farmers have this year tried its
effects on different tillages — wheat, rye, and grass ;
on the latter we can distinguish to a foot where
tbe nitrate came ; the more mature benefit I will
observe, andreport to you. AVe have only a lit-
tle barley here, and two or three fields show a
good and even plant.

" Beans are just appearing, and look well. Our

NORTH EAST OF SCOTLAND.

The past winter has on the whole been an open
one in this part of the country. There were, indeed,
some days of rather severe frost ; but we have not
bad snow of any depth remaining on the ground for
any length of time. Ploughing — the chief out-door
business of the winter months — was generally well
advanced at an early period of the season, so that
tbe soil was well pulverised and prepared for the
action of the harrow by frost. Oats are almost the
only grain crop of this district ; and the time, there-
fore, for committing the seed to tbo ground, in
ordinary seasons, is the bitter half of March and the
beginning of April. Sowing was generally com-
menced in this district on tbe 27ih ult. ; on some of
the earlier farms a little had been done before that
date, but the business was interrupted by bad wea-
ther. Advantage, however, was taken of a week of
favourable weather subsequent to the 27th with so
much activity that a great proportion of tbe seed
was committed to the ground under rather favour-
able circumstances. Latterly tbe weather became
very unpropitious ; and during tbe past week we
had a severe storm, a strong and biting wind from
the north and north-west brought us shower after
shower of bail and. snow, which on some mornings
covered the ground to the depth of inches, though
it generally disappeared during tbe day. The tur-
nip fields are now, however, all that remain to sow
in this district. The quantity of grain yielded from
last year's crop has been great; but tbe prices
received for it have been so low as to return but a
small amount into the hands of the farmer to meet
the demands for rent, servants' wages, and other
expenses, at next term. Some think that tbe new
corn law has had little, if any, effect in lowering
tbe price, and that the abundance of the produce of
last year would have brought tbe price to the same
figure although no alteration of the law had taken
place. But this is an opinion which a fair estimate
of last year's crop, and a comparison of the price
obtained for it, will by no means warrant. 1 he
prices generally obtained this season have been 143.
6d. and 15s. per qi. And the average of Aberdeen-
shire fiar's prices (the prices annually fixed by tbe
sheriff from evidence given before him) for oats of
second quality for tbe seven years ending with 1837
inclusive, is 18-. 9d. per qr. ; and the prices for the
subsequent years are as follow: — 1838, 24s. 3d.;
1839, 21s.; '1840, 19s. 6d.; and 1841, 17s. Fodder
is rather scarce this season, and beats a high price.
Tbe quarter's straw has been sold, in some few
instances, at so high a price as 14s., which is just
about the price that can be obtained for the grain.
Turnips are, in general, abundant, 'i'hat excellent
but expensive improvement — thorough draining, has
been carried into effect to a greater or less extent
on a good many farms in this district; but the

384

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

subsoil plough is not as yet very generally in requi-
sition. Several artificial manures will be again
tried this season, the results obtained from which

we shall report at the proper time. Guano will be
used to a considerable extent; its efficacy as a ma-
nure seems to be pretty well established. — April I.*!.

AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c.

BAKEWELL EASTER FAIR.— The supply of
horned cattle at this fair was great, but the business
done was confined to fleshy barreners of feeding qua-
lities and superior new-calved heifers, and those ai early
note, with appearance of being useful ; for other de-
scriptions the sale was dull, and prices had a tendency
downwards. In sheep nothiner done. Pigs were shown
in abundance, and suckers brought from 15s, to 18s.
each, strong stores cheaper in proportion. The quan-
tity of cheese pitched wiis not large ; only a few small
dairies of second and third wheys, of latter make, in
very moderate condition; prices from 45s. to 52s. per
cwt., wiih a fair clearance.

DARLINGTON EASTER MONDAY FAIR.—
The show of cattle was limited ; sales a little brisker,
and prices rather better. The supply of grain was
middling and sales better. Red wheat, lis. to 12s. 3d.,
white wheat, I2s. to 13s. ; Oats, 4s. 4d. to 63.; Beans,
7s. to 8s. ; Barley, 7s. 3d. to 7s. 9d.

AT LINCOLN FOR I NIGHT FAIR there -nasa
large supply of both sheep and beasts, and the market
was very brisk, better rates being obtained than at
several recent fat stock mnikels.

SLEAFORD EASTER FAIR.— There was a large
show of cattle, which fetched good prices. The show
of entire horses was unusually good, there being seve-
ral superb animals exhibited, among which we need
only mention Chancellor, Rory O'More, lago, &c.

GRANTHAM EASTER EVEN FAIR.— A fair
show of all descriptions of stock, which were generally
sold at advanced prices. Sales were more readily effected
than at our great Midland (air. Several pens of sheep
were cleared off at an early hour, and altogether a great
degree of spirit prevailed amongst puichasers than has
lately been manifested.

NOTTINGHAM MAUNDAY THURSDAY
FAIR.— At this fair there was an unusually plentiful
supply of beasts, which sold very slowly at lower rates.
There were not above a dozen fat besists in the fair
which realised former prices. In the liotse fair very
little was done ; the principal part of the supply was
of a most inferior description.

HOWDEN SPRING FAIR.-The attendance of
farmers and dealers at Howden Spring Fair on the 15lh
and l7th inst. was numerous and respectable. Amongst
them we observed some from London, and others from
the midland counties. There was a greater show of
horses on Saturday than we have noticed at any previ-
ous spring fair ; and altogether there was a fair quantity
of business done. The best horses were principally sold
well at high prices ; but inferior ones were not in re-
quest, and dithcult to dispose of. 'J here was an abun-
dant supply of cattle on Monday, the l7th, and there
being a numerous attendance of buyers, a good deal of
business was done, at a slight advance in prices. There
was a moderate show of sheep. At 12 o'clock, tiie
Howden Agricultural Society held their annual show,
when a considerable number of agriculturists were
admitted, and were gratified with a most splendiil dis-
play of 100 head of some of the finest stock in York-
shire. About 40 stallions (supposed to be the best in
the county, and exceeding in number those exhibited at
the great county and East-Riding agricultural meet-
ings) were entered and shown for the premiums. The
show for all descriptions of horse* was excellent, and
excited the most close attention ; and their general
appearance was such as to reflect credit on their several
owners. The judges on the occasion were Mr. Sharp,
of Wcedley; Mr. Thomas Camp))ell, of Redburn; and
Mr. Wiley, jun., of Bransby ; who took great pains in

exeicising their judgment, and gave general satisfac-
tion. The following is a list of the premiums
awarded :— For the best thorough-bred stallion, Mr.
John Scholfield, of Faxfleet, for Hunmanby, 5?, For
the best coaching stallion, Mr. Tennanf, of Osgodby,
for Grey Orville, bl. For the best stallion for roadsters,
Mr. James Collins, for Merry Legs, 2/. For the best
carting stallion, Mr. Richard Durham, for Nelson, 2/.
For the best coaching brood mare, Mr. John Scholfield,
of Faxfleet, 2L For the second best coaching brood
mare, Mr. John Scholfield, of Faxfleet, 1/. For the
best hunting brood mare, Mr. John Wells, of Armin
Pastures, 2/. For the best three years-old coaching
gelding, Mr. W.Mitchell, of Yokefleet, 21. For the best
two years-old coaching gelding, Mr. Jonathan Berry,
of Holme, II. For the best yearling coaching colt,
Mr. John Rennison, of Bellasize, 21. For the best one
or two-years-old coaching filly, Mr. Birks, of Eastring-
ton, H. For the best yearling colt, by Sancho, given
by Mr. Simpson, of Sandholme, Mr. John Hall,
Bi^hopsoil, 31. For the best yearly filly by Sancho,
Mr. Simpson, of Sandholme, 21. For the best bull of
any age, Mr. Henry Smiih, of Drax Abbey, for Pil-
grim, 5/. For the best bull under two years, the Rev.
J. D. Jefferson, of Thicket Priory, 3l. For the best
cow in calf or milk, the Rev. J. D. Jefferson, 31. For
the best three-years-old heifer in calf, Mr. Edward
Latham, of Wressell, 21. For the best two-years old
heifer, no competition. For the best yearling heifer,
the Rev. J. D. Jefi'erson, 21. For the best fat cow,
heifer, or ox, Mr. Morley, of Eastoft, a ribbond. For
the best boar of the large breed, Mr. Wilson, of
Barnby, \l. For the best boar of the small breed, Mr.
Henry Smith, of Drax Abbey, II. For the best sow,
Mr. Penrose, of Barmby, IL — The dinner: At 3
o'clock, a respectable company sat down to dinner, at
Mr. Bowman's, the Half Moon Inn ; I homas Clarke,
E«q., of Knedlington, in tiie chair. 1 he judges were
on the right and left of the chairman ; and many other
influential agriculturists were also present. The dinner
was sumptuous, and the wines excellent. The cus-
tomary loyal and other toasts relative to agriculture,
with complimentary speeches to the different breeders
of stock, were given and drunk with applause, and the
company separated in good humour and hilarity, at a
late hour in tiie evening.

DEVIZES SPRING FAIR was, on the whole,
very dull and disheartening to ihesellers of stock, who,
where sales were effected, were obiised to submit to a
considerable reduction on the prices of last year. There
was les? depreciation in the value of fat beef than of
any other article ; of this there was a moderate supply,
which sold pretty freely, at (rom 9s. to 10s. per score.
The supply of sheep was short, the sale was very
heavy and lower prices were submitted to. The
best cows and calves met a rather better sale than at
some of the late fairs. Horses were in large supply ;
the quality in general was ordinary, and but little
business was done ; the great indisposition to buy that
prevailed prevented a clearance being made.

HEREFORD EASTER FAIR.— The stock in offer
was very large. Fresh steers and barrens were in de-
mand, and sustained the full value realised of late, per-
haps five per cent, may be quoted as advance in many
instances. Cows with calves were abundant, sale dull,
and value rather depressed. 'J'here was a good deal of
business done. Sheep and pigs were in large supply ;
the demand for ewes with lambs was brisk, but fat
sheep moved ofl^ heavily. Of fat pigs very few were in
offer, and the demand was very dull ; stores were nu-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

385

nierous, and sold readily. In the horse fair, good
roadsters and agricultural draught horses were sought
after, and realised a trifling advance in value.

ROMSEY, April 18. — Our Easter fair was fully
attended. There was a iargre supply of all sorts of slock
usually brought to fair, and the average amount of
business trans. icted was satisfactory. We have not for
many years seen so good a stock as to quality in the
cattle market, and there was a brisk demand for bar-
reners and store heifers — a considerable number of the
former was purchased early in the morning by a large
dealer near Windsor. The sheep pens were well filled,
and the neighbouring but-jhers availed themselves of a
good opportunity of purchasing some prime articles at
moderate prices. The quantity of cheese pitched was
large, but below the average : skim produced from 30^.
to 36s. ; half coward, 44s. to 4§9. ; North Wilts and
while Somerset, 50s. to 54s. ; superior sorts and Ched-
der, up to 76s. The day being remarkably fine, an
unu'^ual number of holiday folks attended. The second
day's cheeso sale enabled the factors to dispose of a
considerable quantity, left unsold o:i Monday.

WISP CLUB MEETING— PRICES OF STOCK.
— The annual meeting of what is called the Wi»p Club
was held a few days ago at Mosspaul Inn, which is
situated on the confines of the counties of Roxburgh
and Dumfries. The members of whom this society is
composed are, with few exceptions, extensive stock
farmers, and the purpose for which it meets is to strike
the average prices of all the various kinds of cattle,
sheep, lambs, and wool produced in the higher districts
of the border counties, and sold the preceding season in
the South of Scotland and the North of England
markets, and which prices are registered in a club-book
kept for that purpose, wiiich now proves a useful
record of reference as to the prices of past years, and
which has ever been consulted by landlords when about
to grant a renewal of lease*. There was a numerous
attendance of gentlemen, not only from the immediate
counties, but also from Selkirk, Peebhs, and Lanark-
shire. The following is a list of the different kinds of
stock, and the prices as they A'ere fixed by a majority of
the votes of the whole meeting: — Cattle.— Short-
horned stirks, 5/. ; do. two year oMs, 8Z. 10s. ; Gallo-
way stirks, 3/. 10s.; do. two year olds, 51. 10s. each.
Cheviot Sheep. — Rough wethers, \l. Os. 6d. ; do. Din-
mouts, 15s. 6d. ; wether hogs, 12s. ; turnip welher?, 1/.
Is. ; do. younjr, or two year old wethers, I63. ; draught
ewes, lis.; black faced draught ewes, 9s. each.
Lambs.— Cheviot top wciher lambs, 5s. 3d.; do. mid.
weiher lambs, 3s. 6d. ; do. mid. ewe lambs, 4i. 9d. ;
black faced top weiher lambs, 4s. 6d. ; do. mid. wether
lamb;, 3s. 6d. ; do. mid. ewe lambs, Ss. 6d. each.
Wool. — Cheviot tarred wool, of ■24lbs. per stone, 13s.
3d. ; do. buttered and oiled wool, 31. 17s. 6d. ; do. pure
white wool, II, Os. 6d.; black faced tarred washed
wool, 7s. 9d.

It may be interesting to the public to compare these
prices wiih those obtained in ihe years 1839, 1840, and
1841:-

1839. 1840. 1841.

Short-horned Stirks, each £7 5 0£7 15 0£d 0 0

Ditto two-rear-olds, do 10 5 0 11 5 0 11 5 0

Galloway Stirks, do 4 15 05 10 0600

Ditto two-year olds, do 7 15 085090

Rough Cheviot Wethers, do 1 6

Ditto ditto, Dinmonts, do 1 2

Wether ditto Hogs, do 0 11

Turnip 3 5 ears old Wetliers, do. 1 9
Ditto two-Tears old Wethers, do. 1 4

Cheviot Drausht Ewes, do 0 16

Black-faced Draught Ewes, do... 0 13
Cheviot Top Wether Lambs, do. 0 8
Ditto Middling Wether Lambs, do. 0 6
Ditto Middling Ewe Lambs, do. 0 9
Black-faced Top Wether Lambs.do.O 9
Ditto Middling Wether Lambs, do. 0 6
Ditto Middling Ewe Lambs, do.. 0 9
Cheviot Tarred Wool, of 241b.

per stone 0 19 0 0 13

DittoButteredandOiled Wool, do. 1 8 0 0 19

Ditto pure White Wool, do 1 10 0 1 2

Black-faced Tarred Wshd. Wool,

do 0 14 0 0 7 9 0 9 6

Tiie following is the average of the prices of the

1840.
0£7 15
0 11 5
0 5 10
0 8 5
6 1 8
e 1 3
0 0 18
0 1 8
6 I 4
9 0 17
6 0 14
9 0 9
6 0 7
3 0 10
0 0 9
9 0 7
0 0 9

0 16

1 I
1 4

three precedinjr years as compared with those of last
year : —

Reduction
Averages of 1839, 1840, and 1841. 1842. of Value.

Short-horned Stirks £7 13 4 £5 0 0 35perct!

Ditto two-year-olds 10 18 4 8 10 0 22 .. "

Galloway Stirks 5 8 4 810 0 35 .'.

Ditto two-years olds 8 6 8 5 10 0 34 .',

Rough Wethers 1 7 0 1 I 0 23 ".

Ditto Dinmonts I 2 6 0 15 0 33 !!

Wether Hogs 0 17 8 0 12 0 32 ,.

Turnip three-year-old Wethers. 1 8 4 1 1 0 26 ..

Ditto two-year-olds 1 4 0 0 16 0 33 .!

Cheviot Ewes 0 i7 5 Oil 0 37 , .'

Black-faced Ewes ,. 0 13 10 0 9 0 35 ..

Cheviot Top Lambs 0 9 0 0 5 3 42 *.'.

Ditto Middling Wethers 0 6 10 0 3 6 49 .'.'

Ditto Middling Ewes 0 9 6 0 4 9 50 .1

Black-faced Top Wethers 0 9 2 0 4 6 51

Ditto Middling Wethers 0 7 0 0 3 6 5')!!

Ditto Middling Ewes 0 9 0 0 5 6 39 !!

Cheviot Tarred Wool, 241bs. per

stone 0 16 3 0 13 3 18 ..

Ditto Buttered and Oiled, do... I 3 0 0 17 6 24 ..

Ditto pure White, do I 5 9 I 0 6 20 !!

Black-faced Tarred Washed, do. 0 lO 5 0 7 9 26 '.'.

The above table ot prices shews the great deprecia-
tion that has taken place within the last year in all kinds
of live stock, especially lambs and draught ewes, from
which store farmers derive the greatest portion of their
revenue. — Newcaitle Journal.

Longevity of the Vine. — The age to
which the vine will attain in warm climates is so great
as not to be known. It is supposed to be equal, or
even to surpass that of the oak. Pliny speaks of a vine
which had existed six hundred years ; and Bocs says,
there are vines in Burgundy upwards of four hundred
years of age. In Italy there are vineyards which have
been in a flourishing state for upwards of three centu-
ries ; and Miller tells us, that a vineyard a hundred
years old i* reckoned young. The extent of the
branches of the vine, in certain situations and circum-
stances, is commensuriite with its produce and age.
In the hedges of Italy and woods of America, they are
found overtopping the highest elm and poplar trees ;
and in England, one plant, trained against a row of
houses in Northallerton (some years dead), covered a
space, in 1585, of one hundred and thirty-seven square
yards ; it was then about one hundred years old. That
at Hampton Court, nearly the same age, occupies
above a hundred and sixteen square yards ; and that at
Valentine's, in Essex, about one hundred and forty-
seven square yard*. The size to which the trunk or
stem sometimes attains, in foreign countries, is so great
as to have atl'orded planks filteen inches broad, for
furniture, and statues ; and even in this country, the
Nortliallerton vine above mentioned, in 1785, measured
four feet in circumference near the ground ; and one
branch of the Hampton Court vine measured one hun-
dred and fourteen feet in length. Vme timber is of
great durability. It may be remarked that vines
regularly praned and dressed can rarely attain similar
magnitudes, nor is it desirable that they should ; as in
that ca*e all the vigour of the plant would be wasted in
making wood.— iVa(ura^ History of the Grape Vine, by
John Mearns.

Sowing Garden Seeds.— A celebrated

nursery-man, late of Edinburgh, is said to have given
the following trite advice to all young gardeners when
he sent them out to their •' first place." " Sow thickly,
thin in time, and keep on good terms with the cook.''
AH kitchen-garden seeds are said by the growers to be
in excellent condition this season, wih the exception of
carrot seed, those plants having been blighted last
season, when ripening seed. Carrot-seed must there-
fore be sown thicker than usual this season; see that
the ground for it is in a thoroughly pulverized state.
Where the land is stiff, or otherwise uncongenial, it
would be a good plan to get two or three barrow-loadi
of light sifted compost, to cover the seeds with. A care-
ful man should follow the sower with a basketful of
the covering, which he could sprinkle along the drills
s fast as the seeds were sown.

886

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE MONTH OF APRIL.

Since the close of the last century, the interests
of agriculture, and, combined with them, those
generally of the only wealth of nations — a produc-
tively employed population, have not been placed
in a more critical pssition than they are at the
present moment. The value of agricultural pro-
ducts is now much lower than are the necessary
expences of their production, and the wages of
labour are consequently in a gradual state of re-
duction, even in a greater proportion, from this
unfortunate circumstance. The corn bill, which
came into operation in the course of last year, and
the reduction made at the same period in our
custom-house duties, previously charged on the
importation from foreign nations, of almost all
articles of general consumption in this country,
have deprived the producers at home of similar
articles, of that degree of legislative protection
which is absolutely necessary to their successful
cultivation. Neither wheat nor any article of
agricultural produce can be profitably grown in
this country at present prices; and consequently our
farmers generally are not only unable to pay fair
and living wages to their labourers, but they have
even in many instances been most reluctantly
compelled to reduce very materially the number of
workmen previously employed on their agricultu-
ral establishments. Unless sonieamendment there-
fore should speedily occur in the value of agricul-
tural produce, and the future prospects of our far-
mers become more cheering, the certain conse-
quence of the existing state of agricultural affairs
must be either the transportation to the co-
lonies, at the public expence, of an immense
multitude of agricultural labourers, or the final
settlement of them in the district union houses.
So long as talent, capital, and science, when em-
barked in agricultural pursuits, were duly protec-
ted, upwards of two millions and a half of male
labourers obtained their daily bread in this great
department of our internal industry ; and it was a
daring experiment indeed on the part of the far-
mers' friends in parliament, and of the present
ministers of the crown, who obtained their present
exalted position solely by the influence of the agri-
cultural interest, and for the piotection of their
property, to put at hazard that admirable state of
society which was conferring most important
benefits on every class in the United Kingdom,
for the illustration of theories which can never
be reduced to practice. When the interests of all
classes in our community were legally protected in
their industrial pursuits, the British Empire was
raised to the highest state of prosperity ; and so long-
as it was not found advisable to pay wages to
foreign labourers fordoing that work which could
be well performed by our workmen at home, com-
plaint was comparatively a stranger to the vast ma-
jority of our population. Our commercial system
now is however to employ foreign workmen in
the production of as many articles as possible ; and
our humane system is to transport to the colonies
those labourers who are rendered idle, because we
encourage now the consumption of foreign agricul-
tural products. In the meantime our farmers are
called on to sacrifice the money which, under
the faith of the late corn law and the former
custom-house duties, they had embarked in the

tillage and improvement of our own fields, to a
one-sided freedom of commerce with foreign
nations. Independent of the value of the land and
the farming buildings and necessaries of various
descriptions expended on it, amounting as it does *
to upwards of two thousand millions sterliug.
the farmers' money embarked in the cultivation of
their farms is estimated at more than two hundred
millions sterling, a sum very considerably exceeding
the outlay of the manufacturers in stock and credits.
When times are unfavourable the manufacturer can
withdraw a great part of his capital from his
trade, and wait for better times. Not so however
is the case of the farmer; his property is sunk
for years in his farm, and he must persevere in
his operations, however adverse they may be to
his property, so long as he finds one penny in his
pocket. The farmers', as we have said above,
give productive labour to, and maintain in a cer-
tain degree of comfort, upwards of two mil-
lions and a half of male workmen with their families
and dependents, whilst less than half a million of
males are supported by the manufacturing interest.
Now it is neither politic nor just to the community
to sacrifice four-fifths to one-fifth, even should
every one of the latter become a cotton lord. Un-
less, however, a complete change in our free trade
system be soon adopted, this misfortune most cer-
tainly awaits us ; for the farmers are now sinking
their capital, and after it is gone the same amount
of money cannot ever again be applied to the
tillage of our fields, and to the improvement of
agricultural science. So far, however, from
hearkening to the dictates of reason and sound
policy, her Majesty's ministers have now an act in
hand which may consummate their good deeds
and good intentions towards the agricultural in-
terest, and towards that only wealth of nations-
productive employment at home for the multitude.
Even the prospect of this act of Parliament during
the last month, has pressed heavily on the value of
agricultural produce in all the great markets
throughout the United Kingdom ; preventing, as
it assuredly has done, that material improvement
in the prices of British grain which the late small
supplies under different circumstances most un-
doubtedly would have occasioned. The Colonial
Grain Importation Bill at nominal duties will,
however, soon be registered amongst the free trade
and absurd laws of the British empire, and it will
be attended by all the injurious consequences to
our agricultural interest, which the actual repeal
of the present corn-law, in so far as the produce
of the United States of North America is con-
cerned, would occasion ; for the illicit importation
of it into the Canadas could not be prevented,
if the whole of our army were converted
into custom-house officers for the prevention of
smuggling across the American and Canadian
frontiers. Abundance of the agricultural pro-
duce of the United States will be, as soon as
our colonial corn bill becomes the law of Great
Britain, smuggled across the Canadian borders, and
will pass into this country for consumption tit
nominal duties, in the character of colonial agricul-
tural produce. The flour and cured provisions of
the United States will also be imported here on the
payment of colonial duties, which speedily now

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

887

will be only nominal. No clause in tbe new colo-
nial grain act, however stringent it may be made,
can avert this calamity from tbe British agricultural,
and from the British productive employment in-
terests. Amongst the most virtuous communities,
when commercial purposes demand them, false cer-
tificates of origin have been, and still may be ob-
tained, at, we may truly say, no expense whatever ;
and it is not probable that those who repudiate tbe
payment of tbe half yearly dividends on money bor-
rowed by them, and solely expended by them in culti-
vating tlieir fields, will leel any qualms of conscience
in forging certificates, that their grain was grown
in British America, that their ilour was manufac-
tured in the Canadas,and that their provisions were
cured in the same country. The grain-milling trade
is an important one in this country. Much money
is embarked,in it, and from it thousands of families
at present receive their daily bread. Unless it be a
part oi the ministerial plan to send out to America,
at the public expense, those workmen who will be
soon deprived of employment by its transfer to the
workmen of America, additions must be made to
our Workhouses and union houses ; for this act must
eventually reduce to poverty and wretchedness a
vast multitude of her Majesty's agricultural sub-
jects. But the inhabitants of the llnited States of
North America are not the only people who will
avail themselves of our futuie colonial corn and
provision bill. We well recollect Baltic timber,
to save duty, being sent to Halifax, in Nova
Scotia, and afterwards delivered into our dock-
yards at Portsmouth and Plymouth, on the pay-
ment of colonial duties. At that time this trans-
action was perfectly legal, because the Memel
timber bad been landed, and trans-shipped at Halifax,
and consequently had acquired all the privileges of
colonial timber. The proposed colonial hill is to
grant equal privileges to foreign uheat when im-
ported into any of our colonies, on condition that
it be there converted into flour. Under certain cir-
cumstances, therefore, Polish, German, and Medi-
terranean wheats must in future always find their
way into our markets. When eur prices are remu-
nerating to our own farmers, and when the duty is
consequently low, foreign wheats will he imported
direct from those countries wherein they were pro-
duced ; hut when our prices pay not the cost of
production in this country, and when the import
duty is 20s. per qr., it will become a profitable trade
to send foreign wheat to any of our colonies, even
to Heligoland itself, there to be ground into flour,
and afterwards to be introduced into consumption
in this country on the payment of colonial, or rather
of nominal, duties. Malta likewise may be consi-
dered a colony, and so may Gibraltar. To be sure,
within themselves, they grow little or rather no
grain, but they can import it in the greatest abund-
ance. Mills may be erected in both of these settle-
ments, and eventually we may receive most excellent
colonial flour manufactured out of foreign wheats,
on the payment of colonial duties from the Medi-
terranean Sea itself. This colonial act, to be just,
must be general ; its principles cannot be applied
solely to our North American possessions, unless
the ministers of the crown intend to grant to them
a monopoly, and that too of the worst description.
Unless we daily saw, or read about, the most ex-
traordinary pranks which are now practised by the
free trade advocates, we could not believe that the
ministers seriously contemplated tbe passing of this
coloninl corn bill, and much less could we think it
possible thai the legislature of the United Kingdom

would permit it for a week, after its introduction, to
remain amongst the orders of the imperial parlia-
ment ; but when we almost weekly hear of the exer-
tions of her Majesty's present advisers to conclude
commercial treaties with even the most paltry
nations and communities, our wonder ceases
at the apathy shown by the farmers' friends on
this subject ; for by them was the present admi-
nistration brought into office ; and we dare say
that they confidently believe that their interest
will not be willingly sacrificed by their own elected,
but that, on the contrary, commercial treaties with
foreign nations must eventually increase the value
of all descriptions of agricultural i)roducts grown
in this countr}'. They surely must fancy that
the result of the illustration of the principles
of free trade must eventually be, that every man
in this kingdom will daily boil his fowl or roast
his beef, and that in future the London dustman
will be clothed in red Italian velvet, else they
never would hearken to doctrines so absurd as
those are which may be pressed during this ses-
sion on the representatives in tbe House of
Commons of the agricultural interest. Commer-
cial treaties with foreign nations cannot increase,
either in amount or in value, our export trade.
Commerce can alone be regulated by the actual
wants of those communities to whom our goods
and products are forwarded. It cannot be increased
by any government regulations beyond the neces-
sary consumption, nor can it be diminished by
even the most hostile barrier which may be
raised against it. i'he celebrated decrees of the
Emperor Napoleon, issued from Berlin and Milan,
when he commanded the continent of Europe,
against British commerce, are still fresh in the
memories of many London merchants, and they
likewise well recollect that our commercial inter-
course with Europe was never more flourishing
than it was during the existence of those de-
crees. Commerce, in fact, is like water, and, in
finding its level, it bursts through all restrictions
which even the most powerful governments may
impose on it. No treaties are necessary to ren-
der it prosperous, and therefore the policy is
short-sighted indeed on the part of our ministers,
to sacrifice our landed interest and productive
employment at home, with a view to obtain aerial
benefits and commercial advantages which, when
caught, will be found as valueless as they are im-
practicable. It is perfectly unworthy of the
greatness of the British Empire to solicit com-
mercial treaties with any nation whatever, par-
ticularly with governments so extremely insignifi-
cant as those of Portugal and the Brazils.
The superior quality and lower prices of our ma-
nufactures will always force them into consumption
everywhere, either by means of modfrate import
duties, or by the agency of smugglers. To put
at hazard the agricultural interest, the productive
employment at home of our industrial classes, and
the national debt itself, for the possession of a
perfect shadow, is, we repeat, a j^olicy which
common sense cannot comprehend ; and to place
this great empire in a position which may here-
after render large crops of grain, grown at home,
a curse instead of a blessing to the people, can
only be attributed to a certain degree of mental
imbecility, which for a period may have taken
possession of the minds of many of the farmer's
friends who are members of the legislature. A
year ago the prime minister himself, in the
House of Commons, stated that 548. to 588. per

388

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

quarter wag the price necessary to the cultivation
of wheat in this country. It is now under 46s.,
and, calculating the annual growth at from four-
teen to sixteen millions of quarters, our farmers
have this season sacrificed from seven to eight
millions sterling of their farming capital to the
illustration of free trade principles, in the article
of wheat alone. At this moment, too, the young
wheat plants are strong and luxuriant, and as this
season a much larger extent of land than usual
has been placed under wheat cultivation, it is
highly probable that the average price of wheat,
at this period in the ensuing year, may be 10s. per
quarter under its present value. The present slate
of the country sufficiently proves, therefore, that,
unless when theelements injure our grain crops,
we can grow at home abundance of all the neces-
saries of life for supporting our population, were
it doubled ; and for the ideal advantage of adding
to the amount and value of our export trade,
which no treaties of themselves can do, foreign
agricultural produce should not be permitted to
interfere with our agricultural pursuits and with
our agricultural improvements under such circum-
stances, nor should productive employment for
clothing and feeding the population of the United
Kingdom, be transferred from our own labourers
to those of foreign nations; for we reduce our
workmen to poverty, and enrich the foreign
labourers, by this one-sided system of reciprocity
in commerce. Bread now is ijd. per lb., and
butchers' meat is proportionably low in this
country ; and yet our exports to Eurojje, and to
the United States of North America — from which
we have received, during the last twelve months,
those supplies of grain and of other articles of
foreign agricultural produce, by which their value
here has been so materially depressed — are not
increased, but on the contrary they have been con-
siderably decreased, during the period in which
we liave been paying in gold for such immense
quantities of their productive labour. Here is a
most glaring proof that our export commerce can-
not, under any circumstances whatever, be forced
beyond those limits which the consumption of the
importing nations require, and the futility of com-
mercial treaties for such purposes on our part is
rendered perfectly manifest. Germany and the
United States of North America are now cultiva-
ting the manufacturing arts. In receiving and
pajing for their agricultural produce, we have
atl'oided them the means of producing goods at
home for their own use ; and nothing short of
superiority in quality and price can hereafter sub-
stitute amongst the nations of Europe, at all events,
our manufactures for their own.

From the different corn markets in the Mediter-
ranean and Black seas, the letters received are in
due course of post. The prices of wheat in all of
them were entirely nominal, there existing
no export demand from any quarter at those
dates ; but when our celebrated colonial corn
grinding plan becomes the law of this country, the
prices in all these ports will fully justify large ship-
ments being made to our colonies for the conver-
sion of foreign-grown wheats into colonial flour,
with tiie view of the markets in this country for
its consu'iiption. In the ports of the Peninsula,
and those of France, without the Mediterancan,
similar dullness prevails in tlie corn trade; but
fiom Portugal and the north of Spain, when the
season admits, we may expect to receive consider-
able suj)plies of live cattle and of cured provisions

— another benefit to be conferred by free trade on
our breeders and feeders of stock at home. From
all the ports in the north of Europe, and through-
out the Baltic Sea, the information received dur-
ing the last month respecting the state of the corn
trade was generally uninteresting to the corn mer-
chants and corn factors in this countr)'. Very few
actual sales of wheat for exportation had been
effected in any of them up to the latest dates, and
prices were consequently nearly nominal. The
finest quality of high-mixed Polish wheat could
then have been purchased at 30s. i)er qr., free on
board at Dantzic — which, at our present price of
the same description, of 56s. per qr., would, after
payment of our maximum import duty, do rather
more than also pay for the cost price, freight,
and for all the usual expenses of importation. In-
ferior samples were proportionately low, but as
the duty and expense of bringing them into this
country are the same as the best qualities, of course
no shipments of low quality will at present be at-
tempted. At Rostock and Stettin, the best samples
of Silician wheat were likewise quoted at about
30s. ; but no business to any extent had then been
effected in those places.

The leading maltsters have this season ceased
their malting operations fully one month earlier
than usual ; and this cii cumstance is the more ex-
traordinary, because the quality of the barleys
grown last year has seldom in any previous one
been exceeded in fineness, and because till the
close nearly of last month the weather was gene-
rally cool, and consequently favourable to the
manufactuie of malt. Those engaged, however,
in this department of trade have learned by ex-
perience, during the last few years, that the con-
sumption of malt is annually on the decline, and
as the heavy duty imposed on it must be paid at
fixed times, it is not now for their interest to malt
for the succeeding season, however excellent the
quality of barley may be ; for the advance of
duty would be a greater sacrifice made by them
than the probable profit which might arise, from
higher prices being afterwards obtained, would
justify. This is, however, one of the numerous
anomalies arising out of an internal system of
taxation ; for whilst foreign goods, and produce
any description can be landed under bond, and be
detained there without payment of one farthing
duty, until the time arrive when they may be pro-
fitably introduced into consumption, the malt
manufactured and the i5])irits distilled in England
are charged with the duties at stated periods, and
in no instance are they permitted to be bonded
until markets more favourable to their sale appear.
Now this is an act of injustice towaids our l)arley
growers which is peifectly unjustifiable, in as far
as no duly ought ever to be charged, either on
malt or home-made spirits, until the time come
for sending them into consumption. To the in-
terests of the English distillers — and this is a most
important and valuable department for taxation
— the want of permission to bond their spirits is
most injurious, for whilst foreign brardies and
Geneva are allowed to gain age and softness in
bond, our home-made spirits are, in far too many
instances, forced into consumption in a very im-
proper state, being deprived frequently of that
degree of mildness which age alone can confer on
them, and, unless purchased at a great advance in
price, being sometimes of that harsh and hot
quality which is occasionally so detrimental to
the health of their consumers. As it has been

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

389

completely ascertained, that with proper care ia
their manufacture, and with the necessary
age, British spirits are far more wliolesome
than either Geneva or hrandy are, common
sense itself shouUl, we fancy, teach the lords
of the British Treasury, that, as the home-
made spirit duties eventually would be paid, it is
but fair that the English distillers should be
permitted to enter their property under her Ma-
jesty's lock in the same way as foreign spirits are,
until they be in a proper condition to be sent into
general consumption, and not till then to be
called on for the payment of the duty. In Scot-
land and also in Ireland, bonding home-made
spirits to a certain extent is allowed, and there
exists no sound reason why the English distillers
should be deprived of the same benefit. If any one
of the farmer's rciil friends in parliament would
give himself the trouble to direct the attention of
the ministers to our system of excise duties,
and prevail on them to restore our Custom house
duties to the same rates which existed about a
year ago, the public revenue would be materially
improved, and the prosperity of the community
at the same time very much increased, if not ab-
solutely restored to its former state, we may truly
say, of universal productive employment. It has
very frequently been our duty to point out to the
attention of our agricultural and commercial
readers, the outrageous manner in which barley,
when manufactured, is taxed, that it may appear
to be repetition again to allude to the same subject ;
but the advantages of a reduction in the rates of
these duties would be so great, that we must con-
tinue to point out the grievance until it be
amended. To the Treasury, the reduction of the
duty now charged on home-mafle spirits, when
consumed in England, would be of the greatest
importance, for by the suppression of spirit smug-
gling, which the imposition of moderate duties in
England would occasion, the revenr.e now collected
on spirits of home manufacture would eventually
be most materially increased, the expense of the
preventive service would also be much reduced,
atid the morals of the people proportionately im-
proved. Comparing the consumption of home-
made spirits in England with that either in Scot-
land or in Ireland, at least ten to twelve millions
of gallons must be illegally introduced into con-
sumption into the former country, of the duties of
which the revenue is annually defrauded. Tiiis is
the necessary consequence of the duty in England
being somewhere about four hundred per cent.
on the value of barley, when manufactured into
spirits within the United Kingdom. There is no
good reason why the duties charged in Scotland
and in Ireland should be lower than they are in
England, for we do not find that the ladies and
gentlemen in the Seven Dials, or in Lambeth, are
restricted in the amount of their spirit consump-
tion by this extravagant duty. On the contrary,
we have undoubted grounds for believing, that the
high duty very materially increases the consump-
tion of ardent spirits, of the most pernicious qua-
lity too, with which the people are supplied by the
illicit trader. To reduce the home-made spirit
duty in England to within proper limits, only pure
spirits would in future be consumed, and that too
in moderation; the health of the people would be
improved, and a squalid teetotaller would no longer
be seen in the land. Temperance would then be
firmly established, and a moderate use of the gifts
of Providence would be enjoyed by the inhabitants

generally of the United Kingdom. The distillers
would use at least half a million of quarters of
grain in addition to the quantity they now distil,
and the nation would thus reap many signal advan-
tages at the sole expense of the nefarious smug-
gler of spurious French, or rather S| anish bran-
dies, and of Dutch gin — at the cost of those
characters, in short, who are, under the existing
system, defrauding the revenue of millions of
pounds sterling annually, and who are destroying
the property of all the fair and honourable spirit
dealers in England. If, however, the excise regu-
lations for the distillery trade be prejudicial to the
interests of our barley farmers, those which are
applied to the malting trade are more than doubly
so; for they not only confine the consumption of
malt much under its natural limits, but they
likewise are the cause of the very material adulte-
ration in beer which is hourly occurring in the
retail trade, but which is so very seldom detected
by the ofiicers of her Majesty's excise. The quan-
tity of barley converted into malt is, under
the existing system of excise regulations, annually
now becoming less and less ; of which fact the
adulteration of the beer consuuicd by the great
majority of the people is one of the principal
causes. It is utterly impossible for the beer retail
trade generally to pay their expenses, and to retain
the capital which they embark in their licensed
houses, at the present retail prices of beer ; and
adulteration consequently becomes, with a great
numlier of them, not so much a subject for blame
as a matter of necessity. When we say that at
least one quarter of the beer now in use is spu-
rious, we are not beyond bounds ; for the common
practice now is, by a mixture of coarse sugar, salt,
and several articles of a deleterious quality, to
convert two barrels, when received from the
brewery, into three barrels to be afterwards sold to
the consumers. But even after this adulteration,
the value of beer is still much higher in propor-
tion than the wages of labour are amongst millions
of the lower classes, and consequently they can-
not use any beer under existing circumstances.
By a reduction in the duties now levied on malt,
government may in part immediately remove the
evil, and within a few years afterwards entirely
destroy it. To reduce the malt duty to Is. per
bushel, and to charge this duty on the barley when
sent into the malting houses for manufacture, and
not on the malt itself, would eventually be one of
the most important acts which any administration
ever conferred on the British and Irish nations.
It would in a few years cause the annual consump-
tion of barley by the maltsters to be more than
doubled ; it would render adulteration unprofitable,
because unnecessary; it would improve the rents
of barley lands by from one to two millions ster-
ling annually, because the additional quantity of
barley which an alteration of this description
would render necessary, would require somewhere
about two millions of acres of land at present use-
less, because unproductive, to be changed into
barley fields. The profits arising from the cultiva-
tion of this additional quantity of land would
much more than pay for the expenses which would
arise from the additional consumption of beer ;
and— a matter of vast importance in the present
state of our finances — it would considerably in-
crease the sum now paid annually into the Trea-
sury by the malt-duly collections.

The oat trade has undergone very little altera-
tion since our last pubhcation. The value of this

390

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

most important article of Irish agricultural pro-
duce has certainly not increased during the month
of April ; and to have rendered its prices lower
than they previously had been, would have been a
labour not unattended by difficulty. At the pre-
sent quotations, oats, like wheat, will not pay the
expenses of their cultivation in any part of the
United Kingdom; and thus, unless some material
alteration eventually occur in tbe value of oats,
further agricultural improvements in the sister
island must cease to he attempted. At a time when
the complaint in Ireland is a superabundant popu~
lation, an act of the legislature by which this
superabundance of population must still be rendered
more abundant, by the transfer from them of the
productive labour wliich for years they have
been permitted to enjoy in producing oats for
consumption in all the great markets in Great Bri-
tain, to the foreign cultivators of oats, is a policy
far beyond the apprehension of common men,
and can only have its origin in that frame of
mind which the cupidity of inordinate wealth uni-
versally creates amongst reckless characters. The
finest quality of foreign oats is generally from 4s. to
6s. per qr. dearer in all our markets of consump-
tion, than is the average value of British oats ;
and thus quality in future must go a great way in
paying even our maximum import duty. Under
the present scale of import duties, therefore, foreign
oats, under all circumstances, most probably will
interfere veith those produced at home in all our
markets, and tbe importers of them, from the op-
posite coast of Germany and Denmark, will have
the advantage of the freights being materially
lower than they can be either fi'om Ireland or
from Scotland. It will likewise encourage the in-
crease of foreign shipping, and the employment of
foreign seamen, at the expense of the British
commercial navy ; and it is utterly impossible even
to imagine any earthly benefit which we can gain
from the transfer of the cultivation of Irish fields to
those of foreign nations, and from paying foreign
shipowners hereafter freight for the carriage of a
considerable portion of our heretofore exclusive
coasting trade; by which not only our shipowners
must be seriously injured in their property, but
thousands of our sailors will be driven out of that
service which is the great nursery for manning
the royal navy in times of jeopardy and of need.
Besides this, however, many millions of acres of
land are in a state of nature throughout the
United Kingdom, and by the investment of money
and the application of labour and science to
them, the national wealth may be much increased
by their successful cultivation. Without legal
protection, however, to agricultural operations, so
important as these would be, the tillage of these
waste lands cannot be effected without pecuniary
loss, and therefore this great advantage to the
public wealth must— for the present, at all events
— be sacrificed to the unsubstantial doctrines of re-
ciprocity in commerce with all those nations who
may be prevailed on to condescend so far as to enter
into commercial treaties with the British Empire.
The prosperity of our future agricultural opera-
tions, and that of the future productive employ-
ment of our industrial classes of all denominations,
are thus placed at hazard, for shadows from which
not one solitary benefit can ever be derived — ex-
cepting,perhaps, by about a dozen of cotton-lords,
who may acquire princely fortunes at the expense
of the multitude. In the meantime the spring
grain, seed, pulse, and potatoea have been com-

mitted to the ground in most excellent order.
The weather generally continues to be most fa-
vourable to vegetation, and therefore most pro-
bably, within another short year, it will be ascer-
tained whetheran abundant growth of agricultural
produce in future be for the interest of the far-
mers, or be in any manner advantageous to the
consumers in general.

CURRENCY PER IMP. MEASURE.

April 24.
Wheat, Essex and Kent, red 42 43 White 46 60 52

Irish 40 42 Do 40 44

Old, red — — Do — —

Rtb, old 32 — New.... 32 —

Barley, Grinding 24 28 Malting 30 32 ClisTalier 30 34

Irish 21 23 Bere . 19 20 22

Malt, Suffolk and Norfolk 56 58 Brown.. 50 54

Kingston and Ware .... 58 60 Chevalier 60 —

Oats, Yorksh. & Lincolnsh., feed 18 20 22 Potato.. 23 24

Youshall and Cork black 15 17 Cork, white 16 19

Dublin 15 17 Westport 18 19

Waterford, white IS 17 18 Black.. 15 17

Newry 18 19 20

Galway 14 15 16

Scotch feed 21 — Potato.. 21 24

Clonmel 16 17 18 Limeriekl? 18 19

Londonderry 18 19 Sligo 15 17 18

Beans, Tick, new 23 26 Old..,. SO 32

Pbas, Grey 27 29 Maple.. 26 28

White 80 81 Boilers. 30 32

Sbbd, Rape — I. —I, Irish.. — I. — /. per last.

Linseed, Baltic... 40 46 Odessa 48
English Red Clover.... — — per cwt.

White —

Mustard, White 7 10 brown 8 11 per bush.
Tares, old ... . 24 28 new 30 84 per qr.
FlouK, Town-made 42 45 Suffolk 34 36 pr sk, of 380 lbs.
Stockton and Norfolk, 34 36
FOREIGN GRAIN AND FLOUR IN BOND.

Wheat, Dantzic — —-i

Hamburg 32 34 V nominal.

Rostock 82 35J

Barley 20 —

OAT8,Brew 15 17 Feed... 10 14

Beans 14 15 19

Peas 20 22

Flour, American, per bri 22 24 Baltic.. — 22

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

Week ending Wheat. Barley. Oats, Rye. Beans. Peas.

March nth ...
18th ...
25th ...

April Ist ...

8th . . ,

15th ...

Aggregate average
of the six weeks
which regulate;
the duty ,

Duties payable
in London till
Wednesday next
inclusive, and at
the Outnorts till
the arrival of the
mail of that day
from London . .

Do. on grain from
British posses-
sions out of
Europe

47 6
47 2

45 9

46 8

20 0

27 7

27 11

28 4
28 6
28 8
88 8

17
17
17
17

17 2
17 1

28 4
26 10

29 3
-.^9 4
29
29 2

28 8

II 6

2 0 2 6 10 10

28 4

11 6

COMPARATIVE PRICES of GRAIN.

WEEKLY AVERAGES by
the Imp. Quarter, from the
Gaaette, of Friday last,
April 21st, 1843,

s. d.

Wheat 45 9

Barlev- 28 8

Oats 17 1

Rye 29 2

Beans 25 10

Pbas ., 28 1

AVERAGES from the corres-
ponding Gazette in the last
year, Friday, April 22nd,
1842.

8. d.

Wheat 60 7

Barley 27 3

Oats 19 3

Rye 32 11

Beans 30 9

Pbas ...,., 31 2

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

391

PRICES OF SEEDS.

ArniL 24.
The operations in the seed market were on a strictly

retail scale, and quotations of Cloverseed must now be

regrarded as quite nominal.

Clover, EiifTlish, red .... 42 60 white 44 62percwt.
Flemish, pale .... 44 48 fine.. 52 68
New Hamburgli .. none do.. 42 64

Old do 42 45 do., none

French 42 50 do., none

Linseed, English, sowing 55 65

Baltic — — crushing 42 48 per qr.

Mediter. & Odessa 45 4G
Large, foreign.... — —

Coriander 10 16 old.... 16 20percwi.

Mustard, brown, new .. 9 11 white.. 9 lO^Gdp.bubh

Trefoil, new 18 21 old 12 10

Rapesecd, English new.. 32/. 37/. per ton.

Linseed Cakes, English.. 01. 10s. to 10/. per 1000
Do. Foreign.. 51. 10s. to 6/. pur ton.

Rapeseed Cakes 5/. 5s. to 51. 10s.

Herapseed, small 85 88 large.. 46 48 per qr.

Rye Grass, English 30 42 Scotch 18 40

Tares, winter — — New 3s Od 4s Od p. bush.

Canary, new 62 63 tine 64 65 per qr.

Carraway, old — — new 42 44

WOOL MARKETS.

BRITISH.

LEEDS, April 21. — Sales of both combing and
clothing have bten rather more extensive this week,
and prices aie firm at late quotatioas.

WAKEFIELD, April 21.— We are unable to report
any favourable change in ihe vyool market ; the limited
demand seems to be chiefly confined to line combing
sorts, such as half-breds and fine Northumberland
wools, which are firm in prices at late quotations.
Deep combing wools, although light in stock, are
neglected, and prices are barely sustained.

LIVERPOOL, April 22.
Scotch. — We have no alteration to notice in our de-
mand for laid Highland Wool ; the few transactions are
entirely in a retail way for immediate want, at about our
quotations. White Highland continues scarce, and not
much inquired for. There is some enquiry for good
cross, but as this class has all along bee i in fair request
our stock is light. There continues to be a very limited
business in Cheviot Wool of all kinds.

PRESENT PRICES :

s. d. 8. d.

Laid Highland Wool, per 24 lbs.. 6 6 to 7 0

White do. do 9 3 9 9

Laid Crossed do.. unwashed.. 8 0 9 8

Do. washed do 8 6 10 6

Do. Cheviot unwashed do 8 3 10 0

Do. washed 11 0 13 0

White do. do 18 0 21 0

Foreign. — The attention of the trade is now almost
entirely directed to the aproaching public sales to
take place in London next week. There has in con-
sequence been little doing this week in any kind.

FOREIGN.

CITY, April 24.— The imports of Wool into London
during the past week were 885 bales ; 706 bales being
from Sydney, 45 from Germany, 69 from Odessa, and
65 from Bombay.

The public sales of Wool commence next week, and
it is therefore not to be wondered at that business, just
now, should be so dull. It is hoped the death of the
Duke of Sussex, by bringing on a general mourning,
may not check the improvement in trade that every
one looks forward to just at this season of the year.

POTATO MARKET.

SOUTHWARK WATERSIDE, April 24.
The arrivals of Potatoes to this market durini? the
past week have been as follows ; viz., from Yorkshire

Per ton.

8. 8.

Jersey and Guernsey

Blues -' to 60

Yorkshire Prince

Regents 85 to 4o

Ditto Shaws, for

planting — to 50

1295 tons, Scotland 475, Devonshire 220, Kent and Es-
sex 165, jersey and Guernsey 110, Wisbech 85.— total
2350 tons. Best samples of Reds continue in fair re-
quest at our last quotations. The mild weather and the
green markets being abundantly supplied with vegeta-
bles, cause sales of all oiher sorts to be heavy.

PRESENT PlUCES As SUBJOINED : —

Per ton.

s. s.

York Reds 60 to 70

Scotch do 30 to 50

Devons, early — to 50

Ditto, late — to 60

Kent & Essex Whites 40 to 45

Kent Kidneys — to 55

Wisbeach do — to 55

PRICES OF HOPS.

BOROUGH, Monday, April 24.
There is nothing doing in Hops, and prices therefore
are nominally the same. The young bines are looking
healthy, but the wind seems variable, and may check
them.

8. s.
Pockets, 1842, Wealds. ... 80 to 90 per Cwt.
East Kent.. 100 — 140 ..
Sussex..,. 77 — 84
Farnhara. . 140 — 150
Pockets, 1841, Wealds, good 60—70 ..
.. East Kent choice 70—84

BHgs, 1841, do 60— eO ..

Pockets, Old olds, do 30—50 ..

PRICES OF MANURES.

Subjoined are the present prices of several sorts of
manure : —

Hunt's Bone dust, 18s. per qr.
Hunt's Half-inch Bone, 16s. per qr.
Hunt's Artificial Guano, 8/. per ton.
Rape Dust, 7/. to 8/. per ton.
Rape Cake, 6/. 10s. to 71. per ton.
Rags, 41. to 41. 10s. per ton.
Graves, 61. lOs. per ton.
Gypsum, at the waterside, 32s. 6d. per ton ; landed and

housed, 383. to 42s. per ton, according to quantity.
Agricultural Salt, 34s. per ton.
Lance's Carbon, 12s, per qr.
Ditto Humus, 14s. per qr.
Soap Ashes, 10s. per ton.

Poittevin's Patent Disinfected Manure, 13s. 6d. per qr.
Poittevin's Highly Concentrated Manure, 30s. per qr.
Nitrate of Soda, 18s, to 18s. 6d, (duty paid) per cwt.
Nitrate Potash (saltpetre) 26s. 6d. per cwt,
Pelre Salt, 4s. per cwt.
WiUey Dust, 41. 4s. per ton.

'ihe Urate of the London Manure Company, 5/, per ton.
Chie-fou, 2ls. per cwt.
Daniell's new Bristol Manure, 8s. per qr.
Hunt's new Fertilizer, 13s. 4d. per qr.
Grimwade's Preparation for Turnip Fly, lOs. 6d. per

packet, sufficient for three acres.
Wolverhampton Compost (Alexander's), 12s. per qr.,

subject to carriage to London, or forwarded from

Wolverhampton.
Guano, 10s. to 14s. per cwt., according to quantity.
Potter's Artificial Guano, 15s. per cwt;
Muriate of Ammonia, 24s. per cwt.
Muriate of Lime, 12s. per cwt.
Clarke's Compost, 3/. 12s. 6d. per hhd,, sufficient for

three acres.
Wright's Alkalies, 28s. and 42s. per cwt.
Soda Ash, 14s. to 16s.
Chloride Lims, 28s. per cwt.
Sulphuric Acid, 2id. per lb.

Sulphur for Destroying Worm on Turnips,' 16s. per cwt.
Sulphate Soda, 7s. 5d, per cwt.
The Liverpool Abattoir Company's AnimalisedMBnur-

log i^owder, 2/. 10s. per ton.

392

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

PRICES OF SHARES.

No. of Div.
Shares, per Ann.

6.300
6,300

9,.500
10,000
15,000
7..'500
3,000
64,000

64,000
12,500

18,000
18,000
16,000

10,918
11,000

10,000
35,000
25,000
37,500

8,000
2,100
6,100
7,968
11,475
36,000

48,000
43,077
11,136

25,000
25,000
31,250

46,200

83,000
13,000
13,000

30,000

10,000
10,000
! 0,000

16,000

15,000
22,500

10,256
3,136
12,208

72,000

40,000

7,000

1,000
1,500
28,000
28,000
6,700
6,700

2a0sp.c.
13s 4d

■2/ 10s
I2s 6d
il per c't
21 10s

2s 9d

3s

3i£per cl

5/ per ct

7s6dp.sli

lOiper ct
52 per ct

2.yper ct
42 5s p sh
32 5s p sh
5s ^er si

U por sh

niOspsh

3s

52 per ct

52 per cl

IRON RAILWAYS.

BirminKham & Derby . .1002 sh pd
Do. Thirds, iss.S^dis.SS^sh 252 pd

Do. Eights 1 J2 pd

Do. and Gloucester ...1002 sh pd
Do. New, iss. 7j dis. 252 sh 17^2 pd
Bristol and Exeter.. 1002 sh 702 pd
Cheltnm.&G. Westn.l0028h 802'pd

Clarence 1002 sh pd

Eastern Counties 352 sh 232 pd

Ditto Scrip 82 6s 8d pd

Ditto New Registered

Ditto Debentures .. 82 6s 8d sh pd
Glasgow, Paisley, and Ayrshire
502 sh pd
Edinburgh & Glasgow . . 502 sh pd

Ditto New 12^2 sh 7^2 pd

Glasgow, Paisley, and Greenock
272 sh 252 pd

Grand Junction 1 002 sh pd

Ditto Half Shares 502 sh pd

Ditto Quarter Shares . . 252 sh pd
Great North of England 1002 sh pd
Great Western .... 1002 sh 652 pd

Ditto New .502 sh pd

Ditto Fifths 202 sh 122 pd

Ditto Bonds 1849

Ditto Bonds 1 850, Letter C

Hull and Selby 502sh pd

Leeds and Selby 1002sh pd

Liverpool & Manchester. 1002 sh pd

Ditto Half Shares 502shpd

Ditto Quarter Shares ..252 sh pd
London and Brighton. . . .502 sh pd

Ditto Loan Notes 102sh pd

London & Blacliwall Av. 162 13s 4d
London & Greenwich Av. 12215s4d
Preference or Privilege Av.l82I7s2d
Ditti) Bonds (183,300)

30 a 2

10| a i
12^ a i
I2Jalia
12

49ja

93i a 2
67i| a 8i
17ia S

102 p sh Y^ondon & Birmingham 1002 sh pd

22 10s Ditto Quarter Shares 252 sh pd

il 4s Ditto Thirds 322sh pd

22 1 4s Ditto New 322 sh 22 pd

Ditto Bonds 1843

322s6dps London&South West. Av.412Gsl0d

Ditto Bonds 1842 .

13s4d p s London & Croydon. .Av. 1.'52 15s 9d
3217spsh Manchester & Leeds 1002sli 702 pd
I213spsh Ditto New Shares.... 502 sh 302 pd

4s Ditto Quarter Shares 22 pd

12 Manchester &Birming. 702 sh 402 pd

Ditto Extension 702 sh 72 pd

32 Midland Counties 1002 sh pd

153 Do. J Shares, iss. lOdis. 252sli 152pd

Ditto Fifths 202 sh 22 pd

Newcstl &Darlingt.Junc.25/sh6/pd

32 5s North Midland 1002 sh pd

12 13s 4d Do.JShares, iss. 10dis.502sh402pd
12 Is 8d Ditto Thirds, iss. at 112 13s 4d dis
212 13s 4d sh pd
Northern & Eastern 502 sh 452 pd
Do. Scrip.. iss. 5 dis. 502 sh 152 pd
Do. i Shares. . .122 lOs sh 12 5s pd
Paris and Lyons .... 202 sh 22 pd

Paris and Rouen 202 sh 202 pd

Rouen and Havre. . . . 202 sh 22 pd
5 per ct Sheffield, Ashton-under-Lyne, and

Manchester 1002 sh 82J2 pd

12 15s Sheffield and Rotherhaui 252 sh pd
152perct Stockton and Darlington 1002 sh pd
South Eastern and Dover 502 sh pd
Ditto New, iss. 25 dis. 252 sh 252 pd
I02perct York & North Midland.. 502 sh pd
102 per ct Ditto New Shares. . . . 252 sh 202 pd

37J

log a i

!7d
212al0

37

65J a i
'.01 a 11
355 a a

64J
10.1

3J a 3

•4 a I
27J a g
33 a g-

ia i

a a a

25
25;
97'i a
40|

Shares.
8,000
4,000

10,000

8,000
2,000

10,000
6,000

11,000
20,000
10,000
10,000

12,000
10,000

8,500
10,000

1,500

4,000
20,000
10,000
15,000

5,051
20,000

11,500

10,000

6,000
30,000

10,000
10,000
5,473
8,600

6,000
10,000
10,000

1,800
5,000
2,700
20,000

8,000
15,000

20,000

6,092
3,200
15,000
5,-387
2,000

8,000
14,000

4,000
10,000

Div. MINES. I Pfi^e.

Albion Copper 52 sh 3^2 pd

Alten 152 sh 13i2 pd

Anglo Mexican, iss. 5i p. 1002 sh pd

12 Ditto Subscription 252 pd

12 Blaenavon Iron & Coal . . 502 sh pd

Bolanos 1502 sh pd

32 per ct Ditto Scrip H

17s 6d Brazilian Imp. iss. 52 p. 352sh 212pd 7i
Do. Mocaubas & Cecaes United
252 sh pd
Do. St. John Del Rey . .202 sh 152pd 55

British Iron 1002 sh 752 pd

Cata Branca 102 sh 6^2 pd

12 10s Candonga 202 sh 7^2 pd

Do. Registered 7|': pd

Cobre Copper 402 pd

52 per ct Comp. Copper Miners ia England
1002 sh 332 pd

15s Copiapo 202 sh 132 pd

Columbian iss. 52 pm... 552 sh pd '

Ditto New 1 1 2 sh pd

English 252shl42pd

General Mining 202 sh pd

Hibeniian 502 sh 10J2 pd

61 per ct Imp. Slate Company. .102 sh 32 pd

i Mexican 602 sh 592 pd

1 102 perct Milling Comp. of Ireland 252 sh

72 pd
Real del Monte, registered Av.
] 632 10s 6d

Ditto Ditto unregistered ,

Ditto Loan Notes 1502 pd

12 Rhyniney Iron 502 sh pd]

1U2 p sh Santiago de Cuba .. 252 sh 102 pd "

Tin Croft 102 sh 72 pd

United Mexican, iss. 22 p. 402 sh pd 2$

Ditto Scrip

Ditto New Scrip 1^2 pd

.51 a 43

24

12 4s
12 15s

61 per ct
52 per d
52 per cl
42 per ct
12 5s
52 per ct
42 per ct
12 8s and
2s 6d bs
102 &bs.
12

52 per ct

72 per ct

4J2per ct
82 per ct

62 per ct

MISCELLANEOUS.
Anglo Mexican Mint.... 102 sh pd
Australian Agricult. 1002 sh 302 pd
.Australian Trust Comp.502sh352pd
British Rock and Patent Salt
502 sh 352 pd
British Ameri. Land 502 sh 35J' pd

Canada 1002 sh 32i2 pd 41| a 2

Upper Canada Bonds

Ditto

City Bonds

Corn Exchange 502 sh 37.12 pd

General Rever. & Invest. 1002 sh pd
Equit. Reversionary 1002 sli 652 pd 66

Gen. Steam Navigat. 152 sh 142 pd

Hudson's Bay Stock. .. .1002 sh pd

London Conunercial Sale Rooms

Average 752

London Reversionary Int. 502 sh

172 pd

Metp. Wood Paving Comp. iss. 12

pm 102 sh 32 pd

Mexican & South American 102 sh

72 pd

New Brunswick (Land) .... 752 pd

New Zealand 252 pd

Ditto New 252 sh 12^2 pd

Peninsular & Orion Steam502sh pd 51 J

Ditto 502 sh 252 pd 25

Roy.il Mail Steam. .1002 sh 602 pd

Reversionary Int. Soc. 1002 sh pd

St. George's Steam Packet

1002 sh pd

Ditto I Shares 252 sh pd

South Australian. ... 252 sh 202 pd

Thames Tunnel .502 sh pd

Van Dieman's Land , . 1002sh 202 pd

Printed by Joseph Rogerson, 24, Norfolk-street, Strand, London.

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V

THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE.

JUiNE, 1843

No. 6.— Vol. VII.]

[Second Series.

The plate represents Thiee Fat Leicester Wethers, the property of William Sandy,
E:«q., of Holme Pierrepoint, Nottingharashiie, which obtained the Hrst Prize and
Gold Medal at the Smithtield Club Show, December, 1842.

ON SEED-SOWING.

BY HEWn r DAVIS, ESQ., COMMUNU A 1 1!) BV
C. W. JOHNSON, tSQ., l.B.S.

As in the t'oUuwiiig paper 1 shall propose to
the cultivators of my country a very considerable
reduction in the proportion of seed which they
nsuaJly employ, it may he well to premise that this
recommendation does not emanate from a mere
theoretical agriculturist, farming only in his closet
and over his books, or from one who follows
agriculture merely as an amusing occupation ; but
on the contrary, that 1 am largely engaged as a
practical farmer of between seven and eight hun-
dred acres of highly-rented land ; and, moieover,
that whatevir I am about to recommend, I have
not only long and successfully practised, but that
I have ever been willing, and am still farther
ready to prove tliese assertions, by showing the
crops 1 in this way produce. And I think that
any practical farmer, who witnesses these will
readily allow that by the adoption of the system of
tliin sowing I grow large crops on soils of a very
inferior description.

Ihe importance of the enquiry, even in a na-
tional point of view, no one will dispute «ho is
made acquainted \-»ith the fact, that if my prac-
tice ot seed saving were general, that the propor-
tion sjvcd would amount to much more than the
annual average of the quantity of foreign corn im-
ported into this country during the last fourteen
years.*

There arc few persons who seriously take into
consideration how small a return is cotnmonly
realized from the seed sown, and how large a

* And it may be remarked, that this saving is iii
fact equal to half the rent of the land.
OLD SERIES.]

proportion ol that return is again swallowed up
for seed.

The following calculations, which ha\c been
carefully made, and arc believed to be accurate,
will give the importance to the question ■which it
really merits.

Tlic population of England, •Scotland, and
Wales, which at the end of the year 1831 amounted
to 16,^66,011 persons, had increased in 1841 to
18,666,761 |)er3ons. For the purpose of calculating,
therefore, the consumption of corn during the
fourteen years ending with 18 U, I consider the
jiopulatiun to have averaged 17,000,000 persons.
During these fourteen years, the importation of
foreign and colonial wheat and flour entered for
consumption amounted to 13,875,907 quartern,
averaging 1,133,000 quarters per annum.*

Taking the annual consumption of 17,000,000

* I'he total (]uantitio8 of wheat and t\our imported
were much more considerable. It was as follows : —

Qrs.

1828 690,929

im'J I,7ii5,r81

18;() 1.663,583

1831 ',',309,970

183'2 '169,902

1 833 297,666

1831 176,321

1836 66,905

1836 241,743

1837 669,942

1838 1,371, 96r

1339 2,876,606

1810 2,132,766

1841 2,783,602

Total.. 17,666,270
D U [No. 6.— VUL. XVlll.

394

TllJi FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

persons to be at the ordinary allowance of a
quarter of wheat to each person, it will amount to
17,000,000 quarters, and deducting the (iu;intity
imported, 1,133,000 quarters, leaves the quantity
jiiinually consumed of our own growth 15,8(37,000
(juiirtcrs.

Allowing that the average produce per acre of
wheat is equal to 20 bushels, and that of theso
'20 bushels, 17 i bushels are appropriated for food,
and 'ia bushels for seed, it follows that about
It3,328,5l8 quarters must have been annually
gi'own, and that to produce this quantity 7,331,407
acres must have been sown with wheat.

Now, to sow 7,331,-107 acres at 2§ bushels cf
seed per acre, which is the ordinary allowance,
there would be required 2,291,064 quarters. But
to sow 7,331,407 acres at one bushel i)cr acre —
the quantity I apply — would require only 916,425
(juarters; so that the annual saving of seed woukl
be 1,374,639 quarters. And although I merely
take the instance of wheat, I am at the same time
proving what may he done with all other corn ;
for the saving in seed I practise is in equal pro-
portions with other kinds of grain- Having thus
proved the magnitude of the national paving ca-
jjable of being made in seed-corn, and having
shovrn that if my system of thin sowing was nni-
versslly adopted, there would be no necessity,
even with our present enlarged population, for the
importation of any foreign corn, and that an actual
saving to the farmers of arable land to the extent
of half their rent may be made, I will now pro-
ceed-to detail the course of my own practice.

The consideration of the extraordinary fact that,
whilst a single grain of wheat, jdanted where it bus
room to tiller out, will produce four hundred-fold,
and often much more, and yet that ihe farmers of
England, on an average, only receive back about
eight times the seed they sow, first led me to gra-
dually reduce my proportion of seed wheat from
three bushels per acre down to about three pecks,
which reduction I have accomplished to the evi-
dent improvement of my growth of corn. And I
have at this time (May,'lS43) the finest promise of
a crop trom this latter quantiiy, and this, too,
after one ploughing of pea and bean stubbles,
and upon soils low in the scale of natural fertility,
and without any manure having been for some
years applied.*

Having, from this brief detail of my practice,
shown the success of an extended system of thin
sowing, the reader will readily, upon reflection,
perceive the explanation of the advantages which
I thus derive— ?f% it is that three pecks of seed-
wheat per acre must be much nearer the correct
quantity than fen pecks.

It is evident that if one grain of wheat, when
sown singly, produces four hundred grains, and
that one bushel of wheat sown only yields eight
bushels (that is, only eight for one, iustcad of four
hundred for one), that ninety-eight grains of seed-
wheat aie by the ordinary method thrown away.

Again, the produce o{ an car of thick-sown
wheat yields about forty grains (I sny thick-sown,

* The soils of Mr. Davis' farms vary very con-
siderably, including stiff clays, sands, poor gravels,
and .shallow loams resting upon chalk. — C. W. .1.

for thin-sown yields very much more), and there-
fore the produce of an acre (or twenty bushels
the ordinal y average) is in reality the growth of
the cars fiom two pecks only (that, too, is al-
lowing only one ear from each grain). This
being the fact, of what use, I ask, or what be-
comes of the remaining eight ])ccks of seed which
are commonly sown ?

There are, in truth, many disadvantages attend-
ant upon thick sowing. In the early stages of the
young plants' growth, when the air and the soil
are mcist, and the plants small, each vegetating
seed, no matter how ranch seed has been sown,
finds sufficient space and food for its support. But as
the plants increase in size.a struggle for nourishment
commences, which increases in severity, and finally
terminates by the destruction of the weaker by the
stronger plants, but not until after a contest, which
leaves the survivors stinted in their growth, and
perhaps diseased.*

'J'hat this struggle must take place, is shown
by my calculation of the number of straws that
can rise into car, compared with the grains sown.
And that this struggle does take place, is very
plainly betrayed by the yellow sickly colour of
thick-sown corn in the spring, when all other ve-
getation puts on its greenest tints.

In the early stages, however, of its growth, the
appearance of thick-sown corn is much superior
to that of the thin-sown. For a season its pro-
gress is more rapid, the stems rise sooner, the
ground appears covered much earlier. This state
of things usually continues until about the end of
April. But then a change comes over the field —
its dark green tints, which shaded it in early
spring, change to a yellow sickly colour, and its
progress is sensibly arrested. In the meantime,
the thin-sown retains its colour, feels the benign
influences of spring, tillers out in all directions ;
and its progress toward- harvest is uniformly vigor-
ous, and superior to the thick-sown. It is stouter
and more uniform in the height of its straws, and
Ihe size of its ears. It is more free from blight,
and the weight of the crop is greater.

Nature herself betrays the evils of thick planta-
tions of every description, in dwmdling
plants, and in the sickly appearance of the crops
of all kinds, and the ])lanter and the gardener is
ever ready to take warning by the lessons she thus
aftbrds. The planter well knows the effect of an
over-crovided plantation ; the gardener by the full
use of his hoe is careful to give ample room to
each plant ; it is only the farmer who, guided by
his eye alone, is pleased in the early stages of his
thick-sown crops to see his ground well covered
with plants of young corn, without stopping to
reason upon the power of the soil to bring them
to maturitv.f

* And when the struggle is over, the injury has
mt ceased, for instead of a vigorous and unim-
paired plant, the vegetation of the survivors is lan-
guid and inferior even to the tune of harvest.

t I shall be very happy to show any agriculturist,
as I have already done to Sir Charles Burrell, Bart.,
,1. A. Sraiih, Esq., and other eminent agriculturists,
my farming, at the Oaks, at Shirley, near Croydon,
or at the Selsdon Farm, the properly of Mr. G. R.
Smith, also near Cioydon.

THE I'AUMEll'S MAGAZINE.

395

CULTIVATION OF CLOVER.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE I'ARMER's MAGAZINE.

Siii, — Having read the Rev. Mr. Thorpe's ablo
article in the last volume of the Royal Agricultural
Society's Jounml, u|)on the iailure of the red clover,
and thinking that the following statement miiy be
of service, as tending to explain in some degree the
causes of that failure, I send you a few observa-
tions which will go far towards substantiating IMr.
Thorpe's opinion. I readily concur with him iii
thinking that the failure of the clover crop is caused
in a great measure by the j)articles of the surface
soil not being sufficiently close and cohesive, which
renders the plant liable not only to be injured by
the frost, but equally as much by the intense heat in
hot dry summers.

What I would wish to show is, that the extremes
of heat and cold, in other words, drought and fruU,
together uith the absence if proi>er drainaye, are the
principal causes of the failure of the clover croj) ;
and that the best remedy against such a loss is to
render the surface of the soil as close and cohesive
as possible. And although I cannot enter into the
minutiic of the subject, as regards the chemical pro-
perties of soils, my observations will be the result
of actual experience. L^st spring the tbllowing
fields, which had been sown with wheat, after
having been fed off with sheej), were then sown
with rye-grass and red clover, in the proportions
of SIX gallons of the former and two gallons of the
latter to the acre.

jN'o. 1. Light, sandy soil, greater part dry ; the
seeds were harrowed and cross-harrowed in, and
rolled several times over with two-horse rolls, then
rolled over twice with a heavy four-horse stone
roll. Remarks. — The clover has stood the winter,
is well set, and now looks promising.

No. '2. Light, loamy soil, well drained, but very
wet in wet weather; the seeds were harrowed and
cross-harrowed in, and rolled several times with
two-horse rolls. Remarks — The seeds came up
very evenly, but in consequence of the extreme
heat last summer, the ground became full of fis-
sures, and at harvest time they all disappeared, with
the exception of some on the headlands and the
lower and cooler part of the field.

No, 3. Lower part loamy, upper part stiff with
sondy subsoil, thoroughly drained, lower part in-
clined to be wet ; the seeds were harrowed and
cross-harrowed in, and rolled several times with
two-horse rolls. Remarks. — The clover came up
very evenly, and looked remarkably healthy. Early
in the winter the clover on the lower and loamy
part of the field was killed by the frost, but on the
remainder of the field has stood well up to the
jiresent time, and is still flourishing.

No. 4. Partly loamy, partly stiff claj^e}', partly
sandy soil, sown on winter oats after they had been
fed off with sheep ; the field is well drained ; the
seeds were harrowed and cross-harrowed in, and
then rolled. The clover came up very weakly, and
when the oats were cut, it was all burnt up by the
intense heat, with the exception of that on the
headlands.

No. 5. Stiff with s.mdy subsoil, a part of the
field drained, the other part very wet ; the seeds
were lightly rolled, and harrowed in. The clover
came up tolerably well, but the field being foul and
poor, the plant did not appear strong or health)'.
The white frosts in the autumn soon destroyed the
clover on the wet part of the field, and on the other

part the clover is slight and weakly. The seeds
were sown on spring oats.

The heat and extreme dryness of last summer,
and almost total absence of rain for many months,
had a most injurious effect upon the young clover
plant. In Nos. 2 and 1 the ground became full of
great fissures, and the clover as soon as it appeared
was nearly all scorched up, and after the corn was
cut, the little that was then to be seen, having no-
thing to shade it, entirely disappeared, with the
exception of that on the iieadlands.

In No. 3 one reason of the clover flourishing was,
in addition to the field having been well rolled, that
the wheat immediately after the seeds were sown
grew most luxuriantly, and soon afforded excellent
shade and protection to the young plant ; and al-
though on the lower portion of the field the clover
came up equally as well, and had the same shade,
yet the ground lying in a low situation, near a
stream, wiiere the frost has most power, it was
destroyed by the white frosts in October.

In No. b, so plain was the line of demarcation
between the portions where the clover was living,
and where there was none, that a stranger would
have thought only a portion of the field bad been
sown ; the total destruction on the one portion can
only be attributed to the wbiie frosts and the winter
frosts having a most powerful effect upon the wet
subsoil.

In No. 1 the clover, as 1 have said before, came
uj) evenly all over the field, and up to the present
moment has continued to promise well. The field
is poor, and the soil light and dry ; and I can only-
attribute the present appearance of the clover to
the four-horse roll I used, a very heavy one. The
field after being rolled appeared like a well trod
foot path, and I firmly believe that the surface soil
being made so close and cohesive, became a formid-
able barrier to the drought.

It is worthy of observation that turnips invariably
appear first on the headlands of the field, where the
surface is most trodden by the horses. It is my usual
custom after sowing my turnips to carry some lime
into the field, and lay it in several lumps in readi-
ness for spreading on the turnips when they appear ;
and I have noticed the turnips always show them-
selves first in the ruts maUe by the waogons carry-
ing in the lime, which closes the soil, and prevents
the attacks of grub and other enemies.

I mention this as I think that turnips, as well as
clover, equally require a closely compressed surface
soil, drought being a most destructive enemy to both.
The turnip and clover plants always appear early
in the foot-prints of the horses, or in any part where
the ground has been most trodden and closened;
and if the clover should in the course of the winter
be nearly destroyed, some may always be found on.
the headlands, the hedges being a great protection
from the frost, and the soil being closened by the
turning and returning of the horses. Enough has
been adduced, I think, to show that frost and
drought are alike most destructive to the clover
plant ; the frost doubly so, in proportion as the
soil is wet, and although the ground may be well
drained, yet, should it be situated in a cold, damp
bottom near a stream, it will be often found to bo
slightly frozen, when on the higher ground you
would not have known there had been the least
frost.

I will now conclude with a few remarks upon the
remedy for this failure. Believing that the clover
plant requires a close surface soil, 1 would first
observe that the seed should be sown upon wheat,

D u 2

396

THE FAllMEK'S ftJAGAZlNE.

winter bjiley, or winler oats; the ground sown in
the autumn befunies during- tho winter firm and
close by the succession of frosts and rain, and is
sdll more closened in tbo spring by having sheep
upon it to feed oft' tho whBat, &c.

I would next observe that t^resil attention is neces-
sary when sowing- the seed. The following is my
iKiual meihod : after having fed otV the wheat sutti-
cienily close, and the ground is dry and in good
order, 1 dredge the field with some bushes in order
to level the nobs of tMrth and lill up the cracks in
the gionnd where the seed would be lost. I then
harrow it once or twice, as the stale of the giound
re(|uircs, then sow the seed with a hand drill, cross
harrow it in, and finish by rolling down the field
eaher with a lit;ht or with a heavy roll. \ery much
depends in what state the field is ; if dry,and the
surtace hard, it recjuires more harrowing and rollin"-
to pulverise the soil. Rolling as a finishing opera-
tion ought never to be o:nitted. 1 always^ea'p the
wheat in those fields whore the clover is sown, as
I think the stubble, which I do not cut until the
spring, keeps off the frost in some measure.

Until the causes of the failure are satisfactorily
ascertained, 1 would by no means attempt to grow
clover on the same ground more than once in six or
ssven years, because during the lime it is a clover-
ley, the ground becomes full of wireworm and giub
of every description. '1 he fiilure of the clover
being so general, and the cultivation of the plant
so important to the farmer, it behoves every one to
pay the greatest attention lo the subject, and endea-
vour to find out every can ie of such failure.
I remain. Sir, your obedient servant.

An AGniciiLiunisi.
Coudhiinl, Kent, Mau b, iM3.

ON MILDEW.

10 IHL IblTOR or mii rAFlMEn's JIAGAZI.vr.

Srn,--ln ofleiiug the following remarks to your
noiice.it is not trusting in any ability of mine to set
t'oithany new discovery as to the nature of this de-
structive disease, hut merely to state my oidnion
and observations I have made for several years pasi ;
and if you may think them worthy of occupying a
space in your valuable columns, 1 leave it in your
hands to act as you may think proper.

It is very cxtraordinaiy that this disease, the
causes of which have occuj)ied the time of many
learned and scicntiticmcn, though their researches
have been made on thebcstofiirinciplcs.yct nothing
definite or positive has accrued from such. 'I'hc
only thing which seemed to set at rest the nature,
cause, and projierties of mildew, was an incident
noticed by Sir Joseph Banks, which was the nrl-
dew shedding its seed ; and Irom that it was gene-
rally received as an opinion that mildew was pro
pagatcil by that means; and bv the many able
commentators on ihe subject since, all (juotc the
above to support their own ideas respecting the
disease. It would, therefore, he too presumptuous
(in my i)art to disannul and do away with this
opinoii, sui)portcd as it is by so many able and
mere experienced persons ihan nr, self; bnt as
it is the duty of every man to exert himself for the
welfare of his country, and as a learned author
said, make the world a little better for their liviiif

in it, to accom[)lish whieli object discussions of
all sorts must be entered into to arrive at perfec-
tion, and point out the causet; of difl'ercnt jiheno-
mcna of nature; and in my opinion nothing de-
serves more the notice and observation of an
attentive observer of nature, who exerts himself
in the [jrogress of agriculture, than an enquiiy
into the nature and properties of iiiildcw. It is a
disease which we find is more prevalent in orie
season than another, consequently must be owing
to an atmospheric inilucnce on vegetation; to as-
certain which it would be necessary, in the first
j)lacc, to find out the cause, and trace it through
its different stages, to arrive at a sound conclu-
sion. 1 shall therefore, in the first jdaco, state
what my ojiinion is as to the cause, and observa-
tions that 1 have made during my cn((iiiry.

I never could find it congenial to my feelings to
receive and approve of the generally received opinion
that mildew was generated by seed ; and it was
in consc(]tiencc of my ideas differing so widely
from that, that I endeavoured to search out and
find, if possible, what was the true cause. I con-
sider it is entirely owing to the different variations
of the atmospheic, cither from a succession of
heat to cold, or contrarywise. It generally attacks
the plant in the very height of its vegetation,
which is the pel iod when vegetation is more sus-
ceptible to the variable changes of the atniosidiere
than at other times. Dry gloomy weather at that
time will cause it ; and if a hot sun should succeed
sucii dry, hazy weather, the corn will be
mildewed in a few days — or rather, rusted,
for mildew seems to be a very inappro-
priate name for it. Jt is the same disease
that the Ivoinans called " Ventrigo Red," owing to
the colour it assumed when in an advanced state.

The rust does not adhere strongly to tljc blades
of the crop, as a shower vvill wa'^h a great part off;
and if a plentiful rain was to follow, the rust dis-
appears and the corn suffers little damage, provided
the weather continues such as to prevent the pro-
pagation of it. In clear hot summers we suffer
very little iVom it ; but when the weather is un-
settled, a dry hot atmo3|>here, succeeded by a
dull, gloomy, hazy one, generally generates mil-
dew ; and as I have sometimes noticed the i ust to
he of such a plentiful quantity as to cover the
ground around, 1 have cut off blades affected by it,
and fresh ones have shot forth and continued free,
owing to the sap having an healtiful flow through
(hat oi'gan. I have also tried to inoculate healthy
cars with that aflected by mildew when the rust
has been in an advanced state, and the seeds as
it were flying ofl', but not with success in any one
instance, having introduced the seeds into the
straw, and profusely dusted tlie ears with it.
Having now shewn that the cause of mildew is
owing to the state o( the atmosphere, I must pro-
ceed to ])oint out v\ hat would be the efl'ect ol'such
an influence on vcgeiation, and how it would
cause the disease to appear. The action of either -
the above- mentioned atinos|)heric influences on the
corn and vegetation generally would he, first to
stop its vegetating poweis, consequently throw the
plant into an unhealthy state ; and secondly,
causing the vessels containing the sap to stop
(lowing, which, as the plant is in the heiglit of its
v'getaiion, would be a serious conse(]ucncc, as it
must cniise the escape ol' the sap by apart which
nature in its liealthy state had not intended ; it
would, therefore, stop its usual channel, and cause
the extravasation of its juices from the excretory

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

vessels of leaves, and stop tliere In a coiislsteiire
of what is termed mildew, as it rises in lorins of
ilifferent (Jimcnsions, according to llio size of llic
organ from which it proceeds.

When first produced, it is of a whitish colour
on corn, but in a few days it turns brown or rusty,
and flies olf, and is v^aftedaway by the winds —
which incident, as I before noticed, was observed
by Sir Joseph B.inks, and in his opinion was the
seeds flying otT'. I cannot see iit ])rcsciit the use of
entertaining the slif^htest idea ihat such is ihe
case ; for those seeds or rust are <icneratc(l from
the extravasation of the juices of plants, not the
extravasation from the rust, which must be the
case if generated by seed. I therefore consider
further, allowing the II nth of the extravasation of
the nutritive juices of plants, that honey-dew, as it
is called, and all other unctions sidjslances found
on gramineous plant«, are caused by the same at-
mosplieric influence — but of course of difl'erent
colours, according to the plants from which it pro-
reeds, and the quality and nature of the difl'erent
substances whidi they conttdn — sometimes of an
iinpalpalde powder, others of a thick consistence,
which is red on gar.'en beans, rusty colour on all
kinds of corn, greenish on ph!ml>-trec, yellowish
on ash, white on lorcli, fii', and turnips, and of a
honey like appearance on hops and onk trees.

Jt is a very serious thing when the mildew
attacks the corn when coming into ear, as every
corn then affected will bedesiroyed. At that time
the hopes of a fanner are placed on a very critical,
uncertain point, as much depends on the weather
— whether it is such as to keej) the flow of sap in
continual motion, and not generate rnoio nor less,
but just sufficient to serve all the recpiiiing vessels
aid keep the plant in a healthy productive state.
Turnips arc more especially liahle to be uffected
with the mildew in this part (d" the country— at
least, more so than in the northern counties, whicii
allows them to sow much earlier than we can, for
with ns they are sure to be mildewed if sown be-
fore .Uine, and often after that time When I find
a piece becoming mildewed, 1 immediately run the
horse and harid-hoe over thern, whether there are
weeds or not, in order to l;oep the gromid conti-
nually moved, and 1 have often found this answer
tlie required purpose ; if not the first time it may
the second or third, for I keep it moved at least
once a week when attacked by this disease, and I
have always experienced the benefit; so that I
think one of the best preventives for this ,de-
s'ructive disease — as prevention is better than
cure — is to keep the ground constantly moved,
in order to give the plant the benefit of all the at-
mospheric and chemical changes caused by a con-
tinual absorption of carbonic acid. Hut it propa-
gated by seeds, why should it stop its ravages, or
where are the first seeds to come from ? for I have
often observed a piece completely coveied wiili it
within a few days, and ifcarefidly oli=erved through
a microscope, it will appear as the juice or sap of
the plant oo/ing from the excretory organs of the
plant, which I think is much more probable than
that of its being a growing plant; for jiersons ac-
quainted with vegetable physiology arc well aware
of there being all sizes of pores in a leaf or stalk
of vegetables, which will account for the different
sizes of the consistory substance. Sometimes only
patches are aff'ected, the rest of the field free ;
which spots, if examined, will be found to be of a
different nature to the surrounding soil — probably
wetter, which, with a liot glaring sun, will cause

it in those spots : this is what may he called a par-
tial mildew.

liut a more general mildew is wlicn the whole
atmosphere is brought into action. As 1 have
stated before, a hot glaring sun succeeding close,
sidtry, gloomy weather — wiien there is no (iew —
causes it to generate more in the morning than any
other j)art of the day; because at day-brea'u in
such weather the atmosphere undergoes a greater
change than at another lime.

Talavera wdieat f have noticed, especially if sown
on a cold wet soil, is sooner attacked by the mil-
dew than another sort, owing to its tender nature,
and sooner acted upon by the continued variation
of an English atmosi)here. I have seenjt growing
in the same field with hedge wheat when it has
been very much mildewed, and the other not at all.

P.ut fearful 1 am tresi>nssing on your valuable
time, Laving gone to much greater lengths than 1
intended, 1 must conclude with every sincere wish
for the progress of the science of agriculture, and
with thanks to you for your kind forliearance in
accepting this scribble from

^'ollrs truly,

A IIaaipshihk Farmfr.

ON FliEDING HOKSES.

TO Tfir rniTon of Trip FARMF.n'.s macazinf.

Sir, — I have been keeper of one horse for several
years ; my plan of feeding used to be as follows :
tiOibs. of crushed oats, 401bs. of split beans, ?01bs.
bran, and 2 cwt. of bay, given whole, per week ; but
in coo'^equence of being informed bv some of ray
friends that cut hay was l>otter for the horse, and
went further, T was resolved to try it cut. So ac-
cordingly I bought a machine for the purpose of
cutting it, from ]\Ir. \'icker.s, Manchester, who I
was told was the best maker of these machines
jiereaboiils. The first week I gave the cut hay to
Ihe horse he did not seem lo like it, but on the
second week he appeared lo relish it very well fl
mention this that parties who may wish to try iha
same phui may not be disheartened if the horse
should not talie to cut hay all at once) ; and at the
raoalh's end I found 1 had three trusses, or one and
a half cwt. hay left. 1 now thought there must be
some mistake about it, for the quantity saved ap-
peared to me to be too much ; but, however, I was
determined to try the plan fairly, so 1 told my man
to bii)' the samo quantity of hay as he formerly did
when it was not cut, and to lay on one side all that
was not eaten, which was done ; and at the second
month's end I found I had six liusses left, that is,
three /or each month. I tried the same plan for
another month, and at the end of the third month 1
found I had nine trusses and ai)out half a truss oi'
hay left, which at that time cost 2s. Gd. per truss
exactly, so that the saving effected in three months
for one horse was 1/. 2s. ("id. It is now two years
and one week since I adopted this plan, and I calcu-
late that I have saved 4/., besides the value of the
machine, which cost me ,')/. .'')s., and which to all ap-
pearance will last my life out, as there is no sign of
it being in the least imi).iired, except the knives
being a little worn. Now if I save 22s. Cd. per
month in the keep of one horse alone, is it not
clear that all farmers, &c., that keep more horse.'j
must be considerable savers by cutting their bay '
Since I commenced doing so I have persuaded

398

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

several of my friends to do so, and they have found
tlie same result as 1 have. It is a pity this plan is
not more extensively known and acted upon, for the
saving effected is great.

I was not aware until last week tliat there was
such a publication as your magazine, or I would
have sent you the result of my experiment sooner.
Hoping you will excuse my trespassing so long on
your time and space,

I am, sir, your obedient servant,
Manchesier, G. Jones.

May \Qth, 1843.

P.S. I ought to have said that I put a rack full
of uncut hay for the horse to pull at in the night.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS.

"These experiments, it is true, are not easy; still they are
in the power of every thinking husbandman. He who ac-
complishes but one, of however limited application, and
takes care to report it faithfully, advances the science and
consequently the practice of agriculture, and acquires
thereby a right to the gratitude of his fellows, and of those
who come after. To make many such is beyond the power
of most individuals, and cannot be expected. The first
care of all societies formed for the improvement of oiu"
science, should be to prepni-e the forms of such experi-
ments, and to distribute the execution of these among
their members." — T'oh Timer.

Such is the opinion of one who holds the first
rank as a writer on agricultural science, and
whose intimate acquaintance both with its theory
and practice entitles his opinion to the greatest
weight. There are, we doubt not, many of the
readers of the Magazine, who would be willing
to institute a few experiments for the purpose
of testing the correctness of the principles which
scientific men are now attempting to lay
down for the guidance of the practical farmer.
Under this impression, the writer of this takes
the liberty of calling their attention at this season
to some artificial manures which might be tried
for turnips and potatoes.

Experiments with various saline and other sub-
Rtances have been made during the last two sea-
sons in the south of Scotland — chiefly at the
suggestion of Profesf or Johnston, of Durham ; and
the results obtained in many cases are extremely
interesting and important, both in a theoretical
and practical point of view. These substances,
however, have for the most part been applied
singly, or at least not in such a state of combina-
tion as to suit the particular crop for the produc-
tion of which they were nsed. But when it is
considered that a variety of elements enter into
the composition of all our cultivated plants, and
that in our common farm-yard manure, which is
known to be serviceable for promoting the growth
of any of them, a variety of these same elements
is also found, it is evident that a combination of
several substances, in suitable proportions for the
kind of crop to which they are to be ajjplicd, is
more likely to prove beneficial as a manure than
any one of them employed singly. And for our
guidiince here we feel the need of correct analyses
of our cultivated plants. Sprengel is at present
our chief authority on this suiycct ; and though
it is generally allowed that the accuracy of his
analyses i>! not always to be entirely depended
upon, yet they are of great value, and give us an
indication sufficiently correct lor oin- present pur-
pose. The following is his analysis of turnips : —

The ashes of lO.OOOlbs. of the bulbs consisted
of — avoiding decimals — lbs.

Potash 24

Soda. 10^

Lime 7^

Magnesia 2§

Sulphuric acid 8

Phosphoric acid 4

Chlorine 2

with silica, and some alumina and oxide of iron*
The same weight of leaves contain all the above
substances in much greater quantity.

Looking to the above analysis, we would recom-
mend a manure composed of the following ingre-
dients for turnips : —

£ s. d.
2001bs. (about 4 bushels) bones reduced
to powder, and then dissolved in half
their weight of sulphuric acid (oil of

vitriol) 0 18 0

llSlbs. sulphate of soda, in the dry state 0 ti 0

561bs. (1 bushel) common salt 0 1 .1

561b3.sulphateof magnesia (Epsom salts) 0 4 0
561bs. sulphate of ammonia (in pure

crystals) 0 8 G

Quantity for one acre — expense. .. . 1 17 9

Potash is omitted in the above, and for two rea-
sons— we have as yet no means of obtaining it at
a cheap rate, and it is probable that it is contained
in considerable abundance in many of the soils in
this island. 3oIbs. of pearlash (the quantity ne-
cessary to aff"ord 241bs. of potash for the turnip
bulbs) may, however, be added by those who are
willing to be at the expense of doing so. Our
soils, however, seem to be very genei'ally deficient
in phosphoric acid, and a greater quantity of it is
therefore given above than would be necessary for
both the roots and leaves of a crop of 25 tons
(bulbs) of turnips per acre. Sulphuric acid and
chlorine are also given in ample quantity. The
quantity of magnesia is greatly reduced. 200 or
3001bs. of lime may also be added, if the soil is not
known to contain it in considerable abundance.
If the bones be not digested in acid, seven bushels
will be necessary. It would be interesting to ob-
tain comparative results from an application of
the above mixture, with and without thesuli>hatcof
ammonia, which affords nitrogen — an element
which Liebig affirms that plants may obtain, in
considerable quantity, fro.n ammonia contained
in the atmosphere.

Suppose the experiment to be tried on one-
eighth of an imperial acre, and suppose the drills
to be 27 inches in width (the usual size in this
part of the country), then one-eighth of the above
quantities would have to be put into 80t) lineal
yards of drill.

For potatoes the following can be recommended
vith the greatest confidence, as being likely to
give such an increase of produce as to afford a
profitable return for the money expended in pur-
chasing the manure: — Cwt.
A mixture of sulphate of soda, dry . . 1
With sulj)hate of ammonia, pure .... J
for one acre.

A mixture of sulphate of magnesia .. 1

With snlphatc of ammonia J

for ditto.
'I'hese manures have already been tried for po-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

399

tatoes, and in every instance with the most mnvkcd
success.

I would suggest iui application of the following
mixlure as likely to be still more etticacious as a
manure for potatoes than either of the above,
viz.:— Cwt.

Sulphate of soda, diy J

Sulphate of magnesia ,\

Sulphate of ammonia I

Potato tubers contain both soda and magnesia
— the former in great quantity ; and ihc tops of
the plant contain a large quantity of magnesia
with very little soda. Potatoes recpiiie also phos-
phoric acid and lime, and the quality of the roots
is likely to be improved by giving a small quantity
of bones, along with other manure, at the time of
planting. It is perhaps necessary to observe,
that, if crystallized sulphate of soda (Glauber
salts) be used, double the above quantities will be
necessary, as in that state it contains upwards of
half its weight of water.

1 he potatoes having been planted in the com-
mon way with a moderate qumiiity of dung, the
above mi.xtures may be applied with the hand as
a top-dressing when the plants are about two
inches above ground.

Suppose the experiment to be made on one-
fourth of an acre, and the drills to be thirty inches
\\\'\c, then one-fourth of the above quantities
would have to be put over 1,452 lineal yards of
drill.

If any person would take the trouble of making
comparative experiments on the snme field with
two of the above mixtures, or with all the three,
and reporting the results with exact attention to
extent of ground and weight of produce, he would
confer a benefit on the agricultural community.
To give such experiments their full value, it is
necesssary that the weight of produce should al-
ways be compared with that obtained from an
equal extent of the same field unmaimred, or ma-
nured wit!) a known quantity of common dung.

AciftF-STlS.

Ythans'tde, Ahenkenshlre, May, 1843.

ON THE BENEFICIAL EFFECTS
OF AMMONIACAL WATER
COMPARED WITH OTHER SUB-
STANCES, AS A TOP-DRESSING
FOR GRASS-LANDS.

DV MR. THOMAS BISHOP,

Land-Steward to Robert Smythe, Esq., of Methven
Castle, Perthshire.

(From the Quarterhi Journal oj^ Agriculture.)

It having been represented to Mr. Smythe that
saltpetre is an excellent stimulant for the produc-
tion of grass, he desired me to dress an acre of
land therewith, and sugs^ested the propriety of
giving it u comparative trial along with other sub-
stances considered fertilizers. Tiie field selected
for the experiment had been three years under
gra~-s, the two last pastured with cattle; and con-
sisted of a heavy dam|) loam, of an irregular sur-
face, which had been jutrtiuUii ttruiited, and «o,vn
ont with a variety of grass and clover seeds.

£ s. d.
On tiic 12th of April a Scotch acre was
measured oft" idong one side of the
field, and sown with 1 cwt. of the

best nitre, which cost 1 1(5 0

A second acre adjoining thereto, with I ',

cwt. of nitrate of soda, at 208. per cwt. 1 li' (I
A third acre, with 5 cwt. rape-dust, at

7/-, per ton llo 0

A foiuth acre, watered with 103 gallons
of ammoniacal water, at 4d. per
gallon, diluted with five times the

quantity of common water 1 15 0

Ai;d a half acre sown with ? of a cwt. of
nitrate of soda (or 7-llb.) mixed with

211b. of common salt 0 IS 2

In inoporiioning the different ingredients ex-
perimented with as here stated, regard was h;\d
not to exceed in prime cost the expense of the
saltpetre applied to the acre.

The apparatus used for distributing the ammo-
niacal water having become disordered before the
dressing was completed, several spaces w ere left
untoucheil with the liquid, which instantly became
apparent from the lighter g'een tinge that the
sward had acquired, where the allotted quantity
had been given. To rectify this appearance, two
labourers were sent the following morning with
watering-pans and about five gallons of the un-
diluted liquid to make good the deficiencies; but
instead of adding thereto five times the quantity of
water, they only gave four, and by mid-day the
spaces watered w ith this strength of liquid had all
become brown and scorched as with fire.

The acre of ground dressed with the nitrate of
soda was the iirst that shewed its stimulating
powers, by the dark green sward which it had
acquired in eight days.

The ammoniacal water was the next, and was
equally vigorous in twelve days, and soon sur-
passed all the other dressings for the season, the
scorched parts gradually narrowing with borders
of luxuriant herbage. The sward, dressed with
rape dust, was the latest that exhibited any benefit
from its application, but improved greatly as the
season advanced ; and from the extra quantity
that had been dropped around the bag at the time
of sowing it, gave evidence that the proper quan-
tity had not been applied, to shew fully its fertili-
zing effects, as the ])roduce on this spot was not
surpassed by any of the other dressings.

Although the remainder of the field w^as not in
good condition to yield a crop of hay, it was
thought expedient, for the sake of testing the ex-
periment, to take hay from the whole field, and
afterwards top-dress the hay-stnbblc on that part
of the field which had not been operated upon ;
and on the 26th of .July the crop was cut across
both the dressed and undressed parts of the field.
The produce in grass from 31 square yards, care-
fully measured on a crossing line and weighed,
was from the acres dressed with nitre, nitrate of
soda, and rape-dust, nearly the same, averaging
from 985 to 1001b. The space dressed with nitrate
of soda and salt 821b., and the undressed Oi'jlb. ;
whilst the produce from the dressing with ammo-
niacal water weighed 12Glb. The produce in hay
made from the different parcels of grass, carefully
kept separate and weighed on the 2nd of August,
in good condition, was similar ■ in Iproportion.
.'\fter the dressing with iiitrf, nitrate of soda, and
rnpc-dust, giving ."51, .'2, and 3fllb., being on the
average one pound \veight of hay from the square

400

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

yard ; that after the nuxtiire of soda and Siilt some-
what less, and that from the undressed hind onlj^
one-Iialf pound; whilst that dressed with ammo-
niaral water weighed 4r>Ih., or a pound and a half
per square yard, equal to 3?^! stone of hay per im-
j>erial, or 110 Ktones of 221b. each per Scotch acre.
'I he apparent anomaly of the grass watered with
ammonia having' lost less weight in being converted
into hay than the others did, can only be accounted
for hythesingulareftect that the ammoniacal water
had in stimulating the growth of Timothy-grass
(Phleinn pmleiise) beyond that of any of the other
•Iressingis ; and it is a peculiarity of this grass to
part with fewer of its inherent juices in drying than
the greater number of cultivated grasses do, from
being furnished with additional joints or valves on
the flower-stems. Is not this observation of the
effects of ammonia on the roots of Timothy-grass
f-omcwhat corroborative of i\I. Liebig's assertion,
that " certain substances are found to exercise a
peculiar influence on the development of particular
families." (Vide Art of Culture). Nor is this the
only instance that came under my notice, when
examining the efteots of the difl'erent dressings,
particularly in the case where the mixture of salt
and nitrate of soda was applied, an excess of hard
fescue (Festucd duriusciilii) became predominant,
perfecting more seeds, and raising the flower-stems
to a greater height.

After removing the hay crop, the remainder of
the field was begun to be top-dressed on the 12tli
of August with the following substances: and for
a farther trial of the effects of gas-ammonia on
after grass, I had a present of 110 gallons from the
manager of Perth Gas Works, which T reduced
with the same quantity of common water as before
stated, and applied to another or fiftii acre ; a sixth
acre was dressed with

£ s. d.
12 bollg lime-shells, slackened with bog-
earth, at 3?. per boll 1 k; 0

A seventh, with 12 bushels bone-dust

(slightly fermented), at 3s 1 Ml 0

The eighth acre, with cocoa-nut dust, (J

cwt., at Cs.. 1 ]<; 0

The ninth, with 1.") cwt. animalized car-
bon, at 23. 8il 2 0 0

And the tenth af:re, with 30 bushels

bone-rrfuse or sweepings, at Is 110 0

In this second experiment with other substances
theamraoniacal watershewed a decided superiority,
being not only the first to exhibit its stimulating
effects, hut in keeping up a continuous growth
whilst the season permitted ; nor did any of the
other dressings previously given in the month of
April shew an equal luxuriance in the growth of
after-grass.

The acre dressed with cocoa-dust was (he next
that shewed its fertilizing Influence, and the two
acres with animalized carbon and the refuse of
bones the latest. But as this last series of ex-
periments was followed with a long succession of
very rainy weather, which greatly impeded the
looked for effect of the difterent dressings, it
would only ite waste of time to particularize other
appearances, farther than to say, that where
the ground was perfectly dry, they all seemed
to be beneficial, whilst in i)lace3 saturated with
moisture there has been no improvement; and
this is a consequence that may, in all cases, be ex-
pected as to the effect of manure, where the land
has not a conq)lete drainage.

I am aware that some agriculturists and florists
in this neighbourhood have suflcred loss in the
application of ammoniacal water for difterent pur-
poses, not knowing the proper strength at which it
might be profitably used. It is produced at three
different strengths in the manufacturing of gas,
which cotdd be tested by instrnmsnts ; but, for
the purpose of top-dressing grass-lands, a very
safe criterion can be had, by reducing the strength
of a small quantity of the liquid by equal portions
of water, imtil its effect, by trial on grass-sward,
does not discolour the narrower leaves of grasses,
farther than a tinge of lighter green, although it
should blacken the broader leaves of ranunculuses,
daisies, and o'hers.

BURTON-TTPON -TRENT FARMERS'
CLUB.

At the usual monthly meeting on Thursday, the
iP.th of A|iril, "The best methotl of consuming
the Straw of the Farm" was the subject of discus-
sion. The proposer, i\lr. \V. Greaves, read the
following paper, which, as the club unanimously
appeared of his opinions, elicited but little
debate : —

The subject which I am engaged to jiresent to
your notice is one which is of great importance to
the practical farmer, for no other circumstance
perhaps has so much influence on liis profits as a
judicious mode of consuming the straw of the
farm. The straw contains the materia! of the
dung heap ; it has value also as (odder. The pro-
portion which he uses for litter or for fodder de-
termines the character of his farming. If he
consume it all as litter he is said to farm high ; il
he use the greater part as fodder he is said to farm
low. The opinions of practical men are so vari-
ous that no rule can be deduced from them. It is
the practice of the Flemings to eat tip nearly the
whole of the straw with cattle ; they do not re-
serve enougli to make n dunghill, but collect the
urine in tanks, and put it on the land in a liquid
state. Many of our best agriculturists, on the
contrary, collect an abundance of winter food, and
disdaining the small portion of nutriment con-
tained in ti)e straw, convert it all into litter. Others
collect no more winter food than is necessary to
form with a [lortion of the straw a diet which will
keep the ca'tle thriving and healthy, and use as
much for fodder, and as little for litter as possible.
Some, who have strong land farms and cannot
conveniently raise root crops, or provide hay for
winter food, tread down as much as possible of
the straw with cattle fed on green food in the
summer. But there is another class similarly cir-
cnnistanccd with the last, who are not careful to
mix any otiicr kind of food with the straw, but
consume part of it with cattle littered down with
the other i)art. This last is a kind of manage-
ment whicii h'ls no advocate among good ])racti-
cal agriculturists of the present day ; yet it is a
praciire which we see frequently pursued. 1 think
an en(|uiry into the value of straw as food and
manure cannot fail to convince every reasonable
man that this practice is in every way unprofita-
ble. As to the other vaiious ways of consuming
the straw it perhaps depends more on the kind of
farm, and consequently on the quantity of winter

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

401

food nliich it is profitable to grow, than in the in-
trinsic value of the itiaw itself, which of the va-
rious methods it is best to puisue. All of them
are perhaps equally profitable if they be propcily
adapted to the circunnst;inces of the farm.

The food which i^ given to entile ])io(liices no
profit to iho farmer niiies3 they either grow in
size, or lay on fat, or proilnce milk ; and manure
13 of no value unless it repairs the fertility, of
which the corn crops exhaust the soil. iJefore
enquiring into the value of straw for either purpose
of fodder or litter, it appears to me necessary to
consider generally the nature and uses of the
different Kinds of food for cattle, and also of the
nature and uses of manure. 'I'he masterly re-
views of the science of chemistry as a])i)lied to
ngricnlturo and to physiology, which have been
lately given to the world by Professor 1/iebig,
make this a comparatively easy tas!.'. He has col-
lected and arranged the facts relating to nature of
food, and the mode of its assimilation int-o the
living body, and those also relating to the food of
plants in such a manner as to give ns a tolerably
secure hold of the general principles which should
be followed, and there are only needed accurate
experiments to enable us to apply those principles
to the practice of agrifulture. It appears that in
all kinds of vegetables are contaitied two dirterent
kinds of substances, which are destined and fitted
to different purposes in the economy of the animal
frame. One of the two ki:uis of sid)-tances re-
sembles—is indeed identical in itschemical consti-
tution with the substance of ilie animal body itself,
and is therefore fitted to supply the materials of
its growth. This kind of substance is found under
the several forms of \'egetable fihvine, albumen,
cascine, gluten, txc. The chief difference between
it and the other substances contained in vegetables
is that it has nitrogen for one of its elements. The
quantity of this kind of substance either in vege-
tables or in the animal frame, may l)e represented
by the quantity of nitrogen which they contain.
The other kinds of substance fonnii in vegetables
have no nitrogen in their composition, and there-
fore cannot be assimilated into the animal frame.
Ihey appear under the forms of starch, sugar,
gum, \-c., whirh differ not at all in the elennents
of which they consist, but only in the proportion
which they contain of each. Their chief ingre-
dient and basis is carbon. Though they cannot
form any part of the body it^^elf, except the fat,
yet these suhFtances have uses in the animal func-
tions which arc not less important. To support
the heat of the body seems to be the chief end to
which they are destined. But when animals are
fed on vegetables which are lich in this kind of
substance the e.vcess of thc-m is converted into fat.
'I'he facts which the farmer has to bear in mind
are, that different kinds of food are required to
produce flesh and fat. It is also important to
remark that these substances which contain no
nitrogen, after fulfilling their office in the animal
body, are converted into a gaseous compound, called
carbonic acid, and pass off in that form by the
lungs, leaving few traces in the body or in the ex-
crements which make the manure heap. The value
of any vegetable as an article of food of course
depends on the quantity of those nutritious mat-
ters which it may contain ; and the i)articular use
we should make of it depends in a great measure
on the proportion which it contains of one or
other of these two different classes of substance.

I'esides the two classes of soluble and nutritious
substances, vegetables are composed partly of
another, which, froni its being insoluble, was sup-
posed to be indigestible, — namely, woody fibre.
Later enquiries have, however, shown this part of
\egi'tati!es to be digestible also ; and as straw is tV)r
the luost part made up of tliis, it is most iui-
l)ortant to our subject to ascertain its value as
ibod. It is like starch and the other carbonace-
ous compounds, entirely destitute of nitrogen. It
is probable that attention to the different compo-
sition of vegetable products, and the different
uses each is fitted to fulfil in the animal econoiuy,
may load to great improvements in the mode of
feeding our cattle. For some uses in the animal
body substances rich in nitrogen are retpiired. and
for others those compounds in which nitrogen is
absent. A young calf which increases its flesh so
greatly has ftirnislied to it in the milk a compound
containing much of the flesh-making element. A
young beast of any age which is growing- fast re-
(jnires in its vegetable fond u sufficient quantity of
the same kind of com()ouud. The t:ow which is
g'viug milk must liave the materials of the milk
supplied in its food, in addition to those which go
to supply the d.iily f notions and the daily waste
of the body ; she must he fed on articles rich in
nitiogpii. I'rofessor l.ichig has shown it to he
most i)roba>)le that muscular forc'j can only he
exerted through a change in the substance of the
tissue of the animal ho.iy. There is required
nitrogenous lood lo supply tiie waste which the
body undergoes from this cause, and hence working
horses require su'di food as corn and hay. But
fpeding beasts exert no muscular force e.\cept that
which is necessary to curry on tlie vital functions ;
they add nothing to the actual substance of the
flef.h ; they, therefore, need much less of the
nitrogenous compounds, and chiefly require an
excess of rich carbonaceous food to su|)ply the
materials of the fat which forms their only in-
crease Hence a diet containing a large quantity
of starch, sugar, gum, &c., in proportion to the
albumen, gluten, casein, &c., is good for feeding
beasts. If food containing much of the last sidi-
stancesis given them, part of ills wasted ;.iust the
converse of this holds in the case of young stock,
milking beasts, and working horses.

We have next to enquire what it is which vege-
tables require in the soil for their growth, in order
that we may find the value of any substance as a
manure. The answer is, in the present state of
the science of agriculture, not without some diffi-
culty. Vet it seems certain that plants ie([uire in
the soil sidjstances containiug the same elements
as they themselves do — precisely in the same way
as animals require food ot' a coa^position similar
to their own bodies. Plants, therefore, as they
are made up of the substances we have just now
mentioned, together with a certain proportion of
salts and earths, require some .substances in the
soil capable of furnishing them. Bi.t they do not
require all the materials of their growth in the
soil, and it is one of the great problems in the art
of agriculture to discover what proportion is re-
quired in the soil, and uhat proportion is gathered
from the air and from water. Neither is anything
certain known of the f(/rm in which plants receive
nourishment from the materials in the soil,
though Professor Liebig has shown that it is mobt
probable they receive the carbonaceous part in the
form of carbonic acid, and the nitrogen in the

402

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

form of ammonia, ^'cgctablc and animal matters
nro resolved into these two kinds of conipoiuids
in the jn-ocess of decaj', and all our manures are
composed of these, or of salines and earth similar
to those which they contain. AN'itli regard to the
proportion of the materials of the growth of plants
wiiich it is necessary to furnish in the soil, there
is an abundance of facts which enable us to ap-
l)roximatc t j the truth. 15y ai-Cirtainingtbe propor-
tion of the produce of the soil which may be
removed without diminishing ihc fertility of the
land, we arrive at a knowledge of the quantity of
iiour'/shmcnt wliich is supplied to the plants from
other sources. ^Ve know very well that if the
whole produce is carried off, the land is quickly
exhausted of its fertility; i)iit that if tlio wliole
produce is left in the soil, as v^'hen crops lu'c
ploughed in, the fertility of the land is gicatly
augmented. Then we know that if tiiecorn of the
crop be taken away, and idl else be returned to
the land, yet the soil will lose in fertile power.
Rut if the whole ciop be consumed by cattle
feeding on tho ground, the land improves, though
not in the same degree as when the crop is wholly
ploughed into the ground. Further, in our cli-
mate, and on the average of good fair land, if one
crop be consumed with cattle, and the whole of
the manure of that and the straw of the succeed-
ing corn crop be returned to the soil, the land will
bo maintained in a state of equable fertility.

Let us see then what is taken away, and what
returned to the soil, in a corn crop carried off
and a green crop consumed with cattle. Let us
suppose wheat and grass — for the same reasoning
will ai)i>!y to all other corn and cattle crops. On
an average wheat will yield a busliel cf corn for
each cwt. of straw ; the corn will therefore be
about half the weight of the straw, or a third part
of the whole weight. From one-fifth to one-
eighth part of the corn is composed of tliat kind
of vegetable substance which contains nitrogen,
and if we reckon a crop to produce thirty bushels
per acre, theie will be contained in it from twenty
to tiiirty pounds of nitrogen. In the thirty cwt.
of straw will be contained only about five pounds
of nitrogen. Thus in a wheat crop from four-
sixths to five- sixths of the nitrogen is cariied away
in the corn, while two-thirds of all the carbon is
returned to the soil in the straw. 'J'he corn con-
tains a small portion of ])hosphates, but all the
other saline substances are returned in the straw.
I'he snme qualify of land which \ields thirty
bushels of wheat will yield an amount of grass or
clover equal to three tons of hay. Good hay is
calculated to contain one and a half per cent, of
nitrogen ; the quantity in three tons would there-
fore he ninety [)ounds. If we reckon only one per
cent., or if we reckon the i)roduce of an acre
something less than three tons in the course of the
year, tlio quantity of nitrogen on an acre will
amount at least to sixty pounds, which is double
that contained in the corn crop. It is found that
one half of the hay is digestible, and that one half
the whole weight is returned in the excrements
and urine of the cattle, i'ut the important cir-
cumstance for us to observe is, that while the
greater part of the carbon is breathed out in the
form of carbonic acid, the substances containing
nitrogen are found in the excrements and urine —
all exce[it a small portion wh'cli goes to increase
the hulk of the animal body, or is yielded as milk.
There will, therefore, he returned to tho land in
the manure of the cattle one half of the whole

carbon of the crop, chiefly in the form of woody
fibre, the whole of the salts and earths, and all the
nitrogen, except that which we get in the flesh of
the animal or the milk. We can form an estimate of
the quantity of nitrogen which is carried away by
cattle, compared with that which is returned to
the land. An ox at his full growth at three years
old will weigh ten cwt., and during his growth he
will have consumed at least the produce of four
.acres ot pasture, or of other food in equal pro-
portion. Now an animal of 10 cwt. contains in
its whole carcase about thirty pounds of uitrogcn,
while four acres of pasture contain 210 pounds at
least; and consequently a beast continuing to
grow in size does not carry away more than one-
eighth part of the whole nitrogen contained in his
food. A beast of full size receives no addition to
his frame, and docs not take away any of the
nitrogenous element of his food, for the fat which
he lays on contains none. A milking beast carries
off a much larger proportion. According to a
lecent analysis of Dr. Play fair, there is contained
in toiv's milk four [icr cent, of casein. If we
reclion a cow's produce of milk to be 600 gallons
in the year, it will contain as much nitrogen
as twenty-seven cwt of hay ; or for every twenty
gallons of milk 100 pounds of hay would be re-
quired to supply the casein. Swedish turnips
contain only one per cent, of azotized matter, and
consequently it would take four cwt. to furnish
the nitrogen of twenty gallons of milk.

There appears then to be little difference be-
tween a crop of corn carried off and a green crop
consumed by cattle in regard to the quantity of
carbon which they return. The woody fibre of
the straw amounts to as much as that of the hay.
The great difference consists in the greater portion
of matter containing nitrogen which is returned
when the croj) is eaten by cattle. When, there-
fore, we would supply the waste of a corn crop by
manure from the farm-yard, it is this kind of
matter which is required to he added to the straw
before it is capable of fertilizing the land ; this
can only be done by feeding the cattle which are
to yield the manure on food which contains nitro-
gen. We see at once that if they be kept on straw
alone the manure cannot contain the necessary
quantity of nitrogen.

Except in the case of milking beasts it is seen
that no considerable part of the niirogenized sub-
stance in the food is taken from the manure. In the
whole year a milking beast yields perhaps nearly
one-third of it in her milk, and in the months sho
is in milk she yields nearly one-half. The growing
beast takes away only one-eighth, and the feeding
i)east very much less. I cannot but think that
this view of the matter jjoints out a great error in
the practice of some farmers. Green crops
ploughed, malt-dust, bran, &c., and other vegeta-
ble matters, rich in food for cattle, are frequently
used as manure ; but if they were consumed by ftcd-
ing beasts, we should get the produce of fat they
would yield to the cattle, and we should get in
the manure of the cattle precisely, or at least very
nearly, the same amount of nitrogen as the original
substance contained.

It is very material to remark that, of the three
ingredients of manure, the woody fibre which is to
furnish carbonic acid, the nitrogenized substance
which is to furnish ammonia, and the salines which
are partly soluble and i>artly insoluble, all the
carbon nearly, and the insoluble salines, and two-
thirds of the nitrogen, is found in the dung of the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

403

cattle : while the remaining one-thiid of the ni-
tioijen, aiul nearly the whole of the soluh'c salis,
are found in the urine. 'I'his is the jiroportion
which I find in a tahlein the appendix of Professor
Liebig's last woilc, wliichhe has taken from Hons-
singault. The urine of cattle is considerably richer
in nitrogen thantbedung, if we estimate the (juan-
titycontained in an equal weight of each ; but the
dung of a beast is much more in quantity than
the urine. This circumstance, that of the total
quantity of nitrogen the greater part is found in
the dung, seems to be too much overlooked] ust now
by writers in our journals; and consequently the
comparative importance of tlie urine is too much
magnified. The value of straw as manure depends
greatly in its absorption of the urine of the cattle,
and the richness of the urine in nitrogenous matter
has consequently a great deal to do witli the value
of straw used for the purpose of litter.

I do not think that anything satisfactory can be
gathered respecting the nutritive properties of
straw from the experience of merely practical
farmers. Its value depends of course on tqe
quantity and nature of the digestible matter which
it contains, and this can only be ascertained by
well conducted expeiinicnts guided by science.
There is a table published in one of the numbers
of the Journal of the Royal Agiicultural Society
which shews tlie comparative value of the differ-
ent articles of cattle food. It is compiled by M.
Antoine from the experiments of the principal
agriculturists of the con'.inent. Ilay is adopted as
the standard, and the table shews how much of any
other kind of food is equal to lOOlbs. of it. Ac-
cording to this table: — lbs.

Hay 100 is equal to

Wheat straw 374

Rye do 442

Oat do 195

Peas do 153

Vetch do 159

Bean do 140

Buckwheat do 140

\Vheat, pea, and oat chaff 167

Rye and barley chaff.. 17i)

In the same table 45 lbs. uheaten corn, i't of
beans, 32 French beans, 308 Swede turnips, 201
jjotatoes, jOi conmion turnips are reckoned equal
to 100 lbs. bay. It will be evident at first sight
that this table does not represent tlie quantity
of digestible substance which each article of food
contains, but only its feeding power. It is the
different kind of nutritious substance they contain,
and not the quantity, w hich seems to determine the
value of ecch. We know, for instance, that a beast
will support life on two cwt. of vvheaien straw a
week; now this qumtity is only equal in the table
to about 20 lb. French beans, or 1.50 lbs. of tur-
nips ; and neither of these would furnish the neces-
sary quantity of carbon to support the animal's life.
Sir H. Davy thought to discover the quantity of
digestible and nutritious matter in vegetables by
ascertaining the quantity of matter, soluble in
water, which they contained, and according to his
experiments the straw of white crops would only
yield from four to seven per cent, of nutriment.
But, according to Liebig, a cow breathes out from
the lungs 70 oz. of carbon, in the form of carbonic
acid, daily ; and it would therefore require at least
lOlbs. of any of the nutritious vegct.iljle sub-
stances, sugar, starch, gum, gluten, &:c.,t{) fnrnl'ih
this quantity. A more certain method oi' ascer-

taining the quantity of digestible matter which any
substance yields has been followed by other scien-
tific men since Sir II. Davy. In a translation of
Sprcngel's work on "Animal INlannres," in the
(ith number of the Journal of the Royal Agricultu-
ral Society, the experiments of a German chemist,
Bloch, are quoted. According to him lOO lbs.
rye straw chopped, given to horses, yields only
12 lbs. of dried excrement ; lOOlbs. hay, only 451bs. ;
100 lbs. oats, only f)! lbs.; rye r)3 lbs. I'hus it seems
that (!0 lbs. of straw is in some way or other
digested and assimilated out of 100 lbs. (Jattle, it
appears, digest rather less, and sheep rather more
of any substance than the horse. Sir II. Davy
supposed that woody fibre was altogether indiges-
tible, but these experiments prove that it must
necessarily be partly digested, and it has been
lately explained how it is capable of becoming food.
Dr. Daubeny in bis lectures on agriculture says,
" iM.I'ayen seems to have established that under
the name of woody fibre we have confounded at
least two distinct substances, one forming the
walls of the cells, another deposited on them.''
" He has succeeded in isolating the two by chemi-
cal means, and has found thai while the cellular
matter has exactly the same composition as starch,''
and contains 44 per cent, carbon, the incrustin»
matter or true woody fibre has 53 per cent, of cai"
bon.

It appears that the more soluble kinds of food,
such as corn and hay, yield a larger portion of
excrement than straw ; but this is certainly not
because less of them is digested, but because the
excrements are richer in animal matters, exclusive
of the woody fibre contained in the dung. Never-
theless, if the digestible matter of the straw were
equal in nutritive power to that of other articles of
food, it would be in a very great degree more valu-
able than experience proves it to be. The solu-
ble vegetable matters in the straw are capable,
perhaps, like those of other articles, of supplying
the waste of the animal frame, or increasing its
growth; but perhaps the other part, which the
digestive process extracts from straw, is only ca-
pable of suppl)ing the material for the formation
of carbonic acid, and for the support of the animal
heat. However this be, it is certain that straw
alone will not cause caitle to grow or to get fat,
though it will support life.

According to the table which Ihave quoted, the
different kinds of straw of our crops are of very un-
ccjual value. 'I'liestraw of beans and peas and ether
hgumes are much more nutritious than that cf the
cereal grains, wheat, barley, and oats. The straw
of the leguminous crops arc also rich in com-
pounds containing nitrogen, as apjjcars by the
following table, which I have extracted from a
paper of Dr. Daubeny in the Royal Agricultural
Society's Journ-.il, and which he takes from I'ou??-
singault.

Wheat straw contains 35 parts nitrogen in 10,000

Oat do .38

Rye do 30 „ []

Peas do 231 ,,

Clover 200" „ '',

Thus while bean and pea straw contains rather
more of the compounds containing nitrogen than
clover or hay, the straw of white crops does not
contain more than one-fifth as much. The legu-
minous seeds themselves nro more rich in the
nitrogenous substances than flie grain of white
crops. Beans, for instance, contain, according to

404

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Dr. Playfiiir, .'51 per cent, of this kind of substance,
peas 29, anl lentils ?>?>, while wheat contains only
about 18 per ct-nt., barley 14, andoits lOi-. 'I'he
remainder of the substance of the corn of each
kind is composed for the most i)ait of soluble sub-
Ktances, sncli as starch, ivc.

The .straw of benns and peas is known to bo a
good hearty food for cattle, on which they will
keep in a thriving condition. In some seasons
they are of equal value with hay. They contain
everything wliich is needful for a {^rowing beast,
and they should idways be consumed as fodder.
But the straw of white crops, though in some sea-
sons it is nnich better titan in others, is never so
rich in solultle substances as to mnke cattle grow.
It is imi)ossible to get from straw enough nourish-
ment to maintain cattle in health and vigour, much
less in a state of profitable growth. \Ve give our
cattle food in order that wemay increase their value,
and wliatevcr food wo give without producing
some return either in increased size or fatness, or
in milli, is entirely wasted. There is thus a neces-
sity for mixing with the straw some food of a more
nutritious kind, if wc would reap a profit from
tlic stock which consume it. This it is the jirac-
tice of all good fnrmcrs to do. Its value as an
article of food is absolutely nothing of itself, for
cattle living on it will not yield any reinrn. 'J'hc
question is whether wc can extract from it a pro-
fitable diet by mixing it with other substances,
and whether it does not lose more in value as ma-
nure than we gain by oonsumino- it as fodder. If
we mix it with a large quantity of tmtritious
articles, the woody fibre of the straw will not be
digested. It will pass away in the excrements,
and the animals will he supported wholly by th>3
better food, and the soluble part of the straw. It
is useless, therefinc, to give straw to feeding beasts.
It must be used with a sparing quantity of other,
and better fuod, and consumed by growing cattle.
In this way 1^ cwt. of straw with ,'' cwt. of f.rirnips
will keep a young beast tiuiving, or "iOlbs. of lin-
seed meal j>er week will have nearly the same
effect as ilie turnips. Seeing that straw is most
deficient in the nitrogenous vegetable compoimds,
it is very probable that one of the articles which
contain them in greatest quantity, such as lentils,
vetches, beans, or peas, would be the best to form a
mixed diet with it. In this way there is no duubt
that it may be consumed as fodder to a profit ; and
the best agriculturists calculate that o,ii straw so
consumed will be worth 20s. ptr ton when hay is
reckoned at 'M. The straw of wheat and barley is
not so valuable for this purpose. When the straw
is conaniucd as fodder, therefore, I hold that it
should be always mixed with better food.

If v/e look, on the other hand, to the value of
straw in the manure licajj, we shall sec the same
necessity of mixing it with otln'r food if tlie ma-
nure is to be capable of repairing the waste which
corn croi>s ofcasions. Nothing can come out of
straw but what is in it, iind as it contains but little
nitrogen, and we have seen that this is the chief
agent in manure, the dung heap ma<le fioni cattle
feeding wholly on straw wonhl be comparatively
of no value.

J3y eating the straw as fodder one-half of the
caibon h dissipateil. Professor Lieliig considers
this element of ninnure of little value, but it re-
mains to l)e proved whether his ojiinion in this
respect is in accordance with facts. J'hen if straw
be eaten while litter is wanted to soak up the urine
of cattle feeding on better food, the niatciiah of

the growth of plants which the urine contains are
lost. We have seen thnt, except in the case of
milking cows, nearly the whole of the nitrogen of
the food is transferred to the excrements of the
cattle ; if, therefore, we know the quantity in the
food, we can estimate how much nitrogen there is
in the dung and urine, if, for instance, a cow
consimies one ton of hay in ten weeks, and we
reckon her nrine to be 20 gallons, and the excess
of moisture in the dung to be half that quantity,
and if we reckon that straw will absorb three times
its weight of moisture, the cow will wet 1 cwt. of
straw in a week. In the ten weeks, therefore, 10
cwt. of straw will contain all the nitrogenous mat-
ters in the urine, and wc have seen that they
amount to about one-third of all contained in the
liay. The nitrogen of a ton of hay being 20 to .SO
pounds, a ton of straw used as litter for beasts
feeding on hay would contain nearly 201bs. of
nitrogen, wiiich is two-thirds of the (juantity con-
tained in the corn of a wheat crop. Besides the
nitrogen the urine contains the soluble salts of the
food. If, therefore, we suffer this valuable liqiud
to run to waste, wo incur a inuch greater loss than
our gain from the straw amounts to wlien it is
eaten as fodder. The urine of horses being mnrh
richer in substances containing nitrogen, it is f>f
rnore consequence to jtrevent its waste. But in
everv case the quantity of useful manure in the
nrine depends u])on the proportion of the nitrogen
in the food ; and, consequently, if cattle be fed
poorly, as on straw alone, the urine will he of very
little value indeed.

It must clearly b' wrong, unless we preserve the
nrine in tanks, to use any straw as fodder which
can be used as litter of animals feeding on good ;
and rich provender. But if we consume the whole
of the straiv as fodder, and collect the manure of
the cattle in tanks, we have precisely the same in-
gredients in the liquid manure as we should have
had in the solid dung heap, except only that por-
tion iif soluble matter which has been extracted
from tlie straw by the cattle. The question, there-
fore, as to the use of nrine tanks is, whether the
\'alue of the straw as food is enough to repay the
expense of collecting the urine in this manner, in-
stead of our common nieihod of wetting the litter
with it. There are other reasons given for pre-
ferring the plan of urine tanks. It has been thought
the ammonia produced by the decay of the nrine
is dissipated in the dung lieap, and preserved by
means of tanks ; l)ut it seems doubtful whether
the dung heaji, well managed, does not preserve
the ammonia as well as the other plan. Sprengel
shews that unless a large quantity of w.\ter is added
to the nrine in the tanks, the ammonia is partly
wasted ; and he gives reason to believe that in the
mixed mass of vegetable and animal substances
contained in the dung heap, the vegetable matters
ill decaying form an acid, the humic, which is ca-
pable of fixing the ammonia formed by the animal
substances.

There are inventions for increasing the quantity
of nutriment which the cattle are able to extract
from straw. l?y cutting it np small the inward
structure is more exposed to the action of the
digestive fluid of the stomach. Steaming the
straw has the same effect. I question whether
either of the two plans will repay the expense in
the case of straw. With respect to steaming, as
applied to the food of cattle generally, there is not
perhaps sufficiently accurate evidence on which to
found an opinion, I slioiild suppose that the so-

THE JrAKMER'S MAGAZINE.

405

lublc parts of vegetables aie easily capable ot
digestion witbout stcainiiig ; and that it' corn be
ground into flour as much of the food would bo
extracted in the btomacb of an animal as i( it were
steamed. Hoots, as potatoes and turnips, are so
easily broken uj) by the teeth of animals that they
retpiire no artificial grinding. It is only those kind
of substances which contain niuth woody fibre,
mingled with soluble matters, which rc(iuirc steam-
ing. Of these, ivhich consist of straw and the
diti'crent kinds of hny, the straw of white crops
is not valuable enough to pay the cost of the pro-
cess ; but the straw of beans and peas, and vetches,
clover, and hay, are of so much value that the
saving elVeeted by steaming does perhiips more
than rci)ay the cost. An aninial can only eat a
certain cjuantity of hay. If that quantity is not
enough to promote the growth of fat, or to make
it milk largely, we are obliged to add a portion of
some other food which contains n)ore nutriment
in a given bulk, such as corn, or turnips. Hut if
by steaming the hay a greater portion of nutriment
is got from a given quantity, even thougii it be
only woody libre dissolved, the animal requires no
addition of a better kind of food. The dissolved
woody libre, or latlicr the substance mixed with
the woody fibre, perhaps goes to supply the waste
of the caibonic acid thiough the lungs, aud the
better parts of the hay arc reserved for the other
uses of the li\ing body.

I have endeavoured to show that these three
things are essential in the farm nianageinent as re-
gards the straw. First, that if used as fodder,
enough of more nutritious food must be mingled
with it to support the stock in a growing condition,
(secondly, that the manure must contain enough of
other matters mixed with the straw, to repair the
waste of the fertile ])Owcr of the soil. Thirdly;
that if any i)art of the urine of cattle fed on gooil
food be wasted by saving the straw tor fodder, a
greater loss is i!:curicd than the food in the straw
is worth. If these things be observed, I believe
wc get from the straw all the benefit it is cajiablc
of yieldin<r. Wc uiust ascertain therefore, what
j.'roportion ol other food is required to form, with
stravv, a sufbciently nutritious diet for cattle, in
the first i)lace ; and in the second place, how rich
in diiimal matter the dung heap should be ; and in
the thiid p'aLC, how we must prevent any waste of
the \aluable part of the excrements of the cattle.

The richer we lequire the dung-heaj), by so much
1 iclier must the diet of ihc caitle be, and conse-
(juently so much the more straw must be used as
litter, and less as provender. Un a farm where
much winter !ood tan profitably be collected, there
is a necessity for rich manure to repair the waste
of the ciops which arc carried oil'; if the urine of
the cattle fed on the food be wasted, the manure
cannot be rich, and if any of the straw is euten as
fodder there will not he enough to soak nj) tiie
urine ; the whole of the straw must, therefore, be
converted info litter, if the quantity of food is suffi-
cient to yield enough urine t<) wet it all. Reckon-
ing that a full grown beast will conveit 1 cwl.
of straw into manure in a week, it would
require about three tons of hay to make one acre of
straw into manure, or it would require twenty tons
ofturni|)sto tliect the same result. Un a strong
laud farm, therefore, where no turnips or other root
crops are grown, it would require that two acres of
pasture or seeds should be mown to convert the
straw of an acre into manure as litter; aud on a
lighter turnip farm, on the four-course shift, it would

require an acre of turnips and two acres of pasture
or seeds mown for every two acres of straw. This
IS perhaps a greater proportion than cm piolitably
be mowed on either system, uidess in the case
where very large pasture farms are joined to very
small arable ones. As a general rule, it is more pro-
fitable to consume our jiroduce on the ground where
it grows, exce|)t thatkind of produce which is eaten
in a grten state. In mowing grass and clover for
hay, the expense of gathering, the risk of spoiling,
and, in the case o( pasture, the labour of top-dress-
ing afterwards, make up a sum which is not easily
repaid; but as it is evident that when the whole of
the ?alines and the wholeof the woody fibre contained
in agrasscro]) are returnetl to it, we may carry away
a pait of theniatter which contains nitrogen without
injuring the feriiliiy of the land, it is undoubtedly
profitable to mow our land to this extent, and to ap-
ply the excess of nitrogenous matter to increase the
fertility of our arable land. If a crop of grass contains
twice as much nitrogen as a crop of corn ; and if,
when consumed on tbe ground, ic will supply the
waste of acorn crop and the materials of another crop
of grass, at the same time it follows that a third part
of the nitrogenous matter may be'akeu away, and that
our pastures niightbeniownonco in threeyears, if wo
take care to return to them the salines and woody
libre. We may perhaps reckon that once in four
years on an average our pastures may safely be
mowed, aud the waste of the salines and woody libre
supplied by the very poorest straw manure, while
the richer manute may go to the )dough land. It
appears to inc that this is I he gtcat advantage of mow-
ing our (laitures, and not any fancied necessity for
keeping a great (juantilv of stock in the winter. It
is easy so to arrange as to increase or diminish our
stock at any period of tlie year which may suit our
convenience ; for though Iheto must needs be as much
stock in the whole country at all seasons of the year,
one kind of farm requires very ditVeient proportions
at different seasons, and as always one class want to
buy what I he other class want to sell, matters are
so managed that stock pays the snine profit for its
keep at one part of the year as at another.

It seems then we are not able on many farms to
collect winter food enough to convert the whole of
the straw into manure, without consuming part of it
as ])rovendej, hut we can on every farm hnd at least
eniiut;!) other food to convert part of the straw into
a sufhcient diet for cattle, while the other pait 13
trodden as litter. A full grown beast feeding on
turnips alone, will consunso from lo cvrt. to 1 ton
per week — a (juantity equal to 1 cwt. of hay in nu-
tritive value; but the same tjuar.tily of turnips with
straw will auflice to keep three beasts in a growing
condition, or four milking cows in the interval of
their milk and calving. A cwt. of good s raw and
fiveewt. of turnips will maintain a beast in good
condition, and as the animal will moisten as nuicb
litter as though it fed on richer food, it would use os
litter the same quantity of straw as it used for food.
Sup[)Ose the acre of straw to be 30 cwf,, aud the acre
of turnips 20 tons, a beabt consuming four tons of
turnips would convert an acre of straw into manuie.
On the four-course shift, therefirf, less than half tbo
turnips would in this way use up the whole o( the
straw ; cr on a strong land farm, where turnips can-
not be grown nor any otiier green winter crop, it is
easy to reserve the straw till the summer, and con-
sume it with a proportion of tares in precisely the
same way; or I (juestion if it he not as profitable to
consume a pai t of the straw with corn or oil-cake a ;
with turnips. In many parts of the country the far-

•406

TllK FAllMER'S MAGAZINE.

luers oti struiii; lauds jmioue such a |iliiii. 1 aiu even
inclined to tbink that we pay too dear for our turnips,
even on furDij) soils, and tbat (he greater use of corn
and Ciike would be profiiablo on a light land farm.
'I'lie t.iblc of the comparative value of articles of food
which I have (juoted, makes jOOlbs. of Swede tur-
nips equal to .-rllbs. of oil-cake or iJlbs. beans. If
it were so. there could be no doubt that it would in
no case be profitable to substitute corn for turnips;
but is the proportionate value of corn and turnips
what is set down in the table f Turnips are com-
posed of water nine parts, and solid matter one ; they
have ten pounds of soliu matter in 100, and of this
seven are soluble, and three woody fibre. Now the
corn of wheat or beans is nine-tenths composed of
soluble nutritious substance, and wheat contains
twice, and beans four times as much of that kind of
conijiound which contains nitrogen as turnips do.
Though turnips therefore may fatten cattle better
than corn, I should suppose that they would not be
more valuable for growing stock, and I believe
practical men find that 'iOlbs. of meal mixed with
straw produces as much effect as three to four cwt.
of turnips, I ara clear it this be so, that 20lbs. of
beans or oil-cake can be procured at less cost than
the turnips can be grown on any land, and that it
would be the most profitable to consume the straw
with it instead of turnips. One would think that
no farmer need be reduced to the necessity of keep-
ing his stock gradually growing lean on straw alone,
but still the jiractice continues in too many districts.
If we consume the straw in the manner last men-
tioned, one acre of straw will contain in the manure
miide from it only one-fifth of an acre of other food ;
and when we consider that at least tlie produce of
one acre should be contained in the manure made
from the straw of an acre, in order tiiat tiie ground
may be kept in fertile condition, the manure heap
made in this way in very inadequate to fulfii this
end. P'Ut we must bear in mind that if we do not
carry oft' the clover crop, and if we consume
half the turnips on the ground, the land receives
from the pasturing of these precisely the same
materials which would have gone to the dung
heap had we consumed their produce in our
yards, and the land cannot want what it has al-
ready received. The consideraiion which is of
mo=t importance is, whether there be enough of
active soluble matter in the dung heap made
of such poor materials to provoke a good fermenta-
tion, and to cause the decomposition of the woody
fibre of the straw. If a dung-heap were composed
only of straw, and the small quantity of other food
necessary to convert it into fair diet, it would per-
haps be doubtful whether the mixture would be
rich enough to ferment healthily ; but on every
farm horses make a considerable quantity of ma-
nure ; and as it is seldom that some portion of
pasture is not mixed with arable land, a part of
this is always mowed, and the manure heap is in-
creased in richness in consequence ; so that it is
but very seldom that we may reckon less than the
produce of half an acre of other land is mixed with
the straw of an acre of ])lough land. A manure
heap of this degree of richness will take a suffi-
cient heat, and will be readily decomposed with
proper attention to the mixing it well together.
Tlie two extremes of richness and jjovcrty in the
dung-heap are that made from horses fed with hay
and corn, and that made from boasts fed with
straw alone. I'he Ibriner has so great a tendency
to pass into rapid fermentation, that our cares are
directed to prevent its rising too high, while the

latter is so sluggish that it requires every assistance
of turning, &c. to make it pass into a sufficiently
active fermentation. By mixing the two together
we improve both, for if the heat rises too high in
a dung-heap, great part of the products of the ni-
trogenous matter may be dissipated in the form of
gas. In proportion as there is more or less of ani-
mal matter mixed with the straw, and the more
or less of the straw which has been used for litter
there be, by so much more active or slugg'sh is
the action of the heap. There is no disadvantage
in a i)Oor heap except its sluggishness, but in a rich
one there is great danger of waste ; so that, per-
haps, though the rich heap he more valuable, yet
what virtue it has is more likely to be all made
available for the fertilizing the soil in a rather poor
than a rich dung heap. If this be so, there is then
no reason for any particular way of managing the
straw merely on account of the dung-heap, seeing
that the least rich which we can have with proper
attention to the profitable growth of our cattle
is rich enough to secure its decomposition in the
earth. Perhaps much of the controversy respect-
ing the advantage of using manure much or little
fermented, would be set at rest if the dift'erent
qualities of manure and of land were always
attended to. Poor manure v.'ill require the fermen-
tation to be carried further than rich, because the
chemical change which has been begun in the heap
will not be so actively carried on in the soil. The
same manure will decompose more rapidly in light
and warm, than in heavy and cold land; and,
therefore, the manure fur the former need not be
carried so far as for the latter. I have observed,
that usually the light land farmers are advocates of
new, and the heavy land farmers of old manure.
Generally speaking, it will be best to mix together
our richer and poorer manure ; but in the case
where we mow pasture lands, and wish to give
back to them the two parts of the manure — the
woody fibre and the salines — and to rob them of a
portion of the other, or the nitrogenous part, it
may be best to keep the richer for the arable land,
and use the poorer for the pasture.

The only case in which it will he argued that
there is a necessity for a very rich dung-heap is,
where we wish to grow a very abundant crop of
turnips. Being a root which will produce in a
growth of four or five months an amount of crop
sometimes equal to two or three good crops of
grass, there is required a great quantity of rich
manure, in the immediate neighbourhood of the
plants, to secure a green crop. The argument is,
I think, rather specious than solid. Say that we
pursue the four-course shift, and mow the seeds,
we shall then have in every acre of our straw half
an acre of clover, and half an acre of turnips ; and j
manure of this degree of richness will force a I
large crop of turni|is. But if we consume the "
seeds on the ground, and part of the turnips on
the ground too, and make a poorer dung-heap of
the straw, and the other part of the turnips, the
ground receives in the course exactly the same
amount of the manure of cattle ; and the only dif-
ference is, that it receives it gradually instead of
at once, and the return in the seeds will in part
counterbalance the failure in the turnip crop.
Neither is it so certain that the average of our
turnip crops will be so much lessened by pursuing
this latter course ; for if we manure very largely for
the turnip crop, the soil by the time it comes
roimd to that part of the course will be well nigh
exhausted, whereas, if we consume on the ground in

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

407

the otbei- parts of the couise, the land is pretty licit,
and to grow a crop io a poor soil with manure, thougli
it will succeed iti f.ivourable seasons, yet will not, in
the average of years, perhaps, produce an average
crop so well as to have tlia land richer, and the
manure poorer.

But though it matters not what degree of richness
we make our manure, we must take heed lest we put
j)Oor manure to an use which rich manure alone can
lullil. It would be ridiculous to expect that ma-
nure which is composed of an acre of straw, with
half an acre of other produce, should be lit to repair
the waste of a course of ploughing. Twelve tons of
such manure would not contain the materials neces-
sary for the growth of one corn crop ; and yet such
manure is frpcjuently used at the end of a long course
on strong land. Need we wonder then at the seeds
being weak, when we remember that a crop of
clover contains in itself twice the (piantitv of nitro-
gen which a corn crop recjuires. If we have not
rich manure for our land we must take care that our
land do not require it ; and if our land require it we
must take care to provide it.

The result which I proposed to shew was, that the
consumption of the straw did not so much depend
on its intrinsic value, either as food or litter, but
that its value for either purpose was so nearly ba-
lanced tliat it might depend on other circumstances
which of ibe two ways we preffrred. It depends
entirely on the kind of farm whether it is convenient
to collect much winter food. If mucli can be collected,
1 argue that it is best to convert as much of the straw
into litter as we can ; and thnt in every case as much
should be used for litter as is needed to soak up the
whole of the moisture of the catile, and that the
part we consume as provendc-r should alv.ays be
used with as much other food as will keep the cattle
growing. These are the questions which I submit
for your discussion, not without great doubt that I
have marred some very sound doctrines in the art of
agriculture by my imperfect manner of stating them.

justice will fall with them— ' and thoy who are
buried in these ruins are happier than they who sur-
vive them.'" .... "Let not the landowners lose
this great advantage — let them rivet the gratitude of
the community to their cause ; let thtiui exert all their
])ower, and insist on the revision of Rlr. Peel's act
of 1819, an act no less fatal to the landowner than
to the payer of taxes, an act which from its firiil
introduction goaded the people to insurrection.". . . .
" Here the landowners may with safety make their
stand; the position is impregnable; the payers of
taxes — the productive classes — are ready to defend
it ; substantial justice is on our side, and who are
tliey that ai'e against us"! The annuitants, the fund-
holders, and the economists ! — a body which the
landowners, if true to themselves, and in concert
witli the people, cannot fail to defeat.". . . ."This is
the present fate of the landowners of this country ;
they are striving in vain against engagements which
they cannot meet. Creditors in general receive an
undue proportion of earnings, and a surebutdestruc-
tive revolution is in progress, by which, if it be not
arrested, the ancient aristociacy of these reilms
must ultimately be sacrificed to creditors and an-
nuitants.".. .." He may sell his estate, indeed ; this
would be considered only as a transfer of property.
But what agony of mind does that word convey!
Tlie snap[)iDg of a chain, linked, perhaps, by cen-
turies ! the destruction of the dearest local attach-
ments, the dissolution of the earliest: friendships, the
violation of the purest feelings of the heart !'. . ..
" VVhat, then, is the alternative which ])iesents
itself? Either he must drag out a di'graded exis-
tence on his paternal est.ite, exercising no ?nore liie
hospitality of his ancestors, but gleaning from his
tenantry their earnings or their savings, himself the
hated steward of the annuitant and the mortga;;ee,
or, unlike the country genlleman of England in a
happier dav, he must leave his imtive home, become
a wanderer abroad, or a Jnhber, a sliaredealer, a
placeman in tlie metropolis."

PROTECTION TO AGRICULTURE.

(Extracted from Corn and Ciirrenci/, by the Right
Hon. Sir James Graham, Bart., now one of her
Majesty's principal Secretaries of State.)

*'...- Politicians and philosophers may talk coldly
of the transfer of old family estates — of throwing
immense tracts of tke inferior soil out of cultivation
— of burying forever the immense capital exjiended
on it — and of the transfusion of an agricultural into
a manufacturing population ; but let them remember
the ties which must be broken, the villages which
must be deserted, the gardens to be laid desolate,
the second nature of habits which must be altered,
the hearts which must sink, and the hands which
may rebel under trials such as these." .... "But
the ancient landlord's position is still more hopeless ;
in addition to the public burdens, he is required to
meet, with a reduced rental, an increased charge ;
ruin must be his fate ; his tenants arul bis labourers
will sink with him ; the former from the weight of
their fixed engagemi nts, the latter from want of
employment and a fall of wages greater than the
redaction of taxation. In such a state of affairs we
must come to a tenantry without capital or leases,
and to a population eking out existence by potatoes."
.... ''Tlie clergy and the landowners, the poor and
the proprietors, are copartners in the soil; they
must stand or fall together on their existing tenures ;
they may fall indeed, but religion, and mercy, and

GUANO.

Deai! Sir, — As to my experiment with guano,
compared with stable yard mimure for a turni|) crop,
I beg to inform you that on 29lh November last, I
had two rows of equal length taken up from each
kind of manure, taking as f.iir a s ample of eich as I
could, the u hole of the tops and tails being care-
fully cut off. '!"! e result was, that the weight of
bulbs where stable yard manure was used was 19;}
cwt., and the weight of t>vo rous where guano had
been used was \1\ cwt., hut then you will bear in
mind that the guano had cost per acre but liitle
more than Iialf as much as tlie stable yard manure.
The cost of dressing one acre with each was as fol-
lows: wit!i guano and wood ashes, about '1/. per
acre; with stable yard manure (including the cost
of setting upon the land), 71. 10s. per acre.

I think, however, that tiiero was not a sufficient
quantity of guano used, for each alternate row was
bftter than the other, and as the field was a little
hilly, and the rows were drawn up and down, a
greater quantity of manure uould he deposited in
those rows which wore ilrilled as the horse walked
up hill ; and those rows, had in every instance, better
bulbs than tliose wherein fhe manure was deposited
as the horse walked down hill, and consequentiv
rather (juicker. It yet remains io be sliown what
difference would arise in the barley crop, and in the
seeds ; and this I shall not he able to test fairly, a

408

THE FAllMEU'S MAGAZINE.

sbeep will be toliled evenly over tbe whole field. It
ib my iDtentiou, however, to dress a small field, part
with guano at the rate of 6 cwt. per acre, and the
reinaiader with farm yafd manure at the rate of 15
tons per acre. 1 shall draw all the turnips oil, and
shall not manure either the barlev or the seeds, when
the co)iiparative merits of the diflerent manures can
be then well tested. I have no doubt, however, that
lor a turnip crop on dry land, guano is one of our
best and must economical manures.

I am, dear sir, truly yours, Tnoi. Dunn.
liichiiwinl llill,Janniinj 2iid, 1813.
Mn. ,1. N.M'iEH.

1 have also been favoured with the following
testimonid from Mr. Swattield, Bailift' to his grace
the I)iik(^ of Devonshire.

Deah Sin, — The land on which the guano was
used being very wet and not calculated for feeding
ofl' in spring-, 1 have been drawing off the turnips
from the wliule held. They are just now tinished,
and .a better crop I never saw on any land. Having
been fully engaged lately, 1 have neglected to ascer-
tain which manure produced tbe greater weight per
acre ; but should say, th.it the part where guano was
used, was fully as good if not even better than where
the other manure was applied.

I am, dear sir, yours very truly,
Chaiiworlh, Jun. itli , 1813. Blnjamin SwArriLLu.

N.B. The cost of tbe guano was about 2ns. (id.
per acre, and the cost of the bones and rape dust
was 4os. bd. per acre.

Sin, — 1 beg to inform you, that the produce liom
the guano manure exceed i that of the farm yard
manure by fully l\ lou per acr^^ The cost <if
dressing was with guano ol. 1 Is. per acre ; with
yard manure 71. per acre.

1 am, sir, yours respectfully,
Birky Coinuwn Side, Feb. 11, 1813. (jeo. VVoodiilah.

FARMING AND FARM .STOCK
AT ELLON, ABERDEENSHIRE.

Extracted from No. X Ll I. of the Nlw STAriiiicAi,
Account ol S>L-ori,ANi>, just issued, containing the
conclusion of the County of Aberdeen,
RLNr. — The gross rental is within a trifle of
lO.OOOt. bting about seven and a half times the
amount of rent paid at the date of the last statistical
accounlin 1792. it must be observed, however, to
pievent miitakesin a matter of so much statiitical
Jraportauce, that the augmentation of the rental,
though undoul)tedly very g reat, is yet not quite so
great as from the above statement it would apjiear to
be. When the last Statistical Account was drawn
up, a considerable number of the farms were held on
leases, for which, in addition to the annual rent, a
premium, or, as it is usually termed, a grassum,
liaJ been piid at the period of entry. Still, duo
allowance b;iiig made (or the item of grassuiiis, the
rental at present cannot be less than four or live
(inics its former amount. Two of the largest fiirms
in the parish are still lented much under the full
value, — the old leases by which they are held, and
for which grassums we.e originally jiaid, having
nut yet exjiired. On tbe expiry of these leases the
gross rental will amount to upwaids of U),Oi)0/.
Some of the land in the immediate neighbourhood of
the village is rented at the high rate of upwards of
;')/. |)er Scotch acre; but its actual annual value
probably does not much e.\ceed one-half of the rent

which is now paid. It is farmed by the villagers in
small parcels, less with a view to proht than pleasure
and convenience. '1 he average rent of land of tbe
same quality, in more remote parts of the parish, is
from 'iL to 2/. 103. per acre. On the inferior soils,
the reut per acre varies from 10s. to 1^3. J he
average rent of arable land for the whole parish
will be found, from the data already furnished, to be
within a small fraction of 17s. perScotch acre.

Livl-Stcck. — 1 he breed of work horses has of
late years been much inii>rovcd. Superior lu.areo
have in several instances been brought from Cly-
desdale and other parts of the west country, cele-
brated for breeds of horses of good bone aiui action.
Much has been done also for the improvement of
the breed of ho;ses by the spirited exertions of the
Highland and Agricultural Society. The horses
chiefly sought after for agricultural purposes are not
those of the largest size, but such as are of good
mettle, and easily kept in good condition.

Until of late years almost the only breeds of
black-cattle known in this district of country
were the Aberdeenshire horned and Augus polled
breeds. But what is called the short-horned or
Tees-water breed is now prevailing to a considerable
extent, anil seems, in spite of the opposition which
its introduction has encountered from various quar-
ters, to be diiily gaining ground. Opinion, however,
is still divided between this recent importation and
the ancient breeds of the country, and it is not for
the writer to jiresume to determine which party has
the right side of the ijuestion. One thing is matter of
fact, and forces itself upon the attention of even the
most ordinary observer, that our farmers now bring
their cattle to a much greater weight tlian in former
times, and receive for them a price proportionally
more remunerating. Various causes have contributed
to biiiig about this result; one of which, and un-
doubtedly not liie least important is, that much more
attention and skill are now applied not only to the
fei'c'iiig otf of full-grown stock, but also to the
e(iually important departments of breeding and of
keeping the rising cattle in a thriving condition.
Had tbosame attention been formerly given to these
important parts of the farmer's occupation, there
can be no doubt that ca.lle even of the ordinary
breeds of the country might have been brought (o
much greater weight than w hat, uuder the less per-
fect mode of management heretofore adopted, they
ever attained. Still, as it seems to be admitted on
all hands that the short-horns both attain to a great-
er size, and arc ciipable, from their less active
habits, and probably oilier concurriug causes, of be-
ing fed oil' at a much earlier age, it is questionable
wlielhi r, at least on a good farm, the oume amount
of prolit could be realized by the breeding of cattle
of the Angus or Aberdeenshire breeds, 'I'he beef of
the short- horns is said to be inferior, which is pro-
bably the fact. Nevertheless, as no preference
seems to bo given to the pure Aberdeenshire breed
in the l.eiulon market, an inferiority in the article
exposed by Iiim, so long as that inferiority does not
alVcct its exchangeable value, cannot be supposed to
have much iiillueiice with the Scottish farmer- An
apprt-bension now generally entertained is, that se-
cond and third crosses between the Teeswater and
Aberdeenshire breeds may be attended with a de-
terioration of boll), indeed, the most intelligent far-
mers seem to be of opiiiioii that the two brec^ls
s-hould be ke])t as-; distinct and pure as possible, and
no intermixture allowed be\ond a first cross. Sheep
farming is but little pursued in this district of
country, and ia the parish of Ellon is altogether un-
known.

THE FARMEll'S MAGAZINE.

409

EXPERIMENTS ON CONCEN-
TRATED AND SALINE MA-
NURES, FOR TOP DRESSING
AND DKILLING-IN.

"Let us always bcai- iii liiiiij, that while the countrv Kiauts
protection to airiculture, it will expect in return, that the
Innd shall be cultivated in the best and most productive
manner." — Daubci'n.

TO THE EUITOK OF THE EXETER TLYIXG-POST.

Sill,— Keeping ibis object constantly in vie\r,
wbilst tbe more gradual aud costly operations of
diuining, subsoiling-, marling-, &c., are in progress
or in contemplation, tbe readiest, cheappst, and
simplest method of increasing our crops seems to
be, tbe abundant supply of tbe indispensable mine-
ral ingredients and tbe excitement of vegetative
action to draw organic elements from tbe air as well
as tbe soil. And these purposes are well answered
by tbe concentrated and saline manures, applied as
top dressings, or drilled in witb the seed, for which
tbe season is now at band.

Those who have time to read and think for them-
selves, will do well (0 study Professjr Johnstone's
Experiments in Praclical Agiiculturp, in 18U and
1842, published by Elackwood, and containing, at
about 23. cost, tables witb full explanations and
reasoning, of different top dressings, on a great
variety of crops and soils ; all conducted on sys-
tematic principles and with definite objects.

But to the many who have little time for reading,
and still less for reflection and study, I hope to

reader useful service, in the following abstracts
from these tables, inferences from them compared
witb other experiments, and suggestions for econo-
mical and profitable experiments during tbe present
season.

It must be remembered that we have siill very
much to learn ; that the variety of climate, season,
soil, and culture, perhaps even of seed, have made
the effects of the same top dressing, on the same
crop, very different in different places; and that,
consequent!}', in profiling by the experiments of
others, the farmer can hardly depend, in the present
state of our experience, uj)on similar advantages,
until be has tried tliem on his own ground, and witb
his own means. But the greater number of these
trials we make, on the greater variety of soils and
circumstances (provided all these circumstances are
attentively recorded) tbe sooner our uncertainties
will be cleared away, and results attained on which
we may reckon with confidence.

To begin then with Wheat. It contains —

In ihe grain, much phosphoric acid and alkalies,
and but little sulphuric acid, lime, or earths. [See
down A.]

Ill ihe straw, much lime and silica, pretty much
phosphoric acid, and but little alkali.

The grain is well known to be improved and in-
creased by nitrogenous manures ; though, if ap-
plied in excess, they ruu it to juicy leaf and straw,
rather than ear, and dispose it to la3\

Lime is understood to strengthen the straw, and
forward kerning and ripening; and

Salt appears to fill the grain and increase tbe
weight per bushel.

'Ibese may be regarded as something like esta-
blished principles, founded upon long aud extensive
practice.

The following are abstracts of Professor John-
stone's Reports above recommended ; —

Number of!

■_ „», Manures i

penments. ^^.^^^

Set of Ex-

24

60

71

Best.

II

Salt

Rape-dust.

Guano

Nitr. Soda and
rape-dust.

Nitr. Soda and
rape-dust.

Third.

Nitrate of soda.
Salt and rape-dust.

Rape-dust and sul- Sulphate and nitrate
pbate of magnesia. of soda.

Sulphate of ammoiiia'Sulpbate of ammonia Sulphate of ammonia
and wood ashes witband wood ashes with and wood ashes witb
Siilt. 1 sulphate of soda. ! nitrate of soda.

No Guano nor bone
tried.

Guano 6th,

Bone 6th.
(worst of all)

Guano 7th.
(worst but one)

In comparing these we find rape-dust stand first,
and sulphate of ammonia second ; wbilst other ex-
perimenters have preferred guano and nitrates of
soda and potass. Now all these are rich in ammo-
nia or nitrogen, and the guano and rape contain
also phosphoric acid and alkalies, correspondin"
witb tbe ingredients noted above. [A.]

These results will serve as a basis for our further
experiments.

But ammonia is most for the money in sulphate
of ammonia, and phosphoric acid in bone-dust;
hence, a due mixture of these two (when genuine)
may prove the most economical and effective dress-

ing for wheat; supposing the alkalies to be con-
tained in the soil, or added, the potass in weed and
wood ashes, or vegetable manures, and tbe soda in
salt. Near tbe sea tbe spray and vapour supply salt
enough. But it is possible that rape-dust may have
some particular action favourable to wheat — a ques-
tion which should not be allowed to remain undo*
cided.

Setting out then witb that which promises to be
most economical and effective, we may try others
in competition with it, according to the following
table: —

E E

410

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Materials.

'Jiiantities
l)er acre.

pSulpi). Amnio. .

.1 Bone-du3t (b).

■j Weed or Wood

*- asbes

2 Rape-dust. . . .

3 Guano . . ......

4 Soot

fNitrate of soda

5-{ Gypsum

LBone-dust(b) ,
("Nitr. of potass.

6-^ Gypsum

l_Bone-dust (b).

;; cwt.

4 cwt.

\-3 cwt.

5 cwt.
3 cwt.
10 bus.

1 cwt.

2 cwt.

3 cwt.

1 cwt.

2 cwt.

3 cwt.

Cost (a)

Cost per
^ rood.

£ s. d.

0 13 6

1 10 0

0 18 0?

1 1;5 0?

1 1» 0

0 10 0]

10 0

4 0

2 6

7 0

4 0

2 d

s. d.

7 9

I I

J

J

(a) In London : freight, carriage, 6cc., may be
added.

(b) Where the wheat follows boned turnips, the
bone-dust will not be needed. It is raucli more
active decomposed by acid, for which directions will
be given on Turnips.

To each of these may be added commt n salt, 0 to
o cwt., according to the distance from tl.e sea, or to
shelter (by hills, &c.) from the spray ;;nd exhala-
tions.

The intelligent farmer will have other experi-
ments of his own to try, but to be praclically bene-
ficial, all must be tried fully and fairly. They
should be on one field, of equal quality and prepa-
ration throughout ; and its quality, preparation, and
condition minutely recorded, as also the state of
the plant at tlie time of dressing, and its subsequent
progress, with the changes of the weather. The
divisions of the plots should be distinctly marked
out ; such experiments having been often frustrated
by the loss or removal of the land marks before

harvest. A rood, or half-rood, is quite sufficient
for each, if these and any other observations are
attentively registered,

Oats. — The proportions of the constituents of
oats and wheat, though by no means identical, ap-
proach near enough to indicate very similar top
dressing. Rape-dust, however, was not beneficial
to oats, in the cases recorded last year, but the sea-
son was dry, and other top dressings failed equall)^
Dissolved bones and the alkaline nitrates and sul-
])hates seem to have taken the lead in the production
of oats, hence Nos. o and 6 may be expected to pro-
duce the best results. The other numbers may,
however, be worth trying; even rape-dust, which
is reduced in price since the large importations of
guano.

Several of these dressings are advantageously ap-
plied in a state of solution, as liquid manure, but
few of our farmers possess conveniences for that
method,

TunNjps AND Potatoes.

On referring again to the table of Mineral Con-
stituents (a), it will appear that

Turnips contain much phosphoric acid and lime ;
much more soda than potass ; much less sulphuric
than phosphoric acid ; and a pretty good pro-
portion of chlorine (an element of salt) (a) ; whilst

Potatoes, on the contrary, contain more sulphuric
acid tlian jliosphoric ; much more potass than soda;
much less lime, but more magnesia, than turnips ;
and but little chlorine (b).

And it will be interesting to observe, iu the fol-
lowing abstracts, that accordingly

Turnips thrive best with phosph, lime (bone-dust),
nitrate of soda, and salt (a).

Potatoes thrive best with sulphates, nitrate polasSf
but not much salt or lime (b).

To proceed with turnips. — The experiments re-
ported are numerous and well assorted, supplying a
good deal of new information.

Turnips. — Table 1,

Set of Ex-
periments.

Number of

Manures

tried.

Best.

Second.

Third.

i

1

Notes. !

1
IVo bones tried.

Page
53

11

Rape-dust and salt.

Guano,

Rape-dust.

55

23

Guano.

Bone charcoal.

Bones dissolved in
muriatic acid.

Rape-dust 19ib,

56

18

Guano and wood-
ashes.

JNitrate of soda.

Sulphate of ammonia.

Bone dis., kc, 4tb ;
bone-dust 0th.

57

o

Town-dung and
bones.

Rape-du6t,bone, peal
u^^hes, and humus.

Yard-dung and

bones.

Guano and humus |
4tb.

68

4

Yard-dung,

Bones end dung.

Bone-dust,

Guano 4th.

5'J

6

Guano.

Yard-dung and

Dung, humus, and

Dung and bones 4th.j

humus.

artificial guano.

In a general review of these guano takes the lead,
and bone follows, both containing phosphate of lime
(a), the former iu a line and soft state, very favour-
able to prompt action. The artificial guanos (b),
•which contain diisoiied bones, also produce good
crops of turnips. Even bone charcoal (ivory
black) answers very well, though it cannot be good
economu to burn awav tlie uaimal matter. For

prompt action, the bone should be in as fine powder
us possible, or still better decomposed by acid (c).

Rape -dust and nitrate of soda are less certain,
especially in dry weather. And there is another
consideration relating to turnips, which must pre-
cede our suggestions for further experiments, 'J'he
bulbs are very juicy, containing only fiom 1-lOth to
l-5th of solid, and 4-5th3 to 9-lOth3 water. This ie

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 411

of great consequence; for SO tons, witli 9-lOiliS Tuunii'S.— labia -'.

wa-er, contain no naore soIiJ noiirishinont than 13 For drilling in under the seed.

tons with -l-jlhs water ; so th^il a juicy crop ot 2.) Quantity per Cost.

tons mav be really less worth than a more solid one a-'oou. s, d.

of 15 tons. The great pim-n'fa/ importance of this 1 Genuine guauo * cwt. 6 6

new feature calls for more particulars.— ('Se^ Jo/iK- ^ Bone-dust 1 cwt. ( G

son's Experiments, pu. 56 and 8? ). o / Bone decomposed by acid 40 lbs. 4 6

Sulphate of ammonia large, soft, aud light. 4 Rape-dust U cwt. 10 6

^ Guano & wood-ashes £ eminently large. For top-dressing the young plant.

t \T, T I ? firm and solid, not re- Per ^-rood.

^ Art.ficial guanos, y „ markable in size. 1 Gypsum (e) 21 lbs. 0 (5

g (containing bone) J £ J Nitrate of soda 7 lbs. 1 3

» Potass and lime. O ^ 2 1 g^,^^^^ 14 jb.,. 0 4

« »'»tandiime.... . small, firm, and solid. 3 Sulphate of ammonia. .. . 7 lbs. 1 2

bulph of magnesia r r- J Nitrate of soda 7 lbs. 1 3

Nitrate of soda... J 4\Gypsum 14 lbs. 0 4

Hence it would appear, that while ammoniacal Adding to each of the top-dressings (e) salt 71bs.

manures give large crops, attention must be paid to to 'illbs., according to distance from the sea, or to

their solidity and specified gravity, before we decide shelter from its spray and vapour,

whether they are protitable. And how far the These dressings are likely to answer best upon

rtmmouwcoi quality of the guano may produce similar dunged land. Some of them were tried against

effects, is worth investigation, though we may hope dung in the experiments referred to above, but the

otherwise, from the phosphate of lime it also con- distinguishing details would make this letter too

tains. long. Potatoes.

To proceed now with our suggestions. Sulphate As turnipsl ^^ fPhosph. lime,nitr.sorfa,and salt(a).

of ammonia, having produced such light juicy bulbs, r - K Sulphates, nitr. of potass, and not

can hardly be recommended alone for profitable ex- So potatoesj "" |_ much salt or lime (b).

periment : but if to ascertain whether it will pro- In .some cases, however, where potass was not

duce the same effect again, about SSlbs. per rool (or deficient, nitrate of soda has been very useful ; and

1 cwt. per acre), mixed with earth, may be drilled in nitrate and sulphate of soda, mixed in dung, gave

under the seed, or sown over the young plant in in one case 26 tons (4^0 bags) per acre. (Eipts.,

damp weather, or used half and half each way. 2'- 27^.

In experimenting on turnips, some of the materials Potatoes, again, contain variable proportions of

do best drilled in, under the seed, with earth be- water — say 70 to 80 per cent. And we are told by

tween ; others applied as top-dressing to the young Liebig (p. 127, 2nd edition}, that much strong

plant, in July, avoiding dry weather. In order to dung makes them soft/Ji/- Now strong dung is rich

distinguish the effect of the top-dressing, it may be in nitrogen, and its effect maii therefore be, as in

applied over only half each drilled plot — that is, the case of turnips above quoted, an enlarged juicy

supposing, as the annexed table, J rood to be drilled growth, rather than increase of nourishment. This

with guano, then only half of the plot should be is a question for further investigation, and should

top-dressed with gypsum, &c., leaving the other half not be lost sight of in our future experiments. To

to the guauo alone. (See plan btloic.) proceed with the abstracts: —

PoT.ATOF.s. — Table 3.

Set of Ex-
periments.

Xumber ol

Manures

tried.

Best.

Second.

Thini.

Ueiaarlis.

Page
26

61
62
63

4
26

9

7

Nitrate and sulphate
of soda.

Guano.

Nitrate of soda and
sulphate of mag-
nesia.

Silicate of potass.

Nitrate of soda.

Rape-dust and wood-
ashes.

Sulphates of soda
and ammonia.

Sulphate of ammonia.

Sulphate of soda.

Dissolved bone and
wood-ashes.

Nitrate of potass.
Nitrate of soda.

All on thirty tons of
yard-dung.

Bone-dust, gypsum,
potass, and lime,
all failed.

Sulphate and nitrate
of soda,4tb.

Salt injurious.

In these experiments, on dunged land, mixtures
of sulphates of magnesia or soda with nitrate of
soda, were most successful : and nitrate of potass
did better than that of soda in the only case tried
(p. 6'2), as might have been expected from the
quantity of potass potatoes contain (see up b). The
same reason may explain the good effect of silicate
of potass (p. 63), and their preference of sulphates,
particularly that of magnesia, may be referred to the

game principle ; the inefRciency of lime and salt, to
the converse of it. The experiments thus agreeing
with the contents of the plant, in indicating the com-
pounds of potass, soda, and magnesia with sulphuric
and jutijc aci'c/s, as the most productive and profit-ble
dressings. On land ivithout dung, guano did best ;
bones and other com[)ounds of lime failed ; but a
cheap compost (d) produced 14 tons of very fine
potatoes (224 bags) an acre, upon a poor sw/. The

E E 2

412

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

(luantity of potass in tbis compost is not stated, but
must Iiave been snnll, from tbc cost ; and as ])ota-
toes like potass (b), wood or weed-ashes \vill be
better, wbere convenient, than this indefinite " potass
and lime." Sawdust c;innot be had gratis every
where ; but coal tar, on the other hand, may be got
at the gas-works, for 2d. per gallon or less, which
will leave more than enough to pay for the saw-dust.
With these preliminary consideiations we may pro-
ceed with our suggestions for profitable experiments
bis season.

J3 rilled under.

Table 1. — Ox Dunged Land.

Quantity Cost
per acre, per
acre.

Materials.

pNitrate of Potass ....
1.^ Sulphate of Soda (f)

l_ JMagnesia.

pNitrate of Potass. . . .
o J Gypsum (gj)! ....
■"^ Salt / ....

(^Sulphate of Magnesia

f Nitrate of Soda J cwt. 0 16

„ J Gypsum 1 cwt; 0 2

"'* J Wood or Weed-ashes 25 busb. 0 12

tSalt pan bittern (h) 20 galls. 0 2

Cost

per I
rood.

£
i cwt. 1

I cwt. 0
J cwt. 0
I cwt. 1
1 cwt. 0
1 cwt. 0
I cwt. 0
} cwt
1 cwt

d.
OJ

OJ

6j

s. d.

9 0

4 2

4 2

These may be applied as top dressings when the
plant is five or six inches high ; or towards the end
of May J avoiding dry weather.

The following, table 5, to be used loithout duny,
may be sown on the drills, over the sets, with earth
between.

Table j.~Witiiout Duxg.

Quantity Cost.

2Jer acre.

1. Guano o cwt.

("Cheap Compost (i)

ISalt ] mixed J cwt.
Old slaked Lime J wet. !_■' bus.
I Wood or weed-ashes .... 20 bus.

2.-^ Sulphates of Soda J cwt,

of Alagnesia . . . . \ cwt.

■ of Ammonia .. 1 cwt.

Peat or Saw-dust 1 ton.

LCoal Tar 20 gall.

These two last, though they may bring heavy
crops of potatoes, can hardly be expected, without
dung, to leave the land much improved for the fol-
lowing plant. Green manuring- would probably
suit potatoes, and would save dung.

In making experiments of this kind, the ground
should be laid out in plots divided by straight lines,
and well marked, so that there can be no mistakes.
And a corresponding plan (see the figure) should be
laid down in a memorandum book, with full particu-
lars of the soil, previous culture, manure, seed,
weather, &c. ; and the progress and appearances of
each plot minutely noted from time to lime ; before,
and alter the dressings; on changes of weather, &c.
All this will require time and attention, but the ex-
peaces xcill he small; and the experiments will, I
hope, repay them with ^ood projit.

£.

s.

d.

3

0

0

0

2

3

0

3

0

0

10

0

0

5

0

0

7

0

0

17

0

0

0

0

0

3

4

op dressed with

Dung
onlv.

Gypsum
and Salt.

Nitrate of
Soda and
Gypsum.

Sulphate of
Ammonia.

In conclusion, let me again recommend the atten-
tive study ofProfessor Johnstone's instructive Cand
cheap) " Experiments in Practical Agriculture ;"
from which ilie above are mostly derived. In com-
pressing their prominent results within newspaper
limits, I could not include even summaries of the
apt and varied reasoning upon each, nor of the va-
luable collateral suggestions thereon founded. The
most succinct explanations of the principles upon
which I have endeavoured to gain a step in advance
by taking warning from the failures, has drawn out
these letters full long enough for your columns.
Yours, Sec,
J. Prideaux.

(a) See Exeter Flying-Post, Feb. — , 1843.

(b) An excellent substitute for guano may be made
in the fiirni yard, with urine, bone-dust, &c., &c. ;
for which I hope soon to send you tlie details.

(c) Bone-dust, sifted fine, and digested with half
its weight of sulphuric acid, and as much wafer
(previously mixed together gradually and allowed
to cool) ; or with its own weight of muriatic
acid; keeping it three or four days in a soft pnste,
by adding more water, if necessary, and stirring it
well three or four times a day. By this means the
bone earth is decomposed, and rendered much more
active. It mav then be dried up with wood-ashes,
or with earth, ice, containing about half as much
chalk or slaked lime as the bone dust, to neutralise
the acid (mixing the lime with the earth Jirst, to
prevent clotting). Or the paste may be dissolved
in two or three hundred times its weight of water,
and applied as liquid manure.

(d) Cheap compost for potatoes, without dung,
Johnstone's Experiments, p. 64: —

Quantities per Acre. Cost.
£. s. d.

Saw-dust 40 bush. 0 0 0

Potass and Lime^

mixed, 14inonths )> lObush. 0 7 6

old J

Common Salt 1 cwt, 2 qrs. 0 2 3

Sulphate of Ammonia 1 cwt. 0 qrs, 1 0 0

Sulphate of Soda... 2 qrs. 0 36

Sulphate of Magnesia 2 qrs. 0 40

Coal Tar 20 galls. 0 10 0

Cost per acre . . • 2 7 3

This mixture, after being put together, ferment-
ed ; and was frequently turned, but kept dry. It
lay together five weeks, when it was sown in the
bottoms of the drills, upon a poor tilly soil.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

413

(e) See Note g.

(f ) Sulpliate ash from tlie sonp or alkali works.

(g) Gvpsum and salt supply sulpliuric acid and
soda much cheaper than tlie sulphate of soda; be-
sides the lime and chlorine they contain, which are
also useful.

(h) The residual liquor of the salt works; a
strong solution of magnesia ; and cheap, Id. to 'id.
per gallon,

(i) Tlie salt and old lime should be mixed first,
wet; and alter a few daj-s, the wood-ashes added
drv. J'lien the sulphates of soda and magnesia.

The coal tar may be mixed in with saw-dust, at
the gas works, and the sulphate of ammonia mixed
with the saw-dust or peat (or both) before adding to
the rest. If old lime is not at hand, new miy be
used, but then nitrate of potass must be substituted
far suljihate of ammonia. 'I'hey should all ferment
together ; often turned, but kept in the dry.

ON THE PROPOSED REMEDIES
FOR THE PRESENT DEPRES-
SION IN THE AGRICULTURAL
AND COMMERCIAL INTERESTS
OF THIS COUNTRY.

PAPE!1 II.
BY G, THOMPSON, JUN.

We purpose taking into our consideration in the
sccon.1 paper, the arguments usually urged by the
supporters of the present corn laws in their
favour. They contend that tlie Brltlsli fanner is
a member of a communit;/ more h'lghli/ taxed than
those foreign nations zvhich icould supply us ivith
food ; and that the free importation of compara-
tively untaxed foreign corn must have the effect of
drlvlmj the home grower out of the inarhet ; and of
thus depriving the British mamtfactunr of his
best customer. The first question that naturally
claims our attention in the foregoing argument,
is the statenent that the British farmer is more
highly taxed than the farmer of any other country.
We imagine there cannot be the shadow of a doubt
as to the correctness of this conclusion ; since
there is no country on the face of the earth that
is burdened with an annual la-tation of more than
seventy millions sterling, on a population of twenty-
six millions, and on an acreage of less than eighty
millions, save Gre.it Britain. Nevertheless, it is
argued that the British farmers and the British
landowners are relieved from the payment of many
taxes that assist in raising the revenue ; and, in-
deed, that they pay less in proportion towards the
national income than any other class. It is per-
fectly true that those who own and cultivate the
land are relieved from the payment of many im-
posts which are levied on all other classes. For
instance, the farmer pays no auction d':ty, no horse
tax, save for hacks ; no turnpike toll for haulage
of manures ; and sundry other advantages are
granted by the legislature to him and the land-
owner. But we would ask, who pay the chief
portion of the poor-rates ? Who keep the high-
ways in repair 1 Who pay the greater share of all
county rates? Who support a national church
establishment? And the answer must be — the
landlord and his tenants. Moreover, we contend

that the amount thus levied from the agricultural
portion of the community, far exceeds the amount
of those duties, taxes, &c., from which it is freed ;
and we can with the greatest confidence assert
that the agricultural classes, both landlord and
tenant, pay more towards the exigencies of the
nation than any other ; that is to say, more in
proportion to the amount of their produce.

If, then, the agriculturist pays more towards the
liquidation of the national expenses than any other
individual, is it also true than the people of Great
Britain are more highly taxed than the people ot
any other nation ? When we state that the amount
of taxation in Great Britain is two pounds per
head per annum on the total poi)ulation of the
kingdom ; and that there is a farther amount of
more than twenty millions sterling, which is
chiefly raised from the agricultural classes (who
arc estimated at about one-ihird of the whole po-
pulation), as local taxes for the support of the
poor, the church, &c. : when we state also that
the gross taxation of the country amounts to more
than thirty shillings per acre, per annum, upon the
cultivated land ; we feel persuaded that no farther
proof is needed, that the people of Great Britain
are more highly taxed than any other people on the
face of the earth. Still, notwithstanding the British
farmer is more highly taxed than the foreign
farmer, this is no proof that he must be ruined by
the competition, inasmuch as the cost of transport
may possibly prove a protection in favour of the
home grower— a protection exceeding the amount
of taxation. And in the Farmers' Magazine for
March, 184:5, is a letter from Mr. W. Rothwell
(who states that he was a rent-paylngfarmer from
1813 to 1837). attempting (o shew that the whole
costs of bringing continental corn into the English
markets would be an ample protection to the
British farmer. We will see whether such is the
case. Mr. R. observes — "I contend that, at the
very lowest estimate, the English landoioners en-
joy an advantage of not less than from 16s. to 20s.
per quarter over the landoioners of Poland and
Russia. This I contend is quite sufficient to cover
the difference of the burdens upon land, and, of
course, that we may safely repeal the corn laws."
'I'his advantage they possess, he states, in the ne-
cessary cost of transport, importer's profits, loss
by waste,, difference in quality, and other in-
cidental expenses. Now, if it was true that the
advantage in favour of the British agiiculturist
amounted to an average of 18s. per quarter, still it
remains to be proved that the well-fed, well-
clothed, and well-housed people of Great Britain,
can, on similar soils, produce grain at the same
juice as the half-starved and miserably. clad peo-
ple of southern Russia. But it is manifestly an
error to assert that the British corn grower has an
advantage of from l6s. to 20s. per quarter over
the corn grower of Poland or Russia. Since the
editor of the Farmer's Magazine, m\ns" Revleio
of the Corn Trade, during the month of March,
1 843," observes that — " At Dantzig the latest nomi-
nal price of high-mixed Polish wheats was 30s.
per quarter, free on board. Shipping was exceed-
ingly plentiful, and the rates of freight demanded
were consequently unusually low. Several foreign
ships had been, at that date, chartered for London,
at from 3s. to Ss. 6d. per quarter ; and the British
farmer will before long therefore, by sad experience,
discover that, under no circumstances, can our
maximum import duty of 20s. per quarter protect
his property in the British market from competi-

414

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tion with the proprietors of the best descriptions
of foreign wheats." We find then that foreign
wheat can be imported at ;5s. per qr., and as,
under a free trade, foreign wheat would find a
ready sale, the loss liy waste, warehouse rent, &c.,
would he materially less than it is at present, when
the grain is sometimes bonded for months; hence,
we may fairly conclude, that 2s. fid. per quarter
would cover ail waste, rents, porterage, &c. ;
moreover, from the circumstance that a free trade
would produce a ready and safe side, the importer
would be content with a less profit than hereto-
fore, and fis. may safely he relied on as ample
consideration for merchant's profit and difference
in quality, inasmuch as some of the high-mixed
Polish wl)eats arc quite equal in quality to our
own: thus we have lis. fid. per quarter as the
Tiujhcst advantage possessed by the home grower
over the foreign grower, under a free trade, and
supposing- that the land was of the same quality in
both cases. Even taking Mr. Rothwell's estimate
as a correct one — namely, I8s. on the average, as
the total cost of bringing foreign wheat into the Bri-
tish market — will he, as a firmer, be bold enough
to assert that 48s. per quarter 'm a remunerative
price for the British farmer .' We will go further —
would it prove a remunerative price upon the best
wheat soils in England ? If Mr. R. be, as he says
he is (and which we have no reason to doubt), a
practical fanner, he will answer each of the fore-
going questions in the negative.

We cannot resist the temptation at this parti-
cular stage of our communication, to enter more
largelyinto Mr. Rothwell's letter; and as it would
have been more in order in our last paper, we beg
to state, as a very conclusive reason why we did
not then consider it, that we had not read it. We
sincerely hope we shall receive the credit of being
impelled by a proper motive, in digressing from
the direct course to notice ibis extraordinary letter.
For when agriculturists themselves are so far mis-
led by the growing, but lamentably erroneous
opinions of the day, as to advocate, and that ably,
the principles which, if adopted, must ruin British
acjr'icxdture ; it can be reg.^rded in no other light
than as a judicious step, to oppose by all fair and
honest means the effects which such apparently
imi)artial conclusions must have upon the waver-
ing. This at least is our purpose, since we fear
the consequences of Mr. Rothwell's letter more
than all the factious efforts of the notorious
League.

If it was true that the British farmer would en-
joy an advantage over the foreign farmer, under a
free trade, it may still be reasonably questioned if
a free trade in fcireign corn would not be produc-
tive of very serious evils in our currency ; but it
is an insupportable theory that the difference in
value, cost of transport, &c., would i)rove a pro-
tection to the British farmer ; and this fact over-
throws the greater portion of IMr. Rothwell's argu-
ments ; but, as assertion is no proof, we will test
the accuracy of the concluding deductions, by
weighing their respective merits.

Mr. R. concludes — " First, that we have grown,
and shall continue to grow, sufficient for home
consumption in fair average seasons, and that wc
can afford wheat in such seasons at from .')0s. to
.'jfis., and other grain in proportion."

" Seconlly, that the foreign corn- grower cannot
produce con hirer than this laid down in the
manufacturing districts of Englnnd, on account of
their great distance from this market, the ineftec-

tiveness of their implements of husbandry, their
deficiency in skill and that of their labourers, their
want of capital, and of good int'Tnal communica-
tion in the country."

" Thirdly, that these disadvantages are sufficient
to counter!)alance their advantages of lower rents,
wages, and taxes."

In consequence of Mr. Rothwell having laid
down the theory that the crsst of transporting
foreign grain to this country would jirove a suffi-
cient protection to the home grower, he has fallen
into innumerable errors. Having first laid an un-
safe foundation the superstructure falls to the
ground ; and we are immeasurably astonished
that he should huve propounded a theory for which
he has not adduced a shadow of support. We have
already stated, and repeated enquiries have con-
firmed the truth of our statement, that foreign
corn can be brought into this country for less than
12s. per quarter, including a reasonable allowance
for the difference in quality. We observe that the
price of Polish wheat was 30s. ; hence it can be sold
in England at 42b. per quarter, and this com-
pletely overthrows the argument contained in the
second deduction, to the effect that the foreign
corn grower cannot produce corn and lay it down
in the British corn market at less than from .^)0s.
to ofis. per quarter. And let it be remembered
that this contradiction is made from undeniable
and existing circumstances. We have not gone
back to former times for our quotations, but we
have merely stated that which is well known to he
correct. We ask then, what would be the conse-
quence if foreign corn could even be brought in at
4Cs. per quarter? We fancy the practical man
will answer rwin^o i'/ie British farmer. The first
deduction of Mr. U.'s we agree with, but it is no
argument in favour of a free trade ; it is one
against it; since, if we grow suflftcient for our
own consumption, in fair average seasons, why
should we allow the introduction of that we do
not want, at the imminent risk of reducing to
utter ruin numbers of our best customers ; nay,
more, of driving from the land those who now
contribute to the exigencies of the nation, and
purchasing our corn of those who would gladly
witness the downfall of our empire ?

The second deduction we have disproved from
known facts; and the third, of course, falls
with it.

We have, " fourthly, that as the principles of
the late corn law and the present one are grourided
on the idea that the only danger to the British
landowners will arise from fair average crops at
home ; of course, if my conclusions rest on good
grounds, the corn laws may safely be repealed."
Of course, if his conclusions rested on good
grounds, we "should be compelled to bring other
arguments ; but as his conclusions do not rest on
good grounds, of course, this deduction is neces-
sarily nugatory.

" Fifthly, we have the declaration that corn
laws were never anything but an injury to the
tenant farmers and their labourers." As this is
the most serious statement, and particularly as it
is the argument with which the iewgrj/e has sought
to win over the farmers of this country, we shall
devote more attention to it than to any other.

Mr. Rothwell states that, "In ISIT) wheat got
down to the average of 03s. 8d. per quarter, and
the landowners considering that with the rents
and burdens upon land at that time, it could not
be grown for less than 80s., they passed a law

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

415

prohibiting impoitation when the price was below
that sum. And, under the idea that the general
average would he near 80s., landowners, valuers,
and farmers, made their valuations and estimates
accordingly; and, of course, rents remained at the
point which they had gained before the conclusion
of the war. Then it was that the ruin of the
tenant and the laboiu'er commenced. Then it was
that the landowners were receiving 30 per cent,
more rent than they ought to have done, &c."
Again — " The law of 182;i prohibited importation
of wheat when the jirlce was below 70s., with a
duty of ]7s. per cjuarter when above. It was
again supposed by the favmers and land valuers
that the price would average near the above price ;
of course, rents were still fi.xed higher than they
ought to have been." And — '' In 1828 the late law
was passed, and has been one of the greatest hum-
bugs that has been enacted of late years. How-
ever, the injury it has done the farmers has not
been so great as was the case with the two former
bills. First, they had had two excellent lessons
taught them by the preceding laws, and had not
much confidence in any corn laws. Second,
what litile confidence they had was shaken by
the sliding scale, as the price of corn abroad was
represented to be so low as to afford the foreign
corn merchant to pa)-^ almost any amount of duty
fixed by the law. Tliey were therefore extremely
caut'ous in their ofi'er of rent ; and there had also
been a general reduction, to a considerable amount,
all over the kingdom, hut particularly in the agri-
cultural districts." These are chiefly Rlr. Rolh-
weli's reasons for stating that the corn laws have
been an injury to tenant farmers and farm la-
bourers, namely, that they have tended to main-
tain rents at a high rate. J\'ow, how strangely he
contradicts facts to serve his own mistaken pur-
poses ! If any uninitiated individual should read
his letter, they must conclude that land rents in
this country have been regulated by what has
been considered a remunerative price for wheat;
and that the price which the legislat'ire, at stated
periods, declared to be a remunerative price, was
the groundwork for all calculations respecting tbe
value of land. But the price of wheat has been
falling ever since the year 1800, whilst the rent
of land has been rising during the same period ;
and how does this accord with Mr. R.'s theory .'
He is evidently a very short-sighted politician, or
he would know that the rent of land is regulated
by tbe demand, and the degree of improv ement in
the methods of cultivation.

We have attempted, and we trust successfully,
to shew that foreign corn can be sold in the Bri-
tish markets at less than 46s. per quarter. The
average rent of our wheat soils certainly does not
exceed 35s. per acre, and in many instances 30s. is
considered a high rent; all depending, of course,
upon the facilities of roads, markets, &c. Now,
our best wheat soils produce, on an average, 4+
quarters per acre ; hence, allowing that the rent
of such soils avei ages 35s. per acre, we find that the
amount of rent to be paid for each quarter of wheat
will be nearly 7s. lOd., and as this land is
necessarily occasionally unproductive, we will
add one-fourlh as the quota of rent which
must bo paid by the wheat crop, making a total of
nearly 10s. Mr. Ilothwell acknowledges that 5Gs.
per quarter would be a remunerative price. Sup-
posing, then, we reduce the rent to such an amount
as will merely liquidate those payments which
foroi a landloi'd's share towards the liational aiul

local expenses, which is virtually abrogating it,
and presenting the land to the tenant tiee from
rent : when we shall have !)s. per quarter to be
deducted from ofJs., and it should be lemembered,
that 9s. will be more than the average net inconie
of the British landlord from each quarter of grain
produced ; this deduction will leave the grain at
the price of 47s. pet quarter, as a remunerative
price to the tenant, when freed froiw the paymeict
of rent. Wc have already seen that foreign wheat
can be sold in the British market at 4(Js. per
quarter; hence, supposing the British farmer to
be liberated from the payment ot rent entirely, still
he could not compete with the foreign grower
under a free trade in corn. Then how fallacious
it is to assert that a rechictlon in rents would enable
farmers to prosper under a free trade ; and how
grievously tenant farmers deceive themselves when
they arrive at the conclusion that a free tr.ade in
corn would be advantageous to them 1 Wc intend
entering more extensively into the effects corn
laws have upon operative agriculturists, in a re-
view—and we trust a refutation— of a packet of
League papers, which has recently been sub-
mitted to our inspection ; and we will content
ourselves for the prci-ont, by merely requesting
the reader to observe that the only argu-
ment adduced by Mr. Rothwell to prove the
injurious elRcts of the corn laws upon operative
agriculturists is, that they have inaintained rents
at an extreme height, by leading the farmer to ex-
pect a greater price for his grain than he could
ever obtain, and thus inducing him to offer a higher
rent than he could afterwards afford to give. In
answer to which, we have proved that the corn
laio })rice of wheat has had no influence in regu-
lating the value of land, since one has been de-
creasing, and the other increasing. We would
furthermore observe, that we give the farmers of
England credit for more judgment than to rely
upon any law whatever in making their calcula-
tions; and that if experience did not clearly de-
monstrate that the rent of land was not regulated
by the corn laws, still the English farmer would
not be guided by the corn laws, but by the average
price of wheat in the home market. Rlr. Roth-
well has therefore f.dled to prove that the corn
laws have injured tenant farmers and farm la'
bourers.

Mr.R. observes — " Si.xthly,ihat all sliding scales
are grounded in error ; as, however low the dntj',
when the prices are high here, this will not affect
the prices ; for as the duty is reduced in England
iu seasons of sjarcity, so the prices will rise in
foreign markets, and of course all the advantage
will go to the foreign farmer or corn mercnant.
Common sense will tell any one this, and it only
requires facts to be examined to prove its correct-
ness. Sliding scales, however easy and graceful,
will lead to unccrtair.ty in the business of corn
merchants, but particularly to importers." Ob-
sei-ve — " However low the duty, when the prices
are high here, this will not affect the prices ; for
as the duty is raduced in England in seasons of
scarcity, so the prices will rise in foreign mar-
kets." ' And yet Mr. Rothwell has previously
stated that the' corn laws have not benefited the
farmer. Is it not obvious to the simplest tmder-
standing, that if the effect of the corn laws has
been to maintain hinii pi ices in seasons of scarcity,
that they must have been more hcncfieial to the
faimer than afiee trad.;; under the operation of
which, such a quantity of corn would be at all

416

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

limes impoifed as would perpetuate low prices ?
A\'hei> is it the British farmer can afford to sell
corn at the cheapest rate ? Of course, in seasons
of plenty. But is it rational that he should be
compelled to sell it at the same low price in sea-
sons of scarcity ? Indeed, it is unnecessary for us
to ask Mr. Rothwell such questions, as we have
only to weigh the merits of his statements. Yet
we must beg the reader to observe that Mr. R.'s
statement is one of the strongest arguments in
favour of corn laws, inasmuch as he acknowledges
that by the wholesome regulation of the much
abused diding scale, foreign corn is imported when
we require it, yet that such importation has not the
effect of lowering the prices at the time when the
British farmer is least able to bear it.

We have, " Seventhly — that there are other
causes than the corn laws for the present depres-
sion in trade ; for, according to their own state-
ments, when food is lowest trade is best, and of
course, trade is best when there is the least foreign
com Imported; therefore, corn could not have
been taken in exchange for goods." Then why
repeal the corn laws ? If trade is best when there
is the least foreign corn imported, that is, when
we grow sufficient for our own consumption, why
remove those laws which enable ns to grov.' suffi-
cient, by giving a premium to the advancement of
agriculture?

In taking leave of Mr. Rothwell, we will briefly
expose a few of his most striking inconsistencies;
of which he has so many that it is by no means
wonderful his essay should have failed to obtain
one of the prizes offered by the League.

Firstly, then, we should not extend our foreign
trade by repealing the corn laws. Yet we ought
to repeal them !

Secondly — "At present the Germans, Russians,
&c., want only cash ; and while they do this it
will be ruin to us to take much of their grain."
Therefore we should admit corn duty free !

Thirdly — " Under the corn laws, wheat has been
continually getting cheaper, and the quantity pro-
duced ia this country continually increasing.'' Still
we ought to repeal the corn laws 1

Fourthly — " It would not do for England to pur-
chase foreign corn to any extent with hard cash.
If we must import extensively, so as to injure the
British farmer in his own market, wheat must be
laid down in the manufacturing districts at a less
price than 56s." Therefore we may safely run the
risk of repealing the corn laws !

Finally — " As a nation, we can gain nothing by
a free trade in corn ; but, if foreign growers can
undersell us in our markets, we shall be ruined by
paying them in cash." Therefore we may safely
repeal the corn laws I

AVe trust we have not e.xhausted the patience of
the reader in thus wading through this labyrinth
of incongruities] we trust, moreover, that we have
not failed to render conspicuous the utter con-
trariety of the arguments adduced ; and reposing
calmly in this our confident position, we once more
gladly renew our primary course, by testing the
strength of the arguments usually and most fre-
quently alleged by the sujjporters of the corn laws.
fjij^We have already proved the truth of the argu-
ment, that the British farmer is a inember of
a community more highly taxed than those
foreign nations which would supply us with food.
W'c have not merely proved this, but we have
farther shown that the amount of that taxation,

indepeyidcnt of rent, is more than the disadvan-
tages which the foreign grower labours under.

^^'e have now to see if the free importation of
comparatively nntar.-ed foreign corn must hat'C the
effect of driving the home grotcer out of the market.
In order to sustain this argument we must first
prove that otlier nations can afford us sufficient
supplies of corn, at a lower cost than our own
growth, to have this effect. We might be content
to reason comparatively, and satisfy ourselves by
merely showing, that if other nations cannot send
us corn, it is useless to adnnit corn duty free ;
while, if they can, since we raise sufficient in
average seasons, they could only do so by under-
selling us, and thus driving some of our home-
growers out of the market : we might thus argue,
and dispose of the question summarily, but that
Wd wish to prove to our readers that other nations
would supply us with large quantities of corn,
under a free trade.

We have disposed of the ridiculous argument
that the foreign corn grower could not undersell
us in our own markets; then we have simply to
answer the question, can the corn giowing coun-
tries supply us with larger quantities of that com-
modity than we have already imported, at the same
low'price .'

When we observe the low rates at which foreign
wheats arc offered, and when we consider the cir-
cumstance that a slight demand in this country in-
variahlycauses a superabundant influx, without the
least advance in price, we have strong presumptive
evidence that we might import a much larger
quantity of corn into this country than we do at
present. It has been stated that to increase the
quantity of foreign corn grown considerable ex-
penses must be incurred ; since the corn at present
raised is produced on the banks of the rivers, and
close to highways well calculated for its transmis-
sion at small costs ; and that to increase the extent
of cultivated ground, new roads, &c., must be con-
structed, the cost of which must be levied from
the produce. This is unquestionably correct to a
certain extent; but it behoves us to remember that
the formation of good roads would be attended with
a very trifling increase of expense u])on each quar-
ter of corn ; and that as money is the thing most
v,-anted, as labour is very low, and as there are
extensive tracts of land yet uncultivated which
would yield immense crops, the probability is that
increasing and almost inexhaustible supplies of
corn would be raised at a price sufficiently low to
enable the importers to undersell the home-grower.
But it signifies little to the substantiation of our
argument whether the quantity imported is capable
of increase or not, since, under a free trade, foreign
corn could be brought into this country at all times,
whether our own supplies were sufficient or other-
wise ; and if the same quantity should be brought
in when we produced sufficient as when we did not,
the effect must be to reduce the already low price
stfll lower, and thus to drive a portion of the home-
growers out of the market. Thi'rc is no argument
90 insupportable as that by introducing foreign
corn duty free, we should extend the markets for
our manufactures ; or, in other words, that we
could retain our British customers who produce
corn, with an extension of our foreign customers
whose corn we must then take. The home-growers
would be depressed as much as the foreign growers
would be encouraged in their operations. The
market would not in the end overflow ; it would
only be competently supplied, and depend in part

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

417

on foreigu instead of domestic industrj'. If Poland
and Russia would produce more for the British
manufacturers, Great Britain and Ireland would
produce less. Farming- to the extent of perhaps
six millions of quarters annually would be destroyed
in the British Isles, and farming to a similar extent
would be called into existence on the banks of the
Vistula or the Dnieper. But there could not be
any permanent increase of the supply over the
demand. Foreign competition would do for Bri-
tish agriculture what British manufactures would
do, and have often done, when so admitted to
foreign manufacturing industry, viz., produce a
total destruction of a large part of the deluged
branch of industry. We think it indisputable that
tlie introduction of foreign corn duty free, must
have the efieet of driving a portion of the home-
growers out of the market.

^Ve have now to consider an argument arising
out of the foregdiiig. and one which is too often
urged in support of the corn laws — viz., that the
poor lands of this country cannot compete with the
rich soils of foreign nations under the operation of
a free trade in corn, even although the cost of
transport be added to the price of corn in foreign
ports. As 'political economists we are constrained
to declare this is one of the most indefensible rea-
sons why we should have a coin law.

No truth is so palpable, — no maxim so generally
received, as that true political economy consi^^ts in
promoting the welfare of the majority. Whatever
is done by way of upholding the inteiests of one
class to the neglect and injury of those of all others,
must inevitably tend to retard the progress of a
nation. " Thou shalt do justice and love mercy,"
was the injunction of the inspired St. Matthew ;
and we have daily instances of happiness and ])ros-
perity attending its application, v%ith as many of
misery and r4jin following its neglect; affording a
striking proof that the same God overlooks the
actions and dispenses the portions of men, who
ages since was more visibly, though not more
effectively, the controller of human events. This
decree is equally binding on nations and on indi-
viduals, and its nt^glect equally injurious to both.
And the nation which supports the interests of one
class in particular is guilty of injustice, which is
alike condemned by the laws of God and man.
But how frequently we see instances of men, in
some particular trade or profession, entertaining
and promulgating the opinion that the nation will
he ruined, for no other specific reason than that
their interests — the interests of an insignificant
minority — have been sacrificed for the benefit of
the whole nation, perhaps the wRole world. This
is in a limited degree the case with those agricul-
turists who oppose the repeal of the corn laws, on
the ground that the poor lands of this country can
never compete with the rich lands of foreign coun-
tries. Passing over the plea of high rents and other
obstacles, we will suppose the land their own, not
subject to the payment of rent. Moreover we will
reject the excuse, certainly a justifiable one, of more
expensive labour. We will suppose the English
farmer farming his poorer lands under the same
advantages as the foreign cultivator farms his
richer soils. Woidd it even then be just that the
whole nation should be compelled by a law to pur-
chase their grain at a hi'.'her price of their own
countrymen, in order that they may cultivate poor
soils, rather than allow them to purcha-^e it at a
lower price of another nation ? Most assuredly

it would not. And, therefore, the argument is
insupportable ; for whatever benefits one class to
the injury of all others, must eventually injure the
nation. Vet, weak as tlie argument is, it is the
chief poiiit urged by many supporters of the corn
laws ; and by far the greater portion of tlie writings
of the Anti Corn- Law party have been devoted to
the object of overthrowing this particular apology.
Many speeches have been made containing no other
substantial proposition, than that it is unjust to tax
the many for the benefit of a (^i\v. Whilst the sup-
porters of the corn laws continue to advocate their
existence on the grounds of vested interests and
poorer soils, so long will they find a strong opposi-
tion to their arguments. Jf the corn laivs are to
be maintained, they can only he maintained on the
principle that they are essential to the welfare of
the nation at large.

We have now considered fairly the various argu-
ments of the su])porters of the corn laws. We have
shown in this paper that the British farmer is a
member of a community more hiyhly taxed than
those foreign nations which iiJOuld supply vs with,
food, and that the free importation of compara-
tively untaxed foreign corn must have the effect
of driving the home grojoer out of the mnrhet ;
and, in our last paper, we cleaily proved that this
would be depriving the British manufacturer of
his best customer. This conclusion needs no proof,
for those who support a repeal of the corn laws
declare that foreign nations cannot take our manu-
factures unless we take their corn, consequently
they can only take them to the same amount as
we take corn ; therefore, as the people who now
grow corn for us take our manufactures, by taking
foreign corn we shall bo merely changing the cus-
tomers for our manufactured articles, even suppos-
ing they will take manufactures for their corn.
Now, it is obvious we cannot gain by a repeal, but
it is by no means obvious that we shall not lose, as
we have already shown in our first paper.

Our next paper will contain conclusions drawn
from the foregoing, and applicable to the future.

Lion Street, Kidderminster,
April 26th, 1843.

Chini-se AoiucuLTtiRE. — "1 took our
cutter the other day, and eiglit men, and starling from
the ship at five o'clock in the morning-, went about forty
miles up the labyrinth of inlands, hinding- at ?everal
places, and going ir.to their viilnges. The country was
beautiful in the extreme — much more so than I ever
saw. t'aiicy the most iiilly country ihat can possibly be,
one raouiiiain rising from the foot of another in the most
varied manner, and cullivated in the iiighest degree to
llie very top ! In fact, their I'arming would not disgrace
an English farmer ; and I very much doubt whether a
man put dovvu here from the clouds Aould know that
he was not in England, but for She circumstaiice that
pieces of land winch no Englishman would think of
venturing hi^ neck upon, are tiere in the mo~t beautiful
order; indeed, the resembhince between the two coun-
tries is in every respect most striking ; and I decidedly
tidnk that the people I have seen aie quite as much ci-
vdized, it not more so, than you would fiud in England
in tlie same jituation — ihcy ceriainly exceed iliem in
poliienes?. One village I liQdedin,I saded the boat
up u beautiful creek lor some diaance, until I was
stopped by some large lock-gates, when I lauded, and
wa'ked up to the houses, alongside quite as good a ca-
nal as any 1 ever saw, with good strong locks ou pre-

418

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

cisely tlie same principle as our own. The stone
bridges over it were beautiful, wiih liesi'.ls, carved in
stone, of au^els and devils, stuck at diflbrent places on
the^idfs. The houses were built of Fquiire stones, ex-
tremely neatly put together, anil roolal with beautiful
red tilc=, e'jch ornitmentcd with a difFcient device. Tlie
insile was generally divided mto three or lour rooms,
all very neat ; and there the similarity between them
and Old England, a place they never heard of, became
most ridiculous. I'here was the plastered floor, the
same shaped tables and chairs, and the closet, witli the
cups and saucers (<^f the mo>t beautiful china, by the
bye) ; there too, was the kitchen — the wash-house, with
the boiler and sink. In the yard, ag-ain, the pig-sties
•were very amusing— the identir-al pig-sty uoor that they
have at a place you know very well in Yorkshire, open-
in<.'- with a large wooden latch, and a bole to put your
finger through from the outside to lift it up, Fqueaking
on it" iiingres when opened or jliut, the same to liaif a
note."— China as itivas.

AGRICULTURAL TOUR IN DEN-
MARK, SWEDEN, AND RUSSIA.

liY JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, F.R.S.

I.— DENMARK.

(From the Journal of ilie Boyul Agriculltiral Soi:iely.\

There is confessedly much to be done still for
British agriculture. Many good practices may
still be introduced from other countries, and many
already in use among us may be more widely spiead.
Many sound precepts also remain still to be gene-
rally dift'used — by the ajjplication of which we may
reasonabi}' anticiijate that the land will be Ten-
dered not only more productive on the whole,
but more remunerative also both to the landlord
and to the tenant:.

And yet a person moderately skilled in agricul-
tural affairs, who has bad the O])i)ortunity of pre-
viously becoming actjuainted with some of our best
cultivated districts, will soon satisfy himself, when
travelling in foreign countries — that in few other
parts of the world is the practical culture of soils
like ours more thoroughly understood than in the
British islands — that in none has so great a breadth
of land been more scientifically and more expen-
sively improved. It may be that to certain parts
of llollatul and the Netherlands", and to certain
limited districts in Italy, a general superiority
must he conceded — and that in eveiy country the
traveller visits he will observe something which he
may wish to sec imitated at home ; yet in few dis-
tricts of Europe of large extent will he find united
fields so green, hedge-rows so beautiful, stack-
yards 80 neat — so little waste and unenclosed land
— so much artificiidly drained — so much expt=n-
sively manured — so many improved and profitable
cattle — and, generally, so much visible comfort
and skill pervading every branch of the practice of
husbandry. Thi-; much seems to be due toilritish
agriculture, even from those wlio see most clearly
its defects, and are most anxious to remove them.

Yet this diftercnce in favo;,r of our own island
is to be ascribed as much to the circumstances in
which it has been placed, as to the superior intel-
ligence and industry of our pojjulation. It is easy
to write out a system of piactical agriculture, by
which in a given climate the largest amount of
produce of this or that kind may be raised on this
or that variety of soil ; but when this abstract sys-
tem comes to be put in practice in this or that

country, it is interesting to observe how much it
must be altered and modified by the circumstances
of that countrj' — how a very bad system of farming
theoretically, may be the only one which can be
carried on with profit — and may be best suited
consequently to the circumstances of the dis-
trict.

We ought therefore to criticise leniently, and
with some hesitation, the agricultural methods we
find in operation in other parts of the world. The
nature of the soil — the character of the climate —
the economical condition of the country — the po-
litical relations of the several classes of society —
the tenure on which the land is held — the relation
which the number of the people bears to the aver-
age I roduction of food — the existence of a more
ready market, either domestic or foreign, for one
or another kind of produce — all have a necessary
and important influence upon the modes of culture.
Hence the candid observer who is in no haste to
condemn, will often, when he becomies acquainted
with all these circumstances, find himself com-
pelled to admit that rude methods and practices,
which are theoretically bad, are, if not the best,
yet the most prudent under all the circumstances
of the place in which he observes them, and such
as he would himself in the like case have adopted.

Of these two truths — the general superiority of
British agriculture and agricultural enterprise, and
the effect of circumstances in modifying the modes
of culture — I observed many illustrations during a
short tour I made in the past summer through pait
of Denmark, Sweden, and Russia. As some of the
circumstances I observed were not without inter-
est to myself, I venture to hope that a few notices
of what appeared most worthy of record may not
l)rove uninteresting to tlie members of the Royal
Agricultural Society.

As he ascends the Elbe the stock farmer will
not fail to observe on his left how the marshy
lands which skirt the river and stretch for several
miles inland, are everywhere dotted with cattle,
the herds becoming more frequent and more dense
as he ascends, till the pasture is cut off by the
bluffs of Blaukanaes, where the high sandhills
begin to confine the river. To these marshes the
lean cattle of the Jutlands are annually driven to
be fattened.

From the mouth of the Eyder, in the south of
Sleswick, to that of the Elbe, and up the latter
river, narrowing as it ascends, this band of marsh-
land girdles the south-western part of the Danish
territory. That portion wliich lies on the seacoast
between the two rivers, a district 30 or 40 miles in
length, forms tl»e Dit-nmrsh. 'i'he \Vilster and
Krempe marshes lie on the north shore of the Elbe,
in the neighbourhood of liic town of Gluckstadi,
which is generally admired by the stranger as he
ascends the river — and the more so, piobably, be-
cause the smoothness of the water luakes him now
forget the pains of the rough sea, and invites him
upon deck. From these latter marshes the best
oxen are brought to the Hamburg market. These
cattle are fattened entirely upon the natural grasses,
the culture of turnips being almost wholly un-
known, and other artilicial food seldom had re-
course to, except in the neighbourhood of brew-
ci ies and distilleries.

It is a curious geological fact in regard to the
Wilster and Kremj)e marshes, on which these
cattle arc fattened, that they are known to be gra-
dually sinking in level. Within the last three
hundred years they are said to ijavc sunk about

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

419

seven feet, and an area of thirty square miles is
now three feet below the level of higli water in the
Elbe. The whole tract i-; saved from inundation
only by the carefiil |ireservauon of the embank-
ments. On boring, the cause of this sinking be-
comes apparent. Ten feet of fertile silty clay rest
Cfioat ?) on thirty feet of water ; at the bottom of
which is the sand of an ancient sea-beach. How
this singular arrangement of land upon water has
taken place, it is not easy to ex]dnin in a satisfac-
tory manner. My friend l^rofessor Forcbhammer,
of Copenhagen, to whom 1 am indebted for the
fact, suggests that the silt may originally have been
deposited upon a bank of sea-weed, and that the
slow decay of the latter may have left the vacuity
which is now filled with watei\ However this
may be, only long habit, one would suppose, can
reconcile people to live without concern on a spot
which a sudden inroad of the sea on a stormy
night might ejitirely swallow up.*

During my short slay at Hamburg I visited a
dairy-farm at H^m, a few miles from the city,
occupied and apparently well farmed by Mr. Hy-
mers. This farm contains 2f)0 scheflfels.f a little
more than as many acres, of light land, some of it
poor and sandy, but which nevertheless grows
wheat better th.in rye. On this extent of land,
which is chiefly in grass, are maintained from 120
to 130 cows, all in milk, but thej' are partly fed on
the refuse of a distillery established on the farm.
These cattle are m.ilkcd till the spring, when they
are gradually sold off 10 the butcher, and replaced
by others which have newly calved. They are
milked duiing the whole time of fattening; but
their beef, as we should expect, is of an inferior
quality. In the market it brings only 10 dollars
for lOOlbs., or one-sixth less than the fat oxen from
the marshes. I believe a considerable quantity of
this second-rate beef from the numerous dairy-
farms is sold iti the German m-.irkets. The milk
and cream produced at Ham are carefully bottled
and sealed, and are thus sent to the houses of their
customers in Hamburg. The former is sold at 1 .^d.,
the latter at 6d. a quart. By this method of
bottling, the character of the dair-y is maintained,
the buyer is secured from fraud, while the milk it-
self, being less agitated in coming from the country,
arrives in a sweeter and sounder state at the house
of iheconstimer.

As good pasture is on this farm of so much con-
sequence, great attention is paid to the top-dress-
ing of the grass land. The liquid manure is con-
ducted from the large and spacious cow-houses
into a cistern outside of the buildings, which is
arched over and planted with a shrubbery, a square
trap-door being left for the insertion of the pump.
This cistern is 100 feet long, 1-1 feet broad, and 8

* "In 1421 the sea broke in at Dort, drowned
seventv-two villages and 100,000 people, and formed
the Zuvder-Zee." This part of Holland, it is sup-
posed, may have originally been in a similar situ-
ation with the Wilster Marsh — since it is recorded
by an old Dutch writer that in 1420 the proprietor
of a farm on the tract of land, which was swallowed
up, found a herring in his well; and thinking it
unsafe to remain where the sea was evidently un-
dermining him, sold his farm, and removed to another
part of the country. The following year the catas-
trojdie CHme.

t Schefel usually denotes a bushel measure. It is
in this neighbourhood used to express a quantity of
land equal to 200 square poles (rulenj.

feet deep, apparently a large size, yet too small
still for so numerous a farm-stock.' It is capable
of containing the produce of three months, which
in most cases would appear sufficient, since it is
seldom that there is any serious winter before
January, so that if the cistern were empty when
the cattle arc brought in, they would be turned out
again to the spring pasture before it was com-
pletely full. But such an adjustment of times and
quantities cannot always be conveniently made,
and a loss, therefore, now and then oc-
curs. The liquid manure (Jauche, as it is
here called) is applied at almost every season of
the year to one field or another, yet it may not al-
ways be the most proper time when the cistern is
full. Hence the advantage of ample space for a
large supply. Upon this conviction JMr. Ilymers
informed me he was about to erect a second cistern
of large dimensions.

English farmers are now, I believe, beginning fo
imderstand how very much actual money has
hitherto been lost in this country by the neglect or
waste of the liquid of the stables, cow-houses, and
farm-yards. A farmer would not tolerate a ser-
vant who wasted the grass or hay intended for his
stock, yet he who icastcs liquid manure vHistes grass
— diminishing not only his |)resent profits, but his
chaiice of future gains also, for he so far exhausts
and injures his landlord's fields. Feware unaware
of the benefits derived in many localities from
judicious irrigation, and especially where, as in
the neighliourhood of Edinburgh and some other
large towns, the water of the common sev.-ers can
be employed for the pm-pose. Now the water cart
is only a poi table irrigator, and the liquid of the
farm yard is as elhcacious as that of the sewers. To
collect the former therefore with care, and to apply
it to the land whenever the horses are at leisure,
would at little additional expense increase both^the
produce and the general fertility of many of our
farms.

Being so near Hainbiirsr, manure is comparatively
abundant at Ham. I\Ir. Ilymers therefore manures
bis land every year, and is allowed to cultivate his
arable fields as he pleases. He grows wheat, barley,
and potatoes, but no turnips. Wheat yields twelve-
fold, and potatoes 6 to ii tons per acre. Foreign
manures are also occasionally applied, such as the
fish refuse sometimes brought from ILimmerfest in
Norway, and, during the last year, the South Amer-
ican guano. About a ton of the latter had recently
been applied to the grass-land of this fdrm; it was
then selling in Hamburg- at 1'2/. .53. the English ton
no marks courantfor 100 Hamburg pounds.)

The rent of land in this part of the country, when
at such a distance from Hamburg that milk cannot
be readily sent to market, is about .J or 6 Pnissiaa
dollars a scheffel, or 15s. to 18s. an English acre.
There is very much of the sandy land in the neigh-
bourhood of Hamburg that cannot be worth \vM of
this rent.

Hamburgh to Kiel, July 'yth. — The road from
Hamburg to Kiel crosses the southern part of
Holstein, and passes through some of the dreari-
est parts of this extensive duchy. About one-
half of Holstein consists of sandy, unproductive
tracts of land, and of what are" considered by
many as irreclaimable heath and moor. Nearly
all the flat and level country, with the exception
of the marsh-lands, is more or less of this cha-
racter. 'Where it undulates and rises into hills,
and especially on the northern and eastern por-
tions of the duchy, the soil changes in character j

420

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the unfruitful gravel and sand giving place to
occasional claj's, and to clayey loams and mails,
productive in corn and nipe, fruitful in milk antl
Ijutter, and bearing a natural growth of magnifi-
cent heecl).

The existence of so mi:ch comp-.u'atively worth-
less land in Holstein is, 1 believe, contrary to tlie
general impression not only among ourselves, but,
as I have found, in other countries also. This
has arisen, in part, no doubt, from the fame of the
rich alluvial pastures of the marsh-lands on its
soutliern ;ind western borders,* and partly from
the fact that the east and north of this duchy —
the most frequently seen and visited by travellers
— can boast of some of the most picturesque and
fertile tracts to be met wit!) in the Danish do-
minions. To satisfy ourselves that the interior of
both Sleswick and Holstein is of ^reatlv inferior
agricultural value, we have only to cast our eyes
upon a recent map of these duchies, when the few
nnmes of places which present themselves will
indicate at once the thinness of the population and
the smallness of the agricultural produce.

Tlie cause of this comparative infertility is to be
found in the geological nature of the deposits with
which this district is covered. AVithin the girdle
of rich alluvial (marshy) soil that encircles the
western coast of South Jutland, Sleswick, and
Holstein, stretches a broad band of flat country
covered with a v;hite or grey, naturally almost
ban en sand (the ciJd formation of Forcliammer),
in many places lying- waste, but which, like the
sandi of Norfolk, is cai)able of being brought into
cultivation by the aid of the marl and clay which
lie beneath, often at an available depth. This
sandy zone, which in South Jutland covers more
than half the breadth of the Danish peninsula,
narrows towards the south, in Sleswick and Hol-
stein, and terminates in a point on the banks of
the Elbe, a few miles below Hamburg.

To the east of this naturally unfruitful band, the
remainder of these three duchies, the whole of the
Danish islands — witii the exception of Bornholm
— and a part of the south of Sweden, are covered
with a variable thickness of sands, gravels, clays,
and marls, in which rolled stones (boulders) of
various kinds and sizes abound, and by the pre-
sence of which these beds are almost everywhere
characterised. In Zealand and Funen, in some
of the smaller islands, and on the eastern part of
Holstein and Sleswick, this deposit (the boulder
formation) forms an undulatiii;^ country of hill
and dale — of rounded liills and basin-shaped
hollows. The whole of this undulating tract is
rich in clay and marl, and abounds in marl pits.
Many of tha hollows are filled with peat, or,
where this has been much dug out for fuel, as in
Zealand, with small sheets of water; and the
whole of the diier country bears naturally luxu-
riant woods of beech, or, when in skilful culture,
yields abundant crops of rape and corn. Nearly
a'l that is rich in Danish agriculture is to be seen
upon the undulating part of this formation.

* The three Danish-German duchies of Sleswick,
Holstein, and Lauenbnrg, have an area of about 340
square German miles — of which the marsh-lands
occupy between 60 and TO, or about one-fifth of the
whole. (See Mr. Stanley Can's paper on the Dairy
Husbandry of Lauenburg, in the first volume of
this Journal, p. .'371.) On Professor Forchhammer's
geological map of Denmark they ajipear to occupy
a considerably smaller area.

Chemically considered, this boulder formation
differs frotn the sandy ahl formation which lies
above it by the large proportion of lime it con-
tains. This lime has been derived, as is shown
by the many blocks of chalk that are scattered
through this formation, from the ancient destruc-
tion of some of the chalk rocks which still abound
in Denmark, and it is not only deposited in nests
and layers of marl — so rich in calcareous matter
that it is profitable to dig it up and lay it upon tlie
land — but it is generally disseminated through the
sands and clays also in smaller jiroportion, and
thus is a main agent in imparting its natural fer-
tility to a great portion of the country on which
this formation rests. But the bottom or lower
layers of this same formation consist, where they
are best and most extensively seen, of a gravel or
sand containing many flints, and in many places
little lime, and they rest upon dark-coloured beds
of a species of clay (belonging to a kirul of brown
coal formation), which is said to hold out little
promise of being useful in imj)roving the flinty
layers that lie above it. With this lower sandy
and gravelly deposit, containing flints, the fiat
parts of Holstein and Sleswick, which belong to
this formation, are covered, and they are in a
great measure open heaths and moors, or unen-
closed common*. Over such a flat the traveller
passes on his way from Hamburg to Kiel. When
the heath disajjpears, the soil is in many places a
white and blowing sand.

We left Hamburg at 10 p.m., and reached Neu
INlinster, about half way, early in the morning.
The rye which grew near this place appeared to
be perfectly ripe (July 6;h), much of it absoliitely
white ; the oats, short, green, and full of wild
mustard. The town shepherd, as we changed
horses, was blowitig his sliort melancholy cotv's-
horn, to bring out the cattle for the daily pasture
on the common land. The sandy soil with few
flints, of the earlier j)art of our journey, gradually
gave place to a gravel, in some places deep and
full of flints. It is said that over this wide tract
ot heathy land the flinty gravel and sand are not
more than six inches in depth, and that the nature
of the dark bed beneath gives little hope of ame-
lioration from deejier ])loughing. It appeared to
me, however, that considerable jjortions of land
here and there were capable of being reclaimed,
or, where already in crop, rendered much more
productive by judicious drainage. In souieofthe
mote level parts of the country it might be difil-
cult to find a ready outlet for the water, but
otherwise the making of the drains would be at-
tended with little e.\pense. From such drainage I
should expect not merely the removal of super-
fluous moisture, and the gradual amelioration of
the climate, luit an improvement also in the na-
ture of the subsoil, here said to be unfriendly to
vegetation.

The great problem to be solved in many dis-
tricts, before the soil can be permanently rendered
more ])roductive, is the mode of effectually and
economically altering the subsoil, i his is beyond
the rciich of ordinary top dressings and ma-
nurings, and even deep ploughing (su])posing that
by merely bringing it to the suiface the quality of
the subsoil is materially improved) jjroduces only
a partial and temporary change. Draining seems
to me to be in general the only way of effectually
and permanently altering the subsoil ; and this
constitutes one of the chief recommendations of
its use upon light and sandy soils. The rain,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 4-2i

whicli passes tluougl) sucli soils with comparative A railway has been for some tinio projected bc-

ease, washes out from the subsoil tiiose noxious Iween Ilaraburg aud Kiel ; and the Danish govcrn-

insredieiits which are liostile to vcpctation, ment has ^iven its sanction to the plan. It' would

sweetens and salubrifies it to the depth of the no doubt be a great benefit to the district, though

drains, and fits it for being brought up to the the i)rospecfs of a renumcratinn- return to the

surface without producing any injurious effect, sharehohlers are very doubtful. The slender foun-

By such action of the rains upon the thin licatby dation on which tlie proposers of this line are con-

«ands of Holstein, the unwholesome clays beneath tent to found tlieir hopes was shown by a i)ara-

might be so far purified as to qualify them for grajdi in a Hamburg newspaper which caught ray

being nu.\ed advantageously with the sands and eye at Kiel. 'I'he projectors of the Altona and

gravels above, while they would at the same Kit! Railway announced that they 7ww believed

time, where left undisturbed, permit the roots that the leturn. instead of being only 2i per cent,

readdy to descend into their substance in search on the outlay, might be safuly estimated at L^J?; per

01 food. _ cent. This happy expectation was founded on

About eight English miles from Kiel the land the introduction of the new manure cjiiano, which

began to undulate, and at the same time to be- was to be carried alouo- the line in such qnanti-

co-.ne more fertile. Though still very light, it ties as, besides remunerating the shareholders, to

produced beautiful crops of oats, barley, rye, and convert also the barren heaths and moors of ceii-

wheat— of each of which kind of grain very ex- tral Holstein into blooming and productive fields,

tensive fields uere seen. The wheat was thick Though much corn and rape are grown in the

and heavy, and the oats of a peculiarly dark green country around Kiel, yet I believe butter is one of

colour. Ibis soil, as I have already observed, is the principal articles of export. On some of the

probably rich in lime, and the natural waste of farms 200 or 300 cattle are kept, yet on the whole

this substance is supplied from the marl-pits, of route between Hamburg and Kiel I did not observe

which numbers exist at no great distance from the a single field-turnip. In Holstein much of the

road on the approach to Kiel. Along the skirts soil is said to be now tired of rape. The cultiva-

of the undulating country also the heath and tor of the land in almost every country is under a

sandy moor is partially improved, in consequence strong temptation to raise crop after crop of that

of the ready access to these deposits of marl. kind of produce which finds the readiest sale and

On some of the otherwise bare slopes of the yields the largest return. In Great Britain v,c

sandy and gravelly banks by the road-side the grow corn as often as we can, and Holstein ex-

mare's-tail and the coWs-foot abounded, the hansts herself to supply us with rapeseed, Janjaica

latter confirming the above opinion as to the pre- to send us sugar, and the United States to give us

sence of lime in the soil, and the former showing its cotton, tobacco, and rice.

power to yield with ease the abundant supply of There is a remarkable chemical difference hc-

sihca so necessary to the growth of corn.* tween the straw of the corn-bearing plants and

; that of rape — the former containing much silica,

* I had no opportunity of enquiring into the the latter much potash, soda, and lime.* It is

mode of cultivation adopted for the wheat crops of possible, therefore, that a saline manure might

this neighbourhood, nor whether it difi^"ered mate- ameliorate the soil on which rape has ceased to

rially from the improved husbandry of Funen, de- thrive. Rape straw spread upon the fields and

scribed in a subsequent page. It appears, however, ■

from the statements of Colonel Le Couteur in his Would, for example, (he Duck's-bill, sown along.

very interesting work " On the Varieties of Wheat"' side of another variety, and under the same circura-

(pp. 39 and 7'^), that the Kiel wheat (a very pro- stances, produce a flour much richer in gluten than

ductive variety, known by the name of Duck's-bill, that of the other ? This is a very interesting tbeo-

and Laving an exceedingly fine ear) gives a flour retical question ; one not unlikely, I think, tcTbe -.ui-

which is only fit for making pastry, and is too tena- swered in the affirmative, and which is not unsus-

cicus for household breafl. Now this tenacity is ceptible of an important practical bearing. Perhaps

due to the presence of a large quantity of gluten in Colonel Le Cuteur could throw some light on this

the flour ; and the quantity of gluten is generally question.

supposed to depend upon the quantify of animal or The reader will recollect that the nutritive quali-

otber manure capable of yielding ammonia, which is ties of wheaten flour are supposed by wme to be al-

present in the soil. But we can scarcely, 1 think, most directlv in proportion to the quantitv of

attribute this quality of the Kiel wheat to any high gluten it contains.

manuring of the land, above tl.-e h'ghly farmed dis- * Thus l.OOOlbs. of ripe wheat and rape straws,

tricts of our own island. Does it depend, then, though they left respectively nearly the snnie weight

upon the nature of the soil — upon the large quan- of ash when burned, yet contained the .several con-

tity of lime it contains, or which is added to it in stituents of the ash in the following very different

the form of marl .' This may have some influence, proportions; —

since it is said that in the county Down the wheat Wheat. Rape.

grown on soils which rest upon limestone is richer Potash 0.-2 .... 8.8*

in gluten than the other wheats of the county. If Soda 0,3 5.5

so, this would be an interesting fact in regard to the Lime 2.4 .... 8.1

action of lime, and might help Colonel Le Couteur Magnesia 0.3 !..'. 1.2

to the kind of soil on which this variety of wheat Alumina and oxide of

may be expected to thrive. It would show also iron 0,9 0.9

that the proportion of gluten in wheat is not de- Silica 28.7 0^8

pendent solely on the kind and quantity of manure Sulphuric acid 0.4 .... 5.2

added to the soil. Phosphoric acid L7 .... 3.8

But another question still remains. Is the pro- Chlorine 0.3 4.4

portion of gluten not dependent upon the mristy of ' *

wheat also, as well as upon the soil or manure ,> 35.2lbs. 38.7lbs,

422

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

burned is known greatly to promote the growth of
the sncceediiig crop. A properly adjusted mixture
of the saliiio substance of which the rape-ash con-
sists would form a rope manure, froai which
similar advantngcs might be antici])ated. Even
where husbandry is most carefully practised, nnd
as much as possible of all the produce is again re-
turned to tlie corn-fields, there is always an annual
loss of the saline constituents of the soil and
crops, carried away chiefly by the rains and
drains, which must in some way or other be re-
stored to the land, or it will ultimately deteriorate
in quality. A rational practice, therefore, as well
as sound theory, indicates the trial, after previous
marling, of a mixture of common salt with sul-
phate of soda, wood-ashes, and bone dust, on
lands which have ceased to yield luxuriant crops
of rape.

Kiel to Copenhageti. — The voyage by steam from
Kiel to Copenhagen occupies about twenty-four
hours. The islands which are passed before
reaching the coast of Zealand are Laaland (Low-
land), Falster, and Moen. Except a part of the
island of Moen, where the soil, a calcareous clay,
rests immediately upon chalk, and forms some of
the best wheat land in Denmark, these islands, as
well as Funen and Zealand, are covered by the
same boulder formation which overspreads the
eastern half of Jutland, Sleswick, and Holstein. I
had no opportunity during my recent visit of per-
sonally observing the state of agriculture in these
islands, but I was favoured by i\ir. Hofman Bang,
of Hofmansgave, near Odensee, one of the most
zealous and intelligent agriculturists in the island,
with much information in regard to the existing
state of farming in Funen. The soil there is ge-
nerally light and sandy, yet, like the similar soils
in the undulating district of Holstein, it grows
good crops of corn and rape. The custom of
taking three white crops in succession used to be
general. Among tlje better class of farmers the
course was — fallow with manure, rye, barley, oats,
clover and rye-grass, and then two or three years'
grass ; so that only one-eighth of the arable land
was manured every year. Among the peasants
(small farmers) the artificial grasses are not used ;
and three white crops, followed by two or three
years of grass and a fallow, with manure, is still
the prevailing practice. The imjjroved course in-
troduced more recently on some of the large es-
tates is only a step towards the full measure of
improvement. This is — 1st, naked fallow with
manure; 2nd, rye ; 3rd, wheat; 4ti), potatoes and
vetches manured; 5tb, barley; 6th, oats; 7th,
grass, for two or three years. The culture of po-
tatoes is extending, and many are also now grown
in Zealand; but, though many cattle are kept,
turnips are unknown as a general winter food.
Here and there small experimental patches are oc-
casionally seen ; and Mr. Bang told me that, be-
sides potatoes, he occasionally raises a few
Swedish turnips for fattening his cattle. In
Funen the cattle arc kept in the house from the
middle of November to the middle of IMay, and
are in general fed all the while on straw and hay
only — something of the old Scottish system, now,
fortunately, a matter of history only, of merely
keeping cattle alive till the sjiring pasture came.
Potatoes with chopped straw are now occasionally
given. Here, as in Jutland, the cattle are seldom
fattened, but are sold lean. In places which arc
remote from a market the oats arc sometimes used
up in fattening the stock.

As ujjon the mainland opposite to it, much
butter and cheese are made in Funen, and consi-
derable attention is at present directed to the im-
provement of the latter article. The refuse milk
is employed in fattening pigs. A mixture of
clover, or nettles or other weeds, with water and
whey, allowed to stand till it is sour, is also much
emjdoyed in Holstein and Sleswick in the feeding
of pigs, aiul is said to fatten wonderfully.

In Funen there exists an agricultural society,
under the name ot the Patriotic Society, which
exerts itself in the promotion of a better hus-
bandry. The principal imjirovements yet effected
have arisen by the introduction of better imple-
ments and the encouragement of better ploughing.
The preparation of composts also, through
their exertions, is beginning to be understood
and practised. The meadows are dressed with
town-manure and wood-ashea ; but notwithstand-
ing the wonderful elfects it produces in Mecklen-
burg, a country so near, gypsum has not been
found beneficial in Funen. As the same fact has
been observed also in Holstein, it is probable that
the soils of the boulder formation, which, as I
have said, covers so much of the eastern half of
Denmark, are already sufficiently impregnated
with gypsum or with some other saline suljihates
which act in a similar manner upon vegetation.*
If this be so, it affords an illustration of the im-
portant practical bearing which an elementary
knowledge of the geological structure of a country
may have upon the operations of the farmer. The
future improvers of Danish agriculture have pro-
bably little general benefit to anticipate from the
employment of gypsum, wherever the sand,
gravels, clays, and marls of this formation ex-
tend.

'I'hat Danish Ag^'icultiire in general is in an im-

* It may even be that this supposed richness in
sulphates has been one cause of the known produc-
tiveness of the rape crops in these districts, since
the straw of rape is so rich in sulphuric acid (see
previous note, p. 421 J. The action of the sul-
phates is no doubt very much owing to the acid
they contain ; and tbey all affect in a similar way
the same kind of plants as the clovers and other
leguminous crops. Yet they act differently also on
certain cultivated plants. Thus Mr. Burnett, of
Gadgirth, near Ayr, informs me that he last year
C1841) dressed two parts of a field of turnips re-
spectively with sulphate of soda and with gypsum.
The former produced no apparent effect, while the
latter doubled the crop. At first I fancied that the
land might have been destitute of lime, which the
plant obtained from the gypsum; but I have since
learned that the land had previously been heavily
limed. Liebig would say that in this experiment
the gypsum had fixed the ammonia of the atmos-
phere, which the sulphate of soda could not do. I
do not coincide with those who thus explain the
action of gypsum, for reasons which I have else-
where stated ; but the result of Mr. Burnett is so
very interesting, that I would gladly hear of the
accurate repetition of his experiment.

While this sheet is going through the press, I am
informed by Mr. Campbell, ot Craigie House, near
Ayr, only a few miles from Mr. Jiurnett's, but
nearer the sea, that he has this year (1842) dressed
part of a field of turnips with two hundredweight
of unburned gypsum per acre, icithout jiroduciiig any
apparent effect. Can the proximity to the sea ex-
plain this]

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

4-23

proving condition, is established by the fact that
sixty years ago English flour was imported into
Denmark ; while at present, notwithstanding the
increase of population and the more general use
of wbeaten bread, flour is exported largely to the
Brazils and to Jersej', especially in tlie form of
biscuit.* This increase in the growth of wheat
must not be considered merely as an indication
that a larger amount of agricultural produce is
raised in the country than formerly, but also that
produce of a more valuable kind is reaped from
the land — that by an improved management soils
which formerly grew oats, or j)erhaps rye, are
now enabled to grow wheat. In judging of tlie ad-
vance of agricultural improvement, the (luality of the
produce, whether in corn or cattle, must be taken
into account quite as much as the nominal quan-
tity.

Rye is naost largely produced in Denmark, be-
ing the principal food of the people ; and much of
this grain has long been exported to Holland,
especially from the proviace of Jutland. Barley
forms, I believe, the largest and most valuable ex-
portable corn pi-oduce, as the general lightness of
the soil would lead us to expect ; and both barley
and oats are said to be shipped in considerable
quantities to England, The increase of these ex-
ports is another proof of the progressive advance-
ment, at least of the arable culture of the country.
During the present century much has been done
by the exertions of individual proprietors for the
improvement of their own estates or neighbour-
hoods; and s.n Academy of Agriculture has more
recently been instituted r.t Copenhagen by the
Government, but no agricultural schools have yet
been established. 'Ihey are much desired and
talked of, however; and when tlie hampered
finances of Denmark admit of it, they will most
likely be established. In the mean time, the more
zealous agriculturists send their sons to the Prus-
sian or to the new Swedish schools.

The late King of Denmark did more, I believe,
for the improvement of the breed of horses than
for any other object immediately connected with
the agriculture of the country. In 1829 I visited
the royal farm at Fredericksborg, in the island of
Zealaud, and saw the stud, consisting altogether
of about seven hundred horses. From this stud
stallions were distributed overall Denmark, to the
number, I was told, of two hundred, for the pur-
pose of improving the Danish lace of horses. In
consequence of this encouragement, the export of
horses bad become considerable; the number
taken out of the country in 1828, according to the
official returns, being fourteen thousand. Mr.
Bang informs me that this crossing of the Danish
breed with the Eoglish race has not improved the
former for agricultural purposes.

The ro}al farm at Fredericksborg consists of
about four thousand English acres, and I found
upon it both Merino sheep and improved bi eeds of
cattle ; but I am not aware how far the cattle-
breeding provinces have availed themselves during
the last ten years of the means of improvement
thus placed in some measure within their reach.
Agriculture in Jutland, — Jutland supplies the

* Has the alleged glutinous quality of the Danish
wheat anything to do with this export of it in the
form of biscuit ! Can the geological nature of the
surface really aft'ect the form in which the corn it
produces can be best cooked, either for immediate
coDsumptioa or for distant transport?

greater number of the cattle which are fattened
in the marsh-lnnds of Holstcin. I may be excused
for inserting a few agricultural notes respecting
this province, taken during an excursion I ma'lc
in this part of Denmark in 1829. The progress
of imjjrovement may have effected some changes
since that period, but upon the whole I believe
the following remarks represent very correctly
the several points to which they refer.

Sailing from Elsinore, I landed at Grenae, on
the east coast of South Jutland ; thence went by the
town of Randers to Randriip, an estate about thirty
miles north-east from that town. The soil was
generally light and undulating — much of it in
pasture, and much in the hollows, where the drain
would effect great improvements. The estate of
Randrup, the property of Mr. Thygesen, consisted
of eight hundred tonnen of land f fourteen thou-
sand square ells being one ton of land), and was
chiefly in pasture. Like nearly all the land in
this district, it was light and sandy, and reposed,
at the depth of two or three feet, more or less, on
a gravelly sand, with many flints and rounded
granite pebbles. The surface therefore rested on
the same boulder formation of which 1 have al-
ready spoken, probably on its lower and less fer-
tile part. Much manure was not made except in
winter, when the cattle were housed, and this was
chiefly applied to the arable land. It was not
usual in this neighbourhood to take any measures
for the physical improvement of the soil. Mr.
Thygesen had lately removed almost an entire hill
of a yellow calcareous marl, for the purpose of
spreading over his fields, and making the soil
more tenacious ; but he had not then been imi-
tated by more than one of the neighbouring pro-
prietors. The practice, however, in a country
where marl may be expected to abound, will ne-
cessarily make its way. Quicklime was never laid
upon the laud. The rotation ujjon this improving
estate was: — 1st, rye, with marl and manure;
2nd, barley; 3rd, rye ; 4th, oats, with manure;
5th, rye; 6"th, oats ; 7th, ryegrass, after which the
ground remained five years in grass. This was
only six white crops in twelve years, but these six
were taken in succession.

Rye is the principal food of the people of all
classes ; comparatively few potatoes are used, and
of these such as are small and waxy are preferred
in Denmark generally, as they arc in Sweden and
in some parts of Germany. The larger potatoes
are given to the cattle and pijs. I observed a
considerable breadth of buckwheat in some parts
of Jutland, especially about Grenae. This grain
is much used for puddings, for feeding cattle also,
and for distillation.

From the Randers district (Randers Amt) I
went north to Gudumlund, in the Aalborg Amt,
and near the mouth of the Lyme Fiord. Here
also the land was chiefly in pasture, and the cha-
racter of the soil on the higher grounds was nearly
the same as farther south. But in this neighbour-
hood there is a considerable extent of flat, marshy,
or boggy land, on which the soil is a deep black
vegetable mould, and which, in the lower unim-
proved and not naturally drained parts, is covered
with an open coppice of birch, intermingled with
Lazel and oak, and on the drier places with a
brushwood of juniper.

On the estate of Hostemark, at the distance of
a few miles from Gudumlund, and which was
farmed by its owner, Mr. Hvass, the brother of
my kind host the local judge, a considerable per-

424

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tioii of this low land had been reclaimed and im-
proved. On this farm the rotation on the sandy
soils was: — 1st, huckwheat, with manure ; 2nd,
rye ; Mrd, rye ; 4th, rye-grass, or woolly soft grass
(Holcus lanntus), and then three years grass, the
whole of this sort of land being divided into seven
portions to suit this rot.itioii. The light black-
earth of such of the marshy land as admitted of
arable culture was ploughed two or three times
when broken up and manured, after which it was
cropped with barley, vetches or oats, rye, oats, and
then sown down with Holcus lanntus, and left
four years in pasture. There is a large quantity
of this marsh-land, or moss, as it is there called,
which by good drainage would at once be con-
verted ii\to excellent meadow, while that which
already admits of arable culture might by the same
means be rendered capable of bearing any crop.
It all rests upon a substratum of challc and flints,
so that the means of improvement are at hand. It is
possibly the existence of this substratum which
makes this marshy surface more naturally pro-
ductive than the peat-bogs of our own country.

'1 his marshy tract is all new land, gained from
the waters, probably of an arm of the sea, nithin
a comparatively recent period. Of this, among
other proofs, may be mentioned the muscle and
cockle shells found over it all, at a depth of one or
two feet — the names of i)lace3, such as Skipsted
(ship station J, Segelflod (sail-stream), which are
now far from the sea — as well as the records of
sea-fights having taken place where this land now
exists. It may be supposed, therefore, that this
country of North Jutland partakes in some degree
of that elevatory movement by wl)ich so much of
the opposite land of Sweden and Norway is known
to be gradually raised above the level of the
sea.

\'et a section observed by Professor Forchhara-
mer on the shores of the Lyme Fiord (at Krab-
besholm near Skiva) would appear to indicate that
this district has partaken within historic times of an
alternate movement, rather than one of continued
elevation. Beneath twelve inches of soil, on which
natural oak-wood is growing, he found an oyster-
bed eight feet in thickness; and below this, at the
sea level, a bed of sand containing deer's-horns
and stone axes. It would appear therefore that,
since the land was inhabited by a people who nsed
stone axes, it had been submerged in the waters of
the sea long enough to admit of this large bed of
oyster-shells being formed, and afterwards gra-
dually raised again. This inference in regard to
the submersion may not be considered as fully
justified, since the relics may have been carried
down into deep water, but there seems little reason
to doubt that the land has actually risen.

Thecatile which form so important an article of
export from Jutland, are chiefly reared by the
peasants, sold by them at theageoftwo or three
years to the large farmers or proprietors, who keep
tbem till they are five or six, when they are sold
off to the marsh-lands of Holstein and Sleswick,
where another season fattens them. In Jutland
they are fed during the winter on hay, chopped
etraw, and buckwheat. The late maturity of these
cattle will enable the stock-farmer to judge both of
the value of the breed as raisers of beef, and of
the money value of the land on which they arc fed.
The value of the Danish breed cannot be expect-
ed materially to improve until the proprietors
become themselves the raisers of stock, and by
the growth of green food are enabled to promote

their growth during the winter as well as the sum-
mer.

Most of the land in this distiict is cultivated by
the i)roi)rietors, who retain inspectors or over-
seers at a fixed salary. Some is rented out ready
stocked, to tenants who pay a fixed rent for land,
stock, and implements tOi^ether. At the expiry of
his agreement the tenant leaves every thing as he
found it. This system formerly prevailed in cer-
tain parts of Scotland. Some of the rents are paid
in kind — in corn or butter; and when this is the
case the system is similar to the Mezzadriain Italy,
only that in Jutland the (piantity of produce paid
is now fixed ; other rents are paid in money. The
I'orpagters, or tenants, are in general so very poor
that tins method of stocking by the proprietor is
a matter of necessity, if he wishes to let his farm
at all. In an improving district, however, time
may be expected to remove this necessity.

The wages of men-servants are from twenty-six
to thirty, and of women from sixte^Mi to twenty
dollars a-year (9;^ to the pound sterling.) When
hired for the summer half-year only, somewhat
higher wages is given. In summer they generally
have five meals a-day. At four in the morning
their dovre — beer, bread, and dried or pickled her-
rings ; at eij;ht a millemad (mellemmad, middle
meal) of bread, butter, cheese, and brandy (to save
trouble, a dozen bottles of brandy are generally
allowed to each for the summer ;) at twelve is ?Hui-
doffsmad — soup made of flesh and vegetables with
the meat, or a pudding of buckwheat or bailey with
milk, and dried fish or fried bacon, with potatoes
and l-eer ; at four or five another millemud ; and
at seven, eight, or nine, alv/ays a buckwheat or
barley pudding made with milk.

The estimated money-rent of land, together with
the taxes, amounts to about five per cent, upon the
estimated value of the fee simple — the taxes
amounting to nearly one-third of the estimated
rental. But the price of land seems to be kept
down by the exjjensive mode of farming it. Thus
]\Ir. Hvass's estate at Hostemark, which consisted
of 1400 tonnen of land, of which 600 were wood,
200 meadow, and ")00 arable, the rest at present
unprofitable was valued at ^0,000 dollars, and he
would have let it for 1460 dollars, including taxes,
or for 1000 dollars, the tenant paying the taxes be-
sides. The direct taxes on this property were
then ;)50 dollars, which certainly appears high,
though they were less in proportion to the value
than on most of the neighbouring properties, two-
thirds of the arable land having been brought into
cultivation since the last government valuation by
v;hich the amount of tax was regulated. Mr.
Hvass was familiar with the works of Von Thaer
and Sir John Sinclair, and complained chiefly of
want of capital to carry on his improvements more
extensively.

On this farm he raised only so much oats as was
suflScient for his own horses, and potatoes, buck-
wheat, and rye for his own establishment,
with an excess of 300 or 400 tonnen (worth
two Danish dollars a ton) of the latter for
ex[)ortation. This would barely pay the wages
of his servants, of whom in summer, when
I visited him, he had no fewer than foriy-four.
The serfs had been emancipated in his father's time,
and since money-wages have been paid it is said
that much more work has been obtained from the
same number of servants. Vet comparatively
little must still be obtained from them, if forty-
four servants, male and female, be necessary to

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

425

perform the work, even in suiiimer, of nii estate
worth no more in rent and taxes than l.")0/. a-year.
The farm grazed also 1(10 oxen, ;»0 cows, 300
sheep, and 28 horses. The milk, butter, and cheese
were all used in his own household, and the horses,
1 was told, were all employed in tlie farm, except
two or three kept for riding and driving. Some of
them, however, were no doubt reared for sale.
Although the beer and brandy, as well as the
other articles of consumption, were all grown or
manufactured upon the estate, yet the large pro-
portion of the produce consumed by so extensive a
household must have diminished at once the profits
and the marketable value of the land.

In the autumn, when the harvest is over, both
the peasants and the pi'oprietors along the coast
employ themselves and their servants in taking and
salting fish for tlie winter's consumption. Flat-
fish is principally taken, and much of it is dried
in the sun. The necessity of having large esta-
blishments is further increased by the custom of
making and manufacturing, as in former times in
our own country, nearly all the ordinary articles
of dress and furniture required in the household.

One of the most spirited and persevering im-
provers in Jutland was the late Count Schimmel-
man, so long minister of finance to his Danish
Majesty. At present Count Fries of Friesenburg
is one of the most zealous and enterprising. He
Itas imported a skilful inspector from Hanover to
arrange the irrigation of his estate, and to pro-
mote the extension of a system which is fitted to
be of such service in the sandy soils of this part
of the kingdom. The government has recently
been at the expense of sending four young men
into Silesia to learn the method of irrigation
practised so extensively in that country.

North of the Lyme Fiord in North Jutland I
found the land naked, the soil sandy, often moorish,
with tracts of poor pasture, and here and there a
few thousand acres in indift'erent arable culture.
The wind sweeps over this peninsula from the
Skager Rack on the west, and from the Cattegat on
the east, bearing the salt spray and the drift sand
in some places far inland. Even here, however,
the spirit of improvement is not dormant, but
capital is wanting. Those who have the desire, the
skill, and the ability to improve, have too much of
this waste land upon their hands to allow of their
speedily bringing the whole into more profitable
cultivation.

I made the tour of this district, proceeding from
Aalborg, on the Lyme Fiord, to Hioiing, on the
west side of the peninsula, and thence tothaSkaw,
returning by Frederickshavn and S;ibye to Hals,
at the mouth of the Fiord. We drove through
deep sand nearly the whole way — the utmost pace
at which a pair of horses could take the driver and
myself being usually three miles an hour. I could
not help being struck, seeing it then for the first
time, with the apparently barren sandy spots on
which rye seemed to flourish. Even the drift-
sands near the Skaw bore their thin, but I suppose
profitable, crops of this grain. The country in
general is flat, but through the middle of the
eastern half, in a nonh-westerly direction, runs
a long and narrow ridge of sand-hills called the
Jutland Aas (pronounced Ose), which bears a
green pasture, scanty apparently, yet refreshing to
the eye amid the sands which present themselves
almost without intermission to the eye of the tra-
veller, as he proceeds southwards from the town of
Sabye. Of such sand-ridges there are many ia

Sweden of great length, and called by the same
name (sand ascr), which have lately attracted
much attention from geologists.

Between this ridge and the sea, towards the
towns of Siibye and Hals, there lies much improv-
able liuul, and signs of improvement were visible,
especially in the neighbourhood of the former town.
Sintrry is here sown on the sandy soils for feeding
the cattle in winter. It is cut when ripe, and
dried into hay. In winter, it is given to the cattle
two or three times a-day, was much relished by
them, as I was informed, and increased the pro-
duce of milk.

A plant which springs up spontaneously, and in
such quantities in our own corn fields, especially
in sandy soils, may well be expected to grow luxii-
riantly on such soils when sown as a crop. It is
an important principle, in the practical culture of
the land, to grow upon it, at least as an occasional
crop, that kind of plant — weed it may be— which
most delights in or infests it ; provided it can be
made useful as food for stock, and does not by its
roots make the land unclean (plants even
which cattle reject, may be in some cases (in
many.') profitably raised for ploughing in as a
green manure). On this principle is founded the
modern practice of sowing land down with natural
grasses ; it might possibly be applied to the selec-
tion and growth of plants of other families hither-
to neglected. I shall advert again to this point
when 1 come to speak of Swedish agriculture.

In Brabant the spurry is much cultivated both
for pasture and for ploughing in as a green manure.
It reaches its full height, about 12 inches, in five
or six weeks, may be eaten off or ploughed in and
sown again in favourable years three times in a
single season, and a rye crop may then be taken
without manure. It is said that by sowing tvvo
crops of spurry — eating both off" with sheep— in
one season, and a crop of rye in the following, an
alternate husbandry may be kept up without ma-
nure, under which sandy soils will improve so as
to give on each return of the corn crop a heavier
weight of grain.

Von Voght and Schwartz speak of this plant
with equal enthusiasm. The former says,
" Spurry sown on sandy soils is a better pasture
than red or white clover } the cows give more and
better milk, and it improves the land in an extra-
ordinary degree. If the land is to be several years
in pasture, white clover must be sown with it.
Sown in the middle of April, it is ripe for pasture
by the end of May. Eaten oft' before the end of
June, the land is ploughed flat, and sown a second
time, when it gives another beautiful pasture in
August and September. If rye be now sown, the
land is as much improved as if it had received ten
cart loads of manure per acre. The blessing of
spurry, the clover of sandy soils, is incredible when it
is rightly employed. I sow it on the rye and oat-
stubble, and I obtain a beautiful pasture and a
manuring equal to four or six cart-loads of ma-
nure per acre."*

Schwartz, in his account of the Belgian hus-
bandry (ii., p. 33), says — "Without spurry, the
Campine,t the best cultivated soil in the world
would have been still a desert. A plant this which

* Ueher manche Vartlieile tier Gr'uner Dungung, p.
23. In this work Von Voght details the results of
many long-continued experiments made upon his
own estate at Flottbeck.

t Kempenland, a district ia Dutch Brabant.

F F

426

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

requires no manure for itself, and which even
when mown, by the residue it leaves, gives back
more than it takes from the soil — which demands
no fixed place in the rotation, but which is satis-
lied to come in as an after-crop whenever the soil
is at liberty — which, except for the seed, requires
no preparation — which is satisfied with a soil on
which nothing else but rye will grow — which in-
creases the quantity of milk and butter, and im-
proves their qualiy — and which, I am persuaded,
may be raised with advantage, even on the best
soils, provided only they are somewhat light. A
proof of this is the land of Waas (Waesland, in
Fiauders), the garden of Europe."*

In many parts of Germany Schwartz is regarded
as a high authority in practical agriculture, and
there is certainly much land in the Jutlands upon
which, if its qualities be always such as are above
stated, it may he sown with the greatest prospect
of advantage. I cannot venture to recommend it
to the attention of English farmers in general,
because I am aware that it has in former years
been so recommended by persons more versant
in agricultural practice than myself, without
finding much favour in this country ; and yet
there may be some desolate and unproductive
corners of our island on which its use might
lirove eminently advantageous. It is sown on the
stubble for autumn feed near York ; but the soil
there is not of the land I should think for which
this crop is most especially adapted.

In the preceding observations upon Danish agri-
culture, the reader will perceive that there are
peculiarities and deficiencies in the culture of the
land in that country, compared with English prac-
tice ; and yet several things will also strike him
as satisfactorily accounting for the differences, and
in some measure justifying some of the deficien-
cies. Thus —

1st. Denmark grows with ease more food than
her population can consume ; and, as markets for
the excess of produce are not abundant, corn is
necessarily low in price, and does not therefore
yield so large a return to the grower, or so bighlv
stimulate the arable culture of the land. Hence
the pi-e valence of pasture in Jutland for the raising
of cattle, for which there is a constant demand,
and in Holstein for the manufacture of butter,
which is readily exported. Hence also the growth
of other crops, such as rape, for the seed of which
the sale is easy, and which, on soils that suit it,
yields a greater profit than any other arable cul-
ture yet introduced into these provinces. The
same reason justifies in some measure (if want of
capital were not in most cases a sufficient reason)
the neglect of expensive improvements — such as
the draining of the land, which in very many
localities would not only increase the absolute
quantity of corn produced, but would enable the
arable land to grow corn of a more valuable kind.

2nd. But the nature of the soil necessarily
causes, in many districts, a different mode of
cropping from that which prevails among our-
selves. The food of the people is, in most coun-
tries, originally determined by the peculiar cha-
racter of the soil. Large tracts of land have

* In his later systematic work, however (Anleitung
xum Piactischen Ackcrbau, iii., p. bli), while he
speaks of sparry in terms almost equally high, ho
distinctly limits his recommendation to poor, sandy
soils, and insists upon its value on such especially
as will grow neither clover nor grass.

proved unwilling, by all the forms of persuasion
hitherto tried, to grow anything well but rye and
buckwheat, and these sometimes but indifferently.
On most of the soils of Jutland these kinds of
grain used alone to give a sure return : hence it
became the object of the farmer to raise the largest
quantity of tliese varieties of corn ; and the
national produce became, naturally enough, the
national food. And now, when an improving
agriculture oflfers to supply other grain in abun-
dance, the national taste remains ; and, because
the people prefer to live on rye-bread, much rye
must still be raised. The produce of the barley
and oat, and more rare wheat lands, is in a great
measure exported.

Again, the marsh-lands readily indicate their
own most profitable employment. How far their
value, as rich pastures, is capable of improvement
I am unable from personal observation to state.
That so much other land is in pasture is owing in
part, as I have already said, to the more ready
market for live stock and for dairy produce ; but
in part also to a want of capital, which will pro-
bably be long unsupplied.

3rd. In regard to the improvements which
might be effected in Denmark — supposing that of
supplying better implements to be generally at-
tained, which however is still far from being the
case — it will be seen that, in the richer soils, much
good might be done by draining ; in the dairy dis-
tricts by improving the quality of the cheese, so
that this, as well as butter, might become an arti-
cle of export, and by the introduction of green
crops, by which a rich winter-food might be more
readily attained ; in the breeding provinces, by
the general diffusion of a kind of stock which
would come to earlier maturity, so that the price
of cattle when fit for the butcher might be lessened
by the cost of two or three years' feed ; in the flat
and gravelly or sandy heaths, by a more extensive
marling, and by a trial of the effects of the drain ;
and on the sandy soils, by irrigation for the dry
pastures, and by the use of spurry for the loose
and naturally unprofitable arable sands.

The reader who shall hereafter travel in the
Danish provinces will probably discover many other
improvements which capital and time may effect ;
yet he will not, I trust, fail to give the Danish
people credit for what they have already done. If
they are, in some parts of their country, a century
behind our most iniproved districts, they are at
least as far behind them also in wealth, and in the
other means by which improvements are effected.

Extensive Use or Oxen. — At the last
New-Haven County Agricultural Society's Fair, there
were no less than one thousand and twenty-six oxen
exhibited upon the ground. They were paraded, in
five hundred and thirteen yokes, in the form of a hollow
square, in a beautiful green in the shape of a parallelo.
gram of fifty-four by twenty rods, surrounded by
double rows of magnificent elms. When thus arranged
Ihey covered a space equal to 1^ mile in length. Such
a sight was truly worth seeing, and we think should
teach those farmers who use horses exclusively for farm
purposes that they would find their interest in sub-
stituting, in part, oxen or mules in their stead. —
Cont. Farmer,, U. S.

THE VAUMER'S MAGAZIIM^L.

427

HINTS TO FARMERS' LABOURERS.

" AN iioxEsr man's tup, noblest -work of

GOD.''

" III faros llio land, to Imstenia* ills a prey,
T\'ln>ro wealtli accunmlates and men decay;
rriiues and lords may floiirUh, or may fade ;
A Ijrealh cau make them, as u breath lias made ;
But a bold peasantry, their country's pride,
When once destroyed, can never be supplied."

Qoldsmith's Deserted Village.

ail—

TJJii PEASANTRY OF ENGLAND.
The peasantry of England,

Who till their native soil—
Tho loj-al, true, and hrave are they,
^ Althoui^h they live to toil;
For they are England's ov.'n true men—

Her rural sons and free-
To drive the plough or wield the ll-iil,

Or guard her liberty.
The peasantry of England,

Whose wealth is their iireside ;
\\ hose manly sons and daughters fair

Inspire their breasts with pride;
Whose only feast " The Harvest Jlome,"

^Vhose only pride "The Fair;"
AVho love the bills and plains to roam,

Free as their native air.

God bless the English peasantry !

Blest be their happy home ;
God speed the plough— tho loom — the

A thousand years to come ;
And may the manly pride they boast

Each galhint breast sustain,
To guard from foes their native coast,

And England's rights maintain.

R. B.

J'he labour of the husbandman h his wealth.— His
character is his recoramendaticn. — Labour with
character always finds a market. — Labour with-
out character is neglected ;

THERKFORE,

Honesty is the best policy.

Neither steal yourself nor allow others to steal.

Blen steal little things, not because they are little,
but the better to avoid detection.

He that will steal a pin will steal a greater thing ;
and he that will steal a pint will steal a bushel.

Lying and dishonesty are next akin. — "Men first
steal, and then lie to conceal."

If you would succeed, neither lie nor steal.— Ho
that practises either is sure of detection.

" The pitcher that goes oft to the well is sure to
be broken."

Avoid drunkenness, as the parent of all vice, and
as the source of all misery.

Avoid smoking, as it leads to drunkenness.

Avoid drinking on the road when entrusted with
horses. — " Many a little makes a mickle." — Although
you may not intend to get drunk, stil! you may un-
consciously do so.

A drunkard is a pest : he destroys his health — the
peace of his familj', and seeks his own destruction.

AS REGARDS YOUR MASTER,

Never divulge your master's secrets.
Never neglect his business in his absence.
Never allow others to rob or injure him.
Never neglect or abuse his cattle or horses.

Never allow live stock to want either food or
water.

Never suffer cattle to break pasture wilkout stop-
ping the gap, or informing your master.

Never allow horses when at work to drink cold
water, until they have first had food.

Never allow horses when heated to stand still
long together.

Never take the halter or bridle from a horse whilst
in shafts.

Never fasten a horse to the manger without a
clog.

Never take a candle from a lantern, or let the lan-
tern door remain open.

Never allow a horse to work on the road without
shoes.

Never turn a pair of horses sharply lound at har-
rows. If harrows are turned over, the horses pro-
bably will be both killed.

Never force a key into a lock.

Never meddle with machinery when in motion.

Never borrow or use anything without returning
it. — " There is a place for everything, and everything
should be in its place."

Never use a roller, cart, waggon, or machinery,
that re(]uire greasing.

Never allow cattle to refuse food, without inform-
ing your master.

Never allow them to remain ill without assistance.

Never suffer rooks or larks to injure crops.

Never suffer pigs to root, without ringing them.

Never beat or correct horses, when angry.

Never drive cows fast from the cowhouse, or on
the road.

Never jump or slide from a loaded waggon or
stack.

Never trust yourself in a cart without reins.

Never ride upon the shafts.

Never give a saucy answer. — " A soft answer
turueth away wrath.''

" Waste not, want not."

" Early to bed and early to rise makes a man
healthy, wealthy, aud wise."

" For age and want spare whilst you may,
No morning sun lasts a whole day."

A penny saved is a penny got. — He who saves a
penny a day will obtain thirty shillings a year.

" A stitch in time saves nine."

" For want of a nail the shoe was lost,
For want of a shoe the horse was lost.
For want of a horse the rider was lost."

Preserve health as an inestimable blessing ;

TO DO so.

Never drink to excess.

Never drink strong liquors.

Never drink cold water when heated by labour, or
suffer the body to cool suddenly.

Never sit in a draught of air.

Never cease moving whilst in wet clothes.

Never dry them before the fire whilst on.

Never quarrel or fight.

" Those who in quarrels interpose
Must often wipe a bloody nose."

Remember God seest always ; act as if in his pre*
sence. Obey bis commands, and above all,

Keep the Sabbath Day Holy.
" The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wis-
dom." R. B.
Wriltle, January 20tli, 1843.

All workmen coming to, or leaving these premises
at morning or night, are desired to do so by the
F F 2

428

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

gates nearest the farm-house ; aad any one de-
tected leaving by the back of the premises will be
disciiarged.
Aay workman making application for turnips or other
produce will, if his demand be reasonable, have
it allowed; but any one detected thieving, how-
ever small the thing may be, will be punished.

ST. PETER'S FARMERS' CLUB.

SECOND ANNUAL REPORT.
Mav 24th.

Subject discussed: — "The best mode of ma-
naging a dairy in this neighbourhood in the
winter."

Resolved : " It is not in general advantageous
to calve the same cows successively for the
winter dairy, but to buy in cosvs as they are
wanted. It is advisable to purchase them about
four years old, and such as are likely to make
good beasts in the early part of the succeeding
summer."

The best way of keeping in the winter is on cut
fodder, mixing straw with the hay if the latter is
good. Also a portion of Swedish turnips and
wurzel mixed, but little wurzel the early part of
the winter, increasing the proportion as the spring
approaches. We consider carrots to be better
than either wurzel or turnips, but we are not pre-
pared to decide whether they are so much better
as to pay for the extra espences required in pro-
curing them. To this food we approve of the ad-
dition of two oilcakes per day for each cow, consi-
dering the nutritious qualities of this food so
great, that the animal will require much less of
other, while it will produce an increase of milk,
with improvement in condition. As soon as
"green meat" can be obtained, we think it well to
mix a small portion with the cut fodder.

Warmth and cleanliness we consider of as much
importance to cows as good keep, with a good
supply of clear soft water, and as mucli regularity
in the time of milking as possible. The turnips,
wurzel, or carrots, should be given to the cows
immediately after milking. A careful observance
of this is necessary, in order to avoid an unplea-
sant flavour in the milk.

It is not supposed that under this mode of ma-
nagement, or any other, in this neighbourhood,
cows can be kept for the purpose of making butter
in the winter with any probability of profit.
Therefore we do not recommend the keeping a
winter dairy to any one who cannot find regular
customers for new milk and cream.

Second Meeting, June 14th.

The question respecting the " Management of
a summer dairy" was discussed.

Resolved : •' That great pains should be taken
to obtain good cows, when they are to be kept es-
pecially for milking. The York or Devon breed
may be considered to answer our purpose best.
But, of whatever breed, we give the preference to
a cow possessing the following points — viz., a thin
head and neck, broad hipped, clean and short
legged, a good skinned udder, but not fleshy, and
a good-tempered countenance; and we think that
March is the best time for calving.

Taking into consideration the scarcity of grass,
and the difficulty of getting a good meadow,

arising from the dryness we are subject to in this
neighbourhood in the summer, it is thought best
to feed in general on lucerne, 'i'his produces the
greatest quantity of keep, and is very nutritious.
We consider it most economical to cut it in a
cutting box, and to give it the cows in the stall.
When the lucerne gets old and dry, the food is
much improved by mixing with it a little young
clover. We consider stall-feeding preferable the
greater part of the summer, as it keeps the cow
quieter than any other plan, a consideration of
considerable importance in the production of a
large quantity of milk. It is our opinion that in
autumn no keep surpasses sanfoin rowin, and that
cows may then be taken to the field and kept
upon it in the morning and evening with great ad-
vantage.

A plentiful supply of good soft water is truly
desirable throughout the year, but especially in
the summer; and for the purpose of obtaining
this, every farm-house should have attached to it
a large rain-water tank, and the whole of the
buildings should be surrounded by gutters to take
the water to this reservoir for the supply of the
dairy cows. If it is necessary to obtain water
from the wells at this season of the year, we think
it should be exposed to the air two or three days
previous to its being given to the cows.

The discussion did not extend to the making of
butter, this being a matter of minor importance
to a St. Peter's farmer, nearly all the milk our
dairies produce being consumed in the neighbour-
ing towns and villages.

Third Meeting, July 12th.

The question discussed was respecting the
" Best breed of pigs, and the best mode of feeding
from the time they are farrowed."

Resolved : "That the best breeds of pigs in this
neighbourhood are those which approach nearest
the Essex. That it would be highly advantageous
frequently to cross our best sorts. That it is best
to feed a sow, while her pigs are under her, on
pollard the first fortnight ; afterwards on pollard
with a third part of barley-meal morning and
evening, and about half a gallon of beans in the
middle of the day. A plentiful supply of water
should be kept by the sow during the whole time
her pigs are with her. That the pigs should be
castrated at about five weeks old, and weaned at
six weeks old. That it is best to commence feed-
ing the weaned pigs on soft food, such as sharps or
middlings, wiih a small portion of barley-meal
twice a day, and a little whole corn (oats and bar-
ley mixed) once a day, for the first fortnight ;
afterwards grey peas. That when the pigs get
seven or eight weeks old, a greater proportion of
barley-meal may bo used, with bran (instead of
sharps and middlings), and steamed potatoes.
The bran is to rectify the too-astringent properties
of the barley-meal. The whole corn now to be
dispensed with.

This mode of feeding may be kept up to the last
with the gradual increase of the proportion of
barley-meal.

Throughout the whole time a good supply of
water is essential.

In August and September, owing to the thin
attendance of members, no particular discussion
was entered upon.

October 18th.
The subject introduced was respecting the
" Best mode of preparing wheat for iseed,"

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

429

There were but few points connected with this
question in which tlic members jnesent were of
the same opinion. All agreed, however, that there
is a tendency in wheat in this neighbourhood to
produce collor or smut, and it was pretty generally
allowed that if sown without preparation that ten-
dency was greater. Some we-e disposed to think
that collor was produced by the weather ; and
that, while none may be grown in one year, though
the wheat sliould not be prepared at all, a great
quantity may be i)roduccd another year, whatever
I)reparations may be used. It was, however, the
more general opinion on this point, that in bad
years wheat that has been sowed without prepara-
tion has been most productive of collor ; so that,
\yhile in good years it luay be of little use to wet,
lime, or blues:one the wheat, in bad years it is a
very valuable preventive of evil. Some members
present were disposed to think, that good seed and
a wet season were, in this neighbourhood, all that
we wanted to secure us from collor. Others could
testify that a field known by them to be good deep
land was sown with a most beautiful lot of wheat,
brought out of Esse.^ last year, and sown particu-
larly wet, and had produced an abundant crop this
year of fine wheat, but more collor amongst it
than had been seen any where in the neighbour-
hood. Some were of opinion, that if there was
collor grown amongst the wheat used for seed, it
would certainly produce the same again; while
others were of an opposite opinion, the latter suj)-
pobing that the capability of the collor to inocu-
late the wheat was destroyed in the liming, &c.,
consideied by them of so n)uch importance.

The discussion was carried on with much life
and spirit throughout the evening, and as our
chairman was absent, it was agieed it should be
resumed at the next monthly meeting.

November. — No discussion.

December. — The ploughing match of the
" Agricultural Association.''

January .3rd.

The subject of" Preparing wheat for seed" was
resumed; and after a long discussion, the meeting
was unanimous in passing the following resolu-
tions, viz : —

" That it is best in this neighbourhood to obtain
our seed wheat from deeper and heavier soils than
our own. That it is advisable to sow good stout,
healthy-looking grain. That it should be prepared
by the application of lime or bluestone."

It is thought best to apply lime in the following
way : — Put two gallons of fresh slaked lime into a
tub of water that is large enough to receive the
seed-basket ; stir it well ; then dip a basket of
wheat, let it remain in the water a few minutes,
skim off the corn that swims on the top ; then
draw out the basket of %vheat and shoot it on the
floor, and sift over it a small portion of fresh
slaked lime (say half a gallon to a bushel of
wheat), and mix it up well with the wheat ; add
occasionally a little fresh lime to your tub of
water; and when your quantity fcr the time is
wet, give it a good mixing together, and let it re-
main in the heap a few hours. Prepared in this
way, it will be fit for sowing the next day. If the
wheat is to be drilled, it is thought best to use
fresh water, and to put more lime in the water,
which will render it unnecessary to sift any over
the wheat after it is taken out.

The following is the plan recommended for the
use of bluestone : —

Dissolve the bluestone in hot water, and mix i t
with the quantity of water required, at the rate of
one pound to every ten gallons of water ; and thus
throughout, adding one poutul of bluestone every
time It is found necessary to add ten gallons of
water, taking care to skim the light corn and rub-
bish oft" the wheat while it is in the water. The
wheat under tliis mode of preparation will be fit
either for sowing or drilling on the ensuing day.

January 31st.
The " Advantages or disadvantages of keeping
sheep in this neighbourhood" were considered.

It was noticed, that we at St. Peter's are very
j)articularly situated with regard to inducements
to keep sheep. Pirst, we have scarcely a farm
in the parish that has got a sheep-walk, or a
meadow of any size, attached to it ; and from our
exposure to dryness in summer, we have very little
inducement to sow grass. Second, we have great
facilities for procuring manure, being situated
between the towns of iVIargate and Ramsgate.
Still, some were of opinion that sheep would be so
great a change to much of our land, that, notwith-
standing our facilities of manuring without them,
there are still strong inducements to keep them.
Those gentlemen who are the principal sheep
keepers in the neighbourhood were present, and
were found ready to impart their best knowledge
for the information of the meeting. It was their
opinion, that though in many situations it was
most profitable to keep a breeding flock, yet in
this neighbourhood (if it was advisable to keep a
flock at all) it was better to take in lambs from a
respectable breeder at per week, from the middle
of September to the middle of April. Some years
it might pay better to purchase sheep or lambs,
but as our flocks here must be parted with at a
certain season of the year, let the price be what it
may, it was thought better, in general, to take
them to keep for the time we had a supply of food,
and then to send them hack to the owner. If
lambs were kept on this plan, it was most likely to
pay on a large scale ; at least, it was considered
necessary that, to employ a shepherd, not less
than 200 should be kept. The following calcula-
tions were then made, by which it appears that in
our situation, where good meadows are rare and
good manure abundant, the inducement to keep
sheep or lambs is by no means great.

£ s. d.
For keep of 200 lambs 30 weeks, at

50s. per week 75 0 0

20 perches of land folded nightly, 10s.
(reckoned equal to 16 sale loads of
dung per acre, at 5s. per load, in-
cluding cartage) 30 weeks 105 0 0

12 acres of turnips, at lOZ, per acre . .

Cole and grattens

Fodder for 20 weeks, 21s. per week .,
Shepherd's wages, 12s. per week ....
50 new wattles and stakes annually . . .
Sundries

£180 0 0

£ s. d.

120 0 0

10 0 0

21 0 0

18 0 0

4 0 0

5 0 0

£178 0 0
Balance in fuvour of lamb keeping, 2/. per annum,

A crop of turnips was calculated in two ways
— first, as to their cost to grow ; and secondly, as
compared with a crop of potatoes, for which the

430

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

land is equally suitable, and generally prepared in
a similar way; and in either case it apjieared that
turnips could not be reckoned on an average of
years to be worth less or to cost less than ten
pounds per acre.

Fei>rl!arv 7th.

The subject discussed was respecting a " Rota-
tion of crops."

It was doubted by the club whether it was ad-
visable, in this vichiity, for the farmer to reckon
himself bound by any particular system. It was
considered, however, that there are a few general
principles with regard to cropping; that ought to
be always acted on by the club, viz : — First, facili-
ties for procuring manure and opportunities of
cleaning the land for green crops being great in
this neighbourhood, what are called clear fallows
may be entirely dispensed with. Second, that it is
desirable as much as possible to plant green crops
(such as beans, peas, tares, turnips, radish, and
spinach), and white straws alternately ; and while
it is allowed that in some cases two white straw
crops may be gi-own in succession, it is pro-
nounced bad farming to attempt the growth of
three. And thirdly, it is the unanimous opinion
that wheat should not be grown here oftener than
twice in eight years.

Observing these principles in the general mode
of cropping, the following would be the rotation
recommended by the club, as far as their plans
can be reduced to system, viz. : —

Beginning with a field of foul wheat gratten,
they would by ploughing, scarifying, &c., clear it,
and manure it for potatoes or turnips. The second
year barley would be sown, and cloverseed ; or,
if a part is required for spinach the succeeding
year, on that part, of course, the cloverseed is
omitted. The third year the field is clover, or
spinach ground. Then, fourth, follows wheat, for
•which the clover or spinach ground is dunged.
Fifth, winter tares may be planted, afier which (as
they will come off early) the land may be well
cleared ; or the field may be well cleared in the
autumn and early in the spring, and cropped with
peas. Then, sixthly, follows barley ; seventh, ra-
dish or beans ; and eighth, wheat.

With this system of cropping-, it will be per-
ceived that no provision is made for the growth of
canary, oats, sainfoin, or lucerne ; with regard to
the two last mentioned, these cannot be grown
without throwing the field in which they are
planted out of course for a time, and it must be
brought in again according to circumstances
which it is thought not necessary to mention here,
and but slight inconvenience is occasioned there-
by ; and as to canary and oats, it is the opinion of
the club, that they are not in general so profitable
to be grown here as barley, yet not altogether to
be dispensed with, as it may be profitable to grow
canary where barley would be likely to be too
strong, and in some cases it may answer to plant
oats after a green crop, and to follow them by an-
other green crop, which will (on that field) throw
the second crop of wheat back to the ninth year •
consequently, there is not an opinion in favour of
growing oats to a great extent.
_ As a general principle of manuring, the opinion
IS, that half the land under tillage should be ma-
nured every year, and that the manure should bo
generally used for wheat, i)otatoes, and turnips,
for barley when the field has not been dunged tiic
preceding year, and for peas.

March 4th.

Considerable discussion took place respecting
the present amount of wages paid (o tradesmen.

It has been ascertained that higher prices are
paid here than in any other places in the Isle of
Thanet. And it was resolved, " that considering
the present reduced price of provisions, there
ought to be a corresponding reduction in tlie price
of tradesmen's labour; and that the club is una-
nimous in determining to bring about this reduc-
tion by such means as are in their power.''

MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF
VEGETABLES.

" Let us bear always in mind, that wliile the country
grants protection to Agriculture, it will expect in return,
that the land shall be cultivated in the best and most pro-
ductive manner." — Duuleny.

CtO the editor of the west BRITON.)

Such, Sir, is the object of manuring; not just to
enable the plant to live, but to facilitate and encour-
age its luxuriant growth, and attain its utmost pro-
duce. Such is the farmer's purpose ; and with this
in view, he collects and returns to the soil as much
as he can of what was drawn from it, as the dung,
straw, weeds, &c. And if he could thus return the
whole of the produce, the land would go on pro-
gressively enriching by organic matter, drawn from
the air in vegetation, until it should attain, or even
overpass, the utmost limit of fertility that organic
matter can confer. But this, in the first place, he
cannot do, because he must send more or less of his
produce to market ; and next, if he could, there are
other materials, now well known to be equally ne-
cessary to fertility as the organic ingredients, though
in much smaller quantity. And agricultural experi-
ence has abundantly shown, of late years, that sur-
prising effects have followed the application of small
quantities of certain manures, even in some cases
when heavv dressings of dung had failed.

In fact, the plant can draw from the aircnly those
elements which exist there in the form of gas and
vapour (namely, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and
nitrogen) ; the rest must be drawn from the soil.
And however rich that may be in organic residue, it
can produce and bring to perfection no more than it
can supply, also, with the others, namely, the mine-
ral ingredients. And hence it is that rich dressing
is sometimes less effective than a small quantity of a
mineral ingredient, of which the soil happens to be
deficient.

To all this the farmer is fully alive. He is trying
salt, nitrate of soda, gypsum, hone dust, and other
concentrated manures ; sometimes to his great en-
couragement ; sometimes with disappointment. In
the first case he becomes prejudiced in favour of
the manure, and will perhaps use and recommend it
injudiciously ; in the other he condemns and neglects
it, when it might have been serviceable. And how-
can it be otherwise, until knowing what his respec-
tive crops draw from the ground, he has a guide
what to restore and supplv to it to favour their
growth?

The following table will afi'ord. at least, an intro-
duction to such knowledge. It is extracted from a
rather more comprehensive one, drawn up by Dr.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

431

Daiibeney, and published by the Royal Agricultural
Societj'. And it must be received witli tliis caution ;
that plants seem to take up rather more of these
ingredients where tliey abound in the soil, and vice
versa ; as, for example, a turnip crop upon hone
dust, would be likely to yield more phosphate of
lime than one on yard dung only ; and so of others,
as seen by the different quantities of ii.ved (or mine-
ral) ingredients* found by Sprengel and Boussain-
gault in the same crops.

To establish the best and most productive pro-
portions that the plant will require, a long- series of
analyses is necessary ; but in tlie meanwhile such
as we have, those chieliy of Sprengel, will throw
some light upon the farmer's proceedings and re-
sults. With this before hiai, for instance, he would
not expect mucli good irom gypsum (sulphuric acid
and lime) for a crop of rye or oats ; but would try
it for clover, where the land did not answer well to
other manure: —

Beet Root, dry

Turnijis, fresh

Swedes, dry

Carrots. do

1

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Rye

Potatoes

Beans

Bean Straw, dry

Vetches

Straw of Vetches, dry. . .

Pea Straw, green

Sainfniti do

Barley

Oats

Oat St.ravi;

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to Oi "<? CO 03
to ^ Oi O to

Oi

oococi-'03a>eooctntso*-or |

tS OD On Ot hS i-i 1

0,tOitSCOi-v 05OOt£^^ ^^ 1

•O

o

Hi *. to

J> *. Oi O'

ifi Hi

to o *•

r

i<-
1
L

to

p =

H< O

S o jj.
3 "*n.

4i O- ^ OD

C-, t« O O *Q K O-t Ot >{^ to to

» s o C*.
? » "■ ro

to

1-1*. l-»Oi l-i. •0*.>;i.f0>0l-' K) M.
O^ii^OtO^'O'.O'iJH'i^i-OIStO "O Oi

yi O"! c ut o C-. o o c- o lo o o Oi CO w ^

400

2870
1182
3856
1976

m

tOKHi^J >-'03l-i 1-1. l-i

O ^0 *. (O ^3 lO 00 O 03 0> t® a- 05 CO O' ^ 10 ~^ OS HI Or 03 Oi

a;OH'00(ii.>ii.to«3^03tooiii<otf>o 03 vootco^o^? o

£ n. f

03 ^ HI rfi. M to 03 to Hk to HI to to Hk to HI ^
•■C O ^J CTi 03 03 to OIT J^ O OD rf- to -O >(^ O' v;i. HI ^} Oi HI ^J o

O'coos^cicocosooooo-. tco>-^ c^ tooooo o

to 03 Ut '

Ot C» to CO H» --7 03 CO 03 CO >fi CO .£. M HI h* ^ Hi 03 H^

•;iOiosocoo^coai>f^oD*.03 0Hio>^ <o oncts<oo o

fO o

Oil -J o>. oi HI M. to 1*. to Ot to 03 to to HI yt to On to 03 to

OOO-'O'OOtClOl'Oii-HicOi-'H-CO^J O ^OttO03 0r HI
»0 *. 0-! CO O ^? ~^ CO -<l C-, O VC to 03 H^ <0 if- if. CO ifi. ifi. HI 03

OCT, C0O-, 03H'HiOH.if.h-c2Hia, if>.03 o ooif-<oeo ^t

Total of
fixed*
Ingre-
dients.

2430
6970

3980
5090

2370

3680
(3900 dry)

3140
(11,000 dry)

(7760 dry)

6240
(7380 dry^

According
boussaingj

Fixed
Ingredients.

6S MOT Hllfi-HiHlOlt M. tOKS 03

*. HI Ci On in Ot 03 c> — O' O 1- O' 03 Oi 03 to to O 03 On
O OiCl OnOOOOeo^ O03OO 'O CO#iO)tOO' HI

o eoocoooooo oooo o ocooo o

|N

From this table he can easily reckon the quanti- of 601bF. each, equal to 1500lbs. ; the quantity per
ties per acre, according to bis produce ; say, for acre will be, to that in the table, as 1500 to 100,000:
instance, that he get.s 25 imperial bushels of wheat — multiply by 15, and divide by 1,000 or, (which is

432

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tbe same thing) strike off the last three figures, esti-
mating their value. And talie the straw at double,
say S.OOOlbs. :—

POTASS POTASS. PER TABLE.

Grain, 2251bs. Straw, 201bs. in 100,0001bs. each.
15 30

1125

225

3,375 3,975 or

nearly 4lbs. potass per acre of wheat, and so of the
other ingredients.

Another example — Turnips. Say crop 25 tons, or
56,0001bs. per acre. Here the quantity per acre is
to that on the table as 56,000 to 100,000. Multiply
by 56 and divide by 100, or strike off the last two
figures.

Phosphoric acid in the table 731bs. in 100,000
56

Nearly 411bs. per acre 40-88
And in the same way we may reckon the other con-
tents of a crop or course of crops.

Now, the ingredients thus drawn off from the soil
must be restored in tbe manure. If the turnips are
eaten on the ground and the straw returned in the
dung, the only loss will be in the corn.

But as he cannot get potass and phosphoric acid,
in their separate states, at a price to use as manure,
he employs other materials containing them : straw
and vegetable ashes containing potass ; bone dust
and night soil containing phosphoric acid. There-
fore, to render his calculations satisfactory, he ought
to have also a table of the proportions of these and
other ingredients in his manures. Such an one I
hope to supply you on a future occasion,
Being, Sir, &c,,

J. Pridfaux.

ILLOGAN FARMERS' CLUB.

THIRD ANNUAL RErORT.

Three years have passed away since the formation
of the lUogan Farmers' Club, and it is not discredi-
table that it was the second, in the order of time,
which had an existence in the county ; but this
would be matter of little gratulation in presenting
our third annual report, could we not point at ad-
vantages of a much higher order. Our numbers
have steadily increased, and we have now from 70
to 80 members, and although in the first year of
the club's being established, we had considerably in-
creased the breadth of turnips, and diffused much
agricultural information by the monthly discussions
and the distribution of books; and the committee
hope from the appointment of an assistant-secre-
tary, that a more general and regular delivery will
be effected to the diffusion of the science, in con-
nection with the practice of agriculture. The in-
crease of the green crop is highly satisfactory, and
we hope soon will generally afford a good and plen-
tiful supply for cattle throughout the circle of the
year; this is one of the greatest instances we know
of the intelligence and energy of man overconiing
tbe natural sterility of winter, and making it

equally beneficial to the more fertile and genial
summer. Now the farmers' cattle, instead of the
few, and those starved and rough, shivering under
the hedge in winter, are many, well fed and sleek,
in better condition when brought out of the house,
than they formerly were at the end of the summer.
For this we are mainly indebted to the turnip ; but
it is also necessary to have early spring feed, which
is found in Italian rye grass, and the new vetch
called tbe " Racer," which will reach three feet
high by the 1st of May, an account of which will be
found in the third volume of the Journal of the
Royal Agricultural Society. We see the Belgian
white carrot getting into favour, and we think it
will prove a great friend to the farmer ; in a neigh-
bourhood like this, where agriculture generally has
long been considered secondary, from the contigu-
ity of the mines, where horse labour was formerly
so much required, and which, no doubt, paid
better than either feeding or breeding, it is no
marvel that it should be comparatively behind ;
but from the general intelligence and the loss
of the usual employments through machinery and
the railway, there is little reason to doubt but the
farming of the neighbourhood will soon be abreast
with more favoured districts, if not in the fertility
of the soil, in the method of cultivation.

The great desideratum of the farmer is manure,
and it is scarcely possible on comparatively poor
farms, that there can be enough made in the farm-
yard, although, it must be admitted, that there is
no manure so good for all crops — it has the ele-
ments of all, and is therefore good for all ; but till
enough can be made at home (and the heap may be
much increased by sand, ditch and road scrapings,
and greatly enriched by throwing over it the liquid
manure) we must go abroad for artificial manures ;
the best of these are bone and guano. There has
been much of quackery in many of the new ma-
nures, of which farmers should be aware. The
small quantities which will suffice of bone and guano,
make these comparatively inexpensive, when car-
riage and labour are considered. Before quitting
manure, we may congratulate the club on the ana-
lysis of the sands in the neighbourhood, and which
has so clearly shown the great value of the Gwithian
and South Towan sands, and which appear from for-
mer analyses of soils obtained from Professor Phil-
lips to be so essential for this locality ; the carbonate
of lime being the ingredient in which the soils are
deficient.

It remains now that we record our sense of obli-
gation to our noble patroness, Lady Bassett, through
whose generosity we principally attribute our suc-
cess, and also to our president, .John Bassett, Esq.,
who has kindly made a handsome addition to our
library, and whose kindness has always cheered us
in any exertions we have made for the club's wel-
fare ; and it would be ingratitude, of which we can-
not be guilty, to pass unnoticed our Vice-Chair-
men, the Rev. (ieorge Treweeke and W. Reynolds,
Esq., who, whenever health would permit, winter
and summer, were always at their posts in the
monthly meetings, and have fostered in every way
the Society which involves the prosperity and hap-
piness of a large community.

AVe proceed to lay before you the minutes of each
month.

In April we read our second report, and dis-
cussed the subject of" the best rotation of crops as
applicable to the neighbourhood," and resolved that
for the granite soils, the following rotation was the
best: — 1st, oats; 2nd, turnips or potatoes; 3rd,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

433

oats or barley ; 4tli, grass, to lie unbroken for two
or three years. For the clay and heavier soils— 1st,
wheat or oats; 2n(l, turnips ; Snl, barley; 4th,
"■rass; or this rotation— 1st, potatoes; 2n(l, wheat;
Sni, turnips; 4lh, barley or oats; 5th, grass, to lie
unbroken for two years.

In May we arranged the prizes, &c., foraplongh-
ing match; and ]Mr. Peter read his paper on crop-
ping, as applicable to the neighbourhood— the ro-
tations recommended are very much the same as
those resolved on in April.

In June the ploughing match took place at Pool,
and the work done was of the best description, and
"was considered highly creditable to the neighhonr-

hood. . 1 •

The first prize for clean plonghing, without dri-
ver, was won by John Skewis, servant of Lady
Bassett,Tehidy Park.

Second do., John Clemo, do.

First prize do., with driver, Stephen Rnndle,
servant of Mr. W. Burgess, Wengorc.

Second do., Sampson Baskerfield, servant of Mr.
John Teagne, Penhillick.

First prize for combing or rib-plonghing, without
driver, Thomas iMaynard, servant of W. Reynolds,
Esq., Trevenson.

Second prize do., with driver, Philip Sings, ser-
vant of Mr. Carthew, Tregajorran.

For boys under 10. — First prize for combing, with
driver, Samuel Bennetts, jun., son of Mr. Bennetts,
Feadon.

Second do., for do., John Davey, jun,, son of Mr.
Davey, Chigarder.

The club afterwards dined at the Bassett's x\rms.
The Rev. (ieo. Treweeke, V. P., in the chair, and
after dinner there was considerable interchange of
agricultural information.

In July the subject of" Artificial Manures" was
partially discussed, and is to be resumed when some
experiments made by the members are completed.

In August, there being no subject of discussion
placed on the minutes, the conversation turned on
subjects connected with the harvest. It was agreed
that oats in very dry weather should be left riper
than in wet weather, and the oats were improved
by a shower when cut. It was thought a good plan
for farmers to assist each other in the cutting down
their corn ; it would then be down in a day or two,
instead of a week or fortnight ; there would be less
waste, and it would be sooner secured— no trifling
advantao-e in this uncertain climate. It was re-
commended that farmers should take care that their
mowsteadsand stackyards should be in order before
harvest, that they may not miss the first fitting op-
portunity for carrying their corn.

In September the prizes for turnips were fixed.

LADY BASSETT'S PRIZES.

FIRST CLASS, HOLDIXCi 40 ACRES AND ABOVE.

£. S. d.

For the best crop of Swedes ..300
For the best crop of pastures. 2 0 0

SECOND CLASS, HOLDIXG 10 ACRES, AND NOT
MORE THAN 40.

Forthe best crop of Swedes.. 2 0 0
For the best crop of pastures. 1 10 0
The expence of tillage, with the quantity, kind,

and value, of the manure used, will be required.

Resolved.— That the Club's prizes for turnips be the

same as last year, and that the judges inspect the

crops about the middle of November.

In October the most economical mode of winter
feeding horses was partially discussed, and is to be
resuiiii d at our next meeting.

In iVovember the subject of the most economical
mode of keeping liorses had furtlier consideration,
and it was resolved, that the best was the most
economical food; that hay cliaft'ed, and oats
bruised, and mixed together, were the best and
cheapest for farm and other liorses of full work ;
that about S.'ilbs. of this mixture was enough for a
hoi se a day ; horses with easy work might be kept
cheaper on cut straw and steamed Swedes.

Dr. Maddon's paper, on the advantages to prac-
tical agriculture of an extended chemical analysis,
was read.

In December the annual meeting took place at
Pool, when about sixty gentlemen sat down to an
excellent dinner ; the Rev. Geo. Treweeke, V. P., in
the chair. After the usual toasts were drunk, the
chairman called npon the judges, Messrs. Rowe and
Harris, to state their awards for the green crop,
when Mr. Rowe gave a pleasing statement of their
inspection of the whole of the parish, the result of
which was the following awards: —

FOR THE CLUB. £. s.

Mr. Penpraze, Mount Whistle, 1st. prize for

Swedes .3 0

Mr. Hugh Phillips, Forest, 1st prize for

pastures 2 0

Mr. John Hickens, Tregea, 2nd prize for

Swedes 1 0

Mr. Henry Willoughby, Pool, 2nd prize for

pastures 1 0

LADY BASSETT'S PRIZES.

FIRST CLASS.

Mrs. Grace Paull,' Highway, 1st prize for

Swedes 5 0

Mr. Thomas Davey, Namekuke, 1st prize for

pastures 2 10

SECOND CLASS.

Mr. \V. Kite, Porth Towan, 1st prize for

Swedes 2 0

Mr. S. Bennett, Feadon, 1st prize for pas-
tures 1 10

Mr. Rowe gave a detail of the mode of cultivation
and the nature and quantity of manure used. The
most esteemed was bone-dust. In tlie instance of
Mr. Penpraze, Mr. Rowe stated that 41. worth of
bone had produced as good a crop as SI. worth of
dung. Mr. Harris corroborated Mr. Howe's state-'
ments, and said the husbandry of the parish was
highly creditable.

Mr. James Paull and Mr. John Rosewarne gave
their award of Lady Bassett's prize of 51. for the
best cultivated farm, to Mr. Burgess, of Trengove;
and that of W. Reynolds, Esq., of 51., for the farm,
of which the buildings, hedges, and gates, were kept
in the best order, to Mr. Charles Paul!. W. Rey-
nolds, Esq., brought before the meeting the analy-
sis of sands obtained by Mr. Hickens, showing that
the sands of Gwithian and Pliillack contained 70
per cent, of the carbonate of lime; and that of
Porth to wan 48 per cent., both of which are most
valuable to this locality, as tlie soil is deficient of
the carbonate of lime, according to an analysis ob-
tained from Professor Phillips.

In January, as there appeared to be some un-
certainty respecting the statement of the weight of

434

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

turnips per acre, it was thought best to institute an
enquh'y, and it was found that turnips weighing 21bs.
each, in drills of "2 ft. and 1 ft. apart, would give,
lier acre, 19 tons 8 cwt. 3 qrs. ; do., .^Ibs., 29 tons 3
cwt. 1 qr. ; do., 41bs., 38 tons 17 cwt. 3 qrs.; do.,
.'jibs., 48 tons 12 cwt. 1 qr. ; do.,C)lbs.,58 tons 6cwt.
3 qrs.

In February there was a revision of the rules, and
an assistant secretary was elected, and several re-
gulations respecting the books agreed upon.

In March the subject of " Manures," which was
to have been introduced by Mr. M. Harris, was de-
ferred till the next meeting, in consequence of the
absence of that gentleman.

It was resolved that the mode of improving land
by the folding of sheep, has not been sufficiently
noticed or enforced, and that this subject be brought
before the club at our next meeting, in connection
with the subject on " Manures."

This concludes our year's work, and we may be
permitted to hope that the Society has done some-
thing by the way of uniting the science and prac-
tice of agriculture. — April 15th.

ON LEASES.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE FARMER's MAGAZINE.

Sir, — As the subject of granting leases is one
on which a great deal has been said and written,
both for and against, I hope you will not think me
trespassing on your kindness in sending the follow-
ing account of the method of fixing acorn rent on
land, which was suggested to me by a very intelli-
gent gentleman, who has farmed well and success-
fully for some years.

As a preliminary observation, allow me to state
that whatever merit there may be in the proposal
is entirely due to my friend, as I have only put his
ideas on paper, a task he would have fulfilled much
better himself, could he have spared the time.

So much has been urged in favour of leases, and
so many arguments brought forward by men of the
greatest experience to show the risk an annual te-
nant must incur by investing his capital in the im-
provement of land on so uncertain a tenure, that I
think I may venture to assume a lease is the only
security that can justify a farmer in an outlay, for
which he can only expect to be remunerated in the
course of some years.

Now a lease, taken no more than a twelvemonth
ago, at a rent warranted by the value of agricultural
produce at that time, should the depression that
has since taken place continue a few years, must
inevitably ruin the tenant, unless he be a man of in-
dependent property, and even then he would see his
lease out at a considerable sacrifice; while by a lease
taken at the present low prices, in case of as sudden
a favourable change, the landlord would not derive
the advantage from his land to which he is justly
entitled. It has been fully proved by agricultural
writers that a farmer should make three rents, in
order to procure a remuneration that would justify
him in continuing to hold any land. Taking this
for a groundwork on which to fix a corn rent, the
average number of bushels, both of wheat and bar-
ley, per acre, should bo ascertained over the whole
farm, the value of one acre of wheat and one acre
of barley added together, and one third of the amount
will be the rent for four acres. On this principle
the intervening green crops are considered as merely
jircparatory, and therefore arc not taken at all into

the valuation. As half the land is imder corn on
the four field system, the value of the produce of
these two acres is the rent of four in fixing a corn-
rent. Should any other course of crops be followed
instead of the proposed system, the valuers would
only have to calculate what the land would produce
in corn if cultivated on the four field rotation.

My friend, who is an excellent judge of the qua-
lity and value of land, first took a hill farm, which
we agreed would produce on an average 17 bushels
of wheat and 25 bushels of barley per acre, and
made the calculation for a corn rent on last year's
prices as follows : —

s. d.
17 bush, of wheat at 8s. . 136 0
25 do. of barley at 4s 100 0

3)236 0 three rents.
4)78 8 rent for four acres.

19 8 rent per acre.

Now the land in question has been valued by the
best judges with us at about a. pound an acre, ra-
ther under than over.

We then took a large farm of a better description,
and fixed the averages at 25 bushels of wheat and
35 of barley, which gave the value as follows : —

s. d.
25 bush, of wheat at 8s.. 200 0
35 do. of barley at 4s. . . . 140 0

5)340 0

4)113 4 rent for four acres.

^8 4 value per acre,
which is about the rent paid by the tenant, who has
occupied the farm for some years.

If we take these calculations from the average
price of corn in this district for the present year, we
have

s. d.

25 bush.

barley at 3s .

. . . 75

0

3)177

0

4)59

0

And

25 bush.
35 busb.

wheat at 6s. .
barh'y at 3s., .

14

, .. 150
. .. 105

9 per acre.

0
0

3^255

0

4;>85 0

21 3 per acre,
which would he some reduction in the rent to assist
the tenant in meeting the present depression in agri-
cultural produce.

I have only to add, that by this plan of letting a
farm out of condition, both the tenant and the land-
lord would he benefited ; the former, by having
his rent fixed at the value of the land when he took
possession, would be stimulated to invest capital in
the improvement of his farm ; and the latter would
have his estate increased in valne by the superior
manner in which it would be cultivated.

I am, sir, your obedient servant,

Chepstotv, 3I(nj Otli. Veritas.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

435

EXPERIMENTS WITH GUANO.

[prom the WIGTOWNSHIRE FRKE PRESS.]

At the recent monthly meeting of the Highland nud
Agricultural Society of Scotland, held in Edinburj^h,
several important papers were submitted to the meet-
ing well worthy of public attention. To some of these
we shall now shortly advert; and as the season for
preparing tiie ground and manure for turnips is at
hand, we allude first to some experiments reported on
the subject of guano. Some three weeks ago we gave
an excellent anicle from the Gardener's Chronicle, on
the general elements of manures, of the mode of mak-
ing composts, and the effects of each. Since then we
liave received from Messrs. Gibbs, Bright, and Co.,
merchants, Liverpool, a copy of their pamphlet on the
subject, containing a great mass of experiments made
in all quarters with guano, which pamphlet we strongly
recommend to our agricultutal readers. The experi-
ments, however, to which we mean now more particu-
larly to allude, as reported to (he Higldand and Agri-
cultural Society, were made by J. Dudgeon, Esq.,
Spylaw, and were attended with so great success, that
this year that gentleman intends to put in sixty acres
of turnips with guano. Mr. Dudgeon tested this ma-
nure by a trial against common farm-yard dung and
bones. In his first experiment he tried the compara-
tive value of dung and guano, used in the f jllowing
proportions, which show the great advantage and
saving of expense of guano : —

cwt. St.
Two drills with guano, 5 cwt. per acre 25 5
Do. with dung, 18 yds. per do, . 18 7
Do. with guano, 4 cwt. per do. 22 6
Do. with dung, 18 yds. per do. 19 7
Do. with guano, 3 cwt. per do. 20 6
Do. with dung, 18 yds, per do. 19 2

Here, then, with guano, at the rate of 3 cwts. per
acre— or say cost of manure, IZ. I63. — a heavier crop
was taken up in October than was produced by 10 yds,
of good farm-yard dung, costing about 4/. — the cost of
manure being as two to one in favour of guano.

The next experiment made was with bone-dust versus
guano. 'ITie bones were mixed with ashes some days
before being applied, in the proportion of sixteen
bushels of bones and eight of ashes per acre. The
quantity of guano applied was at the rate of three
cwt. per acre upon four drills, two and two together,
at iin interval of eight drills manured with bones and
ashes. Then, at a smaller interval, followed two drills
operated upon with guano, together with sulphate of
soda(gluber salts), at the rate of four cwt. per acre,
being the only instance, in the course of these experi-
ments, in which any foreign substance was used with
the guano. The turnips were drawn about the end of
November, and on a comparison of the wei^'ht of the
crop on two or four drills done with guano alone, with
the produce of the average of four drills nearly imme-
diately adjoining, manured with bone-dust and as^hes,
the result stood thus (the plants being topped and
rooted) :— cwt. st.

Guano 23 2

Bone-dust, &c 19 2

Guano and sulphates of soda 23 0

In the third experiment guano was used agamst bone
dust alone, applied, as is usual in that district, at that
rate of 16 bushels per acre. The guano was used at
the rate of two cwt. only per acre. The drills manured
with the latter showed a very early superiority, and
were ready for the hoe fully eight days earlier than the
rest of the field. This more vigorous growth they
maintained throughout, and when the turnips (the
white stone globe variety) were weighed on the 22nd
March, after standing throughout the winter, the re-
sult was as follows (the roots and tops being in this in-
stance retained) : — cwt. st.

2 drills guano .31 4

2 do. bone dust 24 7

The result of this experiment is important. We find
guano, costing say 25s. per acre, yielding a larger crop
than bones, costing say 35s. per acre — the increase
being in the proportion of 31 tens per acre in favour of
guano, to 24 tons per acre ruived by bone dust, sup-
posing the ground capable of raising such a crop.

Mr. Dudgeon had also used guano in top dressing
wheat sown on potato land, and the eflfect was most
promising. Professor Liebig had seen some of these
experiments, with which he expressed himself highly
pleased.

One word practically as to bones and guano, and of
the efficacy of any experiment to be made. Tiie far-
mer must see that he buys the genuine material. Let
him buy from a first-rate dealer, who will warrant the
manure genuine, and let him pay a fsiir value for it,
or he need not be surpri.^ed if he lose his crop, all his
rent, and what money he lays out for the adulterated
cheap stuff. We by no means disparage artificial ma-
nures. Some of these are very good. But bones have
been long tried, and proved to be of substantial benefit
in agriculture. Their effect is lasting, and their chemi-
cal action, as manure, will, we have no doubt, be
greatly felt even in the breaking up of lands which,
years belore, had been sown down after a turnip crop
manured v\ith bones. In this way we think it very
unlikely that bones will be entirely given up and guano
substituted ; while, however, we have as little doubt
that guano will also be extensively and successfully
used as a cheap and efficacious manure. Finally, a« to
guano : if the farmer is resolved to try it, let him see
that he pays a fair price— that he gets it from a respect-
able dealer — and iu applying it to the ground with a
turnip crop, he ought to have the manure nicely mixed
with a certain proportion of ashes, to make it sow
more easily; and, above all, the land should be tho-
roughly cleaned and pulverised, and the weather and
ground dry when the manure is put in and the seed

SOWUo

ANALYSIS OF SOILS.

(From the Annals of Chymisiry.)

The analysis of soils is often of great impor-
tance to the agriculturist, and in this particular he
has frequently to address himself to the chemist.
The instructions for undertaking such analysis
differ materially from each other. Of themselves
they are very simple and easily executed, if a cer-
tain plan has been previously laid down for attain-
ing the object in view. This object is two-fold —
viz. Istly, to know how much and what sub-
stances of organic origin, Cthat is to say, how much
humus) is contained in the soil : and, 2dly, with
what disintegrated minerals the inorganic part of
the soil is mixed.

The answer to the first question falls entirely
within the compass of organic analysis. The soil
is dried in an oil-bath at 266'^ F.; then treated —
in the apparatus figured p. 281 of the Annals —
first with ether, then with alcohol, water, and so
on consecutively. By this process several different
matters are extracted from the soil ; but ic is very
uncertain if any of them will be distinguished as
previously already known. We have not yet suf-
ficiently examined the products of the decomposi-
tion of organic bodies, to be able to execute this
kind of analysis in such a manner that we can
finaly decide what products of decomjjosition the
soil contains. This examination therefore be-
comes diflScult, and yields, even if executed with
precision, not very valuable results, until we shall
have previously made ourselves acquainted with

436

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

these products of decomposition by a close exami-
nation of them.

Two circumstances respecting Lumus'inay be po-
sitively ascertained, viz. Istly, its quantity; which
is found out by burning a weighed quantity of
soil, after being dried at 2(JG'-^ F., in an open cruci-
ble, uiitil all the combustible parts are destroyed,
when the loss shows (he contents of organic mat-
ter: and 'Jdly, the azote therein contained ; which
is ascertained by combustion, according to the
method of Varrentrapi) and Will. The results of
these experiments are seldom of much value ;
since the quality of the humus in soils varies accord-
ing to the manure added, and as the succeeding
crops may absorb the several components of each
manure.

The inorganic components of the soil, again,
are easily ascertained. An air-dried sample of the
soil being disintegrated as much as possible be-
tween the hands, is weighed, and sifted through a
tinplate sieve, consisting of several plates succeed-
ing each other, witli less and lesser holes. 'J'he
sieve is then shaken, with the cover on, until the
mass is divided according to the different size of
the holes in the different compartments of the
sieve, and each of these quantities is then weighed,
in order to give an idea of the different sizes of the
various ingredients.

Another air-dried sample is likewise weighed,
and then dried in the water-bath, until it ceases to
lose weight. A smaller portion of it is then
weighed, placed in a glass tube, which has been
closed at one extremity by fusion, and heated in
the oil-bath to 2()()° F. until it ceases to lose
weight, after which thecontentsof water are found
by calculation. 'I'Lis sample is heated to redness
in an open crucible until the whole of the carbon
is consumed, and the organic matter of the whole
is found by a calculation based thereon.

The greater portion of the sample is likewise
exactly weighed, put into a glass vessel, infused in
water, and then stirred with a quill. After being
left undisturbed for a few moments, all the
lighter parts are skimmed off, and the turbid water
poured through a muslin sieve into another vessel,
where it is allowed to stand for the purpose of de-
positing. There remain on the sieve fibres
of roots, undecomposed portions of straw,
stalks, &c. This operation is repeated until the
freshly added water no longer becomes turbid by
stirring. The finally remaining residue is dried
and weighed, but not exposed to a red heat.

This lesidue is spread on paper, and, if required,
examined with the aid of a compound microscope,
in case of the parts being very small. The prac-
tised eye then detects the grains of those minerals,
the debris of which form the soil. Grains of
transparent quartz, milk-quartz, red and white
field-spar, scales of mica, lime, clay-slate, &c. are
thus detected, and have been obtained from such
minerals as are met with in the neighbourhood ;
and this easy examination is sufficient to elucidate
of what minerals the soil is composed — on which
point chemicfil analysis would not be able to give
positive information. In proportion to the more
finely pulverized portions contained in soil from
the recent formations of mountains, the greater is
its fertility, if mixed with tho requisite manure.
The debris of limestones, and different tertiary
kinds of aluminous slate, mixed to a certain ex-
tent with quartzose or granitic sand, form the
best mixtures.

From this residue the carbonate of lime (in case

of the same being contained therein) is extracted
by a mixture of one part of nitric acid and 100
parts of water, which are allowed to act on it with-
out heat. When the effervescence has ceased, al-
though the liquor still reddens litmus paper, the
liquid is decanted, and the calcareous earth, after
being neutralized with caustic ammonia, is preci-
pitated therefrom by oxalate of ammonia. The
magnesian earth is then ascertained fif present)
by mixing the liquor in excess with carbonate of
potassa, and boiling it therewith.

The residue left undissolved by nitric acid is
washed, dried, weighed, and treated with concen-
trated muriatic acid. This solution is then
further treated in the way directed for analj'-
zing silicates which are soluble in muriatic
acid. The muriatic acid frequently disengages
siliceous acid without dissolving it. These
are then extracted by boiling the undissolved
])arts with a ley of carbonate of soda. The undis-
solved residue is then weighed. It is in general
nothing but sand composed of quartz or granite.

We now return to the parts left after being
skimmed. That portion which passed through the
muslin sieve is a mixture of decomposed organic
substances (humus,) clay f alumina,) and extremely
fine sand, which frequently contains siliceous
shells from infusoria. After being left undisturbed
for an hour, the sand and humus have settled; the
clay, however, still remains suspended. The wa-
ter is then decanted from the thick pap of clay,
and gradually evaporated to dryness in a weighed
basin or a crucible, after which the remaining clay
is dried by the application of a rather high de-
gree of heat, e. g., in the oil-bath at 302° F., and
weighed.

The deposited mass beneath the pap of clay is
placed on a filter previously weighed. The turbid
water which passed during the washing of the
mass through the filter, together with the clay so-
lution, is exposed to evaporation. The filter, to-
gether with all therein contained, is dried at 212*'
F., weighed, and.burnt to ashes ; after which the re-
sidue is examined under the microscope. It is then
further treated in the same way as above stated
for the coarser powder. — Berz Lehr, d. Cheinie,
roZ.x. <S123.

WENLOCK AGRICULTURAL
READING SOCIETY.

EXTRACT FROM THE ADDRESS OF THE COMMITTEE.

" When we reflect on the immense benefits
whicli science has conferred on almost every other
branch of the industrial arts, and the tendency
which it undoubtedly has to render manufacturers,
mechanics, as well as the members of some of
the liberal professions, more skilful in their res-
pective avocations, it may reasonably be expected
that equal advantages «ill flow to agriculture from
the application to it of the leading principles of
science, and that the farmer will be a more suc-
cessful cultivator of the land, when he becomes
acquainted with the composition and qualities of
the various soils upon his farm, when he under-
stands the structure and physiology of jdants, and
the properties of manures, as well as their effects
upon the soil, and their influence on vegetation.
'There is no other profession,' says Dr. Liebig,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

437

in his valuable work on Agricultural Chemistry,
' in which the application of correct ]>rincip]es is
productive of more beneficial effects, or is of greater
and more decided influence than that of agricul-
ture. In addition to the general couditions, such
as light, heat, and moisture, and the component
parts of the atmosphere which are necessary for
the growth of all plants, certain substances are
found to exercise a i)eculiar influence on the de-
velopment of particular families. These sub-
stances are already contained in the soil, or are
supplied to it in the form of the matters known
under the general name of manure. But what
does the soil contain, and what are the compo-
nents of the substances used as manure.' Until
these points are satisfactorily determined, a rational
system of agriculture cannot exist. The power
and knowledge of the pbyjiologist, of the agricul-
turist and chemist, must be united for the com-
plete solution of these questions.' The correct-
ness, gentlemen, of these remarks cannot be called
in question ; your committee therefore earnestly
recommend the attentive perusal of those works on
science, vegetable piiysiology, and other branches
of natural history which may he likeiy to throw
some additional light on agriculture, and lead to
the establishment in this, as well as in other jjro-
fessions, of general principles for the guidance of
the inexperienced farmer. Were the generality of"
farmers well informed on these subjects, did their
knowledge consist more of a few leading principles
than a number of isolated facts, agriculture would
then become, what it ever shonld be, a scientific,
instead of an empirical art ; and the occupation of
those who practised it would be the more honoura-
ble in proportion to the increase of the skill it re-
quired of them.

"There are some who ridicule the idea of apply-
ing science to farming, who contend that instead
of benefiting the agriculturist, it will only tend to
increase his espences. Nothing can be more ab-
surd or untrue than such a proposition, since one
of the greatest advantages that will result from
science as applied to agriculture is, that it will
teach you to farm on certain established principles
instead of a system of blind routine, which must of
course be uncertain and therefore occasionally de-
ceptive in its results.

" Of the advantages of science to agriculture a
better instance cannot be adduced than that of the
celebrated French chemist, Lavoiser, who is re-
ported to have cultivated 240 acres of land in La
Vendee on chemical principles, in order to set a
good example to the farmers ; and so successful
was his mode of culture, that he obtained a third
more of crop than was procured by the usual
method, and in nine years his annual pioduce was
doubled.

" When your committee, however, insist on the
value of science in reference to agriculture, they
must not be supposed to mean every new theory
that may emanate from the imaginations of closet
speculators, but principles deduced from a
judicious and attentive consideration of nume-
rous well establishedfacts, and these principles
too afterwards tested hy careful and repeat-
ed experiments. It is doubtless with this
view that the members of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society have been requested to furnish their
committee with so many facts relating to the geo-
logical formation, the nature of the surface soil
and substratum, the elevation, aspect, humidity,
&c., of their respective farms ; the average quan-

tity and quality of the different crops ; nature and
prevalence of diseases among their cattl.^, ,.^c., i\c.
In themselves such a mass of isolated facts, from
the impossibility of generally applying them, would
be comparatively useless unless employed a« data
from which some talented and comjjrehensivc
mind may afterwards be enabled to deduce impor-
tant general principles."

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCI ETY
OF ENGLAND.

At a weekly council, held at the Society's house in
Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 2Gtli of April,
present, Thomas Raymond Barker, Esq., in the chair ;'
Marquis of Down-hire, Lord Bridport, Hon. Robert
Henry Clive, RI.P.; Hon. Captain Hood; John Ray-
mond Barker, p:sq. ; W. R. Browne, Esq. ; Colonel
Challoner; F. C. Cherry, Esq. ; W. Daniel, Esq.;
E. D. Davenport, Esq.; Humphrey Gibbs, Esq.;
Brandreth Gibbs, Esq.; C. Hillyard, Esq. ; Sir John
Johnstone, Bart., M.P. ; Sir Francis Lawley, Bart. ;
William Miles, Esq,, M.P. ; Joihua Rodwell, Esq. ;
Professor Sewell, and J. Spencer Stanhope, Esq.

Bokhara Cloveu.

Mr. Rodwell, of Aldertou Hall, near Woodbridgc,
Sufl'olk, communicated to the Council the following
explanation of the specimens of Bokhara he had pre-
sented to the Society, and the results of his experience
ia the garden cultivation of this plant.
" Si'ECiMEN No. 1, alba althsima. 'J he growth of 1841.

Seed sown, April 21. The plant the growth of 138

day<;. First year'.s produce. Length 8 feet 11 inches.
" Specimen No. 2, alba uUissima. 4 he growth of

1842. Second year's produce from the roots of the

former year. Pressed v/hen in blojsoin. Growth of

12.5 days. Length 11 feet 4 inche.s.
" Specimen No, 3, alba, altissvua. (Jrowth of 1842.

Second year's produce from the roots of the former

year. Pressed when in seed. Growth of 189 weeks.

Length 12 feet 10 inches.

The specific name of thi.s plant has not been hitherto
quite decided, to my knowledge, it having been
designated Melilotus arborea , Mclilotus gigantea, alba
althsima, and by other distinctive names that are
unimportant excepting to the seieulific or the bota-
nist. The seed from which the .specimens now ex-
hibited in the Council Room of the Society was ob-
tained through the kindness of S. Taylor, Esq., of
Stoke Ferry, who received it from Bokhara, a district
in Persia.

" 1841, April 21.— Seed sown in drills about 18
inches apart, each seed having a space of 6 inches in
the drills. The soil a rich loamy mould, deep and
dry. The subsoil, loamy craig, about 4 feet from land
spiings. Preparation, deep digging and manuring
after a crop of potatoes. Cultivation in May ; hoeing
and weeding in the usual manner. In June, its rapid
growth (at the rate of an inch in 24 hours), and its
disposition to throw out lateral shoots, requiring great
care and attention in giving it support during some of
the genial days ia this month. In July, the same at-
tention as in the preceding mouth. In September, the
specimen No. 1 was gathered and dried when in full
bloom; In October, the produce was carefully cut
down, and applied for fodder to cattle. Horses not
fond of it ; cows and pigs prefer other food. Some
specimens of the fibre and stalks of this year's produce
were enclosed to Mr. Buckingham of Lophani, a hemp
manufacturer, for the purpose of his te.'^ting tlieir pro-
perties in reference to manufacturing objects, in reply
to which communication he says, ' 1 can find no avail-
able matter in them for manufacturing purposes.'

" 1842. Early in the spring of this year the plants
which had been carefully cut dowa in the autumn ,

438

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

beg-an to exhibit their spring shoots as soon as the se-
verity of the winter would permit them, long before the
lucerne shoots were vijible ; thus establishing two im-
portant points— early vegetation and great hardiness;
the rapidity and great luxuriousness of the growth of
these shoots, as the spring advanced, exciting the sur-
prise of all who witnessed them. The plant now re-
(luired great care and attention in supporting the lateral
branches, so as to prevent them falling. Early in June
tlic blossoms began to make their appearance, and
continued to make fresh bloom during the mouths of
July and August, forming not only an ornamental but
a very fragrant garden plant. In this state, the spe-
cimen No. 2 was taken as an average growth. In
August and September tiie seed-pods were formed and
began to ripen ; and the seed gathered at tlie end of
September, yielding eight pounds to the square^ rod.
The specimen No. 3 was gathered at the same time.

" Upon the usefulness of this plant, I am at present
unable to give any very favourable report, its proper-
ties for feeding cattle having no great recommenda-
tion, as it was found that a preference was always given
to any other food, cither in its green or dried state. It
has shown itself with my mode of treatment a biennial
plant, no vegetation having appeared during the pre-
sent year ; this, however, may possibly not be its
characteristic with repeated cuttings in a green state ; a
point which 1 have not at present ascertained by trial."

Mr. Rodwell having stated to the Council that he
had placed at the disposal of Messrs. Thomas Gibbs &
Co. the whole of the seed of the Bokhara Clover ob-
tained from this cultivation of it, Mr. H. Gibbs corro-
borated Mr. Rod well's remarks, as to the unwillingness
of animals to eat the plant when lucerne could be had
by them ; and stated, that when his father first intro-
duced the plant, the seed was grown in some quantities
for him by the late Mr, Arthur Young, the editor of the
"Annals of Agriculture." Mr. Gibba's idea was, to
cut and stack the clover in alternate layers with oat
straw, and afterwards cut the two into chafl' for use ;
also, to mix it with grass in haymaking, when there
was the chance of damage from wet weather, so as to
impart a good smell to the hay, and thereby give it the
character of hay well got up.

Annual Country Meeting of 1845.

The Hon. Robert H. Clive, M.P. gave notice that

he should propose, at the next monthly meeting of the

Council, that the annual country meeting of the

Society should beheld at Shrewsbury in the year 1845.

Mangold Wurzel and Swedish Turnips.

Mr. Hillyard informed the Council, that he had had
six small Hereford oxen, all of one person's breed, and
divided as equally as possible, fed for sixteen weeks in
his stalls ; three of them on mangold wurzel and three
on Swedifh turnips, a bushel and a half each daily, with
a bushel and a half of cut hay, mixed with one quart
of boiled linseed, and three quarts of barley meal, for
the purpose of testing the comparative feeding quali-
ties of these roots. The oxen slaughtered by Mr. Gib-
lett, of New Bond-street, would be exhibited to mem-
bers of the Society, and the public generally, at his
shop, on Monday, the 1st of May, and the three fol ;
lowing days.

The Council adjourned to Wednesday next, the 3rd
of May.

A monthly council was held at the Society's house,
in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 3rd of May,
present, the Earl of Hardwicke, President, in the chair ;
Marquis of Downshire ; Earl of Euston ; Earl Spen-
cer; Earl of Ducie ; Lord Bridport ; Hon. Robert H.
Clive, M.P.J Hon. George 11. Cavendish, M.P. ;
Hon. W. Bingham Baring, M.P.; Col. Austen;
Thomas Raymond Barker, Esq. ; John Raymond Bar-
ker, Esq. ; T.J. M. Barllett, Esq. ; John Benett, PJsq.,
M.P.; French Burke, Esq.; Col. Challoner ; F. C.
Cherry, Esq.; C. R. Colvile, Esq., M.P. ; E.J).
Davenport, Esq. ; James Dean, Esq. ; Humphrey
Gibbs, Esq. ; Stephen Grantham, Esq. ; Rev. Dftniel

Gwilt; W. GoodenoughHayter, Esq.,M.P. ; C. Hill-
yard, Esq.; W. Eisher Hobbs, Esq.; Sir Hungerford
Hoskyns, Bart.; Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart,,
M.P.; Samuel Jonas, Esq.; Geo. Kimberley, Esq.;
John Kinder, Esq. ; Sir Francis I.awley, Bart. ; Sir
Charles Lemon, Bart., M.P. ; Sir Francis A. Macken-
zie, Bart.; Townshend Mainwaring, Esq., M.P. ;
William Mile.'., Esq., M.P. ; E. W. W. Pendarves,
Esq., M.P.; S. Peploe, Esq.; E. S. Chandos Pole,
Esq. ; Philip Pusey, Esq., M.P. ; Rev. W. L. Rham ;
E. Ayshlord Sanford, Esq.; Professor Sewell; Wil-
liam Shaw, Esq.; J. Spencer Stanhope, Esq.; W. R.
Crompton Stansfield, Esq., M.P. ; Charles Stokes,
Esq., and Colonel Wood, M.P.

Mr. Raymond Barker, Chairman of the Finance
Comniilteo, reported to the Council that agreeably
with the order of the Council, the Committee had pur-
chased 1,000/. in the New 3^ per Cents, in the name of
the Trustees of the Society ; the total amount of the
Society's Stock in the funds now amounting to 7,700^,
with a current cash balance at the Bankers, at the end
of the previous month, of 1,204/.

Agreeably with recommendation of the Committee a
new form of Election Letter v.as adopted by the
Council, and the names of 49 Members, whose sub-
scription was in arrear, ordered to be expunged from
the List of the Society.

Prize Essay on Drainage.
The Journal Committee reported to the Council that
the Judges of the essays sent in to compete for the So-
-ciety's prize of fifty sovereigns for the best essay on the
drainage of land, had unanimously adjudged the prize
to the essay of Mr, ThomasArkell, of Pen Hill Farm,
Cold Harbour, near Swindon, Wiltshire.

Meeting at Dehbv.
Colonel Chiilloner, vice-chairman of the General
Derby Committee, presented to the Council the report
of the proceedings of the General Derby Committee,
as well as of the Local D^rby Committee, transmitted
by Mr. Colvile, M.P. , and the progress of the various
arrangements for the meeting in July, especially in
reference to the land for the trial of implements, and
the best and most convenient mode for the exhibition,
to the members of the practical working of stationary
agricultural machinery to be tried on the occasion ; the
classification and arrangement of the implements in the
show-yard ; the preparation of fhe catalogue: the pub-
lication of the programme of proceedings ; the nomina-
tion and direction of the requisite police force ; the
registration of lodgings ; the issue of advertisements
for tenders of contract for the council and pavilion
dinners, &c. This report was received and adopted by
the Council, and its recommendation that the exhibition
of implements should be open for admission to the pub-
lic (at the same rate as in former yearsj on the Tues-
day, as well as on the Wednesday preceding the general
day of the show, confirmed.

Model Farms.
The Model Farm Committee laid before the Council
their final report, wnich was received and read.

Annual Country Meeting of 1844.

The Council then proceeded to the consideration of
the question of the place of the Society's Annual Country
Meeting of 1844; which.agreeably with the established
routine in the succession of districts, must, for that
year, be selected from the district formed of the follow-
ing counties:— Middlesex, Surrey, Kent, Sussex, and
Hampshire, including the Isle of Wight and the Chan-
nel islands of Jersey, Guernsey, &c.

Deputations from Maidstone, Southampton, and
Winchester, had successively an interview with the
Council, for the purpose ol advocating the claims of
the towns which they respectively represented.

Depntal'um from Maidstone: Viscount Tonington
and Viscount Marsham, M.P.

Deputation from Southampton ; The Mayor of South-
amploa CE. Mayes, Esq.), Lord Charles Wei-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

439

lesley, M.P., H. C. Comptou, Esq., M.P,, H.
.St. John RlilcJmay, Emi., M.P., C. Gater, Esq.,
and G. \V. Johnson, Esq. (secretary to llic com.
mittee).
Deputation from Winchester i The Mayor of Win-
chester, the Hon. VV. Bingham liaring, M.P.,
Sir William Heaihcote, Bart., M.P., Sir Thomas
Baring, Bart., W. W. Buloett, ]'>q. (Ciiairman
of the Committee^, T. B. East, Esq., M.V., B.
Escott, Esq., M.P.. J. N. Hughes, Esq., Culh-
bert W. Johnson, Esq., W. Simonds, Esq., and
Thomas Woodham, Esq,
These deputations were received with every mark of
respect and attention by the Council ; and the lil)eral
terms in wbicli they placed at their entire disposal, and
free of every expense, whatever local advantages they
respectively possessed, in reference to the holding' of
the annual country meetingrof 1844, evinced the strong
interest felt by the friends of agricultural improvement
in the south-eastern counties of the kingdom, and their
zealous desire to promote the national objects of the
Society.

The members of each deputation laid before the
Council the replies to the official queries transmitted to
them on their original application, and required by the
resolutions of the Council to be satisfactorily answered
prior to the selection of any town as the place of the
annual country meeting of any year, accompanied with
plans of liie various sites proposed by thera, for the
purposes of tiie Council and pavilion dmners, the cattle
and implement show-yard, the land for the trial of im-
plements, and the rooms for the transaction of the offi-
cial business of the Society ; and they also gave the
Council detailed information in reference to the com-
munication of each place by railways, coaches, wag-
gons, and steamboats, with the surrounding district, as
well as the additional ficcommodation that would be
provided by the various companies to meet the increased
demand ot traffic ; and stated that no lejs than 100,000
visitors could be accommodated on the occasion by any
one of the three proposed towns and its immediate vici-
nity. The directors of the South-western Railway .follow-
ing the example of the directors of the Midland Counties
Railway at Derby, and on the representation of Mr.
Etwall, M.P. for Andover, on Friday last, also decided
'* to convey to and (rom Southampton all the ihnw-cattle
at half fares, and (urther pledged t.iemselves to give
every facility for quick conveyance, and not to charge
any additional fares for passengers."— (/i amps/lire In-
dependent, May 6.)

On the motion of Earl Spencer, the President was
requested to direct a special council to be summoned
for Thursday, the llih of May, and the following com-
mittee was appointed to report to the Council on that
occasion : The Earl of Hardwicke, the Duke of Rich-
mond, Earl Spencer, Mr. Benett, M.P., Rlr. Burke,
Mr. Childers, M.P., Mr. Dean, Mr. Hobbs, and Mr.
Pusey, M.P.

Prize-Sheet of 1844.
Agreeably with the standing regulations of the So-
ciety, the Council ordered that a preliminary impression
of the Prize-Sheet for next year should be prepared,
and laid before the Members, at the ensuing Anni-
versary Meeting on the 22nd of May, for their revision
and suggestions, previously to its final adoption and
confirmation by the Council ; on which occasion Mr.
Charles Stokes gave notice that he should propose the
first prizes in each class of Bulls to be raised from 30/.
to 50/.

A letter was read from Mr. Barugb Almack, sug-
gesting the adoption of an open and unconditional prize,
to be awarded under the direction of the Journal Com-
mittee, of a similar mature to that of the prize for " any
implement" already in the Prize-List of the Society ;
in order to collect all the really useful information on
every branch of practical farming, for the purpose of
making it generally known through the medium of the
Journal : many valuable practices being at present only
locally known, and confined in many instances to the
knowledge of parties who would be incapable of writ-

ing on other subjects. This communication was re-
ferred to the Journal Committee.

AruEaR 01 SUHSCRlPTIOK.

Mr. Gibbs then brought forward his motion on the
subject of the date at which subscriptions shall be con-
sidered to become in arrear, which was seconded by
Earl Spencer, and carried unanimously, namely.—
" That all members shall be considered to be in arrear,
whose subscriptions, due in advance for each >ear on
the first of January, remain unpaid by the first of June
ensuing."

Annual Country Mp.etjng ok 1845.

The Hon. Robert Henry Clive, M.P. presented to
the Council the following documents, in favour of
Shrewsbury as the jilace of the Society's Annual
Country Meeting of 1845, to be held in the North
Wales district, comprised of the counties of Anglesey,
Carnarvonshire, Merionethshire, Montgomeryshire,
Denbighshire, Flintshire, Cheshire, Shropshire, and
Staftbrdshire.

1. — Replies to the official queries of the Society,
signed by the town-clerk ot Shrewsbury.

2.— A plan o( Shrewsbury, showing the various local
sites offered to the Society.

3. The memorial of the corporation of Shrewsbury,
signed by the town clerk, and bearing the great
seal of the borough affi.\ed to the document, in-
viting the President and Council of the lloyal
Agricultural Society of England to hold the annual
country nieetingof the Society for the North Wales
district, at Shrewsbury, in the year 1845.

4. The memorial of the inhabitants of the town of
Shrewsbury, signed by Edward Haycock, Esq.
(mayor), and ninety-five of the priricipal inhabi-
tants, pledging themselves, .should their ancient
town of Shrewsbury be selected as the place of
meeting, to use their best exertions to provide upon
the most liberal terms every requisite accommoda-
tioH for the members and other visitors attending
on that occasion, and to promote the interests of
the Society by every endeavour in their power.

5. The memorial of the Shropshire Practical Far-
mers' Society, signed hy \'iscount Hill, their Pre-
.sident, detailing the several advautwges possessed
by Shrewsbury, in an agricultural point of view,
for the purposes of the meeting, strongly stating
the peculiar merits of the localities proposed for
the show yard, pavilion, and trial of implement
ground ; explaining in detail the lines of commu-
nication from Shrewsbury to every part of the
north and west of England.

Mr. Clive then informed the Council that the Race
Course, at the distance of about half a mile from the
town, ofTered a most suitable site for the show-yard
and the trial of iimplements, the whole extent of the
course comprising 20 acres, of which 19 acres were pe-
culiarly eligible, and there was a good supply of water,
free of cost ; and the whole guaranteed by the Corpo-
ration free of any charge to the Society, either by owner
or occupier. That there was an excellent room in the
centre of the town capable of dining 500 persons, which
was also freely offered to the Society 'without any
charge, as well as the requisite rooms lor the transac-
tion of the official business of the Society. The un-
rivalled public grounds called " The Quarry," and im-
mediately adjoining the town, presented a most inviting
and eligible spot for the erection of a Pavilion for the
great dmner of the Society, whatever might be its re-
quired magnitude. Mr. Clive stated that every ar-
rangement was making in Shrewsbury to anticipate the
wislies of the Society and its members, should the in-
habitants be so fortunate as to succeed in their present
application, by establishinga maximum rate for lodgings
and the conveyance of passengers and slock to and from
the town, and thus at once practically evince the desire
felt by the town and county of Salop at large to promote
the objects of the meeting, and the comfort and advan-
tage of the visitors. Mr, Clive concluded by announc-

440

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ing thai a subscription lo defray every expense o( the
raeetiag: was iu progress ; but such was the feeling ot
the members ia that ncisrhbouihooil, thai ihey alone
would guarantee a bubsciipiion to any amount that
raighl be required for llie purposes of the meeting ; all
being anxious to show their respect to the society, and
he himself had ihus participated in the general feeling,
and discharged an agreeable duly in bringing this sub-
ject before the Council.

Mr. Britlain, secretary of the Chester Agricultural
Society, transmitted to the Council a statcmenl of the
proceedings in progress in that city for replying satis-
factorily to the official queries iransmilted to it.

The Council then directed these documents to be
registered and reserved for consideration at the date
when the question of deciding upon a place for the
meeting of the Society in the North Wales district
should be brought before the Council for final decision.

Dr. Playfair returned thanks to the Council for bis
appointment as " Consulting Chemist" to the Society.
Mrs. Davies Gilbert presented specimens of Bokhara
clover, and a statement of the progress of the Willing-
don schools ; the Rev. J. M. King presented a copy of
his translation of Virgil's Gcortrics ; Professor Henslow,
a copy of his Letters to the Farmers of Suffolk ; Dr.
Tilley.the numbers of his Agricultural Chemistry;
Mr, R. Green, an account of his Under-Draining
Plough ; and Mr. Evans, copies of the Farmer's He-
rald. The Marquis Mazzarosa informed the Council
of the meeting this year of the Italian Scientific Asio-
ciation at Lucca during the two last weeks of Septem-
ber.

The Council then adjourned to Wednesday next, the
10th of May.

A weekly Council was held at the Society's House in
Hanover Square, on Wednesday, the 10th of May,
present— The Hon. Robert Henry Clive, M.P., in the
Chair, Marqui-i of Downshire, Earl Spencer, R. W,
Baker, E?q., Thos. Raymond Barker, Esq., W. R.
Browne,Eiq.,F. Burke, Esq., F. C.Cherry, Esq., E.D.
Davenport, Esq., Alexander Davidson, Esq., Sir John
Guise, Bart., Sir Francis Lawley, Bart., E. S. Chandos
Pole, Esq. ; W. R. C. Stansfieid, Esq., M.P., and
George Wilbraham, Esq. Count Cavoure, from Pied-
mont, and Professor De la Rive, of Geneva, were also
present at the Meeting.

Poittevin's Manure.
Mr. Poitlevin presented to the Society a bag of each
of his two manures, and informed the Council that he
was now capable of supplying any quantity, of either
kind, at a veiy short notice.

Guano Experiments.
Mr. Davenport communicated to the Council the fol-
lowing results of trials made last year with guano, on his
farm at Capeslhorne, in Cheshire: —

" On Meadow. — One acre sown with 3 cwt. of
guano and 3 cwt. of gypsum ; crops, whea ready
to stack, 2 tons 18 cwt.

One acre sown with 2 cwt. of guano and 2 cwt.
ef gypsum — 2 tons 8 cwt.

One acre sown with 2 cwt. of guano cnly —
2 tons.
Turnips — One acre of turnips, 4 cwt. of guano
and 4 cwt. of gypsum— 30 tons produce.
One acre of turnips, 2 cwt. of guano and 2 cwt,
of gypsum — 27 tons.

'J'he difference between an unmanured acre, and
one manured with 3 cwt, of guano and the
same quantity of gypsum, was 27 cwt. of hay
additional. The guano was of the best kind, sold
by JNIyers, of Liverpool, last year, at 15i., and
this year at 10?- the ton. Its effects on green-
bouse plants, when sufficiently dilated, is great;
but it is easy to do mischief by excess. Water
is the best vehicle. When sown, it should be in
showery weather. Altogether it appears to be

the cheapest manure known, and strong soils suit it
best.— E. D. Davenport."

Simple and Economical Plough.

Mr. Henry Wilson, of Stowlangtoft Hall, near Ix-
worth, Suffolk, presented to the Society a model of
Rouse's Improved Plough.

This plough is the invention of William Rouse, a wheel-
wright, residing at Barton, near Bury St. Edmund's,
and the principal points of advantage ascribed to it, as
communicated by Mr. Wilson, are the following: — a
'' Th'.it the share maybe deepened, or fleetened, to or I
from the land in an instant without stopping the horses, H
or tiie ploughman's hand being taken off the plough ;
that it will go with or without a groand, with or with-
out wheels, with a wood breast for turnip and summer
land, and with any shaped iron breast that may be re-
quire<l or preferred ; tliat it requires no sledge for its
removal from place to place ; that the coulter may be
moved six ways, by a movement effected in an instant,
and so firm that no horse can move it ; that the furrow
can be taken any width and any depth, up hill or down
hill with equal facility ; that it will be less expensive to
the farmer and more easy to the labourer than any
plough yet made, the whole construction being so simple
as to be kept in repair at less cost than other ploughs."
'J he communication of Mr, Wilson stated that the
plough had received the approbation of Mr, Allan
Ransome, and had undergone the test of practical tiial J
on various kinds of land iu Suflbik. ■

Mr. Arthur Hall presented the Fir^t Annual Report »

of the Chepstow Farmer's Club, and Mr, S. Taylor, the
Third Annual Report of the Sioke-Ferry Fanner's
Club. Mr. Munn presented lo the Society the bar and <

fiamc Bee hive of his invention, with an account of its
peculiar advantages over the common hives — for which
the thanks of the Society were ordered.

Special Council.

A Special Council was held on Thursday last, the
Ulh of May, present— The Earl of Hardwicke, Presi-
dent, in the Chair, Duke of Sutherland, Marquis of
Downsliire, Earl Spencer, Hon. Captain Sncncer, Hon.
R. H. Clive, M.P., Sir Thomas D. Acfand, Bart.,
M. P., R.W. Baker, Esq., Thomas Raymond Barker,
E^i., John Benett, Esq., M.P., Thomas William
Bramston, Esq., M.P., Edward Buller, Esq., M.P.,
Frenche Burke, Esq., Colonel Challoner, F. C. Cherry,
Esq., John Walbanke Childers, Esq., M.P., James
Dean, E?q., Humphrey Gibbs, Esq., Brandreth Gibbs,
Esq., William Fisher Hobbs, Esq., Sir John Johnstone,
Bart., M.P., George Kimbcrley, Esq., Sir Charles
Lemon, Bart., M.P., ^Yilliam Miles, Esq., M.P.,
Joseph Neeld, Esq., M.P,, E. W. W. Pendarves, Esq.,
M.P., Philip Pusey, Esq., M.P., William Shaw, Esq.,
Professor Sewell. W. R. C. Stansfieid, Esq., M.P.,
Thomas Weall, Esq., George Wilbraham, Esq., and
Colonel Wood, M.P.

Henry Colman, Esq., Agricultural Commissioner of
the Slate of Massachusetts, was also present, and took
his seat as an Honorary Member.

Annual Country Meeting of 1814.

Earl Spencer read to the Council the Report of the
Special Committee of enquiry appointed on the 3rd of
May, and the President detailed in succession the
various points of advantage presented by each locality
proposed to the Society for the next year's Meeting,
when the final decision of the question was made, and
Southampton duly chosen as the place of the Annual
Country Meeting of 1844, agreeably with the memorial
and other documents presented lo the Council in favour
of that town.

RIayor or Deriiy.

The Mayor of Derby (John Bell Croniplon, Esq., of
Milford House) invited the Council to a public dinner
to be given to them by him, in his municipal capacity,
on Tuesday, the 11th of July, at the Royal Hotel in
that Borough, and the invitation was unanimously ac-
cepted, wiih the thanks of the Council.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

441

Genera r, Derby Coji.mittee.
I'lie Hon. Geo. Henry Cavendisli, MP., of Ashford
Hall, Bakewell, Derbyshire, was elected a Member of
the General Derby Committee.

Prize Essays.
The .Tournal Committee reported the ndjudication of
tiie Prize of Tea Sovereisrns, for the best Essay on the
comparalive advantages in the employment of Horses
and Oxen in Farming work, to James Cowie, of the
Mains of Haulbrerton, Laurencekirk, Kincardineshire,
Scotland ; and the Prize of Twenty Sovereigns for the
best explanation of the causes which appear to deter-
mine the production of Fat and Muscle respectively,
according to the present state of our knowledge of
Animal Physiology, to W. F. Kaukeek, of Truro,
Cornwall ; both of these gentlemen beingr Veterinary
Surgeons, and pupils formerly under Professor Sewell
at the Royal \'eleriaary College, London.

Electiox of Council.

Mr. Childers gave notice that he should move at Jthe
next Monthly Council, " that of the 25 Members of
Council who go out by roiaiion, the lO who have
attended the fewest times during the year shall not be
recommended by the Council for re-election."

The (Council then adjourned.

A weekly Council was held at the Society's House,
in fianover-STuare, on Wednesday, the l7th of
May, present. The Marquis of D,)wnshire, in the Chair,
Earl Spencer, Hon. Robert Henry Clive, M.P., Col.
Austen, Thomas Raymond Barker, Esq., George Ray-
mond Barker, Esq., T. J. M. Kartlett, Esq., W. R.
Browne, Esq., French Burke, Esq., Coionei Challoner,
F. C. Cherry, Esq., John Walbanke Childers, Esq.,
M.P., Henry Cohnan, Esq., E. D. Davenport, Esq.,
Alexander Davidson, Esq., A. E, Fuller, Esq., M.P.,
Humphrey Gibbs, Esq., Brandreth Gibbs, Esq., Sir
John V. B. Johnstone, Bart,, M.P., Henry R. Sand-
bach, Esq., Pro.fessor Sewell, and Dr. Whitlaw.

The Marquis of Downshire gave notice thai he should
call the attention of the Council at their next Monthly
i\Iecting to the question of taking into consideration the
propriety of tlie Society's recommending a course of
public Lectures to be given in London by Mr. Smith of
Deanston on the subject of Thorough-Draining and
Subsoil-Ploughing, similar to tlio;e he had recently
delivered with so much success iu Ireland.

A letter was read from Mr. Kerr en the subject of
grated tiles to prevent the entrance of vermin into
drains ; and a specimen of the mode of preparing tiles
for a similar purpose suggested by JNlr. Barton of
Thrextoo, was exhibited to the Meeting.

Mr. Clive expressed his intention of exhibiting at the
Derby Meeting a cheap fire-engine of simple construc-
tion, throwing 25 gallons of water eacii minute. Mr.
Davenport informed the Council that he had formed a
fire-engine on Merewether's construction very cheap
and effective; and Colonel Challoner slated that Mr.
Sherborne, of Bedfonl, employed a single-aclioned
engine with fly-wheel to prepare his manure with water
in the summer.

The Marquis of Downshire presented the yearly Re-
port of the Royal Agricultural Improvement Society of
Ireland ; and Mr. Butfford, of Portland-place, a speci-
men of the Guinea- Grass from seed sown last spring
at Hampton Lodge, near Farnham, in Surrey, Mr.
Butsford stating that this grass in Jamaica grows to the
height of five feet, and is considered as unrivalled for
cattle.

Mr. Whitlaw having offered some remarks oa the
distemper among stock, the Council adjourned.

The Ansitersary Meeting, agreeably with
the date established by the Charter, was held at the
Society's House, No. 12, Hanover Square, London,
on Monday, the 22nd of May, present— the Right

Hon. Earl Spencer, in the Chair; Geo. Kinibcrlcy,
Surrey; John Warsop, Huntingdon; C. Hillyard,
Northampton; Henry Boys, Kent; Samuel Druce,
Oxon; W. (t. Freebody, Middlesex ; Philip Pusey,
M. P., Berks; H. S. Northcotc, Somerset; Thomas
Raymond Barker, Oxon ; Sir Hiingerford Hoskyns,
Bart., Hcrcf. ; Rev. J. R. Smythies, Heref. ; Colo-
nel Challoner, Surrey ; Colonel Wood, M. P., Bre-
con ; Edwin East, Surrey ; Humphrey Gibbs,
Beds; II. S. Thompson, Yorks ; J. W. Childers,
M.P., Yorks; W. B. Wingate, Line; John Hough-
ton, Berks; George Johnstone, Middlesex; Stephen
Grantham, Sussex ; John Hercy, Berks ; Henry
StrafTord, Middlesex; John Read, Essex; William
Smart, Kent; Hon. Captain Spencer, Northamp-
ton ; B. T. Brandrcth Gibbs, Middlesex ; John
Kinder, Herts; John Ellman, Sussex; Jackson
Gunniss, Line; C. Whitlaw, Middlesex; Colonel
Dlgby, Middlesex ; Profebsor Pryme, Cambridge ;
Geo. Burrard, Hants; .Tames Beadel, Essex; W.
Fisher Ilobbs, Essex; Sir John V. B, Johnstone,
Bart., M. P., Vorks. ; Henry Blanshard, Essex;
William Shaw, Middlesex ; W. Penn Gaskell,
Glouc; French Burke, Middlesex; Rev. T. S.
Turnbull, Cambridge ; W. R. Brown, Wilts; Ed-
ward Tull, Berks ; Henry Colman, America; Rev.
George Rous, Somerset; John Hibbart, jun., Mid-
dlesex ; C. Wren Hoskyns, Warwickshire; Sir R .P.
Joddrell, Bart., Derbyshire; John Benett, M.P.,
Wilts; George Emery, Somerset; Lt. Colonel
Scudamore, Heref. ; Henry R. Sandbach, Denbigh;
Sir Charles Burrell, Bart., M.P., Sussex; Jonas
Webb, Cambridgeshire; T. Bush Saunders, Mid-
dlesex; Thomas Knight, Middlesex; Lord Wors-
ley, M.P., Line; F. C. Cherry, Surrey; Lord
Sondes, Norfolk ; R. A. Slaney, Salop; Professor
Sewell, Middlesex ; Rev. R. H. Leeke, Salop; A.
Elliot Fuller, M.P., Sussex ; O. F. Meyrick, An-
glesea; Barugh Almack, Middlesex; George Wd-
braham, M. P., Cheshire ; Henry Knight, Hants;
Andrew Lawson, M.P., Yorks; J. C. Somerville,
Somerset; E. M. Mundy, M.P., Derbyshire; Co-
lonel Vaughan, Middlesex; Thomas Tweed, Kent;
J. V. Shelley, Sussex; R. Archbold, M.P.,Kildare;
Sir M. W. Ridley, Bart., Northumberland ; E. W.
W. Pendarvcs, M.P., Cornwall; Samuel Jonas,
Cambridgeshire ; A. F. Campbell, Norfolk ; J. T.
Cautrell, Middlesex ; Lt. Colonel Elwood, Sussex ;
Henry Price, Kent; J. H. II. Foley, Worcester-
shire; C. Mostyn, Monmouthshire; L. W. Buck,
M.P., Devon; James Wood, Sussex; M. Fother-
gill, Middlesex ; F. W. Etheredge, Hants ; Doug-
las Grantham, Sussex; Colonel Hul.se, Wilts; Rev.
Leyson Pcnoyre, Heref. ; Sir John W. Guise, Bart.,
Glouc; W. Allen, Yorks; W. W. Farr, Hants;
George Crundwell, Kent; Rev. Charles Griffith,
Brecon ; Sir Robert Price, Bart., Ileref. ; Rev. T.
Cator, Yorks ; Alex. Davidson, Middlesex ; Charles
Eyston, Berks ; Layton Cooke, Surrey; Walter H.
Coyney, Staffs ; Rev. John Vane, Surrey ; R. G.
Welford, Herts ; M. Bass, Staffs ; A. Bass, Staffs;
S. Tremenheere, Middlesex; Edward Holland,
Worcestershire ; William Marden, Essex ; Thomas
Wakeley, Kent ; Captain Ord, Kent.

Elections.
The following elections were made unanimously: —

President. — The Right Honourable Earl Spen-
cer : on the motion of Colonel Challoner, seconded
by Mr. Grantham.

Trustees.— Sir Thomas Aclaud, Bart., M.P. ; Hon
R. H. Clive, M.P. ; Marquis of Downshire ;
Duke of Grafton ; Right Hon. Sir James (tra-

o a

442

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ham, Bart., M.r.; Heury Ilaudley; .Sir Frauds
Lawley, Bart.; Joseph Neeld, M.P.; Duke of
Richmond; Duke of Rutland; Earl Spencer;
Duke of Sutherland.
Vice-Presidents.— Duke of Buckingham ; Earl
of Chichester ; Earl of Ducie ; Marquis ofExeter ;
Earl Fitzwilliam ; Sir Thomas Gooch, Bart.; Sir
Charles Morgan, Bart. ; Duke of Northumber-
land ; Lord Portman; Earl Talbot; Duke of
"Wellington; Lord Worsley, M.P.
General Members of Council.— I. Members
remaining from last rjear''s Council. — David Bar-
clay, M.P. ; Thomas Raymond Barker ; French
Burke: Henry Blanshard ; Hon. George Henry
Cavendish, m!p. ; John EUman ; Stephen Gran-
tliam ; George Webb Hall ; W. (Joodenough Hay-
ler, MP.; C. Hillyard ; W. Fisher Hobbs;
Sir Hungerford Hoskyns, Bart.; Samuel
Jonas ; George Kimberley ; John Kinder ; Sir
Charles Lemon, Bart., M.P.; W. Woods Page;
E. S. Chandos Pole; Professor Sewell; "William
Shaw ; Hon. Captain Spencer ; Charles Stokes ;
Henry Stephen Thompson ; George Wilbraham ;
Col. Thomas Wood, M.P. H. — Members re-
elected from last year's Council. — Col.
Thomas Austen; Hon. Wm, Bingham Baring,
M.P. ; John Benett, M.P.; Thomas William
Bramston, M.P. ; Edward Buller, M.P. ; Colonel
Challoner ; John Walbanke Childers, M.P. ; Hum-
phrey Gibbs; Sir John Y. B. Johnstone, Bart.,
M.P.; William Miles, M.P.; E.W. W. Pendarves,
M.P. ; Sir Robert Price, Bart., Jl.P.; Philip
Pusey, M.P. ; Francis Pym ; Rev. W. L. Rham ;
John Villiers Shelley; T. H. S. Sotheron, M.P. ;
W. R. Crompton Stansfield, M.P. ; Henry Wil-
soH. III. — New Members of Council. — Samuel
Bennett, Beds.; Edward Fellowes, M.P., Hun-
tingdon; LordHatherton, Staffs.; W .H. Hyett,
Glouc. ; W. Fielder King, Hants.; Edward Aysh-
ford Sanford, Somerset.

Report of the Council.
The Noble Chairman then directed Mr. Hud-
son, the Secretary of the Society, to read the fol-
lowing Report from the Council : —

The Council have the satisfaction of reporting to
the members, at their Fifth Anniversary Meeting,
the uninterrupted progress of the Society in the ac-
complishment of the objects for which it was origi-
nally founded.

The number of its members now amounts to up-
Avards of 7,000, no less than 1436 having been
elected during the past year.

This extension of the Society, by the accession of
new Membersfiom everypartof the kingdom, affords
a striking proof of the interest with which its ob-
jects are regarded by the friends of agricultural
improvement, and the increased amount of subscrip-
tion has added considerably to the annual income
of the Society.

Tiie Finance Committee liave laid before the
Council a highly satisfactory statement of the funds
of the Society, and the result of their inquiry con-
nected with the general leceipt of subscription. Not
only has every claim agiiinst the Society been dis-
charged, and bills amounting to upwards of 1,000/.,
for the work executed by estimate and contract in
preparing the present House for the reception of the
Society and the transaction of business, been duly
paid, but a further investment of capital has also
been effected by the purchase of 1,000^ Stock in the
New 3 J per Cents.; the total amount of the So-
ciety's funded property now amounting to 7,7001,,

and the current cash balance in the Banker's hands
to 1,200/.

The Council steadily maintain their firm convic-
tion, that the permanency and usefulness of the So-
ciety are dependent, in a great measure, upon the
possession of such a fixed amount of reserved capital
as will carry on, at all times, and under every cir-
cumstance, the current machinery of tiie establish-
ment ; and they therefore not only receive with great
satisfaction the result of the Finance Committee's
care and attention in thus husbanding the resources
of the Society, and increasing annually its permanent
investments, but they are also strongly convinced of
theabsolutenecessity of abstaining from embarking the
Society's funds in any doubtful speculations, and of
strictly confining them to immediate objects of legi-
timate and undoubted importance.

With respect to the best mode of collecting the
subscriptions, the Council have confirmed the re-
commendation of the Finance Committee, that while
those friends of the Society in various counties, who
would undertake the trouble, should be requested to
favour the Society with their inspection of the list
of such subscriptions as might be outstanding and
unpaid in their respective neighbourhoods, and com-
municate at their discretion with the parties whose
names had been transmitted to them, the remittance
of subscriptions by means of Post Office Orders,
should be generally recommended by the Society to
its Members as the most direct, practicable, and
secure ; this system of payment having been found
perfectly successful and satisfactory to all parties
who have adopted it, and each Member of the So-
ciety having been enabled by its means to remit to
the Secretary, as it has become due, and from every
part of the countr}-, however remote, the subscrip-
tion of the year, and to obtain by immediate return of
post an official notification of the reception and re-
gistration of his money. It has been chiefly by this
means that no less a sum than 1,097/. has been re-
ceived since last Christmas, on account of arrears
alone.

The Council have decided that in future all sub-
scriptions due in advance on the first of January in
each year, shall be considered as in arrear on the 1st
of June ensuing.

The Council, on mature deliberation, have re-
solved to strike out from the list of the Society
the names of those members who, previously to
the date of the Charter, attended the early coun-
try meetings, and paid the subscription of the
then current year, for the temporary purpose
solely of enjoying the privileges of membership
on those occasions, but without any intention of
becoming continued members, or being aware of
their liability to be called upon for the subscrip-
tions of subsequent years. The cancelling of these
claims will greatly diminish the amount of what
has hitherto been viewed in the light of arrears,
while, at the same time, no inconvenient prece-
dent will be established.

In the official department of the Society, the
rapid increase in the amount of correspondence
with so large a number of members, and the re-
ception and accumulation of documents of every
kind in the various branches of the current busi-
ness of the Society, along with the multiplicity
of accounts and numerous details requiring daily
attention and great exactness, have rendered further
aid indispensable to enable the Secretary to meet
and discharge, satisfactorily to himself and to the
members, the increasing duties and responsibilities
of his office ; and in consequence of the Finance

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 443

Commiitee's report, tbe Council bave made a per- To Thomas Aukell, of Pen Hill Farm, near Cold

manent addition of two clerks to he placed under liis Harbour, by Swindon, Wiltsbire, tbe prize of

controul ; suitable arrangements bavin^ also been Fifty sovereigns for an account of tbe best mode

effected in tbe convenient adaptation of tbe offices of under-draining land, regard being bad to va-

to tbe purposes of tbe daily transaction of busi- riety of soil, subsoil, and otber local circumstances.

°6ss. 'f 0 j.oiES CowiE, of tbe Mains of Haulkerton, Lau-

The Council bave obtained, on reasonable con- rencekirk, Scotland, tbe prize of Ten sovereigns

ditions, a lease of tbe Society's present House, for tbe best Essay on tbe comparative advantages

for a term of ninety-nine years, at an annual rent in tbe employment of borses and oxen in farming

of 330/,, tbe counterpart of wbich has been duly work.

executed, and tbe common seal of the Society af- 'jpo W. F. Karkeek, of Truro, Cornwall, the prize

fixed, in tbe presence of tbe Council, agreeably of Twenty sovereigns for tbe bust explanation of

witb tbe powers of tbe Cbarter. tlje causes wbicb appear to determine tbe produc-

Tbe Bristol Balance Sbeetbas been laid before tbe tion of fat and muscle respectively, according to

Council, and tbe sum of 573/. ordered to be paid tbe present state of our knowledge of animal phy-

out of tbe funds of tbe Society to meet tbe defi- siology.
ciency to tbat amount, occasioned by tbe excess

of tbe expenditure over tbe receipts at tbat Tbe Essays on tbe construction of Cottages, on

meeting. the Management of Farm yard Manure, and artifi-

Tbe General Derby Committee bave nearly com- cial Manures or Hand Tillages, are still under tbe

pleted their arrangements for tbe meeting to be consideration of tbe Judges.

held at tbat town in July; and tbe Local Com- Tbe Journal Committee bave also reported the
aiiittee bave reported tbe resolution of the Directors following Prizes and subjects of tbe Essays, for
of tbe Midland Counties' Railway, to undertake 1844, tbe conditions of wbich will be given in tbe
tbe supply of any number of special trains tbat ensuing balf-volume of tbe Journal,
may be required on tbe occasion, liberally pro-
posing to receive only half fares for tbe convey- 1. For tbe best account of tbe comparative value of
ance of Cattle and Farming Implements, and no water meadows and uplands generally, for cat-
advance on tbe usual fares for passengers. tie, sbeep, and borses, but especially for milch

Tlie Council have decided on Soutbampton as cows.— Twenty sovereigns,

the place of the Annual Country Meeting of 1844; 2. For the best Essay on the influence of climate

and bave every reason to believe, that the selec- upon cultivation within the limits of Great

tion they have thus made will be found advanta- Britain and Ireland.— Thirty sovereigns,

geous both to the members of tbe Society at large, 3. For tbe best Essay on tbe indications which are

and to tbe agricultural population residing within practical guides in judging of the fertility or

tbe district, in the amount of accommodation to barrenness of the soil. — Fifty sovereigns,

visitors, which the town itself and its immediate -i. For the best report of the present state of the

neighbourhood are capable of affording, and in tbe agriculture of the county of Norfolk.— Fifty so-

facility of communication with every part of tbe vereigns.

kino'dom. 5. For tbe best report of the present state of the

In order to diminish the expense attending tbe agriculture of the county of Chester— Fifty so-

distribution of the Journal, the Council have con- vereigns. ^ . e j.\

firmed the recommendation of the Journal Com- <^- ^or the best report of the present state of the

mittee, that tbe publication shall in future take agriculture of tbe county of Essex.— Fifty so-

pliice in balf-vearly parts, tbe first half-volume to vereigns.

appear in the Spring, and tbe second in the ^- ^or the best report of the preseiit state of the
A utumn of each year ; the whole volume for tbe year agriculture of the county of ^\ ilts.-Fifty so-
containing the same amount of matter as hereto- vereigns. , , ,
fore: and tbe first half-volurae for tbe present 8. For the best account of improvements made by
year will accordingly be issued in a few days, artificial deposits of soil from the sea or tide-
agreeably with this new regulation. "^ers, and tbe subsequent cultivation of the

T^ r>i r ■ 1 • 11^1 . 1 • *. land. — Twenty sovereigns.

Dr. Playfair having resolved to devote his atten- r, -n .i l » ^ c .\ u„ „*.„„>, ^fi,=^«

, ■'. , ^ .,° , , , .• r • 1 i^. For tbe best account or tbe cheapest way ot keep-

tion exclusively to the s(udv and practice or aencul- ■ ^ , • ^„. j:,;„„ i,„,i, ;„ .„;„

, , . , ■' ,^ ^',,. , \ ,, T> IT .■ ing: farm horses in good condition, both in win-

tural chemistry, and to establish at the Jtloyal Insti- ^ ° , ■t' „„„♦ , c.^„o..^;™,,»

^ .. .,«■/. 1 v . c .1 -,. ter and summer. — Iwenty sovereigns,

tution at Manchester a laboratory tor the pursuit -^ -r »i, a .. „~ ;-,.u.,-„i „.,k;^«<.

, . ,. ,. r ,,. ,. , ■', ,, !, , 10. For the best essay on anv agricultural subject.—

and investigation of this subiect, the Council have m » / - ° ■:"

1 11 °i 1 .1, 1 c iu . -^ f Twenty sovereigns,

gladly availed themselves ot tbe opportunity ot j o

appointing him tbe consulting chemist to the Society ; By order of tbe Council, James Hudson,

an honorary designation, in virtue of wbich the So- London, May 22, 1843. Secretary.

ciety will at all times be favoured with Dr. Playfair's

gratuitous opinion on any question in that science CENSUS OF MEMBERS.

submitted to bim by the Council, while Members

who wish to obtain analyses of soils or otber sub- Mr. Raymond Barker, Chairman of the Finance

stances, may at any time, by applying to the Secre- Committee, laid before the Meeting the following

tary, obtain the scale of Dr. Playfair's charges. Census of Members, and abstract of accounts : —

Tbe Journal Committee have reported the follow- Life Governors •> 101

ing adjudications of Prizes for Essays : — Annual Governors 206

™ ,,T c c Ti • 1 T c Life IMembers 399

To Wii.LiAM Stage, ot berwick, near Lewes, Sus- Annual Members 6551

sex, tbe prize of Twenty sovereigns, for the best Honorary Members .'!..' « 13

Essay on the rotations of crops suited for heavy — —

lands. 7270

G G 2

444

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

HALF-YEARLY ABSTRACT OF ACCOUNTS.

RECEIPTS.

£. S. d.

Balance in the hands of the Bankers, July

1, 1842 1587 12 1

Balance in the hands of the Secretary, July

1, 1842 12 19 2

Half-year's Dividend (less income tax)
on 571U. 7s. 7d. Stock in the New
3j per Cents., to July 5, 1842 97 0 8

Do. on 1000/. Stock in the 3| per Cent.

Red. Ann., to Oct. 10, 1842 16 19 10

Amount of Subscriptions and Composi-
tions 2607 2 0

Sale ot Journals 40 9 0

Sale of Cottage Tracts 27 18 11

Sir Charles Morgan's Prize for Glamorgan

Cattle 15 15 0

Receipts on account of Bristol Meeting. , 35 18 4

4441 15 0
(Signed) Spencer, Trustee.

Thomas Raymond Barker, Chairman

of the Finance Committee.
C. B. Challoner.
Thomas Austen.
Henry Blanshard.
J. W. Childers.

PAYMENTS.

£. s. d.

Permanent Charges 8 14 6

Establishment , 888 14 1

Expences of Journal , 87115 10

Postage and Carriage 58 17 83

Prizes given by the Society 1262 0 0

Prizes given by Sir Charles Morgan.... 15 15 0
Advertisements and Miscellaneous pay-
ments 62 8 Ok

Payments on account of the Bristol Meet-
ing 590 14 7

Balance in the hands of the Bankers,

Dec.31, 1842 656 3 4

Balance in the hands of the Secretary,

Dec. 31, 1842 26 12 4

4441 15 0
(Signed) C. H. Turner.

Thos. Knight.

Charles Tawney.
Auditors on the part of the Society.

Bristol Balance Sheet.

Colonel Challoner then reported the final close of
the Bristol accounts on the 1st of March, 1843, and
read to the Meeting the various items of receipt and
expenditure incurred on account of that meeting,
and detailed in the General Bristol Balance Sheet,
he then submitted to the Members.

This balance-sheet shewed the total receipts of
the meeting to have been 4,201Z. 14s. 5d., and the
total payments 4,7751. Is. 8d. ; a balance of 573/.
78. 3d. being thus left chargeable on the funds of
the Society, and which the Council had ordered to
be paid.

Colonel Challoner explained to the meeting that,
at the end of 1842, the date to which the half-
yearly statement of the accounts just read by the
Chairman of the Finance Committee had been
audited, only 35L 18s. 4d. had been received, and
500/. 14s. 7d. i)aid, at Messrs. Drummond's, on the
general account of the society ; and consequently
only 554/. ICis. 3d. of the deficiency then paid out
of the funds of the society, the Bristol accounts not
having been finally closed till three months after
that time, when the further and remaining sum of
18/. lis. was paid.

Colonel Challoner also explained that, as the
greater part of the receipts and payments had been
made at the Bristol Bank, there only came into the
hands of Messrs. Drummond, in London, a small
transfer, not required at Bristol, in consequence of
the remaining payments having been paid by cheque
in London, the final balance of the whole agreeing
with the balance then shown on the Bristol balance-
sheet he then read to the meeting.

AUDITORf^.

Mr. Hampden Turner, of Rook's Nest, Godstone?
Surrey; Mr. Knight, of Edmonton; and Mr. Alder-
man Tawney, of Oxford, were declared duly elected
as auditors on the part of the Society for the en-
suing year.

Prize-sheet for 1844.

The noble Chairman announced that the prelimi"
nary prize-sheet for next year had been printed (in
proof), for tlie inspection and suggestion of mem-
bers prior to its consideration and adoption at the
Council on the last Wednesday in June.

County Reports.

Mr. Slanev wished to know whether the premiums
to be given for the essays on the counties would come
out of the funds of the society, or were offered by
individuals.

The noble CiiAinMAN had no doubt gentlemen re-
collected that during the e.xistence of the board of
agriculture, reports were made of the state of agri-
culture in every county in England. The Council
of the society were desirous of ascertaining whether
any improvement had been made in the counties
since that time, 40 years, ns they were of opinion
that if they published reports showing — if such
turned out to be the case — that some counties had
made improvements and others had not, since the
time of the board of agriculture, but that they actu-
ally remained in the state they then were, the latter
would be ashamed Jof their want of energy and en-
terprise, and be induced to make exertions to rival
the improvements of their brother farmers. (Hear.)
The society, by offering these prizes, might get good
reports, and could subsequently obtain reports upon
the state of agriculture in every county. He did not
see that anything was better calculated to improve
agriculture than the publication of such reports.
(Hear, hear.) The prizes would be given out of the
funds of the society.

Vote of Thanks.

The report having been adopted, a vote of thanks,
on the motion of Mr. Raymond Barker, chairman of
the Finance Committee, seconded by Sir Hunger-
ford Hoskyns, Bart., was passed to the Secretary,
Mr. Hudson, for the zeal and ability with which he
had conducted the affairs of the society.

AiMEnicAN Agriculture.

Mr. Henry Colman, agricultural commissioner of
the state of Massachusetts, and deputed to make a
report of the progress of agriculture in this country,
addressed the meeting, thanking them for havingmade
him an honorary member of the society, and exjiress-
ing his conviction that the prizes for the best essays
on the state of our counties would lead to most bene-
ficial results.

Cultivation op Waste Lands.

Mr. Houghton wished to see the Society en-
couraging some practical measure to benefit the
suffering population. His desire was that they
should see if something could not be done with the
waste lands of the country. He had had consider-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

445

able experience witli such lands, and had proved
most, satisfactorily that much coukl be done with
them. For twenty years this matter had engaged
his attention, and he would observe that he had oc-
cupied almost the largest quantity of land of any
man in the kingdom. The plan that he would pro-
pose was that ;i,O0O acres of waste land should be
divided into thirty jiarts, and a premium given to
him who shouhl best prove tlie capabihties of the
soil. Ho should be happy to contribute £50
towards the expense of the experiment.

Tlie Noble Chairman said a discussion of Mr.
Houghton's proposition would involve a great many
details, and it could therefore be entered upon only
before the Council.

Vote of Thanks.
A vote of thanks was then, upon the motion of
Lord WoESLEY, given to Earl Spencer, who re-
turned thanks and the meeting broke up.

A Weekly Council was held at the Society's
House, in Hanover-fQuare.on Wednesday, the 24th of
May, present, the llight Hon. Earl Spencer, in the
chair, W. R. Browne, Esq., Edward BuUer, Esq ,
M.P., Colonel Challoner, F. C. Cherry. Esq., E. U.
Davenport, Esq., J. H, Hodgetis Foley, Esq., Hum-
phrey Gibbs, Esq., Brandreth Gibbs, Esq., W. Good-
enough Hayter, Efq., M.P., C. Hillyard, Esq., Sir John
V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P., Professor Sewell, Rev.
T. S. Turnbull, Sir Charles Lemon, Bart,, M.P., and
T.Tweed, Esq.

American Agricultural Literature.
Henry Colman, Esq., presented to the Council tlie
following works for the Library of the Society : —

1. Professor Hitchcock's Final Report on tlie Geology

of Massachusetts, 2 vols. 4to., with numerous
plates

2. Mr, Colman's Second Report of the Agriculture of

iNIassachusetts, embracing the county of Berkshire

3. l\Ir. Colman's Third Report, embracing principally

the subjects of Wheat and Silk

4. Mr. Colmaa's Fourth Report, comprising the coun-

ties of Franklin and Middlesex

5. The Report of the Commissioner of Patents of the

United States, for 1842 : On the Agriculture o( the
United States

6. The First Annual Report of the Muaroe County

Agricultural Society

The best thanks of the Council were ordered to be
returned to Mr. Colman for these valuable presents.

Dr. Mease. Vice-President of the Philadelphia So-
ciety for promoting Agriculture, tran-mitied at the
same time, through Mr. Colman, the last volume of
the Memoirs of that Society, with an intention of for-
warding, at a subsequent opportunity, the previous vo-
lumes of those Transactions: for which the Council
also ordered their best thanks to be returned.

Drainage.
Mr. Bailey Denton, of Southampton, expressed his
intention of exhibiting, at the Derby Meeting, a model
three feet square, representing a map in relief of a dis-
trict, «ilh instruments, invented by himself; similar to
the one in possession of the Society, and presented by
him at a former council. The model is constructed of
plaster, or electrotyped in copper, to a true scale; any
height or distance being obtained by the aid of an in-
strument accompanying it. Mr. Denton considered
that the use of this invention as a complete guide to
draining was evident ; whde the properties of an un-
dulatory surface were made apparent by pouring water
upon the map thus modelled, which flowing to the
lowest levels exhibited the mode in which the waters of
the higher lands might be profitably applied.

Mr. Read transmitted a plan for improvements in the
making and burning of tiles, which was referred to the
Journal Committee.

Derby Meeting.

Mr. Colvile, M.P., Chairman of the Derby Local
Committee, has announced to the Society the same
liberal concession, on the part of the Birininghnm and
Derby Railway Company as already made by the
Midliind Counties' Company, in favour of e.xbibitors
attending the Meeting, or sending Stock or Imple-
ments ; namely, to require only half fares for Stock
and Agricultural Implements, and the usual fares for
passengers ; putting on such additional and special
trains as may be considered most conducive to the
general accommodation of the Members and public on
the occasion,

Mr, Gibbs presented the prize-sheet of the ensuing
Smilhfield Club Show, to be held in London on the
6th, 7ih, 8th, and 9th of December next ; Sir Charles
INlorgan, the prize-sheet of his Annual Show of Stock
at Court-y-bella, Newport, on the 1.3th of December;
Mr. Beeton, llie prize-sheet of the West-Suffolk Show,
at Bury St. Edmunds, on the 9th of June ; and the
Secretary, the prize-sheet of the Barnstaple Show on
the 3 1st of May.

NEW MEMBERS.

The following gentlemen were elected members of
the Society : —

Viscount Torringlon ; John Bell Crompton, Esq,,
Mayor of Derby ; and Charles Hampden Turner, Esq.,
F.R.S,, of Bruton. street, Berkeley- square, London, and
Rook's Nest, near Godstone, Surrey, were elected
Governors.

Adams, Captain George, Ross, Herefordshire
Aglionby, ILA,, M.P,, 5, Brick-court, Temple
Allen. Tiiomas, jun., Upton Cottage, Macclesfield
Arkell, Thomas, Pen Hill Farm, Cold Harbor, Sv?in-

don, Wilts
Arkwright, John, Rock House, near Matlock, Derby-
shire
Arkwright, Godfrey H,, Suttcn Chesterfield, Derby-
shire
Barton, Henry, Rongemoor House, near Burton-upon-

Trent
Beaicroft, Edward, Meer Hall, Droitwich, Worcester-
shire
Beecham, William Payne, Hawkhurst, Kent
Bell, William, Park-row, Nottingham
Bennett, William, Standon, Puckeridge, Herts.
Berners, John, Holbrook, Suffolk
Btxtall, Jame*, Snibstone, near Ashby-de-la-Zouche
Brown, Thomas, Bowling Green Farm, Ewell, Surrey
Bostock, Ellis, 41, Hunter-street, Brunswick-square
Burrell, Hon. Lindsev, Stoke Park, Ipswich
Burroughs, Thomas, Derby

Buxton, the Rev. German, Sutton-on-the-Hill, Derby
Calvert, Thomas, Dove Bank, Uttoxeter, Stsiflbrdshire
Carver, William, Ingersby, Leicestershire
Champion, John, Carrington, near Nottingham
Champion, George Harding, Well-place, Penshnrst,

near Tonbridge, Kent
Chawner, Richard, Sudbury, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire
Chawner, Henry, Hounrlshill, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire
Cheflfins, Henry, Little Easton Manor, near Dunmow,

Essex
Cheney, Robert Henry, Badger Hall, near Shiffnall,

Salop
Chetwynd, Major William Fawkner, Brockton Hall,

near Stafford
Childe, Richard Beaumont, Melbourne, near Derby
Cooke, John, the Chase, Ross, Herefordshire
Cox, George Henry Richardson, Spondon, near Derby
Cox, William Thomas, Spondon, near Derby
Cox, Samuel Walter, Breadsall, near Derby
Coppard, Thomas, Horihara, Sussex

446

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Corbet, Sir Andrew Vincent, Bart-* 88, Ea'on Square

Corfield, — Berwick, Shrewsbury

Cresswell, Richard Edward, Ravenstone, near Ashby-

de-la-Zouche
Crewe, Sir George, Bart, Calke Abbey, near Derby
Crossley, John, Scaithcliffe, near Todmorden, Lan-
cashire
Darton, Thomas Harwood, King's Walden, Hitchin,

Herts
Davidson, Alexander, 25, Portman-place, Maida-hill
benham, William, Siddall's-lane, Derby
Derry, Charles, Gedney, Lincolnshire
Dewes, William, Secretary of the Ashby-de-la-Zouche

Agricultural Society
Dighton, Francis, Northallerton, Yorkshire
Draper, George, ^lelbourn, near Derby
Earp, John, Totou, near Nottingham
Earle, Henry Francis, 18, Henrietta-st., Cavendish-sq.
Everard, Thomas, Hoefields, Thurlston, Leicestersliire
Every, Simon Frederick, Quarndon, near Derby
Evioson, Thomas, Angel Inn, Chesterfield, Derbyshire
Fearn, Samuel Wright, Derby

Fenton, Kirkby, One Barrow Lodge, Loughborough
Field, William, the Vale, Cliesham, Bucks
Flint, William, Hemmington, near Kegwoith, Lei-
cestershire
Forester, the Rev. R. F., Elinley Lodge, Droitwitch,

Worcestershire
Foster, Richard, Castle, near Lostwithiel, Cornwall
Foster, William, Brackenboro' House, near Lincoln
Fox, Samuel, St. Leonards-on-the-Sea, Sussex
Frean, Benjamin. Derby
Gardner, John, King-street, Snow-hill, London
Garnett, William, Lark Hill, Manchester
Gisborne, Thomas, jun,, M.P., Korwick House, Bux-
ton, Derbyshire
Gibbon, N. Walker, Sumraeries, Luten, Bedfordshire
Goodall, John, jun., Normanton, Derby
Goodwin, William, Kedleston, near Derby
Grazebrook, Thomas Worrall Smith, Dallicot House,

Wolverhampton
Grime, Thomas, Ticknall, Derbyshire
Hall, William, Tempe, Ashby- de la- Zouche
Hall, the Rev. Henry Banks, Risby, near Derby
Hall, Captain William Haghurst, R.N., Risby Hall,

Risby, near Derby
Hammond, George, Horsmouden, Lamberhust, Kent
Hardy, T. Edmund, Mason street. Edge Hill, Liver-
pool
Harrison, John, Snelston Hall, near Ashbourne, Der-
byshire
Harrison, John, jun., Snelston Hall, near Ashbourne,

Derbyshire
Hassell, John, Shelford Manor, Nottingham
Hearsey, Henry, Greatham, near Petersfield, Hamp-
shire
Higgins, John, Alford, Lincolnshire
Hincks, Richard Robinson, Hackleton, near Northamp-
ton
Holbrook, Charles, Alvasfon, near Derby
HoUier, Walter, Walton, near Burton-on-Trent, Staf-
fordshire
Holder, John, Cubberley, near Ross, Herefordshire
Holmes, Hon. William A'Court, Westover, Newport,

Isle of Wight
Howitt, William, Somerhall, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire
Hudson, John, Derby
Hunt, William, Leicester
Hurst, William, Doncaster
Hurt, Francis, jun., Duffield, near Derby
Hurt, Rich.ird, Wirkswortli, Derbyshire
Kendall, Nicholas, Pelyn, near Lostwithiel, Cornwall.
Killoe, Thomas, Linkinghorne, Li»keard, Cornwall
Knight, Henry, Llwynderw, near Swansea
Knollis, J. E., Penn Parsonage, Benconsfield, Buck-
inghamshire
Landor, Thomas, Burton-on-Trent, Staffordshire
Lejenne, William Rickman, Southampton
Lowrey, William, Barmoor, near Berwick-on-T weed
Mackrell, William, Collingbourn, Kingston, Wilts

Manclarke, Richard B., Warslow Hall, near Ashborne,

Derbyshire
Marshall, Thomas John, Spondon, near Derby.
Mather, Joseph, Bull Bridge, near Alfreton, Derby-
shire
Matson, Henry, Rodmersham, Sittingbourne, Kent
Melville, the Hon, Alexander Leslie, Branslon Hall,

near Lincoln
Meux, Sir Henry, Bart., Theobald's Park, Walthani

Cross
Middleton, Marmaduke, Hoptoa Hall, near Wirks-

worlh, Derbyshire
Miller, r. B., Thorpe Villa, Loughborough
Morley, William Bateman, Mugginton, near Derby
Mosley, Thomas, Edensor, near Bakewell, Derbyshire
Mostyn, SirPyers, Bart., Talacre, Holywell, Flintshire
Murphy, James Brabazon, Derby
Nainby, Richard, Barnolly-le-Beck, near Grimsby,

Lincolnsliire
Nevill, John, Packinston, Lichfield
Newman, Thomas, Mamhead, Devonshire
Norman, George, Goadby, Marwood, near Melton-

Mowbray
Ogilvie, Geoige, Calne, Wiltshire
Oldknovv, Henry, Draycott, near Derby
Orton, F., Bottisford, near Grantham, Lincolnshire
Osbond, Joseph, Spondon, near Derby
Owen, John, Field House, Mantington, near Uttoxeter
Parker, Capt. Windsor, Clopton Hall, Woolpit, Suffolk
Pipon, Major Thomas, 19, Charles-street, St. James's
Pollen, the Rev. George Pollen Boileau, rector of Little

Bookham, near Leatherhead, Surrey.
Potter, Thomas, jun., Swancer Field, Nottingham-
shire
Preston, Captain, R.N. , Borde Hill, near Cuckfield,

Sussex
Ray, the Rev. George Henry, Hanor Hall, near Derby
Raworth, B. C., Quorndon-place, Leicestershire
Richardson, John, Burlon-upon-Trent, Staffordshire
Richardson, Joseph, Burton-upon-Trent, Staffordshire
Richardson, James, Burton-upon-Trent, SlafiFordshire
Robe, Charles, Draycott, near Derby
Robinson, Dixon, Clitheroe Castle, Chtheroe, Lanca-

shire.
Robinson, Samuel, The Shaw House, Melbourne,

Derbyshire
Royston, J. C, Codnor Park, near Derby
Royston, James Christopher, jun., Codnor Park, Alfre-
ton, Derbyshire
Rudkin, John Charles, Derby
Russell, David, York
Sale, R., Barrow, near Derby
Sanders, Joseph, Liverpool
Sewell, The Reverend Thomas, Nether Broughton

Rectory, Melton Mowbray, Leicestershire
Shaw, Richard, Newhaven House, near Ashbourne,

Derbyshire
Simpson, William, M.D., Hilton Cottage, near Derby
Smalley, Francis, Toton, near Nottingham
Smallpiece, John, Leith Hill-place, near Dorking,

Surrey
Smith, Rev, John Tetley, Repton, near Derby
Smith, Richard, Foremarck Park, near Derby
Spencer, William, Derby
Standly, George, Swinfen, near Lichfield
Stanley, Sir William Massey, Bart., Hooton, near

Chester
Statham, William, Derby

Staunton, the Rev. Dr., Staunton Hall, near Birming-
ham
Stevenson, William, Derby
Stiult, John, Bridge-hill, Belper, Derbyshire
Stralon, l he Reverend George W., Somersal Rectory,

Uttoxeter, Stafibrdshire
Streets, John, jun., Spring Farm, Sandiacre, near

Derby
Sutton, James, Sliardlow Hall, near Derby
Swettenhiim, James Oldham, Belper, Derbyshire
Tiram, William, Wickersly, near Rothetham, Yorkshire
Tingey, John, Scoulton, Hingham, Norfolk

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

447

Tunnard, Thomas, Frarapton, Boston, Lincoloshire

Tunaley, 'I'homa-!, Deri)y

Thompson, Edmund, Legh Lodga, Ardivick.near Man-
cliester

Thornewill, Edward, Park Hill, Derby

Vernon, Hon. and Rev. John Y., Kirkby, Minsfield,
Nottiog'hamshire

Walters, John. Derby

Watson, G., Daybro ik, near Nottingham

Wayte, George, Slenson, near Derby

Wayte, Henry Smith, Milton, near Derby

Webb, 1 he Reverend John Moss, Swarkstone, Der-
byshire

Whiston, William, Derby

Wild, S. B., Costock, near Loughborough, I^ticester-
shire

Williams, Rev. Charles, Gedllng' Rectory, near Not-
tingham

Willu-iinson, William, Little-over, near Derby

Wilmot, Francis Scheverell, Stanton-by Dale, near
Derby

WilUon, Thomas, Knaptoft, Leiceslersiiire

Wood, Willoughby, C:Hmpsall Hall, Donoaster

Woodward, George, 'I'horndon, ntar Eye, Suffolk

VVorsop, John Arthur, Sandfurd House, Salisbury

Yates, 1 revor, Sapperton, Derbyshire

TO THE FARMERS OF SUFFOLK.

Letter XL

Gentlemen, — There being no very direct com-
munication between Hitcham and tlie rest of the
world, the arrival of the packet of Schedules, from
Bury, has been accidentally delayed beyond the
time when I had proposed to have circulated them ;
and I must beg to apologise, in the name of our
unmacadamized bye-roads and tardigrade carriers'-
horses, for so long trespassing upon your patience.
I trust, however, before this letter appears in print,
that each of the sixty -nine gentlemen who have
already favoured me with their addresses, will have
received his copy ; and I shall bo ready to distri-
bute the rest of the hundred among those who may
repent of their previous deteriniaation to have
nothing to do with us. Mr. Potter, a practical
chemist, in Loudon, whose letters in the Gordiners'
Chronicle prove him to be equal to the task he has
offered to undertake for you, has publicly expressed
himself so anxious that our experiment should
have a fair trial, that he is willing to test every
sample of gypsum, in order that you may be quite
sure the material you are using is of the right
quality. You are doubtless aware that this is a
very liberal offer on the part of Mr. Potter, whose
time is professionally occupied in performing che-
mical analyses. I have not the pleasure of know-
ing him, otherwise than by correspondence; but I
feel obliged to him for the interest he has shown in
volunteering his services. I shall, therefore, re-
quest every one who receives a schedule, to send
me as much of the gypsum he is about to use as
can be conveyed in a penny letter ; and I will then
forward all the samples to Mr. Potter for his opi-
nion of them. These samples should be labelled
with the addresses of the persons who send them ;
and this will also serve me for an acknowledgment
that the Schedule has been duly received.

I do not know why it is that I cannot proceed a
step in these endeavours to point out to you
the necessity of experimental co-operation for the
advance of agriculture, without being met (I won't
say obstructed) by sundry hints and surmises that

my task is a hopeless one. I had thought the sim-
ple fact of your having accepted my clmllonge (and
that in greater numbers than I had called for)
Avould have been sufficient to have silenced all dis-
puters about your readiness to co-operate, and all
doubters about your being willing to bring our
experiment to a proper issue. But I find I am
now assailed with a fresh insinuation, that it
is not likely many of those who have engaged to
co-operate will be able to fill up the Schedule in a
satisfactory manner. Old proverbs are somewhat
musty in these days of super-refinement, but I like
them nevertheless, and so I say, I suppose these
fresh doubtiiags imply that " I may lead a horse to
the pond, but that I cannot make him drink.''
Certainly, if the horse is unwilling, and the pond
somewhat muddy, 1 should not imagine that he
would drink — but if the horse is thirsty, and the
pond clear, he will need no persuasion, and nature
has supplied him with ability. I have mislaid a
letter from a gentleman who lives at a distance, and
who has expressed himself desirous of having a
Schedule to put into the hands of his bailiff. I
had intended to have quoted to you his unfavoura-
ble opinion of the capabilities of practical men, in
a declaration he makes to me, " that he never yet
knew a farmer who could correctly fill up a sche-
dule of any sort!" I can only believe him to be
very unfortunately placed. His estates are not in
Suffolk! I am determined not to be a doubter,
and I shall hope on till I see my hopes fulfilled,
because I feel assured they will be. Of course I
expect to find errors and inaccuiacies in several of
the returns ; but still I am confident that the great
majority of the schedules will be as fully and
fairly filled up as may be necessary for our purpose.
Let any farmer only look attentively through the
schedule, and say whether it contains a single ques-
tion which he is not likely to be able to answer with
perfect ease, and far more readily (I suspect) than
he found himself able to fill up certain schedules
which he received from the parish assessor a few
months back. Should any one feel himself doubt-
ful al)out the meanmg of any of the questions in
our Schedule A, I would suggest that he should
first apply to the parish assessor for his advice, and
if, after all the training which that individual has
so lately received in filling up schedules, he cannot
satisfy the inquirer, I shall then advise that he w'll
inform me of his doubts, and I will endeavour to
remove them. The plea of idleness, of unwilling-
ness, or of indifference, I can easily comprehend,
but any plea of incompetency is to me incompre-
hensible. I am much more apprehensive lest ano-
ther suggestion of evil surmise should prove
partially true, and I must beg leave to be a little
particular upon this subject. It has been suggested
to me, that if our experiment should fail, such a
result would produce a bad effect, by shaking-
whatever confidence you inay at present be dis-
posed to place in the recommendations of scientific
men. " I hope it will succeed," said a gentleman
who first suggested this possible contingency to me.
Now really. Farmers of Suffolk, I am half inclined
to say that I hope that it may not succeed, if I am
so little likely to be understood, that you have
supposed I have formed any decided opinion about
its success or failure. If I had wished to play the
conjuror, or had cared to count ujiou your applause
by foretelling success, I dare say I could have con-
trived some experiment in which success could have
been secured, or at least not left very doubtful.
Perhaps some of you might then have been per-

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

suaded to consider me an agricultural Solomon,
and would have allowed me to dictate to you any
wild schemes or plans for agricultural improve-
ments, without any attention to common prudence
or circumspection on your parts. But I hate all
such manoeuverings and under plots, as I would
detest the pious lures and frauds put forth to prop
or propagate an unstable faith. Look back tlirough
my letters, and you will see that the object and end
which I have proposed to myself has been the sug-
gesting to you the necessity of " experimental co-
operation," and that all I aim at in our present
experiment is, to show you how " experimental co-
operations" should be carried on. It would be very
presumptuous and very unphilosophical in me to
say beforehand, that 1 am positive of what will be
the result of our experiment j but I do say that I
am positive the experiment camiot fall in produc-
ing some good result ; and that is all that a wise
and cautious philosophy would have us look to.
Let us first see what the result may be, and
then let us speculate afterwards upon what that
result may teach us. With this determination
the experiment cannot fail— it must teach us some-
thing. And so of every experiment conducted on
correct principles — it never fails. However it may
fail in producing that particular efiect which the
experimenter may desire, or fancy he can secure,
yet, even if ho should be completely baulked in his
expectations, the experiment has assisted him in
discovering the truth ; and it will, in consequence,
teach him either to cleave to the " old ways," or to
turn to the " new ways," according as he finds that
the one or the other practice will best serve his
purpose. This discussion is not unnecessary ; for
I find that some persons have already been pur-
chasing gypsum, and strewing it over their dung-
hills, just as if it were a settled point that such a
practice must be correct. We shall never get on
if we allow such hasty inferences to influence our
determinations. I will quote to you three or four
sentences from Sir John Herschel's Discourse on
Natural Philosophy, and his word is worth a score
of letters from me on such a subject. "To expe-
rience we refer as the only ground of all physical
inquiry. But before experience itself can be used
with advantage, there is one preliminary step to
make, which depends wholly on ourselves : it is
the absolute dismissal, and clearing the mind, of
all prejudice, from whatever source arising; and
the determination to stand and fall by the result
of a direct appeal to facts in the first instance, and
of strict logical deduction from them afterwards."
" Not that we are so unreasonable as to demand of
the inquirer, an instant and peremptory dismission
of all his former opinions and judgments; all we
require is, that he will hold them without bigotry,
retain till he shall see reason to question them, and
be ready to resign them when fairly proved untena-
ble, and to doubt them when the weight of probability
13 shown to lie against them. If he refuse this, he is
mcapable of science." " With respect to our re-
cord of observations, it should not only be circum-
stantial hut faithful ; by which we mean that it
should contain all we did observe, and nothing else.
Without any intention of falsifying our record, we
may do so unperceived by ourselves, owing to a
mixture of the views and languas>e of an erioneous
theory with that of simple fact ; there is no greater
fault (short of positive fraud) which can be com-
mitted by an observer." I have one passing word
for the consideration of those worthy and excellent
men, my seniors in years, who have lived and pros-

pered under that system of farming into which they
were initiated somewhere between fifty and ninety
years ago. Some of them, I hear, think me a med-
dling fellow, and they laugh pretty loudly at the
notion of my being able to advise them in anything
worthy their attention. But will they tell me whe-
ther they have any idea how it is that an astrono-
mer is able to measure the distances of the planets
from the sun, and to obtain an accurate estimate of
their bulk and weight, or how it is that he can fore-
tell to a fraction of a second when particular celes-
tial phenomena are to recur after the lapse of long-
periods of time ? Now the mariner is indebted to
this very astronomer (who perhaps never felt the
discomfort of sea-sickness, or possibly never saw a
ship) for those nautical tables and calculations by
help of which he can fearlessly traverse the broad
ocean by night as by day, and tell exactly where
he may be in the wide world after sailing for weeks
together out of sigiit of land. I do not say that the
science of chemistry has yet attained to the same
degree of excellency as the science of astronomy ;
but it has made, and is still rapidly making, very
decided progress towards perfection. It is even
now capable of lending great assistance to those
who plough the land, though it may not as yet be
quite so great assistance as that which astronomy
can offer to those who plough the sea. If then
some of our worthy seniors do not like to be put
out of their old ways, at least let me advise our
active juniors not to be daunted or discouraged by
any of their pleasant banterings. Let these happy
boys of the old school enjoy their humours, as long
as they are good humours, and they will be amused
(I doubt not), whilst I quote for their edification
the account which a Roman poet, who lived more
than eighteen hundred years ago, has given us of
the hapless old heathens of a.d. 1,so different from
the hopeful old Christians of A. d. 1843! I will
try whether I cannot roughly translate his verses
for the sake of those who have forgotten their Ho-
race, or possibly may never have known anything
about him.

'' Multa senem circumveniunt incommoda ; vel quod
Quserit, et iaventi* miser abstinet, ac timet uti ;
Vel quod res omnis timide gelideque ministrat ;
Dilator, spe lentus, iners, pavidusque futuri;
Difficilis, querulus, laudator temporis acti
Se puero, castigfator, censorque minorum."

" Many are ihe disadvantagres under which an old
man labours ; either he is niggard and timid about
making u«;e of whatever he has acquired by dint of hi?
own exertions; or else, if he does venture to act, he
sets nbout everything' with cold and hesitating caution.
He is full of delays, of very faiat hope, Inactive, a pro-
fessed nlannist, hard to please, a determined grumbler,
ever prauing: the good olden time when he was himself
a lad ; always correcting and scolding his juniors."

Whilst the active members of a rising generation
continue to pay all due respect to grey hairs and
old prejudices, and are ready to allow " that there
is nothing new (that is worth knowing) under
the sun," they may still be trusting to their own
judgment, and be striving to keep pace with others
in all matters relating to their own times, and to
their own affairs.

Now that I consider our gypsum adventure is
fairly afloat, it will probably not be requisite that
I should refer to it again for many months to come.
May it prosper to the improvement of your judg-
ment, and tend to assist you in discerning what is
most requisite for hastening the progress of agri-
culture ! I shall hope to resume and caiTy on our

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449

discussion of the " Fuuctious of tlie Leaf " through
another letter or two ; and by that time I shall be
called to duties in Cambridt>c, which will occupy
me too closely for a few weeks to allow of my
troubUng you any further, for the present, with a
continuation of these letters.

Your obedient servant,

J. S. II EX -J LOW.

Hitcluim Rectory, March Qth, 1843.

Letier XII.

Function of Exhalation.

Genti.ejien, — Every farm house in Suftblk can
doubtless furnish forth half-a-dozen clean tumblers ;
and we shall need no other apparatus for illustrating-
one of the two functions of the leaf to whicli I allu-
ded in my 6th and 7tli letters. I have just been
trying three little comparative experiments in a very
simple form, and find they will be sufficient for
our purpose. Let us call the tbree experiments A,
B, C, respectively. Each will require two tum-
blers, one of which is to be filled about two-thirds
with water, and the other to be left empty. Place
a card over each of the three tumblers which con-
tain the water, and large enough to completely cover
it : and then place an empty tumbler, mouth down-
wards, upon the card. You might use a piece of
stiff paper (as I did,) varnished with a solution of
sbell-iacin rectified spirits of wine, which will pre-
vent its imbibing moisture, and more effectually cut
off all communication between the two tumblers.
Now make a cap to one of the tumblers (say B) by
rolling round it in two or three folds a piece of
thick paper, sufficient to prevent the light from pe-
netrating ; and by giving it a twist above it may be
kept rolled up. Lastly, drill a small hole in the
middle of each card, just large enough to admit the
stalk of a leaf — I used large ivy leaves. The stalks
of three leaves are to be passed through the three
cards respectively, and the apparatus must be so
adjusted that we shall have the bot'om of each stalk
dipping into the water in the lower tumbler, whilst
the blade (or limb of the leaf, as botanists term it)
is enclosed under the inverted empty tumbler : the
card cutting off the communication between the two
tumblers in each experiment. Place A and B in
the direct rays of the sun; B with its cap on. Place
C in clear day-light, but removed from the influence
of the direct rays of the sun. In less than five
minutes the empty tumbler of A will have become
coated on the inside with a cloud of dew ; but on
lifting up the cap from the empty tumbler of B it
will be seen that no dew has been deposited ;
neither, as yet, will any be found in the empty
tumbler of C. If B be closed over again with the
cap, and matters left as before, for a little time longer,
the dew will be seen to increase rapidly in A, and
after seme time a little will also be found deposited
in C. In B none will be found, except that, occa-
sionally, there may be seen a deposit on the side of
the empty tumbler, opposite to the side on which
the sun has been shining. I proceed to explain the
causes of these results. The rapid formation of the
dew in A arises from the strong " exhalation" of
steam, proceeding from the leaf when exposed to the
direct rays of the sun — a continued supply being
kept up by the water in the lower tumbler imbibed by
the leaf-stalk. This exhalation of steam is not kept up
very rapidly in C, exposed only to ordinary day-
light ; and in the dark, in B, it ceases altogether.
The dew which makes its appearance on one side of

the tumbler in B arises from another cause. We all
know that a wet or moist substance gradually be-
comes dry by exposure to warmth and a dry atmos-
phere. Xow afresh leaf is a moist body, and the
evapor;i!ion of its juices will gradually take place
until it becomes thoroughly dried. The warmer
tiie surrounding atmosphere the more rapidly does
this evaporation take place. The very card also
between the tumblers contains some moisture, which
will be given off when the experiment is placed in
the warmth of the sun-beam, and will rise in steanr
into the empty tumbler. The side towards the sun
being the warmest, and the opposite side the coldest,
the steam in the tumbler becomes condensed on the
colder side only ;in short, the appearance is strikingly
different from what we witness in A. The little
moisture in B has arisen merely from the effect of com-
mon evaporation, and subsequent condensation. You
will find the verv same effect taking place in the
upper part of the lower tumbler immediately over
the water ; the steam which rises there condenses
on the sida opposite the sun, which is kept cool by
being shaded by the card above it. In A the mois-
ture continues to accumulate over the whole inner
surface of the tumbler ; and is occasioned, not by
the heat, but by the light of the sun, exciting or sti-
mulating the leaf to the performance of that vital
function which is termed "exhalation." Even in C
the same action is carried on by the stimulus of
common daylight ; but so feebly, that it is scarcely
rendered apparent by our mnde of conducting the
experiment. With proper apparatus, an exact esti-
mate may be obtained of the quantity of moisture ab-
sorbed and exhaled by a plant ; and it has been ascer-
tained that a sunflower, three feet high, will absorb as
much as 30 ozs. and exhale 20 ozs. in the course of a
day. When the first rays of the morning sun rouse the
dormant energies of the leaf, they set it off exhaling
at a rapid rate ; but at that time of day the tempe-
rature of the air is so cool that the steam condenses
as fast as it is discharged from the myriads of un*
taxed stills which are there manufacturing a more
healthy beverage than gin or whiskey. I dare say
that many a sportsman, who at an eaily hour has
been wading through a field of coleseed, never
thought of attributing the ducking he received to
this " exhaling" power of the leaves, but has con-
cluded that it all arose from the ordinary effect of
common dew precipitated from the moisture m the at-
mosphere. If a plant be completely excluded from
light it soon becomes dropsical, because the roots con-
tinue slowlytoabsorb moisture, but the leaves have no
power to exhale it, and it therefore accumulates un-
duly. Perhaps I cannot make you perfectly understand
the nature of that contrivance by which the function of
exhalation is carried on, because it requires you
should first take a peep into that hidden world which
is exposed to us only by the microscope ; but I
think that you may obtain a good general notion of
it, by fancying you can see the skin on both sides
of the leaf perforated by minute pores. Through
these invisible pores the steam is exhaled, much in
the same way that the insensible perspiration is con-
tiiiually escaping from the surface of our bodies,
and which is often rendered uncomfortably demon-
strable to persons who encase themselves in Macin-
tosh coverings. Imagine these invisible pores to be
formed by means ofa pair of invisible sausage-shaped
bladders, filled with vegetable juices ; these blad-
ders lying side by side, and attached only at the
two ends. By pressing the ends towards the middle
the bladders would curve outwards, and thus an
opening, like a slit or pore, would be formed be-

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tweentbem. We may consider this description of
apparatus forming the pores as so many invisible
flootlgates, wbicb can be opened or shut at the com-
raanrl of the sun, that the steam mav be exhaled or
retained accordingly. Now 1 do not pretend to
assert that this is precisely the way in which the
function is carried on by the mechanism I have
described ; because some of my pliysiological ac-
quaintances may possibly have better notions about
the manner in which glandular structures per-
form their functions; but 1 tliink this is perhaps
the most popular and plausible manner in
which I may hope to give vou some gene-
ral idea of the subject. Under the microscojje
we may distinctly see these peculiar arrangements
hy which the pores are closed and opened ; and tliey
are studded over both surfaces of the leaf; more
especially on the under surface. 1 he beauty and
regularity in the texture of the skin for epiV/ei-w/.s) of
a leaf, as much excels those of the most delicate web
that can be wrought by human skill, as the gorgeous
clothing of the lily surpasses the most glorious
array of Solomon. The number, disposition, and
form of tijese pores (to which botanists have given
the name ofslnmala, or " little mouths") vary greatly
in different species of plants ; succulent plants, or
those which have very juicy leaves and stems, liave
very few pores on their surface. Such plants might
seem, on first thoughts, to require a larger supply of
moisture than others, but the very reverse is the case.
They are destined to occupy dry and barren spots,
imbibing the little moisture which the night dews
may convey to them ; and husbanding their re-
sources, they refuse to part with it even in the
scorching heats of a sandy desert. It has been as-
certained, that the amount of water distilled by ex-
halation is about two-thirds of the quantity imbibed
by the roots ; and consequently that one-third re-
mains fixed in the plant. The conditions under
which it is fixed will be more particularly detailed
when I come to speak of the other functions of the
leaf, which I hope to describe in my next letter.
There is another result to be noticed, which has been
obtained by the exhalation of this two-thirds of the
water imbibed. Whatever matters the water may
have held in solution — salts, earths, or metallic oxides
— these have all been retained in the plant. Tims
we may understand how such substances may be
gradually accumulated in considerable quantities,
though they may be present in the soil in too minute
proportion to admit of the chemist detecting them.
The plant may have been exhaling off ounces after
ounces of water before it has been able to retain a
single grain of a particular substance essential to its
health, and consequently essential to its successful
cultivation. To give you an example, noticed by
Liebig, of the patient perseverance of common sea-
weeds, which accumulate an element named Iodine,
which is furnished to them in such sparing propor-
tions that it does not form so much as one millionth
part of the weight of a given quantity of sea-water.
Yet they collect it {rom this storehouse in sufficient
abundance for the chemist to extract it from them
as an article of commerce.

Your obedient (servant,

J. S. Henslow.
Hitcliam Rectory, March T3rd, 1843.

P.S. — IMore than one person have expressed to me
a desire that I would myself re-publish and editmy
letters to you, under the form of a pamphlet. The
following considerations have determined me to do
so. Although I believe I have not allowed the in-

terest I have felt in this correspondence very ma-
terially to trespass upon my attention, to the exclusion
of any of the more important duties attached to my
position as a parish priest ; yet it is evident that
whatever of thought, time, or money I have allotted
to this subject during the past three months,
might have been otherwise devoted in some way
ad vantageous to my parish. It seems tome, then,
that I may possibly be able to make some amends
for such deficiencies by appropriating to some pa-
rochial utility or other, whatever may accrue from
the re-publication of these letters. I have, therefore,
no very delicate scruples about requesting any of
you to promote their circulation, if you think them
calculated to excite the farmers of other counties to
co-operate, after the example of the farmers of Suf-
folk, I see no reason why we should not have at
least loo distinct experiments performed every year ;
and each carried on by between thirty and fifty
practical men, whilst each man need not be called
upon for more than a single experiment annually.
1 propose inserting in this pamphlet my address to
the Hadleigb Club, and to add a few explanatory
notes, or some sort of commentary and glossary,
which may give them a more general character, and
enable them to serve as a precursor for inducing the
farmers of other counties to listen to any future
suggestions which may possibly (and will probably)
be made to them, for organizing a complete system
of experimental co-operation throughout England.
My hopes that such will be the case are greatly
strengthened now that I find it publicly asserted by
a superior authority that he considers such a scheme
both advisable and practicable.

Letter XIII.
Functioti of Respiration.

Gentlemen, — I shall be obliged to draw a little
more deeply upon your faith than was necessary in
my last letter, whilst I endeavour to explain to you
that function of the leaf which has been named
"respiration." Still I do hope to be able to set before
you two or three very simple experiments, which
may serve to convince you that botanists are not
very far wrong in what they have asserted concern-
ing this function. The function may be thus
expressed— " that leaves decompose carbonic acid
under the stimulus of light, the oxygen of this
substance being discharged from the plant into the
atmosphere, and the carbon fixed as an ingredient
of that 'proper juice' by which all parts of the
plant are nourished and developed." I shall first
ask you to try a little exj eriment which may serve
to remove a cause of error that might otherwise
warp our judgment in estimating the actual effects
produced by the function we are about to consider.

Preliminary Experiment,
Place a tumbler full of spring or pond water
before a fire, and another in the direct rays of the
sun. As the water becomes warm, in each case,
you will find a number of little bubbles will collect
on the bottom and sides of the tumblers ; and if
you place in the tumblers apiece of stick or metal,
or other substance, bubbles will also collect upon
these. If you place several tumblers of water in
the direct rays of the sun, and put into them
differently coloured substances, you will find that
bubbles will first make their appearance in those
tumblers which have the darkest coloured sub-
stances in them ; because the darker the substance

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451

the more rapidly it will become heated, and so heat
the water sooner. It is verj' evident that these
air- bubbles have made their nppearance in conse-
quence of the heating of the water. But from
whence do these bubbles proceed ? They are
derived from air which we may describe as being
dissolved in the water, just as we find a piece of
salt or sugar may be dissolved in water, and thus
rendered invisible. When we boil water, all the
air which is thus dissolved in it is driven oft"; and
upon allowing it to stand exposed to the air it will
again dissolve a certain quantity. \'arious gases,
besides common air, may thus be dissolved in
water — as carbonic acid, &c. ; and many springs
upon issuing from their subterranean courses give
off into the atmosphere a portion of the gases
which are dissolved in their waters, and which are
retained in them so long as they remain under-
ground. Whoever has been to Harrowgate is
acquainted with the offensive odour of the mineral
waters of that place of public resort ; and whoever
wishes to have a good idea of it without going
there need only smell at a rotten egg, or wash out
a recently discharged gun-barrel into a tumbler
and apply bis nose to it. I have already observed
in my seventh letter that common soda-water
contains a large quantity of carbonic acid. I have
used the term dissolved in these cases in rather an
improper sense, but it will possibly serve to convey
a general idea of what takes place. Carbonic acid
is thus dissolved in all waters, and is also present
everywhere in the atmosphere. Supposing, there-
fore, that leaves can act upon it, and decompose it
under both circumstances, we may then be able to
exhibit the result of their action upon that which
is dissolved in water, even though we might not
be able to do so upon that which is dispersed in
the air ; because, in the former case, the oxygen
which is set free would rise through the water in
bubbles, and we shall see these, whereas, in the
latter case, it would be discharged as an invisible
gas into the air. Let us try whether we can make
this clearer by a simple experimeit.

Illustration of the Function of Respiration.

Fill two or three tumblers with pond or spring
water, which will be sure, in cither case, to hold
some carbonic acid in solution. Place a leaf or
two under the water in each tumbler. I find that
common laurel leaves are well adapted to experi-
ments of this sort, only from their size they
require large glass jars, instead of tumblers, unless
we cut them in halves. In order to place the
leaves conveniently under the water, I make use
of a split shot, or small piece of lead, with which I
nip the edge of the leaf and leave it fixed there.
This causes it to sink and yet retain a vertical
position. Place one tumbler in common daylight,
and the others in the direct light of the sun. In
the former you will observe no effect produced ;
but in the latter you will soon find numerous little
bubbles making their appearance upon the surface
of the leaves. I suspect these bubbles have not
unfrequently been considered to be oxygen which
is escaping through the pores of the leaf, upon the
decomposition of the carbonic acid contained in the
water; but I now feel satisfied that we must ascribe
them to the separation of the dissolved air, by the
heating process as described above. Still I do
hope to shew you a partial effect produced by the
decomposition of carbonic acid by the leaf. Arm
yourselves with a little of that gift of patience, so
essential to all farmers and experimenters ; and of

course doubly essential when farmers become
exjierimenters. In due time Cperhaps in less than
half an liour) you will be able to distinguiish certain
bubbles, which will make their appearance at the
cut end of tlie leaf, or else here and there upon if.s
surface. These will increase in size more rapidly
than the rest, and at length rise to the surface.
After one has risen, another will immediately begin
to make its a|)pearance at the same spot. A little
attention will soon convince you that these bubbles
have proceeded from the interior of the leaf, and
we may, I think, allow them to be the oxygen
which the leaf has separated from the carbonic
acid introduced into it. The interior of the leaf is
composed of little invisible bladders filled with
fluid ; and these bladders are so packed together
as only to touch each other here and there, and
thus to leave open spaces between them, which
are filled with air or some other sort of gass.
Especially in the under part of the leaf the bladders
are so loosely packed that a very large portion of
air or gass is retained there. This is the cause
why the under surface of leaves is generally the
palest ; but if the air is expelled, as I shall presently
describe how it may be, and v.-pter be allowed to
enter, the under surface will then become as dark
as the upper. Plunge a leaf into hot water, and
the air which it contains will escape in hubbies
from the cut end, and also from a few points on its
surface. Sometimes a bubble thus driven out will
be seen to adhere to the surface for a few seconds,
and then be suddenly re-absorbed into the leaf.
When we place leaves in water, under an air-pump,
the air they contain escapes in bubbles with great
rapidity, from the cut end of the leaf-stalk. If
you allow the leaves to soak for a few hours in the
tumblers, the water will gradually insinuate itself,
either through the cut end of the leaf, or through
the part pinched by the split shot, or through some
accidental rupture in the skin. The water will
thus displace the air, and the under surface will first
appear to be blotched v^-ith dark spots, wherever
it has penetrated, and at length the whole will
become uniformly dark coloured. I refer especially
to laiuel leaves. It is after these leaves have been
soaking for two or three days that I have witnessed
the stimulating effects of light in exciting the
function of respiration in the most illustrative and
convincing- manner. The oxygen will often issue
in a continued stream of little bubbles, even with
a distinct noise, from the cut end of the leaf, or
from some point or other upon its surface. If the
hand or any solid substance be interposed between
it and the sun, so i-.s to cast a shadow over the leaf,
the effect ceases ; but it is immediately renewed
upon the removal of the obstacle. Even whilst
the leaf continues to be shaded, the stream of
bubbles may be caused to issue afresh by throwing
a gleam of reflected light upon it from a looking
glass. When we happen to get a leaf into such
good humour for these experiments, they become
very amusing and instructive ; indeed, the inform-
ation you may thus draw from a common tumbler
is far more satisfying and enduring than any
fleeting gratification that could he afforded you by
the best shilling's-worth of brandy and water which
it ever yet held. Only try these simple experiments,
awrf #/u«^ a little about them, and the knowledge
you will thus acquire will wonderfully assist your
conceptions of the manner in which these functions
of the leaf are carried on. When the leaf has
become thoroughly saturated with water, it is very
curious to see the under surface gradually recover-

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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ing' its pale tint as soon as the tumbler is placed
in the light of the sun. When I wish to give the
water a good dose of carbonic acid, I fill a vial
with this gas, twist a piece of lead round its neck,
and let it float in the tumbler or glass jar, with its
mouth downwards. In a few hours the water will
have taken up all the carbonic acid ; a large portion
of which will, however, soon escape from the water
into the air ; still there will be enough of it retain-
ed to cause the function to be renewed with fresh
vigour, after it had ceased from want of fresh supply.
I have had a little aquatic plant growing in a glass
jar full of water for the last six months, on the table
of my study, and whenever the sun falls upon it,
up rise several little streams of bubbles of oxygen
from the edges of some of the leaves which happen
to be torn ; but I do not perceive that any oxygen
can be detected escaping from the surface of the
sound leaves.

I feel a little sceptical about the manner in
which it is commonly asserted that carbonic acid
is admitted within the leaf. That some portion of
carbonic acid must be introduced with the moisture
imbibed by the roots seems to be undeniable ; but
that other jiortions are introduced through the
very pores by which the stream is exhaled, and
the oxygen discharged, appears to me to be still
open to further enquiry. This, however, is a
subject for botanists to look into, and one that is
not suited to these letters : only you will observe
that what 1 have said in illustration of the functions
of respiration is no way affected by this part of
the theory. It is usual to treat the effects we
have described to " exhalation" and " respiration"
as the results of a two fold action, both excited
by the same stimulus of light: but I question
whether it would not be preferable to consider
them as the common effect of a single function,
which might be appropriately termed the " function
of organization." What we really observe is the
simultaneous discharge of water and oxygen from
the leaf. This effect is attended by the fixation of
the elements of water, oxygen, and hydrogen, with
carbon, in tiie form of organic matter. But I
must suppress an inclination I feel to discuss the
subject more fully. I have before noticed the fact,
and I cannot resist again alluding to it, that plants
are engines or laboratories employed by the
Creator in the great work of combining a few
elements into a nutritious material, which is
to serve for the development of the whole
animal creation. I am not acquainted with any
natural law which impresses nie with a greater
sense of wonder than this " function of organ-
ization." Here we see mere crude matter brought
under subjection to the ruling principle. It is
wonderful to view the effects of gravity retain-
ing the planets in their orbits ! it is wonder-
ful to witness the magic changes which chemical
affinity can work in compounding and decomposing
a variety of mineral substances! but to me it
seems far more wonderful that man, and all other
animals, are entirely dependant upon the leaves
of plants for manufacturing materials for those
bodies of corruption in which, for a little while,
they are destined to live and move and have
their being. As the hopes of the agriculturist
are so much dependant upon the healthy perform-
ance of this important function, surely he ought
to know at least as much about it as the present
ignorance of science may be able to teach him, if
he would expect to be able to shape his practice in
accordance with the laws of nature, and not

needlessly to set himself in hopeless opposition to
them. He will ever find nature a kind hand-maid,
and ready to minister to his wants whilst he woos
her skilfully; but a very termagant whenever he
resists her rudely. I have perhaps been dwelling
too minutely through the last two letters upon
these functions of the leaf, but I have not had
time to condense my materials into smaller compass.
I have still a few observations to make with respect
to their practical bearing on some points of agri-
cultural interest, but I shall have the Editor looking
more gravely than yourselves at the length of my
letter if I prolong it any further. I must therefore
reserve for next week what I have yet to say upon
this subject. Your obedient servant,

J. S. Hen SLOW.
Hilcham Rectory, March 31, 1843.

AGRICULTURAL QUERIES.

A correspondent enquires where ho can obtain the
best hand machine for grinding rapecake for drilling
as manure, and whether the same machine might not
be used for pulverizing guano. Also, what is the
price of the machine.

A Correspondent asks — " Can you, or any of your
numerous readers, inform me, through the medium
of j'our valuable Journal, whether or not wheat
vitrioled for planting, twelve months since, would
now contain any injurious properties, relative to
giving it to pigs, mixed with barley '[ Such inform-
ation will greatly oblige.

ANSWERS TO AGRICULTURAL
QUERIES.

Sir, — In answer to your correspondent, " A War-
wickshire Subscriber," relative to salt and lime as a
manure for meadow land, I beg to say, that I have
found great benefit from sowing two bushels of lime
mixed with one of salt, at the rate of twelve bushels
per acre. If more is sown it has a bad effect ; in
fact, it would destroy rather than improve the quality
of tLe herbage. I have always found my given
quantity very effectual in enriching as well as in-
creasiug the quantity.

Anotlier subscriber, who signs himself" Bfedford-
iensis," wants to know if the true Suffolk breed of
cart horses are more subject to grease in their heels
than other breeds. My answer is, certainly not; but
I consider all horses having coarse heels more sub-
ject than the Suffolk breed. A pure Suffolk cart
horse has little more hair about his legs than a
thorough-bred animal ; and therefore his legs are
sooner dry in wet weather, and always clean ; which
causes Cwith neglect) are the ones I assign for
grease. 1 am, sir, your obedient servant,

Mail i, 1843. A Suffolk Yeoman.

In the Express of April 17th, " A Subscriber" asks
if any correspondent has tried " the lime used in
purifying coal gas." It has been tried as a manure
on young clover, and found to answer as well or
better tlian coal-ashes. Tbe latter was uniformly
applied in the neighbourhood where the otlier was
experimented upon, now more than 20 years ago.
The gas in its primary gross state is passed, at the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

453

manufactory, through the lime, to get rid of its
volatilized carbon, and some oil or bitumen, which it
retains, and is beneficial as a fertilizer. A portion
of sulphurous vapour, which substance is more or
less in all coal and its distillations, also stays in the
lime, as may be proved by the effluvium it conveys,
and from which the gas is purified when properly
refined.

TO THE EDiTon OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.

Sir, — Seeing- an enquiry in your £!xprens of
the 24th inst., of a "Young Subscriber," wishincr
to know who is a maker of seed drawing machines,
we beg to inform you that we have made a great
many that answer the purpose most effectually ;
and if the gentleman will favour us with his address,
shall be most happy to correspond with him on
the subject.

We remain, Sir, your most obedient servants,

IlicHARD Garrett and Son.
Leiston Works, Saxmundham, Suffolk.
April 2Q, 1843.

CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE
FOR JUNE.

The month of May, to the period when we
commence this article, has been altogether at va-
riance, as respects the weather, from any of its
predecessors for a great number of years — cold,
wet, and windy. If we are to attach credence to
the prognostic of the old " saw,'' our farmers may
hoi)e to find their barns filled to repletion ; at all
events, come when they may, a few warm days
will produce an effect in the gardens which must
be astonishing. In the meanwhile, we may ob-
serve that vegetables are, and long have been,
abundant, and superior in quality ; those of the
brassica tribe have surpassed anyt.iing which the
late arid parching springs could produce. Pota-
toes rise well, their young foliage verdant and
healthy. Peas are excellent, though not early,
the first sowings having been rough!)' dealt with
by the snow-storms of February and April. Of
fruit, we hear complaints concerning the setting
of apricots, and the more delicate pears. The
peach-trees in some localities we know to be well-
fruited ; cherries are more or less deficient ; but
the bloom of the apple-trees is quite superior.
Upon the whole, the promise is very fine.

Vegetable Department.

Sow in the first week cucumbers for open ridges
over dung : thin out, and lead carefully the runners
of plants sown in May ; plant also on prepared
ridges, young rooted cuttings raised in pots,
turning them out with entire balls.

Gourd-seeds, and best sorts of vegetable marrow,
or rather having raised plants in pots, transplant
them in rich beds prepared in the following
manner. Choose a warm sunny situation. Dig a
hole a yard wide, every way, two feet deep ; place
therein a barrow or two of strong warm manure,
return the earth if really good, or cover the dung
with rich turfy loam, to nearly a foot above it,
scattering the old removed soil so as to form a
sloping bank on every side. Plant out two or
three vegetable marrows, and cover them with a
band glass for a time, shading during hot sun.
If the weather be warm a rapid growth will soon

take place, and by tilting the glasses with four
bricks, the advancing vines may be led out, and
trained in regular order (a circumstance of some
moment^ across the sloping ground.

Sow early the last crop of tall marrow peas,
and another of the earliest " May" or Warwick;
these do well as an autumn pea. As the season
is so dripping, peas will not require watered
ridges as suggested by IMr. Knight ; otherwise, a
thorough saturation of the soil at the time of
sowing secures the crop.

Beans for the latest supply ; some recomtnend
the white flowered. Kidney beans of both kinds,
in the first week, and finally about the 20th or an
earlier day of the month. Stick the scarlet
runners of earlier sowings, after moving the earth
near the roots.

In the second and third weeks sow early horn
carrot; onions for drawing ; young white and
yellow Dutch turnip, for autumnal supply ; en-
dive at the end of the month.

Plant slips of hyssop, lavender, rosemary, sa-
vory, sage, and other aromatic herbs, in a shady
spot, and give water frequently.

Transplant, at the latter cid of the month,
seedling cabbage, brocoli, borecole, Brussells
sprouts, savoy — chiefly for nursery rows and beds.
Celery into deep, richly-manured trenches. In
doing this work remove every off'set, then fix
each plant firmly in its hole, seven inches apart,
and water copiously ; success depends mainly on
the regular supply of water.

Leeks must be set in good ground, or manured
trenches, fixing the root only in a little fine ma-
nure at the bottom of the hole; fill that with soft
water, but let the soil remain undisturbed, to form
a kind of open sheath for the plant.

Loosen the earth between rows of peas ; draw
it to a sort of shallow ridge near the stems, then
stick the peas. Destroy weeds everywhere among
the crops. Clear away cabbage-stalks, decayed
leaves, and litter of every kind. A mere pint of
finely-powdered dry salt, sprinkled on the moved
ground, will destroy hundreds of slugs. Powdered
quicklime, with a tenth part of coal-soot, scattered
early in the morning, and again late at night, will
also tend to clear the ground.

Collect balm, sage, mint, savory, and other
fragrant herbs, for drying. All aromatic herbs
are in their highest condition just before flower-
ing. Cut them in dry weather, tie them in loose
bundles, and dry them in a shaded, airy shed.

Fruit Garden.

Look over the peaches, nectarines, and apri-
cots, to remove foreright and redundant growths,
and to give regularity and figure to the trees ; yet
prune but little now. Take off double fruit,
leaving one — the best situated.

Apples and pears, as dwarf or espalier, may
be regulated at the end of the month, when the
spring growth has become somewhat ripe. " Spur
pruning" may be commenced then, but experience
must determine the exact time, it being the object
to cut back every projecting shoot to within a few
eyes of its origin, in order to induce those eyes to
enlarge. It will be manifest to the experienced
naturalist, that if a shoot be thus shortened while
the plant is in full activity, a number of seconda-
daries will be emitted; therefore the work should
be deferred till the sap be rather tranquil, and the
wood firm.

Vines are in rapid progress, and must be regu-

454

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

lated weekly. If the main branches be sufH-
ciently distant, it will be easy to lay in the bear-
ing laterals orderly, without crowding. All use-
less wood should be removed.

Fig-trees require close, even training, in order
to expose tbeir tender fruit to the sun.

Some cut away the superfluous shoots of goose-
berry and currant bushes, but perhaps without
reason ; no ground suckers ought, however, to
remain on the trees

Strawberry plants should be divested of runners,
unless it be an object to obtain new plants. The
sorts wanted for forcing might be raised by plung-
ing the smallest pot at a part where a strong
runner plant could reach it, and then, by filling
with soft loam, and laying a stone on the string to
keep the plant on the earth, it would soon take
root.

E.xamine the fresh grafted trees, and tie up the
advancing shoots; when thus secured, case the
bandages, to enable the united parts to enlarge
with freedom.

Keep all the spaces about fruit-trees, and in
plots of bearing shrubs, clean and free from weeds.
Hoe the soil, and use the rake, but never dig the
ground, unless it be to remove intrusive suckers.

HOTHOU&E AND PiTS.

Look to the pine-apples. Those succession
plants which require shifting, having filled their
pots, may now be fresh potted. A free-working
turfy loam, or the earth of good reduced couch
roots, with one-third of sheep's or deer's dung,
pretty rotten, will suit this plant. Cut off no roots,
but strike the ball smartly against the potting-
bench, to detach some of the old earth, and in a
degree liberate the external coil of roots ; then,
with the band, draw ofl'a portion of the top soil,
and place the plant in the new pot upon so much
of the fresh soil as will permit deep potting. A
strong moist warmth (not active bottom heat) of
75", in closed pits, will bring the plants into active
work in a very short time. The potting earth
ought to be just so moist as to work freely, and
no more ; nor ought water to be given till growth
is established. Some shading is good.

The fruiting house should be kept at 80° by
day, with some air, and at 70" by night.

The vinery may require a little fire if the nights
be cold, but none by day. Air during sun, and a
transparent covering, are excellent appliances ;
the former confers flavour and colour, the latter
defends from the scalding power of a hot sun.

Melons, while setting, require much air.
Sprinkling in the afternoon of sunny days, with
immediate closing of the sashes, promotes a sa-
lubrious, warm vapour, and repels the red spider.

Flower Garden.

We may now notice in well-ordered gardens the
following approved plants in bloom ; they cannot
be surpassed, though the list appeared several
years since in the "Domestic Gardener's Manual."
Thousands, however, have been since introduced
by the laudable efforts of our collectors.

Deciduous sJirubs. — Roses of many sorts — deci-
duous, and the China azaleas, six or more hardy
species : spircea, three or four species ; the guelder
loic (vibunium opulus); Caiolina allspice (call/-
canthus) ; shrubby potentilla, an extremely pretty
yellow flowering shrub ; the fringe tree (chionan-
thus) ; and all the scarlet pelargonia.

Evergreen shrubs. — Rock-rose, cistus and helian-

themum, ten or twelve sorts ; rhododendron, nume-
rous species ; vacc'mium and ericce, or heaths,
three or four natives.

Herbaceous plants. — Indian pink, dianthu^
sinensis, and many other species of dianthus, in-
cluding sweet William ; larkspurs — delphinium ;
the superbum presents blue of tint so rich, as
hardly to admit of a rival; yellow mlmulus;
mignionette ; marvel of Peru (niirabilis) ; rose
campion, &c.

Bulbous Roots. — Atamascolily (Amaryllis ata-
maso) ; yellow dog's tooth {Eyrythronlum lutcum);
ranunculus anemone, great variety; and of British
Orchidefe ; orchis ustulata, conopsia, maculata,
militaris, latifolia, and ophrys aplfera, or bee
ophrys.

Miscellaneous Operations.
Continue to sow the approved annuals in patches
for succession. Plant layers and pipings of pinks,
cloves, picotees, and carnations ; this tribe delights
in calcareous road sand. Transplant orchises from
the woods and downs, always remembering to raise
the tubers perfect, and just when the flower is fully
formed and near expansion ; also plant balsams,
tricolors, cockscombs, and globe amaranths. Num-
bers of frame and green-house plants of modern in-
troduction may go into prepared beds, borders, and
parterres.

The Indian azalias, RhodendrouHirsutum, Kal-
mias ledums, acacia armata, Daphne cneorum, and
the like, do well in select plots, the soil of which
consists of heath-mould, decayed earth of leaves,
and pit-sand ; loam is a term which includes so vast
a variety of constituents, that we dare not gene-
ralize— local experience must direct its availability.
Geraniums, not only the horse- shoe and scarlets,
but many of the once famous prize varieties of Pe-
largonia, adorn the parterres, therefore may be in-
troduced very early in June.

The Greenhouse
may now contain, chiefly, balsams, capsicums,
cockscombs, and similar tender annuals, with the
choicer geraniums. A house with an eastern or
even north exposure, is required for the camellias,
epacrises, heaths, and tender azalias. All such
plants like heath mould as their staple earth, and
this ought never to become quite dry ; half the in-
juries which the delicate hair-rooted plants sustain,
arise from the irregular use of water — sometimes it
is given in deluge, at others so restricted as to ren-
der the ball of earth dry at the centre ; a free me-
dium temperament, as to moisture, with little sun,
and ])lenty of dry air, are the essentials in the ma-
nagement of the beautiful hard-wooded tribes.

Note. — The wet weather appears confirmed in
this third week of May, and we begin to be soli-
citous.

PLUMPTON SALE OF SHORT HORNS took
place on Tuesday, April 25th, and although the day
was extremely unfavourable, yet upwards of twelve
hundred gentlemen assembled, among'st wbich were
breeders from various parts of England, as well as from
Ireland and Scotland. Precisely at 12 o'clock upwards
of four hundred gentlemen sat down to a moi-t sumptu-
ous luncheon, provided by Mr. Watkin ; the chair was
taken by I\lr. James Parkin of Skirsgill, whose urbanity
of manners and gentlemanly conduct on all occasions
so eminently befit him for the situation. After the
health of the Queen, Prince Albert, the rest of tlie
Royal Family, the Navy aud Army, the Earl of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

455

Lonsdale, the peasaolryof England, the health of Mr.
VVaikiu and a good sale to him, wa-; drunk with three
times three, after which the company proceeded to the
place ot sale, where Mr. Welherell made a lew perti-
nent remarks on the good blood and qualities of the
hero he was about to offer, and concluded by stilting
that the highest credit was due to !\Ir. Watkin for select-
ing ooih male* and fsmales, from which lie had been
able to breed so fine a herd, and observed he could
grive them no greater proof of their excellence than, since
1836, Mr. Watkin had, at the tollowing societies ; viz.,
the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, the
Northnmberland, the county of Durham, and the Car-
lisle and Penrith, obtained no less than 136 prizes.
He then apologized for having so longdetaincd the com-
pany, and proceeded with the sale. The following are
the prices and the purchasers' names : —

Lot Guineas.

1 Wallflower, roan, calved inl829, got byStaintor

(2695), &c. &c 17

2 Whileface, had a misfortune.not offered for sale: dead

3 White-stockings, red and white, calved in 1838,

got by Maje.sty ('■ZSSO) 20

4 VVesternbelle, roan, calved in 1838, got by do. 23

5 Wellington, roan do. do,, got by Captain 24

6 Countess, roan do. 1839, by Gainford (2040).. 21

7 Whiteface, roan do. 1838, by Chorister, (725J. . 20

8 Wildflower.roan do. 1834, by Monitor (2330). . 20

9 Woodburn, roan do. 1838. by Majesty (2250), . 23

10 Wear, roan do. 1834, by Harlsey, (2091) 31

11 Picottee, do. do. 1835, by Prince Paul, (730).. 22

12 WeslernGaiety, do. do. 1836,byEasthorpe(1947) 34

13 Fair Helen, red and white, do. 1840, by Cho-

rister, (725J 34

14 Wallflower, 2nd white, do. 1836, by Emperor,

( 1974) 35

15 Windermere, roan do. 1834, by do. (do.) 38

16 White Lilly, do. do. 1836, by Sir William (2836) 41

17 Whitefoot, do. do. 1838, by Herrington (2121) 40
is Wallflower, 4th do. do. 1840, by St. Helena 80

19 Prince'=s Royal, do. da. 1841, by Chorister (725) 38

20 Weardale.red and white, do. 1840, by St. Helena 80

21 Adelaide, red and white, do. 1841, by Plumpton

(2440) 38

22 Ganeforth, roan do. 1840, by Rockingham (2550) 21

23 Waverly, red, do. 1840, by Caesar, dam by New-

ton, (2367) 24

24 Woodnote, do. do. 1840, by Rain., Colonel (11) 40

25 Westminster, roan do. 1840, by Antonio (724^ 16

Yearling Heifers.

26 Woodlass, red & white, do. 1841, byBIoomsbury 32

Lot Guineas.

27 Winston, white, do. 1841, by Lord Mayor 13

28 WyviUe, roando. 1841 9

29 Desdemona, red and white, do. 1841, by Wal-

lace not offered

30 Waterloo, roan do. l84l, by Charles I2th 19

31 Wortley, do. do. 1841, by Majesty.... not offered

32 Welfare, do. do. 1841, by Charles I2th 28

31 White Lady, white, do. 1841, by do 63

34 Webb, roan do. 1841, by Pickwick 36

35 Dorothy Gwyn, do. do. 1842, by Prime Miniiter

(2456) 32

.36 Wild Planet, do. do. 1842, by Melbourne 15

Heiker Calves.

37 Waxy, roan, calved in May, 1842, by Melbourne 20

38 Wedlock, do. July, 1842, by Gainford 2nd 24

39 Wharton Lady, do. August, 1842, by do 17

40 Wearmouth, do. March, 1842, by Melbourne.. 30

41 Wallflower, 5th, do. August, 1842, by the Earl 21

42 Weardale Lass, do. February, 1843, by Eden.. 15

Bulls.

43 The Duke of St. Albans, roan, 1840, by Cho-

rister 20

44 Conservative, roan, calved in 1840, by Prime

Minister (2456) not offered

45 The Prince of Wales, red and white, do. 1841,

by Chorister 80

46 St. Thomas, roan do. 1841, by Pickwick 35

47 Mr. Squeers, white, do. 1841, by do 27

48 Coronation, do. do. 1841, by Monarch ........ 18

49 Thalberg, do. do. 1842, by Violin 21

50 Tory, do. do. 1841, by Charles I2th 18

51 Prince, red and white, do. do. 1842, by do 15

52 The Farmer's Friend, do. 1842, by The Earl .. 20

53 Mungo Park, do. do. 1842, by Lillywhite 22

54 Liverpool, do. do. 1842, by Melbourne 20

55 Voltaire, white, do. 1842, by Charles 12th 13

56 Lammas, do. do. 1842, by The Earl 18

57 A Biitish Yeoman, do. do. 1842, by Sir Harry 35

58 The Duke of Wellington, red and white, do. do.

1842, by the Earl (lost an eye) 5

59 Sir Robert P^el, red and white, do. 1843, by

Conservative , 16

Guineas 1534

55 Cattle brought 1,534 guineas— £1,610 l4s. ; auc-
tioneer, £40 5s. ; total for the 55 cattle, £1,650 I9s.,
or about £3o each.

At Plumpton, near Penrith, Mr. Watkins 55 short-
horns averaged about £30 each.

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS.

YORKSHIRE.
Six weeks of almost incessant rains precede the
date of this report; that is, there has scarcely been
the intermission of one day of more or less rain;
still there have often been drying winds, and occa-
sionally warm sun, so that the apparent excess of
water, especially on the surface even on strong clay
lands, has by no means been great; still the amount
of wet and cold, and especially the severe occasional
frosts which intervened, particularly on two nights,
have contributed to make sad havoc of vegetation.
On the extreme light lands the wheat has suffered
most materially. It is spiry and yellow, and does
not, though springing for shooting, cover the inter-
stices between the drills. On the extreme wet and
heavy lands, too, this plant, although once very
vigorous and promising, has sickened, and dwin-
dled into the bare furrow appearance of a very se-
vere winter, and the weed was never so amazingly
abundant. Upon the whole the prospects for wheat,
notwithstanding the extremely large breadth sown.

are by no noeans very promising. Still nothing has
yet been done to prevent an average supply of quar-
ters of wheat, as an unusual number of acres is
under that grain. Barley is overset with wet, and
dwindles before the cold nights and eastern winds.
Cloverseeds seem to be nearly annihilated by the
frosts Oats, which have acquired a little more
strength, seem to be more promising, and beans are
tolerably good of plant. Tares, though backward,
are looking thriving and well. The pastures, though
neither long nor very grassy, are well set, and the
grass appears good. The stock are starved, and not
doing very much good. Some farmers have taken
the wool oflF their holding sheep, but the weather has
prevented many from clipping. Wool seems to be
rallying in price; we have heard of lid. per lb.
being bid on the sheep's back ; Is. was asked, but no
bargain was made. If the prospects of a foreign
trade be realised now that our home employment is
so surely, though somewhat slowly advancing, it will
sell well. The season makes the fallows for turnips

4o6

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

not only difficult to clean, but really in a bnckward
state, and but few Swedes are put in. The few tbr.t
aresown have remained long in the ground, and have
bad to sustain a season of wet and cold, winch too often
arrests their early growth, and often impairs their
progress for some weeks, as well as gives the weed
a very unpropitious advance of (he turnips. Potatoes
for the same reason are by no means in the ground
generally ; the ground is yet in many cases quite
unfit to receive them, and most of them have been
planted very late. If fine weather should now take
place farmers will be exceedingly busy. Prices
during the month have improved only a shade — not
to pa}' interest of capiial, nor even for the waste of
keeping corn. Beef has rallied a little, but mutton
is still very low. — May 26.

EAST CUMBERLAND.

The early part of the spring — that is, daring the
months of February and March — passed over
without any rain, comparatively speaking ; the
land indeed never got a thorough wetting till the
month of April, and the winter being generally mild
and open, enabled the farmers to make great progress
with their out-door work ; it was consequently in a
very forward state by the beginning of April, and
though a considerable quantity of rain fell at inter-
vals during that month, yet it was not such as
greatly to retard field labour, consequently the
operations of agriculture were probably never in a
more forward state at the commencement of May.
Much of the land intended for potatoes and turnips
turned out very foul, in consequence of having been
laid down for grass during some of the late very wet
seasons ; but the weather being not altogether un-
favourable hitherto for the operation of cleaning, it
has generally been got into good order for the re-
ception of the seed. Potato planting has been
brought to a close, the great bulk having been put
in some time ago, but a few patches were not finish-
ed till within the last two or three days. They have
been put in under circumstances very favourable to
their growing, except a few days which were very
dry, with a cold, withering east wind. There are
partial complaints made of seed going in the dry
rot, but this is not likely to be so general as to mate-
rially affect the crop. A considerable quantity of
Swede turnips has been sown ; it is considered rather
early yet for the later sorts, especially those for
winter use. Wheat is generally looking remarkably
well upon dry land ; upon clays and wet retentive
sub-soils, much of it has, for some time back, as-
sumed a yellow, sickly hue, owing in a great degree
to the cold and wet occasionally experienced during
the last six weeks. East wind has lately been very
prevalent, and with it a very low temperature.
Last week the mornings were generally frosty, suc-
ceeded during the day by a nipping east wind. Rain
set in on Sunday morning, which continued almost
without intermission throughout the day, the follow-
ing night, and Monday morning, with the wind still
in the east, A heavy rain again commenced yester-
day (Wednesday) evening, and continues to-day,
consequently the land has got a complete soaking.
The wind has veered round to the west, and the
temperature has risen, but should much more rain
fall it must necessarily have a bad effect. AYarm,
dry weather is now necessary for wheat, to stiffen
the straw, prevent its getting too long, and to en-
able it to get well into ear, and fill without lodging.
It came up, and still is so very thick upon the
ground, and looks so gross on dry land, that it must

suffer seriously from too much wet. Barley^ and
oats came up well, and so far are very promising.
There are few complaints of wire-worm and grub,
and though the effect of their labour is here and
there visible, it is more partial and limited in ex-
tent than has commonly been the case. Owing to
the open winter and mild temperature in the early
part of the spring, grass was forward, and plentiful
at a more early period than usual, but the late cold
easterly winds will have their natural effect, espe-
cially on sown grasses, and will cause the hay to be
a lighter crop than it would otherwise have been :
the meadows, being later, will, from the recent
rains, have a chance of producing an abundant crop.
Notwithstanding the appearance of the grass fields,
cattle does not sell as might have been expected ;
there is certainly some demand, but at a very low
figure. For milch cows the price is somewhat bet-
ter, and fat stock is a shade higher, but still very
low. Grain markets have been a little better for
two or three weeks back. Wheat and barley at an ad-
vance of from four-pence to six-pence an imp. bush.,
and oats about three-pence. There are very few
stacks to be seen in the country; fodder being scarce
caused people to thrash freely for the use of the
cattle ; and the grain being generally sent to mar-
ket as soon as thrashed, makes it pretty certain that
there are only small stocks in the hands of the farm-
ers. The deficiency in quantity of the hay and
straw of last year's growth, had the natural effect of
producing small dunghills ; but there seems a pre-
vailing disposition amongst the farmers to make up
for this by the use of artificial manure. Large quan-
tities of Guano have been taken to manure with, and
experiments with it are in progress ; the results of
which, when ascertained, may be expected to be
useful guides in future. There seems a general
opinion that, can the article be depended on as free
from adulteration, and had at a cheaper rate, it
would become of very general use. It is thought
that, as it will cost little or nothing where it is pro-
cured, it would pay the shipper well at a much less
price than is now sought for it. — May 25th.

AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR MAY.

We do not remember to have witnessed, during
the course of forty-four years, so wet a month of
May. They, however, who can retrace the tremen-
dous year 1799, will bear in mind that after a very
frosty, early spring — so cold throughout, that the
hawthorn-bushes and elin-trees had scarcely pro-
truded a leaf on the 1st of May — the rain then set
in, and continued, with extremely small intervals of
fine weather, till October, when the destruction of
the crops was consummated.

Thunder has recently been frequent, and this
electric meteor mainly contributed to establish that
season of profuse rain which the magnetic pheno-
mena about the period of the vernal equinox intro-
duced. The temperature, which was very low till
the 18th, began then to meliorate, and we now ob-
serve 50 or 52 degrees by night, and GO to 66 de-
grees in the shade, as a maximum. The barometer
has never been much depressed, but then the mer-
cury (as usual in similar seasons) has fluctuated be-
tween 29 in. 40 c. and 29 in. 80 c, or thereabout.

AVc know one farmer, whose experience and fears
justify the remarks contained in the first part of the
Mark-lane Review, col. 1, May 22: — "On cold
wet lands the colour of the blade has already, in
many instances, changed from a healthy green to a
sickly yellow." But the farm in question affords

THE FAHMEU'S MAGAZINE.

4o7

tlio only example within our ken ; and here he it
stated that a great portion of the land is hilly,
rising ground, in every way favourable to good and
effectual draining ; yet it remains untouched, as
nature left it, and stagnant water abounds at a
small depth below the surface.

Our crops generally are magnificent — tall, of
course, but close and thick on the ground. The
yellow tinting of the wheat originated with the
snow and keen frost of April 10-13th, by which
some of the more advanced foliage and the upper
superficial roots being paralysed, a torpor was
created, perhaps a partial death, the effects of
which still remain visible. The rain may soon pro-
duce its own peculiar effects, but as respects the
past, it is equally certain that the oats and barley —
particularly those sown late — are exceedingly ver-
dant. We also can testify, from observation in
several counties, that to the end of the third week
of May the promise was very cheering.

The turmoil that involves the nation at the pre-
sent time originates in misconception. This is
ably, pointedly, incontrovertibly exposed in the
letter upon the " Corn Laws— Transition from War
Prices,'' which appeared in the last Express, p. 2,
col. iii., et seq. The exposition of causes, and the
arguments founded thereon, are equally clear and
powerful : as an observer of facts, recollecting in
detail the whole course of the French war and the
Introduction of the abominable corn law of 1815,
we feel the truth of that expose. In fact, it is
perfectly surprising that farmers should take the
least degree of interest in legislative measures of
protection, when " he that runs may learn," as one
would think all persons of sense must have learned,
that prices of grain have varied through the entire
range, from the greatest depression of Gs. tJie
single bushel of fine flour to the enormous charge
of 13s., or G5s. per sack, during the operation of the
selfsame bill.

This bill, or any arrangement whatever upon the
sliding scale, has it, we ask, anj other tendency
than to keep up rents and to foster most vicious
speculation ? Answer who can in the negative,
but it will not be in the voice of truth and candour.

The real remedy for all the evils of the land will
be found in the improvement of agriculture — not in
the miserable restrictions, which tend only to high
rents and the starvation of the millions. England
has doubled, and can re-double its produce ; and if
peace continue to extend free and harmonious in-
tercourse, a reciprocity exactly suitable to the
wants of the whole world will be the blessed
result.

The crops of all kinds now growing on the earth
are measureless ; we only tremble for the ingather-
ing. The grass is heavy ; lucerne, sainfoin, and
tares super-luxuriant ; potatoes higlily promising,
but the prognostic of weather is unfavourable.
StUl it is spring; and a dripping spring is fre-
quently the precursor of fine harvest weather.

May 24.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR

MAY.
This has been, perhaps, one of the v.'cttest
months recollected at any previous corresponding
period of the year since 1826. From the 1st up
to the 24tb, not a single day passed without our
being visited in almost all parts of England with
heavy rains, which, as might have been expected,
flooded the lowlands, but we are happy to state

that the damage sustained has been very trifling ;
yet much inconvenience has been experienced
from the saturated condition of the soil. Since
the date last above mentioned, the weather has
been comparatively fine, and vegetation, from the
prevailing warm and genial temperature, has made
considerable progress. The accounts that have
reached us relative to the general appearance of
the young wheat and other grain plants are for
the most part satisfactory. The spring crops are
described as unusually regular, of full average
growth, and of a fine healthy colour, with every
indication of a good forthcoming yield.

The early fruit trees exhibit a good promise for
an abundant supply of most descriptions of fruit,
especially apples and pears, the cold nights having
prevented the ravages of the insects amongst the
young buds.

The low prices at which all descriptions of agri-
cultural produce have been selling for some time
past, have naturally excited no little degree of in-
quiry as to the probable time any improvement
will take place in them ; hence we purpose, on
the present occasion, throwing out a few hints,
which will, we trust, prove useful to those more
immediately interested. Prospectively speaking, a
gloom hangs over the welfare of our agricultu-
rists, which will, we much fear, have the effect of
producing results anything but satisfactory. The
trite but correct adage, that " supply and demand
are the great regulators of price," is being fully
exemplified at this period, and the observations
which we have from time to time penned on this
head are being borne out by facts. The question,
then, for our consideration is, when will matters
improve ? Putting it upon the basis of the above
quotation, we candidly confess the period when
any permanent or beneficial alteration will take
place is extremely problematical. If we refer to
the stocks of wheat of last years' growth, in the
hands of our farmers, it will be found that they
are — notwithstanding the partial deficiencies in
the crop — more than an average foi the time of
year, while the quality is unusually fine. That
these circumstances, combined with the supplies
of free and bonded foreign grain being on the in-
crease— upwards of 700,000 quarters of wheat, on
which duty has been paid, being still in warehouse
in the various parts of the United Kingdom — can-
not fail to have a depressing influence upon prices,
we are quite convinced. Hence the serious atten-
tion of those chiefly interested should now be
drawn to these facts. In offering these remarks,
we beg to observe that we do so from the necessity
we conceive exists for setting matters on a correct
footing, and for allovi^ing all parties to have an
opportunity of forming their own opinions. In
taking a glance at the political horizon, we find
the free-trade phalanx as clamorous as ever to ob-
tain their object, and our ministers so far favour-
ing it as to lay before the Commons a bill for the
admission of flour from our Canadian possessions
at a much lower rate of duty than is at present
levied upon that article. Sir Robert Peel gravely
tells us that the proposed measure will not have
an injurious effect upon the growers here; but it
does not, we consider, require much discernment
to prove that the large supplies of flour which will
reach us from Canada during the present year,
and by which our farmers will be much undersold
in their own markets, will cause the value of En-
glish qualities to fall below what can possibly be
considered even the most moderate profit, and

H H

458 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

eventually cause a ruinous loss to those in this yet, on tlie whole, tlie quotations have been sup-
country. This bill, then, we deem nothing move ported, arising, in a great measure, from the falling
nor less than a premium on smuggling, and as off observed in the receipts of country- killed meat
such ought to be generally discountenanced. It is up to Newgate and Leadenhall markets, compared
well-known that, for many years past, immense with those reported in the previous mouth. Not-
supplies of wheat and flour have found their way withstanding the numbers of store cows, barrens,
from the United States into Canada, and tbence heifers, &c., have been far from extensive, scarcely
shipped here as the produce of that colony, without any sales have been effected in them, and the rates
having paid any duty on the frontier. This is have ruled miserably low. As to the quality of the
fully evidenced bv the large quantities which arc fat stock, this has, on the whole, proved good, but
at this time under bond in London and elsewhere, by no means so prime as we have noticed at many

In the early part of the month, an improved previous corresponding periods of the year. As is

demand sprung up for wheat, and an advance of invariably tlie case in May, the strength of the bul-

from Is. to 2s. per quarter was obtained for the lock supplies has been derived from Norfolk, whence

finest qualities of both red and white. Since about 6,200 Scots and home-breds have been re-

about the I5th, however, the enquiry has become ceived ; and a fair number — or about 1700 Scots —

much less active, yet the above advance has been have reached us, by sea, from Aberdeen, Dundee,

mostly supported, although the quantities on offer and Perth ; with nearly 200, via Liverpool, from

have been on a liberal scale. Some few speculative Dublin. The condition of both beasts and sheep

purchases have been effected in bonded wheat, but has, we regret to observe, been anything but satis-

at very low prices. Very little barley has been factory — a large portion of them being much af-

brougbt forward, yet the sale for it has ruled fected with the prevailing epidemic, and from the

inactive, at barely previous currencies. effects of which disease, great losses have been sus-

The malt trade has again ruled inactive, and we tained on the roads. The lambs, however, have

have no variation whatever to report in the ruling proved in much better condition than many parties

prices. Oats have come forward rather slowly, might be prepared to expect, particularly as relates

yet the supplies have proved quite adequate to to those from Kent, Sussex, and Surrey, including

meet the wants of the dealers. Beans and peas those from the Isle of Wight, per railway — the lat-

have been in very limited supply, at full prices, ter numbering about 1300.

In flour we have no alteration to notice. Some surprise has been expressed at the non-

The importations of live cattle under the new arrival of any quantity of foreign stock — the only

tariff have been confined this month to 49 oxen import having been that of 49 oxen at Hull, from

from Germany, at Hull. These beasts have been Aalborg — for our markets ; but it appears very evi-

purchased on speculation and sent into Lincolnshire dent that, so long as prices rule at their present mi-

to graze for the London market. Having had an serably low level, it will never answer the purposes

opportunity of inspecting them, we find that instead of speculators to i:)urchase largely,
of feeding well and increasing in bulk and weight,

the very reverse is the case: and we consider them A STATEMENT anJ COMPARISON of tlie SUP-

from 21. to 31. per head less in value than when they PLIES and PRICES of FAT STOCK, exhibited

were first landed. This fully bears out the truth of if ?""!'" %^'^Z'^'''', m^V'-^m^^oq ?«..?"

,, , jv. , ,, • 1 1 i.- • JVlonday, May 30, 1842, aad Monday, May 29, 1843.

the remarks we offered on this head some time since jt j > i j, j ?

— while we are confident that in almost every in- AtpevSlbs.to sinktheoffuls.

stance the grazing of foreign stock in this country May 30, 1842. May, 29, 1843.

will be attended with serious losses. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.

From our Scotch advices we learn that consider- Coarse&inferiorBeastfS 2to3 4.. 2 4 2 6

able quantities of rain have fallen, yet the crops are Second quality do 3 6 3 8..2S 3 0

looking tolerably welL The supplies of grain on Prime large Oxen 3 10 40. .32 36

offer in the different markets have been only to a PrimeScots.&c..... .. 4 2 4 4 .. 3 8 3 10

moderate extent, while the general demand has Coarse & inferior Sheep 3 6 3 8 .. 3 0 3 2

ruled steady, without any material alteration in f^^^ZfsTo^n.a'io . 4 'I I I i I 6 I 8

l"''^^**- Prime Southdown do.. 4 4 4 6 . . 3 10 4 0

The accounts from Ireland are satisfactory. The Lambs 5 4 6 4.. 4 4 5 4

wheats are looking remarkably well, and the fine Large coarse Calves .,4 6 50. .34 4 0

rains have materially improved them. The supplies Prime small ditto 52 54. .42 44

of wheat offering in the principal markets have been Large Hogs 4 0 46.. 3 0 3 6

extremely small, and prices in consequence have Neat small Porkers .,4 8 5 0 .. 3 8 3 10

kept up, but without much business passing. Oats sxjpplies.

and most other corn have somewhat improved in May 30, 1842. May ay, 1843.

value. Beasts 2,630 2,952

The following is our usual monthly statement of Sheep and Lambs ... . 26,294 30,140

the supplies and prices of fat stock exhibited and Calves l30 176

sold in Smithfield cattle market. The former have •^''S* ^^^ '^^'^

comprised 11,200 beasts; 117,429 sheep and lambs ; Up to Newgate and Leadenhall markets, about

1341 calves; and 1294 pigs; while the latter have n^ooO carcasses of various kinds of slaughtered

ranged as follow :— Beef, from 2s. Gd. to 4s. ; mut- meat have been received, while the demand has

ton, 2s. lOd. to 4s. ; lamb, 4s. 8d. to os. 8d. jveal, i.„icd heavy, at the following quotations :— Beef,

3s. 4d. to 4s. 4d. ; and pork, 3s. to 3s. lOd. per 81bs. from 'is. lOd. to 3». 8d. ; mutton, 2s. Od. to 3s. 8d. ;

to sink the offal. ]g,^j^,_ 4j,_ f;^i_ ^,, ^g^ q^^^ . ^.^^^^ g^^ 4^,^ ^^ 4g^ 4(1 .

During the whole of the month, the general de- and pork, 3s. to 3s. lOd. per 81bs. by the carcase.—

mand has been of an extremely varied character, May 30.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

459

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE MONTH OF MAY.

Nothing occurred, during the month of May,
in any manner calculated to clear away the gloom
which has been suspended over the heads of the
agricultural interest since that most unfortunate
alteration in the corn laws, and in our import duties
on various articles of agricultural products, which
was efi'ected during the last session of Parliament.
On the contrary, not one cheering circumstance has
presented itself either to the landowners, to the
tenant, or to the labourers generally, throughout the
United Kingdom, since our last review of the exist-
ing state and future prospects of the corn trade.
A trifling advance in the value of wheat no doubt
occurred during the month, but this is a natural
consequence of the period of the season, and on this
occasion it has been much smaller than in former
years we have been accustomed to report. The
average value of wheat is still nearly 10s. per qr.
under the estimated price by the present prime
minister of the Crown, at which it can be grown in
this country ; and taking our annual production of
wheat at betwixt fourteen and sixteen millions of
quarters, the loss entailed on our farmers by these
unwise measures in the short period of eight or nine
months, is immense ; nor, under the new system of
political economy now practised, need any imme-
diate, or even distant, hope be entertained of any
amendment taking place sufiiciently extensive for
extricating the landed interest, and the productive
classes of all denominations, from the difficulties
with which they are at present surrounded. The
Anti-Corn-law Leaguers have had the assurance,
since our last publication, to recommend to the
farmers to pass at once into the lowest scale of ad-
versity into which, under any circumstances, they
can be driven. In fact, Mr. Cobden advises them
to sink the money which they have embarked in the
cultivation of their farms, with the view of com-
pelUng a reduction in the rents, and afterwards to
trust to their own agricultural science for future
prosperity, instead of continuing to place confidence
in experience, capital, and in legal protection to
their agricultural products. The same orator de-
clares, that the manufacturers require no legislative
protection whatever to their labour; and his opinion
of the intellects of his hearers must be low indeed,
when he ventures to make such broad and un-
founded assertions. 'Jhere are three or four de-
partments in manufacture which are now suflFering
severely from the late alterations made in our Cus-
tom-house import duties, on articles of the same de-
scription as tliose which they produce in this
country. There is one class, for instance, in this
country which heretofore has been accustomed to
supply our entire population, of upwards of twenty-
six millions of human beings, with boots and shoes,
and which, we should fancy, requires legal protec-
tion, at the present moment, to their labour. The
masters in this department of industry, no doubt,
have not yet reached that point in science which
enables them to work by steam. They pay, how-
ever, three men for one, who receive their daily
bread from the cotton manufacturers by steam ; and
whether Mr. Cobden thinks so or not, it is their
opinion that the law should protect them and their
workmen from foreign labourers in the same line of
business. There are likewise glove manufacturers,
fishermen, and hatters, and various other descrip-

tions of useful labourers in this country, who arc,
in every respect, as respectable as Mr. Cobden is,
and who are most justly complaining, and loudly
too, of the losses to which they are subjected by
the interference in our markets by foreigners in the
same line of business. By this illustration of the
principles of free trade, the master hatters, shoe
makers, glovers, British straw bonnet makers, fisher-
men, and others, have within the last twelve months
been compelled either to reduce the wages of, or to
discharge one-half of their workmen, in order that
foreigners in the same lines of business may be em-
ployed instead of her Majesty's subjects in supply-
ing this empire with these necessary articles of con-
sumption, and in order also that foreigners may be
enabled to purchase Mr. Cobden's steam-printed
goods with money which ought to be now giving
food and dress to our workmen at home. That
foreign hats, foreign boots and shoes, foreign gloves,
foreign straw bonnets, and foreign fish, since the
alteration in our Custom-house duties, are inunda-
ting all our markets of consumption, and reducing
to poverty multitudes of valuable British labourers,
must be obvious to all. But should the Anti-Corn-
Law lecturers require this fact to be proved, they
have only attentively to direct their attention to the
present state of our finances, and to fliscover, if they
can, any better causes for the dangerous deficiency
which now exists in our public revenue, than the
violent alterations in the circumstances of our agri-
cultural interest, and in the wages universally of
our productive labourers, which have been solely the
consequences of the attempts now in progress, of
illustrating what are falsely called free trade prin-
ciples ; we mean that description of foreign trade
of which foreigners reap all the advantages, and by
which our industrious classes are defrauded of the
sricred property: which they hold in productive em-
ployment at home. To transfer finally the healthy
labours of the fields from British and Irish agricul-
tural workmen to Russian slaves and Polish serfs,
to German boors and to American helps, most
assuredly must, within a very few years, be the re-
sidt of the total repeal of the corn laws ; and not one
interest in the empire can reap the smallest advan-
tage from a policy not more anti-British than it is
positively insane. Without the wages of labour at
home be maintained, the revenue cannot be col-
lected ; and to till the union houses with idle men,
and to transport thousands of valuable agricultural
workmen to the colonies, is certainly a most extra-
ordinary plan for increasing national wealth. The
interest on our heavy public debt can never be paid
by reducing the wages of labour to starving rates ;
and yet this misfortune is now rapidly in progress,
not only amongst our agricultural labourers, but
also vmiversally amongst tbe manufacturers of
leather, of hats, of straw, and most particularly
amongst our fishermen ; in fact there is no depart-
ment in our industrial pursuits wherein this evil is
not at present steadily gaining ground. To reduce
the means to pay for tax-paying articles, amongst
the great body of consumers, is not the best plan
possible for increasing the malt, tobacco, spirit, and
sugar duties ; and the greater the quantities of
foreign agricultural pruducts and of foreign manual
labour which may be consumed in this country, the
greater hereafter must be the increase of poverty

460

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Lero, and the annual revenue of tlie empire must
decrease proportionally to the decrease in the means
of the consumers to pay for articles from which the
public income is derived. In fact we are paying
money to foreign nations to an immense amount
annually for agricultural products, and for various
articles which can be in the greatest abundance pro-
duced in this country. During the last corn season,
for instance, we have remitted abroad in the precious
metals upwards of five luillions sterling in payment
for foreign wheat alone, and we have thus given
to foreign communities the means to raise manufac-
tures and to make goods within themselves fully
equal to their own wants. Our legal shipments of
British goods to Europe and to the I'nited States of
America, have annually been less during the last
four or five years, for which no more satisfactory
reason can be given than that it is the certain con-
sequence of the encouragement now given to foreign
agriculture on the ruin of our agricultural interest
at home. Never certainly did a better opportunity
exist for the establishment of reciprocity in trade
amongst friendly nations than we have witnessesd
for several years past, for we have taken and paid to
foreign nations most liberally for their products ;
but they have found no occasion to reciprocate ;
thus proving that barter trade, in the present state of
society, is impracticable, and only suited to Utopian
principles, which the altered condition of the human
mind however may, centuries hence, find it neces-
sary to illustrate. In the meantime the British em-
pire is loaded with a heavy national debt, and her
wealth and resources are annually tending towards
decay. How the evil can be remedied by placing
the agricultural interest in the gap, and by sacrificing
the landed proprietors and the farmers to the ground-
less complaints of a dozen or two of our cotton
lords, is far beyond the common comprehensions of
common minds; for heretofore a productively em-
ployed population has generally been considered
not only as the best, but as the only wealth of na-
tions ; but the new commercial philosophy, it ap-
pears, sanctions not these old fashioned prejudices.
Had we encouraged agriculture at home, even
during the last year, the rates of the wages of labour
■would probably, in all departments of industry, have
been fairly maintained ; there would have then been
no falling away in the consumption of taxed articles,
the public revenue would now have been in a flou-
rishing condition, and no complaints of distress
would have been heard of amongst those who are
industriously disposed. The money sent abroad for
these articles of consumption would have been em-
barked in public and private improvements at home,
more particularly in the cultivation of land at pre-
sent in a state of perfect uselessness to the peeple,
but many millions of acres of which may, within a
abort period, be rendered equal to the best producing
lands in the United Kingdom. Each of these acres
is well able to support at least two men, and calcu-
lating the whole at only fifteen millions of acres, in
this channel alone have we tHe means in abundance
of supporting an additional population of thirty
millions of males, with their families and connec-
tions. The power and greatness of the British em-
pire can only be maintained by productively
employing the entire population, and any system
which would compel the most valuable part of it to
o migrate to the colonies, or would drive them into
the union workhouses, is not the real way to
promote the public wealth, or to increase the public
Lapi)iness. Most certainly by reducing the number
of productive labourers at home, and by reducing

the wages of those who may be fortunate enough to
obtain labour, is not the most legitimate way to raise
a public income annually of upwards of fifty millions
sterling; indeed such an amount of taxation can
never be obtained, uniess proper employment and
adequate wages be given to every able labourer at
home. The law should prevent the employment of
foreign workmen in the production of any article
which can he grown or manufactured within the
United Kingdom, else annually in future must the
malt and home spirit duties decline in productive-
ness, and so also must those charged on sugar, tea,
cofl'ee, tobacco, and numerous other articles of which
the multitude are the great consumers, and conse-
quently the principal pavers of the immense amount
of revenue latterly collected on them. In the mean-
time we have the prospect, at all events, of another
abundant crop of grain in this country, but whether
it will be a blessing to the people or not, is, under
existing circumstances, more than doubtful. Bread
is already to be obtained in London, of wholesome
quality, at Ijd. per lb,, and in Ireland potatoes have
been selling as low as Id. per stone. These prices
are ruinous to the farming interest, and another large •■
crop can only tend to the increase of this ruin. The I
certain consequences of another large crop therefore '
must be a correspondent ruduction of wages, an ad-
dition to the multitude of unemployed and destitute
human beings, and an increase in our, at present, great
financial difficulties. In Mark-lane, and in all the
great markets of consumption throughout the United
Kingdom, the utmost dulness has prevailed in the
wheat trade during the last month, 'i'he millers only
purchased wheat in proportion to their consumption,
and although the finest samples were a trifle dearer,
yet this circumstance, being occasioned solely by
the chance of flour — unless manufactured from the
finest wheats — heating during the summer months,
cannot be considered any actual improvement in the
wheat trade since our last publication ; for the sale
of inferior qualities is always difficult at this season
of the year, and when forced a larger reduction in
their value must be submitted to than is the improve-
ment in the finest samples. The markets generally
have also latterly been labouring under the influence
of supplies, both of wheat and flour — for they too
throw their shadows before them — expected to ar-
rive from our North American possessions in the
course of the present and next montii. Several
ships, it is known, have been already dispatched to
the river St. Lawrence for this purpose, and the
quantity will probably be considerable. The im-
porters will be sufficiently remunerated by our pre-
sent prices, even should they pay the existing
Colonial duties ; and in this manner is this bantling,
this infant colony, to be raised into prosperity at the
Bole expense of the landed interest throughout the
United Kingdom. This is liberality, however, per-
fectly on a par with those changes in our custom-
house duties which are at present inflicting such
severe and heavy injuries on all classes within the
United Kingdom. This system is the cause of a
deficient revenue, and the Prime Minister must
either retrace his steps, and restore those institutions
to the erafiire on which her greatness and prosperity
formerly were mainly founded, else, to use a com-
mon expression, he must go the whole hog, and that
speedily too, for he cannot maintain himself in a
middle position with any safety to the stale. The
destruction of the farmer's capital, and of the wages
of the agricultural labourer, must soon be followed
by the ruin of the trade of those manufacturers them-
selves who are now so loud in demanding unre-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

461

stricted freedom in foreign commerce, in order that
they mrty be able to reduce the wages of those work-
men by whose exertions they are nt present making
fortunes of more than princely magnitude. The
home consumption of manufactured goods is by far
the most valuable market \vhich these would-be
cotton lords now possess ; and their fortunes and
property must suft'er in a much more serious manner
than they at present suppose, should the home
market disappear before them. This event also would
speedily render their intercourse with foreigners
unimportant.

The letters received from the United States, and
from our North American possessions, since our
last publication, are dated in the middle of last
month; and the information which is communicated
by them is important in the present agricultural
state of tills countrj'. Anxiety was felt in every
quarter for the passing of our jiromised Colonial
Corn and Provision Bill — tlie future increase of
agricultural prosperity throughout the United States
depending at ])resent on this act for a regular future
market for the consumption of all descriptions of
their agricultural produce. In the great western
states of the republic, and in even a part of that of
New York itself, the beneficial effects of the pro-
mised bill were universally admitted, opening as it
must do the British markets at all limes to their
agricultural products. The idea of transit duties
was ridiculed everywhere, because their collection
was known to be impossible. From Ohio and other
western states, the most productive districts in the
American Union, the water distance to Montreal
is considerably shorter than is that to the city of
New York, and the expense of transit through the
lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario, now, we may say,
rendered one by means of the Great Welland Canal,
constructed at an enormous expense to the United
Kingdom, is, in comparison, much cheaper than to
any port of shipment within the United States. 'I'hese
western states are intersected by canal and river
navigation, and ships under theBr;.'is/i /Zaw, whether it
be actually so or not, after the passii-g of our free trade
Colonial Corn and Provision Bill, will load in their
own ports American wiieat, flour, and cured pro-
visions, and will proceed with these cargoes direct to
the ports in the St. Lawrence, with well-authenti-
cated certificates on hoard that the wheat was grown
in Canada, that the flour was ground, and the pro-
visions cured in the same quarter. The geogra-
phical position of the two countries renders the
detection of fraud entirely impossible ; and the corn
merchants themselves in Montreal and Quebec will
not spoil a profitable commission trade by any ex-
posure of its illegality. Even to the state of New
York this bill will be of immense consequence, for
the agricultural produce will likewise be passed to
the St. Lawrence at a trifling expense, and be trans-
formed into wheat, the growth of our American pos-
sessions, without the payment of any duty whatever.
From Quebec and Montreal it will be shipped to
this country at a freight certainly not Is. per quarter
higher than the charge would be from any port
within the United States ; and it will be admitted
into consumption, throughout the United Kingdom,
on the payment of nominal duties. Let it not be
supposed that these supplies can, under any cir-
cumstances, ever be insignificant. We know that
in Upper Canada, where labour is dear, wheat was
worth no more than 18s. to 203. per quarter lately,
and it must still have been lower at the same period
in tlie western states of America, because labourers
there are more plentiful, and wages are consequently

more moderate. The means for increased produc-
tion are boundless, and the quality of the wlieat in
jiarlicular is extremely fine, being fu!ly ecpial to the
best grown in Essex itself. American pork like-
wise is superior to any which even Wiltshire can
produce, for it is fed on Indian corn, wild nuts, iJv'C.
and consequently cures better than any grown either
in Ireland or CJreat Britain. Her INIajesty's minis-
ters, however, are acting only on a most benevolent
principle, their object being to encourage and assist
our infant and late rebellious ('anadian colonies. In
these benevolent attempts, however, we firmly be-
lieve that they will fail in giving- satisfaction to our
fellow subjects in America, although, no doubt, to
the citizens of the United States they may for a
time be of considerable consequence. Circum-
stances, however, may occur, and tliat too within a
shorter period than is at piesent calculated on, which
may render our corn trade witli the United States a
direct one — chiefly, however, under the American,
and not exclusively under the Britisli flag, to
which the proposed Colonial Corn IJill must confine
it. We now ullude to a commercial traty between
this country and the United States, which in the be-
ginning of the last raontli it was confidently asserted,
in all the American trading cities, was under nego-
ciation, and which it was thought would speedily
have a successful termination. If the terms of this
treaty be as liberal as we have beard them reported
to be, we shall before long have a partial experiment
of a corn trade under fixed rates of duties ; for
into this system, it would appear, our prime minis-
ter is inclined to slide. It is reported that the
American government, on the part of tbe United
States, is prepared veiy materially to reduce the
heavy duties now levied on the legal importation of
British-manufactured goods into that Union, In
making this concession, however, the American
government makes no sacrifice whatever ; for, since
these exorbitant import duties were placed on Bri-
tish goods, the smuggler has enjoyed a most profit-
able trade by supplying the American people with
that quantity of British manufactures which their
wants actually demanded, and the American treasuiy
has been the only sufferer by the late vain and ab-
surd attempt to impose limits on our commercial
enterprise. In consideration for this concession on
the part of our friend Jonathan, rumour proceeded
in the American ports, and at the time to which we
are now alluding, to state that on our part American
agricultural produce of all descriptions is to be
admitted, for home consumption here, on the pay-
ment of fixed and moderate rates of duty. We dare
say that commercial treaties with foreign nations
may be of some advantage to the inhabitants of
the British empire ; but still, if the terms of the
proposed commercial treaty with the United States
of America be correctly given, we are morally per-
suaded that the alteration will again inflict another
heavy blow on our agricultural interest at home, and
be of little advantage indeed to our manufactures —
for commerce is like water, it will find its level, and
it will burst through every hostile obstacle which
human laws can oppose to it. No American enact-
ments can prevent smuggling ; but by heavy duties
it can be materially assisted. The fanners' friends
in Parliament — if any such characters now exist—
will, we trust, closely watch the pro;!^ress of all
treaties having commercial affairs for their founda-
tion ; for undoubtedly the farming interest must
suffer by their conclusions eventually. Even under
the existing Canadian Corn Act, however, in a short
time we shall receive a coasiderable quantity of

462

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

wbeat and flour at prices sufficiently low to remune-
rate the importers at the present London quotations.
At Montreal alone forty-five thousand barrels of
flour were ready to be shipped as soon as the wea-
ther permitted ; and at Quebec also, some quantity
must be exported either to this country or to some
of our West India colonies. The freight from Mon-
treal to London was under 3s. per barrel, and ship-
ping was plentiful. This is an admirable commen-
tary on that part of Lord Stanley's speech delivered
iu the House of Commons on the 19th ult., wherein
ke slated that Canada grows not a sufficient quan-
tity of wheat for the consumption of its inhabitants,
and that our agricultural interest has nothing to
fear from the new Canadian Corn Bill. Our colo-
nial secretary knows most imperfectly the capabili-
ties of our American possessions and of the United
States to produce grain and provisions of all de-
scriptions, else he would never have uttered such
random assertions as he did at the time to which we
now allude, for his purpose could never liavebeen to
lull tlie British funuers into a state of false security.
A few years' experience, however, of a free trade in
grain with America, or evenof cne at fixed rates of
duties, must dispel these false ideas, if they do exist
at all ; for since the present corn bill becarne the law
of this country, we have repeatedly warned our agri-
cultural readers against its injurious consequences,
as we now entreat them not to be deceived by the
ministerial special jdeading in favour of the colonial
one. We universally have stated that the maximum
duty on wheat would, under no circumstances, pro-
hibit the importation of the finest qualities, nor pre-
vent them from passing into consumption. Our
predictions on this subject have been amply ac-
complished, for considerable quantities of the best
qualities of Polish and Silesian wheats have already
arrived, and greater quantities are on the passage
from different places in the Baltic to the river
Thames, where, according to contract, tliese wheats
are to be delivered, in good order and free from ex-
pense, at from 30s. to 34s. per quarter." These
wheats are now worth here from 5-ls. to 58s. per
quarter ; and, although they leave little or no
profit, after the payment oif 20s. per quarter
of duty, the London metage, and the corn fac-
tor's commission, still the speculation is not at-
tended by any sacrifice of money, and the introduc-
tion of {foreign wheat at present into our mar-
kets of consumption, when the average price of
home grown wheat is little above 46s., or " lOs. per
quarter under the expense of its production, ac-
cording to Sir R. Peel's acknowledgment, is an
act of unmitigated cruelty to the farmers of the
United Kingdom. 'J"he next importation of Polish
and Silesian wheats into London, will be at prices
lower than those which we have now mentioned,
and during the entire season all our markets will
he abundantly supplied with wheats of similar des-
criptions, iind then the agricultural interest will
have most ample proof pl.iced practically before
them, that the present corn laws protect neither their
capital invested in the cultivation of the fields, nor
the produce of their agricultural operations ; and
those ministers who were raised into office for the
protection, as well of agricultural property as of the
wages of productive emi)loyment generally, may
therefore speedily see good reason to retrnce their
liberal commercial steps, and again to place the in-
dustrial classes of this couutry into their former po-
sition of positive prosperity. The proposed colonial
corn and provision act, if permitted ever to dis-
grace the statute book of the United Kingdom, will

press even more heavily on the interests of British
and Irish agriculture than the existing law does ; for
by the latter, at all events, an increase may be made
to our public revenue, but from the operation of
the proposed colonial bill no revenue can be received
equal to the expences of its collection, and, so far
from increasing the consumption of British manufac-
tured goods throughout the United States of North
America, its consequences will be the reverse, for
within a few years it will furnish the American
people with capital for raising at home manufactures
quite equal to their home consumption. Under
existing circumstances the Americans require con-
siderable quantities of our goods, and these goods
they must have, either by smuggling or by direct
importation under moderate duties. Our legislature
should leave well alone. They should restore fair
and adequate protection to agriculture at home, and
every effort should be also made to maintain the
value of wages, else we feel a moral conviction
that the public revenue of fifty millions sterling can-
not be annually collected.

The barley trade has not improved in any manner
during the last month ; on the contrary, the value of
it has been on the decline, some quantity of foreign
barley having been admitted into consumption on the
l>ayment of a duty of nine shillings per quarter. After
the liquidation of this duty, of freight, and of all
importation expenses, the speculation has not been
an unprofitable one, and farther supplies may there-
fore be reckoned on from the same foreign quarters
during the progress of the present corn season. We
had prepared the readers of the " Farmer's Maga-
zine"— by many preceding articles published under
this head — for a material deficiency in the quantity
of malt manufactured last season; but we must
candidly confess that the defalcation in the malt
duty for the season closing in the beginning of April
last is far greater than we could possibly have con-
ceived, and affords an admirable illustration of the
injurious consequences to our agricultural interest,
resuliiiig from the outrageous manner in which ma-
nufactured barleys are taxed in this country. But
the land proprietor, the farmer, and the agricultural
labourer are not the only sufferers by this most un-
popular tax, for the beer consumers generally reap
their full share of the evil. In it originates the ne-
farious custom of beer adulteration, as detrimental
to the health of the people as it is injurious to the
public revenue and to the property of the barley far-
mer. At least one-third part of the beer now con-
sumed is manufactured from coarse sugar, salt, and
many deleterious articles ; for two barrels from the
licensed brewer are regularly now converted into
three by a mixture of ingredients of the above de-
scription, and by such means is the honest beer
consumer defrauded of the article for which his
money is paid, and his health materially injured by
the substitution of spurious for pure beer. The
minor retail publicans cannot be blamed for this
adulteration. They have heavy licenses to pay for
permission to retail beer, and also heavy house ex-
penses : and unless the price of beer below, they
would lose their custom, and with it the property
embaiked by them in their licenses. It is the sys-
tem which creates the evil ; and the opposition made
by our excise laws to the modification of this system
renders its continuation, we had almost said, per-
petual. It cannot, however, last longer than the
Chancellor of the Exchequer pleases; for, by the
redaction of the malt duty to Is. per bushel on the
quantity of barley applied to this purpose, he can
not only remedy the evils complained of, hut he has

TliK FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

463

it likewise in his powor lotiotible the sum -at present
paid into the Tieasury by the malt duties. But
should the Anti-Corn-Law Leiiguers prevail witli
i)t'r Miijesty's ministers, and induce them to slide
either into fi.\ed rates of duties on the importation of
foreign grain, or into the liberal system of no pro-
tection whatever to British agriculture against that
of our colonies and of foreign nations, it will be only
an act of common justice en the part of the advisers
of the crown to repeal the duties altogether now
chargeable on manufactured barley. Unless some
change in the present system, however, be imme-
diately effected — unless the duty on malt be reduced
to <s. ])er bushel, and unless os. per gallon, at most,
bo the duty on English-made spirits — the public
revenue must annually decay. Tiiis season
the principal maltsters ceased working at least a
month earlier than they did last year, and therefore
it requires no soothsayer to predict that, reduced
as the malt duty has been last year, it will be still
less on the 1st of April, ISW. These dis-
heartening prospects to our farmers have caused
less barley than usual to be sown during this
spring, but the young plants are strong in the
ground; and, in as far as any opinion can be
formed at this early period of the season, they are in
a healthy and in a sufficiently forward state. Still,
under the present system of liberal laws, strong
doubts may be, and actually are, entertained whether
an excellent barley-crop can be considered a na-
tional benefit, or whether it may not add to the
difficulties under wliich the British empire at pre-
sent labours ; for to this state have the doctrines of
theorists reduced the inhabitants of the United King-
dom. These internal evils must annually increase
in magnitude.

Since our last littte improvement has occurred in
the value of oats; and to say that the trade now is
worse than it then was would be an assumption of
considerable difficulty to prove, bordering, as it
would be, on the impossible. In the meantime this
deplorable state of the oat-trade is operating on the
property of the oat-growers very injuriously, more
particularly throughout Ireland; and the people
there have just reason to complain of the detri-
mental consequences to their interests universally,
of the late alterations in the corn laws, and more
particularly of the reduced duties at which all de-
scriptions of foreign agricultural produce are now
admitted into all our markets of consumption. The
Irish population has been in many instances thrown
entirely out of employment from this cause alone,
and in all instances the small pittance which they
had previously received for their labour is now
daily becoming move petty. Paddy now h-.is not the
means to pay for potatoes, even at one penny per
stone; because the low value of grain, of livestock,
and of cured provisions, prevents the farmers from
paying any thing like living wages even to the poor
and now distressed Irishmen. Discontent at exist-
ing matters is now rearing itself into even dangerous
eminence; and the new liberal principles as prac-
tised in our foreign commerce, and neither religious
nor political feelings, are the only grounds for this
discontent. Before these relaxations were made in
our foreign-import commerce the agricultural pro-^
ducts of Ireland found remunerating prices in the
British market, and at the same time the value of all
descriptions of them was kept sufficiently moderate
for the best interests of the great body of the con-
sumers. Until the late most uncalled-for change
was effected, the improvements in Ireland were in a
gradual state of extension ; the workmen at home

received wages adequate to their few wants, and
contentment and order were daily gaining ground
amongst tliom. Less than one year's experience of
the principles and workings of the new system of
paliiical economy — that one-sided system of foreign
trade which gives away many advantages, and
which receives not one — has totally altered the
previously advancing prosperity of Ireland; but of
what consequence is the happiness of Irishmen
when placed iri the scale against the interests of
Messrs. Bright, ((luaker) and Co. 1 — of those of the
inhabitants of foreign nations, and more particularly
of those of our infant colony of Canada? But Ire-
land is not the only suflerer by tlio present state of
the oat-trade ; for wherever this article has been
cultivated during the last year, it has been attended
by much loss of jiroperty to its cultivators. In an-
other year the shipping interest will likewise be
considerably affected by the, present svstem of libe-
rality towards foreiga land projuietors and foreign
commerce ; for a great portion of the grain and
provision-carrying trade betwixt Ireland and the
east coast of Great Britain will be entirely lost.
Foreign flags in future will supply us with oats
grown in foreign states, and shipped in foreign har-
bours and rivers ; and for these oats we must ex-
change the precious metals so long as any wealth of
this description remains within the United King-
dom. Like wheat and barley, even the maximum
duty iiL-reafter to be levied on the importation of
foreign oats for our home use, can be no preventive
to the importation of the finest qualities grown
abroad. For the coming oat- crop the weather during
the last month has been uncommonly favourable, and
the young plants are now looking as well as the
farmers could possibly require; but, unless the
prices next corn season be sufficiently high to pay
wages to the farmer's workmen and rent to the
farmer's landlord, a large crop cannot be of the
smallest benefit to him. The potato crop now in
the ground likewise is looking as favourably as
could be desired at this season of the year, and the
quality of the last crop of this article continues to
be of an excellent description, the price remaining
moderate, and fortunately so; for the scanty means
of the great majority of the consumers would
scarcely be found sufficient even for the purchase of
potatoes, was their value now more remunerating to
the grower than it is at the present time. Indeed in
Ireland the means of the vast body of the consumers
to pay for this article are already nearly exhausted.

CURRENCY PER IMP. MEASURE.

Mat 29.

Wheat, Essex and Kent, red 43 52 White 52 56 58

Irish 4S — Do 48 64

Old, red — — Do — —

Rye, old 32 — New.... 32 —

Barley, Grinding 26 29 Malting 30 33 Clievalier 32 35

Irish 24 28 Bere... 22 26

Malt, Suffolk and Norfolk .... 58 53 Brown.. 50 54

Kingston and Ware .... 56 CO Chevalier 60 —

Oats, Yorksh. &Lincolnsh., feed 20 22 Potato.. 23 26

Youshall and Cork black — 17 Cork, white 17 19

Dublin 17 18 Westport 19 20

Waterford, white IS 17 18 Black.. 17 18

Newry 19 20 21

Galway 15 16

Scotcli feed ... 21 — Potato.. 21 24

Clonrael 17 18 LimericklS 10 21

Londonderry 18 19 Sligo 17 18 10

Beaks, Tick, new 2.3 27 Old.... 30 32

Peas, Grey 27 29 Maple., 26 28

White 30 31 Boilers. 30 38

Floub, Town-made 42 43 Suffolk 36 36 pr sk. of 280 lbs.
Stockton and Norfolk, 35 36

464

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

COMPARATIVE PRICES of GRAIN.

WEEKLY AVERAGES

bv

AVERAGES from tlie

corres-

the Imp. Quarter, from the

ponding Gazette in the last

Gazette, of Friday last,

year, Friday, May 27th,

Jlay 26th, 1843.

1842.

s. d.

s. d.

2

9
5
2
10
2

Wheat ,

61 10
25 11
19 7
33 7
32 1
30 U

flATa 17

Oa
Ry
Be
Pe

JJ^Y j; 29

AN3

Peas ... 28

IMPERIAL

AVERAGES.

Week ending

Wheat.

Bar

88

ey.
8

Oats.

17 1

Rye.
29 2

Beans.
25 10

Peas.

April 15th

45 9

28 1

22nd

46 7

28

5

17 4

28 7

25 11

27 5

29th

47 0

28

7

17 6

29 3

26 3

28 3

May 6th

46 4

28

•J

17 2

27 7

26 4

28 1

13th

4G 2

28

1

17 8

•29 2

26 8

28 9

20th

47 2

27

9

17 5

29 2

26 10

28 2

Aggregate average

of the six weeks

which regulate!-

46 6

28

3

17 4

21^ 10

26 4

28 1

Duties payable

in London till

Wednesdaynext

inclusive, and at

the Outports till

the arrival of the

mail of that day

from London . .

20 0

9

0

8 0

11 6

11 6

11 6

Do. on grain from

British posses-

sions out of

Europe

5 0

2

0

2 0

2 6

1 0

I 0

STOCK OF GRAIN, &c., IN BOND, IN THE

rOllT OF LONDON, ON THE 5th MAY.

Wheat. Barley. Oats. Beans. Peas, Rye. Flour.

tns. qis. qis. qrs. qrs. qrs, cwts.

107,287 6,648 18,814 44,402 5,551 — 29,614

Cloverseed, 12,736 cwts.

Account shewing the Quantities of Corn, Grain, Meal,
and Flour, imported into the United Kingdom, in tlie
montli ended the 5th May, 1843 ; the Quantities upon
whicli Duties have been paid for Home Consump-
tion during the same month, and the Quantities re-
maining in Warehouse at the close thereof.

Quantity en- Quantity

Foreign Grain
Flour.

and

Wheat, from British

Possessions 1 66 0

Peas, from do 22

Indian Corn, do.... 442 0

Wheat, foreign ....' 14243 2

Barley, do 14699

Qnantity
imported.

tared for
consumption.

remaining in
wareliouse.

qrs. bush. qrs. bush

Oats, do.

Rye, do

Peas, do

Beans, do

Indian Corn, do..
Buck Wheat, do.
Malt

4146 5

82

5989

1

1

Flour and Meal from

British Possessions

Flour & a] eal, foreign

cwts. qrs.lbs,

711 1 15
19 0 13

925

145

442

2415

14725

81

382

2141

180

cwts. qrs. lbs,

21880
41

qrs. bush.

4184

890

1214

223065

49392

44146

67

24005

112317

9981

cwts. qrs.lbs.
35152

3 13

0 3,' 43205

0 20
3 4

PRICES

OF

SEEDS.

M

AY 29

.

Linseed, English, sowing 55

65
46

crusliing 42

48 pi'r qr.

Medlter. & Odessa 46

Large, foreign.... —

10
11
21

old.... 16
white.. 0
old.... 12

20 per cwt.

Mustard, brown, new .. 9
Trefoil, new 18

I0s6dp.l;ush
16

Raposeod, English new, . 32?. R71. per ton.
Linseed Cakes, English.. 91. 10s. to 10^ per 1000
Do. Foreign., 51. 10s. to 61. per ton.

Rapeseed Cakes 5Z. 5s. to 51. 10s.

Hempsecd, small 35 38 large.. 46 48 per qr.

Rye Grass, English 30 42 Scotch 18 40

Tares, winter — — New 3s Od 4s Od p.busli.

Canary, new 73 74 tine 75 76pcrqr.

Carraway, old — — new 42 44

PRICES OF HOPS.

BOROUGH, Monday, May 29.
We continue to experience a good demand for Hops,
which are scarce ; and it will be seen from the prices
annexed that there has been a decided advance since ibis
day week in nil the parcels of last year 's growth. The
dealers manage now to bring out supplies, but only at
the advanced rates. The wet weather, it is believed,
will clear off any fly that may have appeared.

Pockets, 1842, Wealds 102 to 115 per cwt.

East Kent,. 120 — 140 ..

Mid. Kent. 115 — 130 ..

Sussex.... 100 — 108 ..

Pockets, 1841, Wealds, good 70—80 ..

.. East Kent choice 84—100

Mid, Kent, 80—95

Sussex . . , . 70 — 80 . .

POTATO MARKET.

BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS MARKET.

Full average supplies of Potatoes have arrived ia

the Pool since our last statement, yet the demand for

them may be considered firm, on the following terms: —

Per ton.

s. s.

Scotch Reds 55 to 70

York do SOtolOO

Devons, 65 to 75

Kent & Essex Whites 45 to 50

Kent Kidneys 55 to 60

Wisbeach do 50 to 55

Per ton.
s. s.
Jersey and Guernsey

Blues 50 to 55

Yorkshire Prince

Regents 30 to 60

Ditto Shaws, for
planting — to —

PRICES OF MANURES.

Subjoined are the present prices of several sorts of
manure : —

Hunt's Bone dust, 18s. per qr.
Hunt's Half-inch Bone, 16s. per qr.
Hunt's Artificial Guano, 8/, per ton.
Rape Dust, 11. to 8/, per ton.
Rape Cake, 6/. 10s, to 71. per ton.
Rags, 41. to 41. 10s. per ion.
Graves, 61. 10s, per ton.
Gypsum, at tlie waterside, 32s, 6d, per ton ; landed and

housed, 38s, to 42s, per ton, according to quantity.
Agricultural Salt, 34s. per ton.
Lance's Carbon, 12s, per qr.
Ditto Humus, 14s, per qr.
Soap Ashes, 10s. per ton.

Poittevin's Patent Disinfected Manure, 13s. 6d. per qr.
Poittcvin's Highly Concentrated Manure, 30s. per qr.
Nitrate of Soda, 18$. to 18s. 6d. (duty paid) per cwt.
Nitrate Potash (saltpetre) 26s. 6d. per cwt.
Petre Salt, 4s. per cwt,
Willey Dust, 4/, 4s, per ton.

The Urate of the London Manure Company, §/, per ton.
Chie-fou, 21s. per cwt.
Daniell's new Bristol Manure, 8s. per qr.
Hunt's new Fertilizer, 13s. 4d. per qr.
Grimwade's Preparation for Turnip Fly, 10s. 6d. per

packet, .sufficient for three acres,
Wolverhampton Compost (Alexander's), 12s. per qr,,

subject to carriage to London, or forwarded from

Wolverhampton.

END OF VOLUME XVIII.

Printed by Joseph Rogerson, H, Norfolk-street, Strftnd, London.

INDEX TO THE SEVENTH VOLUME.

(second series.)

Advantages of a specific education

for agricultural pursuits, 106
Agriculture and tominerce, 189
Agriculture, epplication of science

to, 41
Agriculture, chemistry applied to,

87
Agriculture, Cbinese, 417
Agriculture, Englisb,45, 111,214
Agriculture, improvements in, 28
Agriculture, lecture on, delivered

at the Wadebridge institution,

no

Agriculture, protection to, 407
Agriculturist, British, a word to

the, 182
Analysis of soils, 435
Answers to agricultural queries,

70, 145, '225, 299, 379, 452
April wheat, 232, 306.
Australian agricultural company,

220
Averages, imperial, for the six

weeks which regulate the duty,

80, 159, 238, 312, 390, 464

Bath and West of England agri-
cultural society, 16

Barn floors, 127, 226

Bokhara clover, 289

Bone-dost and rape-cake, on keep-
ing, 17

Bone-manures, on the fertilizing
properties of, 215

Draintrce farmer's club, 277

Burton farmer's club, 363

Burton-upon-Trent iarmer's club,
211,400

Butter, on making, 248

Carrots in a sandy soil, 25

Census, the last, 118

Challenge, the — Scotch farming,

361
Chelmsford Farmer's Club, 206
Cbemistry, agricultural, 91

Chemistry, Liebig's organic, ob- 1
servations on, 267

Chepstow farmer's club, 353 1

Chinese agriculture, 417

Clay, burned, as a manure, 96

Clover, cultivation of, 395

Commutation of tithes, 306

Constituents, mineral, of vegeta-
bles, 430

Construction of an economical
tile-work, adapted to farms of
ordinary size, 283

Corn average prices, 206

Corn laws, the, 177

Corn returns — parliamentary pa-
per, 266

Corn trade, the, review of — during
the month of December, 74 ;
January, 154 ; February, 232;
March, 307; April, 386; May,
459

Cow, on the, stricture in the
oesophagus of, 247

Cultivation of light lands, 104

Currency, the — present state of
increased issues by the Bank of
England, 366
Currency, six letters on the, 49

Depression, agricultural, 256
Depression in the agricultural and
commercial interests of this
country, on the proposed reme-
dies for the, 333, 413
Drainage, general, and distribu-
tion of water, 43
Drainage of land and towns, 67
Drairing by the plough, 220
Draining, on the principles of, and
their practical application, 6

Economy, agricultural, 210
Education, agricultural, 280
Effects of putrid vegetables, &C.,

on the growth of plants, 360
Experim«Bi9, agricultural. 398

Experiments, agricultural, and

distinction of soils, 355
Experiments in turnip growing,

93
Experiments on concentrated and

saline manures, for top-dressing

and drilling-in, 409

FATtMERs' Clubs— 95

Braintree, 277

Burton, 363

Burton-upon-Trent, 211, 400

Chelmsford, 206

Chepstow, 353

Framlingham, 120

Gloucester, 338

Hadleigh, 134

Illogan, 432

Oakley, 124

Probus, 24, 205, 35l

Richmondshire, 266

Ross, 22

Rugely, 330

St. Peter's, 428

Torrington, 350

Wenlock, 264

Wrentham,88
Fairs, agricultural intelligence,

&c., 153, 231,384
Farmer's club-house, 69, 70, 168
Farmers of Suffolk, Professor

Ilenslow's letters to the, 92,

202, 269, 342, 447
Farming and farm stock at Elon,

Aberdeenshire, 364, 408
Farming, Scotch and English, 15
Farm, on the manures which are

generally found on the, 250
Farm-yard manure, the manage-
ment of, 322
Fat, formation of, 325
Fermentation of hay and manure,

127
Fertilizers, chemical, trials and

efl'ects of, with various experi»

ments in agriculture, 296
flax society, Norfolk, 2i'8

INDEX.

Forest trees cultivated for profit,
on the planting, management,
value, growth, and harvesting
of, 161, 242

Framlingham farmer's club, third
report of the, 120

Garden seeds, on sowing, 385
Gloucester farmer's club, 338
Grain, comparative prices of, 80,

238, 390, 464
Guano, crops, &c., observations

on, 219
Gaano, experiments with, 170,

306, 407, 43.5
Guano, extracts from an essay by

Mr. J. Napier, jun., 184
Gypsum as manure, 211, 218
Gypsum, experiment, the, 271,

275, 358

Hadleigh farmer's club, 134

Harkaway, a celebrated roadster,
description of, 328

Ilay and manure, fermentation of,
127

Henslow's letters to the farmers of
Suffolk, 92, 202, 269, 342, 447

Highland and Agricultural so-
ciety of Scotland — monthly
meeting in the Museum, 361

Hints to farmer's labourers, 427

Hops, duty on, 350

Hops, prices of, 159,238, 312, 391 ,
464

Horses, on feeding, 397

Horticulture, calendar of, for
January, 72; February, 148;
March, 226 ; April, 289 ; May,
377; June, 453

Illogan farmer's club, 432
lUogan ploughing match, 252
Implement, agricultural, new, 215
Interest, agricultural, the, 367,

370
Irrigation, water of, on the theory
and general, special, chemical,
and practical actions and uses
of the, more particularly as they
apply to the water meadovrs of
England, 313

Knowledge, agricultural, on the
progress of, during the last
four years, 97, 195, 257

Landlord and tenant, 188, 362
Lands, light, on the cultivation

of, 104
Leases, on, and letting of farms in

Scotland, 28
Leases, on, 27, 263, 434
Lectures on the application of the

principle of physiology to the

grazing and fattening of cattle,

10

Letter frem Charles Daubenv to

the Rev. J. S. Henslow, 347
Lime as a fertilizer, 32
Lime, on the use of, 327

Mangold - wurfzel and Swedish
turnips, on the colour of the
roots of, 28 1

Mangold-wurtzel, on stripping,
381

IManure, farm-yard, the manage-
ment of. 322"

Manure, new kind of, 22

Manures, artificial, or strong'port-
able, 30

Manures, concentrated and saline,
experiments on, for top-dressing
and drilling in, 409

Manures, liquid, 44, 297

Manures, on, 18, 146, 324

Manures, prices ©f, 80, 160, 240,
391,464

Manures, prize essay on, 336

Manures, synoptical table of equi-
valents of, 1 18

Manures, table of analyses and
comparative value of, 147

Manures, theory of, 216

Manures which are generally found
on the farm, 250

Manuring, important lecture by
Professor Henslow on the the-
ory of, 134

Memoir of the late Earl of Leices-
ter, 1

Mildew, on, 396

Mould, on, or its priciples, in tlie
juice of plants, 365

Nitrate of soda and gypsum, 218
Norfolk flax society, 282

Oakley farmer's club, second re-
port of the, 124

Observations on Liebig's organic
chemistry, 267

O.K, the Eden Hall, 297

Oxen, extensive use of, 426

Peasantry of England, the, 427

Physiology, on the application of
the principles of, to the grazing
and fattening of cattle, 10

Plough, an essay on the mechani-
cal properties of the, 81

Ploughing match at Baumber, 213

Plough, the, 209

Potatoes, prices of, 80, 160, 238,
312.391, 464

Prices of cattle and live stock in
the olden times, ?t3

Prize essay on manures, 536

Probus farmer's club, 24, 205, 351

Progress of agricultural know-
ledge during the last four vears,
97,19.5,257

Queries, asrricultural, 70, 14-5, 223,
298, 379, 452

Queries answered, others pro-
posed, 94

Rape-cake and bone-dust, on keep-

„ Jng, 17

Kemarks relative to a paper by
P. Pusey, Esq., on the progress
of agricultural knowledge dur-
ing the last four years, 128

Remedies for the depression in the
agricultural and commercial in-
terests of this country, 333, 4l3

Reports, agricultural, 71, 150,
228,503, 381, 455

Report of the inspectors of farms
and crops to the Liverpool agri-
cultural society, 31

Report on the exhibition of imple-
ments at the Bristol meeting in
1842,35

Review of the corn trade during
the month of December, 74 ;
January, 154 ; February, 232 ;
March, 307 ; April, o?.6 ; filay,
459

Richmondshire farmer's club, 266

Royal agricultural society, general
meeting of the, 63

Royal agricultural society of Eng-
land, monthly meetings of the
council of the, 174, 290, 359,
437

Ross farmer's club, 22

Rugely farmer's club, second an-
nual report of, 330

Sap in trees, on the subsidence of
the, in consequence of the pre-
sence of sheep, 109
Seed grain and vegetables, on the

selection of, 116
Seed pickles, or steep liquors, 217
Seeds, garden, on sowing, 385
Seeds, prices of, 80, 15?, 238,312,

391,464
Seed-sowing, on, 393
Seed-wheat, as affected by soil and

ripeness, 29
Shares, prices of, 240, 392
Shaw, \V. Esq., testimonial to, 53
Shilling, the value of a, 167
Short-horns, sale of, at Plumpton,

454
Smiihfield Christmas cattle mar-
ket, 62
Smithfield club, anniversary dinner

of the, 59
Smithfield club cattle show for
1842, dead weight of some of
the prize-cattle exhibited at the,
115
Smithfield club show, 57

SOCIETIFS, AcnilULTURAI,

Bath and West of England, 16
Highland and agricultural of

Scotland, 361
Royal agricultural of England,

65, 174, 290,359,437
Wenlock, 436
Society, statistical, 288
Soils, analysis of, 435

Soils, distinction of, and agricul-
tural experiments, 355

Statistics, agricultural, 187

Steep liquors, disinfecting night-
soil, bone-dust, and gypsum,
217

Steer, red, the celebrated, 256

St. Peter's farmer's club, second
annual report, 428

Stricture in ihe oesophagus of the
cow, 247

Subsoiling, 365

Subsoiling — important to the far-
mers of Kerry, 19

Testimonial to W. Shaw, Esq., 53

Thompson, George, jun.'s, reply
to "N.," 296

Tile draining and turnip husban-
dry, 40

Tile-work, economical, adapted to
farms of ordinary size, on the
construction of, 283

INDEX.

Tithes, commutation of, 306
Torringlon farmer's club, 350
Tour, agricultural, in Denmark,
Sweden, and Russia, 418

Trees, forest, cultivated for profit;
on the planting, management,
growth, and harvesting of, 161,
242

Trees, forest, four letters on the
planting of, 192

Trials and effects of chemical fer-
tilizers, witl) vaiious experi-
ments in agriculture, 296

Turnips, cultivation of, 30, 110,
117, 169, 267

Turnip groning, experiments in,
93

Turnips, Swedish, and mangold-
wuitzel, on the colour of the
roots of, 281

in

Vegetibles, mineral constituents

of, 430
Vegetables, putrid, effects of, on

the growth of plants, 360
Vine, longevity of the, .''>85

Warwick corn averages, 255
Water, ammoniacal, on the bene-
ficial effects of, compared wiih
other substances, as a top-dres-
sing for grass lands, 399
Weather, the, of 1842, 221
Weights, comparative table of, 328
Wenlock agricultural reading so-
ciety, 436
Wenlock farmer's club, 264
Wheat, April, 232, 306
Wheats, tria', report on, 329
Wirril agricultural club, 276
Wool, British and foreign, prices

of, 80, 160,238,391
Wreniham farmer's club, fourth
report of the, 88

Printed liy Josppli Rogerson, 24, Norfolk Street, Strand, London.

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