m MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE GOODELL LIBRARY Per Y30 ^ •w No. 1, Vol. XXX.] JULY, 1866. [Third Skries. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 1 AND MONTHLY JOURNAL OF THE AdEICULTURAL INTEREST. 29el»catelr TO THE FARMERS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. LONDON : PUBLISHED BY ROGERSON AND TUXFORD, 246, STRAND. PRICE TWO SHILLINGS. ROGERSON AND TUXFORD,] [PRINTERS, 246, STRAND, r H O W A R D S' CHAMPION PLOUGHS WON in 1865 and TWO PREVIOUS YEARS the Unprecedented Number of S I X T Y . E I G H T ALL ENGLAND PRIZES, AND UPWARDS OF EIGHT HUNDRED LOCAL PRIZES, BY FAR THE LARGEST NUMBER EVER GAIHTED BY ANY MAKER. HOWARDS' CHAMPION PLOUGH Gained at the LAST TRIALS of the Royal Agricultural Society op England, at Newcastle, The FIRST and ONLY PRIZE for the BEST WHEEL PLOUGH FOR GENERAL PURPOSES. This is the most important Prize for Plouffhs offered by the Society, it being for the Plough best adapted for both light and heavy land, as well as for the best work at various depths. For the LAST TEN YEARS J. & F. HOWARD have been the Winners of this Prize. IIO\VAK]>^' CHAOTMOl^ MOUG^H HAS RECEIVED FIFTEEN FIRST PRIZES FROM THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND, Being the Largest Number of Prizes awarded to any kind of Plough ever exhibited. MORE THAN SIXTY JHOUSAND ARE IN USE. The following Prizes have been awarded lo J. & F. Howard by Ihe Royal Agricultural Society of England : FORTY-FOUR FIRST PRIZES FOR THE BEST PLOUGHS FOR LIGHT LAND, BEST PLOUGHS FOR HEAVY LAND, BEST PLOUGHS FOR GENERAL PURPOSES. BEST RIDGING PLOUGHS, BEST SUBSOIL PLOUGHS, BEST HARROWS, BEST HORSE RAKES, BEST HAYMAKERS, AND BEST HORSE HOES ; ALSO THE GOLD MEDAL, AND OTHER PRIZES, FOR STEAM-CULTIVATING MACHINERY. FULL PARTICULARS MAY BE HAD OF THEIR AGENTS THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, OR WILL BE SENT FREE ON APPLICATION TO JAMES AND FREDERICK HOWARD, BRITANNIA IRON WORKS, BEDFORD, ENGLAND. LONDON OFFICE : 4, Cheapside-Three Doors from St. Paul's. / THE ORWELL WORKS, IPSWICH RANSOMES & SIMS, OEAVELL WORKS, IPSWICH, ENGLAND, A 7'e especially celebrated for the Agricultural Machinery described in the following Pages. RANSOMES & SIMS construct their Machines of the Best Materials, manufactured as far as possible by Machinery, and v\^ith the greatest attention to Simplicity, Durability, and Ease of Repair writhout the employment of skilled labour. They are sold at the Low^est Prices at ^A^hich sound Workmanship and good Material permit. Upv^ards of 1000 men are employed at the Or^well Works, and they are aided by the best modern Tools and appliances. Illustrated CatalogHes will be foncardcd Post Free en Applicatioiu to RANSOMES & SIMS, ORWELL WORKS, IPSWICH. KaNSOMES ^^^^^' PRIZE PLOUGHS, Ransomes & Sims have been engaged in the manufacture of Ploughs for upwards of seventy years, during which time they have sold an immense number, and taken a great number of Prizes from the Royal and many other Agricultural Societies at home and abroad. These Ploughs have, during the last two years, obtained greater success than any others. They won Four First Prizes at the la.st great plough trial of the Royal Agricultural Society at Newcastle, July, 1864, being J^our tmies as many Prizes as were awarded to any other Makers. They won more All England Champion Prizes in 1864, and more again in 1865, than any others, making altogether up to the present time the unprecedented number of 50 All England Champion Prizes in less than a Year and a Half, Together with a large number of Prizes in other classes, and Fifteen Silver Cups in hands of Farmers' Sons and others, These Ploughs are made in various sizes and to suit all purposes. Price of a good General Purpose IVheel Plough, R.N. E. £4? 15 0 The whole of the Wearing Parts, especially Ransomes' Patent Chilled Plough Shares, are of the best possible description, and very economical. Special Catalogues and Full Particulars on Application. EANSOIES & SIIS' STEll PLOU&HIia lACHIIfERT, (FOWLER'S PATENT). 777 -_ '- c22^i:^^^^^^^5^ ■ Illustrated Circulars of the most improved Machinery for this purpose (Fowler's Patent) will be forwarded on application, and RANSOMES & SIMS will furnish, with much pleasure, most satisfactory evidence of the profitable employment of Steam Power in Tillage. RA.N80MBS & SIMS' PATENT STEAM THRASHING MACHINERY Is guaranteed to perform its work in the most perfect and satisfactory manner, and from its peculiar construction and excellent Materials, it is with- out exception the most desirable and economical in the Market. RANSOMES & SIMS' PORTABLE STEAM ENGINE. EAliSOMES & SIMS' PATENT D3UBLE BLAST & FINISHING STZAM THRASHING MACHINE (Class A). RANSOMES AND SIMS HAVE GREATLY REDUCED THE PHICES OF THEIH STEAM THRASHING MACHINERY WHICH IS THE BEST AND CHEAPEST MADE. CATALOGUES AND TESTIMONIALS FREE ON APPLICATION. AN EXAMINATION SOLICITED. KlSrGIJSTKS and. DVIACHINES Constantly Kept in Stock. THIS MACHINERY HAS BEEN AWARDED THE FOLLOWING PRIZES:— lioyal Agricultui'al Society, England, 1841, 1842, 1852, 1854, 1855. Royal Agricultural Society, Ireland, 1854, 1855. l^iris, 1856. Rouen, 1856. Vienna, 1857. Pestli, 1857. Amsterdam, 1857. Rotterdam, 1858. Brussels, 1858, Schweriii, 1861. St.Petersburg, 1861. Bourges, 1862. Longford, Tasmania, 1862. London, 1862. Ballarat, Victoria, 186Ji Lille, 1863. Hamburg, 1863. Greisswald, 1803. Alipore, India, 1864. Stettin, 1865. Dresden, 1S65, Cologne, 1865. i E.ANSOMES & SIMS, ORWELL WORKS, IPSWICH. Ransoines & Sims Patent Self -Cleaning and Adjustable Rotary Screen. Fixed and Portable Corn Mills, POR URINDISO FLOIR, PREPARING ORAIN FOR CATTLE FKEtliNO, AND OTHER PURPOSES. ^^ More than one thousand of these ir.valuable machines are in use. They can be adjusted to separate more or less from any sample of grain. They require no bruslies or cleaners to keep the wires clear, as Ihey are ]3erfectly self-cleaning. They have also other peculiar advantages, which are fully explained in a special catalogue that will be forv/arded on a]iplication. These Mills are all ananged to be worked by an oidiiiary I'uitaole En- gine, and the smaller Mills, from 2 ft. to 2 ft. 0 in. diameter, n>ay be worked by a Horse Gear, diiven either by Horses or Bullocks, but they grind rather less when so driven than when worked by Steam Power. When fitted with French Buir Stones and a Dressing Apparatus, whiidi can be ne:itly attached to ithe frame-work without adding tn the buHcof the Mill, they will produce the .finest flour for liousehold purposes. Tlie Fixed Mills are mounted on a neat iron or wood Frame, in- stead of on AViieels. Biddells Patent Mills. BIDDELL'S PATENT MILLS. .Torci-ushing beans, maize, oats, and oil cake, by Hand Power, on Franies. Price — Oat Mill, ^3 IS o Bean Mill ^4 0-0 Oat and Bean Mill on one stand 6 o o Oat and Bean Mill and Oil Cake Breaker on one stand . 7150 Some i/iousands of these Patent Mi lis are in use, and giving the greatest satis- factioTt. Special Catalogues on Application. Biddells Iron Patent Root Pidpers. BIDDELL'S PATENT ROOT PULPER8 Ar« ^ery superior, and require less power ami less thne to do a givew amount of work than any others. Made in two sizes— ^^4 146 and ^7 7^-. Special dTialogites and Testimonials on application. IMPROVED IRON HORSE GEARS, WITH INTERMEDIATE MOTION, FOR DRIVING SMALL MACHINERY. These Horse Gears, with the exception of the Wood Draught Bars, are made entirely of iron ; the frame or bed plate IS one solid piece, and therefore cannot get loose in work. They are made for one, two, three, four or six horses as ordered. They are eseeedingly useful for driving Chaff Cutters, Bruising Mills, Koot Cutters, and other sm.i!! Machines, and the large sizes for Horse Power Thra-shing Machines, Pump-s Cotton Gins, etc. W^ THE FAIIMKR'8 M/U-AZINll. JULY, ; 1 8 6 6 . CONTENTS. Plate I.—A WEST HIGHLAND OX. Plate H.—A RUSH THROUGH THE RUSHES. Descriptions of the Plates .... The Cattle Plague. — By Cuthbert W. Johnson, F.R.S. On the Extirpation of Thistles. — By a Practical Farmer Royal Agricultural Society of England : Sheep v. Cattle Supply of Meat to Large Towns Monthly Council Meeting : Report of Royal Veterinary Col Insurance of Live Stock Improvement of Breed in Cattle The Vetch, or Tare : Its Uses and Cultivation RoMNEY Marsh .... The High Price of Butchers' Meat . The Potato Crop .... The Agriculture of New Zealand The Carcase Trade .... Lincoln Sheep .... Early Maturity of Cattle The Experience of a Cattle-Feeder . Sheep for Various Soils : Logie and Lecroft Farmers' Club . Bath and West of England Agricultural Society,— Meeting at Sali Report of Council ..... Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland. — The Half- Yearly Meeting Highland Agricultural Society. — The Half-Yearly Meeting . Land Drainage and Water Supply : Midland Farmers' Club . The Hants and Berks Agricultural Society.— Meeting at Reading The Metropolitan Cattle Market Summer Prospects and Agricultural Doings The Warranty of Cattle The Impolicy of Inaction Insurance for Live Stock A Farmer's Notion on the Labourers' Education Annual Sale of the Middle-park Yearlings . Foreign Agricultural Gossip . Farm Profits ..... The New Cattle Rate Assessment Bill Landlord and Tenant (Ireland) Bill. The Royal Agricultural Benevolent Institution Calendar of Agriculture Calendar of Gardening General Agricultural Report for June Review of the Cattle Trade for June Agricultural Intelligence, Fairs, &c. Review of the Corn Trade during the part Month Market Currencies, &c. Title-page and Index. PAGE. 1, 2 2 7 47 50 55 ]1 13 15 17 18 19 20 22 23 25 29 31 60 43 61 63 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 72 73 74 75 75 76 77 77 78 78 79 81 83-84 PICKSLEY, SIMS, AND CO.'S (LIMITED) ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S PRIZE REAPER. FIRST PRIZE AT LEEDS, 1861 ; one of the FIRST PRIZES at PLYMOUTH, 1865. TAKES 25 PER CENT. LESS POWER TO WORK IT THAN ANY OTHER REAPING MACHINE. PRICES. One-horse, cuts 4 ft. 9 in. £18 0 0 Two-horse, cuts 5 ft. 3 in 22 0 0 The One-horse Machine is strongly recommendeil for mowing artificial grasses. Particular attention is invited to the PATENT STEEL HOLLOW KNIFE BAR, whereby there is a saving of 25 per cent, power in working the Machine. CATALOGUES of all MACHINES MADE BY THE FIRM forwarded post free upon application. MCMSIiEY, Sins, A]¥I> €0. (IiIlfITEI>), I^eig'li, liSiiicstsliire. BRANCH ESTABLISHMENTS:— Manchester: corner of St. Ann Street and Deansgate. Preston : Fishergate. Constantinople, Smyrna, and Melbourne. PRICE HALF-A-CROWN, w T 0 L L tyi T 1^ ^ T Q ® TALES AND TRAITS BY HENRY CORBET. "Mr. Ctirbet has earned for himself a name in sporting literature; and many will linger over these well- written recollections." — Bell's Life in London. " Should be in the hands of every sportsman." — The Field. "We do not often meet with more vigorous descriptions, sounder views, or racier sketches." — The Sunday Times, " For quiet irony and humour has never been surpassed." — The Morning Post. "A most exlii'arating book— papers so delightful in their way."— The Sun. ROGERSON & TUXFORD, 246, STRAND, and all Booksellers. COlfSUMPTIOl^, COUGHS, €€>.1.1>^, ASTHMA, BRONCHITIS, NEURALGIA, RHEUMATISM, SPASMS, &c. pAUTION.— "IN CHANCERY." — Vice-chancellor Wood stated that Dr. J. Collis V_y Browne was undoubtedly the Inventor of Chlorodyne. Eminent Hospital Piiysicians of London stnted that Dr. J. Collis Browne was the discoverer of Chlorodyne ; that they prescribe it largely, and mean no other than Dr. Browne's— See Times, July 13th, 18G4. The Public, therefore, are cautioned against using any other than Dr. COLLIS BROWNE'S CHLORODYNE. This INVALUABLE REMEDY produces quiet refreshing sleep — relieves pain, calms the system, restores the deranged functions, and stimulates healthy action of the secretions of the body. From J. M'Grigor Croft, M.D., M.R.C., Phjsician, London, late StafT-Surgeon to H.M.F. "After prescribing Dr. J. Collis Browne's Clilorodyne for the last three years in severe cases of Neuralgia, and Tic Doloroux, I feel that I am in a position to testify to its valuable effects. Really in some cases it acted as a charm, when all other means had failed. Without being asked for this report, I must come forward and state my candid opinion that it is a most valuable medicine." No home should be without it. Sold in bottles. Is. 1 id., 2s. 9d., 4s. 6d., and 1 Is., by J. T. DAVENPORT, 33, Grent Russell Street, London, W.C., sole manufacturer. Observe particuliirly, none genuine without the words " Dr. J. Collis Browne's Chlorodyne on the Government Stamp. Earl Russell has graciously favoured J. T. Davenport with the following : — " Extract of a despatch fro'm Mr. Webb, H. B. M.'s Cunsul at Manilla, dated Sept. 17, 1864 : — ' The remedy most efficacious in its effects (in Epidemic Cholera), has been found to be Chlorodyxe, and with a sma'l quantity given to me by Dr. Burke I have saved several lives.' " The increased demand enables the Proprietors to reduce the price; it is now sold at Is. Ud., 2s 9J., 4a. Od., and lis. NEW WORK BY THE AUTHOR OF "MANHOOD." Just out, 18mo Pocket Edition, Post Free, 12 stamps; Sealed Ends, 20. DR. CURTIS'S MEDICAL GUIDE TO MARRIAGE : a Practical Treatise on its Physical and Personal Obligations. With instructions to the Married and Unmarried of both Sexes, for removing the special disqualifications and impediments which destroy the happiness of wedded life.— By Dr. J. L. Curtis, 15, Albemarle Street, PiccADiLLi, London, W. This work contains plain directions by which forfeited privileges can be restored, and essential functions strengthened and preserved. Also, by the same Author, a New and Revised Edition of MANHOOD : A MEDICAL ESSAY on the Causes and Cure of Premature Decline in Man ; the Treatment of Nervous Debility, Spermatorrhoea, Impotence, and those peculiar infirmities which result from youthful abuses, adult excesses, tropical climates and other causes ; with Instructions for the Cure of Infection without Mercury, and its Prevention by the Author's Prescription (his infallible Lotion).— By Dr. J. L. CURTIS, 15, Albemarle Street, Piccadilly, London, W. REVIEWS OF THE WORK. "Manhood. — This is truly a valuable work, and should be in the hands of young and old." — Sunday Times, 23rd March, 1858. "We feel no hesitation in saying that there is no member of society by whom the book will not be found use- ful, whether such person hold the lelationof a Parent, Preceptor, or Clergyman" — 5mw, Evening Papfr, "Dr. Curtis has conferred a great boon by publishing this little work, in which is described the source of those diseases which produce decline in youth, or more frequently, premature old age." — Daily Telegraph, March 27, 1856. London : Published by Allen, 20, Warwick Lane, Paternoster-row; and Mann, 39, Cornhill, London. *j^* Either of the above scientific and useful Works sent Post free by the Author or Publishers for 12 Postage stamps ; or in sealed envelopes, 20 stamps. Consultations from 10 to 3, and 6 to 8. PRIZE MEDAL AWARDED. Highly Important to Dairymen and all who keep Cows. BAR]:.A]!¥I>'^ PATE]¥T MIl.Ki:*«^ APPA»ATIJS, by means of which lOO Cows may Milli tUeuiSClveS in One Hour. It is recom- mended by several well-known land stewards of the United Kingdom for its Cleanliness, quIck- ness and economy. Farmers need only to give it a trial to see its advantages over all other inventions. " We have received from so truSt srortliy a source so good an account of the Pocket Milking Apparatus that wc feel ourselves J US Ulietl in calling the attention of our readers to it." — Bell's Messenger, Jan. 4, 1864, Price 10s„ the Set Complete, post free.— Circulars sent on demand. — A liberal discount to orders for dozens of sets. Post Office Orders to be made pavable to THOMAS BARLAND, 10, NORFOLK-STREET, STRAND, LONDON. THE MARK LANE EXPRESS AND AaSlZCUX^TUIlAX. JOURNAZ. IS THE LARGEST AND THE LEADING FARMERS' AND GRAZIERS' NEWSPAPER. PUBLISHED EVERY MONDAY EVENING IN TIME FOR POST. The object of the Proprietors of the MARK LANE EXPRESS has ever been, to renrfer it in every way the most efficient organ of the Agriciiltural Class, to direct and diffuBe practical and scientific information ot all k'nds relatins; to rural aflTairs, to be a medium for giving circulation to the Proceedings of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, he Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, the Royal Agricu tural Improvement Society of Ireland, and of every Agricultural Society and Farmers' Club in the Kingdom. All political and party discussions are care- fully avoided, except such as are purely Agricultural since its establishment, tw eiity-sixytars since, this course has been steadily sdhered to, and the result has been, the accession of a numerous and rapifily-increasing list of Subscribers, comprising the most irfluential Agriculturists inthe kingdom. In times when the position of the Tenant Farmers has been one of great difficulty, the MARK LANE EXPRESS has ever been directed to the advocacy and support of the kiqhis of the Tenant Fakmf.rs. In stating this, it is not intended to lose sight of that noble principle whicli the great Lord Leicester so successfully followed; viz., that Zifterai conduct towards the Tenant will ever be found to be the most beneficial to the Landlord. THE MALT TAX.— This is the only Farmer's Paper in London which advocates the Repbal of the Malt Tax. In authenticity and extent of Market information, the MARK LANE EXPRESSstat.ds unrivalled. A REVIEW OFTHECORN TRADE (British and Foreign) fully explains the Causes which occasion the Rise or Fall in Prices, thus affording th« Growers and Speculator some grounds for anticipating the stability or future tendency of Prices. The Latest Reports of the Corn, Cattle, Provision, Wool, Seed, Hop, Malt, and Commercial Markets, appear with the leaJing Country Fairs and Agricultural Meetings. Authentic Weekly Advices are received from all the Important Mirkete in the king- dom, our Colonial Possessions, as well as all parts of Europe and America. ROGEKSON & TUXFORD, 246, STRAND, LONDON. May be had of all Booksellers and Newsmen throughout the Kingdom, price Sevenpence, or £\ lOs. 4d. per annum. B il^W sriK SCOTT AND SEBRIGHT, THE DRUID. Price FIVE SHILLINGS, bound in crimson Cloth. Uniform with "Post and Paddock," and "Silk and Scarlet." CONTENTS; The Profit and Loss— The Thistle Down, or the Economy of a Training Stable— John Gully— The Farmer's Storj'— A Modern Hunting Song— The Hard-up, or a Rational Evening's Amusement— Old John Day— The Private Pupil— The Fate of Action— A Coper's Confession— Ful war Craven, or "A Bit of a Character "—The Great Handicap Race— Goodwood in the Days of the late Duke— The Banished Maid— A Deceiving Horse— The Great Horse and Hound Show— A Second Fox— A Desperate Man— The Love Bird— The Belhs of Swiudon— The Favourite— The Last of the Chifneys— The Breeding of Hunters and Hacks, and how Farmers should set about such a Business. PUBLISHED BY ROGERSON AND TUXFORD, 24G, STIIAND. ■^ X r III \i M 1$'% fxxs-^ 5 en. ^ V. 30 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. JULY, 1866. PLATE I. A WEST HIGHLAND OX THE PROPERTY OF THE OUKE OF SUTHERLAND, OF DUNROBIN MAINS, GOLSPIE, SUTHERLANDSHIRE. This ox, bred by Dr. Gillivray, of Barrd, was five years and eight months old when sent to the Smithfield Club Show last Christmas, where he took the first prize of £30 as the best beast of his class, and the Silver Cup of £40 as the best ox or steer in the show. As we wrote of him at the time, the Duke's ox is not the best Highlander we ever saw, if perhaps one of the very best that has come out of late years. Size and symmetry, with won- derful depth through the heart, and famously let down in his flanks and thighs, a sweet head, a noble eye, and well-carried horns, with a red- brindled coat of just the right hue, were the points which, for the first time on record, secured the chief honour for a beast of this breed. The Duke's ox, however, was somewhat wanting in the proper expansion of the fore-quarter and rib, while he was terribly loose in his touch, and the award consequently anything but one way. The two sets of Judges, in fact, divided over the merits of the Highlander and the Prince of Wales's Devon, and it was not until Mr. Sanday had been called in that a decision was arrived at, and this, it is only fair to add, was by no means supported by the public generally. " The Kyloes or West Highland cattle," says Mr. Wilson, of Edington Mains, " are widely diffused over the Highlands of Scotland ; but are found in the greatest perfection in the larger Hebrides, Well-bred oxen of this breed, when of mature growth and in good condition, exhibit a symmetry of form and noble bearing which are unequalled by any cattle in the kingdom. Although somewhat Qld Skries.] slow in arriving at maturity, they are contented with the coarsest fare, and ultimately get fat, where the daintier Shorthorns could barely exist. Their hardy constitution, thick mellow hide, and shaggy coat, peculiarly adapt them for a cold humid climate and coarse pasturage. Fewer of these cattle are now reared in the Highlands than formerly, owing to the lesser number of cottars and small tenants, and the extension of sheep husbandry. Large herds of cows are, however, kept on such portions of farms as are unsuited for sheep-walk. The milk of these cows is very rich ; but, as they yield it in small quantity and go soon dry, they are un- suited for the dairy, and are kept almost solely for the purpose of suckling each her own calf. The calves are generally housed during their first winter, but after that they shift for themselves out of doors all the year round. Vast droves of these cattle are annually transferred to the lowlands, where they are in request for their serviceableness in consuming profitably the produce of coarse pastures and the leavings of daintier stock. Those of a dun or tawny colour are often selected for grazing in the parks of the aristocracy, where they look quite as picturesque as the deer with which they are associated. Indeed, they strikingly re- semble the so-called wild cattle that are carefully preserved in the parks of several of our nobility, and, hke them, are probably the descendants of the cattle of the ancient Britons." A fine herd of West Highlanders has long been maintained by the Dukes of Sutherland, at Dunrobin. 5 [Vol. LX.— No, J, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. PLATE II. A RUSH THROUGH THE RUSHES. A jack on the feed will be recognised and appre- ciated by every one who has looked over stream or lake when the tyrant of the fresh waters is ready for a snack. See, he makes a sudden foray amongst a shoal, and out of their native element go the whole finny tribe to avoid the rapacious jaws of their ruthless destroyer. But mark the instinct of the smaller fish : they throw themselves with a summersault-like spring, and in an acrobatish fashion, which tends to bring their bodies behind their pursuer, and thus he will have to curb the velocity of his progress through the waiter before he can turn, and again repursue his prey. By this exercise of tact most of the shoal will escape ;, but that aldermanic gentleman, who has doubtless been stuffing to repletion upon a mixture of greaves and carrion gentles from the hands of some patient bottom fisher, has but a small chance in his plethoric unwieldiness to get away from that fine set of inward-directed teeth. Indeed, the look of the pike in the engraving, from the tip of his under- jaw to the end of his tail, is all certainty, and the eye has already anticipated the treat in store for the stomach. If ever the fate of fish was decided, it is that of the helpless wretch, but now over the expectant mouth of the hungry villain beneath it. Can you not hear the snap of his formidable man- dibles ? — see the half-pounder crosswise, secured as between a couple of devilish calipers, and before the monster has scarcely disappeared in the deeps, perceive the head of the victim cunningly turned belly-ward, and rapidly on its road to its living tomb ? The incident thus pictorially rendered is, how- ever, in the matter of the flying fish, as but an episode to that which occurs when a pike is first struck by the angler, and makes a dash across river or mere, more particularly if the water be shallow. Then, what a host of small fry dash upwards for dear life ! and the track of the brute can be only known in its swiftness by this silver shower, which indicates the exact course he has taken. Many a large pike owes his death to this infallible hint alone ; for it is sometimes half the battle to know where a desperate fish has gone to, especially where weeds and snags are dominant. This picture is, moreover, suggestive of a fact that has not been treated upon even by naturalists as it deserves, but which there is little doubt is a large consideration in the economy of nature, more particularly in its application to fish that feed upon their own species. The young, the healthy, and the active have the largest chance awarded to them of an escape from destruction ; while the sickly and the old are more likely, if actual size does not protect them, to fall to the sacrifice. Indeed, a fish in perfect fettle is not altogether so acceptable to the pike tribe as one slightly indisposed — that an invalid roach or a con- valescent gudgeon has more charms for master jack than thebaic and robust. That there is a wise order in this arrangement will be at once recog- nised. Fish, if allowed to die and decay, would add to the impurities of the very element from which the scavenger derives both his existence and his comfort; and then, it maybe, the cowardly tyrant experiences a greater goiit in the destruction of those who cannot help themselves, like many another bully in a different element one might name. THE CATTLE PLAGUE. BY CUTHBEET W. JOHNSON, P.E.S. 'WTien pestilence is ravaging our herds (altliough hap- pily, at the time I am writing, with diminished force), we may, perhaps, usefully collect together some of the leading facts with regard to the present as well as the former visitations of this fatal disorder. Its origin and symp- toms are natm'ally the first portions of the inquiry. The cattle plague, then, is described by Professor Gam- gee in his elaborate work as " constantly pervading Eus- sia, and especially steppe lands, being a specific, malig- nant, and highly -contagious fever, known to us only as the result of direct or indirect communication from sick to healthy animals. It is entirely sui generis, and never originates spontaneously beyond the Hussiaii fi-ontiers, within which it is probably never generated de novo, but is kept up by constant reproduction after the manner of other contagious maladies. It is essentially a bovine disease, though it may be communicated to goats, sheep, &c. — never, however, attacking any animal more than once. It is characterized by a period of incubation, which does not exceed ten days ; by fever heat, wliich precedes all other symptoms ; redness of all the mucous membranes, seen early, and in a marked manner, in the vagina of cows ; sometimes delirium, muscular twitchings, and fever shivers ; discharges fi'om the eyes and nose ; normal secretions checked or suppressed ; abdominal paiu, with constipation, or diarrhoea ; scaly erui)tion on the back and loins, and a characteristic eruption on the inside of the thighs and on the mammffi. There is a tendency to early putrefaction, manifested by the fcrtor of the breath, and discharges and emphysematous swellings in various parts of the body before death : after death rapid decom- position sets in. The majority of the cattle seized witli the plague, as a rule, die wherever the disease appears, except amongst Russian herds. No specific antidote has been discovered for its poison. And, as her Majesty's Commissioners, who have recently reported on the plague, add — " that the disease is contagious, that the contagion is extraordinarily swift and subtle, and that it is most THE FARMER'S MAQAZINE. destructive in its effects, there can be no doubt whatever. The manner in which it has spread, travelling perceptibly for the most part in the track of animals brought from some centre of infection, and establishing a new centre wherever it has been suffered to efi'ect a lodgment — the very difficulty that has often been found, even where the fact of infection was certain, in tracing the exact means by which the infection was conveyed — the havoc it has made in open pastm'es not less than in the London cow- sheds, and against which fresh air, wholesome food, and careful tending seem to have afforded no defence, would be quite enough to establish these conclusions, even if no light were thi'own upon them by past history or the ex- perience of other countries. The witnesses examined by the Commissioners, even those who believe it to have been spontaneously generated here, acknowledge it to be contagions, and (with hardly an exception) admit that it is new in England." It is not the first time by several that this dis- order has spread destruction amid our herds. We find old HoUingshead in his chronicles noticing such a visita- tion more than five centm-ies since. In more recent periods it was in England about the year 1713. In this case its coiu-se seemed to be similar to that of the pre- sent time, viz., trav'eUing to us from eastern Europe. It made its appearance in Hungary about the year 1710, thence it progressed by Dalmatia and the states of Venice, throughout Italy. Then crossing the Alps, it penetrated by the Tyrol through Germany ; from the German States it passed into Denmark, Sweden, and England. Years elapsed before it disappeared . It showed itself again in 1730 ; it reappeared then, however, with less violence than on previous occasions. In 1740, how- ever, it again made its appearance in south-eastern Europe, and gi-adually crossing the Continent, spread once more its baneful influence amid our herds. It is now that we obtain a clear description of the disease, and the regula- tions which were then enforced to stay its progress, and the attempts that were made to discover a cure. The history of that visitation, more than a century since, ciu'iously harmonizes with that of the present time. Lord Cathcart on a recent occasion collected, chiefly from the pages of the Geiitlemaiis Mufjazhin, from the years 1745 to 1752, the following instructive notices of the way in which our forefathers regarded the outbreak : "In Eebruary, 1746, the second year of the great plague. Dr. Broklesby wrote : ' One beast goes, all sooner or later go. (The plague) will ])robably abate in a short time As an exotic plant flourishes, it will dwindle and die.' On the 13th of March an Order in Council says : ' If not timely prevented, it (tlie plague) will end in the destructiou of all cattle.' In 1,747, the third year of the great plague, the Council say the same thing, and complain of the apathy of the local authorities, and again it is said that the disease has lived through all the sea- sons, lu 1748, the fourth year of the great plague, the disease had broken out afresh in several places — that is to say, it had returned to several places. In 1749, the fifth year of the great plague, it is ' aU over England.' In December of that year the Council say : ' It rages with a malignity and violence little short of the first outbreak.' In 1750, the sixth year of the great plague, in the month of November, it is recorded that the justices have great difficulty in enforcing the orders. They have also great difficulty from gentlemen who hope all things, who fear all things, and who believe all things. How ciu'ious is the tendency of history to repeat itself ! Grass is rotting on the ground for want of mouths to eat it. No one will buy hay : there are no rents ; stalls are fouled, and then comes this observation, ' 'Tis a great pity they had not killed each beast.' In 1751, the seventh year of the great plague, the disease sliowed itself ju Yorkshire, Westmoreland, Lancashire, Wilts, Monmouthshire, Glou- cestershire, Dorset, Bristol, and again in London, as well as in other places. In 1752, the eighth year of the great plague, the cattle are being shot by order of Quarter Sessions, and paid for out of the county stock (or rate) ; and so on to the very end. And at the very end is this curious and suggestive record : ' A never-failing remedy has been discovered by E. Venables Vernon, Esq." And then, adds Lord Cathcart : " We come now to consider the next point, which is slaughter ; and here again I must be permitted to refer to the evidence con- tained in the Gentleman' s Magazine. In October, 1745, they said the disease was incurable. Again it was said, ' Kill diseased beasts immediately : it is the only means of preservation.' In November they say, ' Killing out is generally approved of;' and I observe that the same arguments v'00 11 Total for Scotland 937,411 3^43 Total for Great Britain 4,785,846 3-68 In examining these returns ^vith a map of England before us, we seem to find that the disease generally tra- velled across our island from the east towards the west, that it was the least destructive in the line it followed in the southern counties, and that its virulence diminished as it travelled towards the west. For instance — the loss amongst the cattle in Kent was 2'G'i per cent. ; this diminished to 1-40 in Sussex, to 0-61 iu Hampshire, to 0^13 in Wiltshire, and to 002 in Dorsetshire. It was only 009 in Devonshire, and 0.69 per cent, in Cornwall. In crossing the island in a more northern latitude, we find that the percentage of loss far higher — the loss in Norfolk being oSI per "cent., 11"30 in Huntingdonshire, 3^24 in Northamptonshire, 3'26 in Staffordshire, and 4-89 per cent, in Shropshire. If we take a stiU more northerly line from east to west, we find in Lincoln- shire the loss per cent, to be 5-60, in Yorkshire 6-30, in Cheshire 34-28, and in Flintshire 1454 per cent. When we take the next line we find the losses far less, viz., in Durham 0'77, and in Westmoreland only 0'02 per cent. A similar course of the disease seems to have been witnessed in Scotland. It was in the eastern counties of Clackmannan U'61 per cent,, Jvinross 14"38, and Forfar THE FABlMIiK'g MAGAZI:>[E. 25'20, that ilie hiy,hest Scotch losses liavc been sus- tained. The per-centages of the western Scotch counties were very low — that of Argyle being r02, Kirkcud- bright 0-10, Argyleshire 00, aiid AVigtonshire Q-Q. It would appear, then, that the disease exhausted itself as it crossed our island — that the easterly low level coun- ties of Lincoln, Huntingdon, and Norfolk suffered the most, and that the warmer yet moist westerly counties experienced the least injury to their cattle from the plague. From the returns which I have given, it will be seen that the average loss per cent, from the plague to April 21, 1S60, was in England -I'l-l, in Wales 1'23, and in Scotland 3 '43. It has been computed that of the cattle in Great Bri- tain one-fourth, or about 1,200,000, die or are killed every year, and that the mortality from disease in ordi- nary years is 4 and 5 per cent. The measures to be taken to prevent the appearance of the plague in a herd, when the disease is in the neighbour- hood, are perfect isolation, not allowing the cattle to go near any infected land, nor any animal, even a dog, to approach. The herd should not be allowed to even cross a public road. To these may be added proper feeding, good ventilation, and the employment of disinfectants. I am inclined to believe with Professor Gamgee, who ob- serves : " The administration of tonics, in moderation, and especially preparations of iron, may be recommended for all cattle that have been accidentally subjected to the contact of infected animals. All should be done to sup- ])ort the animal's strength, that it may withstand the disorder." In support of the use of iron may be adduced the evidence of the British Consul at Warsaw, viz., that in the outbreak of the rinderpest in Poland in 1857, they adopted, with much success, the plan of putting old iron into the troughs at which their cattle drank, so as to thus produce a highly-chalybeate water. The efficacy of this mode of treatment is said to have been discovered by the almost entire immunity from the disease in 1857 of the cattle on a fai-m where there is a chalybeate spring. A similar Remark has been made by some of the Derbyshii-e farmers, with regard to a chalybeate spring in that county. It appears that the cows of the vicinity are always trying to reach this spring, and that the rinderpest has never visited the herds who drink its water. May we not, from these facts, be led to lest the cfticiicy.of the artili.'ially- prepnred chalybeate water, as a preventive of the plague ': With regard to the medical treatment of the disease, it is to be feared that there is too much truth iu what Pro- fessor Gamgee remarks, in the preface to his valuable work : " Had I consulted my own desires alone, 1 should have dismissed the subject iu one short sentence, by pro- nouucing the nselessness and deprecating the adoption of curative treatment. We should never treat cases of plague in Great Britain. They may do what they choose in Russia; but here it is our duty to prevent and ex- terminate the disease, and not play with it by using drugs." Many, indeed, are the remedies which have been proposed. Amongst these, perhaps, the use of sulphate of quinine offers the fiiirest chance of success. To use the words of Professor Gamgee (p. 109) : " We have just as much reason, and no more, to expect this substance to cure the cattle plague, as the Spanish pilgrims had, three centuries ago, to expect the bark to cure the Countess of Chinchou's ague. It was a fiiir experiment which succeeded. Certainly large doses of these alkaloids ought to be well tried. If we give six doses, of ten grains each, to a man weighing IGOlbs., we ought to give in the same pro- portion in weight to a cow." Some cures etl'ected in the case of some young cows iu the neighbom-hood of Haventry appear to support the conclusion that sulphate of quinine may be usefully em- ployed in the cure of rinderpest. The recipe, successfully employed at the suggestion of a nephew of mine, who is a surgeon at Daventry, is as follows : Dissolve two ounces of sulphate of quinine in two gallons of water ; add half- an-ounce of sulphuric acid (the sulphate of quinine will not dissolve in the water without the acid is present). The dose, half-a-pint three or four times a day. In thus giving an outline of our present knowledge of the cattle plague, we cannot fail to remark (and a similar observation applies, indeed, to almost all diseases) how limited is the information we possess. The suddenness of the attack, the fatality which attends it, the ill-success of different modes of treatment, startle and confound us ; but these facts should not prevent the continuance of our efforts to ward off its attacks, and to discover a cure. The success, indeed, which has attended the researches of the professors of the medical profession during the last cen- tury should encourage us to conclude that there is yet lo be discovered a cure for the most virulent diseases. ON THE EXTIRPATION OF THISTLE8. BY A FftACTlCAL tARMElt. The present season is becoming remarkable for the abundance of thistles: they are everywhere to be seen. Our pasture lands, which are usually pronounced clean, cannot fail to exhibit here and there a specimen, and our foul lands are foul indeed. Our pasture lauds, where, owing to neglect last autumn, thistles were permitted to produce their ripened seed, and general inattention is the rule, now present a sorry appearance. Some lands are almost covered with the three prominent varieties — i. e., the common thistle (saw-wort), the broad spike-leaved thistle, and the low creeping or bidbous-rooted thistle : these in evei-y stage of growth abound, but more particu- larly the saw-wort variety. The late damp and showery weather has been favourable to the growth of thistle-seed, which appears to have stood the test of the late fine wiuter, and the spreading roots of the old stocks have not ! failed to throVv out a profusion of stout stools, or, as we I Siiy in the wheat plant, " tillers :" these, with every young I plant of autumn growth, make up a most prolific crop, such as has seldom been seen. The fallow grounds, where : subject to thistles, look, if possible, worse than the pasture I lands. Some fields, where cross-ploughing was deferred, ] appear to be literally covered, and these thistles have ! served in some degree the purpose of a green-manure crop for ploughing-iu. 1 noticed one instance of cross- ploughing, in a field where thistles were very forward — almost all were knotted for tiowering: this ploughing seemed to destroy them utterly, owing, I believe, to deep cross-ploughing and the subsequent dry and hot weather lasting for a few days. Our corn crops are not more than usually infested, but they have grown surprisingly fast and strong, and such has been the rapidity of growth latterly THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE, that vveediug has been with dittkulty accomplished, so that I fear maDy will be lelt to propagate their stocks. In reference to the extirpation of these pests of the farm, I need not say much. The course is simple -. never let them alone, wherever they may be. On the pasture lands the common thistle most abounds, and it should be the aim of every grazier to keep them under. For this purpose •! know of no better plan than the employment of aged men or women, as soon as the spring pastures are stocked, to spud them. These pai'ties are supposed to be expe- rienced in the mode of extiqjation by this process of spudding, and are likely to be more careful in their work. To destroy a thistle etfectually, it should be spudded at least one inch in the ground, so as to cut through the root below the coronal shoot — i.e., " to turn up the bit of black," as it is provincially termed. The broad spike- leaved thistle should be dug up at least an inch below the coronal shoot ; but that is scarcely enough, as its habit is to throw out more shoots from every root or fibre which can force its way above gi-ound, and if only the coronal or " crown" is cut through, and not deeply, it will throw out many stems, which ai'e more difficult to destroy than the original. The bulbous-rooted thistle is very iljfflcidt to master. It propagates very fast if not closely watched, both by its seed and by its tillering or creeping propen- sity, if it may be so designated. The roots are not, pro- perly speaking, ci'eeping roots, like twitch or white clover, but the bulbs appear to force their way laterally, and so quickly increase. Every root ought to be thoroughly dug up ; or if this cannot be effected, no respite should be given ; but as they jut out afresh they should be again spudded. This variety produces a great yield of seed, and as it is quite a dwarf kind, the seeds are not driven far abroad, but are deposited near to, so as speedily to form large thistle-beds. But some reader may ask, " "\Vhat is meant by the term spudding ? It is unknown in my district." It is this : The spud is a miniature spade, with a long shaft " handle," or " stick." The cutting or digging part is made of iron and steel, and is about three inches wide, snd tits into the shaft, either by a socket, or as a spade, with " lips" or " wings." The use of this implement in the cutting up of weeds is " spudding." .Spudding for pasture lands is, upon the whole, the best course to be pursued for extirpation, talcing into account the majority of seasons ; but in a season like the present, when the soil is weU saturated by rainfall and continues soft and moist, I prefer to draw up the conunon thistle by " tweezers." These tweezers are similar in make to a blacksmith's " pair of tongs," but generally made of wood, and armed with corrugated iron plates at the ends of the nippers, which take hold of the thistle. "With these the thistle is drawn up by the root to a considera- ble depth, and when so drawn seldom shoots out again. In order to their effectual extermination by tweezing, it is necessary to allowthem to attain a somewhat stronggrowth. This by many is thought objectionable, as many fibrous roots do contrive to spread along near the surface, and sub- sequently throw up stools ; however, if they are prevented growing strongly, very many of the stems break olf in the pulling up, and thus leave the roots to put out afresh and more vigorously still. ^ly own practice has been, for many years, to spud them in dry seasons, and tweezc them in wet ones; by this means many very foul pastures have been entirely freed fi'om them. Nothing, in my opinion, looks so slovenly in our fields, oris so preventive of good audprofitable grazing, asbcingoven'un withthistles; hesidesj they occupy so much room. What a wide circidar bare bed does a large broad spike-leaved thistle exhibit when dug up! and a forest of common thistles are much worse. Many fields with which I am acquainted now " carry" or graze from one to three sheep per acre more than they did when over-run with thistles. I have seen fields cleared of these pests in an extraordinary way. The thistles have been left to grow and produce their seed almost to ripeness, when they were mown down, raked together, and carried otf. Of course, when plants of this kind are permitted fully to ripen their seed, they die away, like the corn or pulse plants. There is nothing surprising in this ; but the exhibition of such ci'ops of thistles is a libel or satire on pasture grazing ; it cannot be defended, and the sacrifice of much of a summer graz- ing is requisite, to accomplish this feat of extermination. The eradication of thistles which infest arable lands is no easy matter. If the land is highly cultivated they grow with astonishing rapidity ; their fine tapering roots strike down at surprising depths after their moist food, and al- though the crown may be cut through, they are soon up with the crop again. Dead or summer fallowing will alone thoroughly destroy them. Summer fallowing cannot, however, be generally adopted ; we must grow our winter food. Every eftbrt should, however, be made to destroy them before the seed is sown or the land planted. IVe- quent ploughing will do much towards it ; but unless the seeding is deferred to a late period of the summer on lands thus infested, they cannot be entirely got rid of. The best course to be pursued is to put in all the seedings or plantings upon the ridge system ; the fallow-working can then be continued through the summer, or so long as the crop is not injm-ed by the horse passing between the ridges in horse-hoeing or ridge-harrowing. In this way much can be accomplished. In potato cultm-e this method proves very efficacious ; and with horse-hoeing, hand-hoeing, and moidding up, but few thistles escape destruction. It is similar on the turnip crop, but we lack the moulding up ; however, by careful weeding, very few are left alive. "It is not so effectual in " broad work :" there the hand-hoeing is neither so deep nor so constant as the horse-hoeing. The horse-hoe can accomplish from three to four acres per day ; the hand-hoe scarcqjy half an acre, if properly done. Besides this, the hand-hoe is never applied sufficiently deep, as a rule, to destroy the thistle plant : in some operations it cannot be so used without injury to the crop ; and in corn crops, for the most pai-t, in hand-hoeing the thistle-top is merely cut oft': it is not cut sufficiently low or deep enough to destroy the plant. It is almost impossible to destroy fully the thistles in a corn or pulse crop. The chief thing is to keep them down so as not to interfere with the pro- gress of the crop. This is mainly done by hand-hoeing and weeding. Drilling in om- corn and pulse crops is al- most universal, hence every facility is given for early hand- hoeing. This should take place in suitable weather and when the corn or pulse plants are sufficiently grown to withstand any injury from the process. All thistles should be hoed at considerable depth, say from two to three inches below the surface. A second hoeing should take place in every infested field, to be followed by weed- ing with spuds, and having one hand armed with a stout glove, to draw up every thistle found in the dull rows. In this way, and after these courses which I have pointed out are being perseveringly kept up, and every season carefully watched, and the course adapted to it, I doubt not but these vexatious pests may be exliqmtccl. THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. SHEEP VERSUS CATTLE. At the weekly meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, held at the Society's house, Hauover-square, on Wednesday, June 20, Lord Feversham in the chair, a lecture was delivered by Mr. W. Torr on the above subject. Mr. ToKR said : In introducing this question to the notice of the Society, allow me to observe that I take for my motto the old Dutch proverb, " The sheep wears a golden foot," and that it is not my intention to read what may be termed " a paper" respecting it, inasmuch as I entertain strong objections to everything in the shape of paper farming. I shall merely start some points generally in favour of sheep versus cattle (if you like to call it so) for your consideration and discussion. I will not go into any description of the different breeds of sheep, nor draw any invidious comparison between the Lei- cester and the Lincoln, the Southdown, the Shropshire, and the Improved Oxford, believing, as I do, that an intelligent farmer should know what suits his own mode of farming and occupation best. It is extremely diflicidt to distinguish the various improved breeds, and far more than even the breeders themselves can determine where one tribe ends and another begins. I therefore disclaim any prejudice in favour of a real good pure-bred Leicester, of substance ;ind constitu- tion, further than he seems to have done great service wherever he has gone amongst the long-wools of the nation ; whilst, as far as I' have seen, nothing has done aught but harm to this Bakewell breed itself. It is my sacred I'esolve, therefore, to keep the Aylesby flock pure, as it has been now for something like eighty years. These preliminaries being settled, I think it must he evident to the commonest observer tluit at the present moment, when that awful scourge, the cattle-plague, has devastated many districts of the kingdom, aud almost denuded tlie land of the live-stock population, it is worthy of paramount consideration how that stock is to be replaced. Cattle are of slow growth. You cannot expect any great in- crease for years to come in breeding — say you want a three- year-old — that is, feur years hence, and then only a limited issue, so many females having been swept off the homesteads. Of course, every endeavour will ha made by breeders to in- crease their stock ; and so it should be. At the same time I hold an opinion confirmed hy practical experience, that on all second-rate grass lands, sheep have been, and can be made, far more profitable than cattle ; and in tlie improved state of such lands by draining, &c., sheep can uow flourish aud do well, where in former times it would have been folly to have placed tliem. There is not a greater improvement in farming than an allowance of oilcake to grazing sheep. I have used oUcake largely, both for cattle and sheep on first-rate land, and sold huUocks last year under four years old at M-5 each from grass. Mind you, the land was worth over £100 per acre, and the beasts had 81bs. of oilcake per day — and they paid well for their summer crrazing. This system only applies, perhaps, to feeding ofl" tlie cattle or sheep more quickly, and on real good pastures ; on second-rate land young steers are grazed, without the oilcake, mixed with sheep. Now it is here that a vast improvement may be made, simply by increasing the number of sheep and lessening the number of cattle— thus, say, instead of having one steer on two acres, and two sheep per acre, we put one steer on four acres, and four to six sheep per acre, and give the sheep oilcake. This opens a large field, and in all tolerably dry districts it can he done to greater profit, and will eventually be found more so than than the absurd process of taking up land because it does not improve. Why, how can it do so if farmers won't do anything to it ? This I know too well is often the case in my own immediate neighbourhood. The next and, perhaps, a greater necessity is the keeping of sheep on the cold, strong lauds of England, supposing such lands have been, or must be well drained, without which it is useless to suggest any im- provement of the sort. The drains on grass land need more expense, and go in eciually as deep, and more close, even than tillage, which has other advantages besides percolation aud at- mospheric influence from cultivation, especially the steam ploughing, that the grass evidently has not. When the water is thoroughly taken out of grass land, and you dress with almost any thing, say common wheat-chaff, cut straw, lime and salt, or, better stQl, a few crushed and rotten bones, and plenty of sheep put on, with oilcake, the change is magical, as I could show you on many a score of acres in my own occupation, this management befitting almost all the second and third-rate grass land. I aver that now is the golden opportunity for putting this great — I may say, national— experiment in practice ; fewer cattle and more sheep, and larger remuneration for the tenant. I liave not had very great experience myself in keeping a large number of sheep on cold, clay lands, because my farming does not represent that. I am in a much better position in respect of sheep. I shall, therefore, refer to the practice of Mr. Charles Randall, who carries it out better than anyone I know ; and I shall speak of his experience in detail, and tell you exactly how tilings are done on the estate of the Due d'Aumale, at Chadbury, near AVorcester. 1st, As ap|ilied to grass land exclusively ; 3nd, Where there is some arable land, or where some of the grass-land may he broken up. And I shall assume that it is strong land, he- cause you do not want to tell people how to grow food for sheep upon light land. As to the first, I believe there is no mode of sheep farming practicable but to buy in ewes, sell oiT the lambs, fat as many as can be made so, as stores the rest, then feed off as many of the ewes as are too old or otherwise unfitted to breed again. Lambs cannot he wintered with any certainty of success upon grass land, more especially where that grass-land has been thickly stocked with sheep during the previous summer. Assuming, then, that this is to be the sort of sheep management adopted, the question is how to keep the greatest number in the most profitable manner — or, in other words, how to make the most money per acre by them. Three- fourths of the land should be kept entirely free from stock from the end of October, hy which time the rams will be taken from the ewes, until the lambing begins. On the other fourth the ewes wiU. he wintered, hurdling it over as a green crop, at the rate of aljout one quarter of an acre per day to 100 ewes, and giving with it sufficient hay, cut into chafl', to keep them in condition. When near to lamfiing, ^Ih. of oilcake each per day should be given ; or, if the grass-land is poor, this may advantageously be done throughout the vrinter as regards the condition both of the land and slieep. The land upon which the ewes have been thus wintered should then he mown. As the ewes drop their lambs, they are turned into the fresh pas- tures, continuing the daily |lh. of cake with a little hay chafl'. When about a mouth old, the lambs will try to join the ewes at the troughs, and then a small piece of the field should he hurdled off, and a little oilcake and cliafF placed in low troughs, the lambs having access to them hy means of a " lamb-gate" — viz., a luu'dle with upright revolving bars, nine inches apart. As the lambs take to the cake, the allowance to the ewes must he reduced, so that the ^b. per ewe will nqt be exceeded for ewe and lamb together. In this way one-third more ewes and lambs may be kept upon the same land than could be maintained in good condition without assistance. A larger proportion of the lambs will he ready early for the butcher, making the best price ; and such as do not get fit to kill will pay for their cake in being strong healtliy stores. Every grazier knows that such lambs wiU go on and thrive with little risk or loss ; while he equally well knows that little stunted scouring lambs are dear at any price. The ewes will he in forward condition, aud may soon go to the butcher, making room for a new lot ; and the land will, hy this con- sumption of cake, gradually and certainly become capable of keeping a greater stock. The chief objection to tliis kind of sheep farming is, the having to buy in annually fresh ewes ; for, be it remembered, they are not sold for their good quaUties — they are either old or ill-ibnned, have lost a quarter, or are otherwise bad sucklers. To obviate this objection I will adopt the second proposition : If there is no arable 8. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. land, break up some of the grass land — tlie worst — breed and feed off the wethers at a year old, and the draft ewes, keep- ing on tlie ewe lambs for stock. The management of the ewes and lambs wiU still be much the same up to the middle of June, after which time the lambs must depend upon the pro- duce of the arable land. Tliey cannot be made to do well after tliey are weaned upon tlie pastures where they have been kept with the ewes. Assuming, tlien, tlie worst — that the land ill tillage is clay, the crops 1o be grown upon half of it (the other half alternately being wheat) will be mangolds, cabbages, kohl-rahi and vetches. These crops may with cer- tainty be grown upon clay laad, where it is always difficult, and sometimes quite impossible, to grow swedes or turnips. Ill the northern portion of the kingdom where the climate is more favourable to the latter crops and less so to mangolds the one would be substituted for the other. At present we leave the men of tlie " far north" to take care of themselves as they are well able to do. The vetches will be useful to put the yearling ewes upon, and the old oues when their lambs are weaned, and should he eaten through iron hurdles. While this crop is being got through, the present will get fresh, the best of them for the draft ewes to be fed oil', the others to carry the stock ewes till tupped. Of kohl-rabi a few acres should be growu and stored as mangolds, /. e., with their roots and crowns left ou, and covered with soil only, and kept until a fortnight before the ewes begin to lamb. These pulped and mixed v\ith chatf will greatly improve the milk, and should be continued after the ewes have yeaned, and abundance of grass makes them no longer necessary. Early cabbages planted in October upon wheat stubble well mashed will be ready when the lambs are weaned, and with them must be given some liay- chafl", and to the wether lambs :jlb. of cake ; some cut man- gold of the previous year (for these may be kept till July) may also be added, aad will make the cabbages last out as long as may be necessary. The late York and drumhead cabbages will succeed the early ones, and carry on the lambs until it is time to plough up tlie laud for wheat, and put the lambs to mangolds. This should be done in yards ; the roots being ])alped and mixed \nth wheat-chaff, and wheat-straw cut into chaff. If a little hay can be spared to mix therewith the better, but it is not essential. It is quite necessary, however, that feeding sheep sliould liave cake or corn (the former the better), and hay chaff mixed with it. IMalt coombs and bran are useful additions, where they can be bought at £5 per ton. lu this way all the wheat-straw that is not required for cutting into chaff will be converted into good manure, and in (U'der to economise the straw it is well to cov?r the yards one foot, and the shedding two feet thick, with burnt soil. It will very rarely happen upon a farm such as we are jissuining that clay cannot be found to burn. There is usually jilcuty of such raw material to be obtained from road-sides, hedge and ditch banks, borders, &;c. The portion of this with which the open yard is bottomed wiU absorb the urine, and improve the quality, whUe it increases the cpiantity of the dung-heap, and that which goes dri/ as it should do into the shed must be turned as often as required until it becomes so saturated with dung and urine that turning no longer provides dry bed- ding for the sheep. It is desirable, tlieii, where practica- ble, to cover these ashes over with fresh ones, but this cannot always be done. Carting upon that sort of land in winter is a question of frost or no frost ; but it is not material bej ond the saving of straw. If fresh ashes cannot be obtained, straw must be used upon tlie old ones. When the feeding is over, they are useful, mixed with superphosphate, to apply Ijy the drill to the green crops. It must not be supposed that the ^heds necessary for this purpose are expensive erections. A thatched roof upon jiosts live feet high, the spaces between the posts on the north side being iUlcd in with two rows of wattled liurdles, one on each side of the posts, and rammed between witli straw, is all that is required. Such is the practical ex- jiericnce of Mr. Randall with a large lloek of sheep in a very cold clay soil, a soil that is a good deal lielow the average of land which may be termed sheeii land. Of course, I need hardly say he has not a large number of cattle ; but he has a consideralile lot of sheep — sometimes from (UJO to SUO feeding bheep. Here let me put on what I call tlie crowning point of wool, now the staple, not only in a mill but on a farm. Sheep, as it were, standing stiU, grow wool ; and at anything like late prices of this article, grown under a certain zone of latitude, it is doubtful whether a wether could not be more than self-supporting, by yielding annually his fleece, and pay a profit two succeeding summers. This I advance not against early return and maturity, but would choose this last in support of sheep under the most favourable circumstances. For example, a friend of mine, who has had 18 sheep of me during the past 18 years, and has engaged the 19th ram to put on his old, time-honoured Lincoln flock, realized at the April fair of Lincoln £o each for 200 hoggets, barring a tenner for luck, left to markets, &c. Well, now you have here, say three hoggets, making £15, versus a very good year-and-a-half-old steer, or in many counties two years old. Just, for one moment, sec the great disparagement, and a large margin to spare. Referring to use of artificials : these hoggets, of course, had all they liked, and a little more, in their feeding-trouglis : my buUocks had not quite their tiU. Still, I freely admit, the profit is on the Improved Lincolns, and not on the Shorthorns, or any of the other cattle tribes. I was going to say sometliing about the soil on which wool grows best. On my own farm I find that I can grow better wool on some portions of it than on others. In the south of our county, about Spilsby and that part of Lincohishire, wool grows in a most cxti aordinary manner. If you go further north, say as far as rifeshire, or further south than the Eng- lish Channel, the quality of the wool falls off. It then be- comes hair or moss. The valuable fine lustre wool is pretty nearly confined to a few degrees of latitude, not only in Eng- land, but nearly all over the world. So that the space being limited, there is little or no danger of wool ever glutting tlic market any more. The present unjust warfare, however, is against its price ; but hence and away with that. Wool will ever bear a great value ; and evenif 800 sheep be kejit where 600 were kept formerly, there are ^^00 men, and far more, perhaps, in comparison with the 000, who now wear a good broadcloth coat instead of a miserable fustian ; and so it wUl continue to be. And let me add the stern reality to the outer man, that the inner man tends to a mutton chop against a high price of roast beef, for reasons that the Inland Revenue could explain. Now, to reply to objections before I hear them. The foremost of these will he, no doubt, " What will you do with your straw ?" This does not apply to the cold lands of England, but to a large portion of England where it has ever been considered that a man farms best by having most cattle to consiune tlie straw and convert it into manure, and by being, generally speaking, a large sheep farmer as well. Take the east of England as an illustration. 15ut to tlie question — " What will you do with your straw ?" I cannot tell you i//. /o/o, but I can show you in part ; and as many men are of many parts, I hope other men wiU try to find out more than I have done. I keep all my cart-horses on straw, or preciously near so, as fodder ; and they are in the stable or fold-yards 365 days in the year. I have at present about 60 consuming 1 peck of cruslied corn or sprouted barley, and C lb. of oil- cake daily. I have no sick horses — not one per cent. They live too long, and won't die ; so I kill them for the kennels at Brockleby. I am no horse dealer, and know less than nothing of that crafty craft ; but I do know tliat one of the big blots of bad farming is the turning out of cart horses on grass lands. Not even steam cultivation or aught else can remedy the harm occasioned by this folly or mismanagement. A tremendous lot of straw can most advjintageously be got quit of in tills way. Next, as I have said — and, perhaps, to many it is a new saying — cart all your chaff' from the thrashing-machine on your grass lands at anytime, and in any quantity, as may he convenient ; and the early worm will ever be conveniently hard liy, to help to fertilize. Eurther, in case of a repletion of straw, I believe a large quantity might bo cut into chart', and placed between the ridges of turnips at the ordinary width of twenty-seven inches apart, where it would act as an absorbent of all urine, &c., from sheep cultivation on farms where no grass land can be had. Mr. Dent, JLP. •. When the sheep are eating it off? Mr. ToRR : Yes, on light lands, botween the ridges of tur- nips. I have some done some in this way, though not to a great extent. But you may apply an immense quantity of chaff' to grass lands, and that witli wonderfully good effects. At all events, such may be the source of destroying, in a good form, some big stacks of old straw. Some may think this a wUd suggestion who have never been bothered with too much chaff. Only don't burn it, and give your neighbours the benefit of the smoke. Surely, many will criticise these conceits as THE FAEMER'S lilAGAZmE. they may be called, and say, " Why not sell the straw ?" Near to a town this may do ; but the landlord has a clear right to see, although " straw is only straw," that a poor farm is not made still poorer by waste. Nothing can be advanced too largely on root crops, either on the lightest or heaviest soils, care being taken that all the produce, or as near as may be, is returned to those soils. Hence I have ever argued that this is tlie best position for placing manures in. To conclude : What I maintain is, that all farming should hold sacred the in- destructibility of matter. The world weighs now, as philo- sophers tell us, to an ounce what it did when Adam was a farmer. A cigar smoked, if all could be again collected, would be the exact weight of the pennyworth of tobacco. So, even in ancient times, when Carthage was the granary of Home, and the marshes afforded food for man, instead of pestilence, they would never have been exhausted, I venture to assert, if the broad principles oi this, my conservative attempt to prove that Britain may help herself, even under the present direful dispensation of Providence, were acted upon in the manner I have now suggested. Jlr. Fkere said : In speaking of lamb gates, Mr. Torr men- . tioned verticiil revolving bars. Mr. Torr observed that they were of the same kind that Mr. Rjindall used. Mr. ruERi; would suggest the adoption of a revolving top bar, which would be found particularly sendceable with large lamb gates. Now he (Mr. Frere) professed to be a sheep farmer, and he farmed dry land. It had been his study to in- crease his sheep, and ho believed his flock was half as large again as that which in old times it was imagined was the ut- most number that the farm could possibly carry. He had a sheep walk which was formerly restricted to II score ewes, but he kept upwards of 15 score. He did that by growing inore root crops ; and in connection with that his object was to develope autumn cultivation, and to put his manure on to his roots, taking it out partly in the winter. There was another object connected with that. Of the increased roots half must be drawn to a sound dry layer, provided for the consuming of those roots which were grown close by it. With au increased stock of sheep, and especuiUy lambs, one encountered what would always be au obstacle to those who tried to go last over the road of improvement ; he referred to the evils that arise from over-stocking. And here, if he might digress for a nio- mciit, it would be to caution those who thought that they could substitute a large for a small stock of poultry at this luomeut with advantage, forgetting the evil of the land becomingtainted. In order to keep a larger number of sheep, he naturally had recourse to a larger consumption of straw as well as of corn. With him the best straw was barley straw ; he would remark, steam might be applied to the cutters witli great advantage, inasmuch as when it was used the straw was much shorter and softer, and sheep required a shorter and finer straw than oxeu. Instead of growing 100 acres of wheat and 100 of barley, he grew 140 acres of barley and GO of wheat. Thus he had only GO acres of wheat to put on in the autumn ; and both the cart and the team work, which uuder the old system would have been appropriated in the autumn to the wheat, were now used in drawing the root crops, mangold, kohl-rabi, and early rape, for the next sowing. The CuAiRM.vs : Do you sow turnips, or swedes ? Mr. Frere said there was too much dryness for swedes ; and kohl-rabi made better way than swedes in ordinary seasons. He had 40 acres of seeds not broken up in the autumn for wheat. They would be adjacent to his crop of roots, and iTom one-fourth to one-third of the root crop would be drawn off and fed upon that clean layer, even perhaps by younger sheep, during October, November, and December. At the end of December it would be stirred by a cultivator to as small a depth as might be, and it would be worked line before the winter frosts came. It would be in that state during the month of January, probably while the manure was being carted on for the mangold in the time of frost, and, after it had been pulverized by the winter frosts, it would be ploughed in two inches deep ; and then it would lie again ibr three or four weeks, to get quite tiue before the time for barley sowuig arrived. In that way he had succeeded in obtaining two pieces of as fine barley as he had ever seen in his neighbourhood. Of the 140 acres of barley, the straw of 100 probably was consumed and eaten by the animals — it cer- tainly was so last year, Their stock of straw was so short that they were compelled to thrasli the barley rather fast, the straw being eaten up very rapidly. The Cii.vir.m.\:n : By " the animals," you mean sheep ?" Mr. Frere : No ; all. The CiiAiRJiAN : But it is sheep that are in question. Mr. Frere ; The sheep formed the larger proportion. The one drawback which he fouud was this, that on the drier ])art of his land the straw manure had a special value for the tur- nip crop as a source of moisture. In the recent dry years he found that white turnips, when they were put in with straw manure in July, were able to stand drought, while those which had had artificial manure, though they came up well, died off. This difference he was inclined to attribute to the very fair supply of water which was gradually drawn up from below after the ploughing in of from S to 10 tons of straw manure, three-fourths of which was composed of water. There was one other purpose for which straw manure was required, namely, the growth of wheat on light lands. The one element in the straw produced on light lands, which they did not seem able thus far to replace satisfactorily, was potash. He was sorrv to say that, so far as his experience had gone, he had not found potash in any artificial form which would serve as a substitute for the potash in yard-nmde straw manure. He had en- deavoured faintly to trace the modifications which he had made on his farm, in so far as they bore on the subject under consideration. Of course, with the increase of sheep-feeding and the eating of straw on the land, a decrease in the number of bullocks in the yard was a natural and necessary con- sequence, and he had therefore hardly touched on that point : but the drawback connected in the change of system was that he still wanted straw for his turnip cropson his light land, and for his wheat also on such land. If the soil were a less-stiff clay, he might not perhaps want any yard-made straw manure at all. Sir George Jexkiasox, M.P. : Don't you think that yard-made straw manure is most essential on heavy land ? Mr. I'rere said, according to his experience, it was not. Some years he used to think that he could not grow mangold on stiff laud ; but five or six years back he told his farm - bailiff to try artificial manure, and after that he did not wish for farm-yard manure. Mr. De^t said there could be no doubt that in a large por- tion of the Wolds of Lincolnshire and Yorkshire the idea prevailed that farmers could not get straw-yard manure unless they used plenty of cake to convert it into manure. Nor could it be doubted that, owing to the losses recently sustained, there would in many cases be a great difficulty in procurin'' bullocks to make the straw into manure. There had, indeed", been great dilficulty even in the last winter. Then came the question how far they could make good straw-manure with sheep. He was inclined to think that in many of the dis- tricts where large quantities of turnips were grown, e\^ es had, as a rule, had far too many turnips and far too little straw. His own experience of his ftock of sheep was, that the fewer turnips the ewes had, after being removed from the tup, the healthier they were, and the better they did altogether ; and the same remark applied to the lambs. The desirableness of keeping breeding ewes in a yard, and turning them out for a portion of the day, giving them pulped roots mixed with straw and dry meat, was, he should imagine, tested to some extent last winter ; and, for his own part, he thought that would lead to a solution of the dilficulty of keeping a breeding flock on strong land where there was very little grass. On his farm he had never found a superfluity of straw, or more than he could conveniently use ; while at times he could certainly have used more than he had with advantage. As regarded cart-horses, he had adopted Mr. Torr's plan. He never thought of turning them out to grass, and he believed that that was one of the greatest mis- takes a farmer could make, as nothing scarcely did grass-land so much harm. There were constant battles and arguments with fanners on that subject. They said that tares were very expensive to grow, but he did not himself beheve that. His plan was very much the same as that which Mr. Torr had spoken of ; he gave chopped straw all the winter, open straw as long as he had any, and at this time of year plenty of tares and an allowance of corn and chopped dry meat. Sir George Jenkinson remarked that that plan could not be carried out with youug horses. Mr. ToRK : Yes, it is just the same thing. Mr, Di;>T continued ; He was speaking ouly of farm-horaesj. 10 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. He had always considered slieep aud bullocks far prrl'crable to horses. To have hoggets carrying on their back fleeces whicli could be got rid of at the. end of the year was far better than having horses from which no profit could be got until they were three or four years old. As regarded Mr. Torr's idea of using chalf on grass lands, he wished to say that he had seen a little of that tried with very goodresults. Almostauytliing, infact, that was put on grass lands would do good. But he did not him- self see any great objection to allowing straw to be sold, provided the landlord saw that compensation was made in the manure that was purchased. He tliouglit that on the class of farms where there was a supertluity of straw, and the landlord might be satisfied that there was a suflicient fjiiantity of good linseedcake or good artiiicial manure bought to replace the straw, the sale of straw was not so objection- able as some landlords and some land-agents had seemed to tliink, especially in the neighbourhood of towns, where straw fetched a high price. AVliat was read by Mr. Torr respecting Jlr. Randall's management of sheep was very valuable ; and he (Mr. Dent) was surprised that, after the system was placed before the members of the Society by Mr. Ilandall himself, it was not carried further by the strong-land farmers than it had been hitherto. He would suggest also whether they might not keep an increased quantity of both cattle and sheep, by keeping cattle in the summer iu yards, and so freeing the grass-lauds for the ewes aud lambs. As to the diificulty of keeping lambs on grass-lands in winter, he would remark that he had seen some lambs in tliat position and receiving cotton- cake, and, though there had been very few losses when he left the country, the result did not appear to him satisfactory. The animals had a poor, weakly, and unhealthy look ; and his experience was that the system was not satisfactory, either as regarded the produce of wool or the growth of the sheep. Li conclusion, he would remark that Mr. Torr's lecture was a very suggestive one, and one from which a great deal might be learnt (Hear, hear). Sir George Jehkinson would like to know why Mr. Frere did not recommend straw manure for clay land. His experience was that, although you might possibly grow — he had done so himself — as strong and as good a crop of man- gold with artificial manures, such as superphosphates and guano mixed in proper quantities, yet on very stift' clay straw-manure opened out the clay and tended to make it more fi'iable in future years. Straw manure opened the pores, so to speak, more than artificial manures, especially if the crop were fed-off, on the clay. He held a very sti'ong opinion against the advisability of feeding olf grass with sheep on strong land, believing that, by trampling down, the animals caused great loss. That brought him to another question. He would ask Mr. Ueut what kind of grass land it was, on which he had observed that lambs did not winter well ? For if Mr. Dent's principle applied universally, and if his own experience and that of others who farmed clay land were to be relied upon, it followed that they could not keep lambs anywhere. His (Sir G. Jenkinson's) experience in keeping lambs on clay land last winter was, that in feeding off his root crops he. lost a tre- mendous proportion. Lord Ducie's steward had told him that liis own experience was similar, and he said he regarded it as nothing less than madness to attempt to keep lambs on clay lands during such a winter as the last. It seemed, therefore, lie repeated, that they could not keep lambs anywhere. Mr. Dent : Yes, you can keep them in yards. Sir G. Jenkijjson : Tliere, again, they come to the ques- tion of straw, including the s;Je of straw ; and he considered that if tenants were allowed to sell straw the means of keep- ing winter stock in the yard were thereby diminished. He would ask Mr. Dent to state what evil he had found to arise from wintering lambs on dry grass land, giving them coru and chair? His experience, though he did not wish to put it against Mr. Dent's, was that that was the best way of winter- ing lambs. He had tried it in yards, he had tried it on the plough, and the result of his experience, which came through his pocket, was that the safest way of wintering sheep was to winter them on drj' grass lands, with chalf and com, not giv- ing the ewes any roots at all till after the yeaning time. Tliat was, he believed, the safest general rule, though it might be deviated from according to the varying circumstances of dif- ferent districts. Mr. Wells said he had lately changed his farm. Eve or]six .years ago he lived ia Kent: he now had a farm in Huntingdon- shire, and nothing was clearer to his mind than that in some districts it was not possible to have a l)reeding Hock, while in others it answered. In Kent he kept a breeding flock in op- position to the opinions of his bailiff, but the result was most satisfactory. He now thought he could see his way to the carrying out the experiment of keeping a breeding flock successfully. His neighbonrs kept excellent flocks of large Lincoln sheep, and he hoped to do the same. He mentioned this simply to support Mr. Randall's principle that on clay soils it was fighting against nature to force a breeding flock, and he should recommend no one to ti-y it. Mr. Stratford observed that the question under considera- tion was very closely connected with the influence of climate. He recollected a period when Lord Ducie had one of the best breeding flocks in the kingdom, but it soon showed a remark- able deterioration. In Cambridgeshire Mr. Frere had not half the amount of water that- fell to the lot of Lord Ducie and most of the "West of England farmers, who were compelled to keep their sheep to a great extent in yards. Mr. Randall might be said to farm in the midland district, and in consider- ing cases like his it was desirable to keep in view the difiTerences of climate and moisture. The CuAiRJiAN had great pleasure in moving a vote of thanks to Mr. Torr for his kindness in coming forward and delivering so interesting and important a lecture on this sub- ject. There were a fevv remarks which he should like to make, but it was unnecessary to trespass upon their time at any length, especially as the subject turned chiefly upon heavy lands, in which he had not had much practice or experience. Still, he found that it was extremely advantageous to keep up a good breeding flock of sheep. In fact, he had two difterent kinds — Southdowns and Leicesters, and he found both useful — tlie latter for wool, and the former for mutton. He con- curred in the observation of Mr. Torr that the best way to keep them forward for early maturity and in good condition was to feed them abundantly upon oilcake when in the fields, and he could not agree with Mr. Dent in the advisability of keeping cattle in yards during the summer. Mr. Dent said he had merely thrown that out as a sug- gestion. The Chairman thought it was far more conducive to the health of the animals to turn them out to grass, and that it was more in accordance witii nature that they should have grass early in the season. Indeed, he believed that it was greatly owing to the two last seasons being very dry ones that the cattle disease had prevailed so extensively, although he admitted at the same time that it might have been materially checked in some parts of the country, if due precautions had been taken in the first instance. It was a remarkable fact that the high breeds of cattle — the "pedigree" breeds as they were termed — had been entirely free from the pestilence. He could answer for his own, for the Duke of Devon- shire's, and for many others, that they had been en- tirely free from the disorder; and he shoiJd be extremely sorry, whilst agreeing that sheep were of the utmost im- portance to cultivate, improve, and increase in quantity, if in consequence of such an increase the cattle of the country were to be sensibly diminished. He knew perfectly well that sheep did improve the land, and were more profitable to the farmer. At the same time, it was of great importance to maintain our best herds of cattle ; and he believed that the more farmers had the opportunity of crossing their cows with the best breeds of cattle, the better and more profitable they would find it to be, and the more conducive to the continued fertility of the land. The meeting was greatly indebted to Mr. Torr ; and he had much pleasure in proposing a vote of tliauks to that gentleman for his lecture. Mr. Dent seconded the motion, and said that Sir G. Jen- kinson appeared to think that he had recommended the indis- criminate sale of straw on farms ; but he had no idea wlmtever of the kind. All he had said was that he considered the ob- jection to the sale of straw had been carried further than was necessary, and that in certain districts, where large quantities of straw were produced, it would not be disadvantageous to the landlord or the tenant to sell the straw, provided it was replaced by oilcake or other artificials. With regard to keeping lambs upou grass -lands, he had tried the plan two winters — once during nearly the wliole winter, and another time up to the month of December — and he found an evident deterioration, and that the animals were not nearly so good aa THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 11 the wetlier-lambs, which had been put upon turnips. Perhaps they liud not quite such good keep ; l^ut, even giving them a fair allowance of corn and cake on the grass-land, they did not do so well as the wethers. lie came to the conclusion, tlierefore, that there was nothing like putting tliem on rape and turnips as soon as he could ; for they not only began well, but continued well tliroughout the summer. As to keeping up. breeding stock where there was a short supply of straw, they miglit grow tares and green crops for the feeding of beasts. Mr. Frere explained that he did not mean to recommend straw-manure on strong land ; but he had stated that he could get on upon strong land without straw. Mr. ToRR, in acknowledging the compliment, said he had studiously avoided making any reference to the absence of rinderpest from large herds like his own, conceiving that it was not right to speak in terms of exultation on such a sub- ject, because they could not be regarded as totally exempt from attack. The only reasonable ground which he could discover for their escape thus far was, that the Shorthorn breeders of England had carefully abstained from dealing in cattle during the existence of the plague. For his own part, indeed, he had not purchased a single animal since tlie month of August last. The breeders had shut up all their bulls, and as their herds were extremely valuable, perhaps they had spent more money in the adoption of measures for their protection. He entirely agreed in the observations of Mr. Dent, with respect to keep- ing cattle in yards during a portion of the summer. Instead of taking them in as lie used to do in the middle of Novem- ber or even December, nearly all his steers were in his yards in September. They were not now turned out as was formerly the practice in the winter for days and shut up at nights, but remained in the fold-yard until the middle of May. Thus the store cattle were placed under a better system of management during four mouths more at least in the year. Twenty-five years ago he had seen the whole of tiie North-Eidiug of Yorkshire covered with cattle throughout the entire winter ; but of late years that practice had gradually given way ; and it was undoubtedly a very considerable improvement. With regard to horses, he was of opinion that all horses ought to be in fold-yards ; not exactly in stables, but in yards, with one-third or two-sevenths of the surface covered in, and without a thoroughfare through them. Of these " bays" he had a very large number, and he found that by the use of cut straw and tares he could make famous manure with a lot of young horses. Moreover, they were far better there than galloping about the fields. His cart horses, in yards, supplied with cut straw and tares, did remarkably well, and the system was a very great improvement. A good many years ago he kept his cart horses almost entirely on sprouted barley, and with sprouted barley and oilcake he fouud he could do without cut hay. The great object was to get muscle iu a horse, and for that purpose sprouted barley was the best tliiug in the; summer months, when they had not too many tares. In the winter, however, it was rather difficult to get the barley to sprout. A word or two as to the use of oilcake. His practice was for one boy to attend to four horses. Each boy was sup- plied with 8 lbs. of cake per day, dissolved in five or six buckets of water, and every feed of chaif given to the horse was saturated \^'ith the mixture. The result was that the animal ate his straw with a keener relish, and colic, as it was termed, which in reality meant obstruction of the bowels, was thereby effectually prevented. In winter a few turnips were very good. As to the question of sheep cersiis cattle, he might state that last year he wintered over 3,000 sheep as against 300 cattle, and his experience was that for every £3 he got from the cattle he realized £5 by the sheep. The fact was that sheep were always returning money, no matter what the time of year. The meeting then separated. IMPROVEMENT OF BREED IN CATTLE FROM A CATTLE-PLAGUE POINT OF VIEW. From time immemorial pliysiologists have spoken of the temperaments of the body, but they are far from being agreed, some saying one thing, some another, according to the nature and position of the ground from wliich they have viewed the subject. In the fifth edition of a not very old but highly popu- lar work, for example, the writer says : " Temperaments have been variously distinguished : the division most generally re- ceived is into the sanguinous, plilegmatic, choleric, and melan- cholic," as applied to man ; while a modern writer in reference to cattle gives the foUowing three divisions — viz., nervous, thoracic, and abdominal. But in every period writers are nearly agreed that to cultivate the development of any one temperament, whatever the division may be, is to improve the breed in that direction. As " like produces like," according to the old proverb, so if the farmer can, by dint of dietary and management, get breeding-stock to show a greater development of any one region of the body, or of any particular substance of the body, as fat, bone, muscle, or milk, and if by the continu- ance of such a practice, and the careful selection of the ani- mals he continues to breed from, he succeeds in giving to such a development an hereditary type, as it were, so that the off- spring inherit the peculiar organization of their parents, then he may conclude that his breed has been improved in that di- rection, the term " improvement" being of course confined to the isolated view thus taken of the subject. But if this extra development is either abnormal or produced at the expense of some other part of the body, it may therefore ui a more general sense be considered the reverse of the improvement of the breed. If, for exainple, an extra development of fat and lymph is obtained at the expense of blood, bone, muscle, and nerve, the breed may become so predispo.sed to catch nervous and inflammatory diseases of a contagious character as to render it worse than worthless for the raising of stock, and even dan- gerous to be kept in the vicinity of any other herd or large market-towns freciuented by droves of cattle, home and foreign, or in a closely inhabited country like England, having so mucii intercouse with the otlier nations of the world. Both of the above divisions of the temperaments of the body evidently fall short of meeting the requirements of science. The term " temperament" itself is not free from objection ; but it is not our purpose to enter upon such a course of inquiry. It will be enough under this head if we simply mention that the progress of physiology appears to indicate a more chemical division, everything now being subjected to chemical and mi- croscopical analysis, and designated accordingly. In the improvement of the breed of cattle for any definite purpose, as the produce of fat, lean (or flesh), and milk, much depends upon the starting point as to breed and management at the commencement. If we go back and examine closely the improvement of our Shorthorns, Devons, and Herefords, or that of any of our different breeds of sheep, as the South- downs, Leicesters, &c. from the commencement, we shall find something physiologically peculiar in the parent stock, call it temperament or what you may, from which they have re- spectively sprung ; and also, in the common breeds and general system of management, something different in many respects from what is to be found now-a-days. At that time by far too high a value was placed upon fat, both from a commercial and physiological point of view ; consequently a constitutional disposition or tendency to lay on fat was considered the leading characteristic of an animal in the improvement of its breed. This, too, was done without suflicient precaution having been taken to avoid obesity, an hereditary cachexial disease, in which a depraved and vitiated state of the solids am! fluids generally is attended with an excessive development of adipose tissue and deposition of unhealthy fat, the whole edible portion ot the carcase becoming unwholesome food for man. Its greatly deteriorated value in the market proves the sound- ness of this conclusion. It is very remarkable how the poorest and neediest of the lower classes shim sucli meat upon the 12 THS i^AMlEU'S MAG-AZmte. kitclier's stall, li;\ndliug and siiicllinf^' it \ritli wry faces and a shrugging of the shoulders— all sullicieutly indicative of the strong unfavourable opinions they entertain as to its whole- someness and economy as an article of diet. Almost no price, however small, will teinpt the more intelligent and better-to-do portion of society to purchase such meat ; not only because it is thriftless and unwholesome when cooked and eaten imme- diately, but also because every portion of it must be con- sumed the day it is purchased, othewise it begins to decompose, giving rise to'disease-breeding malaria, of which ten times its value wiU not again sweeten the larder or pantry, restoring either to its former condition. And this is not all ; for its comsumption has a tendency to lay the foundation of obesity in those who eat it. It is no wonder therefore that town's people and villagers are beginning to get sensitively alive to the necessity of lowering the value of such meat, and extra fat meat of every kiud,to a figure below what farmers can produce it for. On the other hand, obese animals are in such a low state of vitality as to be whoUy unfit for breeding purposes ; wliile they are'doubly liable to be carried olf by every conta- gious disease that may visit.the locality in which tliey are kept. A conclusion closely similar is arrived at in cases of an extra development of the adipose system which does not assume the confirmed obese habit, tlie liealth of the animal during life and the value of its meat when sent to the shambles, being both greatly depreciated. If therefore these facts are kept closely in mind while comparing the past with the present, we shall find the two starting points in tlie improvement of the l)reed very different tlie one from the other, even wliere the farmer wishes to attain the same object in the improvement of the same breed. Thus, if he were desirous of a greater development of fat, he would not follow in the footsteps of CiiUy and Eakewell, either as to food or general management : much less would he follow in their footsteps were he to com- mence the improvement of any of our native breeds, as the GaUoway or Highland ox and mountain breed of sheep. On the contrary, if he is at all versant with the progress of this branch of science, he will base his practice of improvement upon a very different foundation. AU our "native breeds of cattle have less or more de- generated under the abnormal treatment to which the race was at one time subject ; so that as this degeneracy, or departure from the normal type, is hereditary, the general rule of improve- ment is to restore animals under the process of improvement to their original state when their great Creator pronounced tlieir health, symmetry, and every other quality, very yood. For this purpose we are apt to talk of natural food, exercise, tempera- ture, and the like ; and such, no doubt, would be the formula were the ox or the sheep in its original paradisiacal state of per- fection ; but it is sadly otherwise in many respects. Into the details of such departures from the original it woiild be the height of presumptuous speculation to go. In the time of our pastoral forefathers, doubtless Nature did much to adapt herself to the peculiar exigencies of the case, whether that case was a Teeswatcr or a Shetland ox, or a Southdown, Leicester, Lochaber, or an Orkney sheep ; but in modern steam-plough- cake-and-corn times, it may not inaptly be said that Art has taken the matter wholly out of Nature's hands— at least in our southern provinces ; and the further we advance in the direc- tion in which the general body of fanners are now moving, the more artificial will the dietary and management of cattle be- come : hence the difticulties with \s\w\\ the solution of tlie problem is surronnded. Still, that is no reason why Art should proceed from bad to worse in the managcmeut of cattle, by pro- ducing an inferior or lower standard quahty of meat as animal food for the people, and a lower quality of vitality in animals for breeding purposes — a practical conclusion at which very many physiologists of the present day, unfortunately, arrive ; the oiMuiou that a certain degeneracy of race has hitherto at- tended the improvements that have taken place in the breeding of live-stock becoming more and more general with our pro- gress in this branch of physiology. When examined from a cattle-plague point of view, the re- trograde movement farmers have thus been making in stock management is somewhat alarming at first sight. Happily, however, for some time past a strong counter-movement has been taking place, purposely to improve the health of cattle, and the quality of the milk and fiesh they yield as human food. But making every allowance for the progress thus "juade to restore cattle to their original excellence, the present position of the country is, after all, not what its true friends would wish it to be ; for it is manifest that the forcing system of management, the early maturity of growth attained, and tlie extra development of fat, have greatly hjwered the tone and force of the nervous and muscular systems, vitiating at tlie same time the whole of the fiuids and solids of the body, thereby greatly predisposing animals to catch pleuro-pneu- monia, rinderpest, fout-and-mouth disease, small-pox in sheep, and other maladies that have recently been and are still deci- mating herds and flocks in a ruinous manner. It is therefore impossible to look the whole aspect of affairs broadly in tlie face at present, without feeling deeply sensilile of the unsatis- factory state of stock management, and the. necessity that exists for all sections of the community, consumers as well as producers, joining and supporting by every means m their power the counter-movement above referred to, so as to re- store tlie deranged functions to a more healthy state of action. Farmers have doubtless yet much to learn, and the science of physiology itself has to be much further advanced, before they can copy and imitate successfully the examples of Nature ; but this fact only calls for the greater perseverance in tlie mean- time in prosecuting the great work of general improvement. In the improvement of breed more attention than has hitherto been paid must for the future be paid to the proper development of active ])rinciples — powers and forces. A re- turn to the normal standard of vitality obviously requires an increase of life, so to speak, or organic action. Calves and lambs must be taught to go through their gymnastics with more ease and a greater uniformity and natural elasticity o f action under the new system than they have hitherto done under the old. Fitful, forced bursts of ))assion, between long, dreamy, sleepless hours of repose, won't do any longer. Dead- and-alive lumps of beef and mutton lying in the pastures are out of fashion. Natural life in all its vivacity is now the rule, both at the homestead and in the field. The estimate of the changes thus taking place is readable enough to all who have practically studied the book of Nature ; for to grow plenty of healthy lean meat is to keep the candle of life burn- ing all the while the process of making it is going on, whereas to grow abnormal fat is to put out the candle, thereby making all fat that wiU be fat — the candle itself included. What fol- lows is soon told in a few words ; for, according to the old proverb a penny saved is twopence gained ; so a pound of fat saved under a low state of combustion or animal heat and action is two pounds gained in carcase weight for the shambles. But this abnormal state of the active functions is opposed to tlie natural growth and development of bone, nerve, and muscle. It is even worse than this ; for, as the reparatory processes in the keeping of organs in repair cease to be pro- perly performed, bone, nerve, and muscle lose volume and quality. In other words, as extra fat increases under the sleeping shut-eye process, so nerve and muscle decrease in health, strength, and usefulness, the whole system becoming at the same time predisposed to contagious diseases. On the other hand, cultivate action, and you cultivate nutrition and development ; for action manifestly depends upon nutrition, and nutrition is reciprocally stimulated by action. Thus an organ that ceases to nourish loses at the same time its power or faculty of acting ; consequently, those organs whose active powers are kept in the best working order by proper exercise possess a more healthy and active nutrition ; whereas a less degree of action or inaction, on the contrary, eft'ects a less healthy and active state of the nutritive and reparatory pro- cesses. And this applies to all the functions of the body — vital, natural, and animal alike, or with very little difference distinguishable. What the original symmetry and active powers of tlie ox or sheep were, we may imagine, but cannot well describe. The departures from the original are obviously very diversified in all our native breeds. That they have become hereditary is manifest, from the fact that they are handed dov^•n from sire to son, or from one generation to anotber. But, while this must be granted, it is likewise the suliject of daily observation that, when animals are properly fed and attended to in other respects, an improvement takes place in tlieir symmetry and active powers, so as to approach nearer to the original ; that this improvement is more largely developed in some individuals than in others; and that certain organs and regions of the body improve faster or in a greater degree tiian do other organs and regions of the Iwdy. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 13 This diversitj" in the depavhive from the original type, and in the tendency to return to it, affords a wide and promising field for the selection of animals to operate upon, in the im- provement of their hreed. Hitherto, improvers have fallen into more than one erroneous course, both in their selection and sul)sequent work, as has already been shown in reference to the extraordinary value they put upon fat. Abuost the same conclusion applies to the breeding of dairy-cows, too much attention having been paid to quantity of milk, and too little I'egard to quality. Both these selections are unhealthy, abnormal t\-pes, and now almost unanimously acknowledged to be movements iu a wrong direction, ruinously unprofitable in times of contaffious disease, as the recent and present visitations of lunoj-disease and rinderpest prove. The tide of opinion, however, is now fairly turned ; for the universal demand of consumers is for rich meat and milk, which, practically applied, means the highest degree of consti- tutional health in the animals that produce such articles of daily consumption ; and we need hardly add that the deter- mined demand of the public must eventually be attended to bv producers, for more reasons than one, a liiglier standard of constitutional health being as needful for farmers as the public. The practical difficulty, therefore, lies in getting out of the present erroneous and unhealthy course into the right and healthy one. Shall we commence with our thoroughbred cattle, whose health has been injured by the forcing system? or with our native breeds, whose health has been less or more constitutionally injured from the changing vicissitudes of our climate and its productions? Our Shorthorns rersiis our West Highlanders, for example ? our Leicesters versus our mountain sheep ? and so on. In point of fact, both these se- lections have already been made, the «ork of improving the healtli of cattle being already in active operation, as pre- viously stated. The question which naturally follows, as to which is the best and most profitable, is one whose solution must be left to the experience of the future to solve, owing to the difficulty of determining the quality of meat, on the one side, and the pecuniary profits, on the other. A- First-prize Stock-breeder. THE VETCH, OR TARE: ITS USES AND CULTIVATION. The importance of this plant, supplying as it does a large amount of .succulent and valuable food, can scarcely be over- estimated. It is highly relished by all the domestic animals, horses, cows, sheep, and pigs, and is in an eminent degree nourishing. Coming in at an eaily period of the season, and thus giving the farmer an opportunity of growing another crop on the same land that year, it may fairly be considered one of the most valuable forage plants cultivated by modern agriculturists. When a little pains is taken with its culture, the land well stirred and cleaned, and manure applied with no sparing hand, the vast amount of rich food yielded by an acre is truly astonishing. The mower, in the emphatic language of Scripture, may " fill his bosom " at every stroke of the scythe ; and from the day he begins to cut such a crop, food in abundance is ^^'ithin reach of the fanner for every description of stock. cows. As a higlily useful and important auxiliary food for dairy cows during the months of May, June, and July, the vetch pro- bably stands unsurpassed. The How of milk is not so mate- rially increased as might be imagined from the use of such rich and succulent food ; but the supply from each cow is for the most part sustained in undiminished amount while the feeding on vetches is continued, which is a consideration by no means to be despised. No one can appreciate this ad- mirable quality so higlily, and benefit so much by it, as the light-land farmer during the prevalence of a dry season, or dairyman who has a large stock on a limited range. The only fault such men find with the use of this food in unlimited quantity is the tendency the animals have to put up flesh — a state of matters not at all times desirable by the mere milk and butter producer. The milk from cows fed on vetches is very rich, aud produces a large proportion of butter ; in this respect being fully equal to oilcake, aud from the fact of its being home-grown, and a bulky, filUng food at the same time, is infinitely cheaper. During wet weather, if the cows have a wide range when in the field, and the grass thereon be moderately abundant, they will not by any means eat the vetches so greedily or so satisfactorily as they otherwise would : there- fore, if straw be abundant, it is a capital plan to keep them in for a considerable portion of their time, when not only will more good be got out of the vetches, but the extra amount of manure made will be a direct gain, aud will tell well, and come iu exceedingly handy in September, when preparations are being made for sowing the supply for the succeeding season. We have occasionally seen this system carried out with eminent success, but notably in one instance by a working farmer, whose stock consisted of twenty-eight head, com- prising milch cows, heifers, and calves. For ten weeks the whole of these animals were fed in the house on the produce of four acres of vetches, or thereby, never being out all that tinje but for a short period in the midcUe of the day, for the sake of exercise, and to take a drink if they chose to do so. When again turned out to grass, on the vetches being finished, every animal was in blooming condition, some of them almost fit for the butcher ; and the grass having got ahead, affording a good bite, they kept their condition during the entire sea- son. To iill farmers, but more especially to those whose holdings are only of moderate extent — say, from fifty to two hunared acres — such a system offers many advantages. First : There is the keep of a large number of head, pro- cured from a very circumscribed area, and that keep of the most nourishing and profitable kind, the animals being kept during its continuance in splendid health and condition, and with undiminished produce, and that produce of the very finest quality. Secondly: The manure made is a most gratifying considera- tion, and although, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, it is not considered very ornamental, is worth good solid gold, and is as keenly looked after and carefully coDected by the' intelligent and industrious farmer as if it were already in his purse. Thirdly: By having a supply of vetches, sufficient for eight, ten, or twelve weeks' consumption, coming on in succession, the first sowing being fit to cut and present to the animals on the very day the last of the winter food is consumed, he is enabled to h(ii>i or save a much larger proportion of his land for mea- dowing than under ordinary circiunstances he possibly could do. An abundant supply of hay during the wiiiter and spring months is an advantage to a stock farmer that few of them need to be reminded of; but is more fully aud acutely appreciated by those who may have now-and-againrun short, and had to pur- chase in the market, or wherever they could most conve- niently get it ; we shall say only one month's supply, and that the month of April. The amount of hard cash requiring to be expended for even a moderate stock for the short period of one month engenders such a degree of caution in the minds of those who have gone through the ordeal, that they will strain every nerve, and try every plan to avoid a similar contretemps I for the future ; and there is no way it can be so pleasantly and ! profitably avoided as by seeding a portion of the turnip break ; with vetches. 1 Fourthly : The grass fields that have been kept for grazing ' purposes have got such a long rest, and consequently a good start, that cattle cannot bare them down ; and thus to an ad- vanced period of the season, much more so than would other- 1 wise have been the case, the pastures supply a large amount of ! food to a very heavy stock. This peculiar advantage of house-feeding during early sum- mer must be experienced to be fully appreciated ; the diflfer- ence in the quantity of available food on the pastures towards the end of the year being .so great. Whilst the fields that have been regularly depastured from the end of April or beginning of May begin to fail by the end of September, and would 14 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. starve a heavy stock by the hegiuuing of Ts^ovember, those tields that were rested during the summer months will carry the stock on to the end of the year, and even to the middle of January, with but little assistance in the way of night- feeding, and give pretty fair produce, and that of the very best quahty, during the entire time. Eor au illustration of this we need not leave the farmer whose system of house-feeding on vetches we have already noticed, and whose cows we have seen grazing in the open field, up to the latest period abovemeutioned, receiving notliing in the house, during the night, but a little fresh oaten straw, to correct, to a certain extont, the watery nature of the grass inevitable at sucli an advanced time of the year. Not to overlook a single point, the butter made even in January was of splendid quality, having all the distinctive features of summer-made, and was eagerly sought after by the respectable HiiMl'-ii's in the neighbourhood, when sold fresh; and when salted and sold in open market, was branded " first qijaUty" by the inspector — a most unusual thing in the depth of winter, and very difficult of attaiuraeut. As an assistance to keep fat stock on a little longer, after the winter store is exhausted, vetches come in admirably: and when grown will often enable the feeder to hold his animals over a period of depression, and allow him to make a respect- able profit ; whereas, had he been compelled to sell, there would probably have been a serious loss. Pat cattle find vetches an agreeable change of food, and eat them greedily ; and if they are given at first somewhat sparingly, to allow the constitution to get accustomed to the change, the improvement in condition will be as marked as it was previously, i'or such cattle vetches are an exceedingly safe article of food, as, how- ever succulent they may be, they will not engender an un- pleasant amount of looseness in the animals partaking of them. In this respect they contrast most favourably with mangolds, as, liowever long ihey may be kept and apparently well matured, no corrective within tlie reach of the feeder will completely overcome their laxative tendency. Even when the stalls and sheds have been cleared, and the cattle turned out to grass for the season, the importance of having a few acres of tares to fall back on cannot be lost sight of. During the month of May of this present year, when many stock-holders were at their wits-end how to pre- serve the very life iu their cattle, what a relief it would have been to have had a load or two of vetches to take to them on the grass each day, and how joyfully tlie animals themselves would have welcomed the appearance of tlie cart, galloping forward to meet it the moment it came in sight. Instead of losing more for tlie first fortnight, after being put on the grass, than they would recover for the succeeding month, they would have at least held their own, and saved their owner from not only a pecuniary loss, Init a world of vexation and anxiety. HORSES. As food for farm-horses, tares are particularly suitable ; and, when grown in sufficient quantity, are calculated to effect a considerable saving in the way of keep for this particular class of stock. Although it is of the utmost importance to grow a heavy crop — wh-atever may be the kind of animal for which it is intended — for horses it is doubly important and necessary. There is no food the farmer can place before his horses that they will eat so ravenously as this ; and, if supplied ad lihitiim, the quantity they will con- sume is enormous. If the seed is merely sown after one plougliing on the stub- bles, as is too frequently done, without any preparation what- soever, an acre instead of feeding five or six horses for a month, as it should and vM do when well treated, will barely last them a week, and the expense incurred for seed and labour are in a gi-eat measure thrown away. AVith plenty of vetches, without oats or any other variety of food, horses will do the usual summer work of the farm, and at the same time keep themselves in excellent condition. so fond are they of this food that when engaged in carting out manure if a barrow of vetches is kept before them while the cart is lieing filled, they will require no urging by eitlier whip or voice to mend their pace when under way, and when re- turning from tlie fiehi will invariably trot unless restrained by the driver from doing so. While the vetches last, the quantity of manure made by the horses is considerable, and forms a very valuable and welcome addition to the dimghill. Por earriage-horses a little vetch mixed witli the hay forms a most agreeable, refreshing, and acceptable article of food, and is highly relished by the poor beasts after being so long con- fined to such dry food as hay and oats. \Mien the journeys they have to perform are not long, it is surnrising what a quan- tity of vetches carriage-horses will eat, without perceptible injury to either the silkiness of the coat or length of wind. Where there is a heavy sheep stock, a piece of early vetches is exceediugly useful, and wU give an excellent return in the way of profit for capital expended. If the field on which the crop is grown happens to be in low manurial condition the vetches can be eaten olT with excellent effect. By a judicious arrangement of the hurdles this can lie done without the slightest injury from the treading of the animals : their im- provement is rapid, and the field is enriched so effectively as to be able to grow a paying croj) of either wheat or barley. If not found desu-able or convenient to feed it off on the field on which it was grovni, it can with great propriety and excel- lent efiPect be carted to either fattening wedders, or ewes and lambs on the grass. In the summer of 1860, during the prevalence of a few weeks' drought, I was rather short of grass, but fortunately had a few acres of capital vetches. This I carted twice a day to a somewhat poor grass-field, with a thiu surface, and ex- ceedingly apt to burn during hot dry weather in summer. The vetches were not placed in hurdles or racks, but merely scattered on the surfivce of the field, beginning at one end and spreading them regularly until the entire field had been gone over. The stock using them were sheep and a few young cattle ; and not only did both descriptions of stock thrive admirably, but the field was permanently improved to such an extent as to have since given at least tvvice the feeding it formerly did, and moreover retains, summer and winter, the rich green colour acquired at that period from the heavy dressing of manure placed upon it. riGS. Where large numbers of pigs are bred, vetches are almost in- valuable, giving as they do an uninterrupted supply of nutritious food for six months in the year. It is generally supposed that pigs are not profitable when supported on food raised especi- ally for their use. That this is true to a certain extent we admit, particularly where badly-bred animals are kept; a badly- bred pig giving but a poor return whatever he may be fed on. When pigs worth keeping are fed on vetches the profit derived will be as much as could possibly be obtained from any other description of stock on the same amount of food. Although pigs wiU fatten on vetches, it is with stores that most benefit is derived from their use. A sow of the largest size reijuires no other food whatsoever when carrying her young ; if supplied with vetches, and even after they are dropped, the same food with the addition of a morning and evening drink of milk or whey will enable her to rear her young, keeping both herself and them in excellent condition, the litter bringing in these days of liig prices probably 20s. each by the time they are six weeks old. If there is any description of stock that will leave a large return it is certainly well-bred pigs, fed in the way now described, and sold off the farm when young. Notwithstanding what is often said to the contrary, we find from our own experience that there is no way vetches will be relished by the whole of the domestic animals, and eaten with so little waste, as by giving them immediately after being cut. For years vi'e have cut the morning's supply in the morning, and so on during the day, cutting the supply for each meal just a few minutes liefore it was required to be given to the animals, and have never found any injurious result therefrom. When the weather is wet it is advisable to cut them a few hours be- fore being placed before the animals, to allow a portion of the superfluous moisture to escape ; but when cut dry tliere is not the slightest danger to any description of stock. It is a good plan not to place too much at a time before them, but only as it is consumed, when] not only will there be less waste, but the animals will eat it with a vastly -increased relish. PREPARING THE LAND. In preparing the land for growing a crop of vetches, it is too often considered that the mere turning over of the stubbles, sowing the seed, and harrowing it in, is quite sufiicient culti- vation. Sucli management is about the most short-sighted policy that could well be carried out by the rent-paying farraerj THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 16 as the return obtained from such treatment is, unless under ex- ceedingly favourable circunistunees, scarcely worthy of cousi- deratiou. The stock that an acre of vetches well treated will feed for a month would scarcely exist for one week on the same extent sown without preparation ; and, moreover, from having nothing under them to feed and force them into early growth, they run so late into the season before they are fit to cut that the entire advantage of autumn-sowing is lost, and the object of the cultivator defeated. It may therefore be fairly considered that one acre of vetches well-manured and the soil well-pre- pared will give as good, if not a better return, than four acres carelessly or indifferently cultivated, thus efi'ecting a very con- siderable saving in the matter of seed, amounting in the majority of seasons to not less than 20s. per acre. Surely such a saving, even counting nothing for extra time and trouble expended, is important enough to be taken into serious consideration by aU farmers who are in the habit of growing vetches. It requires, however,but very slight observation to show that they do not in general do so. On every hand this crop may be seen imtouched by the scythe until June ; and even at that advanced period of the season such a breadth has to be gone over for a cart-load, as to render it scarcely worth the trouble of cutting. To get a hea\7 crop of vetches, the land intended to be seeded should be well grubbed, whenever the corn is cleared in September ; if it can be done in August so much the better. Two strokes of the grubber will have the double effect of stirring the soil and bringing whatever weeds may be pre- sent to the surface, where (the sun being still powerful) they are quickly deprived of their vitality. Not less than thirty tons of dung per acre must now be carted on to the land, evenly spread, and ploughed in with rather a light furrow, the previous application of the grubber or culti- vator rendering deep ploughing quite unnecessary. If the breadth proposed to be seeded is extensive, there may, on farms where turnips are grown extensively, be some difficulty in procuring such a large quantity of manure so soon after the yards have been cleared out. In this case less dung would do, and a few cwts. of guano or superphosphate could with great propriety be substituted for the deficiency. This can either be sown along with the seed, or its application can be deferred until spring, more particularly if the land is in moderately good heart. When cattle are a good deal house-fed during summer, and an abundant supply of green food provided for their consump- tion, there will not generally, on arable fanns, where straw is abundant, be much difficulty in having a plentiful supply of ma- nure every part of the year. The grubbing will have made the soil so fine that none of the seed will get lost by running down under the furrow-slice, no apertures existing by which it could do so. There will be more danger of a portion being left on the surface uncovered, or only partially so, and being carried off by the wild pigeons, which in wooded districts are sure to to pay the field a visit, and do a good deal of mischief unless scared off, tares being a favourite food of all pigeons, whether wild or tame. Wliere the soU. has been rendered so fine as to afford scarcely sufficient covering for the seed, it is an excellent plan to plough the land into beds or stetches'of fourteen feet in width, softening the furrows thus made by a few turns of the skele- ton plough, and spreading the loosened soil equally on each side of the bed. By this plan not only is the seed properly covered and protected, but the land, by a most elaborate, though inexpensive system of surface draining, is laid thoroughly dry, and the crop in consequence immensely bene- fited. So noticable is the advantage, that where the land is even slightly retentive, the crop grown in beds^rill be fit to cut from ten days to a fortnight earUer than if sown broadcast. With the view of obviating to some extent the tendency this crop has to come in with a rush, and entail considerable loss from rotting at the bottom when unable to be used, it is well to vary the seed-time as much as circumstances will permit. If possible one-third of the proposed autumnal sowing should be got in during the last week of August, or the first week of September, one-third about the 20th of September, and the re- mainder between the lOtli and 15th of October. From the un- certainty of the weather it is seldom the farmer has it in his power to time the sowings exactly as he would like ; but it is most desirable that at least two sowings should be made, and few seasons are so unpropitious as to prevent its being done. The parly sowing may be calculated on to almost a certainty to come in by the 1st of May, if the season is an early one even as early as the 36th of April, when the treatment has been liberal. The whole autumn-sown crop will rmi on until the 1st of July, by which time it should be all cleared, so as to get the turnips sown in good time to secure a fuU crop. The vetches not having been permitted to seed, the manu- rial condition of the land has not been in the slightest degree reduced, and the succeeding crop of turnips will be conse- quently quite as good as if the land had lain idle during the winter. . Yellow or white turnips may succeed the first sowing of spring vetches, l)ut it is better with the late sowings (which may be continued until the first week in June,) to clean the land, turn it over, and let it rest until the wheat season comes round. While the early crop comes in handy, and is eminently useful for milk cows, supplementing the roots, and improving, to a most gratifying extent the quality of the dairy produce, the later-sown portion comes in not less convenient, and affords a most valuable and nutritious food for those beasts which ha\e been taken off the grass in August and September, and tied up in the stalls to fatten. Vetches are a food which all cattle take to at once ; and their fattening qualities are so good that the heaviest animals will improve in condition whilst vetches are supplied to them. The quantity of seed required for a statute acre is about 2^- bushels. Rye is often sown with it, with the view of improv- ing the forage and keeping the vetches from falling on the ground, which when a heavy crop from the extreme softness of the stalks they are very apt to do. After many years' expe- rience we find oats to suit much better for this purpose than, rye, being softer in the straw, and not so early in ear, and in- variably use it, with the very best results. A small bit of rye sown by itself on rich land, to come in early as an appetizing food for horses that have been all the winter on hard food, is useful, and will repay the trouble and expense incurred in grow- ing; but for mixing with vetches, it is incomparably inferior to oats. It is in ear, and the straw getting hard, while the vetches are in their prime, and all animals, with the exception of horses, refuse to eat it. By putting, say a bushel of oats to the acre, the vetches will not only, under ordinary circumstances, be well kept oft' the ground, but in consequence of the corn over-topping them, such an admirable protection is thereby afforded as to enable them, to stand uninjured during the severest winters, and even to be grown on exposed situations where their culti- vation could not otherwise be attempted. ROMNEY MAR SH. Having recently spent several days in travelling over Homney Marsh, and gained an insight into the system of husbandry practised there, it will perhaps be interesting to some of your readers to present them with an account of this fertile and otherwise remarkable tract of reclaimed land. The period at which it was first wrested from the ocean is lost in the lapse of ages and the absence of ancient records and tra- ditionary history. Tlie most probable conjecture is that its first reclamation was due to the Flemings, to whom such works were congenial, and who undertook many of them in England at a time when the islanders were quite unacquainted with the best mode of proceeding. Roiimey Marsh consists of a tract of land containing 52,000 acres, defended from the sea liy a dyke or embankment about eighteen feet high, and about the same width on the top, sloping botli towards the sea ijnd the land.. It is justly 16 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. esteemed one of the ricliest tracts of land in the United King- dom, and 1ms evidently been reclaimed at different periods, the last having occurred in the reign of Henry YIIL, when the sea retired nearly two miles from New Romuey, \^hich had previously been one of the Cinque Ports, with Lydd, from which it is 2| miles distant. Romney Marsh is ten miles in length from the npland to the sea-coast, and five miles in width. It is separated from the ujilaud part of Kent by a canal that was constructed about the beginning of the present century, at the recommendation of the Duke of Wellington, as a protection in case of invasion ; but what earthly use it could l)e in such a case it would puzzle any one to discover. At present it is used for barge-navigation, in the conveyance of coals, stones, bricks, and timber. Otlier goods, the produce of the Marsh, were formerly conveyed to London and other markets by tliis means ; but the railway now carries all but the heavy goods enumerated. The soil of Romney Marsh is of different texture, that por- tion towards the Kentish highland being a rich deep loam of a stiffish character, but easily worked and wonderfully produc- tive. That part next the sea, for a few miles inward, and which was left by the recession of the ocean in the time of Henry VIII., is light and shingly, and from its great fertility must contain a large portion of organic matter, such as shell- marl and other marine debris. It is equally productive with the loam, and both yield heavy crops of wheat, oats, clover, roots, Sec. A large breadth of the land is occupied annually in growing seeds of turnips, mangold wurzel, and other plants, for the London seedsmen. They generally succeed well, as the continuance of the culture indicates. The crop of turnip- seed may be estimated to average from 25 to 30 bushels per acre, but sometimes reaches 40 bushels or upwards ; but this is an extreme produce, and we are told that it is more fre- quently under 20 bushels than above it. The present growing crop is a deficient one, owing to the wetness of the winter ; and many of the growers wiU not reap more than from 8 to 12 bushels per acre. But the great object of the Marsh farmers is sheep-grazing, an overwhelming proportion of the land consisting of rich pasture, on which are fed an amazing number of large sheep of that peculiar breed named after the district the "Romney-Marsh breed." These sheep fatten up to forty pounds per quarter at two years old, and yield a ileece of from twelve to eighteen pounds of wool. They are of course bred on the Marsh, but it is a singular fact that the farmers cannot keep the lambs alive there in the winter. The wetness of the soil and the cold bleak winds chill them, and produce the foot-rot. In conse- quence of this, it is the universal practice to send the lambs to the upland farmers of Kent and Sussex in the month of Octo- ber, and in return take in a number of lean young cattle, to eat up the old fog left from the summer grazing, of which there is always plenty. In March or April, according to the season, the re-exchange takes place, this friendly operation proving a mutual advantage. The chief portion of the Marsh is drained, but the fall for the water is so very small that some of the lower parts of the land are frequently water-logged after heavy falls of rain or snow. It is, how. ever, in contemplation, to employ steam-power in aid of the drainage, by which means the level of the water in the water- courses can be lowered to any extent required. The cattle fed on the Marsh are chiefly the Sussex breed, and they thrive rapidly, and those taken in exchange for the lambs are generally much improved in condition when they leave in the spring. It is worthy of notice that the rinderpest has not made its appear- ance at all on the Marsh. The Romney Marsh sheep aie very similar to the Lincoln- shire breed, except in being larger in the carcase, and short«> and closer in the fieece. They are also distinguished by along tuft or top-knot of wool in front, which gives them a singular appearance. There is no record to show where or from whence this breed of sheep had its origin, but ^it was preserved in all its purity without any admixture until the last few .years, when a cross with the Improved Leicester has been tried, by which a very superior type has been obtained, not at first, however, hardy enough to endure the coldness of the climate of the IMarsii, Init much improving in this respect as it l)ecomes accli- matised, but the loss in lambs for the first year or two was very great. The fanners generally kept the original Marsh sheep till they were three years old, but tlie half-bred sheep are tit for the butcher at two years. Although there is no ac- count of the origin of the Marsh sheep, it may probably have been derived from the same stock as the Lincolnshire, namely, a Dutch breed which is mentioned by "Worledge, an old author, as of large size, and desirable to be introduced upon the low marshy ground. This is also supposed to have been the origiu of the Teeswater breed. The peculiar features of the Romney Marsh sheep are, a wide loin, a sharp chine, a narrow and rather shallow breast, a large belly, a good clift, a thigh fuU and broad, carrying the chief weight in the hind quarters, a tail thick, long, and coarse ; thick legs, large feet, a coarse muzzle, large bones, wool of a good combing quality. The mutton, as we have reason to know, is the best of any of the large breeds, and they are favourites with the butchers on account of their heavy proof. After the first year (when they are wintered on the uplands) they require but little care, and have seldom any other extra food than a little hay, in addition to the pastures, the year round. Wlien crossed with the Leicester, it must be confined to a simple strain ; for if a half-bred ewe he put to a Leicester ram, the stock would be deteriorated, and its powers of en- durance destroyed. Although the cross-bred Marsh sheep are subject to the rot, ihey faitcn faster in ilie first starjes of the disorder ; but if not then killed, they soon begin to lose flesh, and rapidly decline. This peculiaritj' attending the rot was known to Bakewell, who is said to have been in the habit of flooding his pasture-land, and immediately after drawing ott' the water, putting his fatting sheep upon it, which then con- tracted the rot. By this means they improved so fast that in four or five weeks they were fit for the butcher. Some of the Marsh farms are very large, and the occupiers are mostly wealthy men, apparently none the less healthy for the bleakness of their country in the winter. The land is very valuable, and sells in small allotments at from one hundred to one hundred and fifty pounds per acre, the rent is from £3 10s. to £4< 10s. per acre ; not too much for land that never requires artificial manure, nor any regular course of cropping as is practised on farms of ordinary fertility. Inquiring of a far- mer what was considered an average crop, the reply was, " We never talk of our crops unless they are bad ones, and then everybody knows it." We learned, however, from another that they were not satisfied with less than six quarters per acre, and that they sometimes reach ten quarters. From some cause that has not been accounted for, a large quantity of the land of the Marsh has changed hands during the last fevr years, and has mostly been purchased by Marsli farmers, and none know the value of it better, or how to manage it to greater advantage. Romney Marsh is governed by a distinct and entirely local jurisdiction, consisting of a mayor, twelve jurats, a chamberlain, and a recorder. The seat of government is at New Romney, situate about the centre of the Marsh, and has a Brotherhood- House or Hall, w here the authorities meet to transact the general affairs of the Marsh. This town was formerly a con- siderable place, and contained five churches, a priory, and an hospital, being also one of the Cinque Ports. Up to the reign of Edward I., it was a very flourishing seaport, but at that period part of it was destroyed and the haven choked up by a violent storm and convulsion of nature. The receding of the sea in the time of Henry VIII. completed the ruin of New Romney as a seaport, it being now two or three miles from the shore. At present it contains only one church and a market house. Old Romney situate about two miles westward of New Romney, is now a small village, with a church, and a few houses, occupied by an agricultural population. The Old Nokfolk Parmep-. THE FARMER'S MAQAZINE. 17 THE HIGH PRICE OF BUTCHER'S MEAT. The discussion at the last meeting of the Fanners' Club was of some importance, not only to the agri- culturists of the kingdom, but to the public at large. There is an opinion generally entertained that the high price of butcher's meat is not justified by the actual state of the cattle market, and that the butchers have taken an undue advantage of the losses sustained in cattle by the farmers to raise their prices, under the pretext of a scarcity. That heavy losses have been sustained by the farmers and graziers in most parts of England is undoubtedly true, as many have been ruined by the disease ; and if the advanced prices charged for meat were received by the sufferers or by those who are still able to send healthy cattle to market, the public would have no reason to complain. But the fact is, the farmers do not reap the benefit of the advance to the extent they ought, as a glance at the wholesale price of meat at the Metropolitan Market will prove. Indeed, the supply of live animals, both foreign and home-fed, has for some months been increasing largely, the former on account of the high price and increasing demand, and the latter in order to get rid of the risk of keeping them. On examining and comparing the increase in the importa- tions with the losses sustained by disease, the former will be found greatly to predominate ; especially if we add the excess in the imports of sheep and pigs to the account, the number of the latter that have died from disease being not much more than in mauy ordinary seasons. It appears, by the returns up to April 28, that the number of cattle attacked by the disease since its first appearance is 229,669, of which 30,898 recovered, leaving a balance of 198,771 to be considered lost to the owners and the public, which, however, was not the case, because a considerable number (13,747) are unaccoimted for ; and many of these were slaughtered, and went into consumption. We therefore think we may fairly reckon the dead loss at 190,000 during the three years the disease has been raging. If we examine the imports of cattle and sheep in the same period, we shall find the in- crease over the previous three years amounts, in cattle, to 248,580, and of sheep to 908,587. Thus :— From 1860-2 „ 1863-5 Cattle. 309,353 557,932 From 1860-2 „ 1863-5 Sheep. 932,614 1,841,201 Excess iu the latter 248,580 Excess in the latter 908,587 Now if we estimate the weight of the cattle brought to market at 50 stone (of 141bs. each), and the sheep at SOlbs. per quarter, it will give six sheep to one bullock. We must therefore divide 908,587 — the number of sheep — by 6. We have equal to 151,431 bullocks, making an aggregate increase in the imports of 400,000 to set against a loss of 190,000 by disease, and an increased consumption — if any — during the last three years. We have not in- cluded in this amount the increase in the importation of pigs — 172,520 — nor that of dead meat, no account being taken of this latter ; but on the whole, it is evident that the market has been quite as well supplied, or at least as largely, as ever, and the price current shows the same, there being no proportion between what the grazier re- ceives for his live bullock and the price charged by the butcher for the same dead. According to the price cur- rent of Newgate and Leadenhall markets for May 28th, beef ranged from 89* 4d, to 4s, 8d. per stone (81bs,) by the carcase — say from 5d. to 7d. per lb; whilst the butchers are charging from ,8d. to lid. per lb., and for some parts is. and Is. Id. per lb. It is to be hoped that when the new dead-meat market is opened in Smithfield, the farmers will be allowed to sell their carcases direct to the butchers. A farmer lately sent to a salesman a remarkably fine lot of mutton. On its arrival, the consignee wrote to the owner to say that the meat had heated, and would not fetch more than 4d. per lb. It so happened the brother of the farmer passed the shop where the mutton was exposed, and, being struck with its fine appearance, inquired the price, and where it came from. He thus learned that the butcher had given 9d. per lb. for it, and his brother's name was given as the grazier. He communicated with the latter on the sub- ject, and the producer immediately served the salesman with a notice of action. The man, fearing exposure, offered first £10, then £20, £30, and finally £40 to stop proceedings, which last-named sum the farmer agreed to accept, and the affair, to tlie injury of the public, was hushed up. We have known siniUar cases in other trades ; but the grazier is particularly liable to suffer from such dishonesty if he lives far from town, which he sel- dom visits. It is therefore nothing more than just that he should have the option of selling his own property in the open market, as well as the ^Manchester or Birming- ham manufacturer. The uncertainty that prevails respecting the duration of the rinderpest, deters the graziers from purchasing even their usual complement much more an increased number of cattle. This does not apply to sheep, and of all animals perhaps these at the present time are the most profitable, and the least troublesome to keep. We have heard of tegg fleeces of long wool selling for 35s., while mutton is in constant demand at remunerating rates. The stock of sheep in the country is, fortunately, as large, if not larger, than ever ; and while it remains so profitable there is no fear that it should decline. On wet, undrained lands, it is not possible to keep sheep to advantage on ac- count of the rot ; but wherever the land is drained, or naturally dry, we believe they will pay better than any other animal, and with much less trouble and expense. As to swine, they are so prolific, and are kept, while young, at so small an expense, that a large amouut of food may be raised from them in a comparatively small space of time. They also will pay well for their keep, and the higher they are fed the sooner they will give a return. It is therefore clearly the farmers' interest, while the cattle-plague is rife in the conntrj', to cultivate the smaller stock, both as the most profitable and the least liable to disease. On the cold and undrained lands sheep are sub- ject to the foot-rot in the winter ; but the owners may avoid this if, like the Rouiney-marsh farmers, they send their lambs in October to the high lands in their neigh- bourhood for the winter, and get them back again in March or April. By this means they keep large flocks of their own peculiar breed of long-vvooUed sheep, and seldom lose any by the foot-rot, except the summer is very wet. How long the rinderpest may remain in this country is a question none can answer. In the last visitation it remained twelve or fourteen years. It will soon be seen whether the return of warm summer-weather will tend to again revive it ; but the graziers are now prepared to meet it with vigorous measures, which, it is to be hoped, will mitigate its exteivt and severity ^ C 18 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE, THE POTATO CROP. We have had an almost miexampled season for putting in the potato crop, and it has continued up to this very day, May 31st. The drought was so excessive that in numerous cases it was impossible to get the soil into a proper state; hence many "plantings" or "settings" have been amongst clods almost impenetrable, and there they have lain awaiting rain to cause the sets to grow. The copious showers now falling will, 1 trust, effect this long-delayed result ; and it is to the subsequent culture after such a season that I desii-e to give a few hints or suggestions. I take it for granted that the farmer in every case has been anxiously waiting for a favourable time to take action to subdue these clodding hindrances to his purpose of moidding-up. Let him, then, instantly make every effort to pulverize them before they become dry again. For this purpose every ridge-harrow, ridge-plough, horse-hoe, and scuffler should be put into requisition. Never mind other work : the potato crop must have a mould prepared for moulding-up, or woe to the crop. The ridge-harrow is the best implement for breaking down the clods after a plentiful rain. I mean the expanding V- shaped harrow, armed with sharp sti-ong tines along the " bulls." It is one of the most useful implements we have as applied to ridge culture, and no farmer who adopts the ridge system oiight to be without them : the cost is trifling. This harrow should be drawn between the ridges where clods abound, whether the plants can be seen or not. It is only requisite to set it narrow, so as to avoid pulling out the potato sets. The object is to pulverize the clods. Horse-hoeing, where the plants are visible, might follow in a day or two. The horse-hoe in cases of ridge culture must be provided with side curved cuttei's, to pare the sides of the ridges. Hand-hoeing should theu be done, and ridge-harrowing should follow as soon as convenient. It not only breaks the clods, but it tears up the weeds, and keeps all the soil between the ridges in an open and friable state. In all cases where it has been found that owing to the untoward season a sufficiency of mould cannot be obtained, it would be right, and perhaps necessaiy, to subsoil-plough between the ridges, thereby breaking up fresh mould. This operation should take place immediately after the first ridge-harrowing ; it not only breaks up and provides fresh mould for moulding-up, but it makes a deeper and partially opened subsoil for the especial benefit of the growing crops ; and should a rainy season set in, it is of great value in di'awing oft' superfluous water fi'om the growing potatoes ; it also slightly moves the whole ridge, thereby causing the plant to throw out fresh fibres or roots more vigorously. This order of pulverizing or preparation of the soil between the ridges for moulding- up should proceed till the plants are tail enough to be moulded-u]), at least partially ; for moulding-up should be done at twice. The moulding-plough should then be set to work, and the moulding should be partly done so as to leave the plant at full liberty to increase and extend. If nicely done in this way, it will be found that nearly all the clods will fall back into the space between the ridges, and the loose and well -prepared soil alone remain around the potato plants ; the clods can then again be subjected to the ridge-harrow, and are thus prepared for the final moulding-up. In closely following up some such system as this, the potato crop may be advantageously and properly managed, notwithstanding the difficulties to be overcome. If the clods are too hard for this invaluahle rain to soften, other means must be resorted to. A good- sized Cambridge or Crosskill's roll will accomplish the crushing between the ridges. For this purpose the re- quisite number of the sections or iron-peripheries must be removed from the axle, and boxes or bosses put on instead, so as to separate the crushing-wheels or perephiries suffi- ciently apart to fit the spaces between the ridges ; in this way the roller wovdd take three spaces at once, and it may be worked with either two or three of the wheels accord- ing to the width to be crushed. A common broad-wheeled dung-cart does very well ; the wheels act as crushers as the cart is drawn along the ridges. This is a slow process, as it only takes two spaces at a time, but it does it well. It is no uncommon thing to break them small with sledge-hammers or large wooden maUets ("beetles") ; but this course is slow and expensive, as a man would not complete much in a day. One thing is universally allowed — i. e., they must be broken in some way, or the potato plants can never be profitably moulded-up. It is therefore good policy to watch every opportunity to effect this object as inexpensively as possible. It is only in dry seasons like the present that these extraordinary courses are pursued. In the majority of seasons a good and finely pulverised mould can be obtained. Then, of course, all these adventitious aids are not required ; but all is free open working at the pleasure of the cultivator. I have chiefly adverted to plantings done upon ridges. It is because a crop of potatoes upon ridges may, by subse- quent and judicious culture and management, be secured, notwithstanding the cloddy condition of the soil, after the manner I have suggested ; but if the " setting" is upon "the flat," i. e. ploughed-in, the soil must be in a better state than is absolutely necessary for setting upon the ridge system. If ploughed-in, the ploughing must neces- sarily be at shallow depth. The sets will have difiiculty in forcing their shoots through, if ploughed-in deeply, and they come up weakly. If, therefore, the sets are ploughed into a cloddy soQ at shallow depth, they will be very imperfectly covered, and very many will dry up wizen, and never vegetate. If too deep, the sets will be on the furrow sole, without the power of much expansion. Potatoes require a loose friable soU, through which the root fibres can freely find their way, and the tubers can be easily formed : hence ridges are for the most part to be preferred. The sets even in a cloddy soil get well covered ; and if the ridges are rolled down imme- diately, they will safely rest from di'ought for weeks, or it may be till rain causes them to grow. It may be said that, upon the ridge system the sets are deeply co- vered. It is so if properly done, but then they are planted upon the fold-yard manure in the rows, which keeps the ridges in some degree open, and generally with a good dressing of artificial manuie in aid; and as the plants attain a moderate growth, hoi'se-hoeing and hand- hoeing should commence. These operations lower the ridge considerably, and thus greatly promote the growth of the plants. They should also be often repeated, as frequent stirrings promote progress. When sufficiently cleansed by hoeing and weeding, and the i)lants have at- tained a strong growth, it is very desirable, as I have al- ready suggested, to moidd them up rather slightly, taking care not to make use of all the mould between the ridges. In this state they should be left to grow for thi-ee or four weeks, till they nearly cover the surface of the land, when the fiaal raoul'ding should take place, Thia should be so THE ■FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 19 effectually doue that the potato plants are all supplied with mould up to the very point of the ridge, taking care that none are covered up. Many crops are greatly injured by improper moulding. This operation should be done by a competent man, and a good implement. Many cultivators mould up partially and presently draw the greater part back by the horse-hoe, to be again and again moulded up. This is, I think, the best practice ; but capital crops are obtained without such extra work, and which the farmer is not at all times able to attend to. If the stems ai'e muck too numerous the yield will consist of a large proportion of small tubers unfit for "ware." To obviate this, it is not unusual to draw up a few stems from each planting. The remainder will produce larger tubers, and amply pay the expense. The operator should carefully place his foot to the planting before he draws the spare stems, or frequently the whole comes up together. Good judgment is reauisite in all these minor matters, THE AGRICULTURE OE NEW ZEALAND, Undoubtedly the first and most important considerations in estimating the value of a country for the purposes of colonization relate to its climate and soil, and its capacity for yielding those agricultural products which are neces- sary for sustaining its population. That New Zealand possesses in an eminent degree all the conditions, both of climate and soil, suited to the production of the most valuable fi'uits of the earth, needs no further evidence than the marked progress in agriculture that has taken place during the few years of its existence as a British colonJ^ The rapid development of the agricultural resources of New Zealand is one of the most satisfactory proofs that can be afforded of its prosperity. And when the many difficulties which beset the first occupants of the unculti- vated plant are taken into consideration, the rate of agri- cultural progress which has been already attained will bear a favourable compai-ison with that achieved in any other British colony. All the modern appliances of the farm are being called into requisition, and the rapid increase of the population, with the consequent heightened demand for produce, is annually causing largely increased areas of wild land to be cultivated. In 1858 the total area of land enclosed amounted to only 235,560 acres; whilst in 1864 it had increased to more than a million acres. In 1858 the extent of laud under crop was only 141,008 acres; but in 1864 it amounted to 381,526 acres. Thus in six years the area of enclosed land increased by 450 per cent., and tliat of land under cultivation by more than 200 per cent. Turning to the cultivation of grain, we find that, in 1858, 13,710 acres were under wheat, and 15,514 acres under barley and oats. In 1861 the area devoted to these cereals had increased to 29,531 acres of wheat, and 19,329 aci-es of barley and oats ; whilst in 1864 the area was 25,513 acres of wheat, and 55,609 acres of barley and oats. In 1858 the colony exported grain and flour to the value of £23,186 ; in 1859, £42,075 ; in 1860, £14,366, but gradually declining as population increased during the succeeding years, until in 1863 the exports amounted to only £1,160, aud in 1864, £722. In addition to the above figures there were exported, during the years 1853 to 1857 inclusive, grain and flour to the value of £215, 925 ; whilst from 1853 to 1864 inclusive potatoes and onions were exported of the total value of £301,025. Of the capacity of New Zealand as a wheat-growing countiy there can be no doubt. On the rich alluvial flats of the North Island, and on the fertile plains of the jMiddle Island, crops of wheat and other grain are grown, which vie in luxuriance with the highly-farmed corn-fields of Great Britain. Hitherto the cultivation of wheat has not been followed so extensively as that of other grain crops ; although a considerable area of land has been placed under wheat in Canterbury and Otago. In both these provinces and in Southland there are large tracts of agricultural land capable of producing as good crops and as tine wheat as are to be met with iu Great Britain. The yield of wheat per acre in New Zealand exceeds very considerably that of the other Australian colonies. Thirty to thirty-five bushels per acre may be taken as a fair average throughout the colony, although much larger returns are by no means uncom- mon. Fifty to sixV bushels to the acre are frequently produced ; and as high as seventy bushels have been ob- tained in Otago and Canterbury. This extreme prolific- ness appears almost impossible when compared with the yield in the other Australian colonies. The average yield of wheat per acre in England is about 30 bushels, in Scotland 26 bushels, in Ireland 24 bushels, and in America and Canada about 25 bushels. Mr. Archer, the Registrar- General of Victoria, gives the yield of wheat, for a period of twenty-five years ending 1863, as being 20| bushels per acre. Mr. RoUeston, the Registrar- General of New South Wales, reports that the yield of wheat in that colony has ranged from 12^ to 16^ bushels in five years — 1854 to 1858, both inclusive ; the aver- age being a trifle over 15 bushels per acre. The average yield for seven years in South Australia is only 11 bushels 461b. per acre ; whilst in Tasmania the yield for five years averaged 18 bushels 311b. The following table compiled by an eminent Australian statist gives thehighest and lowest averages of the produce of wheat per acre in the four principal Australian colonies embracing a range of 14 years for Victoria, 9 for New South "Wales, and 5 for the other two : HIGHEST. LOWEST. Bushels Lbs. Bush. Lbs. Victoria 1853 20 36 1863.. 8 4 New South Wales, 1856 16 83 1863.. 7 47 South Australia... 1863 14 0 1859.. 9 38 Tasmania 1860 21 10 1859.. 17 38 Barley has not hitherto been extensively grown in New Zealand ; but now that a large demand exists for it for malting purposes, the breadth of land devoted to this cereal is being increased. The province of Nelson un- doubtedly stands foremost amongst the New Zealand provinces in the production of barley. Otago and Canterbury are the great oat-growing pro- vinces ; the area of land devoted to this crop by these provinces in 1864 being respectively 20,800 and 14,600 acres. Very heavy yields of this crop are obtained — over ninety bushels per acre of black Tartarian oats having been reaped in Canterbury, aud almost as large a yield has resulted in the Taieri and Tokomairio Plains in Otago. Forty -five bushels per acre is a fair average yield. Maize can scarcely be considered a standard crop in New Zealand. It is only grown in small patches, chiefly by the natives, in the warmest districts of the North island. Potatoes are nowhere produced finer in quality, nor iu greater abundance, than in New Zealand. They grow equally well in the light, rich, volcanic soil of Auckland, as in the fertile alluvial soil of Otago. The yield varies c 2 20 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. from ten to twenty tons per acre, and higher results have been obtained in specially favonrable soil. It is a for- tunate thing that the disease, which has played such havoc in Europe, has not yet made its appearance in New Zealand; for the potato is almost as necessary to the Maoris as it is to the Irish peasantry. The natives are extensive cultivators of this esculent ; whilst the import- ance of the potato crop to the New Zealand agriculturists may be gathered from the fact already stated, that during the ten years from 1854 to 18G3, both inclusive, the value of the potatoes and onions exported from the colony amounted to £301,025. New Zealand is preeminent amongst the Australasian colonies for the suitability of its soil and climate to the growth of cultivated grasses. Auckland aud Taranaki are celebrated for the luxuriance of tlieir cultivated pastures. In the neighbourhood of Auckland there are meadows, which for luxuriance are equal to anything to be seen on an English farm ; whilst in every province artificial pas- tures constitute one of the most profitable branches of agriculture. Mr. Wild, the present Premier of New Zealand, in his useful pamphlet on " New Zealand Sheep Fai-miug," says that " there is a good deal of laud in New Zealand, which, when grassed and fenced, will keep eight sheep an acre all the year round, and be proportionately good for cattle." The annual increase in the breadth of land sown down in grass is very remarkable. In 1851 there were but 16,000 acres of land in cultivated grass, whilst in 1858 there were nearly 100,000 acres, and in 1864 over 271,400 acres. Hops are grown successfully in the Province of Nelson, there being a rather extensive hop ground near the citv of Nelson. With regard to the cultivation of horticultural pro- duce, it may be said that every description of garden- produce grown in Great Britain will flourish luxuriantlv in New Zealand ; whilst many things which in England requires forcing and protection will grow freely in the open air. Turnips, carrots, aud all root and vegetable crops are very prolific in New Zealand, and of the finest quality. Thirty-five tons per acre of turnips is not an uncommon yield. Specimens of the white Belgian carrot have been shown at the horticultural shows, weighing as much as nine pounds ; and cabbages have been grown in Otago weighing from 40 to 50 lbs. each. THE CAECA SE TEADE Although the Royal Commission has up to this date failed in discovering the cause of cattle-plague and what cattle-plague really is, it lias gone through an immense amount of labour in the investigation of the dilt'ereut brandies of the subject, for which it cauuot fail to receive the hearty thanks of the public, more especially of the agric\dtural body. On many points the Corainissiouers have been enabled to arrive at satisfactory and definite conclusions, both in a prac- tical and scientific sense, and one of these conclusions is the adoption of an exclusive dead-meat trade, with the least possi- Ijle delay on the part of farmers, butchers, aud all engaged in the great work of supplying the public with animal food. Tlie quantity of animal food consumed in this country, and the consequent dependence of the public upon a proper supply, renders its commerce a subject second to none in importauce at any time ; but at present, when rinderpest is devastating our herds, when cholera is again threatening our densely- populated towns, and when the general health of the country and even the degeneracy of the human race are engaging the serious attention of the medical world, it assumes a nuich greater magnitude. To tbose who never think of measuring their own health by the quality of the food they daily consume, the grand question at issue may appear one of inditfereuce, comparatively speaking ; but even by such narrow-minded people, the pressing exigencies of the times are beginning to be felt as a wholesome and instructive lesson — one to which they cannot much longer turn a deaf ear, as they have hitherto done. On the other hand, to those who can take an impartial and intelligent view of the subject, and who can perceive how much the general health and industrious welfare of the people depend upon the quality of the meat they daily consume, the conclusion of the Commission will be appreciated in its true national sense and meaning ; for there cauuot be a doubt that much of the increase of mortality, as also of a degeneracy of race and of a greater predisposition to contagious diseases, is due to the inferior quality of the food consumed, coupled with the disease-breeding laatter attending the slaughter of live stock in towns, the immense amount of putrefying offal always on hand, and the unhealthy occupations to which the present system gives rise. And this, too, is not the worst of it ; for this unhealthy state of things is every year getting worse and worse, with the increase of population in our large towns. Any impartial body of practical aud scientific men, qualified to give an opinion on the subject, could not have arrived at a different conclusion than that of an exclusive dead-meat trade to meet the growing exigencies of the country. And this ap- plies with equal force to the respective interests of the farmer and butcher as to any other class of the community ; for al- though the former (farmers and butchers) are by public con- sent permitted to boast of the general good health of their profession, yet, when closely examined, the degree of health which cither enjoys is often only skin-deep, more especially the general health of butchers as a class, that portly degree of rotundity of body, or of corpulency, so common amongst them, being rather indicative of the reverse of good health. And, besides the important practical fact that they are both well- fed — a consideration which has always the highest influence upon health — they have, in their respective occupations, an abundance of open-air exercise daily. And their labour is not only performed in the open-air, for the most part, but it is also of a character repulsive to the noxious gases which not un- frequently exist in the slaughter-house and shop. It is only when such facts are taken into consideration, and fairly esti- mated, that reliable conclusions can be deduced relative to the health of either farmer or butcher in comparison with that of others who are very diffei-ently situated. In the heat of summer, for example, what anxiety does the latter (the butcher) often manifest to get an empty shop on a Saturday night, so as to avoid the consequences of twenty-four hours chemistry in the rapid return of complex substances to tlieir more simple and elementary forms — in plain English, to .avoid stinking meat ! But when we turn to the examination of the other side of the question, /. c, the sanitary position of those into whose bauds the carcase and offal of the town-slaughtered animal fall, we come upon a state of things no longer tolerable in large cities like the metropolis ; for, instead of twenty-four hours, much of this meat aud offal remains on hand for nearly a week, undergoing all sorts of processes imaginable, every one of which is injurious to health as if the grand object which the present cattle-market authorities had in view was to concen- trate all sorts of mischief, so to speak, for the purpose of brewing pestilence in its most malignant and contagious form. It has been said by some men of high authority in such matters, that cholera is produced by the effluvia arising from the decomposition of the offal of the immense number of animals sacrificed by the followers of Mahomet, who con- gregate together in countless hordes at their annual festivals in Arabia. And as the concentration of all sorts of putrid anijnal filth at the Moslem festivals produces cholera, so the concen- tration of all sorts of putrid animal filth in our large towns is producing an increase of contagious diseases, mortality, de- generacy of ro.ce, aud so forth 1 Is it tlierefore surprising THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 21 tliat tlic more intelligent portion of the public should come to the practical determination to put a stop to this concentration of putrefying animal matter in our large towns ? In other words, is it surprising that public opiuion should begin to signify its determination to put a stop to cattle markets in all our large towns by the substitution of dead-meat markets, with the least possible delay ? Indeed, the contrary of this would be the surprise. The surprise, for example, is, that there is in the kingdom a fanner so short-sighted as to send liis fat ox and sheep to the Metropolitan Cattle Market, or the carcase of bis ox and sheep to the Dead-meat Market of the metropolis, wlien by a little skill, patience, and perseverance he could slaughter and sell at home to much better advantage ; and that there is a butcher in the British capital so ignorant of the philosophy of his trade as to attend either the live stock or dead-meat market for his weekly supplies, when he could easily get a much finer quality of meat daily directly from the pro- ducers, as not a few intelligent members of the trade are now doing by means of country agents and partners. And we may add, the commercial data thus applied to the capital are equally applicalde to all our other large towns in which cattle markets and dead-meat markets are now held. Trade is governed by certain laws of economy, and to those laws the commerce of animal food is no exception, but the contrary, it being more sensibly under control relative to supply aud demand than perhaps any other branch of trade, owing to the high pecu- niary value of meat and its perisliable nature. Those laws are at present, as they have hitherto been, in active operation, effecting certain progressive changes in the commerce of animal food, which butchers themselves cannot fail to perceive ; and the force of such laws may not inaptly be compared to that of the mountain stream, which, when obstructed, only gathers in- creased strength, to sweep all such obstruction before it ulti- mately. The facts of the case leave no other conclusion practicable. And just so is the commercial stream in question. Certain farmers and butchers may throw numberless little odd things into the channel in the hopes of stemming the current, aud doubtless for a short time tliey may succeed, but only eventually to ride the faster before it, or be swept wholly away in the deluge to the ocean. As to the future this is all plain enough, but the meantime is sadly beset on every side with trying difficulties. There is not, perhaps, a single farmer or butcher in the kingdom, for example, who does not see an exclusive dead-meat trade loom- ing in the future as large as life ; but there are, nevertheless, hundreds who cannot see clearly how they are to get that length. True, there are none so blind as those who will not see ; but although the old proverb may apply to a large num- ber of farmers at the one end, and a still greater proportion of butchers at the other, there are, it must be confessed, not a few who are incapable, practically speaking, of taking a single step in advance of their present unfortunate position, as every sucli step they take is attended with a heavy pecuniary loss more than their circumstances will cover. Thus rinderpest has compelled, on the present visitation, many farmers and butchers to adopt the dead-meat trade ; but the short experience which they have had satisfies them that its continuance would reduce both to bankruptcy before they served an apprentice- ship sufficiently long to acquire professional tack to follow the new practice with success. No doubt the present dead-meat trade is conducted on very objectionable principles, more espe- cially to farmers, who are called upon to forward to Newgate JIarket, we shall suppose, meat of the " primest quality," where it is tossed about and contaminated in a manner that greatly reduces its intrinsic value, while it renders a compul- sory sale necessary, owng to its perishable character, and not only perishable from its complex chemical character, but ren- dered a thousand times more so from its beiug inoculated with the putrid matter that everywhere prevails in the atmosphere of the capital under the present system, putrid matter being more especially always Jsensibly rank and strong in the imme- diate precincts of the dead-meat market. On the other hand, a direct trade with the country, such as is now beginning to be adopted, requires the investment of considerably more capi- tal by butchers than they now have invested under the exist- ing system. This is true of the more respectable class of small butchers, wlio by a watchful attention and perseverance are always allowed less or more credit at their bankers. But to another class, a degree lower in the scale of respectabi- lity, who buy and sell the inferior descriptions of meat, and who act as a sort of scavengers to the large butchers, not unfre- quently getting their supplies directly from the large siiops, the proposition of country purchases daily becomes wholly im- practicable. Such, therefore, being the position of a large number of farmers and butchers, it is not at all surprising that any of thein should manifest strong desires for a continuation of things as they are, and even feel themselves in a sea of trou- ble just now, when called ujjon manfully to face the future in the go-a-head spirit of the age. The indirect objections thus raised by butchers to an ex- clusive dead-meat trade are not only untenable, but of a character to which public opiuion and the progress of science will not even condescend to reply. In plain English, practically speaking all such objections are included in the plea of uncivilised nations, who prefer their own old ways to all new propositions involving progress in science, just so long as prejudice and the force of circumstances bind them closely hand and foot to the former, but not a single minute longer ! And this is exactly a parallel case to that of the people in question, who are at present obliged to advocate the continuation of barbarous practices in their trade, for the unfortunate reason that they are not yet in a position to occupy more civiHsed ground ! But the moment they attain to the more elevated status of their Ijrethren in advance, none will blow the trumpet of progress louder than tlieyl Such being the facts of the case, /. c, the difficulties with which so many Initchers feel themselves at present beset on every side, we can well afford to extend a word of sympathy, while we commend to them the old rule, " They are far behind who dare not follow," for their future guidance. Railway companies and steam-boat companies are not re- sponding to the requirements of farmers, butchers, and the country generally, on the present occasion, as they ought to do, the requirements of the latter imperatively demanding the adoption of improved methods of conveying dead-meat, which the former are not supplying. Their conduct in this respect is greatly retarding the progress of improvement in the dead-meat trade, inasmuch as they are not givingfarraers and butchers those facilities for doing business directly with each other to which they are professionally entitled ; while, on the other hand, they are doing much to uphold the present live-stock and dead- meat trade, with all their barbarous, sickening, and disease- breeding consequences. The railway and steam-boat com- panies cannot fairly take up the plea of savage and semi- barbarous times, for they are themselves the offspring of modern improvement, and therefore they are the more to blame for upholding liarbarous practices and for virtually re- fusing to comply with the solicitous demands of fanners, butchers, and thepublic, under the pressure of existing circum- stances. If we trace the practice now followed by old school farmers and butchers backwards retrospectively to tlie pastoral times of our skin-clad ancestors in the reign of Boadicia, we shall find a closer family-likeness between the two extremes — the practice of farmers and butchers in the reign of Queen Victoria and the practice of farmers and butchers in the reign of Queen Boadicia — than the upholders of such barbarous practices may perhaps imagine. But railway aud steam-boat companies have no such ancestral plea in support of their present out-of-date aud barbarous method of handling, conveying, and delivering dead-meat ; for modern improvement is the basis upon which their super- structures are built. Hence the practical conclusion. The Corporation of London and the civic authorities of other large towns, who own or have the control of the cattle markets and dead-meat markets held therein, are even doing less than rail- way and steam-boat companies to facilitate the reduction to practice of the proposition of supplying towns with animal food on sound commercial principles. Were the Corpora- tion of London to invest half-a-million sterling in start- ing the direct method of butchers doing business directly with farmers, instead of sinking this large sum in the big-tom- foolery of a huge central dead-meat market for the wants of the capital in all time coming — the investment would not only yield profitable interest, but also at tlie same time secure for tlie inhabitants of the metropolis a regular daily supply of all the primest meat in the kingdom aud on the continent of Europe ; whereas the investment as proposed will prove a losing speculation as to interest, while it will do all the craft portion of the Corporation can to continue the present practice of a dead-meat jnarket for all tlie refuse meat of the world ? 22 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. LINCOLN SHEEP. This was the subject of the monthly address delivered at the King's Head Hotel, Cirencester, under the auspices of the Farmers' Club, the lecturer being Mr. J. A. Clarke, of Long Sutton, who has been giving a course of lectures in connection with the Royal Agricultural College. Mr. Lawrence presided. Mr. Clarke, in the course of his lecture, said : Jlr. Read, of Elkstone, in his interesting history of the Cotswold sheep, adduces evidence that wooUen cloth was manufactured at Glou- cester by the Romans, and c^uotes a passage from the historian Tacitus (who lived in the first century of the Christian era), about the neatness and good order of the streets in Cirencester, so that " nothing was to be thrown out before the shops, ex- cept a fuller hung out his cloth to dry." Cloth, of course, im- plies wool, and from wool we naturally come to sheep ; there- fore, there were sheep about Cirencester in those early times ; and nobody in his senses can suppose they were anything but Cotswolds, fed in the " cotes" which gave name to the" wolds." No doubt they were noble and colossal as well as hardy ani- mals, wearing the proud fore-locks of wool as they do now, and, for anything I know, yielding a fleece of 141bs. to 201bs. ; breeding nothing else hut twins to each ewe, and weighing at a year old some 301bs. or 401bs. the quarter ! At any rate, if we choose so to imagine those muttons of Roman and Saxon breeds, nobody can bring up evidence to contradict us. Now, the Lincoln breed of sheep, of which I am to speak, has no such antiquity on its side ; or, if it has, documents to that effect are wanting. It has never figured on the pages of history. Cotswold breeders may discuss whether their favourite flocks originated from Roman importation (for Mr. Read consiaers that our ancestors, the ancient Britons, though wonderfully rural in their habits, and good sportsmen, were by no means pastoral), or whether the Cotswolds were introduced into Britain by Eleanora of Castile, Queen of Henry II. ; and they may point to the commencement of the export trade in Cotswolds, when in the lith century. King Edward IV. sent a number of Cotswold rams as a present to Henry of Castile, while another royal lot was shipped to John of Arragon to improve the long-wools of Spain. But our Lincoln sheep have no such classical relations to glorify them. All I can tell you of their origin is, that in the old times they were very ugly and very big: as with sheep so with people, " there were giants on the earth in those days." And having to paddle about in wet marshes, under an atmosphere of rain and fog, these knowing animals took care to wrap themselves well up in their thick great coats. You are aware that in the last century a third of Lincolnshire was a perfectly jRat surface of peaty fen and salt marsh, several feet below the level of the ocean at high spring tides ; the inhabitants were generally web-footed, at least, the liigh-land dwellers used so to say of them : and the sheep had to make common cause with the Lincolnshire geese, and they had to fraternise with the Lincolnshire wild-fowl and the frogs, the croakers that Shakes- peare calls " Lincolnshire bog-pipes." The climate has been completely altered since then by the embankment and drainage of the fens and marshes. You wiU find the most numerous flocks now upon the chalk "Wolds" and the oolite limestone " Heath" and " ChlF" — hills very much like the Cotswold range; but the breed is not a native of those dry and lofty uplands ; in fact, the aboriginal natives of the Lincoln hills were rabbits, and the sheep folds displaced the warrens within the memory of people still living. The home of the heavy Lincoln sheep was on the lower undulating grounds, in the wide valleys, and more especially on the great plain of alluvial marshland in the county. Our ancient Fen sheep are described as " the longest- legged and largest carcassed sheep of all others ; and although their legs and bellies were for the most part void of wool, yet they carried more wool than any sheep whatsoever." The old Lincolns, such as mygrandfatherknew, were ungainly animals, with carcases long and thin, razor liacks, legs thick and rough, hones large, pelts thick ; and though attaining a great weight (mainly " live weight" I should fancy), were very deliberate in laying on flesh — in fact, they were " regular brutes ;" as if they had been bred by some Anti-Bakewell (if you can fancy such a character) with a perverse love of clumsiness and slow feeding, and selected generation after generation, not with an eye for early mutton, but with a view to superphosphate and sheepskin, developing the skeleton, and the hide! Their chief merit was their fleece, weighing 81bs. to 161bs., with a staple 10 to 18 inches in length. This long wool made the breed profita- ble to the lowland graziers, although covering such an unthrifty coarse-grained carcase of mutton. Now, however, Mr. Clarke observed, the Lincolns were vastly improved, not only with regard to size, but also as to wool ; and he went on to say — A farmer at Leverington, near Wisbeach, grazed 219 Lincoln hoggets and 40 Lincoln shearhngs, and the 259 fleeces weighed 117 tods, or an average of 12ilbs. per fleece. Mr. Plowright, near Spalding, whose fat sheep I have already referred to as attaining such great weights of mutton, had in that same year the following " tod bill" — of hog and wether sheep, 690 " threes," 376 " twos," and 2 " ones," or 2,824 fleeces, being about lllbs. per fleece, and many of them had been shorn in spring off" sheep sold to the butcher. Probably in ordinary breeding flocks, where the proportion of hogg wool is about one-third of the whole, the fleeces average Si^lbs. to 91bs. each. As to individual animals, the weight of wool is sometimes very great. In 1862, a two-shear Lincoln ram, clipped by Mr. Bond, of Yarborough, yielded a fleece of 23|lbs. ; and though lieavy fleeces are too commonly coarse in quahty, this was as remarkable for length and fineness of staple as for actual weight. My father's prize ram at the Lincoln Royal Meeting of 1854 had clipped 51f lbs. of wool in three years, an average of 17Tlbs. per fleece. Lincoln wool is in great request, from its peculiar properties of length, strength, and lustre and brightness. It is not requisite that the fibre should be very loug ; indeed it need not exceed some six inches in length to come under the designation of " lustre wool" ; but the longer and stronger it is, providing it be bright, and not coarse, the more valuable it is. At Battersea Show ray father and myself exhibited a hogget fleece on the back of the sheep, the length of staple of wliich averaged about 17 inches : the age was about 16 months. I have a lock or staple of wool from a ewe hogget which is 24 inches long, and another from a ewe, but of more than two years' growth, which is no less than 40 inches in length. You are aware that wool is classed by manufac- turers in two general divisions. There are clothing wools and combing wools. The short wools for the most part belong to the clothing, and the long wools to the combing quality. The short wools are pre-eminent for their felt- ing property ; tliat is, the tendency of the fibres to ad- here together, owing to the minute serrations (some- times over 3,000 in a lineal inch). AVhen the wool has been carded, spun, and woven into woollen cloth, and is then put under the strokes of the fulling mill, this process of felt- ing takes place. But long-wool, having fewer of the serra- tions upon its fibres, possesses the felting property in a minor degree, and it is called combing wool, because one of the first operations in manufacturing stufT and worsted goods from it, is to pass the wool through heated iron combs, thus rendering the fibres smooth, and more like fibres of silk or cotton, with- out, however, losing the natural lustre. One main use for which our lustre w'ool is sought after is in the manufacture ot " alpacas," " coburgs," and various fabrics composed of mix- tures of cotton and wool ; the gloss given by the wool is so I admired, as to have become a rage and fasliion in materials for i both gentlemen's paletots and ladies' dresses ; and the weaver i likes the wool because the microscopic saw-hke teeth of the fibres take hold of the cotton in the process of weaving, and bind both togetlier, making a sound and serviceable cloth. 1 The product in thread or cloth from a fleece of wool is some- thing astonishing. At Norwich, many years since, 39,200 ! yards, or 22:^ mUes of thread, were spun from a single pound I of wool ; and sixty years ago a Miss Ives, at Spalding, spun 168,000 yards, or about 95^ miles of woollen thread from a pound of wool, off a Lincoln ewe. But this seems notliing to the multiphcation a fleece now undergoes at Bradford. From ' the manufacturer who generally buys my " clip," I obtained THE FARMEE'S MAGAZINE. 23 this bit of informatiou. A 201b. Lincoln fleece, used as an admixture with cotton in the finest Alpaca fabrics, suffices for upwards of twelve " pieces," each piece of -i'J yards in length ; it might probably be extended to 16 pieces, or a total length of 673 yards, three feet in breadth. At 3s. a yard, the sum realised would be one hundred pounds ; and I suppose (thougli I am not much of a dress-maker), that the crinolines of seventy or eighty ladies are covered with products from a single fleece of wool. When we think of the hundreds of thousands of sheep clipped every season, it is a mystery where all the dresses can go 1o ! I believe that iu the production of this valuable lustre wool Lincobi sheep have the pre-eminence both in weight and quality. Kext in point of merit, come the fleeces of the Cotswolds and Leicest«rs, and the Kent and Romney- Marsh wool third. Amongst the eminent breeders of the celebrated long-wool Lincolnshire sheep at the piesent time the following gentlemen may be named : Mr. Kirkham, Bisca- thorpe ; Mr. Greetham, Stainfield ; Mr. Wright, ^^octon ; Mr. Marshall, Branston ; Mr. Battersby, Scolheru; Mr. Walesby, Ranby ; Mr. Kemp, Tluirby ; and JMr. Gilliatt, Martin. EAELY MATURITY IN CATTLE. By peculiar modes of cultivation and management certain plants ripen their fruits earlier than they otherwise would do. Thus heat and light powerfully stimulate the ripening process. Hence tropical plants grow and ripen their fruits iu hot-houses — plants that would die if exposed out-doors in our climate. Potatoes and mangolds, again, increase iu size by means of ma- nure ; while in other cases the dwarfing process is had recourse to, for eftecting like purposes. In every example much depends upon the nature of the plant operated upon. In a manner somewhat similar, cattle are forced forward to early maturity of growth. Thus all our improved breeds, or, as they are some- times technically termed, " thorough-bred cattle," including Shorthorns, Devons, Ilerefords, are fit for the shambles at a much earlier period of life than what was the case prior to the improvement thus effected. So are many of our breeds of sheep. True, you can fatten a calf or lamb of any of oui native breeds that have not been so improved ; but if you go beyond veal and lamb, you then fail to get weight for a time, as the bones and lean flesh generally take to growing, withoiit laying on extra fat. In the early maturation practice the bones, muscles, andneives are subjected to a sort of dwarfing process, while the adipose and lymphatic systems are stimulated to ex- cess, so as to secure weight for the butcher. We thus talk of early weight and early maturity as synonymous terms. Both expressions, however, are of an exceptional character, and, therefore, unless practically understood in the pounds-shillings- ■and-pence light, in which the agricult\iral public are pro- verbially disposed to look at and estimate every thing, they are liable to lead to error : for when the facts of the case are examined in a physiological light, as they ought to be, they prove the contrary of maturity of growth. Moreover, when examined from a sanitary or cattle-plague point of view, the pecuniary conclusions of the agricultural public are liable to be called in question as " penny wise and pound foolish," if not something more wortliless. It is high time that the practice of early maturity, under the forcing system of stock management, were thoroughly investi- gated, more especially from a sanitary point of view, in order to test its economy, in comparison with other methods of stock management more in harmony with the health of cattle and the highest value of their flesh as human food. True enough enormous weights are produced at an early age for the shambles by the former practice, but it is equally true that a very large proportion of this weight is wholly unfit for human food, and also that the remainder is annually becoming of less money value in the estimation of consumers, and even is be- ginning to be rejected by them as unwholesome, and therefore unfit for human food. On the other hand, rich aged beef and mutton, the produce of the latter practice, is annually in- creasing in money value, as consumers advance in sanitary science, while almost the whole carcase-weight of aged animals of good quality is readily purchased as available for food, much of the loose fat being preferred to lard in the cooking of many dishes. Then comes the question of greater liability to contagious diseases, to which animals under the former (the forcing) system are subject; which of itself is, ve aver, more than sufficient to turn the cash-balance against it. No doubt the greater loss from pleuro-pneumonia and rinder- pest, and the greater losses from the general delicately bad state of health under the forcing system, as compared with the " rude health" enjoyed under the natural system, is rather diffi- cult to estimate. Still, although some individual farmers may be in a position to plead the exception, the general rule is manifestly against the former, and in favour of the latter. And this too is not the more important answer to the objection thus raised, for mortality amongst cattle is on the increase ; so that the greater loss is annually increasing in magnitude, while the exceptions are consequently becoming fewer in num- ber, and the losing rule more and more general. Turning to milch cows, both for l)reeding and dairy pur- poses, the early maturation practice is perhaps attended with as heavy losses as iu the above case of producing meat for the shambles. In point of fact, early maturity is against the pail, much fat being opposed to much milk ; so that, as a complete system, one half, or a large proportion of tlie early -maturity practice is against the remainder, which manifestly reduces its pecuniary value. Breeding and dairy stock constitute no smaU proportion of our bovine herds ; so that whatever a farmer loses under this branch of stock-management he has to deduct from his profits on fat stock sent to the butcher. And when we look at the frightful ravages from rinderpest iu Cheshire, and the partiality of the diseases to cowhouses generally, the case of the balance-sheet of the whole kingdom at Lady-day will obviously have a tendency to lessen the value of the practice iu the estimation of those who have hitherto been its warmest admirers. And this, too, is not all ; for the above anomalous conditions of the practice relative to early maturity being against milk, is rendering it more and more difficult for town dairymen to get a supply of healthy useful milch cows at home, consequently they are driven in search of supplies to Holland and other places on the Continent, thereby greatly increasing the risk of intro- ducing rinderpest and other contagious diseases into this country with the continuous importation of foreign milch cows, while it is at the same time sacrificing one of the most important productive and profitable branches of stock ma- nagement in this country, by giving it to foreign farmers. In short, throughout the whole of this branch of stock ma- nagement, penny-wise-and-pound-foolish cross purposes may not inaptly be said to be the rule, the disappointments from extra-fat heifers selected for breeding, and extra-fat cows for milk, greatly swelling the account of losses. We have certainly no wish to blacken the face of the fu- ture deeper than what experience is likely to find it to be ; but tlie past and present manifestly forbid a favourable pro- spective view being taken of the early-maturity system yet so fashionably in vogue in most of our provinces at tlie time we write. Its shortcomings are many ; and, when impartially examined, their magnitude far exceeds what is generally credited, while its sounding title, and the force of habit amongst farmers and butchers, will have a tendency to keep it half-alive, as it were,for along time to come. The system may, no doubt, gradually lose its popularity, as its pecuniary short- comings are tangibly brought home to the pockets of the farmer, and thus eventually die out a lingering death ; but so long as " greenhorns" can be sold by salesmen to 24 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. butchers at a higher price than they are worth, and the differ- ence charged to the account of consumers, tlie work of re- trenclunent and economy must be experienced as thickly beset with roundabout complications. Still, the wholesome and needful undertaking of rectification is going on, if slowly, yet at an accelerated speed. Dwarfed bones, nerves, and muscles have had their day, with doubtless an abundance of sunshine and pleasant, breezy weather ; but the horizon is getting more and more overcast, while the fleeting shadows of stormy clouds are beginning to scud thickly and more thickly and ominously across the pastures, as if a change of weather was close at hand. There cannot be two opinions raised upon this ; for healthy bone, nerve, and muscle grow together in the mutual bonds of an unflinching fellowship — which simply means, practically speaking, the greatest possible (quan- tity of rich, lean meat that can be grown — the grand deside- ratum which consumers are every day becoming more and more determined to have ; whereas dwarfed bone, nerve, and muscle mean, in plain English, shapeless lumps of greasy fat, with a minimum quantity of florid, red, insipid, soft, lean meat — a quality which has fairly upset, already, the public stomach. Before the fire, the cook says, it melts away into a sort of liquid which is neither gravy nor dirty water. Upon the gridiron, it blazes like a tar-barrel on fire, the half of it going up the chimney in smoke ; boiled, a large proportion of tlie butcher's weight rises to the surface, in the form of a most unpalatable scum ; while the half of the remainder that comes to the table at dinner-time is only fit for " cats' and dogs'-meat." Altogether, it gives a sorry account of the farmer's hay, cake, corn, and mangolds consumed, whose bone, nerve, and muscle-forming elements, we have omitted to men- tion, go directly to the dunghill in the outset. The system, if system it can be called, has, from this fact, been nicknamed the " muckland practice ;" and this perhaps involves the only little bit of real, honest credit to which it is, throughout, en- titled at the hands of a thinking public. Let us not, however, be misunderstood relative to the growth of bones. According to the old proverb, "Corn grows upon straw," and in like manner lean meat grows upon bone. This is one of those plain matter-of-fact questions upon which a controversy cannot fairly be raised. But as there are ex- tremes in the growth of straw unfavourable to tlie yield of corn, so there are extremes in the growth of bone unfavourable to the production of lean meat ; and, anomalous as it may ap- pear to the inexperienced reader, the dwarf-bone system is attended with this latter anomalous extreme, which greatly re- duces the general value of the practice. The dwarf-bone rule has therefore an exception, and in practice this exception is, unfortunately, in many herds the rule, the number of large, coarse, bony, leggy animals, that never lay on fat well, being greater than the number of dwarf-boned ones, deficient of lean meat, but greatly over-loaded with a redundancy of fat. A vast number of these coarse-boned animals may be seen in the Metropolitan Cattle Market every week, the greater pro- portion of them being slaughtered at a period of life just when thty are beginning to promise the farmer payment for their food. Some say the number is on the increase ; and, probably, so it is, taking our thorough-bred Shorthorns and Herefords as a whole, owing to the wider field over which they are now spread, and the numerical increase of both herds ; but we rather feel disposed to believe that the per-centage of coarse bones is less than at a former period. We aver that the error lies in not distinguishing between large bones and coarse bones — unshapely as to form and disproportionate as to size. The large-boned ox often exemplifies finer symmetry than the dwarfed small-boned one, whose faulty frame is frequently con- cealed under much fat ; and were the former allowed to obtain to maturity of growth, under proper manage- ment, he would carry to the shambles a much greater pro- portion of useful lean meat to a given weight of bone than does the latter, the large-boned ox returning at the same time more money for his food. Not so the coarse-boned ox ; for the sooner he is got rid of, at any price, the better for his owner. In the anomalous example of dairy stock formerly noticed, where the early-maturity fat milch cow proves a bad milker and breeder, there is also an exception, many thorough-bred milch cows being great milkers, and also very fruitful breeders ; but when they turn out so, the milk although large in quantity is of an inferior quality, while they and their offspring are seldom very healthy, the percentage of mortality amongst this quality of stock generally running very high. So long as they maintain their health they are profitable town dairy cows, while their offspring can be sold as veal ; hence the common conclusion in their favour. But the growing prevalence of contagious diseases is rendering them less profit- able for dairy-farming than they were, while town's-people are beginning to put a higher value upon the rich milk of healthy milch cows. In short, the profit from such stock, whether forced onwards for the shambles, or kept for breeding and dairy purposes, is annually becoming more and more a proble- matical question. All things considered, therefore, it is not surprising that the early-maturity theory should begin to lose popularity, and even show signs of waning dimensions when examined in the light of the future. Most extremes have an opposite, and much of the enormous value put upon the early-maturity system arises from its hav- ing an unprofitable opposite extreme, viz., the starving de- naturalization practice previously pursued, under which ma- turity of growth was interrupted during the winter season, while the size of the animal was dwarfed. The two practices are antagonistic in many respects, more especially in those peculiar features that distinguish them from each other. Thus more cattle are now fattened during the winter months than during the summer time, while the forcing process is at its height about Christmas time ; whereas, under the old practice starvation was the winter rule, and the fattening process the summer one. The golden mean between these two extreme practices was somehow or other lost sight of, as our ancestors migrated westwards from the plains of Shinar, the cradle of our race, and it may not inaptly be said that up to this date it has not been seen again. There is, consequently, some ex- cuse for practical farmers falling into penny-wise comparisons in estimating tlie pecuniary values of those practices to which their experience has been exclusively confined. But granting this, it must likewise be admitted that all such narrow-minded estimates of stock-management do not apply to future prac- tice, much less to the golden-mean of any past period in excep- tionary climates where it has existed, if such climates are any- where to be found. But we need not waste time in fruitlessly hunting the world over for what does not touch ourselves ; for if our climate does not come up to the standard required by the details of the practice involved in the rule of this golden- mean or natural practice, the duty of Art is to make up as far as possible the shortcomings of Nature ; for this natural prac- tice, or practice with Natural Science, is manifestly the only sure foundation upon which farmers can hope to have a profit- able system of stock management for the future. Historians tell us that cattle have been the companions of man from Paradise to the Deluge, and from the Deluge down to the present time ; but history is silent as to the size and symmetry of tlie Paradisian ox, sheep, and pig. It is all but manifest, hewever, that they have neither improved in size nor symmetry, but the contrary, and also that they were the ad- verse of hothouse plants, mature growth being attained by a slow, uniform process. But the length of the natural period for attaining to maturity of growth is nevertheless a question of uncertainty. On the other hand, there are many practical reasons for concluding that this natural period was consi- derably extended in length by the winter-starving process, to which cattle became subject in their migrations M-estward with our ancestors. It follows, therefore, that in the improve- ment of the breeds of cattle fanners are not to give up the early-maturatiou process, but only the abnormal process of dwarfing flesh and bone for the purpose of stimulating an ex- cessive development of the adipose and lymphatic systems. For the future, the natural growth of organs, parts, and regions of the body of the ox, sheep, or pig must be the rule absolute ; and so long as there is an imperfect foundation to build upon, the work is one requiring the highest degree of skill and per- severance in its prosecution. At present, heavy weights are at- tained at an early age, but a very large and undue proportion of that weight is not available for human food ; while the qua- lity of what is sold as edible is very inferior. More flesh and bone are wanted, and less offal ; and to attain such, farmers must grow older and larger cattle, otherwise the practice won't pay ; and this increase of size and age appears to accord with the sanitary laws of nature and the original history of stock, when they were pronounced " very good " by their Great Creator. THE FARMER'S JMAaAZINE. 25 THE EXPERIENCE OF A CATTLE-FEEDER. At the Edinburgh Chamber of Agriculture, Mr. Williaiu McCojiBiE, of Tillyfour, read tlie following paper : My father and my grandfather were dealers in cattle. My father carried on a very extensive business : he had dealings with several of the most eminent feeders in East Lothian ; among these were the late Adam Bogue, Linplum, with Joliu Rennie, of Phautassie, with Mr. Walker, Ferrygate, &c. I cannot teU you how much I hold in reverence the memory of the late Adam Bogue. T regard Mr. Bogue as having been one of the finest specimens of a kind-hearted gentleman I have ever met. It would be difficult for me to say how highly I honour the memory of other friends of my father and of myself in East Lothian. I may mention William Brodie, John Brodie, Wil- liam Kerr, John Slate, Archibald Skirviug, and Mr. Broad- wood, farmers all eminent as feeders of stock. My father had his chief business connection with East Lothian, but he had also a connection with Mid-Lothian, the county of Fife, and a large trade with England. At one of the Michaelmas Trysts of Falkirk, he sold 1,500 cattle, lie wished to give all the members of his family a good education. I w'as kept at school, and was afterwards two years at College ; but to this day I regret my inattention when at school. "My father was very unwilling that I should follow his business, knowing that it was a very precarious one ; but what could he do with me P I would do uotliing else, and he was obliged to yield. I worked on the farm for years, when not away at the fairs, with the servants, and had their diet. I cut two harvests, and during the season took charge of the cattle. My first specu- lation was a £13 park. 1 had a partner, an excellent man, who had been a servant to my father for twenty years. It was a good year, and we divided £15 of profit. This gave me en- couragement. I yearly increased my speculations, and I gradually got into my father's business at the I'alkirk mar- kets and Hallow Fair. 5Iy father was very indulgent, and sent me away to a fair when a very young man, and gave me authority to buy, aud money to pay for half-a-dozen of beasts. 1 exceeded my commission, aud bought three little lots of beasts — about fifteen. The owners trusted me the money I was short. I drove them home myself — about sixteen miles. I was very proud of my drove. My father examined them next morning, and remarked, " They have not the countenance of beasts." I went away very much chagrined. This was about my first appearance as a buyer of cattle, aud some of the beasts I remember to this day. I believe there is no better way to teach a young man than to put him to market without assistance. If a man cauuot back himself he is unfit for the trade of a butcher, a jobber, or grazier. My father retired with a good name, and 1 retained his old customers. It was only ou one occasion that Adam Bogue bought a beast from any dealer except from my father or me. He declared he was uo gaiuer by the transaction. He purchased 1~0 cattle yearly. The late Mr. Broadwood, whose memory I also revere, always bought about 80 beasts at the Michaelmas. I put up the number and the sire he .wanted, and lie bought them from me aud my father for many years. He bought them middlesized three and four years old, and never would go beyond £11 per head. The highest figure at that time for feeding cattle at Falkirk was about £13. On Tuesday morning he came to my cattle and inspected them first, and asked their price, and to such a customer as Mr. Broadwood I asked close. To some parties it is necessary to give halter. He weut away, and examined other dealers' cattle, but always came back in about an hour, and I think I never missed him. He was a good judge, aud did not require auy assistance ; he came alone. I had several dealings with Air. Broadwood's sou, but only occasionally, and he did not stick so close to me as his father. I also retained the friendship of Kobert Walker, the Messrs. Brodie, Archibald Skirviug, and Mr. Broadwood. I secured for myself the friendship of Mr. Buist, of the lat« William Kerr, the late John Slate, and John Dud- geon, Almondhill. My father and I always had about the best cattle at '. alkirk. There was a great trade with Cumber- land at the Michaelmas Tryst for horned Aberdeen cattle. The cattle were sent from Cumberland to Barnet in spring, and sold off the marshes fat iu July and August. My best sixty generally commanded the highest price. The late Mr. Wilham Thom was my great opponent in the horned cattle trade, and beat me sometimes all I coidd do. When we saw it for our interest we weut iu company, and attended all the great fairs in the north ; and when we joined we secured a good proportion of the best cattle. Our grazing cattle were always sold separately. Mr. Thom will he remembered by not a few in this room. He was a giant as to strength ; an houester man never lived ; perhaps a little strong in his man- ner, but of great abUity and perseverance. The company were not very regular book-keepers ; our accounts got con- fused. At tiie wind-up at Hallow Fair, as we had the ac- counts of the F'alkirks likewise to settle, we worked at them for days, and the longer we worked the more confused they became. To this day I do not know who had the balance in his favour. For the future we resolved to act separately. It was a bad Hallow F'air for large cattle. I have doubled stirks at HaUow F'air. I have bought stirks from £2 to £4, and, to use an Aberdeen expression, I have turned them heels over their heads. But I never could take a shilling of profit out of large cattle. Mr. Tlioin aud I liad unfortunately left over sixty very large cattle unsold from the Michaelmas. A re- spected member of this Chamber wiU recollect them. Many of them had cost £1-3 and £li iu Aberdeenshire. Mr. Thom liad the selling of them. He had just one offerer in the shape of three gentlemen — one from East Lothian, one from Fife, and one from Perth, who likewise joined. They were sold the next day at £13 5s. a head. After the bargain was struck the gentlemen requested Mr. Thom to divide them. I recollect his answer, viz. : " Well, gentlemen, you have been good and great friends for two days : it would be a great pity for me to quarrel you now." He gave a satirical look in the face to his customers. Mr. Thom, who was thorouglily up, turned upon his heel and weut away. I^divided the beasts for the gentlemen, and to divide a lot of beasts equally is not such an easy matter as some might suppose. I sent for many years sixty horned cattle iu spring to Mr. Buist, Tynuinghame. They were grazed in Tynniugliame Park, and he also required btlier forty or sixty during tlie season for house-feeding. I only gave up the commission business when I could carry it out no longer to my own satisfaction and to the advantage of my employers. There was not after I went to the Falkirk markets a white beast to be seen for years ; but by-and-bye Irish-bred cattle appeared, and then tlie Shorthorns. The business of dealing in north-country cattle came to be worth- less. I bade F'alkirk adieu, and turned my attention entirely to the rearing and fattening of cattle at home. I gave up the fascinating business of a lean cattle jobber ; T saw it was done for, and I have never regretted my resolution. The lean cattle trade waa ditficult to manage ; it was most dangerous. Many a day when attending Hallow Fair, I have got up by four or five o'clock in the morning, breakfasted, and not tasted food till six o'clock at night. The w'eather was so bad at one Hal- low Fair, that man and beast were up to the knees in mud. I had my beasts standing near one of the gates. Mr. Arcjiibal I Skirviug never got further than my cattle. He bought J'uuy, sent tliem away, and returned home. He bade me good morn- ing, saying, " I would not like to be in your place to-day." I have stood many a bad Hallow Fair, but I think the worst was about twenty years ago. I never was so much in want of assistance from my friends. The price of cattle had fallen very much after the Michaelmas Tryst. Turnips were bad in East-Lothian. I had been ou a visit to Mr. Buist, and met Mr. Kerr, Mr. Slate, ilr. Walker, &c. Both buyers and seUeis anticipated a bad Hallow Fair, and it turned out the worst I ever saw. Hallow Fair is generally either a very good or very bad market. Well, Tuesday came, and with it a storm of wind and rain ; it was the worst market-day I ever stood. You could hardly know the colour of the cattle. They were stand- ing to their bellies in a stubble-field. This Chamber sliould represent to the magistrates the injustice to the dealers of 26 THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. allowing Hallow Fair to be held in any field but a lea one. My friends got to the market : there were Mr. Buist, Mr. Walker, Ferrygate, Mr. Kerr, Mr. Slate, and one or two more. They gave my cattle what examination it was possible to give cattle in such a stormy day ; out of about two hundred cattle they wanted about one hundred and seventy. Mr. Walker said to me : "I think you might give us a glass of brandy." We retired to a tent. ^Ye did not move for an hour and a- half, as one wanted forty, another thirty, another twenty, &c. It took a good deal of time to talk over the different lots ; at last we rose. I had, while seated, drawn them as to tlie price as far as they would come. The weather was dreadful. We were to part. I was very unwilling, and they were not veiy anxious to face the storm. I was in the middle of my cus- tomers, and did what I could, no doubt, to get an advance on tlieir offers. Wlien all was over, I gave the accustomed clap of the dealer on the hand (which must be known to most of the gentlemen here) all round, and I did not see them again till night, except Mr: ^^'iUiam Kerr, who, with a struggle got the length of my remaining tliirty beasts, and bought ten. I think I hear the triumphant howls of the men to tliis day when they started the nine score of cattle for their destina- tions, one lot after another, through the lots of the astonished dealers, whose cattle at tliat hour, I believe, were never priced. There were few sold on the first day. I could not sell my twenty remaining cattle, and never could even get a bid for them. Of all the good turns my friends did for me this was the best. I came out with a small profit. The losses sus- tained by other parties at the market were heavy. A great many cattle were sent farther south, and returned back to the north. One respectable dealer told me that no one had ever asked the price of his cattle, and coolly added : " I have taken turnips from ■ and sent the cattle home." I never lost a shilling in East-Lothian, or by a bad debt as a lean-cattle dealer. First, as to the method of selecting the cattle best adapted for paying a rent : To be a good judge of store cattle is exceedingly ditficult. AVe have many judges of fat cattle among our farmers and butchers ; we have a few good judges of breeding stock ; our really good judges of store cattle are exceedingly few. A judge of store cattle ought to be able to say at a glance how much the animal will improve, how much additional value you can put upon him on good, bad, or inditferent land, and on turnips in three, six, or twelve months. Except a grazier is able to do this, he is working in the dark, and can never obtain eminence in his profession. Since I had the half of the £13-park I have bought and grazed store cattle for forty-five years. No one has been able to put upon paper a clear definition, that can be understood by the reader, of the characteristics of a good store beast. It is only practice and a natural gilt that can enable any one to master the subject. There are a few rules, how ever, that the buyer of store cattle should be acquainted with. You ought to know how they have been kept for the pi-evions six months. If yon do not know this, your keep may be entirely thrown away. I make it an almost universal rule (and 1 have never departed from the rule except with a loss), that I will grazeoio cattle except those that have been kept in the open straw-yard, and have been fed exclusively on turnips and straw. If you can get them off yellow turnips it will be decidedly to your advantage. I have seen this proved by dividing twenty beasts, one- half kept on yellow turnips, and one-half upon swedes. The beasts had full turnips. The cattle on the swedes shot far a head in the strawyard of those upon the yellows. But when taken up from grass the cattle fed upon the yellows were equal to those fed on the swedes. They were grazed together. The difference of improvement in diiferent lots of cattle must have often struck you. If you put upon grass cattle that have been fed through the winter upon cake, corn, brewers' wash, grains, or potatoes, and kept in hot byres or close strawyards, and look to them to pay a rent, they will soon make a poor man of you. This mode of feeding is unnatural. Before the animals begin to improve, three months will have passed. If you buy half-fat cattle kept close in byres or strawyards, and put them to grass in April or the first two weeks of May, and cold stormy weather set in, with no covering to defend them, they will astonish you some morning. They will fall off so much that you can scarcely believe they are the beasts you bought. Thus you not only lose all your grass, but the beast will be lighter at the end of three months than when yon put them into your field, I must not be misunderstood. I do not mean to say that a few weeks of a little cake or corn will ruin a beast for grazing. But you may depend upon it that the less artificial food they get during winter the better. When kept upon the food I have specified for months and months they are perfectly unfit for grazing. I regard cake as the safest substi- tute for turnips and corn ; potatoes, brewers' wash, and grain are the worst. But my ambition is to graze a bullock that has never been forced, and has never tasted cake, corn, or potatoes. The store cattle I winter for grazing are all kept in open strawyards, with a sufficient covering for bad weather, with as dry a bed as the quantity of straw will permit. This is indis- pensable for the thriving of the cattle. They Receive as many turnips as they can eat. You must always keep beasts pro- gressing ; if you do not, they wiU never pay you. My store cattle never see cake, corn, or potatoes. I \\ ould rather throw potatoes to the dunghiU than give them to a store bullock. I would give them to my fatting bullocks. If I can get the number of bullocks for grazing that I want, I wiU not lose one mouthful of grass upon them. They will not go on, however, without proper care and superintendence ; it requires a prac- tised eye. If a grazier has a number of fields and many cattle, to carry out the treatment of his cattle properly, shifting and fresh grass once in ten or fourteen days should, if possible, be adopted. Tliis has always been my practice. In one day I have observed a marked difference in the improvement of ani- mals after the shift. The grazier must always consider the quality of his grass land, and buy cattle adapted for it. It would be very bad policy to buy fine cattle for poor or middling lands. You must always keep in view how the cattle have been kept. If tliey have been improperly kept for your pur- pose, their size, whether large or small, will not save you from loss. If the cattle are kept on cake, corn, potatoes, or brewers' wash, or grain during the previous winter, it will be ruin to the graziers. You must not think that I wish you to buy lean half-starved beasts. What I wish you to understand is, that you must keep the cattle always full of fiesh, and as a breeder (the subject of breeding, I am aware, is not upon the card for discussion, I shall encroach upon it as little as possible) you must be careful not to lose the calf flesh. If yon do so by starv- ing the animal at any time of his growth, you lose the cream — the covering of flesh so much prized by all our best retaU but- chers. Where do all the scraggy bad-fleshed beasts come from that we see daily in our fat markets, and what is the cause of their scragginess ? It is because they have been stinted and starved at some period of their growth. If you once lose the calf flesh, you will never regain it. You may get a great deal of tallow internally by high feeding, but you will never again make the animal one that wiU be prized by the great re- tail butcher. Our Aberdeen working bullocks carry little good meat. Drauglit as well starvation takes off the flesh. They are generally only fit for ship beef. I will now make a few observations as to the breeds of cattle best adapted for pay- ing a rent. If cattle do not pay a rent they are worthless to us. I have grazed the pure Aberdeen and Angus, the Aber- deen and-north country crosses, the Highland, the Galloways, and what is termed in Angus the south-country cattle, the Dutch, and the Jutland. Except the two latter, all the others have got a fair trial. I am aware that the merits of the pure Aberdeen and Angus form a difficult and delicate subject for nie to deal with. I know that my friends the breeders of Short- horns wUl mark my statements But I am here to-day for the purpose of laying before you my experience, and I trust that I have divested myself of prejudice as much as possible. If yoix can get store cattle of Aberdeen and Angus breed out of our best herds, I believe no other breed of cattle will pay the grazier more money in the north for the same value of keep. But there is a race of starved vermin, which is known by some in the north by the name of " Highland hummlies," which I consider the worst of all breeds. No keep will move them much. At the top of these I must place those with the brown ridge along the back. Y'ou can make them older, but you will have more ability than I ever had if you can make them much bigger. Keep is entirely thrown away upon such animals. As regards gold Aberdeen or north-country crosses, they are rent- payers. He would be very prejudiced indeed who would not acknowledge their merits. I graze more cross-bred cattle than pure-bred polled. The Highlanders on our land are unfitted for paying a rent ; they are of such a restless disposition that they are unsuitable for stall-feeding, however well they are adapted for grazing-purposes in certain localities, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 27 and under certain conditions. Bnt,I repeat, for stall-feeding they are unsuitable ; confinement is unnatural to tlieir disposition. They will graze fairly ; but I beg of you not to attempt to tie them to the stall. The last Highlanders I attempted to feed were bought at a cheap time. In the month of June they were the most beautiful animab. They grazed fairly. I tied them up. They l)roke loose now and again, and ran three miles otf to the glen where they were grazed. There was one of them that the keeper never dared go near to. The stall had to be cleaned out with a long crook. They consumed few turnips ; and did not pay a sixpence for what turnips they did consume. But no other description of cattle, however, is so beautiftJ for noblemen and gentlemen's parks. As to the Gralloway cattle, they have also had a fair trial with me. I was in the habit of buying for years from one of the most eminent judges of store GaUoways in Britain — Captain Ken- nedy, of Bennane — a lot of Galloway cattle. He selected them generally, when stirks, from all the eminent hreeders of Galloway cattle ; and bought generally all the prize stirks at the dilTerent shovi's. Captain Kennedy would not see a bad Gallovi'ay on his manors. The Galloway has many and great quahfications. If we except the small Highlander, on poor land they are unrivalled. Captain Kennedy's cattle always paid me ; they were grazed on a 100-acre park of poor land. The land was so poor that our Aberdeens could not subsist upon it. I had to break it up for cropping. If I had not been obliged to do this, I should never like to have missed Captain Kennedy's Galloways. Although the Gallo- ways are such good cattle to graze — and this goes to prove the truth of my remarks as to the forcing system, the Galloways at Glenapp being wintered out — tliey are not so easily finished as our Aberdeen and Angus or cross-bred cattle. They have too much thickness of skin and hair, too much timber in their legs ; they are too thick in their tails for being very fast feeders. It is difficult to make them ripe. You can bring them to be' three-quarters fat, but it is ditticult to give them the last dip. If, however, you do so, there is no other hreed worth more by the pound-weight than a first-class Galloway. As to w'hat we term the soutli-countiy cattle, I have also given them a trial. My experience is that they are great beasts to grow — that they consume an immense deal of food ; but that they are diflicult to finish, and, when finished, they are very indifferent sellers in the London market. They generally carry a deal of oft'al along wdth them ; but those who have patience, and keep them for many months, they may pay for keep. I have had u few German and Jutland cattle through my hands, but not sufficient numbers to enable me to say any- thing about them worthy of your notice. After trying all the breeds of cattle I have specified, I have come to the conclusion that the Aberdeen and Angus polled and the Aberdeen and north-country crosses are the only cattle adapted, under ordi- nary circumstances in the north of Scotland, for paying a rent. Our cross-bred cattle, and especially the south-country cattle, are greater consumers of food than the pure Aberdeens. This part of the subject has never got the consideration it deserves. When the cross and south-country cattle are two or tliree years old, and when the day lengthens out, they consume a fearful quantity of food. The age of cattle ought also to be taken into consideration. No doubt a young two-year-old wiU grow more than a three-year-old, and for a long keep may pay as well ; but I have been always partial to aged cattle ; and if you want a quick clearance, age is of great consequence. The great retail London butchers are not partial to " the two teeths," as they call them ; and I have seen them on the great Christmas day examining the mouths of cattle before they would buy them. They die badly as to internal fat, and are generally light on the forerib. I have always given a pre- ference to aged cattle, as they get sooner fat, are deep on the forerib, and require less cake to finish them. Aged cattle, however, are now difficult to be had, and every year they will be scarcer, with the present demand for beef. A perfect breeding or feeding animal should have a fine expression of countenance — I could point it out, but it is difficult to put upon paper. It should be mild, serene, and expressive ; should be fine in the bone, with clean muzzle ; a tail like a rat's, and not ewe-necked ; short on t he legs. He should have a small well- put-on head, prominent eye, a skin not too thick nor too thin ; lie should be covered with fine silky hair — to the touch like a lady's glove ; he should have a good belly, to hold his meat ; he should be straight-backed, well ribbed-up, and well ribbed- home ; his hook bones should not be too wide apart. A wide- hooked animal, especially a cow after calving, always has a vacancy between the hook and the tail, and a want of the most valuable part of the carcase. I detest to see hooks too wide apart ; they should correspond with the other proportions of the body. A level line should run from the hook to the tail. He should be well set in at the tail, free of patchiness there and all over, N\dth deep thighs, that the butcher may get his second round and prominent brisket deep in the forerib. His outline ought to be such that if a tape is stretched from the fore-shoulder to the thigh, and from the shoulder along the back to the extremity there, the line should lie close, with no vacancies ; and without a void, the line should fiU from the hook to the tail. From the shoulder- blade to the head should be well filled up — as we say, good in the neck vein. I am aware that the preceding remarks as to the quality and proportions a beast should possess must be very unsatisfactory to you, as they are to rayseif; scarcely any one animal has possessed them all, and to look for the half of them in a good commercial beast would be vain. I have considted no writer upon the subject ; they are set down, and not in good order, just as they struck me at the time. Thick legs, thick tails, and deep necks, with thick skin and bristly hair, always point to sluggish feeders. In cold weather in the month of May, the old silky coat of the straw-yard bullock is of great advantage. If we could get the qualities and proportions I have specified in animals, it would not be difficult to make them fat. It would be difficult only to make them lean, when once in condition. A high standing, want of ribbing-up and ribbing home, with the fucked-up flank, always denote a worthless feeder. You must all have observed how difficult it is to bring such cattle into a state for kiUing. It will take a deal of cake and corn to make them ripe. A great many can never be made more than fresh : it is only a waste of time and money to keep them on. I have adverted to the way eattle should be treated in winter as stores. The earlier you can put cattle upon grass so much the better. Cattle never forget an early bite of new grass, and it is wonderful what improvement a good straw-yard bullock will make in four or five weeks at the first of the season. If kept on straw and turnips alone in winter, he may add a third or at least a fourth to his live weight. But much depends on the weather. I have never kno^ii cattle make much improve- ment in April, or even up to the 12th of May ; because the weather is so unsteady, and the cold nights when they are ex- posed in the fields take off the condition the grass puts on. The grazier will find it of great advantage to house his cattle at night during this season. In Aljerdeenshire the 10th of Jlay is about the earliest period cattle should be put to grass. Where tliere is new grass first year, it is a most difficult matter to get the full advantage of it. Tliere is no other grass to be compared with it for putting on beef in Aberdeenshire. You must be careful at the first of the season, if much rain falls, not to allow the cattle to remain on the young grass. They must be shifted immediately, and no one can get the proper ad- vantage of such grass who is deprived of the power of shifting the cattle into a park of older grass till the land again becomes firm for the cattle. I have seen a small field of new grass in the month of May or the beginning of June utterly ruined in one night, when heavily stocked with cattle. When wet and cold the cattle wander about the whole night, and in the morn- ing the fields are little better than ploughed land. In fact the fields so injured will never recover until broken up again. In regard to my own farms, I cut scarcely any hay. I pasture almost all my new grass, and the moment the cattle's feet begin to injure t'ue grass, they are removed. If cattle are changed to an old grass field, so much the better ; but they will be safe on second or third years' grass, provided the land is naturally dry. By the 1st July, the new grass land gets consolidated, and you are safe. New grass fields are bad to manage in another respect. The grass comes very rapidly about the 10th June, and if j-ou are not a very good judge of what you are about, it will get away in a few days, become too rank, and wll lose its feed- ing qualities during the remainder of the season. By the mid- dle of July it win be nothing but withered herbage. Young grass ought to be well eaten down, and then relieved for two or three weeks, then return. The cattle and the grass will be as sweet as before. It requires practice to know the number of cattle, and the proper time to put on these cattle to secure the fuU benefits of new grass. Three days' miscalculation may «ause a heavy loss, I have been bit so often, and found the 28 THE FAEMER'S MAaAZINE. difficulty so great, that I fear to extend my oljservatious ou this part of the subject, when I am addressing gentlemen, many of whom make their young grass into hay, or sell the grass to the cow-feeders. The pasturing of new grass in wliicli tlie farmers of Aberdeenshire and the north of Scotland have a deep interest may not apply to many other parts of Scotland. I come now to the way cattle sliould be treated after being taken from their pastures, and put on turnips. The earlier you put them np, the sooner they will be ready for the butcher. I sliall state the method I adopt. I sow annually from t\ielve to sixteen acres of tares, and about the 1st of July save a proportion of tlie new grass fuU of red clover, and from the 1st to tlie i!Oth August both tares and clover are fit for the cattle. I have for many years fed from three hundred to four hundred cattle, and if I was not to take them up in time, I could pay no rent at all. A week's house-feeding in August, September, and October, is as good as three weeks' in the dead of winter. I begin to put the cattle into the yards from the first to the middle of August, drafting the largest cattle intended for tlie great Christmas market. This drafting gives a groat relief to the grass parks, and leaves abundance to tlie cattle in the fields. During the montlis of August, September, and Octolier, cattle do best in the yards, the byres being too hot ; but when the cold weather sets in there is no way where many cattle are kept that they wiU do as well as at the stall. You cannot get loose boxes for eighty to one hundred cattle on one farm. I generally buy my store cattle in Morayshire. They have all been kept in the straw-yard, never being tied. When the cattle are tied np on my farms, a rope is thrown over the neck of the bullock, the other end of the rope is taken round the stake, two men are put upon it, and overliaul tlie bullock to his place. When tightened up to the staU, tlie chain is attached to the neck, and the lieast is fast. We can tie up fifty beasts in five hours in this way. When tied, you must keep a man with- a switcli to keep up tlie bullocks. If you did not do this, you would soon have every one of them loose again. They require to be carefully watched the first night, aad in three days they get quite accustomed to their confinement, except in the case of some very wild beast. I never lost a bullock by this method of tying up. This system is like other systems ; it requires trained hands to practise it. I never give feeding cattle unripe green tares ; they must be three parts ripe before being cut. I mix the tares when they are sown with a third of white peas and a tliird of oats. When three parts ripe, especially the white peas, they are very good feeding. The fresh clover, given along with tares, peas, &c., forms a capital mixture. I sow a proportion of yellow Aber- deen turnips early, to succeed tlie tares and clover. I find the soft varieties are more apt to run to seed, when sown early, than yellow turnips. In a week or ten days after the first lot of cattle is taken up from grass, a second lot is taken up. This is a further relief to the pastures, and the cattle left in the fields thrive better. This taking up continues every week or ten days to the end of September, when other lots are taken up. At this period all feeding cattle ought to be under cover tliat are intended to be fattened during the succeeding winter. The stronger cattle are drafted, and the lesser ones left until the last cull is put under cover. It would be no use to at- tempt to feed cattle, except you can command a staff of expe- rienced men to take charge of them. However faithful, lie must have a taste and a strong liking to cattle — they must be his hobby. Even with men of the greatest experience the dif- ference in the thriving of the different lots upon the same keep is great. They must not be oppressed with having too many in charge, or else it would be the loss of the owner. From August till November a man can take care of thirty cattle very well, or a few more, if the cattle are tied ; but when the day gets short, twenty to twenty-five is as many as a man can feed, to do them justice. Good cattle-men are invaluable. They must not only know what to give the cattle, but the great secret, especially when cattle are forced up for show purposes, is to know what not to give them. An inexperienced man amongst a lot of feeding cattle must be a great loss to his em- ployer. Like everything else, it cannot be learned in a day — the cattle-man must be always learning. To speak of myself, I can only say that, for as long as I have traded in cattle, have studied their treatment, have considered their symmetry, I am learning something new every other day. In regard to the treatment of cattle when put upon tares or cut clover, there is no danger; but with turnips an ignorant man may injure the cattle in one week so much tliat they may not recover it during tlie season. The cattle must be gradually brought on, giving thein few turnips at first, and increasing the quantity daily. In ten to fourteen days they may get a full supply of turnips. When improperly treated the cattle scour, they hove, the stomach getting deranged. It is a long time liefore they re- cover, and some never do well. We cure hove generally by repeated doses of salts, sulphur, and ginger. An accidentf-1 beast will hove under the best treatment, but if you find a lot of them blown up every day, it is time to change their keeper. In cattle that are forced for exhibition, hove is the first warn- ing generally that the constitution can do no more. I have seen cases so obstinate that they would swell upon hay or straw, without turnips. Putting the animal out to grass for a couple of mouths will generally renovate the constitution, re- move the tendency to hove, and, after being taken up from grass, with a man in charge that knows what to give and what not to give, the animals may go on for a few months longer, and with great attention may at last prove a winner. There are some animals that any amount of forcing will not derange their digestive organs, but they are very few. Cattle feeding in the stall should be kept as clean, and their beds should be as well shaken up, as that of the hunter or racehorse. I change the feeding cattle from tares and clover on to Aberdeen yellow turnips, and afterwards to swedes, if possible by the middle of October. I do not like soft turnips for feeding cattle. The cattle that I intend for the great Christmas mar- ket have at first from 2 lbs. to -ilbs. of cake a-day by the 1st of November. In a week or two I increase the cake to at least ■ilbs. a-day, and give a feed of bruised oats or barley, which I continue up to the 12tli or I4tli of December, when they leave for the Christmas market. I apportion the cake to the condi- tion of the dilferent animals, and some of the leanest cattle get tlie double of others that are riper. The cattle being tied to the stall gives you this in your power, which you could not have in the straw-yard. When ten or twenty beasts in the straw-yard stand together, the strongest takes the greatest share, and those very often the animals that least require it. I consider the stall a great advantage over the straw-yard in this respect, as you can give each beast what you wish him to have. I point out to my men the ([uantity of cake and corn I wish every beast to receive. You must have all observed the inequality of the improvement of cattle in the straw-yard when ten, fifteen, or twenty beasts are fed together. I have seen the best beast in a lot when put up the worst when taken out. The first three weeks the cattle are put upon cake along with their turnips, tliey will put on as much meat as they will do with an equal quantity of cake for the next five weeks. It is absolutely neces- sary to increase the quantity of cake and corn weekly, to ensure a steady improvement ; and if cattle are forced upon cake and corn over two or three months, in my opinion it will pay no one. To give unlimited (juautities for years, and to say it will pay, is preposterous. To give fat cattle the finish- ing dip, cake and corn, given in moderation and with skiU, for six weeks before the cattle are sent to the fat market, will pay the feeder. To give cattle cake and corn for luore than two months will never pay the feeder in Aberdeenshire. This is no doubt a bold assertion, but I believe it to be correct. The cake and corn given to cattle day by day loses its effect, till at last you bring the beast almost to a stand-still, and week after week you can perceive little improvement. The cake, and es- pecially corn, appear to injure their constitution : grass, tur- nips, and straw or hay is their only healthy food. For com- mercial cattle and for commercial purposes two months is the utmost limit that cake and corn will pay the Aberdeenshire feeder. There can be no substitute for grass, straw, and tur- nips, except for a very limited period. In times of scarcity, and to give the last dip to fat cattle, they are valuable auxili- aries. I have kept on a favourite show bullock for a year, thinking I would improve him, and gave him everything he would take ; and when that day twelvemonths came round he was worse than a twelvemonth before. You can only torture nature so far, and if you fcn-ce a yearling bullock he will never come to the size that he will do "if kept on common fare. If you wish to bring a bullock to size for exhibition, give him as much grass and turnips as he can eat. Begin to force only when he is three years old, and by the time he is four years he will not only be a neater but a larger animal than if lie had been forced ; forcing in youth deteriorates the symmetry of the THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 29 animal as well as dimiuislies the size. I speak only of Aber- deen and Angus cattle ; but I believe the breeders of High- landers are well aware of this fact. I am not speaking of poxinds, shillings, and pence, or of the profit to the farmer — for who would think of keeping beasts bred to himself older than rising three years old ? Calves dropped early should go to the fat market at tlie age of two years. A word as to show bullocks. I beUeve they are the most unprofitable speculation an agriculturist can interfere with. To keep a show bullock as he ought to be kept will cost from 12s. to 15s. a-week, which amounts to about £4-0 a-year. The method 1 adopt as to using cake aiid corn is the following : On the ditferent farms where 1 feed the cattle I put a fourth part of their number only upon cake and corn at one time, and six weeks (which is about my limit of time for cake and corn, kc, paying the feeder) liefore they are to be sent to the fat market. When the six weeks are expired they are sent away ; another fourth part of the original number take their place, and get their six weeks cake. When they leave, the other cattle, in succession, get the same treatment. When turnips are plentiful, the system works well. The cattle draw beautifully, week by week, from the different farms, and come out very ripe. I may mention that almost all the cattle I graze are generally kept during the previous winter upon as many turnips as they can eat, and are in high condition when put to grass. I am confident that inthe south of Scotland — where there is more corn and less grass land — tliis method would not be suitable. Large bills for cake are not easily paid, and when paid swallow up our profits. When cattle are fed almost exclusively upon the produce of the farm tiie feeders know what they are aljout, but this method of feeding requires time and patience, and there is a long outlay of capital ; but if the system is adopted, and judiciously ma- naged, upon medium or high-lying audlow-rented land, the cattle treated as above ought to pay the rent, and leave a fair profit to tlie feeder. There is no doubt that in the north, and espe- cially in Aberdeenshire, there is a rage for fine cattle ; and on my part it has almost amounted to a " craze." I would have been a richer man to-day if I had not been so fastidious in my selections ; but I cannot endure to look at, and never will tolerate, a bad beast on my land. The gentlemen I buy from know my weakness, and they say if they are anxious to sell we must let M'Combie have a " pull." Many are the lots of beasts I have bought and culled, and I had to pay for it. Sellers have served me right. Still there is a fatality follows me that I fear it is hopeless now to endeavour to get over. A good bullock will always be a good one, and will easily be made ripe — requiring little cake or corn — and come right out at last. 1 have adopted the following system in the selection of the cattle I have wintered : I have liought the best lots I could find during the summer, fit for wintering and keeping on to the following Christmas. I have culled the worst of the dif- ferent lots ; I have fed the culls and wintered the tops : by this method I secured a lot of wintering cattle for the great Christmas market of the ensuing year without one bad or in- different beast among them. The price I have obtained for several years, with the exception of the culls of my winterers, has been £35 a-head. In Aberdeenshire I consider tliat a large bullock ought to pay 25s. to 30s. a month for keep if he is properly treated. We often get less, and sometimes a little more, owing, in some measure, to hovy the cattle are bought, also to the price of beef at the time, the season of the year the cattle are bought, and the time they are sold. Before we were threatened with the cattle plague, I always made a point of buying my beasts early in the season, beginning in January and buying monthly up to May. I had thus a chance of the best lots, whereas if 1 deferred making my selections, the best lots went into other hands ; but the cattle plague has put me sadly about, and my cattle may make a poor appearance next winter — the M.X.C.'s, as they are called (which is my brand) must be fewer in number and not of such equal quantity as in previous years. I wintered forty store cattle, and I have bought several other lots of cattle, but I have not above one- half of my usual numJier of feeding cattle on hand. Mid- summer-purchased cattle have never paid me much. The first improvement of cattle iu the season is always the best. With the cattle plague came a panic. The plague was amongst us several times. It was within five miles of my stock. I bouglit 830 sheep — animals I know as much .about as they know about me. I have ploughed more land than usual, and I in- tend to make some hay, I have got into a large stock of breeding cattle. SHEEP FOR VARIOUS SOILS. LOGIE AND LECROFT FARjMEHS' CLUB. At the quarterly meeting of the Logic and Lecroft Farmers Club, Sir James E. Alexander, Westertou, president of tlie club, iu the chair, Mr. Heudersou, of Craigarnhall, read the following paper on the best breeds of sheep for the various soils : — The subject fixed on at our last meeting was — '' The most profitable breed or cross of sheep for clay soils, and the most profitable breed or cross for dry-field soils." In regard to the different methods followed on dry-field farms in the neiglibour- hood, the oldest system we are acquainted with is that of buying, in the autumn, cast-hill ewes (either blackfaced or Cheviot) ; to take one crop of lambs ; to sell the lambs in June or July, and the mothers iu the autumn. This is a sort of stock that is best adapted for secondary soils, where very good lambs may be made, and where it may be very diflrcult to get any other kind of sheep made fat. The lambs are often better on this kind of land than where the grass has to be crowded with sheep to keep it down. It is a stock that has this recommendation — that it is not costly at first, that it can be cheaply wintered, requiring, if any, only a few weeks' tur- nips in spring ; and where there is any rough or unimproved land on a farm, it may be wintered without them altogether — produce as good lambs, and be fully as good milkers as those better cared for with turnips. It is said of this kind of stock, that although cheaply wintered, it eats up a farm too much, so that it tends to keep poor land still poorer ; and that when the ewes are put on turnip, so many of them lose their teeth that they do not do well afterwards ; that they are a trouble- some stock, requiring a deal of attentiou, and ill to keep within fences ; that they have a fleece both small iu quantity and bad iu quality ; and that the ewes, from being inferior mutton, do not sell to advaut.age. Another method with this sort of stock is to keep the lambs for store sheep, either in whole or in part. This is a preferable plan, should it be in- tended to consume the turnip grown on the farm by sheep, as hoggets will pay more for the turnips than ewes ; while fewer ewes will be required, and more justice can be done than by allowing them to roam over all the grass on the fiirm, which will go farther than when the whole stock are ewes ; and should the hoggets be well seen to, they can be sold at any time after the first clip. One year's clip of ewe and hoggets' wool will be worth two of ewes alone. Where nothing but ewes are kept, hill-wedders are sometimes bought to eat the turnips. This is, perhaps, the most precarious stock the far- mer can have to do with (great eaters and slow feeders) ; and from the time they are kept, no clip comes off them. A cross or half-bred sheep will make more mutton iu one month than they will do in three. The feeder is more indebted to a rise in the price of mutton, to enalile liiiu to come out with them , than to the weight of mutton acquired when in his possession ; and should mutton fall, his only comfort may be the manure they have left. Where what is called a regular stock is kept on arable land — it is generally a cross, a half or three-fourths bred stock — or in some way related to the Leicester or Cots- wold. The crosses with the Southdowu have become things that were, the small quantity of wool they clip having brought them into disfavour. On a farm of medium soil no better breed can be liad than a half-bred stock — a breed of all others to be preferred in this district, where hardihood as well as tendency to fatten is so much wanted. A stout-bodied, long- 30 THE FARMER'S MAGAZIKE. sided, rather close-woolled blieep, seems the model for our district — sufficiently hardy to stand up against the storm, and bear the knocking-about consequent on the folding on turnip, yet quiet enough to settle \^'ithin anything in the shape of a fence. TVith a stock of this kind no more ewes should be kept than will allow of every ewe being kept off to at least the first clip. The principal object of the stock farmer being to produce as much mutton and wool as possible, I hold that no other known breed of sheep can successfully compete with the half-bred, the mutton being of medium quality, and the wool, taking quantity and quality into account, is the most valuable our country can boast of. The farmer who is in pos- session of a full stock of half-bred breeding sheep may con- sider himself a lucky fellow at this moment. As to a regular .stock of full-hred Leicesters, much may be said on both sides as to their suitability for the soil and climate of the district. Unless a farm is particularly well adapted for sheep, both as to soil and shelter, the profitableness of a full-bred stock is rather doubtful. The cost price of such a stock at first, and the neeessarj' expenses afterwards, are greater than wiU pay to grow mutton and wool. Wliichever way the case may stand in other districts, I can answer for ours, that a half-bred will beat a full-bred stock both for weight of mutton and weight and value of wool. To say that Leicesters will suit any arable farm, as is often advanced, is simply ridiculous. The more the farm is unsuitable, the more will be the cost in- curred, and the greater will be the draught that vnH go to the fat market as imflt for breeding purposes. The care and at- tention Leicesters must have being as contrary to the notions of people accustomed to sheep here, and so ridiculous in their eyes, it is difficult to get one sane enough to give them due justice. A Highland shepherd, with a coarse dog, coming among a flock of Leicesters, is nearly one of the greatest evils that can possibly come amongst them. The nearer to perfection any breed comes, the less, it would appear, are the sheep able to do for themselves. With so many obstacles in the way, a Leicester stock may be said to be unsuit- able. The last method I shall notice as being adapted for our dryfield farms is — the buying in of store lambs when taken off their mothers, either cross, half, or three- fourths bred, and keeping them on for one or two years. Of all the systems followed in the management of sheep on dry-field farms I would be inclined to give this the preference, as being attended with less trouble and more profit than the others. Where the average quantity of turnips is grown on a farm, the stock being all of one kind, and being in a state of progress for the fat market, the same kind of food wUl suit them all. With a mixed stock great incon- venience often arises, from being obliged to put them together, especially in winter. Should the grazing of the farm be in- ferior, the sheep will pay fuUy as well to give them another winter's turnip, and get the second clip of wool before parting with them. Kow again rises the questions we were discussing at last meeting regarding cattle — At what age is it most profit- able to feed off ? and Can the growing and feeding be profit- ably carried on at the same time ? My own impression is, and has been, that we go wrong in not letting the growing to be further advanced before beginning the feeding, and that there is a loss incurred in feeding so soon — that, considering the extra food required to make a hogget fat, less cost of food will make a better sheep at two years of age, with a second clip of wool to boot. This stock also produces the largest and most valuable clip, hogg wool being always in most re- quest, and the second clip being next in value, care always being taken to keep the sheep in a state of progress — stand- ing stiU, or retrograding, tells at ouce on the wool, and its value is irretrievably depreciated — and what the sheep loses involves a loss of food in making it up again. To guard against this, hoggets should always be taught to eat cake and corn as soon as put on turnip, if not before, whether the cake and corn are to be continued with them or not ; so that, should they be deprived of turnip from any cause, they may be immediately kept on something else. This comprehends the most prominent methods of farming with a sheep stock on dry-field soils. As to " a breed or cross-breed of sheep suitable for clay soils," allow me to remark that, although I have had a good deal to do with sheep on clay soils, I have not yet fallen in with any breed altogether adapted for a clay soil like what we have to deal with here. In favourable .sea- sons little differeuce betM'cen carse and dry- field maybe ob- servable, but this is the exception ; for, iu most cases, where pasturing of clay land is attempted, either the sheep spoil the soil, or the soil the sheep, and occasionally both go wrong at the same time ; and in wet springs, like "some we have lately had, clay is totally unfitted for the grazing of sheep. Sheep will almost accommodate themselves to any soil, climate, or food — from the top of the highest mountain in AVales to the fens of Lincoln ; and to all kinds of food — from the seaweed and dried fish iu Orkney, to the richest clover in the Carse of Stirling. On clays, with nothing but the usual sown grasses, sheep will eat the coarsest herbage round the hedge sides, and even the bark of the hedge itself, for a change of food. The same grasses sown on clay do not appear to have so good a taste for sheep as on dry-field. It is also observable ^^•ith turnip of one kind grown on clay and light soil : if thrown out together, sheep wiU eat those grown on the light soil in preference to the other. We also see how anxious sheep folded on turnip are for a change of food, and with what relish hiU sheep, when on turnip, enjoy a taste of their native heather. Where the pasturing of clay is persisted in, a field of old grass or a field of light soil must be at hand, for a change in case of wet, or for a change of food. A breed of sheep to suit clay soils, and be as free as possible from disease of the feet, must be some quiet breed— tlie Leicester or Cots- W'Old, or some of their affinities. Hill sheep, of all others, must be avoided ; their restless habits occasion a deal of un- necessary trampling of the soil, and their feet have a greater tendency to go wrong, from being naturally stronger, and from the tear-and-wear they are subjected to on the hills. Pasturing the second crop of clover is a first-rate opportunity of making a lot of lambs good ; in fact, it can scarcely be wanted for lambs when taken off their mothers ; no kind of pasture, even with cake and corn, is equal to second crop of clover and the young grasses after the corn crop is removed. Lambs might be a very suitable stock for clay fanners to put on clover, and then to finish off in the yard with turnip during the winter. This is another topic which naturally comes in for discussion — Yard or court feeding ; or how is the turnip on the farm to be consumed, and the straw of the clay farm to be made into manure by sheep ? Court-feeding of sheep, like soiling of cattle, has been long talked of ; but has not come into general practice, from the simple reason that neither of them is supposed to pay. The dry-field farmer can take his sheep to the turnip, and leave the manure there ; while the clay farmer must drive his turnip to the sheep, and his manure back again. But if it pays to drive turnip home to cattle, I can see no reason why it will not pay to drive for sheep — mutton being as high-priced as beef, and wool and mutton, taken together, much higher. Twenty cattle and one hundred sheep are supposed to eat about the same, and the same space of court and the same quantity of litter to keep it dry — the sheep, if anything, requiring more — so that there is no fear of manure, provided there is plenty of straw. The primary hindrance to this kind of feeding, with those who general^ have a sheep stock, is the want of straw. A clay farm is jusl the place for court-feeding slieep, where there is such an abundance of straw. HORNETS' NESTS.— Knowing from experience the diffi. calty of assaulting a hornet's nest, I asked Mr. Stone how he performed the task, and was told that his chief reliance was placed on chloroform. Approaching very cautiously to the nest, he twists some cotton wool round the end of a stick, soaks it iu chlorofonn, and pushes it into the aperture. A mighty buzzing immediately arises, but is soon silenced by the chloroform, and as soon as this result has happened, mallet, chisel, and saw are at work, until the renewed buzzing tells that the warlike insects are recovering their senses, and will soon be able to use their formidable weapons. The chlo- roform is then re-applied iintil they are quieted, and the tools are again taken up. The extrication of a nest from a hollow tree is necessarily a long and tedious process, on account of the freqiient interruptions. Even if the insects did not inter- fere with the work, the labour of cutting a nest out of a tree is much harder than could be imagined by those who have not tried it.— Homes vifjiopi Ihnds -, htj the Bev, / (?, Wood, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 31 THE BATH AND WEST OF ENGLAND SOCIETY, :MEETmG AT S.VLISBURY, The title of this Society, when given in full, runs on as established " for tlie encoui'agement of Agricultui'e, Arts, Manufactui'es, and Commerce," a comprehensive design that for some years past has been very carefully carried out. All the sister-sciences have come to be well repre- sented here ; and although Agriculture may take the lead, each several section of the show has had its own indivi- dual interest and attraction. For divers considerations, then, the Council came to a very judicious conclusion when it decided that, despite the impending dangers of the cattle plague, the meeting of 'sixty-six should not fall through. Even admittiug that many of the more sub- stantial dishes would be wautiug, there still might be sufficient to furnish a very agreeable entertainment ; and as nothing is kno«Ti to pay so badly as shutting-up shop, the reputation of this old and Hom-ishiug concern is very handsomely saved by the course adopted. ''.Vhether tlie panic affect agriculture, manufactures, or commerce, we cannot afford to encounter the attack with closed doors ; and it must be far better and wiser to go on, though we may lose a little money by so doing, than to suffer our name to die out for awhile from the institutions of the kingdom. Could the West of England Society only have dared to go a little further, and liave included the usual sheep classes at a meeting held in the capital of a sheep country, the success of the Salisbury Show would have been, as we believe, something extraordinary. But as prudence for- bade this, the more available means had to be worked up as closely as possible, and certainly not without some proportionate results. There was, for instance, to be seen here during the past week one of the finest collec- tions of agricultural implements ever brought together ; a display that only required the wholesome incentive of premiums to have made a yet stronger mark on the public mind. There is no such " impression" as a com- petitive trial, where people are fairly matched against each other, and their several places at the finish officially recorded. Still, as it was, the almost interminable avenues of stands, and the bold front of steam engines at work, were duly pointed by certain field-trials, where, if nothing more can be said, we may assume that every man did his best. Again, the more fanciful or ornamental of our manufactures were, as usual, suflicient to set up a separate bazaar, through which one walked with as immi- nent danger of his purse jmnping out of his pocket as he might when sauntering through Regent-street or up the Burlington Arcade. Then, there was the picture gallery, and an Art Union in association therewith ; a flower show faced by a military band, and a poidtry show, as Mr. Tegetmier declares, very commendable for the season of the year, although the exliibitors of plump Dorkings, varmint Game, or dainty iS'uns, play such tricks before high heaven as might make the little angels weep who did not happen to win. Sheep -trimming, pig-jobbing, or horse- coping, is nothing to that which some of these fanciers tiy on with the judges. They will cut the comb oft' a cock's head, and forthwith sew on a more orthodox helmet ; they pull out feathers by the handful if not of the right coloui", or artistically shade any objectionable plumage to the proper hue. We are not quite sure but that, like Piscator, who won his wager by stuffing his pike with pound weights, they jiiay uot cram a bird occasionally with shot or lead pudding, so that he may tell the better when put in the scale. But is there no punishment for such offences ? or, if an Agricultural Society cannot interfere, surely a Humane Society might ? Rather late in the day a move was made in another direc- tion, and a dog show organized under the auspices of the Council, although the prizes were not sufficient to obtain entries of any very remarkable merit ; whereas the pre- miums for horses, on the contrary, were so liberal that it is somewhat hard to understand why the classes were not better filled. The Bath and West* of England Meetings have, however, from the time of their resuscitation, had continual difficidties to encounter in this way, more par- ticiJarly as regards the riding-horse section ; not, though, but that these would appear to have been gradually over- come, as the horse show at Salisbury was quite up 'to the average of these occasions, if it did uot altogether satisfy a public that, so far as live stock went, hadlittle else to look at. Moreover, had the Council only consented to break through its own rules, the entries of horses would have been far more numerous, as by some curious and inexplicable chance many intended exhibitors neglected to forward their nominations until after the closing-day. StUl, taking our standard by all that actually was sent, we see no reason to despair of the Bath and West of England Horse Show ; and had some of the offers, such as those for thorough-bred stallions, hunters, and hacks, only been a little better supported by the neighbounng country-gentlemen, there could have* been little or no cause of complaint, as the agricultural horses mustered iu some force, and tlie class of draught mares was especially well filled. The cart-staUions were arranged in two divi- sions, the one for "heavy draught," and the other for " general farm work" ; although this distinction was not very closely observed by some of the exhibitors, far away the best dray-horse being in the general-purpose class. This was Mr. Gibbs' grey, Sampson, a grand weighty animal, with two good ends, a nice head and neck, and a deal of fine character ; but better to stand alongside of than to put round the ring. His second, on the contrary, Mr. Hitchcock's three-year-old, has all the light springy action of the Clydesdale, to which he traces back on his sire's side, though a chesnut in colour ; while he is furnishing into a smart clever horse, and in every way fulfilling the promise he gave at Hereford and Plymout'h last year, at both of which meetings he also took prizes. The commended one of this class was Sir Edward Kerri- son's Suftblk, another prize-winner that has gone on well; though a trifle slack in his back, but a good mover, and with a deal to like about him. The West-country judges, however, were not, as might be imagined, much taken by the Suffolks, and one of the first "horses they drafted was Mr. Badham's famous Chester Emperor, with, as we must admit, every reason for so doiug. Indeed, beyond his neat, almost pretty head, there was little to know the old horse by, as he was as flat iu his sides as a deal board ; and but for his hea\7-loadcd crest, altogether faded and shruuk away, so tliat as a show-nag his day must be neai'ly over, particularly with so clever a son as ]\Ir. Rist's stallion to take his jilace. ilr. Parson Terry had a nice stylish horse in this class, and Mr. John Smith, of BynoU, another, with some good about him; but it is difficult to imderstand how the Reverend John Gay Cop- 32 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. plestoii, Mr. W. H. Gale, or Mr. Perry, of Chvistcliurch, could ever have been sanguine enough to send the things they did to Salisbury, with the object of improving our breeds of horses. The heavj' draught class was not so well supplied, and we confess to liking the second prize horse better than any of the others. This was ^Ir. Church's black Champion, an active, compact animal, with plenty of power and true action ; whereas ^Ir. Fowlc's horse is a slouching loose-framed one, light in his thighs, and by no means striking in his appearance, even at first sight. But the competition beyond the prize-winners was not great, and Mr. Hibbai'd's entry, as well as one of Mr. Thatcher's, went all to the other end of the class. There was only one two-year-old in the heavy-weight division, and he had no merit, but the judges were just enabled to award the two premiums over the animals of the same ages, as said to be suited for general farm work ; and Mr. Gale's colt is a clean active one, of some character, while there is little to fancy iu the Suffolk placed second, who begins badly with a terribly sour mourning-coach kind of head. One of the best, if not, as we have already said, the best class on the ground, was that for draught mares with foals or in-foal, and half-a-dozen very good might have been picked out from the entry. Mr. Fowle's first is a really fine, rich, well-shaped mare, very broad and roomy, and Mr. Hibbard's second big, useful, and deep, as worthy of her place. The third or commended mare stands rather high on her leg ; Messrs. Howard's brown, a previous winner, lacks little but show condition ; and Lord Radnor's Suftblk, from the stock of Jonas Webb, is handsome and showy enough to warrant some notice ; as, in fact, the class very nearly escaped a general commenda- tion. The two-year-old prize fillies were both creditable, but Mr. Terry's, a very middling one, light and nar- row, without many other redeeming qualities. For the pairs of working-horses Mr. HoUand had a walk-over with two serviceable browns, but the West Country can make no stand in the way of prime pairs, when compared with what they turn out in Yorkshire or the Midlands. If, as will be gathered, there was on the whole a very fair show of draught horses, the nags had also their strong places, and the class of four-year-old hunters was about the best this Society has ever got together. The first prize, indeed, is a wonderfully nice colt, and, up to a cer- tain weight, very nearly perfect. He unites the style of the I'ace-horse with the "manners" of a riding horse: with a sweet head and clean neck, he already bends beau- tifully to his bridle, and with fiuer handling than he had at Salisbury would be quite a pattern card in the ring. He is a somewhat gaily marked chesnut, with the Blair Athol, or rather his own sire, the Bald-faced Slag's " white-washings" ; but white rather sets off a chesnut if he has only blood to back it, [and the Prior's chief eyesore came from his trying to kick himself to pieces in the traiu, Mr. Battams, who did so well at Plymouth, finished second and third here with a couple more ches- nuts by Ratan, of which the preferred, but for his being so short forward, has all the workings of a hunter about him. The other from Tavistock is the most powerful horse of the entry ; but terribly raw and awkward, with naturally bad action, which will require a deal more tutoring than his owner's people appear* equal to. Another nice horse in this lot is Captain Heygate's Mountain Dew, by the Era out of Whiskey, by Wiudhound, and an own brother to Den- mark, that was first as a two-year-old at Hereford, and first again here as a three-year-old ; but in a class of three there was now virtually no competition. The brown is a wonderfully big-limbed, up-standing horse ; but he will still take a deal of time, and we should like to see him a year hence before we altogether pronounced on his merits as a hunter. The second in this lot was a sottish looking nag by Drogheda, and the third, from Cowbridge, a very bad sample of Revenge's stock. Of the yearlings, Mr. Cozens' roan, by Robert de Gorham out of Mistletoe, by Rattle, was so handsome and bloodlike, so corky and so much of a race-horse, that he might have fetched three or four hundred at ^liddle Park or Hampton Court, as at Salisbury he placed himself, with a smart small Camerino colt of Mr. Webb's for second, and a plain Malacca filly for third, "in case of accidents." The hunting stock, the President, Lord Portsmouth's favourite classes, are thus training on ; but the sires and dams were not so well represented, there being only three entries in each class of " thorough-bred stallions calculated to get weight- carrying 2)roduce," and of " mares calculated to produce weight-carrying hunters." The three horses are, how- ever, pretty well known. Hunting Horn by Surplice out of Ferina, by Venison, having taken the Royal Agricul- tural Society's prize at Warwick ; The Bald-faced Stag having been second to Ratan at the West of England Meeting at Exeter, and first in the second class ot thorough-bred stallions at the Royal Plymouth Show, as Young Touchstone has also often tried his fortunes in the Ring. AVith the weight-carrying clause the decision could only go one way. Hunting Horn being a horse of immense power and substance, though rather coarse, and, unless upon picked mares, more calculated to get grand carriage horses than first-class hunters ; whereas the Bald-taced Stag, as proved by his son The Prior, is the more eligible stallion of the two for the purpose. But judges can only go by what they see before them ; and the Stag himself is a big-topped, jumped- i;p horse, all of a heap in fact, and, as far as appearances go, a deal more like getting cobs than hunters. Moreover he never settles down to any one pace, whereas Hunting Horn, despite his standing over from age, still walks away like a gentle- man. Over the mares only a second premium was awarded to a very varmint rather vulgar old mare from Cowbridge, in anything but review order, but with many good points about her ; while one can only wonder at so experienced a man as Mr. Dickenson sending such a weak, short-quartered animal as his Confederate mare into a class of weight-carriers. Of the two hacks. Lady Herbert's handsome chesnut, with the best of hind leg action, and a deal of power for his size, was at once preferred to a' brown of Mr. Milward's that had been substituted for British Queen, who showed so well at Islington. The change was all for the worse, as Crisis is vulgar and heavj'-foward, though with high Piccadilly action ; and Mr. Milvvard got no nearer than second again, even amongst the ponies, with a very neat Bobby mare, where Mr. Rawlence, of Bulbridge, had entered one of the very sweetest " little horses " ever seen. With a beautiful head and clean neck, famous thighs and quar- tei"s, and full of bloodlike character, this is not only a hunter in miniature, but a hunter in actual fact, having gone brilliantly on many occasions with the South Wilts and other packs, when in the possession of ^Ir. Pain. The few Xew Forest ponies were fairly " saved" by the presence of the triiest pony on the ground, ]Mr. Neave's Nobby, quite a wonder at her age of 22 years, supported, as she was, by two of her produce^a three and four year old, but already as perfect a match as any man could wish to lap iu leather. As for Nobby, though her action may have gone a bit, she should still be almost invaluable as a child's playmate. The poultry show is said to be one of the most success- ful ever recorded in the Society's annals. There are up- wards of 300 pens, being nearly 90 iu excess of the number at Hereford last year, and there is evidently more interest attaching to this branch of the business of late, as men are talking as learnedly about pedigi-ee iu THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 33 fowls as in horses, horned cattle, sheep, pigs, or wheat. Considering the season, the Spanish are in exceedingly good feather, and with these and the Dorkings, Lady Holmes- dale s+ands well on the prize-list. The white Dorkings are of beautiful quality and great weight ; the Cochins are less popular than they were, and are not here well shewn, while the Brahma Poutra fowls take their place ; and breeding birds of the Dorking and Brahma classes fetch high prices now-a-days. Their first cross gives a hardy forward chicken, and a splendid table bird. Of the Brah- mas, the dark feathered are most esteemed, and here show to much advantage. The game fowls are usually shabby and ragged at this season, as they always give way before moultiug, and lose that gay, spiry look which generally characterises them. There were some capital specimens of ^lalays and Minorca fowls, and silver-laced Seabright bantams, together with white and black game bantams in fine condition, the Rev. G. S. Cruwys, of Tiverton, exhi- biting most successfully. The black and white crests of the Polands show them off to great advantage, as does the beautiful plumage of the Spangled Hamburgs, in both classes. The Aylesbury exceed the Rouen ducks in qua- lity ; but, as a judge whispered it, spotted bills are repudiated by the Aylesbury breeders. In both the duck and goose classes Mrs. Leamons of Aylesbury, was most successful ; the first prize being awarded in geese to a white, the second to a grey bird. The turkeys made a good show, and guinea-fowls stood true to then- colom-s. The many nrysteries of trimming are now absorbing the minds of pigeon fanciers, and there is a determination on the judges to disqualify right and left whenever they detect any attempt to deceive. The Nuns got into dis- grace from this cause, but the other classes were gene- rally commended. The dog-show was the least successful feature of the proceedings. It was wanting, in the first place, in " the nice conduct" of the West of England meetings ; and, as we have already said, the premiums were too trifling to command much attention. Still, there were a few good setters, some smart bull-terriers, and more to pick from amongst the fox-terriers, where Mrs. Pain exhibited a very varmint one, of John White's famous sort — a character in- itself. This section of the show may no doubt train on, as we are assured the small grant given was something of a mistake, through the houndsmen not being present when the vote of supply was passed. PRIZE LIST. HORSES. FOR AGRICULTURAI, PURPOSES. Judges. — A. Lovibond, Bridgwater. V. B. Watts, Blandford. Stallions, above two years old, suitable for heavy draught. — First prize, £50, to W. Fowle, Market Lavington, Devizes (The Benicia Boy) ; second of £25, to E. Churches, Goduey, Wells (Champion). Entire colts, foaled in IseJ-. — Prize withheld. HORSES FOR GENERAL FARM WORK. Stallions, above two years old. — First prize, £50, to E. Gibbs, Chitteme, Hej'tesburj- (Sampson) ; second of £25, to H. Hitchcock, Chitteme All Saints, Heytesburj' (Albert). Commended: Sir E. Kerrison, Bart., Broome Hall, Scole (Ploughboy) . Colts, foaled in 186:1, suitable for light (taught. — First jmze, £20, to W. H. Gale, Manor Farm, Burbage, Marlborough ; second of £10, to W. Taylor, Harptree Coui't, Somerset (Master of Ravonsworth). Mares and foals, or in-foal. — First prize, £15, to W. Fowle, Market Lavington (Trojan) ; second of £5, to J. Hibbard, Stanton St. Quintiu, Chippenham (Blackbhd). Commended .- H. Hitchcock (Smart) Fillies, foaled in 1864.— First prize, £10, to the Rev. H. G. Baily, Swindon ; second of £5, to the Earl of Radnor, Coles- hill House, Highworth. Pairs of agricultural horses, not exceeding six years old, having been in the possession of the exhibitor six months pre- vious to the day of entry. — First prize, £10, to E. Holland, M.P.. Dumbleton Hallj Evesham (Punch and Darby). No farther competition i HUNTERS, HACKS, AND PONIES. Judges. — H. Corbet, Farmers' Club, London. H. Thurnall, Royston. HUXTEKS. Thorough-bred stallions, calculated to get weight-carr^-ing produce. — First prize, £S0, to T. Hopkins, Woodgate, Cidm- stock, Wellington, Somerset (Hunting Horn i ; second of £20, to R. G. Luxton, Brnshfurd, Wembworthy, Devon (The Bald Faced Stag) . Mares, calculated to produce weight-can-ying hunters. — Second prize, £5, to R. N. Hooper, Llansaimor Court, Cow- bridge (Confidence) . Mares or geldings, foaled in 1862). — First prize, £30, to R. G. Luxton, Brushford (Prior) ; second of £20, to G. B. Bat- tarns, Kitworthy, Tavistock (Taviton). Highly commended: G. B. Battams and Captain E. N. Heygate, Buckland, Leominster (Mountain Dew). Fillies or geldings, foaled in 1863. — First prize, £15, to Captain E. N. Hej'gate (Denmark) ; second of £5, J. to Wood- cock, NetherhamjDton, Salisbury. Colts or fillies, foaled in 1865. — First prize, £10, to R. Cozens, Manor Farm, Pilton, Shepton Mallet (Bold Robin) ; second of £5, J. W. Kang, AVest Everley, Marlborough. H.ICKS. Mares or geldings, not more than six years old, nor exceed- ing 15 hands liigh, calculated to carry not less than 14 st. — First prize, £25, to Lady Herbert of Lea, Milton House, Salisbury (Etna) ; second' of £10, to R. Milward, Thm-garton Priory, Southwell, Notts (Crisis). PONIES. Mares or geldings, not exceeding 13 hands high. — Fh-st prize, £10, to J. Rawlence, Bulbridge, Salisbury (Apricot). Highlt) commended: R. Milward (Limette). Commended : J. C. Isaac, Sunnybank, Bristol (Jack). Pairs of ponies. — Prize withheld. Ponies, bred in the New Forest, under 1-1 hands, of any age. — First prize, £5, to W. Taunton, RedlJ^lch, Salisbury ; second of £3, to W. Rejniolds Neave, Fordingbridge, Salis- bury (Nobby). Pairs of ponies.— Prize of £5, to W. Rejniolds Neave. POULTRY. Judges. — T. Challoner, Chesterfield. E. Hewitt, Bh-mingham. Spanish — Cock and two hens, — First prize, £3, to the Vis- countess Hohnesdale, Linton Park, Staplehiu-st ; second of £2, to B. Jones, Berkeley-place, Clifton; third of £1, to R. Wright, Holloway-road, London. Highlij commended : T. Bam- field, Clifton-place, Clifton and A. Heath, Cahie. Commended : The Rev. J. de la Sanx Simmonds, Cliilcomb Rectory, Win- chester. - DoEKiNG (Colom-ed). — Cock and two hens. — First prize of £3, to the Viscountess Hohnesdale ; second of £2, to the Vis- countess Holmesdale ; third of £1, to H. Lingwood, Barking, Needham Market. Highlg commended: C. Cork, New Shore- ham ; C. Smith, Dnrnford, Salisljury ; and Dr. J. D. Hewson, Coton-hill, Stafford. Commended: J. C. Cooper, Cooper-hill, Limerick, and Dr. J. D. Hewson. DoEKiNG (White).— Cock and two hens.— First prize, £3, to H. Lingwood. Second of £1, to H. Lingwood. Commended: T. Panton Edwards, Lyndliurst. Cochin-China (Cinnamon and Buff). — Cock and two hens. — Fu-st prize, £3, to C. Jennison, Bell-vue Zoological Gardens, Manchester ; second of £2, to J. Cattell, Lime-villa, Bristol- road, Birmingham ; third of £1, to Miss Julia Milward, New- ton St. Loe, Somerset. CocniN-CuiNA (Brown and Partridge Feathered).— Cock and two hens.— First prize, £3, to J. Stephens, Walsall; se- cond of £2, to Mrs. H. Pigeon, Fm-zedown, Hythe, Southamp- ton; thii-d of £1, to J. C. Cooper, Cooper-hill, Limerick. Cochin-China (White).— Cock and two hens.— First prize, £3, to R. Chase, Tindal-street, Balsall-heath, Birmingham ; second of £2, to F. W. Zurhorst, Belville, Donnybrook, Co. Dublm; third of £1, to R. Chase. Brahma Pootra (Dark).— Cock and two hens.— First prize, £3 to G. H. Roberts, Peuwortham, Preston ; second of £2, to J. Hinton, Hinton, Bath; thu-dof £1, to R. W. Boyle, Galtrim- house. Bray, Ireland. Highli/ commended : J. K. Fowler, Pre- bendal Farms, Ayle.sbnry. Commended: J. C. Cooper. Bhahma PooTTtA (Light).— Cock and two hens.— First prize, £3, to J. Pares, Postford-house, Guililford ; second of £2, to J. Pares; third of £1, to E. Sheerman, Chelmsford. Commended : Mrs. Eastan, Ovington Down, Hampshii'e. Game (White and rilos).—Coek and one hen.— Fii-st prize, £3 to the Rev. G. S. Cruwys. Cruwys Morehard-com-t, Tiver- ton, Devon; second of £1 10s., to Misa SeUna H. Northcote, Upton Pynes, Exeter; third of 10s., to S. Matthews, Stow- m;irket, Suffolk. x „ , GvME (Blacks and Brassy- winged, except Greys).— Cock and one hen.— First prize, £3, to C. Bulpin, Riverside, Bridgwater, Somerset; second of £1 10s., to the Rev. G. S. Cruwys; third of 10s., to R. Limbrick, Kenilworth. Game (Black-breasted and other Reds).— Cock and hen.^ D M THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. First iJiiiie, i;3, to B. MaUlievvs, Stowmarket ; second of £1 10s., to H. Bertram, Corve, Chale, Isle of 'Wight, Hants ; third of 10s., to G. Hanks, Quobwell Farm, Malmsbury. Highly commended : W. Stratton, Ropley, Alresford. Com- mended: A. Elling, Sutton Parva, Warininstei- : W. H. Stagg, Netheravon, Pewsey ; T. L. Mills, Orcheston, St. Mary. Game (Duckwlngs and other Greys and Blues).— Cock and one hen. — First prize, £3, to the Rev. G. S. Cruwys ; second of £1 10s., to S. Matthews; third of lOs., to S. Dupe, Ever- creech, Bath. Commended : E. Olding, Ratfin, Amesbury; Mrs. "W. Long, Aniesburj'. Hambueg (Golden-pencilled). — Cock and tvro hens. — Firf?t prize, £3, to F. Pittis, jun., Nevrport-house, Isle of AVight ; second of £1 lOs., to H. Beldon, Yoitstock, Biugley; third of lOs., to B. MiUs, Weston-lodge ; Mannamead, Plymouth. Commended : C. Edwards, The Grove, Wrington. Hambukg (Sdver-pencUled),— Cock and two hens. — First prize, £3, to H. Beldon, Yoitstock, Bingley, Yorkshire ; se- cond of £1 lOs., to the Vicountess Holmesdale ; third oflOa., J. Holland, Chesnut-walk, Worcester. Commended: E. J. Wingfield, Stratford, Addington-place, Maidstone. Hambubo (Golden-spangled).— Cock and two hens. — Fir.st prize, £3, to I. Davies, Bull-street, Harborne, Binningham ; second of £1 lOs., to J. AValker, Hayapark, Knaresborotigh ; third of 10s., to A. K. Wood, Bm-neside, Kendal. HAMBrBG (Silver-spangled). — Cock and two hens. — Fir.st prize, £3, to A. K. Wood; second of £1 lOs., to H. Beldon; third of 10s., to J. Skinner, Maindee, Newi^ort, Monmouth. Miffhlt/ commended : J. Walker. Commended : ilrs. Pettat, Ashe Rectory, Overton. Polish Fowl (Black, with white crests). — Cock and two hens. — First prize, £3, to T. Panton Edwards; second of £1, to T. Panton Edwards. Polish Fowl (Goldenl. — Cock and two hens. — First prize, £3, to H. Beldon ; second of £1, to Mrs. Pettat. Highly con- mended: Mrs. Pettat. Polish Fowl (Silver). — Cock and two hens. — First prize, £3, to H. Beldon; second of £1, to J. Hinton. Malat Fowl. — Cock and two hens. — First prize, £3, to James C. Cooper, Cooper-hill, Limerick; second of £1, to the Rev. A. G. Brooke, Ruyton XL Towns, Salop. Highly com- mended : The Rev. G. Hustler, StLllingfleet Vicai-age, York. MiNOECA Fowl.— Cock and two hens. — Fii-st prize, £3, to H. Lewoithy, St. John's Cottage, Newport, Barnstaple; second of £1, to R. C. Foster, Freshford, Bath. Highly com- mended: Miss Selina H. Northcote. ^ CfiBVE CcEUR Fowl. — Cock and two hens. — First prize, £3, to C. Cooper ; second of £1, to The National Poultry Company (Limited), Bromley, S.E., Kent. AifT OiHER Distinct Vaeiett. — Cock and two hens. — First prize, £3, to The National Poultry Company ; second of £1 10s., to H. Beldon ; third of 10s., to P. P. Cother, SaUs- bury. Highly commended: J. 0. Cooper; 0. Coles, Fareham; E. "W. Zurhorst, Dublin; R. H. Nicholas; The National Poultry Company. Commended ; Miss Selina H. Northcote ; E. Pigeon. CLASSES FOR SINGLE COCKS. Spanish. — First prize, £2, to the Viscountess Holmesdale ; second of £1, to E. Jones, 10, Berkeley-place, Clifton, Bristol. Highly commended : H. Beldon. Dorking. — Fir.st prize, £2, S. Lang, jun., Gratwicke Hall, Barrow Gurney, Somerset ; second of £1, to W. R. Peacey, Cholworth, Tetbmy. Commended: C. Hargreaves, Ai-borfield Hall, Reading. Cochin China. — First prize, £2, to G. Manning, Chapel House, Springfield, Essex ; second of £1, to C. Jennison. Highly commended : J. K. Fowler. Beahma Pootea. — First prize, £2, to the Rev. J. Ellis, Bracknell, Berks ; second of £1, to R. W. Boyle. Highly com- mended: J. H. Fowler; B. Pigeon. Commended : Ma-s. C. Har- greaves. Game. — First piize, £2, to the Rev. G. S. Cmwys ; second of £1, to H. Bertram. Highly commended: G. S. Sainsbmy, Hadley, Devizes. Hambueg. — First prize, £2, to H. Beldon; second of £1, to B. J. Wintrfield, Stratford, Maidstone. Polish. — First prize, £2, to H. Beldon; seeond of £1, to J. Hinton. Ant othee Distinct Vaeieit. — First prize, £2, to E. Pigeon ; second of £1, to The National Poultry Company (Limited). Bantams fGold-laced). — Cock and two hens. — First prize, £2, to the Rev. G. S. Cruwys. Bantams (SUver-laced). — Cock and two hens. — First prize, £2, to the Rev. G. S. Crmvys ; second of £1, to Mrs. Pettat. Highly commended : Messrs. Samuel and Robert Ashton, Mottram, Cheshire^ Bantams (White or Black)— Cock and twp hens.— First prize, £2, to the Rev. G. S. Cruwys; second of £1, to E. Cambridge, Bristol. Highly commended: The Rev. G. S, Cruwys; T. Davies, Newport. Commended: F. Pittis. iun.. Isle of Wight. Bantams (Game).— Cock and two hens.— Fii'st prize, £2, to R. Tate, Leeds; second of £1, to Mrs. Pettat. Highly com- mmdei; J, K, Fowler, and J, Slaaner, Matadee. Bantam Cook ov an? variety.— Fii'St prize, £2, to R. Tate ; second of £1, to G. Manning, Springfield, Essex. Com' mended: T. Davies. Ducks (White Aylesburj-). — Drake and two ducks. — First prize, £2, to Mrs. M. Seamons, Hartwell, Aylesbury; second of £1, to J. Skinner. DrcKs (Rouen). — Drake and two ducks. — First prize, £2, to J. E. Rawlence, SaUsbury ; second of £1, to J. K. Fowler. Highly commended: J. C. Cooper; G. Hanks, Quobwell Farm, Malmesbtuy ; and C. Edwards, WrLngton. DrcKS (anv other variety). — Drake and two ducks. — First prize, £2, to T. H. D. Bayly, Bedfordshire ; second of £1, to T. C. Harrison, Hull. Commended : Mrs. M. A. Hayne, Ford- ington, Dorchester. Geese (Gander and goose). — Fu-st prize, £2, to Mrs. M, Seamons; second of £1, to J. 0. Cooper. Highly commended : J. C. Cooper, J. K. Fowler, and Mrs. M. Seamons. Commended : Mrs. Eastan, Hampshii-e. T0EKETS.— Cock and hen. — First prize, £2, to J. C. Cooper; second of £1, to S. Lang, jum-., Ban-ow Gurney. Highly commended : Miss JuUa Milward, and Capt. K. P. Wari'en, Basingstoke. Guinea Fowls. — Cock and two hens. — First prize, £2, to T. C. Han-iaon, Hull; second of £1, to Miss Selina H. North- cote. Commended : Capt. H. Adney and Mr. C. Edwards. PIGEOXS. JrosEs.— W. B. Tegetmeier, Muswell Hill. HaiTison Weir, Peckham. Caebiees (Any colotu-). — Cock and hen.— Fu-st prize, £1 10s., to R. Fulton, Deptford; second of 15s., to A. Court, Taunton. Commended : C. Bulpin, River Side, Bridgewater. TuMBLEES (Almond). — Cock and hen. — First prize, £1 10s., to R. Fulton ; second of 15s., to R. Fulton. Tumblees (Any other variety) .—Cock and hen.) — First prize, £1, to R. Fulton; second of 16s., to H. Yardley, Bir- mingham. Poutebs. — Cock and hen. — First prize, £1 lOa., to R. Ful- ton ; second of 15s., to C. Bulpin. Runts. — Cock and Hen. — First prize, £1, to E. Pigeon, Lympstone ; second of lOs., to the National Poultry Company (limited) . Jacobines. — Cock and hen. — First prize, £1, not awarded; second of 10s., to C. Bulpin. Fantails. — Cock and hen. — First prize, £1, to C. Bulpin; second of 10s., to H. Yardley. Owls. — Cock and hen.— -First prize, £1, to St. John Coven- try, Wimborne; second of 10s., to E. Pigeon. 'Trumpeters.— Cock and hen.— First prize, £1, toC. Bulpin; second of 10s., to F. Key, Beverley. Baebes. — Cock and hen. — First prize, £1, to H. Yardley ; second of 10s., to H. Yardley. Commended : E. Pigeon. Tuebits.— Cock and hen.— First prize, £1, to C. Bulpin; second of 10s., to H. Yardley. Deagoons. — Cock and hen. — First prize, £1, to C. Bulpin ; second of 10s., to H. Yardley. Commended-: E. Pigeon and H. Yardley. Abchangels. — Cock and hen. — Fu-st prize, £1, to C. Cow- burn, Thurton's Coal Wharf, CaUs, Leeds; second of 10s., to H. Yardley. Magpies. — Cock or hen. — First prize, £1, to A. Court; second of 10s., to H. Yardley. Commended : C. Bulpin. Antweeps. — Cock and hen. — Fnst prize, £1, to H. Yardley; second of 10s., to C. Cowburn. Commended: H. Yardley and C. Cowburn. Ant othee New or Distinct Vaeiett. — Cock and hen.— First prize, £1, to F. Broemel, Lewisham; second of 10s., to H. Yardley. DOGS. BLOODHOUNDS. Prize withheld. FOXHOUNDS. Stallion hounds, not less than two-season himters. — Priza of £5 to C. B. Jarrett, Bathampton House, Heytesburj', Wilts. Unentered dog hounds. — Prize of £3 to C. B. JaiTett. Unentered bitch hounds.— Prize of £3 to C. B. Jarrett. HARRIERS. Stallion hounds, not less than two-season hunters. — Priz9 of £3 to S. Pitman, Manor House, Taunton. Brood bitches, having reared a litter of puppies in 1865.— Prize of £3 to S. Pitman. Beagles.— Stallion hounds, not less than two-season hun- ters.—Prize of £2 to E. Lywood, Middle Week, Andover. Geethounds.— Dogs.— Prize of £5 to W. Long, Amesbury. Gbethounds.— Bitches.— Prize of £3 to W. Long. Com- mended : W. R. Shittler, Bishopstone. Laege-sized Pointers.— Dogs.— Prize of £2 to W. F.Bayly, Pulham-road, Brompton. Commended : F. T. Dauncey, Broadwinsor, Dorset; and R. B. Cater, Bath. Laege-sized Pointers.— Bitches.— Prize of £2 to E. Arm- strong, Maiden Bradley, Wilts. Small-sized PoiNiERS.-Bitches,— Prize of £2 to G, Raw- Iwce, Bulbridge, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 85 Labge-sized Settees. —Dogs exceeding 56 lbs. weight.— Prize of £2 to J. A. Handy, Malmeabury, Wilts. Commended .- F. R. Bevau, Southampton ; and Sir Arthur Chichester, Bart., Barnstaple. Laegb-sized Settees. — Bitches exceeding 56 lbs. weight. — Prize of ±'2 to W. F. Bayly. SuALL-sizED Settees. — Dogs not exceeding 56 lbs. weight. — Prize of £2 to W. Stagg, Netherhaven, Wilts. Small-sized Settees. — Bitches not exceeding 66 lbs. weight. — Prize of ±'2 to J. A. Handy. ■Retrievers. — Dogs or bitches. — First prize, £2, to J. Keynes, Salisbiu-y ; second of £1, to F. ilills, Orchestou St. Mary, Wilts. Commended .- A. J. Adams, Devonport; and F. Tayier, Maiden Bradley, Wilts. Clumbee Spaniels. — Dogs or bitches. — First prize, £1 10s., and second of los., to Lord Ai-undell, Wardoui- Castle, Wilts. Large Spaniels, of any other breed used for sporting pur- poses.— Dogs or bitches. — Fu'st prize, £1 10s., to D. Stevens, SaUsbury ; second of los., to H. Spackman, Bloomfleld House, Bath. Small Spaniels, of any other breed used for sporting pur- poses.— Dogs or bitches.— First prize, £1 10s., and second of 15s., to C. Poulton, North Heath, Newbmy. Mastiffs.— Dogs or bitches. — First prize, £1 10s., to E. Nicholls, Holland-teiTRce, Holland -road, Kensington ; second of 15s., to B. Littlehales, Buckshaw House, Sherborne. . Com- mended: E. NichoUs. Sheep Dogs. — Dogs or bitches. — First prize, £1 10s., to W. Long ; second prize to S. Lang, jun., Gratwick Hall, Bar- row Gurney. Bull Te'rrieks. — Dogs or bitches. — First prize, £1, to C. and E. Royds, Ightfleld, Whitchurch, Salop; second of 15s., to A. Thornley, Coronation-road, Bristol. Black and Tan Tebriers.— Dogs or bitches. — First prize, £1, to W. H. AVoodcock, Fugglestone; second of 15s., to E. Nicholls. Commended : B. Nicholls. Smooth-haired Terriers. — Dogs or bitches. — First prize, £1, to Mrs. T. Pain, Ugford ; second of 15s., to E. Nicholls. Commended : F. B. Lord, Sah.sbury. Rough or Wiee-haired Terriers. — Dogs or bitches. — First prize, £1, to E. Nicholls ; second of los., to Capt. G. P. Heathcote, Hursley Park, Winchester. Skte Tehhieis. — Dogs or bitches.— First prize, £1, to Mrs. T. Pain ; second of 15s., to Mrs. M. E. Dear, Ivy Cottage, Rottingdean. • Fox Terriers. — Dogs or bitches. — First prize, £1, to W. J. Harrison, The Langleys, Selly Oak, Bu-mingham ; second of 10s., to Mrs. Pain. Commended: Capt. G. P. Heathcote, S. Pitman, and Capt. H. Adney, Remberton, Collumpton. King Charles Spaniels. — Dogs or bitches. — The prize of £ltoE. Nicholls. WHEAT AND BARLEY. Sack op Wheat, grown in Wiltshu-e, or within 20 miles of Salisbury, in 1865, by the exhibitor.— The prize of £5 to W. F. Bennett, Chilmark (Nursery), 1865. Sack of Barley.- The prize of £5 to J. Marish, Stratford (seed from Australia). Higkli/ commended : J. Marsh, W. F. Bennett (Chevalier), and E. C. Pinckney, Berwick St. James (ChevaUer) . HONITON LACE. Judge. — Mr. Hudson. Twelve Speigs, each sprig of a different flower or fruit. — First prize, £3, Mrs. E. Radford, exhibitor, Miss Marryat, designer; extra jsrizes of £1 each to workers, M. Bartlett and J. Bartlett; second of £2, Mi's. Scadding, exhibitor. Miss Floud, designer. Six Bobdeps, adapted either for shawls, veils, collars, or lappets, either in fruits, flowers, or leaves, or the same broken by scrolls or aralsesques.— First prize, £i, Mrs. Hutchings, exhibitor, Miss Marryat, desig"ner. Coiffure, of good workmanship and design, eni'iched with fruit, flowers, leaves, or insects. — First prize, £3, Mrs. C. Hayman, exhibitor, M. Hayman, designer ; extra prizes of £1 each to workers, A. Chui'chill, J. Munday, and F. Hussey ; second of £2, to Jlrs. Scadding, exhibitor, Miss Floud, de- signer. Pocket-Handkerchiep, of good workmanship, form, and design, worked either in flowers, fruits, leaves, or insects, strictly desigiied after natm'e.— First prize, £3, Mrs. C. Hayman, e.xhibitor. Miss Marryat, designer ; extra prizes of £1 each to workers, Susan French, Ellen Wood, and Lucy Wood ; second of £3, Mrs. Hutchins, exhibitor. Miss Marryat, designer. Necktie and Sleeves, of good form and design, and with either flowers, fruit, leaves, or insects. — First prize, £3, the late Lady Trevelyan, exhibitor and designer ; extra prize of £1 to Caroline Westlake, as worker ; second of £2, Mrs. C. Trevelyan, exhibitor, niece of Lady Trevelyan, designer ; ex- tra prize of £1 to worker, Selina Hoare. Set op Body and Sleeve Trimmings for a Lady's Dress, of good workmanship, form, and design, enriched with fruit, flowers, leaves, or insects. — First prize, £3, the late Lady Trevelyan, exhibitoi-, Miijs Pattison, designer; extra prize of £1 to worker, Louisa Salterly ; second of £2, Mi'S. Hutch- ings, exhibitor, Miss Marryat, designer ; extra prize of £2 to Mrs. E. Radford, exliibitor. Miss Marryat, designer. THE IMPLEMENT TRIALS. The first implements that got to work in the field were the steam ploughs. These moved out on Monday and set down ready for Tuesday, in a piece of seed land, with a thin staple, and a fearfully hard steely subsoil of chalk. There was no getting in, and when in no keeping in. No one, who was present in 1857, could help comparing the two occasions — that, with the steam problem still to be solved, all life, earnestness, and speculation, fired by the zeal of John Fowler, the pertinacity of Boy dell, the pluck of Col- linson Hall, and the energy of many more, with the leaders of agricultural progress all looking on, and crowding in to bear a part wherever help and sympathy were wanted — and this, when the solved problem, having cost the lives of some and the property of many, is exposed to view in a very nearly empty field. It must be confessed that Tuesday was not favoiu-able, but the result was nearly the same on the morrow following, when the sky was pro- pitious. At present, however, there are some obstacles in the way which must be removed, and where the farmers are not actual losers by the cattle plague, they are appre- hensively sympathetic with those who are, and not to be drawn into unusual expenditure. They are looking for an apparatus at less cost than those now offered, and, by reason of the reticence of men already employing steam in tillage, respecting its results as revealed by the bushel, are uncertain of its eflfects. "Whether the Commission about to be organised by the Royal Society and sent oat to inquire into results will be able, by a conclusively favourable report, to stimulate the three or four hundred- acre farmers to avail themselves of steam, and exhibit its availability on light as well as heavy land, remains to be seen. Fowler and Co., of Leeds, worked their small set of apparatus, consisting of a single cylinder eight-horse en- gine, with clip-drum imder the boiler, a travelling anchor- age, a balance thi'ee-furrow plough, and a cultivator. The land was not favourable for ploughing, but some fairish work was done with a 6-feet-broad cultivator, which ran at a great pace. Speed and width of implement will soon overcome the obstacles that have stood in the way of the use of steam-power on light soils. The machinest will have no difficulty whatever in sending out tackle capable of breaking-up 20 or 30 acres of light land in a-day, and of conducting all the necessary operations. Fowler first essayed to overcome the resistance of strong lands : this done, the rest follows as matter of course, and is now engaging the attention of all the chief houses embarked in such a branch of business. The work done by Fowler's plough on Wednesday, in tm-ning a furrow on land that had been cleared of a clover crop the day previous by the competing mowers, was far better than his performance on Tuesday, and excited a deal more approval. The apparatus of Messrs. J. and F. Howard consisted of the stationary windlass driven by a double cylinder ten- horse engine, the compensating blocks for tightening the outgoing rope, and the new patent slings which enable the i.uplemeut to be stopped and started again at the furrow ends with the least possible loss of time. In this case a wrought-iron tube takes the place of the chain, anchored at both ends along the headland, as used formerly. The three-furi'ow plough made a bit of superb work; indeed we never saw better by steam, and the two-way cultivator broke up the land very steadily and thoroughly. In connexion with this implement, it must be observed that a ridging body accompanied by a subsoiling tine is used for trenching lip the land before winter. The third set of tackle shown iu operation was that of 36 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. ^lessi's. Tasker, of Andover. They made tolerably good work with a Fowler plough fitted with digging breasts. This was driven by a Clayton and Shuttleworth's double- cylinder 13-horse power engine; the windlass, a stationary one, consisting of two winding drums with a central driving sheave, and a mechanism so contrived that while the engine is running at full speed the motion of the sheave can be checked or reversed. It possesses the further advantage of stopping of its own accord when the implement comes in contact with a rock or a root. The horse-ploughs made some good work on Tiiesday, the more particularly Howards' and Ransomes'. Farris of Exeter and Ball of Northampton were working, but with less merit, together with Eddy of Exeter, who showed a pulverizing double-action turnwrest or one-way plough. It inverted the surface with a shallow furrow, upon which it threw one deeper, turned up by a second share. The seed-bed thus made is very good, though it would seem advisable to procure the same effect rather by steam than by horse power. This plough would be wholly inad- missible were the land full of couch-grass, llansome's deep- culture plough, which created a good deal of sensation during the last plough trials of the lloyal, also got to work. The mowing machines, during tlie rain of Tue.Hlay, drew but a small company, though the area of grass-laud that falls to hay this year must necessarily be extensive. The loss in cattle and the failure to supply the ])lace by sheep will oblige men to mow wha^ they cannot graze, and that they are uot sufhcicntly despondent to break up. The orders have been very extensive, and all the principal makers have more than they cau do to supply so unusual a demand. The mowers were put in operation on a piece of mixed clover, where there were about 18 cwt. or '20 cwt. an acre, on Tuesday, and on some meadow-grass on Wednesday. The surface of the former was smooth, and offered every advantage to the exhibitors, who went in and soon made a finish of the little plots allotted to them. During the two trials Wood of London, Hornsby of Grautham, Samuel- son of Banbury, Picksley and Sims of Manchester, Bamlet of Thirsk, Brigham and Biekerton of Berwick-upon-Tweed, aud Barber of Liverpool, put their mowers throngli their paces apparently to their own entire satisfaction, save in two cases. Not being ])roperly provided for the work, as using reaping instead of mowing knives, or something of that sort Picksley and Sims and Brigham and Co. failed to work well : the rest cut splendidly. Wood's Plymouth prize machine taking the lead in point of quality, closely followed by Hornsby. In fact, it was the Plymouth award over again of Wood first aud Hornsby second, while it is worthy of note that the outside model of mauy of the mowers is becoming a mere copy of Wood's notion, in itself a pretty good testimonial. Bamlett, Barber, and Samuelson ranked next, in the order their names are given. On Wednesday sixteen reapers were moved out to mow eleven ac);es of light-standing rye, which had been pre- viously set out by the Beverley Company's propelled machine. They soon walked through the plots assigned to them ; for there was nothing save the absence of stuff to prove an impediment to any one of them. The attendance was much larger than on the day previous.the weather being line, and the crop was in good order for the knives. Still here, as everywhere else throughout these licld- operatious, there was lacking the spirit and excitement and inquiry that always cliaracterise one of the Royal-prize competitive trials, faulty though they may be. it is said that the prize-system is not needed in other branches of industry, that the woollen and cotton trades require no artificial stimulus. We do not deny that those, and other branehesof trade have nourished without a prize-system, but we may use the argument of Mr. Lowe iu reference to re- presentation which, he said, however faulty it might appear, considered abstractedly, must be correct in fact, because its results were so good. So has the prize-system done good service. But to retm'u to the reapers : Messrs. Hornsby showed their three machines — the self-delivery machine, the semi- mauual, and the two-horse back-delivery machine. The former, which received the first prize at Plymouth, de- livers in swathe at one side. This is effected by three endless chains set with steel forks, travelling on a slanting platform, at the end of which are placed pulleys in a di- agonal position. The swathe was well laid and clear of the horse track, and there is a simple mode ofadjusting the height of cut by means of a toothed quadrant, and the driving-crank ; for, being globular, the motion of the bar is singularly free. Much has lately been said in favour of the sheafing-machine, but the remarks to be found iu the report following the Plymouth meeting are very pertinent: "The comparative advantage of a swathe or sheaf delivery is a question that will greatly depend upon the condition of the crop. Tying is easier from a well-laid sheaf; but where, as in the case of oats, or barley with seeds, the crops requiring to lie for some time, the swathe, as delivered by such machine, certainly delivers the grain in a preferable condition for drying, and less likely to be injured by rain than when in sheaf." The performance was certainly very good, if more in- terest was created by the semi-manual machine, of which the Royal report says : " In districts where the crops are, as a rule, heavy and laid, manual machines, are difficult to work, and self-acting machines, as hitherto constructed, cannot be adapted to the variation of the crop ; this combination of Hornsby's meets the dittlcnlty. We can only say that, in the trials at Plymouth, this machine distanced all comptitors, and was very much admired by the public. It may be best described as a combination of the grated drop-sheaf delivery platform (Hornsby's own patent), with the steel-forked endless chains already described. The workman pressing a treadle raises the grated platform to receive the corn ; when sufficient is cut he allows the platform to drop ; the endless chains travelling in an oblique direction enter between the slats of the j'latform, and carry off the sheaf to the side, whilst the man is collecting a fresh portion of the crop. The raker cau regidate the size of the sheaves, and does his work with comparative ease. The gearing and cutting parts are precisely similar to No. 1901 (swathe) already described'" One was struck with the leisurely pace of the horses while doing this work. Some of the drivers put on a great spurt, which coidd uot be maintained, as though they were anxious to scramble through, and get off as soon as possible, to avoid a break-down. The work was exceedingly well done, as may be said of that effected by the back-delivery machine furnished with an open-slatted tipping platform working with a hinge. Samuelson did not go into the rye with the revolving rake, but with a manual- delivery prize "Eclipse" ma- chine, which sheafed and cut the crop admirably. It is a one-horse machine, cut four feet six, light iu draught and price, but well put together. Burrows' manual delivery showed fair work, and Barber's "Eagle" made many friends, its lightness and quick action standing it in good stead. The finger-bar adapts itself well to uneven surfaces, aud is well under the command of the driver, but it is in front of the machine, which is not in its favour. There is a rack and catch on the rising lever, to hold the main shoe to any desired angle, which removes the slidiug friction of the finger-bar from the ground to the wheels. There was no means of testing the draught. Two light well-accustomed nags were har- nessed to it, and walked away at anything but agricultural pace. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 37 ]3iighani auil BIckerlou's two machines delivered fairly: one, the "Excelsior,"' self-delivery; the other a combined reaping and mowing machine, wliich seemed to have got hold of the right kuife at last. The bearings were in brass, and the driver's seat on springs. Bamlet, of Thirsk, also put a two-horse reaper and a combined machine, well and sim])ly made, deli\ering the sheaf by hand. The machine is steady at work, and the driver appears to have it well iu hand. Another machine that showed to advantage was that exhibited by the Beverley Company, and propelled by three horses. It knocked down a lot of work, the cut being eight full feet, and it laid the swathe with much regularity. For wold and heath fai-ms, that is to say, for farms having large areas of even land, this machine is particularly adapted, and it possesses the recommendation that the delivery of swathe is either to the right or the left, as the operator may desire. It is said that by a slight change in the position of the wheels, the reaper is adapted for the small lauds of Essex, the machine travelling of course in the same direction as the furrows. The pace at which the horses go is not distressing ; and as to the numbers, if that be not fully compensated by the increased work done, it must be remembered that horses are so employed just at a time when there is nothing else for them to do. Several minor alterations have been made. A pitch chain has been substituted for the belt, and this chain is capable of being instantaneously tightened by the eccentric. The spindle which conveys motion to the knife is case-hardened and runs in steel bushes. There is an arrangement by which the low cut as well as the high can be obtained, and this is of importance, as many men still attach a high value to game cover. Mauuder, of Ottery, Devon, hands in a good list of testimonials from farmers who have tried his simple machine, which certainly worked very well indeed. It is a single-horse, and two or three of the testimonials speak of its " having cut fourteen or fifteen acres a day without changing." Young, of Ayr, made some good work also with a manual-delivery machine, of strong build and cheap. Burrows, formerly Burrows and Page, put iu a light two-horse machine, with tive-feet cut, from Morchard Bishop, Devon, which made a fair figm*e. The finger-bar and fingers are of steel. A similar machine was shown by Robert Page, of the same town. A two- horse back or side-delivery reaper from St. German's, Cornwall, was put in, and laid low its quota of the rye- crop in fair style. The sheaf collects itself on a cy- linder, or conical roller, in rear of the platform, and when in suthcicnt quantity, the rake-man presses a treadle with his heel, which gives motion to the cone and delivers the sheaf. A side-delivery is also devised for the same machine, but we did not see it in work. Many of these " Manuals" are combined machines, in which there is little to choose. They are generally substantiaUy made, and well put together. Prom this spot it was but a walk of a couple of minutes to where the grass mowers were at work on a meadow bearing a crop of about 1 j tons per acre. Most of the machines there went from the rye with a single change of knife and platform. Running down the centre of the field was an empty ditch, grown over with sward, about 2 feet deep and 3 feet wide at top, which gave the ma- chines some trouble. Wood's prize mower performed, as already intimated, famously, leaving a good horse-way ; and the " Eagle," Hornsl)y's, Bamlet's, and Young's machines, all went in, and made very satisfactory per- formances, the general voice being in favour of Wood, Ilornsby, aud Barber. When the mowers had concluded, the hay tedders were set in motion. The Reading Iron Works produced a well- made and cheap double-action solid crank asle machine, with which the work done was creditable. This solid axle appears to give great strength to the tedder, aud the arrangements are very simple and clever. Ashby and Jeffery, of Stamford, put two machines in motion of the old coustruction, but somewhat too slight iu make. Nicholson's well-known and well-made tedder quite sus- tained its reputation iu backward and forward action ; and the Howards, of Bedford, and Boby, of Bury St. Edmunds, were well up to their previous doings in this way, the public award going for Nicholson first, Howard second, and Boby third. It is noticeable that Burgess and Key put nothing whatever to work at Salisbury, although, after 1 he Plymouth awards, one would have thought this house could not now aiford to hold off. It is good to see men still keeping their places before the public. There were some drills shown in work, and notably, Sainty's spring lever, which created a great deal of sensation at Plymouth. A few horse hoes also got to work in a bit of ridged turnips left for them, but little of any importance was done owing to the rain. THE NOVELTIES ON THE SHOW GROUND. The novelties among the implement stands arc very few, but the number of steam engines at work must beat the Newcastle display, for upwards of 50 could be counted. Amongst these are discoverable some few changes and im- provements in detail, such as Ingram and Phillips, of Fordingbridge, whose cylinder-front, cover, and jacket arc in one casting, the only joints being the bottom and jacket-cover ; while the arrangement of the safety-valves is uovel,an equilibrium slide-valve being employed. Woods and Cocksedge, of Stowmarket, created some movement by a circular pig trough, which found a great many pur- chasers. This docs seem to provide that no pig shall have more than his share, and shall get no more than his snout into his plate, and the cells are well contrived. Messrs. Howard exhibited a mould plough for steam tillage, and a ridge harrow of wonderful versatility. The harrow seems to have no more idea of bones and impossibilities of position than a harlequin. Holmes and Sons had a novelty, iu the adoption of a metal spring lever t» the drill in place of wooden lever with hinge. In this par- ticular^ Hawkes and Spencer have produced perhaps the greatest novelty, and one that is really likely to be of use. In place of the revolving barrels with cups, the drill they have invented has a seed-box, which takes the form at bottom of a series of compartments, through each of which passes at right angles to the sec- tion of the drill a chain, the links being constructed so as to bear with them the seeds, which fall over the little pul- leys carrying the chains into the tins. It is clear that, all other things being equal, there is an advantage in this con- trivance, for a drill so furnished will deposit seed with regularity whatever may be its position. Probably more will be heard of this contrivance. Amongst the few other novelties nmst be classed a bit of mechanism that has found its way into hair-dressers' apartments, but has not yet obtained a footing where Messrs. Taskcr, of Audover, seem anxious to introduce it into the stable. This is the revolving brush, which has thus beeu adapted for stable use. Some grooms are lazy enough already in all conscience, but the contrivance may be used here and there. The pea-sheller on Lyons' stand is a capital thing. It does the work expeditiously and thoroughly, and without waste, and is nothing more than a minute wringer. The first nip between the rollers opens the pod, and the peas slip out as the shell is drawn in. A peck of peas is thus shelled in six or seven minutes. For large establishments and hotels, it is an admirable labour-saving contrivance, and will meet with a ready sale. Amies and Barford have further improved the American mill, which with spirited action they have rescued from oblivion and failure, and placed in the very first rank amongst such machines. It is wonderful the 38 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. work it will do, not only as to quantity, but as to variety. In quick succession it receives wheat, maize, barley, lin- seed, beans, and furnishes meals of different degrees of fineness. The concave which encloses the cone is made, by levers commanded by a screw, to advance and recede "With the greatest precision and ease. The general management of the Implement vStauds was very good, but business as usual very bad ; and until the Bath and "West of England comes back to the prize system there can be no improvement in this way. THE IMPLEMENT STANDS. Tasker A^^fD Sons, Andover. — Three horse power portable steam engine, for small occupations ; four, six, aud eight horse power portable single cylinder steam engines ; ten horse power double cyhnder portable steam engine ; single and treble blast patent combined portable finishing and thrashing machines, to be worked by steam aud horse power; two aud fourjiorse power portable thrashing machines ; twelve horse power trac- tion engine ; wiudlass for steam cultivation, and wrought iron cultivator for steam power ; Uayes's patent straw elevator ; steam power grinding and American grist mUls, also for bruis- ing and crushiug barley, oats, malt, rape, linseed cake, and splitting beans or peas; chaff cutting machines for horse, water, or steam power ; screw lifting jacks, in two sizes ; shepherd's house, or portable granary, made of corrugated gal- vanized ii on, on a strong carriage ; iron one and two wheel and other ploughs in great variety ; sets of trussed fiame, drag, and trussed beam harrows ; scarifiers ; driUs for general purposes ; fifteen and thirteen coulter corn drills without ma- nure ; nine row small occupation aud turnip and manure drills ; broadcast sowing machines for corn, seed, and grass ; galvanized iron pump, on portable iron stand ; parallel steerage expanding and one row horse hoes ; haymaking and winnow- ing machines ; barley horner and self cleaning corn screens ; hand and horse power chaffcutters ; galvanized iron water and other troughs, for sheep, hogs, pigs, horses, and cattle ; wrought iron sack barrow and sack holders ; lawn mower, garden aud field rollers, and land pressers ; corn elevators, iron water and liquid manure carts and garden chairs, and set of well ma- cliinery for drawing water. HOEXSBY AND Soiss, Grantham. — Eight horse power port- able steam engine, adapted for any description of agricultural or manufacturing work ; 4^ feet combined thrashing, shaking, and finishing dressing machiue ; swathe self delivery, new semi-manual side sheaf delivery, and one horse l»ck delivery reapers ; mowers and combined mowers and reapers ; ten row corn and seed drill ; disc turnip cutters and pulpers ; an assort- ment of the Champion ploughs and moulding plough ; an assortment of wasliiug, wringing, and maugUng machines, and an improved mangle. Marshall, Sons, and Co., Gainsborough. — Five, eight, and nine horse power portable steam engines ; combined thrashing and finishing dressing machines, and circular saw benches. The Readino Iron Works (Limited), Reading. — Three, sis, and eight horse power portable steam engines ; four horse power horizontal fixed engine ; 43 and 54 inch portable steam power thrashing mafhines ; portable thrashing machine, with horse gear ; grinding mills for horse and steam power ; double and single action solid crank axle hay machine (new imple- ment), intended to follow the mowing machine, to turn the grass as it is cut ; circular saw bench ; horse rakes ; grain crushing aud oilcake mills ; horse gear for one or two horses ; patent roller and clodcrusher (new implement), light in draught, and intended to equalize the pressure upon the land ; chaffcutters for hand, horse, steam, or water power ; barley horner ; grass seed broadcast sowing machine, and combined sack cart and holder. Clayton, Shuttleworth, and Co., Lincohi. — Six and eight horse power single cyhnder portable steam engines ; ten norse power double cylinder steam traction engine ; combined portable double blast thrashing and cora"ilete finishing and chaff elevating macliines, and portalde straw elevator. Humphries, Edward, I'ershore. — Seven horse po\ver portable steam engine, and portable combined thrashing, shaking, riddling, bailey horning, winnowing, and sacking machine. Gibbons, P. and H. P., Wantage, Berkshire.— Eour-and- a-lialf and seven horse power portable steam engines, aud portable combined thrashing machines. Holmes and Son, Norwich. — Seven horse power portable steam engine ; combined portable thrashing machine ; circular- saw table, with 36 inch cast steel saw ; an assortment of corn, seed, turnip, aud manure drills, suited for all descriptions of land ; Everett's rotary harrow or forking machine ; corn dressing machine, barley hummeller, and portable clover seed sheller. Wallis, Haslam, and Steevens, Basingstoke. — Three- and-a-half and eight horse power portable steam engines ; two and four horse power portable thrashing machines ; combined thrashing machines ; twenty feet angular dehvery straw ele- vator; coru blowing, winnowing, and dressing machines ; sack holders ; oilcake crusher ; spring hanger for suspending the vibrating parts of thrashing machiues ; a series of one and two wheel ploughs, adapted for every description of work ; a varied assortment of drags, harrows, and drills ; clodcrushers and land pressers ; corn, turnip, aud manure drills ; horse hoe, scarifiers, machines for drilhng holes in metals, garden seats, aud wood sack truck. Powis, Charles, London. — Mortising, tenoning, and boring machines ; band sawing machine ; " joiners' universal" machine and saw bench, and self acting circular-saw bench. Riches and Watts, Norwich. — Eight-horse power port- able steam-engine, and an assortment of the new " Eureka" and " American" grist mills. PiCKSLEY, Sims, and Co., Leigh, Lancashire. — Three- horse power vertical steam-engines ; horse-power bone-mills ; steam, horse, or water-power oat, bean, and Indian corn crushers and mills ; an assortment of chaff-cutters for hand and power ; oilcake miUs, turnip-cutters, pulpers, and slicers ; two-horse reapers (new implement), fitted with patent corru- gated steel knife-bar ; two-horse reaping and mowing machines; one-horse gear ; a selection of wringing machines, garden- rollers, hand drag-rakes, pig-troughs, garden-chairs and tables, manure and hayforks, and cattle-troughs. Brown and May, Devizes. — Two-and-a-half, four, aud eight-horse power portable steam-engines ; eight-horse power traction engine, lor ploughing, thrashing, and sawing ; and two combined thrashing machines. RusTON, Proctor, and Co., Lincoln. — Six, eight, and ten-horse power portable steam-engines ; improved thrashing, dressing, and finishing machines ; circular-saw benches in two sizes ; improved flour mill ; and double-delivery centrifugal pump. Mayn.vrd, R., Whittlesford. — Six-horse portable steam- engine ; portable sifting chaff engine, with spare riddle, knife-wheel, and an instrument for expeditiously changing the knife-wheels, Ransomes and Sims, Ipswich. — Eight-horse portable steam-engine ; Al steam thrashing machine, 90-gallon iron water pan ; light iron one-horse, light and heavy two and three- horse general purpose two-wheel iron and wood beam furrow, ridging, subsoil, and hoe ploughs ; subsoil, ridging, and potato- bodies ; sets of trussed iron whippletrees, pomeltrees, and three-jointed harrows ; liand power miUs for beans, oats, and oilcake ; self-cleaning adjustable rotary corn screen ; bean cutter ; bruising mill for malt, oats, linseed, &c. ; oilcake breaker, turnip cutters, root pulper, two-horse gear fitted with intermediate motion ; fourteen, sixteen, eighteen, and twenty inch law n mowers ; sets of pig aud hog troughs, iron water- pans to hold various quantities, hand-power chaff-engines, and patent steel-teeth balance horse-rake. Barrows and Carmicii.vel, Banbury. — Eight-horse power portable steam-engine ; full-sized combined thrashing and winnowing machine ; and American grist mill on four wheels. Robey and Co. (Limited), Lincoln. — Improved portable single cylinder steam-engine, and portable combined treble- blast thrashing, shaking, and dressing machine. Plenty, Newbury. — Eight-horse power portable steam- engine, 54-inch combined thrashing and dressing machine; galvanized shepherd's house, or portable granary; wrought iron water or liquid manure cart ; galvanized iron sheep and cattle troughs of various lengths ; sets of three Berkshire har- rows, and broadcast seed machine. HoLMAJf, London. — Set of fanner's oil-pressing apparatus (new implement), designed to become available to growers of oil-producing seed* ; powerful hydraulic punching bear, lifting THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 39 jacks and crabs of various tonnage, sets of ditfereutial pulley blocks, two-aud-a-halt and four-hovse power portable and fixed common pumping engines ; common, double-actiou, force and house pumps ; powerful farm fire engine, and -i-incli Britannia pump on carriage. Wilki:ns, Ipswich. — Six-horse portable steam-engine, and combined corn grinding mill and chaff cutter. AsHBY AND Jeffrey, Stamford. — Six-horse portable steam- engine ; combined thrashing and hummelling machine ; 30-inch improved stone grinding mill; one-horse gear work for driving chaff cutters or crushing mills, thirteen-iuch tliree-knife safety chaff cutting machine ; double-action haymaking machines of various strengtlis, balance-lever and wheel hand and horse- rakes, two-knite chaff cutters of various sizes for hand power, disc root pulpers, rotating and chain harrows, and patent steel shields for protecting cranks of thrashing machines. Parfitt, Bakxard, ax"d Karvey, Uevizes. — Tliree-and-a- half-horse power portable steam-engine, one-horse power semi- portable vertical steam-engine, three-and-a-half-horse power portable combined thrashing machine ; soda water machine (new implement), containing all the parts usually made into five distinct machines, viz., gasometer, gas generator, pump, and agitator, bottling machine, and lying down press ; large- sized' portable chaff cutter, and newly invented screw-jack to lift two tons. Andrews, Melksham. — Three-and-a-half-horse power port- able steam-engine ; an assortment of new chaff machines, of different sizes, fitted with two and three convex knives, to be worked by horse or steam power ; new compound action mill, to do every kind of crushing and grinding required on tlie farm ; new meat chopping machine on iron frame, one-horse gear work, new horse-rake with iron teeth, double-action haymaking machine, double-lever cheese-press, cheese making apparatus, improved curd mill, oval milk strainer, and medium- sized round milk or whey strainer. Ingram akd Phillips, lordingbridge. — Eight-horsepower portable steam-engine, and ten-horse power horizontal steam- engine. Fox, AYalker, and Co., Bristol. — Six-horse power port- able engine, and ten-horse power horizontal engine. Fowler ajmd Co., Leeds and London. — Eight-horse power set of steam-ploughing machinery, with plough, anchors, rope-porters, and steel rope complete ; and a five fined culti- vator. HiNDLEY, Bourton. — Five-horse power portable steam- engine, eight-horse power horizontal fixed steam-engine, five- horse power finishing thrashing machine ; eider press, apple mill, two sizes of horse gear with three aud four feet horse wheel, chaff cutters for diflereut lengths, single and double cheese presses, one aud two wheel iron ploughs, set of harrows for general purposes, wrought iron cultivator, and smut ma- chine. Underhiil, Newport, Salop. — Six horse power por- table steam engne, six horse power traction engine ; six horse power treble blast portable finishing, thrashing, and dressing machine, elevator, barley horner, and wheat cleaner ; five, seven, and nine tined cultivators ; ridging plough, sets of Bedford and chain harrows, balance-ball horse rake, barrow, and two furrow turnip drills, a bundle of gapping drills ; grub- ber, horse hoe, sheep rack on wheels, sheep trough, cow crib, cattle trough, cheese press ; specimens of poultry and game fence, hand cart for farm or garden, and patent chain drill. Amies, Bareord, and Co., Peterborough. — Eight horse power portable steam engine, American grinding mills on high and low stands for horse or steam power, line of shafting for driving machinery, two sizes of portable farmers' steaming ap- paratus for feeding purposes, oilcake mills for hand, horse, or steam power. An assortment of wrought and cast iron water- ballasting and cylinder garden rollers of various diameter and strength, suitable for parks, cricket grounds, new roads, &c. ; and a set of improved outfall pipes for land drainage. The West or Englajs'd Engineering and Coker Can- vas Company (Limited), Martock. — Two and a half horse power portable steam engine, scutching machine, flax breaking and flax seeding machines, contractors' dust and stone carts, and two pairs of patent wheels. Turner, E. R. and F., Ipswich. — Four and seven horse power portable steam engines, combined thrashing and dressing machines, combined mills for crushing or bruising linseed, oats, malt, and barley in different sizes for horse and steam power, portable American grist and grinding mills, and oilcake breakers. Garrett and Sons, Saxmuudham. — Three and eight horse power portable steam engines, improved thrashing, dressing, and fiuibhiug macliines ; seed, manure, and light occupation corn drills ; improved manure distributors, and improved single- blast thrasliing and rough dressing machine. AvELiNG AND PoRTER, Rochester. — Eight and ten horse power locomotive engines for agricultural purposes, and set of travelling rope porters for steam cultivation. TvxEORD AND SoNS, Bostou. — Ten horse power portable steeple engine with two vertical cylinders, ten horse power im- proved horizontal portable steam engine, three horse power improved portable steam engine, combined treble blast tlirash- ing, shaking, dressing, aud finishing machine. Patent straw elevator (new implement), which can be attached to a thrash- ing machine and made ready for working in five minutes ; Appold's improved centrifugal pump, and a circular-saw talile. Howard, J. and F., Bedford. — Pair of fourteen horse ploughing and traction engines for steam cultivation ; set of steam ciUtivating aud ploughing apparatus ; three furrow double action steam plough ; combined steam ridging and sub- soil ploua;h, set of new steam harrows, mole draining plough for steam power ; Bulstrode's snatch-block sling, an addition to the steam cultivating apparatus worked by a stationary engine ; improved iron water cart for tlie supply of engines used in steam cultivation ; improved traction truck, to carry 5 tons ; iron dwarf, general purpose, heavy iron swing, iron subsoil, double breast or ridging, and potato raising ploughs ; dynamometer or draught gauge for ploughs ; ridging and sub- soil bodies; turnip harrow (new implement), to clean two rows of turnips at once, work close up to the growing plants, cut oft" the weeds, and check the ravages of the fly ; sets of patent flexible two, three, and four-beam handled drag harrows ; wrought iron harrow carriage ; iron horse rakes, and double action haymaking machines. Samuelson and Co., Britannia Works, Banbury. — Self raking and one horse " Eclipse" reaping machines ; combined reaper and mower ; grass and lawn mowing machines ; chaff cutters, and combined chaff cutter and corn bruisers ; single and double action turnip cutters, root pulpers, and double action haymaking machine. Baker, Thomas, Compton, Newbury. — Cylindiical water carts, made of wrought iron, to be drawn by horse or pony, and portable liquid manure cart on wooden wheels, which can be converted into a water cart. Coleman .and Morton, Chelmsford. — Assorted five and seven tined cultivators, for light and heavy land ; Hanson's potato digger ; two horse gear witli intermediate motion for thrashing, grinding, chaft' cutting, and similar purposes ; water cart with wrought iron body for general use, but specially adapted for service in steam cultivation ; self adjusting rope porter, and samples of shares of different patterns and sizes suitable for the cultivators. WiGUTMAN AND Denning, Chard. — Haymaking machines, with aud without rising action ; horse rake ; corn and pulse bruisers for either hand or power ; apple mill and corn bruiser ; sets of pony aud one or two horse gear, ploughs for light and heavy land, root grater, horse hoe, and flax- breaking machine adapted for hand power. Silvester, London. — An assortment of weighing ma- chines or scales, suitable for sheep or pigs, dead or alive, hay, straw, or other farm produce ; an improved nose ring ; ma- chine for sharpening hay knives, sicldes, brush hooks, &c. ; combined washing, wringing, and mangling machine ; and three-motion 2G-gaUon churn. Dodge, London. — An assortment of Indiarubber vulcanized machine baud, hose, tubing, suction hose, double texture waterproof covers, water buckets, deckle straps, ditching and other boots, driving aprons, capes, and coats. Brigham aud Bickerton, Berwick-on-Tweed. — The " Excelsior " self-delivery reaping machine ; and the " Buckey Junior" combined reaping and mowing machine. Bry.vn Corcoran and Co., London. — An assortment of French runner and bed mill stones; smut or wheat- cleaning machine ; case of samples or specimens of woven wire for dressing flour and other articles connected with the paper, corn, flour, and malting trades ; chrondrometer, for ascertaining the weight of corn and seed per bushel ; and a series of useful sundries. Freeman and Hardon, Manchester. — The Royal patent 10 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cake, a compound of fruit and seed; and Ihc original cou- dimented food, a concentrated compound. Gardiner, Gloucester. — A selection of IVeuch runner mill and bed stones ; mahogany and oak millstone stall's and bill liaudles, cast-steel mill bills, and an assortment of macliine wire and brushes. Priest axd Woolxough, Kingston-on-Thames. — Lever corn drills for different widths, and drills for turnips and ma- nure on the tlat and ridge ; manure distributor for damp or dry manure ; grass seed drill for horse power ; and lever and liglit land horse lioes for general purposes. Caiiso>' and Toone, Warminster. — An assortment of cliaff- cutting engines for steam, horse, and hand power ; improved turnip cutters, oilcake crushers, wrought iron horse hoes, single and double cheese presses, safely horse gear mounted on wood and iron wheels, wheel rollers and clod ci ushers, iron field and garden rollers, three-share scarifier, wrought iron and wood ploughs, wood and iron sack trucks, and jointed self-expanding chain harrows. MiLFORD AND SoN, Cullompton. — One and two horse carts, improved spring pleasure or market dog cart, two horse and pair horse plank side waggons and improved lifting jack. Patterson and Co. (Limited), Beverley. — Three sizes of farmers' mill, suitable for bruising, splitting, and grinding every kind of grain and pulse, linseed, cotton seed, &c. Woods and Cocksedoe, Stowmarket. — Three and four horse power vertical steam engines ; portahle corn grinding mills, with and without travelling frames and higli wheels ; universal roller and maltsters' crushing mills ; single and double-action turnip cutters ; improved root pulpers ; oilcake breaker ; one and two horse works, with separate and inter- mediate motion ; a series of perfect pig troughs, in different sizes (new implements), made circular, with divided cups or compartments, so that each pig gets his own proper share ; chatt'cutters ; one horse carts with jointed harvest frames ; one horse reaping macliine, and two horse grass mowers, with reaper attachment. i'uL],ER, S. AND A., Bath. — New patent and fashionable carriages of various shapes. Bamlett, Thirsk, York. — Two horse combined reaping and mowing machine, one liorse reaping machine, and two horse grass mowing machine. Reynolds, London. — A variety of useful and ornamental specimens in galvanized iron wirework, comprising rose tem- ples, rosaries, garden archways, flower-pots, stands, suspending baskets, garden bordering, itc. ; wrought iron dahlia and rose rods, iron garden chairs, rolls of improved poultry and aviary fence, and specimens of galvanized lattice-work. The Beverley Iron and Waggon Co., Beverley. — Two and three-horse reaping-machines, with double self-acting swathe delivery, made to pass through almost any gateway, and commence cutting without having a path prepared ; model, harvest, and light spring or market one-horse carts, of various strengths, to carry from 15 to 30 cwt. ; liquid-manure dis- tributor or water cart ; portable pump, for liquid manure or water; pair-horse waggon to carry three tons, and several pair of patent cart and waggon wheels, with axle, to carry from twenty cwt. to three tons. BoBY, Bury St. Edmunds. — Improved corn-dressing ma- chines ; self-cleaning corn screens, with and without blower ; double-action haymaking machines, with (new implement) one suitable for small occupations ; barley aveUer ; broken-barley extractor (new implement), invented for the purpose of saving the large quantity of barley that is sacrificed for grinding purposes, in consequence of the kernels being broken by the thrashing-machine ; and improved malt and lime or gravel screens. Reeves, R. and J., Westbuiy. — Three, four, and five-row liquid-manure and seed drills ; seven-row patent manure and corn drill ; six, seven, and tliirteen-coulter lever and small- occupation corn drOls ; improved broadcast corn and manure distributors ; single-row and steerage horse hoes ; one and two-wheel iron ploughs ; sets of tubular whippletrees ; steel- tooth horserake, water-cart, portable barrow-pump, safety horse-gear, chaffcntters, new corn screen, thistle destroyer, and model and samples of rick cloths, sacks, &c. Baker, Wisbeach. — Six combined blowing and dressing- machines, for cleaning all kinds of grain and seeds for market. Woods, London. — Two grass-mowing machines, simple in construction and of light draught ; grass-mower, with reaping attachment (new implement), so constructed as to be easily changed from a mower to a reaper, to cut any kind of grass or grain ; two one-horse reaping machines ; and revolving, self- raking, side-delivery reaping machines. Pry, a. and T., Bristol. — Several improved agricultural, harvest, farm, light crank-axle, and water carts ; one and two- horse reaping and combined reaping and mowing machines ; American horserakes, steel-tooth hay-collector, grass-seed and manure drills, sheep rack, and apple mill. Day, Son, and Hewitt, London. — Stock-breeder's medicine-chest, chest of " chemical extract," chest of " gaseous fluid,'.' chest of " red drench or inflammation-powders," chest of " red paste or condition l)alls" for horses ; and copies of three pamphlets on " Key to Farriery," " Rearing of Calves," and " Breeding and Management of Sheep." Kittjier, Lincoln. — Two combined corn-dressing and blowing-machines. PuRRETT, Weston-super-Mare. — Sample-bottles of im- proved cider-colouring and prime champagne eider, and an improved bottle-corking machine. Wilton and Sons, Salisbury. — Lawn-mowing machines of various widths, suitable for use by ladies, boys, or men ; garden rollers, of dift'erent widths ; an assortment of cast and wrought-iron bronzed and galvanized garden seats, chairs, vases, stools, kc. ; assortment of galvanized wire game, sheep, poultry, lattice, and croquet netting ; garden-engines and water-barrows ; assortment of india-rubber hose and tubing, taps, syringes, hydropults, cast-steel forks, fern trowels, fuinigators, water-pots, cut-flower stands, botanical cases, &c. ; Spratt's galvanic-battery lightning-conductor; sausage, mincing, and coffee miUs ; rotary egg-beaters, knife-and-fork cleaners, box churns, carpet cleaners, portaljle refrigerator, ice-chests and freezing-machines, galvanized stable furniture, cliaft'-cuttiug machines, bean and oat mills, iron pumps, weighing-machines, galvanized and wrought-iron domestic cisterns, sheep and cattle troughs, cheese-presses, and dairy-utensils ; a large variety of stoves, grates, and kitchen cooking-apparatus ; and several double fire-resisting chambered boxes and hold-fast safes. Roberts and Sons, Bridgewater. — A numerous selection of " economist" waggonettes, two and four-wheel dog-carts, Malvern and Whitechapel dog-carts, a gadabout, a Dennet gig, and miscellaneous lots of single and double harness, waterproof wrappers, whips, &:c. RowL.vND, Salisbury. — Mash tun and patent mashing ma- chine ; slotting and shaping machine, drilling and boring machine ; circular-saw table and saw, mangle and wring- ing machine, and improved compound action mills. Bentall, Maldou, Essex. — Improved chaft' cutters, for dif- ferent lengths ; root pulpers, turnip cutters, for sheep and cattle ; oatcake mills, oat and bean kibblers, two-horse gear and intermediate motion, single ridge hoe, light iron broad- share, and broadshare cultivator, and subsoil plough. JMiLFORD, Thorverton, Devon. — Improved plankside pair- horse waggon and one-horse cart. Young, J. and T., Ayr. — Two-horse power double driving wheel combined reaping and mowing machine, one-horse power combined reajiing and mowing machine, double drills, turnip and mangold sowing machine, double and single cheese press, and improved curd mill. Lyon, London. — Machine for shelling green peas and broad beans, machines for cutting and ininoiiig meat, fish, vegetables, and poultry, making sausages, cutting carrots, and mincing food for hounds ; pulping steamed roots for feeding pigs, &c. ; chopping knives and cutting boards of various sizes, for suet, bread, and tobacco; improved knife sharpener, and knives for slicing vegetables and apples. Hawkes and Spencer, Tiverton. — Improved pulverizing and general purpose ploughs, horse hoe, eleven and tliirteen- coulter chain and corn drills " Eclipse," and sheaf back deli- very one-horse reaping machines, and improved hay-making machine. Wyatt, Salisbury. — Waggon and cart, designed for agricul- tural purposes and contractors' work. Spong and Co., London. — Sausage and general mincing ma- chine, and kitchen knife and saw combined. The India Rurber Gutta Perciia Co., London. — Vul- canized India-rubber sheets, belting, hose, tubing, speaking pipes, mats, taps, and gutta percha for machinery. PiGGOT Brothers, London, — An assortment of rick cloths THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 41 and hay sheets, of various dimensions ; the " Elcho shoot- screen" for vohmteer corps,^e!ght feet square tent ; six water- proof louver cloths of different colours ; and samples of cart grease. SI5IFS0N AND SoN, Melksham. — Cheese platform, cheese making apparatus, curd miU, oval aud round milk and whey strainers and coolers, milk pails and pans, milk warmers, cream tins, and cheese howls. C!lay, Stennard Works, Yorkshire. — Improved cultivators, eradicators, and grubbers, horse hoes, a nd chain harrows. Nicholson, Newark. — Improved haymaking machines, lioise rakes, and oilcake crushers ; 24-inch garden roller, sack lifter, and weighing machine combined ; twelva-dozen wine rack, and an assortment of tin, corn, and malt shovels. Kendell, J. AND T. H., Blandford, Dorset. — Four and two- horse waggons, one-horse aud pony cart ; corn, turnip, and mangold drills ; iron ploughs; two-wheel land pressor, steer- age horse hoe, and turnip thinner ; sets of common-shaped, zig-zag, and chain harrows ; barley hummeller, sack trucks, water, feeding, and hog troughs, and winnowing machine. Smith, Kettering. — Improved steerage patent and one-row liorse hoes, five-tined grubber and horse hoe, and double blast winnowing aud blowing machines. HuxT.UiLE, Oltery St. Mary. — Haymaking machine (new implement), for working on uneven laud and watered meadows; improved horse rake, and light two-liorse reaping machine. Sawney, Beverley. — Combined winnowing and blowing ma- chines, and improved ■\\iunowcr for small occupations. Cajibridgeand Co., Bristol. — Combined press vi'heel rollers and clod crushers, witli different-sized wheels ; sets of jointed self-expanding and combined tine aud chain harrows ; two- two-wheel land presser, portable two-horse gear and thrashing machine, sets of patent tine harrows, horse rakes, and chaff cutter. Brown and Co., London. — Various sizes of the patent lawn mowing machines for 186G (new implement), with cut- ters of different measurements, to he worked by pony, liorse, or hand ; wrought iron hurdles for sheep and general pur- poses ; specimens of ornamental cast iron vases, round and ilat continuous bar fence, garden scats and chairs, fountains, fencing wire, netting for poultry and game, and bronzed flower stands aud garden tables. Major, H. J. and C, Bridgewater. — An erection for ex- hibiting Sealy's patent treble channelled rooting, corrugated, and other ornamental and paving tiles. Bradford and Co., London and Manchester. — Improved three-horse power vertical steam-engine ; patent " Vowel" washing, wringing, aud mangUng machine, combined and separate, in a variety of sizes and forms ; butter making ma- chines and churns ; linen presses, laundry stove, portable boiler with steamer, and " ]-'hoenix" cinder sifter. Keynes and Co., SaUsbury. — An assortment of brush turnery and brushes for household aud other purposes ; sparrow trap with feeding coop, knife and fork cleaner, a variety of fancy basket work, and selections of malt-kiln, cistern, and barn shovels, seedlips, measuring bushels, &c. Garton and King, Exeter. — Specimens of farm-house, cottage, skeleton, and Cobbett stoves, grates, cooking appara- tus, hot air ventilating stoves, &c. ; an assortment of garden and pleasure ground seats of different lengths and pattern ; loose box, stall, and stable furniture and fittings ; wrought aud cast iron cylindrical, crescent, aud segment boilers for hothouses and otlier buildiugs ; sheep and cattle wire fence, straining posts, wrought iron hurdles and gates, &c., in great variety. James, Cheltenham. — Medal liquid manure distributor (new implement) ; improved liquid manure pumps and distributors, force pumps, water pumps, street water cart, gapping drills, tempering mills, washing, wringing, and clothes' drying ma- chines, patent roller and clod crusher, and assortment of wrought iron cattle troughs, cisterns, and corn bins. Lewis, Salisbury. — Waggonette, and park and pony phaetons. Brown and Co., Bridgwater. — A collection of roofing, Roman, triple, garden, flooring, and malt kiln tUes ; draining and water pipes ; garden pots, vases, sea-kale and rhubarb pots, &c. Barber and Co., Liverpool. — Two combined reaping and mowing machines, aud a mowing machine for two horses. MusGRAVE Brothers, Belfast. — Several full-sized horse stalls with patent fittings, with an assortment of stable furni- ture ; samples of improved cowhouse fittings ; patent iron piggeries ; slow combustion and conservatory stoves ; improved cattle troughs, saddle airers, self-supplying water brushes, and ornamental lamp pillar lor gas. I'arham, Bath. — Specimen of strong six-wire, galvanized strand, round bar and flat bar continuous, and ornamental con- tinuous fencing for cattle, slieep, lawns, and shrubberies, and general purposes ; an assortment of garden, field, and orna- mental entrance gates, made of wrought iron ; an iron framed tent for archery aud cricket grounds ; verandah in seven separate parcels ; lever garden waterer ; improved iron hurdles, wrought iron cattle crib, and iron stable and harness room fittings. Richmond and Chandler, Manchester. — Chaff cutters of ditfereut measurement, adapted for hand, horse or steam power ; corn crushers in four sizes ; one and two-horse gears for driving small machines ; steaming apparatus ; root washers, sackholder, and bread-kneading machines adapted for bakers and others who require to make large quantities of bread. Kiddle, Salisbury. — Three-horse Gloucestershire waggon, improved one-horse Scotch cart, light two-horse Kerry waggon, and improved one-horse cart, all adapted for agriculture and other work. Green and Son, London and Dublin. — An assortment of patent lawn mowing, rolling, and collecting machines, of vari- ous strengths and sizes, to cut from 13 to 36 inches ; and patent garden rollers of different lengths. TtcjK AND Son, Bath. — Three substantial open-fire kitchen ranges for domestic use ; improved harness room stove and boiler, and arch boiler ; lawn mowing machines ; wrought iron pig troughs ; garden archway made of galvanized wire work ; specimens of American " aerial," French spring, " Palmer- ston," and other garden chairs, seats, and tables ; garden en- gines, syringes, li(|uid manure pumps, strained wire and tubular iron fencing, tubidar iron field gate, balustrade raihng, and a cast iron stable or garden pump. Brenton, Cornwall. — One or two-horse patent improved back or side delivery reaping machines ; improved registered slieep rack, excelsior turnwrist plough, and improved portable horserake. Brimsmead, Torrington. — Two patent synchronical thrash- ing reed-making machines, for one aud two-horse power ; aud Child's patent self-exercising nursing chair (new implement), calculated to improve the growth of children and prevent de- formity. Leake, London. — Specimens of razor strops, knife and fork cleaners ; sword, plate, and grate polishers ; rose or aphis brush, sausage machine, carved bread plates, butter prints, paste rollers, and butter beaters, knives, and slicers. Harris, Shaftesbury, Dorset. — General purpose and light land iron ploughs, chaff-cutters, and chain harrows. Browne Brothers, Lyme Regis. — Open or closed cooking apparatus, improved steaming apparatus for cooking every de- scription of food usually boiled ; kitchen ranges, machines for manufacturing ice and ice creams, wine coolers, refrigerators, portable ice-houses, cases of freezing compounds ; a patent advertiser and card distributor (new implement), a novel invention, by which persons can help themselves to pros- pectuses, &c., of the articles advertised without the attendance of advertisers ; and specimens of show cards for the patent advertiser. Ball and Sons, Rothwell. — General purpose, light land, and ridging ploughs ; horse rake, improved iron scufller wiMi seven tines ; sets of iron diagonal and chain harrows ; lii-,iii one-horse and strong two-horse carts for general purposes ; light two-horse waggons, and horse hoes with one aud two wheels. Wood, W., London. — Patent edge tool sharpeners, weighing machines, and magnetic hammers. MiLFORD, Kenn, Exeter. — Improved pair-horse tipping waggon (new implement) for general farm, road,, and harvest purposes ; improved hay or harvest carts, and cart or carriage lifting jacks. The St. Pancras Iron Works, London. — Full-sized models of stable, cow stall, stalls and loose boxes ; an assort- ment of wrought-iron and other stable fittings ; a collection of noiseless halter guide and chains, racking bolts, head stall plates, name plates, burnishes, brackets for harness, halter and rack chains, stable lanterns, saddle airers, corn bins, corn 42 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. measures, stable ventilators, bit cases, &c. ; wrought-iron economic hay-rack ; iron piggery ; specimen of Scott's patent glass walls ; wrought and cast-iron posts, standards, and field gates ; patent bar-iron sheep and cattle hurdles ; v ired hurdles and running fence ; wrought-iron tree guards, carved-iron garden chair, and collection of standards lor wire fencing. Lahkworthy ajXD Co., Worcester. — An assortment of patent " Excelsior" one and two wheel swing, iron moulding or ridging ploughs, for light, heavy, aud hill work ; sets of duck-footed drag harrows ; sets of three aud four-beam " Ex- celsior" harrows ; and sets of steel plough whippletrees. The C.O'.vdi.v2c Washixg Macui^e Compaky, Wor- cester.— Patent Canadian washing, wringing, and mangling machines, separate and combined ; steam power washing ma- chine ; improved American churns, umbrella tent, clothes' dryer, clothes' horse, Indiarubber wringers, aud compound lever and box mangles. Day, Bridgwater. — Double roller apple mill, with stone rollers ; haymaking machine, horse rakes, double and single cheese presses, galvanized iron curd mill, and screw lifting jack. CuLLixGFORP, Stratford. — Sheep folding, garden, drag, rabbit, and bat-folding net, of various widths and mesh ; and roll of galvanized iron wire netting. Clarke and Son, Brackley. — Adjustable scythes (new implement) for light and heavy grass crops, and adjustable scythe for corn only. JoxES, Gloucester. — Composition for waterproofing, soften- ing, and preserving leather of all kinds ; and Gloucestershire specific for foot-rot in sheep. Pierce, London. — Patent semicircular and rectangular wrought iron galvanized cattle and sheep troughs ; hog and pig troughs ; tubular wheelbarrows ; hydropult ; wrought iron tripod and force manure and general service pumps ; wrought iron sack and tubular wheel pristine water barrows ; "Ex- celsior " shepherd's house or granary, and " Excelsior " pig- gery or dog kennel ; samples of tin shovels, galvanized buckets, turnip skips, dry measures, and cattle pans ; round and square corn bins ; patent screens, winnower, counter- balance horse rake, and solid beam harrows. ToMLiNSox AND Hayw.uid, Lincoln. — Packets of butter- powder for improving the quality of butter, &c. ; and patent castor-oil sheep ointment, for curing scab in sheep. Maunder, Ottery St. Mary. — Two reaping macliines, and a haymaking machine. Mahshale, Upton Pyne. — Two, and two or three horse waggon (new implement), with plank sides ; one or two horse cart (new implement) ; and light cart (new implement) for one horse, and equal to one ton and a half. HuTCHiNGS, Exmouth. — Specimens of light sociable, landau, waggonette, and Albert body four-wheel dog carts, for pair or single horse. Hill and Sjiitii, Brierley Hill. — Specimen lengths of patent continuous sheep and ox fence, light and strong ; round and flat-bar ornamental wrought iron hurdles ; wrought iron entrance and field gates, with cast iron piers and pillars ; iron tree guards ; rotaiy gravel screen on wheels ; iron heating and wheel barrows ; specimens of black varnish, and gal- vanized or painted game-proof wire netting ; improved stall divisions for stables, and improved rack manger and water troughs. Turner and Bishop, Leighton Buzzard. — Bedfordshire corn and seed drills, ten-row press lever ; land press ditto for corn, turnip, and manure drills ; grinding mills for horse and steam power, three aud five tined cultivators, hand and horse power thrashing machines, gear work to drive thrasliing machine or chaff cutters, small circular-saw beuch, and oil- cake mills. Greening and Co., Manchester. — An assortment of machine-made iron-wire horse, cattle, sheep, poultry, and game fence, plaiu and ornamental ; galvanized hexagon and diamond pattern netting ; sets of virought-iron sheep and or- namental garden hurdles ; wrought-iron paUsading, farm and carriage gates, tree and plant guards, border-fences, ice. ; iron garden lounges, chairs, stools, tables and vases; iron garden rollers, portable forge, terminal saddle, boiler, hen coops, gar- den engines, galvanized wire baskets for ferns and flowers, jet varnish, and roofing felt. Kent, London. — Rotary knife-cleaning machines of various sizes, champion carpet sweepers, compound action churns, egg whisk and batter mixing machines, sausage machines and mincers, bread cutters, large aud small filters, refrigerators, ice safes, clothes wringers, patent rotary cinder sifter and dust bin combined, washing machines, and a large assortment of small useful articles for domestic use. Gliddon, Taunton. — Prize open fire kitchen ranges and steaming apparatus for large and small occupations, suspension roasting apparatus, heating stoves, enamelled iron bath, and double-action lift aud force pump. Johnston, London. — Variety of butter churns of difi'erent sizes, patent six-foot mangle, butter prints, knives, and beaters. Weir, London. — Y\'ashing, wringing, and mangling machines, dressing room mangle with drawers, gott'ering and crimping machines, workman's and spirit draining levels, single aud double action box and metallic churns ; lactometer, milk syphon, and set of dairy utensils ; mincing, bread-cutting, and fruit crusliing machines ; patent egg whisks and domestic wine presses. Whitmee, London. — Chaff cutting macliines ; oat, beau, corn, and linseed crushers ; corn grinding mills and oorn mill stones ; flour dressing machines, flour nulls, sausage machines, and coifee mills. Wade, Loudon. — Hay fork, clothes wringer, and assort- ment of domestic articles. Smith Brothers, Thrapstone. — Double-action haymakers, steel toothed horse-rake, steerajre corn drills, and single and double grist, oilcake, and bean miUs. Spencer, London. — Patent roller and clod crusher, and lever corn drill. Parn ell, Exeter. — Sets of plated and brass gig and cart harness ; side, hunting, and exercising saddles ; waggon, cart, and horse covers ; waterproof gig apron and neck cloths. Newnham and Son, Bath. — "f5ath Laudau Waggonette," light " Segmental Brougham," " Tout-le-monde" phaeton, and pony, cob, and horse size " Sadabout." Pennan, C. H. and S., Salisbury. — Specimens of orna- mental iron and bronzed garden tables, chairs, vases, flower stands, and wire-work articles ; patent kitcheners, knife clean- ing machines, ranges and stoves, improved cottage mangle,, garden rollers, fieldgates, lawn mowers, single and double clieese presses, weighing machines ; cattle, sheep, dog, and poultry troughs ; house and liquid manure pumps, galvanized roofing iron and wire, and numerous small articles for' domes- tic use. Eddy, Kenford. — Two-wheel light, heavy, general purpose double breast, turn wrest or one way, and pulverized single and double action iron ploughs ; horse hoe for single row, for ridge or flat ; horse rake with steel teeth ; pair of four- beam iron drags i sets of light harrows, iron rotary macliine, and grass seed drills. Barnard, Bishop, and B.usnard, Korwich. — Different sized noiseless lawn mowers ; wrought iron folding, field, gar- den, and park chairs ; and roUs of machine-made galvanized wire netting. CoTTAM AND Co., London. — Portable united cow fitting ; samples of enamelled mangers and harness brackets ; and model of a stable. Vezey, R. and E., Bath. — Victoria cab phaeton, improved waggonette, and dog-cart phaeton. Day and Sons, Shavington. — Plockmasters', dairy far- mrrs', and miniature medicine chests ; purified Driffield oil, black drink, and cow drencher. Whitehead, Preston. — Hand and steam power drain pipe, tUe, and brickmaking machines ; double action brick pressing machines ; and combined pugging and soUd brickmaking machines. Sutton and Sons, Reading. — Large collection of horti- cultural and agricultural seeds, arranged in glass cases and bags ; also natural grasses in pots, and variety of agricultural roots. Carter and Co., London. — Samples of mixed and natural grasses in cases and pots ; and assortment of agricultural and garden seeds, roots, &c. Raynbird, Caldecott, Bawtree, Dowling, and Co. (Limited), London. — Collection of specimens in sheaf and samples of wheat, barley, oats, grasses, and roots ; new forage plants, manures, oilcakes, and feeding stuffs. Beach, Dudley.— Farinaceous food for cattle, condiment for horses, and XX superfine flour. The South of England Manure Company (Limited), Southampton.— Universal manures and dissolved bones. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 43 Mellersii and Jolifje, Lonclou. — An assortment of ma- nures for corn, grass, mangel and roots, licps, &c. ; flour or powder brimstone, aud anti-friction grease. Lewis, Ash, and Co., London. — Samples in hottles and casks of new patent disinfectant, new compound for feeding fruits aud flowers, new basic manure, and series of bottles of chemical compounds. Carson and Son, London. — Samples of anti-corrosion paint, turpentine, varnish, and painting materials. Simpson's Cattle Spice Company (Limited), London. — Variety of canisters aud boxes of Simpson's cattle spice and digestive and condition powders for horses. Page and Co., Bedford. — Drain-pipe and tile-machine, root- pulpers, linseed-cake-mills ; hand, horse, or steam power chaff- cutting machines ; horse-rakes aud horse-hoes ; sets of twitch and diagonal harrows ; pony, light one-horse, one-horse, light general, and general purpose wrought-iron wheel ploughs ; scufflers, whippletrees, and wrought-iron galvanized pig troughs. Rollins, London. — American and revolving horse-rakes, mounted grindstones, cast-steel hay and manure forks, Ameri- can thermometer churus, garden and railway harrows, and " Little Giant" wheel jack. COLTHURST, Symons, AND Co., BridgQwater. — Facsimiles of " Royal Flemish Farm," showing covering of patent Roman tiles, ridging with patent ridge tiles, and sheeting with patent eaves tiles. Perkins and Bellamy, Ross. — Wrought-iron balance power aud hand carts, and combined and single iron sheep rack and troughs. Page, Morchard Bishop. — Light two aud one horse reap- ing machines. * Ireland, Manchester. — Four, six, eight, twelve, sixteen, and forty gallon patent three motion churns ; wood model, full size, of terminal saddle boiler. TOPHAM, London. — Assortment of sausage making and mincing machines, and a variety of small articles for agricul- tural and domestic service. Sainty, Lynn. — Combined corn-diill and horse-hoe, sheep trough, and nailless horseshoes. Russ, Brentwood. — Two patent irrigators. Cook, Salisbury, — Specimens of white building and hard clinker bricks. Blinkhorn and Hill, Spalding. — Patent double-acting brigade and farm fire engine, garden engines, and pumps. Burrow, Exeter. — One and two horse reaping machines. M'Kenzie and Sons, Dublin and Cork. — Specimens of fence for folding sheep. THE ANNUAL MEETING took place on Wednesday, the Earl of Portsmouth pre- siding. Mr. Goodwin, the secretary, read the annual report, which congratulated the society on an increase of 38 members, there being now 1,141 in the society. The financial report shows an increase of £514 in the cash balance, £.923 iu Consols, and the plant is valued at £2,891. The report declared the implement exhibition unparalleled, and the show of horses superior to all former shows. Mr. St. John Maule was elected by acclamation a life mem- ber. Lord Falmouth was appointed President, and Lord Polti- more and Mr. Page, M.P., Vice-Presidents for the ensuing year. The old members of Council going out of office were re-elected, the following new members being elected : Eastern Division, Mr. Henry Robertson, Over Stowey. Western, Mr. R. R. Daw, Exeter; Mr. R. Hicks, Bodmin; Mr. E. B. Willyams, St. Columb. Mr. Knollys then introduced a motion which led to con- siderable discussion for rescinding the 7th rule, in order to hold the show for '67 in Salisbury, as the citizens had readily subscribed the £900, and placed the show-ground promptly in the hands of the Council iu the expectation that there would be a show of cattle. A memorial, signed by 500 inhabitants of Salisbury, in favour of the motion was put in. Mr. Pitman seconded the proposition. Mr. G. Poole, on moving an amendment, leaving it optional to the Council to decide if they will show at all next year, but requesting them to visit Salisbury if they do have a meeting, said he was afraid members of the Council were committed to a promise to come again to Salisbury ; but if rinderpest continued, and unless there was a better financial prospect than they now had, it might be desirable not to hold a show next year. Mr. Drewe seconded the amendment. After some discussion the amendment was put, when 14 voting for it, aud a good many more against it, it was lost. Mr. Gordon moved an amendment, the effect of which would be to give the show to Salisbury whenever held. For this on a show of hands the numbers were equal, 26. Mr. Knollys' resolution was then agreed to nem, con., and a vote was passed to the chairman. THE DINNER, held on the same day in a circular pavilion in the yard, was very thinly attended. Lord Portsmouth presided, supported on the right by the Marquis of Bath, and by the Mayor of Salis- bury on the left. Earl Portsmouth, on rising to respond for the society, bore testimony to the fact that it had been the hearty desire and endeavour of every member of the council to promote the interests of the western counties and the prosperity of this so- ciety. The revival of this society had been a great boon to the whole western district. He spoke now as a landowner, and he would say that a great debt of gratitude was due from them all to his honourable friend Mr. T, D. Acland, for the steps which he had taken to revive the society, and which had proved so completely successful. Regretting the absence of Mr. Acland from that meeting, his lordship went on to point out some of the benefits which the society had conferred on the district, particularly aUudiug to the encouragement it had afforded to local implement manufacturers, and to the general use into which good implements were now brought tlirougji- out the south-western counties. The council made every exertion to get together at those shows an instructive exhibi- tion of good implements and good stock. He could not pass unnoticed the compliment paid him as president of the society. He certainly felt it to he his duty to do his utmost to promote agriculture, and he did not know that he could do it more use- fully than by supporting the Bath and West of England Agri- cultural Society. He must not forget to thank his brother- members of the council for the assistance they had invariably rendered him during his year of office. AVithout that aid they could not have seen the society in its present flourishing con- dition. Long might it flourish, and he trusted that next year they might have even a better gathering than they had that day seen. Mr. T. F. Grove, M.P., proposed " Success to the Royal Agricultural Society," to which Mr. Milward responded. THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF IRELAND. THE HALF-YEARLY MEETING OF THE SOCIETY was held in Dublin, on Thursday, June 7, the Earl of Erae in \ Bart., Sir Robert Paul, Bart., Lientenant-General Hall, C.B. the chair. The members present were : Lord Clonbrock, Lord Crofton, Lord James Butler, Hon. Charles J. Trench, Hon. Bowes Daly, Hon. Charles Preston, Hon, St. John Butler,Sir George Hodson, William Donnelly, C.B., Phineas Riall, L. Bland, Q.C., W. Fetherston, H. Charles Cannon, J. Kincaid, Robert Wade, W. S. Purdon, Charles C. Vesey, M. O'Reilly Dease, John Borth- wick, Edward Purdon, J. M. Royse, Hans H, Woods, D.L., u THE PAEMER*S MAGAZINE. James Ganly, J. F. Byrne, Leopold C'ust, J. G. Dawson, A. G. Grayilon, James Brady, C. N. Townsend, S. M'Oullocli, Alex- ander S. Dean, A. E. Bagot. The minutes having been read and confirmed, Captain Thonhill read the following Report for thk H.\.lf-year ending May, ISGG. " In presenting the half-yearly report of the proceedings of the Society, your Council feel pleasure in stating that forty-nine members have been elected to your Society since the last half- yearly meeting. " The local fanning societies, in connection with the parent society, continue to reader assistance in introducing a system of farming more suited to the country than lias been heretofore adopted. Through their instrumentality your Society had dis- tributed among the tenant farmers the sum of £298, besides lOi' second-class medals. " Since the last general meeting a special meeting of the Society was called for the purpose of considering the necessity of establishing a cattle insurance company, to compensate the owners of cattle dying by the cattle-plague, or being killed to stamp out the disease, should it unfortunately visit this country. In pursuance of the notice issued, the meeting took place ; but owing to the subject having been discussed in Parliament in the interval of the fourteen days' notice, which according to the otli rule should be given, the meeting, according to your 21st rule, was debarred considering the subject. Your Council have considered it necessary to recommend to you that the following alterations should be made in the general rules of the Society : " ith rule, last paragraph. — The subscription of new mem- bers, elected subsequent to 1st of November in any year, to entitle theni to all the privileges of membership until 31st December in ensuing year, shall read — new memljers elected subsequent to the last Tlmrsday in Odoher in any ycai'. " 5th rule, last paragraph. — The Council may at any time call an extraordinary general meeting, on giving fourteen days' notice, shall read — on giving seven days' noiicc. " 6th rule. — Every general meeting of the Society shall be publicly advertised a fortnight, shall read — seven days. " 7tli rule. — The president and vice-presidents shall be an- nually elected, and selected from annual subscribers, life mem- bers, or donors of £1U0 to the funds of the Society, at the first half-yearly meetings of the Society, and the names of persons recommended for those oflices by the Council shall be exhibited in the secretary's office one mouth previous to the said half- yearly meeting, shall be altered to — The president, vice- presidents, shall be annually elected and selected from annual subscribers, life members, or donors of £100 to the funds of the Society, at the meefiny of the Council held in December, and the names, &c. " liith rule. — Your Council recommend that the last para- graph of this rule be omitted, commencing from — the Council may also hold weekly meetings, to the end. " 19th rule. — >»'o general rule of the Society shall be re- scinded, suspended, or altered except at one or other of the half-yearly stated meetings of the Society, and tlien only upon the recommendation of the Council, adopted at a meeting, and promulgated by pulilic notice to the members of tlie Society one fortnight previously, shall read — seven days previously. "The annual cattle-show of your Society was fixed to be held in Dublin for 18(56. Your Council have given the subject deep consideration, and a diversity of opinions has been ex- pressed as to the propriety of holding one. It was brought before your Council by resolution, and very fully discussed, when it was decided on a division that there should not be any show in 1866, owing to the rinderpest, which was, and still is, raging in the sister countries, which decision will, we trust, meet with the approval of the meeting. " In consequence of alleged cases of rinderpest having manifested themselves at Drennan, in the county of Down, towards the end of April, the cattle - plague committee of your Council was called together on the 16th May inst, and adopted certain resolutions, caUiug upon the executive to direct that Drs. Maypother and Foot might be associated with Professor Ferguson, for the purpose of making a posf-morteni examination of any animals that might subsequently be attacked. " A deputation from such committee accordingly waited upon the Under-Secretary on the same day, and strongly re- presented that such combined action would be most desirable. To this request no reply has yet been received. " Your council have again to express their regret at the total want of competition tliis year for the Leiuster Challenge Cup and the provincial gold medals for newly-erected la- bourers' cottages and improved previously-existing houses ; neither are there any competitors for the Talbot de Malahide Challenge Cup for farm-buildings suitable for fifty-acre farms, nor for the Associates' medals. " Your council have made important alterations and modifi- cations in the conditions under which the above prizes can be competed for, and hope to obviate any such complaint for the future. "The Government has again placed a sum of £3,000 at the disposal of a joint committee of the lloyal Dublin and Royal Agricultural Societies, for the purpose of encouraging improved tlax-culture in Munster and Connaught. The committee have had several meetings, and have now thirty-eight competent men employed in as many poor-law unions in the two pro- vinces. The committee of last year have issued their report ; and the result of their labour appears most satisfactory. " Annexed is the report of the analyses made by Professor Apjolin for the members of your Society for the last twelve months. " ' Report of Profe.ssor Apjoiin, Chemist to the Society. "'During the half-year ending with January, 1S66, I find that nineteen analyses were completed and reported upon. The subject of one of these was a good Peruvian guano ; six were damaged guanoes ; three were superphosphates ; three were manures of a saline nature ; three were linseed-cakes ; one a sample of kelp ; one an Ichaboe guano ; and one a water-plant which has been brought to this country from Canada, and which has multiplied in some districts to such a degree as to prove a considerable nuisance. " ' The damaged guanos were originally of good quality, but had their respective values considerably reduced by contact with water. " 'The liuseed-eakes were also good ; and the same may be said of tlie superphosphates, which had an average money- value of about £9 9s. per ton. " ' The chemical work done in my laboratory for the Society is always less from July to January than from January to July ; but I may observe that it augments from year to year, and that its increase has been unusually great since January last — in fact, so considerable that, should it continue, 1 fear it will be scarcely possible for me to perform, under the exist- ing arrangements, the work which I have undertaken for the Society. Since February last I have made fourteen analyses for one member of the Society, and for a second eight. " ' In the reports which I make of the results of ray experi- riments, I am in the habit of giving not only the per-centage composition of the matters analyzed, but also their money- value ; and this latter information is, I believe, very acceptable to some ntembcrs of the Society. It is right, hoviever, it should be known that the values of the proximate constituents of manures, though subject to variation, are treated by me as cunstauls, and that, therefore, the money-values which I give are not always nhsolnicly correct. Notwithstanding this drawback, they give with exactness the relative values, and show with ])recision how much one variety of manure may be considered to exceed or fall short of another in fertilising in- fluence. To correct in every instance the constants used, ac- cording to the prices of the day, would be nearly impractic- able, and, I may add, unnecessary for putting the farmer in possession of such information as would enable him to under- stand the real value of the manures which he may desire to purchase. " ' I am, dear sir, faithfully yours, " ' James Apjohn.' " Your council have to report that they have increased the salary of the very efficient Secretary, Captain Thornhill, from £200 to £250 a year, and are happy to state that the finances THE FAEMBR'S MAGAZINE 45 of yoixr Society are in a very satisfactory condition, as sliown by the balance-sheet annexed." Annual Statement of the Receipts and E.rpendHnre of the Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland for the year 1865. DR. By balance to credit last account Subscriptions received from 908 members for the year, up to 1st ilay, 1866 Lodgment to tlie credit of the Society from the Local Committee of Clonmel Show A year's interest on £5,585 58. 9d. at 3 per cent., less income tax ... f l&l 15 i Half j'Car's interest on £-138 Is. 9d. at same rate 6 5 3 Interest on two Deposit Receipts ... 922 £270 1 91 1,376 15 0 500 0 0 Lodgment from Joint Flax Committee of 186^1 for Stationery used Ijy them in ofhce of this Society 1 0 0 £2,327 19 6i £193 15 0 218 8 6 212 10 0 100 0 0 80 0 0 29 18 0 26 0 0 51 11 3J 25 18 7 131 8 6 29 10 10 12 17 0 40 0 0 -£1,154 18 874 15 3 ESTABLISHMENI^ CR. To Money Premiums awarded through Local Societies Medals for same £183 Is., and for Parent Society £35 7s. Cd Secretary's Salary for year Chemist's do. do Accountant's do. do Mr. Callinan's gratuity Hall Porter's Wages Lithographing £35, Advertising £12 19s. 6d., and Stationery £3 lis. 9id. '.. Postage Rent £130 8s. 6d., Insurance £4 ... Office Furniture and Painting ... Incidental exjienses Prizes for Essays on Farming A^fNUAL N.iTioN.iL Snow- Judges', Stewards', and Directors' expenses at Show Mr. Corrigan's exi^enses £13 17s. 6d., and gratuity £10 Secretary's e.xpenses Accountant's do Premiums awarded and paid Printing and Advertising Badges and Drafting Catalogue ... For Plans and Specifications MlSCELL.^^NEOrS^ Arrears of Premimns of 1864 paid Rent of Room and Advertising for Cattle Plague Committee Expenses of Judges of Labourers' Dwellings Inserting Subscribers by Counties in Thom's Directory 56 15 10 Balance to credit 241 10 3 £2,327 19 6i Donation Fund in 5 per cent. Stock £5,585 5 9 Examined by the finance committee, and found correct. CHARLES C. VESEY, ") Members of C. J. TRENCH, \ the Fin.auce WILLIAM DONNELLY, ) Committee. We have carefully examined the above accounts, and com- pared the vouchers with the items, and find them to Ije perfectly correct. ROBERT MOLLOY, -^ Auditors V. O'B. O'CONNOR, J Auaiiors. Dublin, 25th May, 1866. The lion. St. John Butleu said it aflbrded him great pleasure to move the adoption of the report, aiul he hoped the members would agree with him in thinking that it was a most flattering as well as an encouraging report. If they looked at it in a financial point of view, the report spoke for itself. He did not recoUect seeing the society in the same position, financially or otherwise, as it was that day. The society at large, he conceived, were largely indebted to the council for the manner in whieli they had transacted their business, and the zeal which they had manifested in promoting its welfiire. Sir George Uodson, in seconding the motion, observed that lie had nothing to add to what had been already stated^ £101 8 10 23 17 20 10 7 14 659 0 53 14 4 5 4 4 6 11 0 0 6 6 0 £20 0 0 8 9 8 15 14 2 12 12 0 further tlian to remark upon certain alterations which had been made in some of the rules, to which they refpiested the sanc- tion of the general meeting. It was proposed to change the fifth rule, which heretofore required fourteen days' notice to be given before calling a general meeting of the society ; and the council asked to be permitted to do so on seven days' notice. The reason for that was, that events sometimes oc- curred when it would have been desirable to have discussed some matters, on giving seven days' notice, which it was found impossible to do under the existing rule of the society, which required fourteen days' notice to have been given. The four- teen days, it so happened, occupied a space between the date of the notice and the assembling of Parhament, which rendered it impossible for them to discuss a matter at that distance of time, which otherwise they should have discussed at an earlier period ; and for that reason they wished that in future seven davs would be considered sulticient notice. The other altera- tion proposed was a change in the 19th rule, which referred pretty much to the same thing. AVhen that rule was adopted, a great many years ago, the capability of locomotion was very far fron; what it was at present, and it was very desirable that tliey should have the power of giving as quick a notice as possible to the members throughout thecountry toassemlileaud discuss any matter of importance which might arise. He did not think there was any other matter in the report with which he should trouble the meeting, and therefore he would conclude l)y seconding the adoption of the report. Mr. RovsE said he believed that was the time for moving an amendment to the report ; but inasmuch as circumstances had altered since he intended to adopt that course, he would not do so. However, he thought it was a matter of great im- portance that the subject to which he alluded should not be passed over at a general meeting of the society, and that was a paragraph in the report in which it was stated that the council had decided on not holding their annual cattle-show this year. At the time he intended to move a direct negative to that resolution, they had no rinderpest in the country ; now it was said to have made its appearance amongst us, and, under these circumstauces, he did not intend to move the amendment ; but lie thunght that it was a matter for consideration whether an exhibition for horses, sheep, implements, and pigs should not be held early in the month of September, on the same princii)le as the horse-show was held by the Royal Dublin Society. By doing so it would atl'ord a great many members who usually supported them in holding their shows an opportunity of exhibiting and purchasing. He therefore thought the Society should suggest to the Council to take the matter into their consideration ; for really he did not like opposing a report which was in every respect so worthy of the Society, the adoption of which had been pro- posed and seconded by such influential members. However, having been asked to bring forward the subject by many re- spectable members, he thought it right to do so, and he would now leave it in the hands of the meeting, to deal with the matter as they thought most prudent. He would omit the latter portion of the paragraph in question, substituting in its stead, " "We consider that it would be advisable to hold an exhibition of horses, sheep, implements, and pigs, which exhi- bition should not prevent the Society from holding their an- nual show in Dublin next year," He would exclude cattle altogether. Tlie Society could hold their annual show in Dublin next year, and this was simply to aflbrd an opportu- nity of having a show next September for other articles which were usually exhibited. He trusted that the meeting quite understood the motive which actuated him in bringing forward this question. It was not for the purpose of opposing the re- port in any way whatever, but rather that such an important question should be canvassed and discussed, and finally settled by the meeting. Mr. FETnERSTONEn.\.UGn, in seconding the motion, said he knew from his own experience that once they allowed the excitement to cease, for however short a time, they would find their subscriptions rapidly diminisliing. No danger could be apprehended of bringing the rinderpest into the country wlien they excluded bovin.t animals from the show. In his humble opinion, the Society would suffer exceedingly in many respects, particularly in the diminution of its funds, if a sliow was not held in Duljhn this year. Mr. AVade said he did not rise exactly for tlie purpose of opposing Mr. Royse's motion, but to offer a few observations 46 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. why he couceived it would lie uuwise for the meeting to adopt it. In the first place, it did not fall entirely under the power either of that meeting or the Council to decide on holding such a show as that which Mr. Royse had sketched out for them. Gentlemen must he aware that for any show held here the local committee was responsible for the expenditure incurred and likewise for an amount of £500 wliich they subscribed to tlie Society in aid of the premiums that might be offered for the show. They had a very good ^arantee from influential and wealthy gentlemen in Dublin, guaranteeing the arrangements for the show-yard, guarantee- ing to the Society a sum of £500, and guaranteeing that they should have proper provision made for holding the show, free of any expense to the Society. Uuder that guarantee those gentlemen were not compelled" to hold the diminishable sliow proposed to be held. They might turn round and say to the Society that they guaranteed the £500 if tliey held a cattle show ; but if they had only a sheep, pig, fowl, and implement show, it appeared to them that it would be a financial failure, and it would be of no adequate benefit to the country, or such as would warrant them in collecting subscriptions, or that they should put their hands in their pockets to make good what had been guaranteed for different circumstances. For these reasons he did not think the meeting could come to any sliding reso- lution on the subject. He couceived that if the Society held any show this year in Dublin, by that act it would be pre- cluded from the" right of holding its show here next year, no matter how stripped of its wings that show might be. If it was of advantage that a show such as Mr. Royse described sliould be held — and he couceived it would be useful to do so — it must be done by a local committee in Dublin, independently of the society, without any further aid from the society than such as individual members would be ready to give and ready to yield; but he urged the meeting, however anxious they might be to hold such a show, not to bind the council to adopt a course which would in any way interfere with the right to hold the show in Dublin next year. Mr. M. O'Reilly Dease did not think the members would feel otherwise than grateful to Mr. Royse for the temperate manner in which he had introduced the subject. The council had given the question their most anxious consideration, and what weighed most with them Nvas a disineliuatiou to incur the responsibility of doing what might, unfortunately, he the means of introducing tlie plague into Ireland. He thought it would be almost an absurdity, in the presence of so much danger, to continue their operations as if there was no such danger impending ; and he hoped the meeting would confirm the decision at which the council had arrived, after mature and careful consideration. Mr. Fowler said he was one of those who liad opposed the proposition of holding the show in Dublin, in con.^equence of the responsibility thrust on the council, as he thought it was more advisable that the responsibility should rest on members of the society at large. It now rested with the meeting to do as they deemed proper. Since the rinderpest liad come into the country there was a stronger reason for opposing the pro- ject. He agreed with Mr. Wade that if they held any kind of a show here this year, it would be giving up their privilege of holding it in Dublin next year ; and besides that, it would not obtain t]mt jiresUffe which usually attended the shows of the society. Lord Clokbrock observed that he was also one of those who had opposed the holding of the annual cattle-show this year, and he did so when the disease was not so near home as it appeared to be now. He conceived that it would be unwise, in the present state of the country, to incur the responsibility of bringing cattle in large numbers together. If he was of that opinion then, he was more convinced of its prudence now. As to the proposal to hold a diminished show in Dublin this year uuder the auspices of the society, he quite agreed with what had fallen from Mr. Wade. To have a cattle-show with- out cattle would be like playing the play of " Hamlet" without the part of Hamlet. He hoped the meeting would not give instnrctions such as would render it imperative on the council to take any steps in the matter. It would be better, he thought, if it was deemed advisable to hold a diminislied show in Ireland, such as that suggested, that it should be held under other auspices than that of the society. . Mr. Royse intimated that as he had now attained tlie object he had in view, he would withdraw his amendment, The motion for the adoption of the report was then put from the chair, and adopted unanimously. Mr. Blajjd, Q.C, said he had a suggestion to make to the Council, as the matter had been now settled in a manner in which he perfectly concurred ; for as he feared the cattle plague had made its appearance in some parts of Ireland, it would not be judicious to hold their cattle show in Dublin this year. It was necessary, he thought, for the well-being, not only of tlie Royal Agricultural Society, but of agriculture ge- nerally, as they had resolved not to hold their cattle show this year, that increased encouragement should be given to local societies that might, in their judgment, determine to hold their shows throughout Ireland. If the Royal Agricultural So- ciety lay dormant in 18G6, when the Government had with- drawn its grant to the Royal Dublin Society for agricultural purposes, the existence of that Society would not only be en- dangered, but a deep wound would be inflicted on agriculture generally in this country ; and, therefore, he would suggest to the Council the necessity of giving increased encouragement to local societies, by granting larger sums for the growth of better corn and turnip crops. Let the Royal Agricultural So- ciety show that it was not neglectful of the interests of the country, and take means to promote its utility and use its in- fluence. Mr. M'CuLLOCii, in seconding the motion, urged the ne- cessity of their giving some stimulus to the local societies, who had done much to improve the breed of stock in their several districts, although many of them found it difficult to make their incomes meet their outgoings. Any additional stimulus given by the Royal Agricultural Society would be a great boon, and a great advantage to Ireland in general. Sir George IIodson, Bart., remarked tliat, in the absence of any formal resolution, he might be permitted to say that the Coimcil would feel disposed to concur in the view suggested, so far as an increased encouragement of roots was concerned — not that they should increase the amount given to any local society to bring cattle together, but to bear in mind that any reserve fund they would have would be with great advantage applied to the uses referred to by Mr. Bland. Mr. Bland stated that he had no objection to apply his resolution to crops. Any surplus funds of the Society would, he thought, be well applied to the encouragement of the growth of roots or green crops, leaving to the Council the mode in which it should be applied. He would move the adoption of the following resolution : — " Resolved — That inasmuch as no cattle show under the auspices of the Royal Agricultural Society is to be held in the year 1866, that the incoming Council should take into their consideration the propriety of giving increased encourage- ment to the growth of green crops iu Ireland, so far as the funds of the Society may be available, leaving the mode and manner of such encouragement to the incoming Council, either through the influence of local societies or otherwise." Mr. Wade, iu order to remove any erroneous impressions, desired to state that the sum they would have on hands this year, by not holding a show, would be little more than £300, and, therefore, it should not be supposed by the public iu general that all the funds expended on the large agricultural shows which they held, amounting to £2,000 or 3,000, were saved by not holding the show. The gross sum they saved by not holding the show this year was £350. Anything that was done in the co.untry in the way of encouraging the growth of green crops was attended with great expense, because they ex- tended over a vast area, and must be inspected by gentlemen appointed for that purpose, thus entailing a considerable outlay. Mr. M. O'Reili Y Dease suggested that Mr. Bland, having heard the opinion expressed by Sir George Hodson, should withdraw his motion, so as not to hamper the new council with it. The resolution was, however, put to the meeting, and, on a division being taken, was carried by a considerable majority. Lord Croeton said an expression had fallen from one of the speakers in reference to the expenses that might accrue from inspection of the green crops. That might be obviated very much by means of the local society, so that those dis- tricts which had not a local society were not worthy of their consideration. Sir George Hodson, Bart., moved the appointment of office-bearers, which are the same as last year : and that they THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 47 hold office until the 81st of December, instead of until May, 1867, as heretofore. The motion, having been seconded, was put to the meeting, and carried. Mr. KiNCAiD moved that the alterations of Rules 4, 5, 6, 7, 13, and 19 be adopted. • Mr. Featherston H. seconded the resolution, which was passed. A vote of thanks having been passed to the auditors, Messrs. V. O'B. O'Connor and L. R. Molloy, the meeting separated. THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. THE SUPPLY OF MEAT TO LARGE TOWNS. At the weekly meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, on Wednesday, May 30, Mr. Thompson in the chair, Mr. Herbert read a brief paper on the " Supply of Meat to Large Towns," it being intimated that the subject would be treated by him in a more copious manner in the .Society's Journal. Mr. Herbekt said : The long agitated questioa whether it is possible to furnish the Metropolis with adequate supplies of meat for consumption without tbe aid of a live-stock market, evidently requires a solution at the hands of practical men. On the one hand, it has been argued that there would not be the slightest difficulty in providing for the wants of nearly 3,000,000 of people by means of slaughter in the provinces ; and, further, that many of the difficulties which surround the live-meat question would be got rid of. There are so many interests involved in the question before us, that I purpose en- tering into a few details bearing upon a matter which affects the interests of the consuming classes. In the first place, let us see whether it is possible, at all periods of the year, to fur- nish the Metropolis with say, 1,500,000 additional carcases of sheep, and 250,000 additional carcases of beasts, irrespective of lambs, calves, and pigs, in a wholesome and saleable con- dition ? The numbers 1 have here quoted represent the aver- age supplies of live stock annually disposed of in the great ]\ietropolitau Cattle Market. It is well known that the graziers themselves have little or no accommodation on their respective farms for slaughtering cattle. So that it would be found necessary to erect in the neighbourhood of large towns abattoirs of no small dimension to prepare the meat for transmission per railway. If we take the Norfolk season, m'C should find that about 13,000 Ijeasts would be killed at Norwicli during the first six months of the year. Colchester and other towns would require abattoirs for a portion of the Essex breeds ; whilst during the last six months, the slaughtering ot stock would be chiefly carried on near Lincoln, Peterborough, &e. The dilficnlties in this respect would not be great ; but we have to consider two important points — as regards the con- veyance of the meat to London, and the cost of carriage. Nay, more, we must not forget to consider how, and upon what terms the offal is to be disposed of, in possibly localities for which there is very little demand. It is well known, not- withstanding the amount of competition between the various companies, that the charges for the conveyance of dead meat to London exceed those for live stock by nearly or quite two- thirds. During the period that the movement of live stock to London was prohibited, those charges, which of course, en- tered into the retail price, were severely felt by the consumers. There would, of course, be no diffienlty for the great lines in carrying any quantity of meat ; but who does not know that country-killed qualities invariably sell at low quotations compared viath those realised for meat slaughtered in the Metropolis, notwithstanding that quahties are equal ? Besides, other objections might be easily urged against the proposed system. Naturally, the grazier would have imposed upon him a great additional amount of trouble. He would require honesty of purpose on the part of those to whom he might intrust his stock ; he would require separate accounts of the weight of each carcass, and the price at which the offal was disposed of. Again, he would liave to run the risk of violent fluctuations in the value of meat in the dead markets, and of absolute losses from the carcasses arriving in the metropohs in warm weather in bad condition. But how is the offal to be disposed ofP Additional tanneries, soap- works, and boHing-houses would be necessary in the vicinity of large towns, and the organization of a system which would be highly expensive. You may have the offal in various localities ; but how can it be consumed ? Admitting that a portion of it were used on the spot for local purposes — what is to become of the remainder P In London it is easily disposed of : hence, agents would be despatched from the metropolis to purchase rough fat, hides, skins, &c. ; but, owing to the heavy railway charges, they could only offer miserably low prices for them. But it may be said that the proposed system has long worked well in Scotland, Yorkshire, and the west of England, from whence we have long drawn very large quantities of dead-meat for consumption in the metropolis. But it must be understood that the offal in Scotland, Yorkshire, and the west of England is readily used up. Most of the wool and hides produced in Scotland are converted into use ; whilst in the west of England, nearly the whole of the supplies of pork are converted into bacon, hams, and lard for London consumption. Nay, more, the immense importations of pigs into Bristol from Ireland are slaughtered for the same purpose. AA'ith all these objections before us, it is possible, with the necessary facilities in London for the sale of dead-meat, to supply London from distant localities with an adequate supply of meat. But this can only l)e done in cold weather, or say during six months of the year. During the rest of the season, a live-meat market would be in- dispensably necessary, or we should have an amount of loss which would far exceed that sustained by the cattle plague. Earl Cathcart felt very much indebted to Mr. Herbert for his observations, and thought it must be satisfactory to the meeting to have had the discussion opened by a man of such practical knowledge, and who had written so much on the subject. It appeared to him that the real question raised by Mr. Herljert was as between live and dead-meat markets. They ought not to lose sight of the fact that, long before the cattle-plague was thought of, the idea was entertained that, in consequence of the introduction of steam and railway convey- ance, great alterations would take place in the dead-meat markets of large towns. Now the important point which they had to consider, in the first place, was the great increase which had marked the progress of the population, and the limited extent of the area of this country, and which had necessitated very considerable importations from abroad. There were about twenty millions of people in England aud Wales ; and he found by the last Cattle Census that the number of cattle within those limits was under four millions. Therefore, if the cattle in this country were divided amongst the population, there would be about one-fifth of an ox, or beast, for each per- son ; so that, if we were dependent for meat upon England and Wales alone, that number of beasts would not hold out for a month. Hence, our great reliance was upon lai-ge imports from abroad — a state of things which must tend very much to increase the dead-meat markets, because it would be unsafe, owing to the existence of the cattle-plague on the Continent, to have foreign beasts travelling through the country on our railways, without a system of quarantine ; and, rather than have quarantine, the establishment of abattoirs and slaughter- houses at the ports of debarkation would be preferred, where the foreign cattle might be slaughtered aud sent to London as dead meat. With regard to what Mr. Herijert had said re- specting offal, he had himself witnessed the difficulty expe- rienced in large meat-markets of transporting offal It was packed in baskets, and sent in a most disgusting state ; but he saw no reason why traveUing larders should not be constructed, in which the offal might be hung up and be supplied with a free circulation of air, so that it might arrive at its destination in fair con- dition. Something had been said about railway charges; and he really thought it au unjust proceeding to make capital 48 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. out of what was a public calamity by charging higher rates for the carriage of dead meat thaa for the carriage of live. He was willing, however, to attribute tliis to the possible cir- cumstance that new arrangements had not yet got into work- ing order, and he presumed that the tariff for the conveyance of'^dead meat would be in proportion to that for live, when the thing had been more fully developed. "With reference to the statelnent that country-killed meat did not look so well as that which was slaughtered in London, he would observe that the " look" was not everything. " The proof of the pudding was in the eating ;" and "he questioned much whether the London polished meat— that was to say, meat that was polished up with warm water, grease, and other stuff, just as an old apple- woman at a stall polished her fruit every morning— was really so good as the country meat. But there was no doubt that the system of polishing and other niceties and refinements which were so well understood in Loudon would also become familiar in the country, as soon as it was discovered tliat it was worth while to resort to it. In alluding tD the difficulty there was iu regulating prices, Mr. Herbert had left out of account the service which the telegrapli might render. It v,as hardly possible to over-rate the importance of its agency in reference to this matter, and a practical man had informed him that they were perpetually telegraphing from Newgate :Market with regard to the supply of dead meat. A telegram was sent dowu,"say, to Aberdeen; and the cattle, which were all ready for slaughtering, were at once despatched and sent off by railway. There was a curious circumstance connected with the London market and the subject of offal. It was that beef- fat was regularly sent on its travels into other lands, and when it came hack it was not in its original shape, but as tallow. Mr. Herbert remarked that it was purchased in London by the Dutch ; and being carried into Holland, it was there converted into butter and tallow, and in that form was re- turned to London. Earl C.VTHCART : That was an agreeable piece of informa- tion to impart to the consumers of butter. Moreover, if they knew how the " roast beef of old England" was poured into Newgate market, he did not think they would relish it as they did now. Mr. Herbert had referred to the subject of com- petition ; and he believed that all authorities were agreed that a central metropolitan market must be estabhsbed, because of the necessity for having the means of regulating prices. If there were many ineat-inarkets prices might greatly vary,_ and the competition which was essential for the regulation of the prices of meat be reduced. All authorities, then, were pretty well agreed as to the necessity for having a central metropoli- tan market for dead meat ; but he spoke witli all deference in the hearing of ^Mr. Herbert, who, of course, possessed better information than he could be expected to have. Here he would refer to the report of the Commission of Inquiry which sat in the year 1850, on the subject of meat markets in the City of London ; aud he thought the evidence he was about to quote from that report was of particular importance, be- cause it was given at a period when a cattle plague panic \vas not even dreamt of. They said that the supply to the City of London was more in summer and less iu winter ; and that the number of carcases sent to Newgate mar- ket in 1849, according to Mr. Giblett's estimate, supposed by the Commissioners to be under the mark, was of beasts 1:2,000, sheep 5,250, calves 800, and pigs 400. In hot weather, they said the dead-meat sales fell off, and those of the live increased. That would always be the case, and it was an additional reason why abattoirs or slaughter-houses should be established within tolerable distances of town for the summer supply ; for it could not be altogether depended upon from distant counties, though it might from the home counties. The Commissioners further stated that they had been informed by the trade that the farmer would be induced by steam carriage to learn to slaughter, pack, and consign. Again, they also said that forty years previously tliere were only 13 salesmen in Newgate market, and that in 1849 they had increased to 200. This showed the great development of the meat trade in couse- quence of the use of steam carriage. Eormerly, it appeared, the home counties only could seud dead meat into the London market ; but iu 1849 much of it came from Scotland, as it did, now ; and they added a fact which he was not acquainted with before reading their report, and it increased his sense of the inadec^uaey of Newgate Market — that the area of that market was only 2 rods and 45 perches. When one considered the enormous quantity of dead meat that was sent into Newgate JIarket, all packed and piled up, it was scarcely possible to conceive the scene of confusion presented there. Vans and carts were crammed into a street only IG feet in width, where one could not pass another, and there they were unpacked in the midst of crowds of purchasers. The Commissioners in their report likewise referred to the disgusting manner iu which the men carried the meat on their shoulders in contact with their heads and faces, and the dirty handling to which the carcases were subjected. They spoke besides of the quan- tity of meat which was spoiled for want of air, and space to liang it in. Then there was an interesting article with re- gard to the probable extention and rapid rise of the dead-meat traffic, which appeared iu one of the numbers of the Quarterly Rcrieiv in the year 1854, aud to which he would direct atten- tion, as the information it contained had struck him with great force. That article was founded very much upon the report of the Commission already referred to. At that time it stated there were 3fi,487 tons of dead meat annually pitched into London ; that the Eastern Counties Railway supplied 10,.398 tons, and the Great Western 13,152 tons, and that the Eastern Counties ill one Christmas week sent to Newgate Market 1,000 tons of dead meat. It went on to state that the annual value of the meat consumed iri London was upwards of £14,000,000 sterling; and reference was made to the importance of railway arrange- ments for the transport of dead meat, so as not to injure it. He would next pass on to notice the report of the Committee of the House of Commons, which sat in 1S5G. That report con- tained much interesting evidence with respect to the metropo- litan meat market, wliich he had not had time to go into thoroughly ; but he would just take a brief glance at it. Amongst other things, it mentioned the single road leading to Newgate Market, that only one carriage could pass at a time, and the complete blocking up of the ap- proaches by vans and carts. It then proceeded to say that steam had given a remarkable impulse to the trade in dead meat both in England and Scotland, and that all salesmen agreed that the trade in dead meat would increase and become the principal source of supply. This, it would be observed, was in the year 1850 ; and of course before the cat- tle plague was thought of. In the next place, the report went on to dwell upon the importance of establishing a central mar- ket for the metropolis, of giving facilities iu such a central market for the disposal of the otlal among the poor people who required it, and also the essential importance of competition regulating the price of meat. The committee also said there was no evidence to lead them to the conclusion that a dead- meat market, if properly managed, would create anything like unwholesomeness in its vicinity. There was always something to be learned from our neighbours across the Channel, aud he should like to quote the opinion of one of the most acute, clear-headed, and sharp-eyed Englishmen that had ever tra- velled : he meant Sir Edmund Head. A few years ago, namely, in 1852, Sir Edmuud published an interesting and popular Iwok, with the title of " A Faggot of Erench Sticks." In one of the chapters, the author described a visit which he had made to the ahattuirs and pig-slaughtering establishments iu Paris, and a conversation which he held with the chef oi the latter, in the course of which the chef stated the principle by which pig-killing was regulated. " Sir," said he, " iu Paris no one has a right to kill a pig !" And that, it appeared, was the principle upon which the vvhole thing Jiinged. The killing was all done at the Government establishments. The Paris abattoirs were established by the Emperor Napoleon the First. There were 5 of them for cattle, outside the walls. They were built like cavalry barracks, and the dimensions of one of them were in length 389 yards by 150 yards in breadtli. Arrange- ments existed for the immediate preparation of the blood for the purposes of commerce, and for disposing of the entrails. There were also a tripery aud melting houses, and even when the weather was exceedingly hot there were no noxious smells. All the arrangements for" treating the cattle were of a most merciful kind. There was no barking of dogs, no hallooing of men, no feverish excitement. An abundant supply of water for slushing was provided. There was no pawing with hot hands, and no bad meat was allowed to be sent away for sausages. Then the author, moralising upon all this, exclaimed How different was this to tlie manner in which they dealt with the roast beef of Old England iu Newgate market ! If Sir THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 49 TUnmiul liail Ijpoii with him (Lord Cathcart) on a iTCPut occa- sion wlioii lie speut a wliolt^ night in Newgate market, he fancied he wonld have used language still more forcible and emphatic. Another remarkable circumstauce which Sir Edmund J lead did not refer to, but was mentioned in the Junriud of the Slat'isticnl Society, was that the introduction of horse-flesh into Paris liaviug been forbidden, a large contraband tiade in it sprang up, which increased to such an extent tluit the autho- rities were at len^-th obliged to legalise the introduction of horse-tlesh for consumption as human food. Another impor- tant fact was tliis : that by the operation of the octroi duty the consumption of meat in Paris was correctly ascertained. This, however, could not be done in Loudon ; where there were no similar means for arriving at such knowledge. The informa- tion derived from this source in Paris showed that great fluctuations were experienced in the rate of consumption of meat in different years, which was to be traced probably to fluctuations in the general trade of the country, and in the command which the people possessed over the neces- saries of life and matters of that kind. But whatever might be the cause, there was no doubt that the consumption of meat in the large towns of France was subject to extreme variations. It appeared from the Journal of the Sfafislical Societi/ that the consumption m Paris during the year 1847 was loOlbs. of meat per head of the population, exclusive of game and poultry ; in 1848, it was STflbs. ; in 1849 it was 14Clbs. ; and in 1850 it was 1581bs. These figures exhibited a very consideral)le fluctuation in the consumption of animal food ; but if the mass consumed were taken, instead of tlie rate per head of the population, the fluctuation w ould appear to be s"till greater. Most members of Parliament, he presiuned, had received a copy of an interesting pamphlet relating to city im- provements. By the map which was appended to that pamphlet, it would be seen that the new arrangements for the proposed metropolitan dead-meat market at Smithfield ^^•ere as convenient as they could well be made. There would still, however, be the blockading difficulty. Nevertheless, it was so important to have a central market, that whatever the difti- culties and drawbacks, they would be of much less consequence than the evil attendant upon having several markets distributed over the town. On this point he spoke with great reserve in the presence of Mr. Holland, wlio was at that time engaged in conducting an important inquiry into this very subject, which would doubtless conduce much to improvements. He hoped, however, that the parties would hurry on as fast as they could the completion of the metropolitan meat market ; and if they did not at present feel inclined to do that, tlien he would recommend them to follow his example and spend a night in Newgate-market, which he thought might act as a spur to their languid energies, and prompt them to use a little more expedition in the matter. In drawing these remarks to a close, lie would only further refer to the important recommendation contained in the concluding portion of the third and last report of the Cattle Plague Commissioners. Prom all he had ob- served, lie was convinced that that recommendation was per- fectly right : it was one to which, therefore, he gave his hearty concurrence. They said that now was the time to carry out the changes which were required in the supply of meat to large tow ns ; when great alterations might be made without being attended by anticipated inconveniences ; and it might be con- sidered whether slaughterhouses sliould not be transferred from towns to suburban points on lines of railway, to the ultimate benefit of botli customer and butcher. Then they ended by saying that the cattle plague, thougli in itself a great calamity, had undoubtedly put a stop to much that was cruel and per- nicious ; and they hoped, as aU hoped, that that happy state of things might be lasting. Mr. Preke said : A fact had been mentioned to him by a leading grazier, which he could not understand. A large Nor- folk grazier, told that gentleman tliat in the sj)ring he could only make 4s. 2d. per stone by meat which was brought up to London dead, while meat of the same quality in the London live-meat market would readily have made 6s. per stone. He (Mr. Frere) should like to know whether that difference of value arose from the nature of the case or from the tradition with regard to meat. Mr. Holland, M.P., observed that it must be a result of the change of system. Mr. Prebe said the impression which he received from what that gentleman said was, not that farmers were likely to slaughter on their own farms, but that abattoirs would be es- tablislied in the environs of London, and animals would at all events travel to the vicinity of railway stations, on their own legs. Mr. Holland, M.P., reverting to the fact alluded to by Mr. Frere, namely, the variation of price as between one kind of meat and another, repeated his behef that it depended on the change of system. No doubt, however, in course of time — when the dead-meat market had been thoroughly esta- blished, and when, as the noble Earl who had just spoken anticipated would soon be the case, a system of telegraphic arrangements had been established, by means of which it would be ascertained how much meat w as required in a cer- tain district or for a certain population, all these questions would be set right. He should have liked very much to enter into several points involved in the subject ; but, as the noble Earl liad remarked, a committee, of which he (Mr. HoUand) was a member, was at that moment prosecuting its inquiries. It was a committee to consider the trade in ani- mals— not only foreign, but home animals also — the question of quarantine, the mode in which animals were brought into this country, and the mode of their transit from place to place ; and he regretted that they had not in Parliament the valuable assistance of their chairman (Mr. Thompson) on that committee. It would very inconvenient and conlvary to rule for a member of a parliamentary committee to state to a meeting, or in any way to make use of the evidence taken by that committee, before the inquiry was closed and the report made ; and he therefore felt his mouth to lie closed as re- garded any information which he might otherwise have given on the subject. He could ouly say that he believed the re- sults of the inquiry would be most valuable — that people would be astonished to see with what facilities a chauge might. l)e made as regarded the feeding of a large population from one system to another ; the new system being, too, far more efticient, far more effectual, far more valuable, far more healthy, and far more civilised than the old one (Hear, hear). Sir J. Johnstone, M.P., fully believed that telegraphy would settle many difficulties connected with the meat market. As an illustration of the working of that system, he might mention that a day or two ago an epicure went at 5 o'clock to Charles' (the fishmonger's) to secure a fresh salmon. The fishmonger told him he bad come at an extraordinary moment, for he had just received a telegram from Worcester stating that a salmon which had just been caught left Worcester by the 3 o'clock train. The result was that a fuie salmon arrived in time for the epicure's dinner. The Chairman, in summing-up the discussion, said : Lord Cathcart had alluded to the charges made by railway com- panies for the conveyance of dead-meat since the breaking-out of the cattle-plague. Now he (the chairman) thought that a great deal of what had been said in the way of complaint on that subject was due to a want of consideration of the difference between a wholesale trade and a retail one. They might rest assured that their northern brethren very well understood their own interest, and that if the farmers and cattle-dealers of Aberdeenshire and the districts around were satisfied with the cattle-traffic by railway, both as regarded the charges made for conveyance and the state of the meat when it reached its des- tination, there could be no great reason for complaint. It might fairly be assumed, he thought, that after a time the charges for the conveyance of dead-meat would not be such as to prevent the trade from being jiroperly carried on. At present a man compared the charge for conveying a live animal with the charge for conveying a dead animal. He forgot that when animals were conveyed alive there were eight or ten in the same truck ; whereas, under the existing state of things, the railway company had to convey one carcase, or it might be a quarter of a carcase. It would be impossible for the company to provide carrying-power for so small a quantity, sent to a station as it were liap-hazard, or to charge the same in pro- portion, for such a quantity,as was charged when a whole truck was hired and as many cattle were put into it as it M'ould con- tain. It was not fair, he repeated, to compare retail with wholesale charges ; but he might remark, that if it should be found necessary in order to supply the wants of the country that dead meat shoidd be conveyed on a largely-increased scale, the charges would no doubt be adjusted to the altered state of things. Farmers would soon find out liow to obtain the benefit of wholesale charges. He, for one, felt much obliged to the 50 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. geutlemen who had taken part in the discussion. Lord Cath- cart seemed to have collected a great deal of information on several points which might be usefully discussed ; and no doubt both his lordship's remarks and those of Mr. Herbert ■yvould be published in the Society's Journal. A vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. Herbert, and the meet- ing theu separated. Monthly Council : Wednesday, June G, 1866. — Present — Lord Tredegar, President, in the Chair ; the Earl of Shi-ewsbury, the Earl of Powis, Lord Berners, Lord Fevershani, Lord Portman, Lord Walsingham, Major-Geueral the Hon. A. N. Hood, Sir Watkiu W. Wynn, Bart., M.P., .Mr. Barnett, Mr. Bowly, Colonel Challoner, Mr. Clay den, Mr. Dent, M.P., Mr. Drnce, Mr. Braudi-eth Gibbs, Mr. Holland, M.P., Mr. Hutton, Mr. .Jonas, Colonel Kingscote, M.P., Mr. Lawes, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Robert Smith, Mr. H. S. Thompson, Mr. Ton-, Sir T. Western, Bart., M.P., Mr. Wells, Mr. Jacob Wilson, Mr. Frere, and Dr. Voekker. The follovnng new members were elected : Aldous, James Arthur, Lingwood, Norwich. Alexander, Wra. Lancaster, Sliatton Lodge, Cockermoufh. Ball, William, Rothwell, Kettering. Carson, James, Spinfield, Great Marlow. Cheesman, Frederick, Little Chart, Ashford, Kent. Dayman, Rev. iVlbert, Albert College, Framlingham. Patterson, Henry, Normanton Hill, Ijoughborough. Piggott, Fraser, Fitzhall, Midhurst, Sussex. Robbins, Harry, Northfield Farm, Witney, Oxon. Walker, James Robert, Sandhufton, York. Finances. — Major-General the Hon. A. N. Hood pre- sented the report of the Committee, from which it appeared that the Secretary's receipts dmnng the past month had been examined by the Committee, and by Messrs. Qnilter, Ball, and Co., the Society's accountants, and were found correct. The balance in the hands of the bankers on May 31 was £2,238 13s. lOd., against which cheques were drawn for £923 19s. 5d. Discussions. — The following arrangements for the weekly meetings of the Council were announced : Wed- nesday, June 13, " Cattle Statistics and Cattle Insurance," to be opened by Dr. Fai*r ; Wednesday, June 20, " How far in certain districts Sheep Stock may be advantageously substituted for Cattle," to be opened by IMr. Torr. THE ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE. Annual Report of the Governors to the Council OF the Royal Agricultural Society. [Extending to the 31st December, 18G5, and received by the Society on the 26th Blay, 1806.] Since their last annual report, the governors of the Royal Veterinaiy College have observed with deep soK- citude the cloud which has gathered over the prospects of the agriculturists of this conntiy through the outbreak of the cattle plague, and they sympathise with the Council in lamenting this national calamity. Before, however, referring in a more especial manner to this subject, they would direct the attention of the Council to some matters of importance, but of more special interest as connected with the alliance between the two institutions. The governors have seen with much satisfaction that their efforts to render the College increasingly useful to the agricultural community have met with a ready re- sponse, and that the members of the Society and agricul- turists generally have co-operated with the veterinary profession in furnishing to the institution a largely- increased number of morbid specimens, and by communi- cations relating to disease in cattle, sheep, and pigs. Every opportunity has been taken by the professors of utilizing these for the benefit of the pupils. Agriculturists fi'om aU parts of the country have visited the College to obtain information relative to the diseases of their cattle, and have acknowledged the benefit they have derived from tte advice which has been given. The lectures, pathological demonstrations, and clinical instructions have been regularly pursued ; and the atten- tion of the pupils to these branches of their studies has been such as to give the greatest satisfaction to the pro- fessors. Compared with the preceding and many other years, the number of the pupils has increased — a fact which augurs well for the future, especially when it is borne in mind that the governors, with the view to raise the general tone of the profession, had determined that each pupil should undergo a matriculatory examination. The number of pupils who entered the (lasses during the year is 63 ; and of those, the nmnber who passed the examination of the Royal College of Veterinary Sur- geons is 37. No material alteration has been made in the system of education which has hitherto been found to work so Avell. The same number of lectm-es have been regularly de- livered ; and the students have been required to devote their time and attention fully to their studies, including as these do, besides cattle pathology, the anatomy, physio- logy, and ])athology of the horse, veterinary surgery, chemistry, materia medica, toxicology, &c. Provision is made for examinations, and for the reading of essays and discussion of medical subjects by the pupils themselves at the weekly meetings of the Veterinary Me- dical Association. A gradual increase in the number of qualified practi- 1 ioners is thus provided to meet the requirements of stock owners. The location of veterinary surgeons in districts hitherto occupied by farriers cannot fail to be of great advantage to the country by the bringing of medical science into daily operation, as applied to the diseases of all domesticated animals. Apart from the cattle plague, disease has not been very rife among bovine animals. The epizootic aft'ections known as the mouth-and-foot disease and the lung dis- ease, with which we have long been familiar, have pre- vailed in some districts, but not in a very malignant form. The losses have consequently been fewer fi-om the latter malady than heretofore, since the disease has been more amenable to medicinal treatment and agents. Owing to the short hay crop, and the almost total failure of the turnip crop in 1864, having been followed by a long winter and cold spring, farmers experienced the greatest difficidty in providing sufllcient keep for their stock ; many animals, particularly young sheep, suffered severely. Nmuerous deaths consequently took place from diseases traceable to nngenial weather and insufficient nutrimeut. Among the deaths from these causes were several singular cases of poisoning, arising from the ani- mals browsing upon some of the evergi-een trees and shrubs. In diflerent parts of the country numerous cattle were lost from feeding on yew ; as many as forty deer are said to have died in the Duke of Beaufort's park at Bad- minton, from this cause — the boughs of the yew trees having been brought within their reach by the weight of the snow. Thi'ce flocks of sheep are also recorded as having been poisoned by eating the leaves of the rhodo- dendron ponticum. One of these cases occurred in Hamp- shire, the second in Kent, and the third in Berkshire. Among other sources of injury to cattle, one of a very exceptional character may be mentioned — the poisoning of a considerable number of animals by being pastured in fields in which rifle butts are erected ; a lead-spray from the bullets, smashed against the targets, was taken up with the grass, and has been found to have lain in the stomachs of these animals for many weeks, undergoing solution in the gastric and intestinal juices, and to have thus destroyed the animals by a process of slow poisoning. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tl Facts of this kind cannot be too extensively known among farmers, in order to the prevention of a recurrence of the mischief arising from them. In the month of June the small-pox of sheep suddenly made its appearance among a flock of ewes and lam!)s on the Snssex Downs, near to Newhaven, and as no foreign sheep had been imported at Newhaven, or had been known to have been in the neighbourhood, the origin of the disease could not be fully ascertained ; it was probably occasioned by the large importations of foreign wool which were then taking place into the port of Newhaven. Much of this wool on arrival was found to be packed in torn bags, and consequently portions of it were often scattered about. The sheep affected by the disease wei'e, at the time of their infection, in pastui'e-grounds by the side of the railway, and were thus exposed to the probability of infection from this cause. Ey some persons, however, the outbreak is believed to be traceable to the fact that an infected sheep had been thrown overboard from an importing vessel, the body of which had floated up the river. A drowned sheep was found, but there is no evi- dence to show how it came into the river, or whether it was affected with the disease. Every information was received of the outbreak, and every precaution was adopted under the personal superin- tendence of the professor of cattle pathology to prevent the spread of the malady, and lessen its devastating effects. Two flocks only were attacked, and although these num- bered nearly 1,000 sheep, only about 100 of them were lost. The great event of the year has undoubtedly been the outbreak of the cattle plague. This terrible disease was first observed in the London dairies on June 27th, but its true nature was not suspected. On July 4th it was recognised by Professor Simonds, who was then consulted by the veterinary surgeon in attendance, and immediately brought the matter to the knowledge of the Government. From that time the disease continued to spread, and reached such fearful proportions as to require the enact- ment of the most stringent legislative measm'es. The ofheers of this College have been unremitting in their efforts to assist in aiTcstiug the progress of the disease, and from the very commencement have applied themselves early and late to the adoption of means likely to be of service. The Governors considered that exertion to meet this emergency was the primary duty of this In- stitution, and that no reasonable expense should be spared in search of remedies, if such should be discoverable, at all events in the recommendation of methods for prevent- ing the extension of the disease. With this view they erected a number of loose boxes, in a separate yard, and afforded means to keep up a continued supply of plague- stricken animals for treatment and experiment. It cannot be said that any marked success has yet at- tended the medical treatment, still the experience which has been gained of the pathology of the disease is con- siderable, and the knowledge thus propagated has been of great value in arresting the progiess of this murrain. Many questions in connexion with the pathology of cattle-plague and the liability of its extension to other animals have been warmly debated, and none more so than the susceptibility of sheep to infection. To remove all doubt on this point a series of experiments was adopted at the College, some results of which the Go- vernors subjoin, as extracted from the Report made by Prof. Varnell and Assistant Prof. Pritchard to the Royal Commission. EXPERIME^'TS WITH SHEEP. October 14. — One sheep (a hogget) was inoculated \vith matter taken from the eye of an ox affected with the plague. On the 20th it sliowed marked symptoms of the disease, and ^ed on tlie 23rd. No treatment. October 14. — One sheep (a hogget) was inoculated with matter taken from the nostrUs of one of Mr. Harvey's sheep from Crown Point, Norwich. On the 30th it showed well- marked signs of the disease, and died on the 23rd. No treat- ment. October 14. — One sheep (a hogget) was inoculated with matter taken from the nose of the same sheep as in No. 2, and ou tlie 20th it evinced symptoms of tlie disease. It died ou the 3Uth. This sheep was submitted to treatment. October 14. — One sheep (a hogget) was inoculated with matter taken from the eye of an ox affected with the plague. This sheep was submitted to treatment and recovered. October 19. — Two sheep (hoggets) were placed in a shed with a cow affected vidth the plague. On the 23rd both sheep liecame affected with the disease, and on the 31st they died. No treatment. October G. — Two sheep (hoggets) were placed in a shed, iu which a cow had died the day before from the plague. The disease did not declare itself in lliese two sheep until the 26tli. One of them died on the 30th, and the other lingered on until the 19th of November. November 14. — One sheep (hogget) was inoculated with matter taken from the vagina of a cow labouring under the plague. It died on the 15th, about twenty-four hours after being iuoculatetl. It can hardly be imagined that this slieep died from tlie effects of the disease through inocidation ; yet it is remarkable that every part of the mucous tracts, both alimentary and respiratory, indicated faint blushes of redness precisely in those places iu which they are almost invariably found iu true eases of cattle plague. The sheep had been suf- fering from diarrhoea for some time previously, but had quite recovered, and at the time it was inoculated appeared to be very healthy. These experiments must be considered not only as proving the liability of sheep to cattle plague, but also as establisliLng the fact of the ready trausmissiou of the disease from sheep to cattle and from cattle to slieep. Other experiments were also adopted, having for their object the elucidation of other points in counection with the pathology of the plague. These are ex- tracted from the same report. Experiments upon Cattle. No. 1. — The first case of cattle pkgue admitted into the College Infirmary was on the 13th of July. The cow was brought from Mrs. NichoFs dairy at Islington, and exhibited well-marked symptoms of tlie disease. No treatment was adopted, and she died on the 17tli. When this cow was first brought to the college slie was placed in an open loose box, and, as an experiment, the first tried, a healthy cow was placed with her in the same box. The second cow took the disease, from which she died. No. 2. September 23. — A black and white calf about four mouths old was placed in a box with a sheep, which the day before had been in contact \vith a cow affected with the cattle plague. On the Sfh of October the calf showed symptoms of having the disease in a very serious form, and on the lOtli it died. No treatment was tried in this ease. No. 3, October 21. — A red and white calf about five months old was placed iu a shed with four sheep which had taken the disease from inoculation. On the 27th the calf showed symp- toms of having taken the disease. On the 31st it died. No. 4. October 20. — A black and white heifer about two years old was inoculated with the virus taken from the nostrils of a cow affected with the plague. No eft'ect. November 14th. — Inoculated the same heifer with matter taken from the nostrils of a Dutch cow labouring under the disease iu a very intense degree. No efiect. This heifer has resisted the efl'ects of both inoculation and exposure to infection up to the present time, viz., Decem- ber 25. No. 5. October 20. — A black and white Dutch cow, wliich had recovered from a mUd attack of the disease, was inoculated with matter taken from the nostrils of a cow affected with cattle plague. No effect. No. 6. December 6. — A red calf about five months old was inoculated with matter taken from the eye of a cow labouring under cattle plague. On the 11th, being the fiftli day after inoculation, symptoms of the disease were manifest. It died ou the IStli. This case was treated. No. 7. December 0,-^Inoculated a red calf about five E 2 52' THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. months old with matter taken from the eye of a cow affected with the plague. On the 12th, i.e., six days after the inocula- tion, it showed symptoms of the disease, aud elied on the 17tli. This case was treated. No. 8. December 11. — A red and white calf, about six mouths old, was placed in an infected box in which a cow had died the day before. On the 18th it showed symptoms of the disease, and died on the 23nd. This calf was put under treatment. CASES THAT HAVE PROVED EATAL. No. 1. Aus^nst 31, 1865 : Cow, aged 5 years. — Theeapeutic Treatment : Brandy and opium in full doses ; occasionally saline laxatives as eliniinatives ; a mixture of oil and turpen- tine was used as a counter-irritant to the under-sm-face of the abdomen. — Remakks : This cow lived 17 days after she was admitted. On the 11th day we thought she ^vas recovering. On the day following she was attacked with the foot-and- mouth disease, which caused so much irritation that she gradually became worse, and died on the 17th of September. This cow had chronic disease of the lungs. 2. Aug. 28 : Dutch Cow, 5 years. — Stimulants such as brandy and carbonate of ammonia three times a day ; good sujiply of nourishing food ; skin well cleansed. — The symptoms in this were not very intense when the cow was first atbnitted, but they rapidlj' became worse, and she died on the 1st of September. 3. Sept. 7 : Dutch Cow, 6 years. — This cow was treated chiefly -^vith strong ale, which was given her in gruel four tunes in the day. The cow was slaughtered on the 9th for post mortenr examiuatiou, so that the effects of treatment are imperfectly known. — Up to the time, however, of the animal being killed, it appeared to derive no benefit from treatment. 4. Sept. 27 : English Cow, 4 years. — Solution of acetate of ammonia and chloric ether twice a day ; gruel four times a day ; the skin well cleansed. — This cow did not show any severe symptoms until the 29th ; indeed, we anticipated some benefit from treatment, but on the evening of the same day she became worse, and died on the 2nd of October. .5. Oct. 1 : English Cow, 4 years.— LiiLseed oil and oil of turiJentine in gruel every twelve hours ; good oatmeal gi'uel fom- times a day. — This plan of treatment was recommended, but it proved of no avail. The cow rapidly became worse, and died on the 4th of October. 6. Oct. 4 : Dutch Cow, 5 year's. — Dififusible stimulants and sedatives every eight hours; the gi'eatest attention paid to the animal's comforts; i Uj. doses of charcoal in gi'uel twice daily on the fourth day.— This cow lived eight days ; on the third day her symptoms were favourable ; but on the fourth diarrhoea, attended with much foetor, commenced, and emphysema appeared on the loins. From this time she rapidly became worse, and died on the 12th of October. 7. Oct. 21 : Cow, 7 years. — Well clothed the body after having first cleansed the skin; free supply of the oatmeal gruel aud sulphate of copper and brandy every eight horn's. — This cow rapidly became worse from the day it was admitted ; the loins of the animal were emphysematous : she had pro- fuse diarrhoea, and died on the 24th of October. 8. Oct. 22 : English Cow, 5 years. — Hay or bran tea as much as the patient would take ; brandy and sulphate of copper every eight hours ; gruel every four hom-s. — In addi- tion to this animal being dosed with medicine, she was made to inhale the vapour of warm water twice a day, and the vapour of vinegar twice a day. This treatment had no appreciable beneficial effect. The patient died on the 25th of October. 9. Oct. 22 : Shorthorn Cow, 4 years. — Diffusible stimulants and saUne laxatives ; opium was given to check the diarrhoea when it was present. — This cow had the usual good nui-sing, but she died on the 25th of October. 10. Oct. 22 : Shorthorn cow, 4 years. — Chlorate of potash three times a day ; opium occasionally to check diarrhoea. — The disease in this case ran its course so rapidly that the animal died on the 24th, i.e., two days after being admitted. 11. Oct. 23 : English Cow, 6 years. — This case was placed in a vapour bath for one hour, after which she had solution of acetate of ammonia, carbonate of ammonia, and spirits of nitric ether; when the cow had been in a bath an hour, rubbed dry, and well clothed, diffusible stimulants were given ; no good effects were observed to follow this treatment ; on the 24th stimulants and vapour bath as before, also gruel, and attendance to general comforts. — No tjenefit whatever seemed to attend the treatment ; indeed, we thought it rather tended to hun-y the disease to its fatal termination ; the animal died on the 26th of October. 12. Oct. 23 : English Cow, 5 years. — Skin well cleaned : body well clothed ; thin gruel ; hay or bran tea ; chlorate of potash twice a day. — The coiu-se of this disease was rapid ; profuse diarrhoea from the first, accompanied by very offensive evacuations streaked with blood. The patient died on the 25th of October. 13. Oct. 23 : English Cow, 4 years.— Skin well cleaned ; body well clothed ; grnel four times a daj' ; chlorate of potash ; opium to check diarhoea.- — This cow succumbed to the disease very fiuickly, viz., on the following day (October 24th). 14. Oct. 28 : Shorthorn Cow, 5 years. — Cleansed the skin, clothed the body, and gave brandy with opium in full doses twice during the day ; chlorate of potash in drinking water next day (29th) ; gave nitro-hydrochloric acid, tincture of chinchona in water three times in the day ; hay tea to drink. — On the 30th the diarrhcea ceased to be so profuse and the evacuations so ofl'ensive as they were at first, liut in other respects the patient was evidently worse. She died on the 31st of October. 15. Oct. 28 : Shorthorn Cow, 6 years. — Solution of acetate of ammonia, carljonate of ammonia, and spii-its of nitric ether in full doses ; opium to check diarrhoea. — This cow died on the 1st of November. 16. Oct. 28: English Bull, 2^ years.— Good nursing; the early treatment consisted in giving saline laxatives combined with diaphoretics repeated every foirr hoirrs, keepmg the body well clothed, and frequently giving thin gruel; hot vapour bath for nearly two hours, after which he had a diffusive stimulant, and his body well rubbed and thickly clothed. — There was profuse diarrhcea ; this bull died on the 31st. The treatment produced no change in the symptoms ; the disease ran its course rapidly. 17. Nov. 3 : English Cow, 6 years. — Saline laxatives with diaphoi'etic agents every eight hours ; clothed the body, and administered linseed gi'uel ; injected opium with starch gruel per rectum ; this treatment was continued. — The sjnnptoms when the i)atient was first admitted indicated a mild attack, but the cow rapidly became worse, and died on the 6th of November. 18. Nov. 3 : English Cow, 6 years. — Treated in same manner as the last. — The cow died on the 6th of November. 19. Nov. 3 : Brittany Cow, 4 years. — Diffusible stimiilants three times a day ; opium three times a day to check diarrhoea ; body well clothed. — The sjTnptoms in this little cow were very intense from the first ; she died on the 6th of November. 20. Nov. 3 : Calf, 4 months. — Bicarbonate of potash, tmc- ture of chinchona, and tincture of gentian three times a day ; thin gruel thi-ee times a day ; hay tea to druik ; the box in which this calf was placed was fmnigated with burnt tar. — This calf contracted the disease in conse(iuence of its being jilaced in a box in which a cow had died the day before. Symptoms of the disease were observed on the fourth day, and the animal died on the seventh day. The affection ran its com-se without being checked in the slightest degree. It may be mentioned that for one month the calf was mthin 40 yards of infected .animals, and the man who attended to the cattle affected with plague was daily in the box with the calf. It was not, however, until it was lalaced m a decidedly infected shed that it took the disease. 21. Nov. 3 : Calf, G months. — Treated in nearly the same manner as the last case ; opium in enemas to check diarrhoea ; tincture of gentian mixed with ale and gruel dming the latter stages of illness to support the animal's sj'stem. — This calf lived until the 11th, a longer period than usual ; still, during its illness, no hojjes of recovery were at any time entertained. 22. Nov. 3 : Heifer, 8 months. — Same treatment as in the last cases. — Died on the 8th December. The progress of the disease in this case was not remarkably rapid, but it advanced steadily in spite of our treatment. 23 and 24. Nov. 4 : Calves, 4 mont'us. — Good nursing ; chlorate of potash twice a day. — These calves exhilnted all the usual symptoms, and although they were well nursed, they died on the 7th. 25. Nov. 13 : Dutch Cow, 6 years. — SaUne laxatives ; chlorate of potash in drinking-water. — No diarrhoea, but the fever was intense at the onset. She lived much longer than we expected, for although the ^jrogi-ess of the disease was comparatively slow, there were no favourable symptoms noticed from the first. The animal died on the 21st. 26, 27, 28, and 29. Nov. 13 : English Cows, 4, 6, 5, and 4 years. — These foiu- cows were all treated in the same way as far as medicine is concerned ; nitre, hyilrochloric acid and in- fusion of cascarilla Ijark three times a day ; aromatic spirits of ammonia once a day; ale or stout twice a day; every attention paid to clothing and general comforts — One of these cows died on the 15th, one on the 16th, one on the 18th, and the other on the 21st. These cases were treated precisely on the same plan as that which is said to have been so successful with the veterinarj' surgeon near Windsor. With us, how- ever, it has been a complete faihu-e. 30, 31, and 32. Nov. 14 : English Cows, 3, 5, and 6 years.— Two ounces sulphate of soda, followed by one ounce doses every eight hours ; injection of opium in thin starch when the purging became ijrofuse. — One of these cows died on the 15th, one on the 16th, and one on the 17th. The medicine in these cases seemed to have no control over the disease, which ran its course in all these animals with great rapidity. 33. Dec. 11; 34. Dec. 12: Calves, 4 months.— These two calves were both treated wdth sulphite of soda, and good nursmg was enforced. — These calves took the disease b.y I'HE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ^3 inoculation. These iiatients, when first attacked, were con- stipated, but ou the second (lay their bowels became relaxed, I'rom, we believe, the effects of the medicine. No foetor attended the pm-ging. One of these calves died on the loth, and the other on the 17th. So. Dec. 18 : Calf, 5 months.— This calf was also treated with sulphite of soda.— This caU" contracted the disease by- being- placed in an infected liox. It rapitlly became worse, and died on the 22nd. Before death the pm-giug was pro- fuse, but not foetid. Treatme:vt by Hydropathy. About the middle of September, two cows affected with the cattle plague were treated on the following plan : — No. 1. — After the body luid been well douched witli cold water, the auimal was immediately wrapped in wet sheets, over which dry clothiug was placed, and the whole closely secured by bandages. Even before the operation was com- pleted the cow became partially unconscious, aud lay down, in which position she remained for half an hour. In a short time her skin became quite warm, after which she again stood up for about an hour, when it was found that conside- rable perspiration was produced. The wrappers were now removed, her body well rubbed, and again completely covered with dry rugs. Some gruel was also given her, and in about half an hour the following draught was administered : Tincture of opimn one ounce, tincture of camphor one ounce, water one ounce. On the follo-wnug day the symptoms were much aggravated. The douche and wet sheets were again used, with nearly the same effects as before. The medicine was also repeated. From this period the cow rnpidly became worse, and died on the third day after her admission. No. 3. — The results of treatment in tliis case were similar to those in No. 1, and need not be repeated. These cases were the only ones treated on the hydropathic principle, and al- though the termination was not satisfactory, we are neverthe- less inclined to think that a modified form of this treatment might prove to be advantageous. Cases that h.vve Recovered. No. 1. Italian Cow. — A large Italian cow in good condition Was admitted into the Infirmary, affected with the cattle plagu'e. The symptoms were not intense, but they were well marked. The treatment consisted of saline laxative and diuretic medicines, with a free use of the bicarbonate of pot- ash. As soon as the fever subsided she had some diffusible stimulants. Light succulent food was allowed her, aud her body was well clothed. No. 2. A Dutch Cow. — A very mild case ; still the symtoms were sufficiently defined to enable the Inspector who sent her to the College to assert that she was affected with the plague. Tbe secretion of milk was suspended, she refused her food, the lining membrane of the vulva was heightened in oolour, and she had diarrhoea. Some saline medicine, and afterwards brandy, was given in gruel. On the third day after admis- sion the cow gave evidence of returning health, but in about a week or ten days from this time the joints of her hind limbs, particularly of one limb, became inflamed. The treatment consisted in the exhibition of mild laxatives, and the applica- tion of fomentations to the inflamed joints. A week after being thus treated she was so far recovered that she was re- turned to her owner. No. 3. A Dutch Cow. — This case was sent to the College by an inspector as a case of cattle plague. The symptoms were very slight ; saline laxative medicine, succulent food, and the usual good nursing, was all the treatment she received. In a week from the time of her being adnTitted she was con- valescent. This cow came into the infirmary in September, and still remains then;. She has been exposed to the in- fluence of infection from all the cows that have since been in the College, and has also been twice inoculated with the mat- ter taken from cows affected with the plague in its most viru- lent form, but has completely resisted the influence of both. No. 4. Dutch Cow. — -This case was considered by the in- spector to be a very mild one. Ou arrival at the Infirmary we noticed that the animal had diarrhcca. The colour of the mucous membrane was heiglitened ; the secretion of milk was arrested, but she did not wholly refuse her food. Some medicine forwarded to the College from the Continent was given her. We are not aware of what it consisted, or whether it exerted any power in arresting the progress of the disease. At any rate the cow recovered, as we in fact anticipated would be the case from the first. Among other experiments to test the value of prophylactic agents the following were had recourse to : Two young heifers were made to take daily doses of three ounces of sulphite of soda in the water given them to drink. Five days from the commencement of their taking the agent one of them con- tracted cattle plague, and died on the third day afterwards. The second also fell ill with the plague after taking the sulphite for 10 days, and speedily sank from the attack. Some experiments of vacchiating cattle were hkewise adopted. The particulars of some of tliese are given in an addendum to the Report before alluded to, and here trans- cribed in full. They are thus described by Professor Varnell : " Being desirous that the experiments of vaccination and counter proofs should be efficiently carried out, I invited the co-operation of Professor Simonds, Ijeheving, and I trust correctly so, that the conclusions we should arrive at would be of greater value in the estimation of the public than if simply conducted by myself. I may further add that Pro- fessor Simonds was the more desirous of assisting me, since it is his special province in the Veterinary College to investigate the diseases of cattle." For the purpose of ascertaining the value of vaccination in cattle plague, an opportunity we did not expect offered itself, through wiiich we were enabled to obtain two successfully vaccinated cattle. W. Acton, Esq., M.R.C.S., with his usual desire to facilitate inquiries into the nature of the diseases of the lower animals, immediately on the subject of vaccination being mooted, at once consented to vaccinate all the bovine animals on his farm. For this purpose we procured for his use a sufficient number of freshly-charged points from the National Vaccine Institution. On the 7th of January he vaccinated 1 7 animals of various ages. Of this number seven only took ; some of them, how- ever, were more effectually vaccinated than the rest. Two of the seveu animals were selected by Mr. Acton aud sent to the College for further experiments. One of these was an Alderney cow giving a fair amount of milk. She had three weU-marked vesicles on the vulva, two on one side and one on the other. The other animal was a half-bred Alderney heifer. She had but one vesicle on the vulva ; stiU she was considered to be effectually vaccinated. On her arrival at the College a crust had begun to form over the seat of the puncture. No animals could have been more suitable for the experi- ments we required than were these two. They had come from a fann quite free from the cattle plague, and were vaccinated by Mr. Acton himself. EXPERIMEXTS. No. 1. January 8. — A healthy " bud," about six months old, was vaccinated with some vaccine lymph taken from the arm of a child. No effect. No. 2. January 8. — A healthy "bud," about five or six months old, was vaccinated with vaccine lymph as above. In this case it took on the fifth day. There was a blush of redness around three of the punctures, viz., two on one side of the vulva and one on the other, and the skin was slightly tumefied. On the ninth day the tumefaction and redness had increased and imperfect vesicles formed, after which the punctures scabbed over, and the usual characteristic phenomena followed. On the 7th of February, thirty days after vaccination, this " bud," although not purposely exposed, became affected with the cattle-plague, and died on the Ilth.four days after the dis- ease had declared itself. No. 3. January 20. — The Alderney cow which had been vaccinated by Mr. Acton, aud had now recovered, was placed for twenty hours in a loose box with a " bud" affected with cattle-plague. On the 2Gth the cow showed symptoms of the plague, but in a milder form than usual. On the third day, however, after the disease had declared itself, it assumed the usual severity, and on the 2nd of Feljruary the cow died. No. i: January 20. — The black-and-white half-bred Alder- ney heifer, also successfully vaccinated by Mr. Acton, was in- oculated with matter taken from the eye of the " bud" alluded to in No. 3. On the 2oth this heifer showed premonitory symptoms of the plague, which on the 26th became weU 54 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. marked. This case was uuusiially severe, the disease ran its course very quickly, and the heifer died on the 30th. Inoculation with Rinderpest Virus from a Sheep. No. 5. Januarj- 13 — Tnoculated a " bud" ahout five months old with matter taken from the eye of a sheep affected with the plague ; this matter being diluted with six times its weight of milk was, by means of a few threads of wool, placed under the skin, on one side of the vulva. On the IStli the animal showed symptoms of the plague. On the 20th it was placed in a box with the heifer No. 3, and on the 21st it died. Inoculation with Human Variola. No. 6. January 7. — A healthy " bud," about five mouths old, was inoculated on each side of the vulva by three punctures, and scarifications with lymph taken from a man .affected with small-pox. No effect. No. 7. January 7. — A healthy " bud," six months old, was inoculated with lymph taken from a man affected with small- pox, the same as above. No effect. Note. — The " buds" Nos. 5, G, and 7 were all re-vaccinated wdth lymph, taken from vesicles on the vulva of the Alderney cow of Mr. Acton, but v.'ithout any effect in either instance. iVlthough the experiments instituted by us on vaccination are but few, still we feel that they conclusively prove the in- efficiency of vaccination as a preventive against cattle-plague. The poison of this disease being received into the system after vaccination, both by direct inoculation and also by infection, seems to have produced its effects witli as mucli intensity and certiiinty of destruction to life as though the animals had never been vaccinated at all. The period of incubation, the symptoms, mode of death, and the jao*^ wo r/cw appearances were the same in character as tliose we have so often witnessed. (Signed; GEORCiE Varnell. The Governors have entered into the foregoing details of some of the attempts to treat the cattle jilague, and of some experiments, in order to shoAV to the Comicil of the Royal Agricultural Society, and to the Society generally, that although they were never sanguine that a remedy for this disease, when it has once possessed animals, would be discovered, since the information which they had received ■svith respect to the malignity of this disease from the countries on the Continent, where it has been for years jjrevalent, forbid any confident anticipation of so fortu- nate a result, they have nevertheless encouraged persever- ing attempts to treat the disease, and experiments as to its natm'e, for thi'ee reasons — , 1st, Because they consider it their duty to promote the advancement of veterinary science in all its depart- ments. 2udly, Because they considered it their duty to extend the knowledge of this disease among the veterinary pro- fession throughout the United Kingdom, to the vast ma- jority of whom it was inevitably unknown, owing to the freedom of this country from its ravages for more than one hundi'ed years ; and its last appearance having oc- curred when the study of veterinary science was in its infancy ; and 3rdly, Because they considered it their duty to co-ope- rate with the Royal Agricultural Society and with the Government by every means in their power towards informing the nation of the calamity which has befallen them, and in demonstrating the necessity for those prophylactic and preventive measures, upon the prompt resort to which the only reliable means of safety has been foand. The Governors felt that they had for the above pur- poses, or might furnish, means for testing the disease and the modes of treatment, whether prophylactic or preven- tive, which science or discovery might suggest, and of thus affording earlier opportunity for deciding which of these might be worthy of atteuliou than could otherwise have been available. The Governors have reason to believe that the exertions of the professors and officers of this Institution, aided by the most advanced and intelligent of the students, have largely contributed to these objects. They have every reason to be satisfied with the zeal, perseverance, and pro- fessional knowledge manifested by the professors and officers of the Institution under their guidance, and trust the same feeling prevails among the Council, whom they have the honour to address. In conclusion, the Governors would express their hope that it may please the Great Disposer of events to miti- gate the infliction of this calamity, and to permit the ex- ertions which have been and are being made by the Royal Veterinary College, by the Royal Agricultural Society, by the Legislature, and by the Government, such a measure of success as may at no distant period relieve the agri- culturists of this country and the nation fi'om the loss and danger to which during the last eight months they have been exposed. — C. N. Newdegate, chairman, May 23. Chemical. — Mr. Wells announced that the following papers arc in com'se of preparation for the Jonnial : 1 . Report of Visits, in conjunction with Mr. Coleman, to ^Ir. Ruck's Farm, in AViltshire, and on the Improvement of the Gi'ass-land there; 2. On Clover Experiments. House. — Major-Gcneral the Hon. A. N. Hood re- ported that the Committee recommended that the wages of the porter (W. ^lann) be increased to £1 3s. per week, for which sum he shall provide the necessary assistance in the house-work. With reference to a letter received from the Secretary, asking for increased accommodation for his family, the Committee recommended an improve- ment in the house, for which they will direct a plan, specification, and estimate to be pi-epared and laid before the Council. It .appeared also desii'able that an addi- tional committee-i'oom and a larger and more convenient council-room should be added, if practicable, for which plans and estimates should be prepared, and the Com- mittee be empowered to take such steps as they may think requisite, and submit them to the further consi- deration of the Council in July. This report was adopted. Steam Cultivation. — Mr. Thompson reported the recommendations of the Committee : 1st. That the inspec- tion shall commence as early in August as the state of the harvest will permit. 2nd. That, after due consideration of the 188 replies sent in to the first circular, it .appeEirs that three inspection committees will be required, and that each committee will be occupied for a month in visiting the selected farms. That each committee shall consist of three members, one of whom shall act as secretary and reporter. Members of Council shall be furnished by the Secretary with such information as shall enable them to join the inspection committees when visiting their district. The report of the United States Depai-tment of Agri- culture on the rinderpest, forwarded by the Foreign Office, Avas received ; and a letter from the Paris Uni- versal Exhibition, 1867, requesting the Council, in con- junction with the Royal Highland Society and the Royal Agricidtural Society of Ireland, to undertake the duty of allotting to the various manufacturers of agricultm-al im- plements, machinery, &c., the space set apart by the Im- perial Commission for this class of objects ; to which the Council acceded, and nominated a committee consisting of Mr. Amos, Mr. Druce, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Wren Hoskyns, Mr. Thompson, and Mr. Torr, to assist in carrying out the allotment. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 55 INSURANCE OF LIVE STOCK. At the weekly meeting of the Council and members of tlie Royal Agricultural Society of England, held at the Society's house, in Hanover Square, on Wednesday, June 13, Mr. Hutton, of Gate Burton, Gainsborough, in tlie chair. Dr. Wm. Earr, M.D., F.R.S., Chief Superintendent of the Statistical branch of the Registrar-General's Department, delivered a lecture ou Cattle Statistics aud Cattle Insui'ance. Before the reading of the paper it was announced that Mr. William Picktree, of Chester-le- street, had trained the prize oQered by the Council for an essay on " The Improvement of Waste Lands connected with Mines." Another competitor, who subscribed himself " Persevere," had, it was stated, been commended. Dr. Farr said : England is not so much celebrated for its ce- real crops, as for its tine stock of cattle. The buUs, oxen, cows in calf, and heifers, always please the people at the shows of the Royal Agricultural Society. Although the English farmer is little given to sentiment, he does take a just pride in the herd winch he has bred or chosen with care, and feels their im- timely death much more acutely than he would a deficiency of crop or the destruction of grain of equivalent value. There is another source of anxiety in cattle — while agricultural stock is insured against fire, the live stock of the kingdom in the hands of at least half a miUion owners, and worth upwards of 140 million pounds sterling, is, for reasons wjiich I will shortly ex- plain, nearly all uninsured against destruction by disease. If a rick is burnt down, its value is recovered from the insurance office ; and farmers are not terrified even when surrouiuled by incendiary fires. Far otherwise is it when their live stock is in danger. They have then no such resource. And where per- haps their \v\\o\e capital — a large portion of which may be in cattle — is invested on the fann, murrain is ruin. The landlord, too, when the live stock of his tenant is swept away, is often jiretty much in the situation of a man who has let ou lease a bouse uninsured and burnt down by accident. The news that the " hundreds of military cordons" which Professor Simonds told this society guarded the " western side of the German States" bad been broken through, that rinderpest reached England in June last, that it was spreading and destroying whole herds of cattle in several counties, necessarily excited the live- liest alarm, which went on increasing until in January it was loudly proclaimed by liigli authorities that the whole of the cattle of the kingdom was about to perish. The consternation continued, and was felt in both Houses of Parliament. The first thing that was required under these circumstances ap- peared to me to be some measure to stop panic, to inspire con- fidence, to give time for the adoption of judicious measures for combating the plague, and to protect the stockowner from ruin by diffusing the loss eq\ially over all the owners of property in cattle. This could be done evidently by a system of insurance. Upon looking carefuUy into the subject, I fouud, however, that no adequate data existed for determining the mortality of cattle either in ordinary or epizootic seasons. In England we Imd no account of the numbers of cattle in the country, nor could I find any trace of an attempt in England to determine tlie rates of mortality at different ages on a large scale from pleuro- pneumonia, foot-and-mouth disease,anthrax, or any of the other common or epizootic diseases. Upon the fullest consideration I came to the conclusion that neither local societies nor com- mercial companies could encounter the ditticulties of the crisis ; and that the only resource to be thought of, in the presence of the plague, was a system of national insurance. This notion gave rise to the paper which I shall have the honour to submit to the society. We have to-day in our hands for the first time an enumeration of the live stock of the United Kingdom. The Statistical Office of the Privy Council supplies useful weekly returns; the reports of the Royal Commission have thrown a flood of light on this remarkable plague ; such measures are in opera- tion for its extinction as have been recommended by the first authorities ; and, finally, the attacks of rinderpest are every week subsiding. So that now it may appear possible to insti- tute, under certain conditions, a system of voluntary, and therefore partial, insurance. I have sketched in outline a system of this kind, taking into account the existing organiza- tion in the counties for the slaughter of cattle. To bring the subject fairly before you, I must remind you that by the cattle plague return, week ending May 26, the disease has been re- ported, since its first appearance, in 25,968 farms, sheds, or other places, in which 438,681 cattle were found; so the average herd contained nearly 17 head of cattle (16.893) ; and ou the improbable assumption that small and large herds were equally liable to attack, and applying this proportion to the 4,785,836 head enumerated in Great Britain, it may be inferred that the island contains at least 283,301 separate herds. So of 283,301 herds, 25,968 suffered more or less from plague ; 357,333 sustained no reported loss. These n\imbers are in the proportion of 10 to 1 ; out of eleven, 10 herds have escaped, aud one herd has been attacked. Eleven of these herds contain 186 beasts ; and of the 17 beasts in the herd infected, 9 were attacked ; of them 5 died, 3 were kUlcd under the disease, and 1 recovered : 7 were unattacked, but 2 of the 7 were " slaughtered healthy" by way of precaution ; thus leaving 5 alive unattacked, which, with the 1 recovering, gives 6 survivors out of the original herd of 17. This is an average case. Let us assume that the 11 farms form a parish under one landlord. Then a farmer might lose the whole of his stock by pleuro-pneumouia, or by rinderpest ; and what, if uninsured, is his situation ? He might appeal, after the loss, to the pity of his 10 neighbours, who, if he had lost £90 worth of stock, might replace it by giving him out of their charity £9 apiece.* Or he can appeal to his landlord. How different would be his position if he and his neighbours had paid 10s. a-head before the loss into an insurance fund, on which each member had a just and equal claim ! He would get his £90 as a matter of right, on business princi- ples. I should mention that probably more than double the above numbers of owuers made returns of cattle, sheep, and pigs to the Inland Revenue sm-veyors ; and that as small herds were less liable to attack than large herds, it is possible that the average herd may not exceed ten. Taking the head of cattle in Great Britain at 4,929,645 in ordinary times, it appears that rather more than 4 in 100 have died or have been killed on account of rinderpest. The proportion was 1 in 23. Of those treated to the end, 79 per cent, died, 21 recovered ; and it may be inferred that if none of the cattle attacked had been killed, the loss then would have been 3.945 per cent., or very nearly 1 in 25 of all the cattle existing. It is certain that all the cases of rinderpest have not been re- ported in the small herds ; and, upon the other hand, un- doubtedly many deaths from other diseases figured in the re- tmms, as the diagnosis of the disease was at first difficult. The returns give the nearest approximation we can get to the loss by rinderpest. The returned loss of cattle is 200,905 ; or, al- lowing for animals attacked aud unaccounted for, about 210,000. At £10 a-head, this would make the total loss £2,100,000, which has fallen with cruel inequality ou the heads of the cattle-owners. I have here some common in- stances. This loss has occurred in 11 months among 4,929,645 head of stock, which at £10 a-head are worth £49,296,450. It has been computed, upon very imperfect data, that a fourth part of the cattle arc slaughtered or die every year, that is, that their mean lifetime is four years ; and applyiug these pro- portions, about 1,232,417 head of cattle are killed every year. The mortality by disease in common years is guessed at 4 or 5 per cent. inclucUng calves ; aud, allowing for that, we have this account for the year ending May 1866 : Estimated numbers of home cattle killed for market 1,022,411 Killed by common diseases 200,000 KUled by rinderpest 210,000 Total 1,432,411 In the ordinary course, upon this assumption, the cattle stock of the country has been reduced by about 210,000 head, to be made up by importation. These estimates, as you are well aware, are conjectural, because, while our commercial statistics have been attended to for centuries, statistics of the great agricultural interest have been entirely neglected, to our now * Formerly, before fire insurance was invented, it was the established practice to make almost every considerable fire a case for an appeal ad miscricordiam. Collections were made in the churches, of which our parochial archives, we are told, contain abundant proof. The appeals for relief became so frequent as to give rise to serious complaint. (J. Brow:4, /. e fairly remunerative), taking upon himself the risk of being reimbursed by the purchaser. This system, which I prefer even to that of selling by public auction, presents a strong contrast to the Loudon one, where, if the seller happens to be present, he rarely hears tlie conclusion of any bargain between the salesman and the butcher, and thus has to depend wholly upon the word of the former as to the anioimt for which his stock is sold. Each of the two methods I have spoken of has immense ad- vantages over the one practised at the Copenhagen Fields ; and unless farmers and graziers take some steps towards modifying the pernicious system of wliich they are to a certain extent the victims, they cannot expect to reap a due reward for all the trouble, anxiety, and expense which weigh upon them iu en- deavouring to feed the multitudes who inhabit the jMetropoHs. Their desire ought to be to put a stop to the present method of transfer altogether. If, however, that is found to be too strong to give way at once to tlieir united efforts I would suggest that at least, they ought to take means to make the salesmen's com- mission in some degree commensurate with the work done, in order to do away with whatever incentives there may be to the making of a false return. My only apology for sending this is the fact that you have yourself opened the subject, and my desire to forward, to the utmost of my ability, the interests of a class, who, in these days of rinderpest and unremunerative farming, ought cer- tainly to receive all to which they are fairly entitled. I am, Mr. Editor, Yours faithfully, Rd. Gaekett. Cerltoii Hall, SaxmiiuUwn, Juiie V^') 1866. 68 THE FARMEil'^ MAGAZiJS'E. SUMMER PROSPECTS AND AGRICULTURAL DOINGS. As your periodical is at all times desirous of con- Iributiug to the best of its means eveiy infoniiation relative to agriculture aud agricultural progress, aud also to look onward with the ^^ew of jiroviding for its readers salutary cautions and useful suggestions for the future, I, as an old contributor, venture to take something like a general view of our present position aud our immediate, or " our summer prospects" as agriculturists. "We have had much to contend with during the past winter and spring. The rinderpest has made sad havoc amongst our herds, aud brought untold trials and distresses in many a worthy and respectable family. This is a trial of no ordinary character : a correctional visitation from the Divine hand like this must not be passed over as an or- dinarv' circumstance. We are glad the coimtry has so recognized it and that a nation's prayers have been oifered, and have, we tnist, in a great measure prevailed to cause a material mitigation, if not a total suspension, of the fatal malady. For this very merciful interposition of Divine Providence we cannot be too grateful, and we are san- guine enough to believe that with the continuance of the Divine blessing, and the stringent aud persevering course to be pursued by our Government, it will ere long be eradicated. Undoubtedly, it will require the greatest watchfulness and care to fully subdue its attack and stay its ravages ; but as the whole country is now wide-awake to its evils, that vigilance will no longer, we earnestly hope, be wanting. It will be absolute madness to be any longer indifferent. Individual carelessness as to its pro- pagation now ought to be visited with heavy punishment — jes, even to extend beyond the customary tine. Is it not a crime recklessly to endanger your neighbour's pro- perty ? Restitution to the sufferer aud imprisonment to the offender would act forcibly to prevent carelessness or selfish and dangerous speculations. When this dreadful cattle plague was nearly at its highest, there came upon us another astounding blow. Our monetary affairs be- came most alarmingly deranged. Many of our largest banks and discount houses succumbing to the pressure, caused money to become enormously dear, and accommodation extremely difficult to obtain, even by the best and most trustworthy firms. Hence a stagnation in many departments of business has occurred, and although agriculturists are not always the earliest or worst sufferers by these reverses, yet it soon seiiously affects them ; and wool, that staple produce of a thriving agri- cultmist, has at once shown it, having fallen 23 per cent. ; and these ^difficulties are still extending. We scarcely lake up a paper, but we find the announcement of exten- sive failures in various quarters for lai-ge sums, which all tend to depress agricuUm-e, which, after all, is the chief foundation of a nation's wealth. We cannot at present, however, see a prospect of a low price of meat; but that is mainly owing to a scarcity of animals for fattening purposes, and more particularly of cattle ; and in this respect there does not appear to be any probability of in- crease, as this new trouble, an impending war — a war wliich may idtimately involve all Europe — may pre- vent any large importations. We humbly and devoutly hope and pray that such a calamity may be averted, al- though so imminent, i may here then stop, first to inquire what effect such a war would have upon British agriculture? It would, if confined to Prussia and Austria, have no very gi-eat influence either one way or another. It would uo doubt cause a slight advance in the price of all agiicultural produce, inasmuch as difficul- ties would arise as to the transmission of produce from the contending countries ; there would also be the blockading of ports, the interruption of railway traffic across the countries, the additional costs of shipment, and probably a falling off in the production of Prussia and Germany. Our supplies of cattle and sheep are far more abundant from the countries moi'e immediately west of Prussia and Germany, /. c. Holland, Denmark, Eelginm and " Schleswig-Holstein." From Prussia we have considerable supplies of corn, but from Austria not much. Hungary sends us both cattle and corn : these supplies I imagine would be greatly interrupted by a col- lision of the two powers. My own impression is, that a war between these two powers would enhance the price of our agricultural produce from ten to fifteen per cent. ; but should all Europe become embroiled, no one can estimate the- effect. It would of course be mainly ruled by our position with the nations. W'e should only war with those from whom we received insult and injury, and who knows from whence that would come ? At present there is great hope that we shaU be preserved from such a misery. May God mercifully grant it ! But I am proposing to take a general view of our present position as agriculturists. Well ! our AgricuUuritl Societies : one deeply regrets the necessity for relinquishing such exhibitions for the present. It is quite a privation in itself alone. Wc residents in every district looked forward to and prepared for our own annual meeting, and our great meetings have long become of national importance. We deeply regret that the greatest of all, i. e., our Koyal Agricultural Society's jVIeeting, is entirely abandoned for this year. Take the Bath and West of England Society. There is no society to which British agriculture is more indebted. In 17?7 it laid the basement upon which the modern im- provements in agriculture have been built. It was long pioneering the way ; but, having opened it out admirably, it still keeps a decided lead, not only in agricultural de- velopment, but in the promotion of the useful arts and scientific progression. It is no small honour to have taken the lead, or the initiative, in a movement so fraught with good for a nation's welfare. From its example and its succcessful course have emanated many kindred societies, whose united efforts have brought British agriculture to a standard never before reached in any other country. The Bath and West of England Society still continues that lead ; and its meeting (the first of the season) has just been held; with the many at- tractions provided for its visitors, i. e., horses, implements, poultry, dogs, flowers, pictures, works of art, and music ; but of course minus the all-important class of cattle, sheep, and pigs, though we think the two latter classes might with tolerable safety have been jn-eseut. It is these and the cattle classes that draw together men of business. Now, " what a falling off is here," when oui' great gatherings and our provincial shows are for the sea- son withheld ! We fear our implement makers and manu- facturers of steam machinery wiU seriously feel the loss, and it will certainly tend to retard agricultural progress. It is the privilege of every inquiring farmer to attend these meetings in order that he may acquire knowledge of what might tend to his advantage, and act upon it; all this will be delayed for the season. It is true, the Royal Agricultural Society are commcndably engaged in ascertaining the value of steam cultivation aud its adop- THE FAllMEil'S MACiAZINE. 6V) tioii, iulaplatioii, and progress tkroughoiit the kingdom. Tliis of itself is a great redeeming featm-e in its annual course. AVe Lope tlie inquiries of the three committees appointed to make the investigation will take the broadest view of their arduous task. It is not so much the work and cost of the work that a steam cultivating apparatus may achieve, but the collateral and relative advantages to be derived, /'. 'E YEARS OF AGRICULTURAL LAND.' 19. A lessee for twenty-one years cannot subdivide or sub- let without consent in writing. 20. If a lessee does subdivide or sublet, he shall be liable to a penalty of M an acre fof each acre be parts possession of. 21. The lessee subletting without consent is rendered incapable of recovering rent from the sub-tenant, and the sub-tenant or other person may re- cover back from the tenant any money paid in advance as consideration for any subdivision or subletting. ~2. The letting of conacre, or grazing, or meadowing, is not to be deemed subletting or subdivision. 23. In case of an eviction for non- I)ayment of rent of a lease for twenty-one years, the tenant is to have only three months to redeem. 24. The landlord is not to be liable to account for the profits of land during the period allowed for redemption. A twenty-one years' lease shall not operate as an outstanding legal estate. AS TO RENT AND RECOVERY OF RENT OF AGRICULTURAL LAND. 26. After six years, all arrears of rent are to be barred. 27. Grazing stock is not to be liable to landlord's distress beyond the amount of the grazing money, unless in case of fraud. 2S. Household furniture is not to be seized for agricultural rent, and implements of husbandry, imported manure, and materials for building or draining are to be also exempt from distress for rent. GENERAL PROVISIONS. 29. This Act not to apply to demesne land or land iu borouglis, or holdings under £4 annual value. 30. Chairmen of counties are to make rules and frame forms. THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL BENEVOLENT INSTITUTION. riic annual meeting was held on Wednesday, June 6, at the London Tavern, to receive the annual report of the council for the year ended on the 31st December, 1865, and for the election of otficers and pensioners. Mr. Richard Garrett in the diair. Mr. Shaw, the Secretary, read the following report, which was unanimously adopted : " In presenting the annual report of the Royal Agricultural Benevolent Institution for the year ending the 31st December, 1865, the Council congratulate the friends and supporters of the institution on the gradual in- crease of its funds, and on the extended advantages which that increase affords. During the past year fifteen pensioners have been placed on the books of the institution, and the Council liave decided to elect two candidates in addition to the number admitted last year, making up the total number, since the first election, to eighty-nine. The financial progress of the insti- tution is not less gratifying. The donations amounted to £961 6s. lid., while the annual subscriptions reached £3,251 3s. 8d., being £307 Os. 2d. in excess of the previous year. In addition to the balance of £655 Is. 4d. from last audit, £370 5s. Od. have been received from dividends, which, together with £19 3s. 4d., property tax re- turned, make the total receipts of the year £5,083 4.s. 6a. ; of which £1,134 have been paid to pensioners, and £2,710 12s. 6d. have heen added to the invested capital of the Institution, leaving a credit balance at the banker's of £628 3s. Id. While these figures testily to the spreading recognition of the import- ance of the Institution, it must not for a moment be imagined that it can afford to dispense with the assistance of any of its generous supporters. The annual claim upon its bounty can only be met by annual subscriptions. For it must be borne in mind that were the revenue of the Institution four-fold its average amount, the council would be at no loss to find qualified candidates to absorb it. Regular annual subscriptions, there- fore, are earnestly solicited — subscriptions not terminated, as has too often been the case, on the success or failure of a favourite candidate, but annually continued for the general benefit of the Institution. The council cannot too highly ap- preciate the services of the Honorary Local Secretaries, on whose exertions so large an amount of the prosperity of the Institution depends. (Signed) "Spencer." Messrs. T. Batson, C. S. Cantrell, J. Collins, II. Corbet, J. Druce, J. Howard, and T. Scott, the retiring members of the council, were re-elect«d. The thanks of the meeting were voted to Lord Spencer, chairman of the executive council, to Lord Cowper for his kindness in presiding at the anniversary festival of the Institu- tion, and to Mr. Shaw, the Secretary, and the council proceeded to the election of pensioners, Mr. Alderman Mechi in tlie chair. The following were found to be the successful can- didates : male pensioners at £26 per annum each. Votes. Votes. Matthias Baker ... ... 493 Edward Whiteaway .. 309 Richard Eletcher ... 331 Caleb Cooke Weeks .. 257 married pensioners at £40 per annum each couple. R. and H. Dester ... 915 | J. and M. Oliver ... 811 fem.ale pensioners at £20 per .vnnum each. Mary Anne Gotelee ... 585 I Amy Louisa Filield ... 505 Mary Clarke 533 Susanna Leonard ... 543 Charlotte Smith 584 Ann Salmon 472 THE THORNE AGRICULTURAL AKD POULTRY SHOW. — Wednesday, June 20, witnessed the fourteenth annual show of agricultural implements, stock, and produce, in con- nexion with the Thorne association ; and although, from ob- vious circumstances, very great things were not expected, few anniversaries have proved more successful. As usual, the ex- hibition was held in the beautiful and most convenient grounds belonging to ilr. Making Durham, iind opposite the hall. The show was opened about the usual time, and up to two o'clock went on steadily filling, but the greatest influx of visitors was between three and four, when the grounds became thronged. The implements were not so numerous, nor quite so interesting as usual, but yet they formed a very good collection. Of horses there never was a better show. Mr. R. Milward's British Queen, highly commended at Islington, took the cup for the best best roadster, beating nineteen others, and his Dunstan was the pony of sixteen entered. There were some very promising foals to be found, more particularly amongst the heavy breed. In dogs there was close competition in many of the classes, and sheep-dogs, as a class, were good, as also the pointers, but the setters were only Tnoderale. Poultry was a very large and important class. The exhibitors included many of our more celebrated breeders from a distance. Rabbits and pigeons were, as for many years they have been, most numerous classes. Some very large and rich eggs were exhibited, whilst the flowers were surpassingly beautiful in appearance. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ••■77 CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE. Kitchen Garden. Transplant broccoli at different periods, for early and later spring supply, choosing, if possible, a moist state of soil ; otherwise, if the weather be dry, every hole must be filled with water. The ground ought to be rich in nitrogenous manure, and there- fore some soot mixed with spit dung would be useful, as it contains salts of ammonia. May-sown cauliflower may be treated in the same manner. Endive is to be sown twice in the month. Sow early the last crop of scarlet-runners and French beans ; a row or two of cos and Silesian lettuce, radish, white and red turnip varieties, a sprinkling of carrots, onions, and salading as re- quired. Celery is to be carefully earthed ; and in doing this for the first and second times, hold each plant compactly with one hand, while the other applies the fine earth close around the lower part of the leaves, but not so high as the growing heart. Give water copiously along the trenches, if the weather be dry ; for the first good start is most important. Sow a full crop of turnips, the early Dutch, vThite ; and yellow, to come in late in the year and through winter. After the second week sow cabbage-seed for coleworts, called ''greens," one of the sweetest of spring vegetables. Leeks : Transplant, dig, and manure richly a plot or two, and try with the dung 2 oz. of sulphate of ammonia to the small barrow. Very pure guano in the extent of a pint to the same bulk would confer phosphate of amisonia, and of lime several amnaoniacal and nitrogenous compounds, common salt and neutral sulphate, to the soil. It is the comprehensiveness of pure guano which stamps its value, and therefore should always be added to the more exhausted manure as a restorative. In planting leeks, make deep case-like holes, and drop them in, supplying water in a small stream so as to fix the roots of each. Transplant vegetable-marrow and cucumber plants already raised in heat. Dig a hole for each in a warm open spot of ground, put in a barrow or more of leafy rich manure, and cover it with some light rich soil. Plant, water, and cover with hand- glasses till growth be established, and then gradu- ally train out the runners: stop the points occasion" ally, to obtain laterals. Fruit Department. Remove at the end of the month all wild, ill- placed, and superfluous wood from cherry-trees and plums. Apple and pear-trees are untouched till next month. Flower Garden. Take up bulbs, dry them, and pipe and layer pinks and carnations. Propagate geraniums by cut- tings in sand and leaf-mould, plunging the pots into a gentle hot-bed : they soon root, and may be trans- ferred to larger pots of richer soil, loamy sand, and decayed cattle-dung. Guano is reckoned a highly valuable stimulant ; but flowering plants are to be gently treated with stimulants, and more carefully with spurious guanos. The safer application will be in mixtures, CALENDAR OF GARDENING. The sowing of turnips is now finished, except in the eastern counties, where the later sown are more exempt from the fly and mildew. Drilled crops are continually scuffled and hoed, and all stale weeds pulled by hand. The preparation of clay fallows must also proceed, the dung got ready, and the lime brought forward. Draining of wet lands will be advantageously performed during this month. The turnip sowing being finished, the teams may be employed in bringing forward stones and tiles, and the filling of the drains may go on rapidly, the digging having been previously performed, except the clearing of the bottoms of the drains, which should be done on their being immediately filled. Hay harvest will be mostly finished this month. Carry all dried herbage as quickly as possible; stack and thatch it without delay. Have in readiness an abundance of thatch, and use during the carrying season tarpaulin cloths of the rick, to screen from rain. Alight cloth is useful, suspended from the ends of the ricks by pulleys. Continue folding the store sheep, both on arable and grass lands ; it is a cheap and effectual im- provement. Vetches and clovers will now be abundant ; cut and carry the herbage in a fresh state daily, for horses and cattle in the yards: give the milch cows a foddering every night in the shed and yard. Provide ample littering for the yards and sheds : the quantity of dung made will pay all expense most amply. The sheep flocks will require protection, protect by dressing against maggot-fly; provide in the pasture-fields small cots for shelter against heats and rains. Put mares to the stallion regularly. See that the cattle have water in the pasture-fields ; repair fences, allow no gaps, and have gates and wickets in the most thorough order of use. In early seasons and climates the harvest of grains and pulse crops will commence in the end of this month with rye, peas, and barley. The barns and rick-stands must be in repair to receive the crops, which may be quickly carried in the early season. 78 THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE, AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR JUNE. The weather having heeu remarkably fine and vegetative, the wheat crop has made considerable progress towards ma- turity in all parts of the United Kingdom. It Mould seem premature, even at this advanced period, to offer any positive opinion as regards the forthcoming yield. Present appear- ances, however, are in favour of a fair average gro\rth. Owing to the commencement of the war in Germany, and the possibility of the exports of all kinds of produce from Austria and Prussia being prohibited, the wheat trade has shown great firmness, and prices have advanced from 4s. to 7s. per qr. All kinds of spring corn have, as a consequence, risen in value from Is. to 2s. per qr., and the top price of flour has been advanced to 50s. per 2801bs. Even at these advanced rates, holders have been indifferent sellers, forget- ting, perhaps, that we are still in a position to import large quantities of grain from France and Russia. The quantity of wiieat now in stack in this country is sup- posed to be a fair average. Nevertheless, our farmers have thrashed out sparingly, under the impression that prices have not yet seen their highest point for the year. Of spring corn, the supphes are almost whoUy exhausted ; consequently, we shall commence the consumption of the new crops quite as early as usual. Throughout the Continent, wheat has risen somewhat rapidly in price, owing to the large orders transmitted from this country. Barley and most other articles liave changed hands freely, on higher terms. American advices bring very little change in the value of either wheat or flour. The ship- ments to all quarters have been on a very limited scale. The quantity of wheat held in the Western States is represented as nearly equal to last year. The cutting of hay has been commenced in the whole of our forward districts. As yet, the quantity secured is com- paratively small ; but the crop, as a whole, promises well. In the metropolitan markets meadow hay has sold at from £4 to £5 10s., clover £5 to £6 10s., and straw £1 18s. to £3 4s. per load ; new meadow hay has realized £4 to £4 4s. Very little old hay is now in the hands of the growers. Although the hop bine has progressed rapidly, there has been an improved demand for most kinds of hops, on higher terms. The stock on hand is much reduced ; but our im- pression is that the new grovrth will l)e nearly equal to last season. Potatoes are looking well, and a heavy crop is generally ex- pected. Last year's produce must have been enormous, when it is considered that, even now, large quantities of old potatoes are on sale, at from 80s. to 140s. per ton. The quantity of land under potato-culture this season is very extensive. The public sales of colonial wool have been brought to a close. Throughout, the biddings, owing to the immense supply on offer, and the unusually high rates charged for accommoda- tion, were languid, at a decUne in the quotations of Id. to 3d. per lb. when compared with the previous series. Had it not been for the heavy purchases for sliipment to France — about 75,000 bales— a much heavier fall must have taken place in prices. The sale for English wool has been extremely heavy, at drooping currencies. The next public sales will be com- menced on the 12th of August. The quantity of wool already arrived for them is over 60,000 bales. In several parts of England the turnip crop has been a complete fculure. Swedes and mangolds, however, are looking well. The fine rains have improved their growth considerably. In Ireland the wheat and otlier crops are looking well. The trade for whe.it has been moderately active, at 3s. to 4s. per qr. more money. Spring corn has advanced in price ; whilst flour has been disposed of at enhanced rates. The shipments of produce to England have been on the increase. The Scotch markets have been very firm for wheat, on higher terms. Barley and other articles have changed hands freely, and the quotations have had an upward tendency. Very few complaints have reached us respecting the appearance of the crops. REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. The Metropolitan, as well as most of the other leading markets have been fairly supplied with beasts in improved con- dition. For the most part, sales have ])rogressed slowly ; nevertheless, prices have ruled high. At one period the best Scots and Crosses were disposed of as high as 6s. per 81bs., against 5s. per 81bs. at the corresponding period in 1865. This high figure, however, has not been maintained, the closing quotations being 5s. 8d. The arrivals of sheep have been seasonably extensive, and quite equal to the demand. The niuttou trade has therefore been inactive, on rather lower terms. The best old Downs and half-breds have sold at 5s. lOd. to 6s. per 81bs. There has been a good demand for lambs, at full quotations — viz., from 6s. 8d. to 8s. per 81bs. The supply of calves having increased, the veal trade has been in a sluggish state, on rather easier terms. Prime small pigs have commanded full quotations. Other- wise the pork trade has ruled heavy. The total supplies of stock exhibited in the Metro- politan Market have been as follows : — Head. Beasts 18,820 Sheep and Lambs 139,880 Calves 1,864 Pigs 1,783 COMPAEISON OF SUPPLIES. June. Beasts. Cows. Sheep and Lambs, Calves. Pigs. 1864 ... 26,890 550 138,450 2,780 3,280 1865 ... 24,050 646 165,720 4,278 3,210 The imports of foreign stock have been on a fair average scale, as will be seen from the annexed return : Beasts 8,905 head. Sheep .33,709 Lambs 1,105 Calves 1,782 Pigs 1,864 Total 47,425 Same time iu 1805 61,935 1864 38,029 1863 30,059 1863 22,841 1861 33,751 No stock arrived direct from Holland during the month ; and it is fully expected the exports of cattle, sheep, &c., both from Austria and Prussia, will shortly be prohibited. In that case — unless, indeed, imports are permitted from Holland— we shall have a further serious rise in the quotations. The comparison of the arrivals of English, Scotch, and Irish breeds is as follows : June. June. June. 1864. 1865. 1866 From Norfolk, Suffolk, &c 10,800 8,400 9,000 Lincolnshire 600 2,000 — Other parts of England 3,600 2,250 1,930 Scotland 3,905 3,315 59 Ireland 430 370 20 Comparison or Prices. June, 1863. June, 1864. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Beef from 3 4 to 5 3 3 4 to 5 0 Mutton 3 8to5 2 3 0 to 5 3 Lamb 5 4 to G 8 6 0 to 7 0 Veal 4 0to5 0 4 0 to 5 0 Pork 3 Cto4 6 3 6 to 4 0 THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. n June, 1866. June, 1866. s. d. s. i. s. d. s. d. Beef from 3 6 to 5 2 3 10 to 6 0 Mutton 4 4to6 4. 4 0 to 6 0 Lamb 6 0 to 7 8 0 8 to 8 0 Veal 4 Oto5 4 5 4 to 6 4 Pork 3 6to410 4 0 to 5 -2 Newgate aud Leadenhall have been but moderately sup- plied with meat, which has sold slowly, at fluctuating prices. WEALD OF KENT. During the last fortnight we have had some beautiful re- freshing showers, and the withering frosts of May, which so much retarded the growing crops, have passed away. The present montli being summer-like, vegetation has made rapid progress. Wheat is now fast coming into ear ; many pieces are slight, and, under the most favourable circumstances, an .average crop cannot be calculated on. Oats, generally, look much better than we anticipated ; the indilferent quality of the seed sown in the spring, coupled with the untoward season, has an appearance of gloom for the future ; still the plant is lieaUhy and strong, but short in the straw. Barley, upon some of our stiff soils, is not presenting a good appearance ; warm weather with occasional showers will, however, do much to im- i prove it. The bean's and peas are doing remarkably well ; they are very strong and full of bloom ; sho\dd nothing befall them a full average wiU doubtless be realized. Mowing of seeds is pretty general: the crop is not heavy. Grass during the month of May wasted rather than otherwise ; but the warm showers fell copiously, imparting fi'esh vigour, so that when the time for mowing arrives jiopes are entertained of better yield. The hop-bine has grown very fast during the past week, and in most grounds has gone over the tops of the poles. Fly and lice infest the leaf in great abundance, and considerable anxiety is manifesting itself about its eifects on the ensuing growth. \ Many fear a total blight, and the most sanguine only build up '* their hopes ol a fair growth on the fact that it is yet eerly. — June 22. SOMERSETSHIRE. There is room for more frequent notices of our growing crops at this season. Up to this time we have, for the first lialf of I860, luad less wet than lor many years, and had there not been almost weekly a very fine fall of rain, genial in its effects, we should have felt more injurious consequences in .( nearly all the growing crops : as it is, witliout question they are late, and harvest cannot be an early one. Wheat, with few exceptions, has been unfavourably reported : weak in colour, thin on ground, and short in the straw, it has improved from time to time M'ith the fine rains, but unless there is an extra fine kern it can hardly be an average crop. Barley is very promising, and so are beans, particularly winter ones, a large crop. Oats were not so well spoken of. The few peas grown .are goodly ones. Clover and ryegrass are thin, and wlmt )i!)« been cut light in weight. It has up to yesterday beeu very cold for the season ; before the fine rain on Monday morning, of four liours' duration, it was very cold, -nith high winds. It has threatened without coming to much. Some hay has been secured; next week mowing on the mea- dows will become gener.al, and dry weather acceptable. Of the root crops mangel plants are looking well, a great deal planted. Some swedes have been 'sown aud up ; for these it is rather early. There niU be a large crop of apples ; excepting grapes, other fruits will be rather scarce. Potatoes are look- ing very well ; new ones are as yet light, and the old stock .all but exhausted. We have had fine rains for the flax crop ; rather less sown than usual. Lands have beeu thro^Mi down to grass, and more beans planted, in consequence of the low prices which have been realized in proportion to sheep aud beans. The first crop of hay will be light ; but there will be a greater quantity of acres mown than usual, there is always such a good market for it to send off by rail. There have been large supplies of sheep and pigs .at our markets. Bridgewater, the largest fair held in this county, was larger this year th.an any before. Fat sheep have come more freely, but the prices are rather lower . Fat lamb supplies were equal to the de- maud; mutton 8d, to S^d., lamb 8|d. to 9d. per lb, to siuk the offal. As to poor sheep the prices have recently gone back, but are still very high ; Is. 6d. is about the highest offer for wool, but there is very little done as yet, dealers being very backward in buying. Poor pigs are lower and in large sup- ply. Some loss has been sustained in weaned calves from giving them too much cotton cake, a great many weaned. The make of cheese is said to be very fair this season, prices steady. The stock healthy. We know very little of what is going on in the poor stock and beef trade, as there is no market open except in Bristol. Beef is scarce ; of stall-fed very few re- maining, and the grass-fed hardly fit ; prices have kept up, and we cannot get best joints of beef under 8d. or 9d. per lb. Graziers have given dealers commissions to purchase poor stock : by this means the cattle are sent with one pass direct to the grazier. I am disposed to think there will not be an average so fatted this year. Mowing-machines are getting into general use, and it is likely the reaping-machines will be more used this season. We have heard of no blight amongst the pota- toes : a good many gro^n this year. — June 22. AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. ABINGDON FAIR.— There were two or three very useful droves of Welsh horses, a good many out of which changed hands, and anything likely to turn into a handy nag fetched from £16 to £30, being the highest price we heard asked. Owing to Bsley coming on the same day, the supply of sheep and lambs was short, as at the latter place the trade was a better one to the extent of .about 2s. per head. BANBURY FORTNIGHTLY SHEEP FAIR.— The sup- ply was about an average, and trade was tolerably brisk, many of the pens being cleared early. Prices ran from 5s. to Gs. the Bibs., and in some cases a trifle over. BOROUGHBRIDGE FAIR.— The gathering of buyers and the show of horses exceeded that of many previous years. Only a few first-rate hunters of the class were sought .after in these days of heavy-weight-carrying horses, with good breeding aud easy going. Several were sold at prices ranging from 80 gs. to 100 gs. each. The state of Continental affairs, and tlie re- cent bank failures, prevented some old buyers from speculating as usual. Several large lots were bought up for the army l)y English and foreign dealers. There was an average show of hacks, cobs, cart aud draught horses, the whole of which main- tained high prices. Of course there was the average muster of broken-down, worn-out animals. Irish horses were also shown of a medium quality. To give a fair criterion of prices would almost be impossible. Cobs, hacks, .and troop horses, £15 to £40 ; inferior animals, £7 to £14 each. The supply of sheep was very good. The fair altogether was quite of a satis- factory character. BOSTON SHEEP ]\IARKET.— An average supply of fat sheep, with a brisk trade, at an advance of Jd. per lb. on last week's rates. „ , BURGH FAT STOCK MARKET.— The show of sheep for sale was remarkably good both for number and quality, and there being a strong muster of buyers, many of whom were from distant towns, business proceeded rapidly, and a good clearance was effected, ilutton made from 8d. to S^d. per lb. ; in some cases the higher figure of 9d. was said to be reached. CARR BRIDGE MimiCET.- The stock consisted wholly of stots .and queys, and the following prices were realized by the sellers : jNIr. Camming, Benanach, sold his stots and queys at £7 10s. ; Mr. Oswald, P.ahialiatnich, .at £0 10s. ; Mr. M'Bean, Auchterblair, at £(J 5s. ; Mr. Menzies, Carr Bridge, at £5 17s. 6d. ; Mr. Grant, Tullocbgorm, at £7 13s. ; Mr. Grant, Forgin, .at £5 10s. ; Mr. Cameron, Carr, at £5 10s. CAWDOR FAIR.— The attendance of dealers was good, and nearly all the lots of cattle, in anything like good condition, were sold at fair prices. The leaner kinds of stock met with a stiff sale. The following arc a few of the sales :— Capt. Sharpe, Newton of Cawdor, a farrow cow for £19, two cross stirks for £21 10s., a quey, two year old, for £16 ; Mr. D. Falconer, Woodside, sold a year-old quey for £9 10s. ; Mr. IM'Bean, Conuagc, sold a lot of cross stirks at £12 ; Mr. Stewart, Bog of Cawdor, sold a lot of two-year-old cross stots at £12, aud 'bought a lot of Highland stirks at £5 10s. ; Mr. 80 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Campbell, Ardersier, sold a lot of polled stirks at £5 7s. 6d. ; Mr. John Smith, Galcantray, sold a lot of stirks at £7 ; Mr. M'Bean, Dalcharn, sold a lot of cross stirks .at £7 7s. ; filr. Minto, Cawdor, sold a pair of stirks at £11 ; Mr. M'Intosh, Berriiian, sold a lot of stirks at £7 10s. ; Mr. J. M'Pherson, Cawdor, sold a lot of stirks at £8 6s. ; Mr. Clark, Campbel- to\-i)AY, June 25. — During the past week the arrivals Tjoth coastwise and by rail have been very small, but the trade now being well supplied with new potatoes, very few old ones are required. As the crop of 1S65 is now nearly iinished this will be our last report for the season. Yorkshire Elukes per ton 120s. to 140s. „ Regents 90s. to llGs. „ Rocks 70s. to 7os. Dunbar and East Lothian Regents 90s. to 110s. Scotch Elukes 120s. to laOs. Perth, Forfar, and Fife Regents ... 80s. to 90s. Do. Do. Rocks 00s. to 70s. BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS. LONDON, Monday, June 25. — These markets are fairly supplied with Potatoes : chiefly new produce. The trade, on the whole, is steady, at our quotations. The imports into London last week consisted of 10,240 baskets from KoUerdam, ],S33 Dunkirk, 28 Boulogne, 139 Antwerp, 94 boxes Valencia, 746 Lisbon, &c., and 12 tons, 70 barrels, 160 baskets from St. JIalo. Regents old SOs. to 120s. per ton. Elukes „ 150s. to 180s. „ Rocks , 50s. to 90s. „ Spanish new lis. to 16s. per cwt. Scilly „ lis. to 14s. Jersey „ lis. to 15s. „ COUNTRY POTATO MARKETS.— B^ui^sley, (Satur- day last) : There was a good attendance of dealers at market, and a large wholesale business was transacted. Prince Regents 10s. to lis., flukes 9s. to lO.s., and rock potatoes 7s. 6d. to 8s. 6d. per load. New potatoes were rather dearer than on Wed- nesday, and sold at 7s. Cd. per hamper ; kidneys 3d. and round lid. per lb. retail. Do>'CASTek, (Saturday last) : The show of old potatoes lit the market was very small, which considerably enhanced prices. Rocks made 8s. to 8s. 6d., Regents lis. Gd. to 12s. Gd. per load of 18 stones. Jl.viyciiESTEii, (Saturday last) : Potatoes 8s. to 13s., New ditto 32s. to 36s. per 252 lbs. Y'OKK, (Saturday last) : The supply of potatoes was limited. Roimd ones fetched lis. to 12s. per tub of 2801Lis.,and from lOd. to Is. per peck retail. New potatoes 4s. per score of 21 lbs. ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET. LONDON, !MoNDAY, June 25. — We note a steady trade at firm prices. Dorset, fine 118s. to 125s. per cwt. „ middling lOOs. to 110s. „ Devom 112s. to 114s. „ Fresh lis. to 14s. per dozen lbs. CORK BUTTER EXCHANGE, (Saturday last.)— The supplies in our market, about 1,600 firkins daily. The de- mand is fair, and prices continue steady. Since Monday seconds rose from Ills, to 112s., thirds fell from 103s. to 101s., fourths rose from 96s. to 98s., and fifths from 76s. to 78s. About 320 mild-cured firkins arrived during the week. It quotes to-day from 113s. to 116s. The weather continues very favourable for the make of butter. GLOUCESTER MONTHLY CHEESE MARKET was moderately supplied, about 40 tons being pitched. This met a ready sale, best qualities obtaining 65s. to 67s., and seconds 60s. to 62s. per cwt. A clearance was si)eedily obtained. GLASGOW, (Wednesday last.) —A liberal supply of Cheese, which met a fair demand, at full prices. About twenty-four tons passed the weigh-house scales. We continue former quotations, but two or three prime lots of new Cheddar brought from 67s. to 69s. per cwt. ; Dunlop, old, 68s. to 74s., ditto new 60s. to 62s ; Chedder-made, old, 70s. to 76s., ditto new, 64s. to 66s. ; Skim-milk, 26s. to 28s. NEWGATE AND LEADENHALL POULTRY MAR- KETS.— Goslings 5s. to 7s. 6d., ducklings 2s. 6d. to 4s., tame rabbits Is. 3d. to 2s., pigeons Gd. to lOd. each ; Surrey fowls 10s. to 14s., ditto chickens 6s. to 10s., barn-door fowls 4s. to 8s., per couple. English eggs 7s. 6d. to 8s., French 6s. to 7s. per 100 ; fresh butter Is. to Is. 2d. per lb. ENGLISH WOOL MARKET. CITY, jMojjday, June 25. — There is very little busmcss doing in any kind of wool for home use ; whilst the demand for export to the continent is limited. In prices, however, no actual decline has taken place. The Colonial Wool Sales have been brought to a close. Buyers from France purchased about 75,000 bales during their progress. CuEKENT Prices of English Wool. s. d. 8. d. Fleeces — Southdown hoggets per lb. 1 4jtol 5^ Half-bred ditto ,, 16 17 Kent fleeces „ 17 18 Southdovm ewes and wethers „ 14 15 Leicester ditto ,, 15 17 SoBTS— Clothing ,, 14 1 8^ Combine: „ 1 3i 1 9i BRADFORD WOOL MARKET, (Thursday last.)— The lapse of another week has revealed no manner of improvement in the English wool trade. No new demand has sprung up, and transactions have been consequently confined to the small purchases of spinners who have exhausted their stock, and re- quire to keep some portion of their machinery at work. Tlie influence of this long-protracted time of quiet, while the rates of money make it so important to be turning overstock, is very disastrous to prices. The value of wool is lowering every day, and staplers who have sold to-day have accepted prices from Id. to 2d. below even last week's rates. It is true there are staplers who will not yield in this way, and who are deter- mined to hold on till things take a turn. Comparatively little of tlie new clip has yet come to market. Farmers are as yet loth to part witli their stocks at the ruling rates, and wiU not believe in the full depression till their respective local fairs, now soon to be held, shall reveal tlie unwelcome truth. It is worthy of notice that colonial wool does not seem to share at all in the depression of our market. The opening rates have l)een firmly maintained throughout at the London wool sales, and last night there was even an improvement manifest. El'SOM WOOL FAIR.— The annual wool fair in connec- tion witli the Surrey Agricultural Association was held at the Kiug's Head Hotel, Epsom, on Wednesday. The unfavour- able state of atfairs at home and abroad had a telling ett'ect upon trade, the consequence being a very short supply of wool and literally no business doing. At three o'clock between 30 and 40 gentlemen sat down to an excellent dinner. Mr. Page presided, S. Pagden, Esq., being in the vice-chair. Ample justice having been done to the good things provided by the worthy liost, and the cloth having been removed, business was then proceeded with, and Mr. Bennett ofi'ered his teg and ewe fleeces for Is. 6d. per lb. Mr. Hatch offered his 228 Down fleeces at Is. 6d. Mr. Greig, who had a fine sample of Down wool, offered it at Is. 7d. and Is. 6d. Mr. Overton oft'ered 150 Do\vu fleeces at Is. 6d. Mr. Freeland oft'ered his Down teg fleeces at Is. 6d. ; and Mr. Arnett offered 237 teg and 20 ewe fleeces at Is. 5d. No buyer could be found at these prices, and the Cliairman (Mr. Page) then offered his wool at Is. 6d. for the half-breds, and Is. -J^d. for the lambs. Mr. Rauford offered Is. od. for the half-breds, and Is. 3d. for the lambs. Mr. Page said he would take Is. 5d. all round. Mr. Ranford agreed to this price, and bought the lot. The Chaimian then proposed the health of the buyers, coupled with the name of Mr. Ranford, wlio was the only buyer that day. The toast was heartily drunk ; and Mr. Ranford having suitably returned thanks, several attempts were made to effect sales, but with- out success, and the fair closed, only one lot of wool having changed hands. LEEDS (ExGLisii A?JD FoEEiGN) WOOL MABKETS, (Friday last.) — The high rate of discount and diminished de- mand for goods tend to lower the price of EngHsh wool, and so long as these causes operate, buyers purchase only what they absolutely need. There has been a fall on some sorts of 20 to 25 per cent, since the early part of last month. There is no change to report either in price or demand for colonial and other c'othing wools. GLASGOW AVOOL MABKET, (Saturday last.)— There is almost no change to report in the aspect of our wool market here. Spinners are beginning to make inquiries as to prices, and to look at stocks, but little actual business lias resulted. There will not probably be mucli improvement in the tone of the market until we have some reduction in the Bank rate of discount. — F. McLeod. Printed by Rogerson and Tuxford, 246 Strand, London, W.C. REAPING m MOWING MACHINES FOR THE HARVEST OF 186 6, MANUFACTURED BY BUEGESS AI^D KEY, On tlieir New Patent System, whereby the Crank is level with the Knive, and the Cutter Bar in a line with the Axle of the Main Wheel. (2).-SCREW-DELIVERY REAPER. Delivers in swathe at the side and out of the way of the horses. Worked by one man and two horses it will cut from one-and-a-half to two acres per hour, according to the state of the crops and land. It is well known 4,000 having been sold since 1854, and Twenty-two First Prizes received in this and other countries. By adopting our patented system the draught is much reduced, the parts much simplified, the width much less and its operation rendered more certain and effectual. Price £36, exclusive of extras ; delivered carriage free to any Station in England for 30s. extra. (3). — BACK SHEAF-DELIVERY REAPER. Delivers behind by means of a very simple automatic Rake. It cuts 5 feet 3 inches, and is worked by one horse and a boy to drive. Price ^^22 10s., delivered free to any station in England for 20s. extra. The Machines Nos, 2 and 3 were not completed in time to compete at the Roy. Agric. Society's Meeting this year, and in consequence, Jacob Wilson, Esq., the writer of the Prize Essay on Reapers, and for which he received the Highland Society's Gold Medal, kindly undertook to work them this year. The following is Lis Report : — Woodham Manor, Morpeth, Nov. 30th, 1865. Gentlemen, — It is with considerable pleasure that I have to report to you the very satisfactory work done by your tioo New Machines brought out since the Plymouth Meeting, and which 1 employed during the whole of the past harvest. Having used one of your original Screw Delivery Reapers since 1857, since which period it has cut upwards of 2,200 acres, I can readily appreciate any improvements which occur in your more recent inventions. It appears to me that the main improvements in the New Screw Delivery Reaper consist in the arrangement of the gearing, so that the Crank is on a level with the Knife, and the Knife projectinf in a line with the Axles, and the two Wheels being opposite, or nearly so. By this plan the Machine is made°very nar- row, light in draught, and very simple. The reel being worked by a chain, and the screws by gearing, a stop- page is coniequently scarcely possible in the delivery. The Back Self-Sheaf- Delivery Reaper is to me quite new, and certainly the simplest on that principle I have yet seen, and it does seem a pity that it was not ready in time for the Plymouth trials. The easy automatical action of the drop platform and reel makes a very neat sheaf, while the lightness of draught surprised me extremely. The Screw-Delivery Reaper cut over 100 acres in a most satisfactory manner, depositing the corn in a well- formed swathe, some of the crops of oats and beans being unusually heavy. The Back-Delivery Machine cut about 70 acres equally well, leaving a very neat sheaf. When we consider that these Machines were quite new the wear and tear was scarcely appreciable, and I therefore predict that you will have a very considerable sale for both Machines as they become known to the public. I am, Gentlemen, yours faithfully, Messra. Burgess Sc Key. JACOB WILSON. (6).-MOWING MACHINE, for Natu- ral and Artificial Grasses. Constructed on B. & Key's new patent system, viz., the Crank level with the Knife, and the Knife in a line with the Ax!e of the Main Wheel. Cuts 4 feet 3 inches. Price, with all extras delivered, £20. The parts necessary to adapt it to reap corn crops, £3. The above prices are for nett cash on delivery. Further particulars may be obtained of BURGESS & KEY, 95, NEWGATE-STSEET, LONDON, AND SRBNTWOOD, ESSEX. HAIL STORMS. THE ROYAL FARMERS' INSURANCE COMPANY, 3, NORFOLK STREET, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. INSURE WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, BEANS, PEAS, RYE, TURNIPS, CLOVER, &c., AGAINST LOSS BY HAIL STORMS AT MODERATE RATES. S£d>§ and OliASS arc also Insured. !FJIR]2i Insurances at rates as low as other well-established offices. lilFE Assurances of any description at equitable rates, four-fifths of the profits divided every fifth year. liOSSKS. Prompt and liberal eettlemeut of claims. Further particulars may be had at the Chief Office, or of the Agents. JOHN REDDISH, Secretary and Actuary. IMPORTANT TO FLOCKMASTERS. THOMAS BIGG, Agricultural and Veterinary Chkhist, by Appointment to His late Royal Highness The Trince Consort, K.G., Leicester House, Great DoTer-street, Borough, london, begs to call the attention of Farmers and Graziers to his valuable SHEEP and LAMB WPriNG COM- POSITION, which requires no Boiling, and may be used with Warm or Cold Water, for eflfectualiy destroying the Tick, Lice, and all other insects injurious to the Flock, preventing the alarming attacks of Fly and Shab, and cleansing and purifying the Skin, thereby greatly improving the Wool, both in quantiiy ai)d quality, and highly contributing to the general health of the animal. Prepared only by Thomas Bigg, Chemist, &c., at his Manufac- tory as above, and sold as follows, although any other quantity may be had, if required : — 4 lb. for 20 sheep, price, jar included £0 2 0 6 1b. 90 „ „ „ 0 3 0 8 lb. 40 „ „ „ 0 4 0 10 lb. 60 „ „ „ 0 5 0 •JO lb. 100 „ ,, (cask and measure 0 10 0 aOlb. 150 „ „ included) 0 15 0 40 1b. 2U0 „ „ „ 10 0 601b. 260 „ ,, „ 13 6 60 1b. SOO „ „ „ 17 6 80 lb, 400 „ „ „ 1 17 6 100 1b. 500 „ „ „ 2 5 0 Should any Flockmaster prefer boiling the Composition, it will be equally eft'ective. MOST IMPORTANT CERTIFICATE. From Ma. Hbrapath, tke celebrated Analytical Chemist: — Bristol Laboratory, Old Park, January IBth, 1861. Sir, — I have submitted your Sheep-Dipping Composition to analysis, and find t>iat the ingredients are well blended, and the mixtirs neutral. If it is used according to the directions given, I feel satisfied, that while it effectually destroys vermin, it will not injure the hair roots (or " yolk ") in the skin, tht fleece, or the carcase. I think it destrves the numerous testimonials pub- lished. I am, Sir, yours respectfully, William Hbrapath, Sen., F.C.8., &c., &c.. To Mr. Thomas Bigg, Professor of Chemistry. Leicester House, Great Dover'Street, Borough, London, He would also especially tall attention to ' is S-PECIFIC, or LOTION, for the SCAB, or SHAB. which wii! be found a certain ■ remedy for eradicating that loathsome and ruinous disorder in ; Sheep, and which may be safely used in all climates, and at all seasons of the year, and to all descriptions of sheep, even eweg in lamb. Price FIVE SHILLINGS per gallon— suflScient on an average for thirty Sheep (according to the virulence of the disease); also in wine quart bottles, Is. 3d. each. IMPORTANT TESTIMONIAL. "Scoulton, near Hingham, Norfolk, April 16th, 1859. " Dear Sir, — In answer to yours of the our in- valuable 'Specific for the cure of S''-ab in Sheep.' The 600 sheep were all dressed in August last with b4 gallons of the ' Ifon- Vcisonous Specific,' that was so highly recommended at the Lii coin Show, and by thei' own dresser, the best attention ' being paid to the flock by my shepherd after dressing according to instructions left; but notwithstanding the Scab continued getting worse. 13fing determined to have the Sr«b cured If possible, I wrote to you for a supply of your Speciric, which 1 received the following day; and although the v-?a'bpr was most severe in February during the dressing, your Specific proved itself an invaluable remf dy, for in three weeks the Sheep were quite cured ; and I am happy to say the young Iam(>B are doing remarkably well at present. In conclusion, I bcV 've it to be thesafest and best remedy now in use. " 1 remain, do ./ Sir, your obedient servant, " For JOHN TING FY, E» " To Mr. Thomas Bigg." " B. HENNEv. B^ Flockmasters would do well to beware of such prepara* 'ions as " Non-poisonous Compositions :" it is only necessary to appeal io their good common sense and judgment to be tho- roughly convinced, that no " Non-poisonous" article can poison or destroy insect vermin, particularly such as the Tit k. Lice, and Scab Parabites— creaturef(,so tentcious of life. Such adrertised preparations must be wholly usnless, or they are not what they are represented to be. IMpping Apparatus > „,.£\i, £it £4, & £S, BOGliRSOM & T UXFORD,] [PKIMEBS, 246, STRANJD. No. 2, Vol. XXX.] AUGUST, 1866. [Third Sbries. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE AND MONTHLY JOURNAL OS THE AaRICULTURAL INTEREST. TO THE FARMERS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. LONDON : PUBLISHED BY ROGERSON AND TUXFORD, 246, STRAND. PRICE TW9 SHILLINGS. ■' EOGERSON AND TUXFORD,] \ [PRINTERS, 246, STRAND. CHAMPION PLOUGHS WON in 1865 and TWO PREVIOUS YEARS the Unprecedented Number of SIXTY. EIGHT ALL ENGLAND PRIZES, AND UPWARDS OF EIGHT HUNDRED LOCAL PRIZES, BY PAR THE LABGEST NUMBER EVER GAINED BY ANY MAKER. HOWARDS' CHAMPION PLOUGH Gained at the LAST TRIALS of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, at Newcastle, The FIRST and ONLY PRIZE for the BEST WHEEL PLOUGH FOR GENERAL PURPOSES. TMs is the most important Prize for Ploughs offered by the Society, it being for the Ploujgh best adapted for both light and heavy land, as well as for the best work at various depths. For the LAST TElT YEARS J. & F. HOWARD have been the Winners of this Prize. has received riFTSEN FIRST PBIZES FROM THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND, Being the Largest Number of Prizes awarded to any kind of Plough ever exhibited. MORE THAN SIXTY"tHOUSAND ARE IN USE. The following Prizes have been awarded to J. & F. Howard by the Royal Agricultural Society of Encrland : FORTY-FOUR FIRST PRIZES FOR THE BEST PLOUGHS FOR LIGHT LAND, BEST PLOUGHS FOR HEAVY LAND, BEST PLOUGHS FOR GENERAL PURPOSES. BEST RIDGING PLOUGHS, BEST SUBSOIL PLOUGHS, BEST HARROWS, BEST HORSE RAKES, BEST HAYMAKERS, AND BEST HORSE HOES; ALSO THE GOLD MEDAL, AND OTHER PRIZES, FOR STEAM-CULTIVATING MACHINERY. ruLii particttlaks may be had of their agents throughout the world, or will be sent FREE ON application TO JAMES AND FREDERICK HOWARD, BRITANNIA IRON WORKS, BEDFORD, ENGLAND. LONDON OFFICE: 4, Cheapside—Three Doors from St. Paul's. THE ORWELL WORKS, IPSWICH. RANSOMES & SIMS, OEWELL A¥ORKS, IPSWICH, ENGLAND, Are especially celebrated foj' the A griculttiral Machmery described in the followijig Pages. RANSOMES & SIMS construct their Machines of the Best Materials, manufactured as far as possible by Machinery, and with the greatest attention to Simplicity, Durability, and Ease of Repair A/vithout the employment of skilled labour. They are sold at the Low^est Prices at w^hich sound Workmanship and good Material permit. Upw^ards of 1000 men are employed at the Orwell Works, and they are aided by the best modern Tools and appliances. Ill list rated Catalogues will be forwarded Post Free on Applicatien to RANSOMES & SIMS, ORWELL WORKS, IPSWICL RANSOMES & SIMS, ORWELL WORKS, IPSWICH. Ransom es & Sims Patent Self-Cleaning and Adjustable Rotary Screen. Fixed and Portable Corn Mills, FOR ORIjnSINO FLOUR, PREPARING GRAIN FOR CATTLE FKED!N«, AND OTHER PURPOhF-S. More than one thousand of these invaluable machines are in use. They can be adjusted to separate more or less from any sample of grain. They require no brushes or cleaners to keep the wires clear, as they are perfectly self-cleaning. They have also other peculiar advantages, which are fully explained in a .sj:)ecial catalogue that will be forwarded on ajiplication. These Mills are all arranged to be worked by an ordinary ForCaUle En- gine, and the smaller Mills, from 2 ft. to 2 ft. 6 in. diameter, may be worked by a Horse Gear, driven either by Horses or Bulloeks, but they grind rather less when so driven than when worked by Steam Power. When fitted with French Burr Stones and a Dressing Apparatus, which can be neatly attached to the frame-work without adding to the bulk of the Mill, they will produce the finest flour for household purposes. The Tixed Mills are mounted on a neat iron or wood Frame, in- stead of on iR^heels. Biddells Patent Mills. and BIDDELL'S PATENT MILLS. Fer ■crashing beans, maize, oats, oil calce, by Hand Power, on Frames. Price — ■ Oat Mill, ;^3 15 o Bean Mill ;^4 Oat and Bean Mill on one stand 6 Oat and Bean Mill and Oil Cake Breaker on one stand . 7 Some thousands of these Patent Mills are in use, and giving the greatest satis- faction. Special Catalogues on Application. Biddells Iron Patent Root Pnlpers. o o o o IS o BIDDELL'S PATENT ROOT PULPERS Are very superior, and require less power and less time to do a given amount of work than any others. Made in two sizes — £^ 146 and £"] "js. Special Catalogues and Testimonials on ■application. IMPROVED IR0I3" HOUSE GEARS, 'WITH INTERMEDIATE MOTION, FOR DRIVING SMALL MACHINERY. These Hoi-se Gear.s, with tiie e.vccption of the Wooil Draught Bars, are made entirely of iron ; the frame or bed plate IS one solid piece, and therefore cannot get loose in work. They are made for one, two, three, four or six horses, a.s ordered. They are exceedingly useful for driving Chaff Cutters, Bruising Mills, Root Cutters, and other small Machme.s, and the large sizes for Horse Power Thrashing Machines, Pumps, Cotton Gins, etc. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. AUGUST, 1866, CONTENTS. Plate L— P R I Z E PIGS. Plate II,— R E P U L S E ; a Thorougk-bred Filly, PAGE. Descriptions op the Plates . . . . . . 85, 86 The Impurities of our Drainage Waters. — By Cuthbert W. Johnson, F.R.S. . 86 Reaping and Reapers.— By a Practical Farmer. . . . .89 The Essex Agricultural Association : Meeting at Epping, . . .90 Eggs ; Flax and Linseed . . . . . . .95 On Grass Lands . . . . . . . .96 The Rinderpest in Sheep . . . . . . .98 The Mortality amongst Lambs . . . . . .99 The Farm Servants' Movement: Meeting of Delegates at Perth . . 100 The Agricultural Progress of Australia ..... 101 How to Harvest Mangel Wurzel — The Silesian System . . . 103 Are the Present High Prices of Stock Likely to Continue? . . . 104 The Corporation of London and the Dead-Meat Trade . . . 109 The New Butcher-Trade, and its Advantages . , . .111 Progress of the Repeal of the Malt-Tax Agitation , . . . 113 The Growth of Hops. ... .... 114 Spanish Agriculture ........ 119 The Suffolk Agricultural Association : Meeting at Bury St. EdmCnds . 120 Italian Ray Grass ........ 125 Stunting Cattle ........ 126 A Substitute for the Finger in Feeding Calves . . . : 127 Ulster Tenant-Right . . . , . . .128 The Effects of the Game Laws on Agriculture .... 130 Another Chapter on Thistles ...... 132 The Making of Clover Hay ....... 133 Davis Garret's Dairy Farm . . . , . , .134 Sheep-Farming in South Africa ...... 135 Royal Agricultural Society: Monthly Council and General Meeting . 136 The Steam Plough .;...... 137 Landlord's Capital ........ 140 The Birmingham Horse-Show ...... 142 Figures for Farmers. — By Howard Reed ..... 145 The Cultivation of Oats ....... 147 Textless Notes. — By a Crotchety Farmer ..... 148 Colts Rubbing their Tails ........ 150 The Peck of Wheat per Acre ...... 151 Bees .......... 151 The Adulteration of Seeds ....... 152 Proposal for a Labourers' Association ..... 153 Sheep versus Cattle . . . . ' . . . . 154 Tee Game Question ........ 155 The Warm Weather and the Meat Trade ..... 156 ■ High Farming and the Employment of Labour .... 158 The Yorkshire Agricultural Society's Trial of Mowers . . . 158 Thorough Culture ........ 159 Bill to allow Farmers to Kill Hares and Rabbits .... 159 Sales of Gen. Angerstein's Stud, Middle-Park and Churchill Yearlings . 160 Kitchen Hippics ........ I6l Obituary. — Mr. Richard Garrett, of Leiston; Mr. Thomas Raymond Barker, OF Hambleden; and Mr. Charles Stokes, of Kingston . . 162, 163 Foreign Agricultural Gossip ....... 164 Game Preservation ........ 166 Calendars of Agriculture and Gardening ..... 167 General Agricultural Report for July . . • . . 168 Review of the Cattle Trade for July ..... 168 Agricultural Intelligence, Fairs, &c. ..... 170 Review of the Corn Trade during the past Month .... 174 Market Currencies, &c. » < , . » » .176 PICKSLEY, SIMS, AND CO.'S (LIMITED) EOYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S PRIZE REAPER. FIRST PRIZE AT LEEDS, 1861; one of the FIRST PRIZES at PLYMOUTB, 1865. TAKES 25 PER CENT. LESS POWER TO WORK IT THAN ANY OTHER REAPING MACHINE. One-horse, cuts 4 ft. Two-horse, cuts 5 ft. P E I C E S. 6 in. 3 in. £16 16 0 21 0 0 The One-horse Machine is strongly reeoinmendefl for mowing: artificial grasses. Particular attention is invited to the PATENT STEEL HOLLOW KNIFE BAR, whereby there is a saving: of 25 per cent, power in working the Machine. CATALOGUES of all MACHINES MADE BY THE FIRM forwarded post free upon application. .l»ICIiSI^EY, SIMS, A:^I> CO. (I.IOTITEI», lieigli, Ijancasliire. BRANCH ESTABLISHMENTS:— Manchester: corner of St. Ann Street and Deansgate' Preston : Fishergate. Constantinople, Smyrna, and Melbourne. Just Published, Price in Cloth, EIGHTJEENPENCE ; Post-free, la. M., THE SUPPLEMENT TO RUFFS GUIDE TO THE TURF; OR, POCKET RACING COMPANION FOR 1866. A Calendar of the Races and Steeple Chases in Great Britain and Ireland in 186G— The Horses Indexed, with their Pedigrees — Nominations for the Goodwood Meeting — Nominations for the St. Leger, 1866, and Derby and Oaks, 1867 — Racing on the Continent in 1866 — Races to Come, &c., &c. ROGERgON & TUXFORD, "SPORTING REVIEW" OFFICE, 246, STRAND; by all Booksellers; anrt e.t the rjirious Rail,waj' ^tations.-^PricQ Eighteenpenee in Glothj HAIL STORMS. THE ROYAL FARMERS' INSURANCE COMPANY, 3, NORFOLK STREET, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. INSURE WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, BEANS, PEAS, RYE, TURNIPS, CLOVER, &c, AGAINST LOSS BY HAIL STORMS AT MODERATE RATES. ^CSK]>S and QIJASS are also Insured. JPIRE Insurances at rates as low as other well-established offices. JLJLFE Assurances of any description at equitable rates. Four-fifths of the profits divided every fifth year. liOSSES. Prompt and liberal settlement of claims. Further particulars may be had at the Cliief Office, or of the Agents. JOHN REDDISH, Secretary and Actuary. THOMAS BIGG, Agricultural and Veterinary Chemist, by Appointment to His late Royal Highness The Prince Consort, K.G., Leicester House, Great Dorer-street, Borough, London, boss to call the attention of Farmers and Graziers to his valuable SHEEP and LAMB DIPPING COM- POSITION, which requires ao Boilingr, and may be used with Warm or Cold Water, for effectually destroying the Tick, Lice, and all other insects injurious to the Flock, preventing the alarming attacks of Fly and Shab, and cleansing and purifying the Skin, thereby greatly improving the Wool, both in quantity and quality, and highly contributing to the general health of the animal. Prepared only by Thomas Bigg, Chemist, &c., at his Manufac- tory as above, and sold as follows, although any other quantity may be had, if required : — 4 lb. for 20 sheep, price, jar included £0 2 0 6 1b. 30 „ „ „ USD 8 1b. 40 „ „ „ 0 4 0 10 1b. 50 „ ,, „ 0 5 0 20 lb, 100 „ ,, (cask and measure 0 10 0 80 lb. 150 „ „ included) 0 15 0 40 1b. 200 „ „ „ 10 0 50 1b. 250 „ „ „ 13 6 60 1b. 300 „ „ „ 17 6 80 lb. 400 „ „ „ 1 17 6 100 1b. 500 „ „ „ 2 5 0 Should any Flockraaster prefer boiling the Composition, it will be equally effective. MOST IMPORTANT CERTIFICATE. from Mb. Herapath, ike celebrated Analytical Chemitl : — Bristol Laboratory, Old Park, January 18th, 1861. Sir, — I have submitted your Sheep-Dipping Composition to analysis, and find that the ingredients are well blended, and the mixtjro neutral. If it is used according to tlie directions given, 1 feel satisfied, that while it effectually destroys vermin, it will not injure the hair roots (or " yolk ") in the skin, the fleece, or the carcase. I think it deserves the numerous testimonials pub- lished. I am, Sir, yours respectfuUy, William Herapath, Sen., F.C.S., &c., ice, To Mr. Thomas Bigfr, Professor of Chemlstrj'. fe«loeflt«r House, Qre«t »9rer'iiU9et, Borough, London, He would also especially (^all attention to his SPECIFIC, or LOTION, for the SCAB, or SHAB, which will be found a certain remedy for eradicating that loathsome and ruinous disorder in Sheep, and which may be safely used in all climates, and at all seasons of the year, and to all descriptions of sheep, even ewes in lamb. Price FIVE SHILLINGS per gallon— sufficient on an average for thirty Sheep (according to the virulence of the disease); also in wine quart bottles. Is. 3d. each. IMPORTANT TESTIMONIAL. "Scoulton, near Hingham, Norfolk, April 16th, 1855. " Dear Sir, — In answer to yours of the 4th inst, which would have been replied to before this had I been at home, I have much pleasure in bearing testimony to the efficacy of your in- valuable 'Specific for the cure of Scab in Sheep.' The 600 sheep were all dressed in August last witft 84 gallons of the 'Non- Poisonous Specific,' that was so highly recommended at the Lincoln Show, and by their own dresser, the best attention being paid to the flock by my shepherd afterdressing according to instructions left; but. notwithstanding the Scab continued getting worse. Being determined to have the Scab cured if possible, I wrote to you for a supply of your Specific, which I received the following day; and although the weather was most severe in February during the dressing, your Specific proved itself an invaluable remtdy, for in three weeks the Sheep were quite cured; and I am happy to say the young Iambs are doing remarkably well at present. In conclusion, I believe it to be the safest and best remedy now in use. " I remain, dear Sir, your obedient servant, " For JOHN TINGEY, Esq., " To Mr. Thomas Bigg." " R. RENNEY. BS" Flockmasters would do well to beware of such prepara- tions as " Non-poisonous Compositions :" it is only necessary to appeal to their good common sense and judgment to be tho- roughly convinced, that no " Non-poisonous" article can poison or destroy insect vermin, particularly such as the Tick, Lice, and Scab Parasites— creatures (_3o tenicious of life. Such advertised preparations must be wholly usoless, or they are not what they are represented to be. Dippin; App»rntU8 m414, 4S, ^i,StM, PRICE HALF-A-CROWN, TALES AND TRAITS BY HENRY CORBET. " Mr. Corbet has earned for himself a name in sporting literature j and many will linger over tbese well- vrritten recollections." — JBeU's Life in London. " Should be in the hands of every sportsman." — The Field. "We do not often meet with more vigorous descriptions, sounder views, or racier sketches."— TAe Sunday Times. " For quiet irony and humour has never been surpassed." — The Morning Post. "A most exhilarating book — papers so delightful in their way." — The Sun. ROGERSON & TUXFORD, 246, STRAND, and all Booksellers. BEAUTIFULLY EMBELLISHED WITH HIGHLY FINISHED STEEL ENGRAVINGS, PORTRAITS OF THE NOBILITY, ETC. PuUished Monthly— Price One Shilling, Both the Metropolitan and Provincial press have declared this bining information with arausemeiit; and, while eschewing the the most deservedly popular of the Ladies' Magazines; and a re ference to any recent number would be sutficient to establish its claims to the patronage it receives. It is the aim of the Editress to render it a decidedly literary publication, considerable space being devoted to notices of, and extracts from, new works. Neither is music nor the world of art neglected; while in her selection of original articles, a distinct purpose is maintained — that of com- PUBLISHED BY ROGERSON & TUXFORD, 246, STRAND, LONDON. old world school of bygone romance, to preserve atone of refine- ment without efl'eminacy. When we consider the quantity of matter a number contains, the exquisite engravings which are included, and tlie elaborate plates and descriptions of the fashions, there can be no doubt that this Magazine, published at one shilling, is the cheapest as well as the best of its class. May be had of all Booksellers. NEW WORK BY THE AUTHOR OF " MANHOOD." Just out, 18mo Pocket Edition, Post Free, 12 stamps ; Sealed Ends, 16 stamps. \K. CURTIS'S MEDICAL GUIDE TO MARRIAGE : a Practical Treatise on its Physical and PEasoNAi. Obligations. With instructions to the Married and Unmarried of both Sexes, for removing the special disqualifications and impediments which destroy the happiness of wedded life.— By Dr. J. L. Cuktis, 15, Albemakle Street, Piccadilly, London, W. This work contains plain. directions by which forfeited privileges can be restored, and essential functions strengthened and preserved. Also, by the same Author, a New and Revised Edition of 'ANHOOD : A MEDICAL ESSAY on the Causes and Cure of Premature Decline in Man ; the Treatment of Nervous Debility, Spermatorrhoea, Impotence, and those peculiar infirmities which result from jonthful abuses, adult excesses, tropical climates and other causes ; with Instructions for the Cure of Infection without Mercury, and its Prevention by the Author's Prescription (his infullible Lotion). — By Dr. J. L. CURTIS, 15, Albemarle Stkeet, Piccadilly, London, W. REVIEWS OF THE WORK. "Manhood. — This is truly a valuable work, and should be in the hands of young and old." — Sunday Times, 23rd March, 1858. "We feel no hesitation in saying that there is no member of society by whom the book will not be found use- ful, whether such person hold th'j relation of a Parent, Preceptor, or Clergyman" — 5'mw, Evening Paper, " Dr. Curtis ha? conferred a great boon by publishing this little work, in which is descrilied the source of those diseases whicli produce decline in youth, or more frequently, premature old age." — Daily Telegraph, March 27, 1856. London : Published by Allen, 20, Warwick Lane, Paternoster-row; and Mann, 39, Cornbill, London. *** Either of the above scientific and useful Worka cent Post free by the Author or Publishers for 12 Postage stamps ; or in sealed envelopes, 16 and 20 stamps. Consultations from 10 to 3, and 6 to 8, Ili l1 ^^ ■^ |-!5 s ;r3 , ^-J\-- k THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. AUGUST, 1866, PLATE I. PRIZE PIGS, THE PROPERTY OF THE EARL OF RADNOR, OF COLESHILL, HIGHWORTH. The " Coleshill Pigs " assumed that title on being transferred to Coleshill in 1840. The breed was originally introduced by the late Mr. T. Moore, of Cofton Hall, Worcestershire, who won many prizes with them at the meetings of the Worcestershire Agricultural Association, between the years 1814-1821. A painting of one of them, by Weaver, of Shrewsbury, in 1806, is in the possession of Mr. Moore, of Coleshill, agent to the Earl of Radnor. Since 1840 they have taken a great number of prizes and medals at the meetings of the Royal Agricultural Society and Smithfield Club; and at Christmas last the three here represented carried off the highest honours of the show, as " the best pen in any of the classes". At local shows they have been almost invariably winners. The breed is now distributed pretty generally throughout this country, the Continent of Europe, and United States. The following brief description of these piga is taken from Morton's Encyclopedia : — "The Coles- hill breed possess all the requisite qualities for attaining the most profitable maturity at a very early age, and they are of sufficient size and ex- panding growth and proportions as to equal any in their adaptation for bacon pigs. Their colour is white ; their hair rather strong, and thinly set ; bone fine in proportion to their size ; head small and pleasing ; general form very good, being square and compact ; their fattening qualities almost un- equalled." It is satisfactory to add, that Mr. Moore considers the pigs to be " admirably drawn." PLATE II. REPULSE; A THOROuGH-nRED Filly. THE PROPERTY OF THE MARQUIS OF HASTINGS, Repulse, bred by Lord Derby in 1863, is by Stockwell out of Sortie, by Melbourne, her dam Escalade, by Touchstone — Guznee, by Pantaloon. Stockwell, bred by Mr. Thellusson in 1849, is by the Baron out of Pocahontas, by Glencoe. A good race-horse himself, and a winner of the St. Leger, Stockwell is by far the most successful stallion of modern times, if not at any era in the history of the turf. He is now the sire of two Derby win- ners, Blair Athol and Lord Lyon ; of one Oaks winner, Regalia ; of four St. Leger winners, St. Albans, Caller Ou, The Marquis, and Blair Athol; of two Two Thousand Guineas Stakes winners. The Marquis and Lord Lyon ; and of two Thousand Guineas Stakes winners, Lady Augusta and Re- Oi.T) Sertt.s.J pulse; as well as of Asteroid, Thunderbolt, Audrey, Lady Ripon, The Duke, Baragah, Argonaut, Breadalbane, Rustic, Achievement, and many other winners. During this season his stock have not only won the Two Thousand and Thousand Guineas Stakes, but also finished first, second, and third for the Derby — a performance, we believe, altogether unprecedented. Mr. Nailor gave 4,500 guineas for Stockwell at the late Lord Londes- borough's sale, and the chesnut is still at Hooton. Sortie, bred by Lord Derby in 1851, was a very good performer at two years old, and once beat Andover, but she did little or nothing in her next season, and threw her first foal in 1856. This was Birdbolt by Chanticleer, followed by Stockade by n [Vou LX,— No. ':;, 86 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZTNE. Stockwell In 1857; Garrison (dead), by the Flying Dutchman, in 1858; Citadel, by Stockwell, in 1859; Reconnaissance, by Stockwell, in 1S60; Forager, by Stockwell, in 1861 ; Out-and-Outer, by Stockwell, in 1862 ; Repulse, by Stockwell, in 1863; a colt, by King of Trumps, in 1864; and another colt, by King of Trumps, in 1865. Sortie is still in Lord Derby's stud. Repulse is a bay mare, standing a good sixteen hands high. She has a neat blood-like head, a light straightish neck, with really beautiful shoulders, great depth of girth, and good barrel and loins. She rises rather high on the rump, and drooping towards the tail, has quarters, if not wide, well let down. Standing straight on her hind-legs, she has very good thighs and hocks, and as ser- viceable arms and knees, with plenty of bone, and is, in fact, all over a great fine mare. When we saw her sold at Doncaster she struck us as being a particularly promising filly ; but she came out for the Thousand Guineas, which she won, after evidently having wintered badly, looking light and hurried, and with a coat as long as a donkey's. Repulse was knocked down at the Doncaster sale just referred to for 410 guineas, the purchaser being Mr. Jackson; but the filly was subsequently sold to Lord Hastings for 2,000 guineas, with " contingencies." THE IMPURITIES OF OUR DRAINAGE WATERS. BY CUTHBERT "W. JOHNSON, T.R.S. The foreign substances contained iu the water which descends in rain upon and drains from our soils, have hardly been regarded with the attention that the question deserves. In fact, it is only in very modern days that it has been generally understood tliat in the eternal circle, whicli water follows from tlie atmosphere to the earth, and from the land to the sea, and fi-oni the ocean again rising in vapour into ^he atmosphere, vast amounts of solid substances are carried by that water into the ocean, either in chemical combination or iu mechanical sus- pension. Our forefathers supposed that rain was pm-e water, and that it did nothing to support the farmer's crops, but by furnishing them with the necessary moisture. The mo- dern discovery tlmt rain and snow-water contain ammonia, nitric acid, and iu still smaller proportions other sub- stances, naturally afforded an additional reason for the beneficial effect of om* golden showers. The amount of organic, earthy, and saline matters removed from the soil by that rain water, as it di'ains into our streams, and thence into the sea, was a much earlier regarded fact. It has been, however, only in very recent periods that any serious efforts have been made to arrest those impure waters, and render them serviceable in irrigation. It is an inquiiy yet proceeding, and one whose results will, we are assured, become of far more value to the agriciUtmist than at present. Professor Way, some tune since, analyzed the rain- water falling at Rothamsted, in Hertfordshire, some twenty miles from London, and also specimens of the waters from the land-drains on the farm of the late Mr. Paine at Parnham, in Surrey {Jour. Roi/. Ay, Soc, vol. xvii. pp. 133-143). In an imperial gallon of the land- water, he found in two specimens the following substances (the Aveight being given in grains) : — I. II. Silica 0.95 0.45 Phosphoric acid trace 0.13 Sulphuric acid 1.65 5.15 Chlorine 0.70 1.10 Lime 4.85 7.19 Magnesia 0.68 2.82 I'eroxide of iron and alumina 0.40 0.05 Potash ■. trace trace Soda J.O 2.17 Then as to the soluble organic matter, ammonia, and xiitric acid found iu land-drainage waters, iu seven different specimens, from the lands of Mr. Paine, there were obtained (grains in imperial gallon) : — ^° mt'teT"'' Ni^™ «'=''^- Ammonia. 1 7.00 7.17 0.018 3 7.40 14.74 0.018 3 13.50 12.73 0.018 4 5.60 1.95 0.013 5 5.70 3.45 0.018 6 5.80 8.05 0.018 7 7.40 11.45 0.006 The ammonia and nitric acid contained in the rain water which supplies this drainage water varies considerably in different months. In that falling at Rothamsted, he found (grains) in an imperial gallon in — Ammonia, Acid. January 0.093 0.017 Pebruary 0.104 0.043 March 0.08G 0.031 April 0.123 0.035 May 0.080 0.035 June 0.135 0.080 July 0.061 0.017 August 0.080 0.060 September 0.095 0.021 October 0.061 0.036 November 0.054 0.018 December 0.067 0.017 Several of the waters flowing from some drains in fields differently manured were fm'nished to the Pro- fessor by Mr. Ackland. These, observes Mr. "Way, contained : — No. 1. Poor clay tillage field. Drained'] about six years since. Summer before this, young grass dressed with dung ; fallowed for tm'nips ; present crop now in ground manured with dung and 1^ cwt. of superphosphate, also. with guano and wood ashes ; drained with two-inch pipes, about three feet deep ; water continually running for last three weeks. This sample contained in the im- perial gallon, in grains : Nitric acid 4.78 Ammonia 0.003 No. 2. Poor clay tillage field. No mamu'e last j'ear ; wheat about 7 bushels per acre this year, being very poor, naked fallow ; drained with two-inch pipes, three feet deep; continually running for last three weeks. This samjde contained : THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. 87 Nitric acid 2.99). ,, . „ Ammonia atracej'^ ^'^^ ^"^P- §^1^- No. 3. Shelving pasture (clay). No manui'e; not watered ; di-aiued last year witli two-inch pipes three feet deep ; eoutinually running ever since : Nitric acid 0.628 ■) . ,, ,, Ammouia q oigjgr*. m the gall. No. 4. Clay water meadow. Well watered every day with wash from a dwelling-house : Nitric acid 0.12 Ammonia 0.013 No. 5. Pasture sandy soil. No manure ; drained with tliree-iuch pipe four feet deep last year ; water not stopped running : Nitric acid 0.485 per gall. Ammonia trace. But the impoverishing action of water upon the soil is not coniined to the organic and mineral matters removed from it in the bright waters of our land-drains and spi-ings. As these tiow on towards the sea, they become more impregnated with the tinely-divided matters of the land, both in chemical combination and mechanical sus- pension ; their increased volume renders their action more powerful upon the strata through which they flow. Nature does much in this way, and man does all he can to render the river-waters still more impure, by pouring into them all kinds of foul matters. We may contrast the composition of the flood-waters of the Nile — a river that Nature only renders turbid — with that of om- own Father Thames, whose waters are chiefly rendered impm'e by the considerable eftbrts of man- kind. Amongst the several valuable conclusions to which the commissioners appointed to inquire into the pollution of oiu' rivers have arrived, they state that " sewage from towns, villages, and houses on the banks of the Thames pollutes the water, and that it is also fouled by refuse from paper-mills and tanneries, and also by the floating carcases of animals." The specimen of Nile water analyzed by Professor Voelcker (ibid, vol. xxv. p. 236) he describes, when taken at the height of the flood, to be a bright, almost blood-red colour. On standing for a considerable length of time it lost its colour, and deposited, per imperial gallon, 87.51 grains of solid matter, which consisted of JMineral substances (extremely fine clay and sand,") ow./.' containing a great deal of oxide of iron) ... . . . j Organic matters ... ... ... ... ... 5.85 The filtered and clear water, on evaporation and diying at 300 deg. Fahrenheit, furnished 11.88 grains of solid I'csidue pel' imperial gallon. This residue, on analysis, yielded , Organic matter ... ... ... ... 1.54 Oxides of iron and alumina, with traces 7 i a i of phosphoric acid ... ... ... ^ " Carbonate of lime ... ... ... 1.41 Silicate of lime ... ... ... ... 3.87 Sulphate of lime... ... ... ... 1.33 Chloride of sodium ... ... ... .79 Carbonate of soda ... ... ... .48 Nitrate of potash 84 Carbonate of magnesia ... ... ... ].15 The red colour of this Nile water he found not to be due to organic matter, but to extremely finely-divided oxide of iron. This red peroxide remains in suspension for weeks together, and thus imparts a bright-red colour to the water. Some specimens of Thames water examined by Dr. Angus Smith were found to contain in an imperial gallon, taken at dift'ereut places, Organic. Inorganic. Off Chelsea ... 4.02 grains. 23.60 grains Off Huugerford ... 13.07 „ 47.55 „ Oti' Southwark-bridge ... 13.12 „ 43.12 „ So that Thames water contains about double the amount of organic matter than that of the Nile. The value of the impurities contained in ditferent waters has not escaped the notice of the German chemists. In the present volume of the Journal of the Royal Horti- cultural Societal of Loudon, p. 113, wiU be found a valuable paper by Professor Schnlz-Schultzenstein "on the nutritive constituents of water ;" and in this he gives a very interesting detail of the foreign substances found in many of the continental springs and rivers. The Professor tells us that "The waters of Wiesbaden contain 1.75 grains of or- ganic extract in the pound; those of llermansbad, near Moscow, 1.5 grains; those of Seidschiitz, 0.35-0.42 grains of humous extract ; those of Wildbad, in Baireuth, O.G grains of extractive matter; those of Kreuth and Te- gernsee, in Bavaria, 1-lOth grain, according to \ogel; those of Beringerbad, in the Lower Hartz, 0.5 grains of extractive matter in the pound ; those of Booklet, near Worzburg, f grain of humous extract per pound. In many bath-waters there is contained a nitrogenous ex- tractive matter. For instance, the waters of Schmek- witz, iu Bautzen, contain 6.5 grains of nitrogenous ex- tractive matter, 10.8 grains of saponaceous mattei-, 1.3 grains extractive matter in 301bs. ; those of Chateauneuf, in Puy-de-Dome, and Enghien, near Montmorency, con- tain 0.3 grains per pound of aijimali-vegetable matter. The glairine — a gelatinous matter in the sulphur-springs of Bareges, in the Pyrenees — ^is of a similar character, and is so abundant in the sulphur-springs at Aachen and Burtscheid, according to IMohnheim, that the daily pro- duce amounts to about l,0001bs. A similar organic sub- stance is left from the spray of the Karlsbad water, on the margin of the spring, and aftbrds a matrix for the development of the vast masses of Oscillatoricv which are found there. The mother-lye of the water of the Baltic contains two kinds of extractive matter ; and in many other waters, as in those at Northeim, near Gottingen, and at 'Warmbruun, iu SUesia, there is resinous and gummy extractive matter. The Berlin spring-waters contain from f to IJ grains of humous extract per quart. All these waters, therefore, when kept, are subject to more or less rapid decomposition, and give rise to infu- sorial and conferval organisms. " Now, since all river-water is derived from springs, it is clear that it must be rich in humous and extractive matter. As regards the quantity of humus in river-water, we have at present only very confined observations : but little attention was given to the subject so long as the im2)ortant agency of the quantity of humus contained in water upon vegetation was unknown. It is, however, sometimes so great that it communicates a yellow, or iu great depths a coffee-colonred, or even dark-brown tint. The black streams first attracted attention in America, where the Kio Negro, or Black River, derived its name from the dark coloiri' of the water, as also many tributa- taries of the Oronoko. The Atapabo, Guiainia, and Tuamini are of a dark coflee-brown. Lyell states, in his ' Travels in North America,' that in the vast swamps in the narrow Atlantic plain of North America, especiallv in the Great Dismal, between Norfolk and Welden (be- tween Virginia and North Carolina), there is a lake seven miles long and five wide, whose waters are of a dark- brown. " The ' blackwaters' (Karassu) which are often found on the mountains of the East derive their name equally from the browu or black colour of their waters. H •-' 88 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. '' Very recently .TiiughuhTi, in his travels in Snmatra, directed his attention to the 'blackwaters.' He says : 'The meuntain-streams of the Batta-land of Sumatra, especially on the table-land of the provinces of Siepcrok and Tobah, have a cotTee-browa tint. In tlic beds of the rivers shaded by forests their water appears very dark, but of a golden yellow, in a ti-ansparent glass. This tint is universal in the interior of Sumatra ; but it is most striking in the high table-land, where the slight incliua- tion of the surface, in the dark primeval forests, gives rise to frequent inundations, and where, besides the vegetable substances which rot upon the moory ground, a quantity of root-threads are irrigated with water, which, impreg- nated with the extractive matter which enters into their composition, forms a kind of cold infusion. The water may, nevertheless, be drunk without injury, and is void either of taste or smell" (' Travels in the Batta Land of Sumatra,' vol. i., p. 256). " Tt is rather surprising that the dark waters of Europe should hitherto have been almost entirely overlooked, notwithstanding their appearance in almost every river which runs down from the Hartz, especially the Brocken. The water of Use, near Ilsenburg, is at some deeper i)arts of the river almost coffee-brown, (f we follow the river towards the heights of the Brocken, we remark that almost all its sources are derived from dark peat-moors, from which the water streams coloured brown, from their dissolved lumious constituents. The same is the case with the other rivers of the Ipper Hartz, especially on north side of the Brocken. Almost all the fresh-water lakes of the marsh districts of Northern Germany are black from humous matter. " I have endeavoured, by means of evaporation, to ascertain the quantity of humus in different German river- waters. Four pounds and a half of that of the Spree yielded, on evaporation, 4 grains of solid residuum, of which 3 consisted of salts, the other of a humous extract. The Spree water is, for the most part, not entirely co- lourless, but has a yellowish tint : on evaporation, it ac- qiures a brown tint as it becomes more concentrated. Every pound of it contains 2-9ths of a grain of humous extract : a cubic foot, therefore, or 661bs., contains 14 J grains. According to observations made at the Berlin Mills, .570 cubic feet pass every second at low flood, 2,016 at high flood, the mean of which is 1,290. At low flood, then, there are 2,072,600 cubic feet per hour, or 49,706,400 cubic feet per day, or in weight 29,859,840 cwt. This, then, contains 422 cwt. lOOlbs. of humous extract, which quantity passes through Berlin on its way to the sea. " The turbid water of the Elbe, collected at Magde- burg in August, 1851, became clear when allowed to settle, with a very slight yellow tint. Eour pounds of this evaporated to a coffee-brown fluid ; and this, when freed from the sediment of salts of lime and silicates, yielded 6^ grains of humous extract, free from water. The Elbe-water is, therefore, far richer in humus than that of the Spree — the richest, indeed, of all which I have examined, although it is by no means so deeply coloured as the Ilai'tz-watcr. It contains more than la grains of humous extract per pound, which in the cubic foot amounts to 107i grains. If we assume that 4,000 cubic feet per second pass by Magdeburg to the sea, which is double that of the high flood of the Spree, we have for the twenty-four hours 14,400,000 cubic feet , and this will supply daily, if 100 grains of humus only be reckoned to the cubic foot, about 1,798 cwt. of extract- ive matter which can be appropriated to the nt)urishmeut of plants. We see, then, how rich the waters are in nutriment. " The water of the Use, at Ilsenburg. collected in August, 1851, gave, after the evaporation of 4lbs., 2 grains of humous extract, which is half-a-grain per jiound. " The water of the neighbouring Ecker, which is browner than that of the Use, in 41bs. yielded 2^ grains of Acry dark humous extract. Two quarts of water of the black Elstcr, collected at Herzberg, gave, after eva- poration, a treacle-brown fluid, which, reduced to perfect dryness, gave three-fourths of a grain of saltpetre and 2J grains of humous extract. The Bhine, at Basle, passes 1:5,000 cubic feet of water per second (which, reckoning half-a-grain of hnnius to the pound, contain 561bs.), 8,3601bs. per minute, 1,832 cwt. per hour, and 43,968 cwt. per day. The Ganges, above its bifurcation at the Delta, near Sicligully, passes in April, according to Prinsep, 21,500 cubic feet per second ; at Benares, 20,000. If there is only half-a-grain of humous extract per pound, or 33 grains per cubic foot, we shall have 5,1001bs. per minute, 300,0001bs. per hour, and 60,764 cwt. per day. The Indus, according to Prinsep, sends out at its bifurcation at Tatta 80,000 cubic feet per se- cond—that is, four times as much as the Ginges, which yields 267,056 cwt. of humus per day, if the water has only the sixth part of the nutritious matter contained in the water of the Elbe. The Mississippi, in the rainy season, passes 550,000 cubic feet per second — that is, nearly eight times as much as the Indus; and, supposing the same proportion of hiimus. it sends daily to the sea 2,130,000 cwt. of humus." When we compare the composition of these river- waters with that of the streams so extensively and so profitably employed in the irrigation of meadow-land, we can hardly avoid the conclusion that far more is yet to be accomplished by their employment in agriculture. Thus an imperial gallon of the bright water issuing from the Southern Chalk Eormatiou, at Croydon, was found to contain ; Carbonate of lime 15.41 grains Carbonate of magnesia O.Cl „ Sulphate of lime 0.53 ,, Common salt 1.51 „ Alkaline sulphates 1.03 „ Silica 0.93 „ Organic matters 1.09 „ 31.11 grains This is about the average composition of all the springs issuing from the Southern Chalk Formation — springs that water the celebrated irrigated meadows of the valleys of the Avon, the Itchen, the Test, and the Kennet. It would be a mistake, however, to conclude that the addi- tion of a larger portion of organic matter to these bright waters does not largely increase their fertilizing powers. The holders of the fine water-meads on the banks of the Itchen, for instance, are well aware that the portion of the di'ainage of the city of Winchester that is poured into that copiously-flowing stream very materially adds to its value for the purpose of irrigation. If, then, the value of water for the use of the irrigator increases with the amount of it; organic impurities, ought we to allow the waters of our rivers to flow away, as they now do, carrying into the sea so large an amount of organic and other matters that might enrich our grass-lands ? We have on more than one occasion contended that the pump might be to a great extent profitably employed in thus rendering available an enormous amount of what is to be regarded as the very weakest of liquid manures, but at the same time, from its vast extent, the greatest im- poverisher of our land with which our agriculturists have to contend. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 69 REAPING AND REAPERS. BY A PRACTICAL FARMEK. Ill my young days we used to make some distinction between reaping and reapers : those who cut and gathered with a sickle were distinguished as reapers, from those who cut with a hook, " a rcapbig-hooJ:.'' The distinction was not a proper one 1 admit, but it was generally recog- nised, and cutting or mowing corn by the scijtlie was never taken to be reaping at all. Now we have all our implements and machines in one category — reapiug-ma- chines — the sickle and hook excepted. If in my early days we were not right in our noting a diiference, 1 think we are wrong now in classifying all under one head. I should prefer to distinguish those machines which cut and gather corn into the sheaf as reaping-machines, whilst those which are only adapted for mowing down the corn I would desigiuite simply as corn-mowers, or mowing- machines. My idea (and it is an old-fashioned one) of a reaper combines the gathering with the cutting. It may be immaterial, but it is worth a cursory notice. As the harvest is rapidly approaching, I have chosen the above subject of "Reaping and Reapers" with the view of eliciting from your very many readers some informa- tion as to the best machines, the best mode of using them, and the best disposition and management of the men conducting the work. I shall not take up much space in discussing the merits of the sickle or the reaping-hook ; they are fast becoming obsolete, and they are now chiefly used as aids to gather after the scythe or machine. It is true some of our country gentlemen, notwithstanding all the injury done by game, still insist npon certain wheat-fields being cut a certain height so as to leave a good stubble for the preservation of the game. In these now isolated locali- ties this old-fashioned prcactice of a barbai'ous age may be somewhat longer retained, and there are a few cultivated spots in mountainous districts where even the scythe is inconveniently worked ; as there it may live awhile longer, but ultimately all inust give way to the scythe and reaping-machines. The agricultural public and the manu- facturers alike ai"c preparing for it. We hear of immense preparations for the ensuing harvest ; some of the manu- facturer's stock alone consisting of thousands of machines, so that the country will abound in machinery for cutting down the corn in the ensuing harvest. Besides this, the implement has now arrived at such a stage of perfection, that but few real improvements can be effected, so that purchasers may at once supply them- selves. If the landlord insists upon a strong stubble for his game, some of them are so arranged that I think this even may be accomplished by a proper regu- lation of the machine for higii cutting : at all events a good cover might be left, if not altogether a stubble after the old standard, (jamc-preservers will, however, ere long give way to the improvements of the age. Farmers can't afford to waste stubble: it lessens the quantity of manure. The best reapliKj • machiue . — It would be invidious to select any particular machine and put it forth to the pub- lic as the best, when so many are in the course of manu- facture, and by so many eminent lirms who have received their honours ; but certain machines are better adapted for particular work or particular districts than others, and in this way their merits may be discussed. Light cropping districts may be cut by any useful machine ; but heavy crops require a great power and strong machines. The district from whence I write is noted for the abundance of straw produced, hence a strong compact machine is absolutely requisite for doing average work. Our lighter crops are readily cut down, and can be well and evenly laid by a side-delivery, or by an endless-web machine, or they may possibly be gathered by an automaton reaper ; but this would, 1 think, be impossible with our heavy crops, very many of which are down, and " thorough grown," so that it requires the strength of the strongest reaper and the power of two good horses to pull through Ihem. A light-made reaper is of no use in such crops ; it is not the question of lightness of draught in such cases, but can the machine accomplish the cutting in any way ? Very few can achieve such cutting. It is not the number of units of power expended in the act that is of great importance. Two useful horses will suffice to work any reasonable reaper for a given time ; and a relay of horses will always be advantageous in working a reaping-machine, it being required in woi"k during the whole of a long harvest-day. Hence The best mode of uslni/ a reaping machine. — This will mainly depend upon the nature of the work. Good judg- mentis I'cquisite in setting-out a fleld before commencement. It is not always wise to take the field or crop as it stands, and proceed with the cutting in a continuous way till all is down. It is better to select those portions of the crop that are most alike in quantity of straw, providing there is a considerable breadth of equal bulk, and lying con- veuient for cutting. The lighter part of the crop thus selected shoidd be cut first ; and in cutting it, most pro- bably the whole breadth of the machine or knife-bar may he in full work, effecting the cutting of a large breadth in a short time. The elevation or regulation of the knife- bar may be then kept at one pitch, so that the whole may go on smoothly and satisfactorily : but if light work and heavy work are taken together, much inconvenience and hindrance arises. The knife-bar would re([uire lowering, or to be set more dipping, to attack successfully every laid or heavy place ; neither could the stoutest machine in- variably cut at full breadth through the heavy spots or portions of the crop, it is better to divide the crop into sepai'ate parts for more expeditious working. It may look somewhat unbusiness-like to be cutting and carving about throughout the field, but that is of little importance when the utmost quickness is required. The heavier portion of the crop will require more care, more labour, and much more power. It will be found more safe, and more sure, consistent with expedition, not to overload the machine in heavy work. The judgment of the work)nan will soon be convinced relative to the breadth of cut he must adopt in heavy work, and the depth and inclination of the knife- bar necessary to get under the laid jjlaccs. It is better to take only half the breadth of the knife-bar than to take more and clog in the work. After all, the machine is but, in reality, a substitution of the scythe ; consequently, as the mower with the scythe has to turn about and about again, to catch or take his work at the best advantage, so must the machine, in some measure, be worked. Some- times it will be necessary to attack a laid place from the side of the laycj-, or, it nuiy be, to meet the laid place right in front, so as to tear it up for the cut. It will not often occur that the reaper will clear up a closely-laid place from behind, or taking it in the line of draught as it lies ; but all these differences and difhculties in the mode of &0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. working will be readily overcome by usage and good judg- ment in the workman. There are machines to be found that will accomplish the cutting of any crop, however heavy, closely laid, and badly " thorough-grown." Before commencing to cut any field, workmen with the common scythe should be sent in, to open ways for the horses. Most reaping machines are capable of making their own way, and setting out their own work, but it is at the ex- pense or loss of the fanner. There is invariably a waste in the trampling of the horses and the passage of the ma- chine, which manual labour with the scythe will save. Every machine should be provided with an extra knife and other requisites likely to be wanted in case of accident, so that no hindrance or provoking delays take place. There are also, in most fields, various spots or places in the crop, such as hollows, old ponds, filled-up ditches, and the like, which had much better be done with the scythe than spending time about them with the machine, if, indeed, the machine can get at such places at all. AU these minor matters the farmer's judgment will direct, bearing in mind that no single implement or machine was ever invented or designed to effect every portion of the work for which it was intended. Many little aids of various kinds will from time to time suggest themselves in facilitating the work, which do not at first appear. Experience is as necessary here as elsewhere. The best mode or disposition and, manayement of the men conductimj the loork.- — This I know from expei'ience has become a very important part of the question, or of the conduct of the work. The machine is adapted to cut down a large breadth in a single day. If this is car- ried out in the wheat crop, it should all be tied and stooked at the time. Barley, oats, and beans wiU not take much hurt by lying awhile; but wheat should be cut dry, and if possible be kept so till stooked. In this operation many hands are required, and men generally will not act in unison long, unless they are pretty well matched. In following the machine for gathering and tying they soon learn to set out every man his work, and the less active or incapable soon cause obstructions in working the machine, so that all are greatly hindered. In the course of time these difficulties will vanish, but at present we are in the transition state from the sickle, hook and scythe to the reaping machine, and workmen are slow to fall in with the new order of things. At present a workman can take his whole family into the harvest-field, and make them useful and profitable in the various departments of harvest-Avork ; but if he is to join " a gang" after the reaper, his family are for the most part deprived of their shai'e of harvest work, which is a hardship. It, therefore, becomes a part of a great ques- tion— the labour question — which is becoming more and more difficult to deal with daily, and, therefore, in this transition state of harvest-work, it behoves every far- mer to take the most generous and kindly view of the case, and, so far as he possibly can, to regulate the work and give such liberal wages as shall not only prevent hardship, but make the reaping by machine more easy and more popular than the old order of harvesting corn. There are so many modes of conducting harvest-work. In some parts of the country it is customary to hire a suf- ficient number of men to complete the harvest ; in others all the operations are done by piece-work ; in others the cutting is by piece-work, and the leading by yearly ser- vants and a few hired assistants for the harvest. This latter is the case in my own district; hence we have great difficulty in properly working our reaping machine. For the past two years we have used one with profit ; but we have been compelled to resort to our yearly servants, to two or three hired labourers, and to several lads and young boys, and that only as we could procure them. The work, therefore, did not progress so satisfactorily as we desired We offered liberal wages — nay, exorbitant wages; but that did not sviffice to induce men to give up their usual family earnings, or rather their independence. I should observe that in this district labour at harvest time is always scarce, and for many years Ave have had to depend very much upon the Irish harvestman. Now, the increase of reap- ing machines has pi-etty nearly done away with their im- migration, and we have to do Avithout them. It appears to me that the best practice, for the efficient working of the reaping machine, is to hire, if possible, six, seven, or eight able men, in accordance with the power of the ma- chine; to find them in relays of horses, and, in addition to wages, give them a further sum per acre, sufficient to induce them to every exertion and care, to expedite the Avork. jMen do not long for the hard Avork of reaping or moAving except for the remuneration. If, then, a machine can do all the cutting, and they only are to do the bind- ing, stooking, aud raking, and for the like remuneration, much AA'ill be done toAvard reconciling them to ally them- selves to the machine. It is the time Avhen all labourers in husbandry look to make a little money for their rents and extras. It would be decidedly Avrong to deprive them of this chance by machinery. Let the remunera- tion for this semi-engineering be ample and satisfying to them. It is sufficiently beneficial to the farmer to find that he is at aD times master of his Avork, and, as respects the cutting his crops merely, almost independent of har- vestmen altogether. I trust some of your readers Avill give us their experience and views. THE ESSEX AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. MEETING AT EPPING. The further avc advance into the season the more ob- vious becomes the error of such Societies as have this year put themselves into fallow. A Meeting even Avithout the cattle classes may not only be made to pay, but under judicious management rendered really popular, and it is satisfactory to see the Essex obstructives outvoted. There Avas scarcely a section of the shoAv on Tuesday but that was well filled ; while the entries extended to cart and riding horses, sheep, and pigs — to everything, in fact, but the bovine family. And, with all allowance for the exceptional circumstances under which the exhibition was held, the public appeared to be quite content with things as they found them ; for the wide range of ground Avas not merely covered, but at times and in places almost inconveniently eroAvded Avith sight-seers, the small toAvn of Epping being, indeed, hardly equal to the requirements of the occasion. In some matters of detail, moreover, there is still room for improA'ement, and one could not but long for the roomy standings and methodical ar- rangements which so distinguished the recent .Suffolk gathering at Bury St. Ecbnunds. At Epping, on the con- trary, there was no such perfection of purpose, some horses being honoured with boxes, and others hung on to posts and ropes, like a dealer's lot at a country fair. The THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 91 agricultiu'iil horses got the best of this ilivisiou of tlic spoil ; while valuable hunters in the oiien class found uo protection provided against the elements, which, how- ever, behaved as handsomely as possible, the day being as warm, genial, and summerlike as the Aveck or two that wc have been so favoured with of late. Although there were some honourable exceptions, the Epping cannot be called a strong show of horses for agricultural purposes ; and it appears strange that at this, the ninth exhibition li^ld by the Society, so many inferior animals should liave been sent. No ring, moreover, was prepared in which to examine the draft horses, and the judges were required to make their awards at one corner of the show-field, where it was very ditticult to find an even piece of gound to test their action upon. Five stal- lions competed for the first premium, and it really seems wrong that the Society should persevere in their close system with regard to prizes, viz., requiring all exhibitors to be owners or occupiers of land in the county. Why not follow the example of Norfolk and Suffolk, and let all the classes be open to all comers ? Of the five horses shown, Mr. Thompson's four-year-old was far away the best ; although he has not grown into so good a horse as he pro- mised to do at two years old, when we met with him as a winner at Harwich and at Newcastle. He has beautiful colour and quality to recommend him ; but he is rather small, and his feet are not so good as we should like to see on a four-year-old. His action, too, lacks freedom ; but this may in some measure be attributed to the absurd way in which lie was reincd-up; for when his head was loosened by order of one of the judges, he appeared to move much better. j\Ir. Richardson's Captain again took the second prize, though but a common-looking useful horse for working-pm-poses ; as it shows the weakness of the horse classes when such an animal wins a prize two years in succession. Young Farmer's Glory was a long-legged active animal, as was also General Lee; both of which would have been more at home attached to a plough, than in a show-field. The prize for the best two-year-old entire colt went to a very useful and good- looking horse by Crisp's May Duke ; and the second to a small colt called "Young Champion," that the sooner he be added to the list of geldings the better it will be for the neighbourhood ; and the other two competitors were very bad. The mares, four-year-old and upwards, were a better lot ; Mr. Thompson winning with his very active mare, which we remember in the same honourable posi- tion at Harwich two years ago ; while Mr. Thompson has another good mare ; but she met with the same fate as at Bury, when under the inspection of a difterent V. S. Mr. Gingell took the second prize, with a good useful mare, that would, however, stand no chance in better company ; Mr. J. Ward's Uarby, hitherto a frequent winner, was objected to on account of her small feet and scrambling action, and unless great pains are taken with her feet — and no one is a better manager than her owner — we fear her career as a show animal is over. Side bones and thick hocks were very prevalent with some of the rough-legged ones ; and a long-legged, short-rumped bay mare, being about the soundest of the remainder, was, we believe, the reserve number. The mares with foal at foot were indeed a sorry lot, Mr. Croxon's half-bred Suf- folk, having more size, gave her the preference over Mr. Badham's Duchess, which, although full of quality, is too small for anything approaching strong laud ; and we would venture to recommend this gentleman to spare neither trouble nor ex)»ense to ol)1ain a horse with substance for his I'lmjieror mares. Mr. Bray's Blossom had bad shoulders ; aud, indeed, there was not a show animal in the c!ass. Of the four 3 -year old fillies entered, Mr. Badham's two only came to the post, and the judges, acting on the wholesome plan of awarding the prizes offered, even if there is no j)articular merit, placed the Bury sccoud-ju'ize filly first, and her half-sister second. Where is The Hero ? Although he did beat Chester Emperor on two occasions, surely ]\rr. Badham might by this time forgive him, and from wJiat we have seen of his stock, wc believe that if he were used upon the Bulmer marcs we should sec a marked improvement in their legs and feet. A pair only of geld- ings contended for the £4 offered, the prize going to horses more fitted for London work than the Essex clays ; but one of the judges " came from far ott'." If the Suttolk breeders stick to their old names of " Boxer," " Briton," " Dapper," " Moggj%" and so on, Mr. Way has been a long wav for a name for his beautiful coloured, but long- legged " Dagmar," which was about a foot too far from the ground, whilst the second prize went to Mr. Barnard's tilly, that looks more like running in a light cart with butter and eggs than ploughing wheat and bean- land. Mr. Piggot took first for a very clever year- ling entire colt by The Hero, which, if we remem- ber rightly, gained a prize last year at Brentwood as a foal ; and with care and no mishajis this young one may, indeed, some day be entitled to the name given him of " The Pi-esident." The second prize went to a colt called " Young Drayman," and appropriately enough, as he is much more fitted to draw beer over the London stones than to plough barley - land. A plain-headed fiUy, but showing the colour and quality of her sire. The Hero, and bred by Sir Thomas Len- nard— the absence of whose name from the catalogue as an exhibitor in the agricultural classes must be matter of regret to all well-wishers of the Association — took the first prize ; her owner, Mr. Lambert, having the only other one shown in the class, about as unlike the chesnut as two animals could well be, but thereby securing both prizes ! There were nine cart foals to select from, and we cannot go with the award made by the judges, as we much preferred the second prize foal of Mr. Sewell's to the big uneven animal of 31r. Croxon's, to whom the first was adjudged. Mr. Sewell's foal was a nice, level, true-made fiUy ; whilst the other was as uneven. ^Messrs. Barlow and Barthropp had, however, once or twice outvoted their colleague iMr. Manning, and on this occa- sion they allowed him to have his own way, he taking up the argument that the animal that was worth most money in a fair or market should receive the prize ; his col- leagues, on the other hand, contending that it should go to the most perfect animal of its sort, which it certainly did not in this case. Mr. Badham's foal by IJoyal George was the reserve number, and a very neat little fiUy she was ; but we cannot understand ^Ir . Sewell's modesty in not entering the dam of his foal as a mare with foal at foot ; as if he had done so she ought most assuredly to have taken the first prize. Looking casually at the twelve pairs of " plough-horses or mares," they appeared a very useful lot, but on closer inspection various defects showed them- selves, aud they were reduced to four. Of these the pair of bays belonging to ^Ir. Arkwright were decidedly the best, being good, wide, active mares, with quality sufficient for any one. Mr. CJhristy showed a pair of " Emperor" mares, one of which was a ffood one, but her companion spoiled the pair ; but they were highly commended, as were also Mr. GiugeU's, and ]Mr. Barnard's pair receiving a sivnple commendation. The prize of .£2.5, open to all England, for stallions, brought out the five shown for the first premium, with three fresh ones, in- cluding .Mr. Wilson's handsome colt, the second prize at Bury. He could not, however, prevent Mr. Thomp- son's horse carrying olf another honour ; the young one being highly commended. The £10, open to all England, for two-year-old entire colts, brought out Mr. Cant's winner, Mr. Wilson's, Mr. Crisp's Bury ))rize-taker, aud several others. The struggle, however. THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. was soon reiluced to a luatL-k betvveeu 'Sir. Crisp's aud Mr. Wilson's representatives ; but it was soon over, as Mr. Manning; would not have the light-boned one from Baylhani at any price. The prize of £30, open to the world, brought together all the previous winners of the day, as well as three or four fresh candidates for the palm of victory. Here we expected to have seen the Harwich Emperor try his luck again ; but it would appear that Mr. Rist thought discre- tion the better part of valour, aud declined to carry out his threat of submitting his horse to an examination by Professor Sinionds, although we hear the horse has, since his rejection at Bury, been pronounced sound by a well-known veterinary surgeon. England's Glory, from Huntingdonshire, was a rare good-shaped one, and just the sort to improve the Sutfolks iu some points, were it not for his colour and rough legs ; liis hocks, however, at once condenmed him. As most of the others had been previously before the judges, they received their orders to return to their stalls, leaving the battle eventuaUy to be fought by Mr. Thompson's horse, the winner of two prizes on the day, and Mr. Crisp's colt. The judges took exception to the legs of the latter, which, as we remarked at the Bury Show, are not at all of the form we like ; but he has, nevertheless, large knees and hocks, with great muscular power, and is as big at two years old as ^Ir. Thompson's horse is at four. This, combined with a freedom of action not possessed by the other, placed him in the proud position of the winner of the champion prize, " open to all the world," although the decision was a very near thing. A similar prize of .LIO was offered for the best cart mare, and this again brought out previous prize- takers of the day, with a celebrated winner from Suffolk, and some former winners of the Society's prizes, that were ineligible to compete again ; but these prizes being special ones, offered by the town of Epping, all restrictions were removed. It was very soon apparent that the struggle lay between the winners of the Essex All-England prize, viz., Mr. Wolton's famous Cloggy and Mr. Sewell's mare by Hercules ; and two better mares it has not been our lot to see for a long time. The hne size, quality, and action of the latter prevailed over the more compact form of ^Ir. Wolton's mare, and the champion prize goes to Beaumont Hall; the judges, however, recommended that an extra prize should be given to Mr. Wolton, whose mare, though beaten, is far from being disgraced. She was, indeed, far the handsomer of the two, and by many the award was regarded as a mistake. As at Bury, the I'iding-horses were more remarkable for numbers thau merits, and Essex is certainly making no great advance iu this way, despite the perseverance with which Sir Thomas Lennard is bringing home better blood to the people's own doors. There was no thorough-bred horse, however, sent this season from Belhus, Mainstone having now taken all the premiums he is qualified to com- pete for, and the coimty class was consequently represented by Mr. King's Knight Temjdar, that, according to the catalogue, " descends from the best blood in the world," and who otherwise has as many faults and as few redeem- ing qualities as almost auy animal we ever saw on a show- ground. The judges refused to make auy award over such a horse, although purchased a short time since at Newmarket for seven guineas by Captain Wiiite, formerly of the Essex and Suffolk hounds, to whom the credit is due of having introduced the Knight and the " best blood in the world" into the district. In the All-England class of thorough-bred sires the Ace of Clubs again righted himself, having been beaten for this premium at the last show of the Essex Society by Mainstone. But the -Vce is improving daily, as he never looked so well as at Ep- ping, and as a consequence Captain Barlow has been tempted 1o name a price, and the handsome ehesnut changes his quarters from the East to the far West down in Devonshire. Mr. Crisp's big-boned powerful Coroebus colt was again a good second to the Ace, as at Bury ; and beyond these two ^VU-England furnished nothing further than the Knight Templar, aforesaid. The entire horses, " not thorough-bred," and with no other condition to the class, were a very moderate and mixed lot, as Mr. Goggs' first as indifferent a sample of the Phenomenon as ever traced his belongings back to Norfolk. The hunters made up a far more goodly show, though with very few amongst these bred in the county ; while the open prize went clean out of it to Mr. Hall, of Ely, for a light, clever, blood- like Irish horse, that took the local and higher premiums at the Cambridgeshire Society's meeting in 1865, and hence his name, " Double Eirst." Mr. Hall had another old worn grey of a good stanrp, and Mr. Ofiin a wonderful weight- carrier that was first iu the coimty class last year. Professor Simouds disqualified IVIr. Sexton's ehesnut that won at Bury, as being lame, though this was scarcely per- ceptible ; but the Messrs. Sexton's second horse in a Suffolk, the bay by Augur, was again about second here, being highly commended. In this, as well as in compe- tition for the honours confined to the county, Mr. Barker of Ingatestone, Mr. Loftus Arkwright, the Master of the Essex Hounds, Mr. Christy of Roxwell, and Mr. Robin- son of The Piiory, had entered some business-like nags ; one of the best-looking of Mr. Barker's, a bay, being either unnoticed by the judges or put out of it by the veterinarian. Mr. Arkwright's old white-faced horse went vei-y like a workman, and the grand and lofty jumping was very fairly got through, though the hurdles would have been all the better for a little " stuffing." The hacks and " nags," something of a distinction with- out a difference, ran on into an infinity of divisions and sub-divisions, but with nothing very extraordinary to be had by way of selection. Mr. Omega Perry's mare is neat, useful, and active, nice qualifications certainly for a hack ; but Mr. White's ehesnut gelding has very middling forelegs, fidgety action, and not much more to recommend him ; but then the class was both a small and a bad one. The prize four-year-old nag is a fairish horse of some substance, and the second a light long filly by The Don, with a sour head aud heavy neck; as the three-year-olds wxre a yet more common lot, with Mr. Gm-ney's little filly by Mortimer fairly first — that is, if a nag means a hack — and Mr. Bray's Arab cross, poor and plain, a very moderate second. Another Mortimer of 31r. Arkwright's, that won amongst the two-year-olds, is a still better specimen of this horse's get ; but the prize yearling, by Wetherden, was no credit to that true little horse ; whereas amongst the hunting mares with foals at foot the produce must have had a deal of influence on the decision. Mr. Hallam's famous deep old ehesnut, that has become quite an institution on these occasions, w^as now placed second for the only time in her history ; her superior being a Ratan mare with some tine points, but set-off by naturally bad forelegs and a pair of dreadfully damaged knees. The foal, however, by High Treason is a capital one, so clean and weU-grown, and so fond of showing himself off to the best advantage, that he put his mother quite into the shade, and the award must read ratiier as " the best foal with mare alongside." Sir Thomas Lennard had a narrow thorough-bred mare here, that did not look to have been doing well, while ^Ir. Jostling sent as inditi'erent a specimen of a hunting mare as ever was known for such a purpose ; and she should be put to Knight Templar next season, if only in defiance of the people who set themselves up for judges ! The ponies included some very good little animals really fit for children's use, and the premiums, so far as we coiild understand the returns, were put together and equally divided between Mr. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. i»8 Maiiou's mare — "apci-rcfl boy's hunter" and a\iotlier very pretty one, and more of a pony proper, of ^Ir. Harrison's. The donkey classes fell through, with only three entries for four prizes, and these open to all Eng- land ! The sheep and pigs, over whieh the same set of judges officiated, supplied two very good sections of the show, and in some instances with a marked improvement upon the progress previously observable. In the first-class of Southdown I'ams, Jonas Webb's blood came to the foi-e with a couple of good useful sheep bred and exhibited by Mr. Clayden, and over whoso merits the judges and the owner agreed to diller, Mr. Clayden preferring the second — with a capital back cer- tainly— to the other. It was, however, in the open class of Southdowns that the county distinguished itself, and where Lord Braybroke won with a shearling — also the best of his class — of really beautiful quality, and with one of the best backs ever touched, if a little too pricked in his ears and chubby about his head. Lord Sondes sent a larger sheep from Norfolk, that did not prove so well to the hand, but that was otherwise famously got up, and the Elniham tlock will no doubt continue to run up to the liigh form exhibited at Christmas. Their prize ewes here were very liandsome and sizeable; as Lord Braybrooke's shearlings small but pretty, and his Lordships pen of wethers also commendable, though their necks might have been better ; while of the other shortwools it was suggested by one of the .Judges that, for the credit of the county, the title of "the Suffolk Down" should be changed as soon as possible. Mr. Chaplin indeed, who entered about the best samples of this sort, has already anticipated such a suggestion, his sheep being entered simply as "blackfaces." Mr. Gibliu's Cotswolds and Oxfords appear to thrive in Essex, tliough neither variety be equal to the natives fresh from the hills or shires ; and Mr. Auston's " pure Lincohis, without a cross for fifty years," are such very odd-looking animals as to warrant one in assuming that the sooner they do have a cross the better. Mr. Brown's long-wooUed ram is the same sheep that won at Bury, and a very good one iie is, with great size, good wool and mutton, but rather faulty about his shoulders ; as Mr. Sexton's rams were also distinguished in Suftblk, though they will not bear turning about like the ]Marham sheep. Mr. SewelFs Cotswold ewes, with lambs by one of the Norfolk long- wools, were a long way the best of their class; but the All England entry was very moderate, and even Mr. King Tombs might have sent better representa- tives of the Cotswold than those w ith which he won at Eppiug. The champion of the Oxfordshire Downs did more credit to his belongings, as Mr. Wallis' old ram, commended at Plymouth and first about home, has im- proved since we last saw him, and is now a sheep of great substance ; but the shearling stands badly, being alto- gether too stilty, though with a good back and wool. Amongst the pigs the Messrs. Sexton maintained their lead, winning the All-England prizes with a black boar and a white sow ; and though their cultivation of the white pig is only of recent date, they ran clean away from !Mr. Duckering's Lincolns, which we never saw to less advantage. The Messrs. Howards' big pigs were also quite out of show form, and in such condition should never have been sent so far afield. Then, again, ^Ir. Clayden's capital black boars arc bred from Sexton, though the better ot the two was only placed second to a middling Berkshire of Mr. Gibbius', wiio won more handsomely with his pen of three sow pigs, beautifully matched, and with all the best ]ioints of the Berkshires- — size, coat, shoulders, and so forth. Mr. Griggs had some good Berkshires as well as Suftolks, his second-prize sow having been bred by Jlr. Stearn ; and Mr. Trim, of Eppiug, some really " usefid" pigs, if tiicy happen to be short of foxes in Essex, as they looked like going a great pace over a country. This, however, by way of contrast, as there were plenty of prize pigs at Epping, and of a better sort than they cling to in either Yorkshire or Lincolnsliire, that is to say, unless mere size stands for every thing. An extra admission-charge introduced us to a Poultry and Flower Show ; but this extra is a mistake, so far as cocks and hens are concerned, which are, or should be, essentially farm produce. In another direction you came upon the Implements, where, without any stimulus in the way of premiums, a number of manufacturers and sales- men had standings which the catalogue arranges in this wise : Peene, of llayne, Essex ; Bradford, of Fleet-street ; Picksley, Sims, and Co. (limited), Leigh, Lancashire; Rands, Ipswich ; Samuelson, Banbury ; Ashby and Jef- fery, Stamford ; Darby, Little "Waltham ; Ward and Sil- ver, Melford ; Mabbett and Pink, Romford ; Smyth and Son, Peascuhall ; Potter and Son, Aldham, Essex ; Creasy, Bedfield ; Coleman and Morton, Chelmsford ; Cottis and Sons, Epping ; Haywood and Tyler, Whitecross-street ; Duffield, Regent's Park ; Josliu and Sons, Colchester ; WaiTcn, Maldon; Wilkins, Ipswich; Woods and Cock- sedge, Stow^market ; Garrett and Sons, Leiston ; Aveling and Porter, Rochester ; Catchpool and Thompson, Col- chester ; Ransomes and Sims, Ipswich : Burrell, Thetford; Simonds, Halstead ; Priest and Woolnough, Kingston-on- Thames ; Pertwee, Boreham ; Eddington, Chelmsford ; Robey and Co. (limited), Lincoln; Braggins, Banbury ; Hitchurch, Bury St. Edmunds , Carter, Dunnett, and Beale, Holborn ; and Dr. Wallace, of Colchester, with specimens of " Ailanthicultnre"- — or, in other words, of silkworms, eggs, cocoons, and silk. The Chairman, it will be seen, specially referred at the dinner to this Ailanthicultnre — rather a difficult word, by-the-bye, to get over late in the day — but the really practical talk here was of no great moment, as many of the authorities had fairly run for it when their duties were over. Like Bob Sawyer's cheese, a very little of Epping seems to go a very long way, and the Essex Agricultural Association is strong enough to look out for better quarters. PRIZE LIST. HORSES FOR, AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES. Judges. — Capt. Barlow, Hasketou, Woodbridge. Capt. Barthropp, Hacheston, Wickhara Market. J. :\Iiuiiiing-, Orlingbury, Wellingborough. Stallion, having served not less than 20 mares in any part of the county.— £15, Wm. Thompson, juu., Thorpe (Gari- baldi] ; ilO, G. Richardson, Burnhani (Captain), Entire two-year-old Colt.— £10, G. H. Cant, Mile End, Colcliester ; '2n(\ pri/.e, Wm. Bott, Broomfield (Young Cham- pion). ' C;art Mare, not under four years old.— £G, Wm. Thompson, juu. ; £4, G. Gingell, Iligli Laver Hall. Mave witli Foal at foot.~£10, H. Croxon, Burnhani (Blossom) ; £5, G. D. Badliam, Buhner Tye (Duchess). Three-year-old Filly.— £5, G. D. Badham ; £3, G. D. Bauham Gelding.— £4., Wm. Cozens Kirkby, North AVeald Hall. Highly commended: J. Stallibrass, Ongar Park Hall Tvvo-year-old Filly.— £5, J. Way, Great Yeldam (Dagmar) ; £■4, C. Barnard, Harlow Bury, Harlow. Yearling Colt -£5, J. S.Piggot, Beckingham Hall (The 1 resident) ; £3, R. Holdeii, Tolleslmi.t D'Arcv fYoun- Drayman). '' ^ ° ...Vw^'r^'''"^-":-^"' '^'- ^^'- ^'™'^"'^= ^''''^^' ^1='"' Rainham- £.5, 1. VV. Lambert. ' iiumT llTn '"'' ^' ^'™''°"' ^"™''="" ; ^^^ 1). Sewell, Beau^ Pair of Pkni^^li Horses or Mares regularly used on a farm, -to Lotus W Arkwnght, Harlow (Brown and Violet). Highly commended : J. Christy, Roxwell (Bessie and Jennv). Commended: C. Barnard, Harlow Bury, Harlow, and G. Gingell, Higli Laver Hall. 94 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Entire Horse (open to all England). — £2o, Wm.Tlionipson. jiin. (Gariljaldi). Commended : Wm. Wilson, Baylham Hall, Entire two-year-old Colt (open to all England) . — £10, T. Crisp, Butley Abbey (Conqueror). Highly commended : Wm. Wilson, and T. and S. Eyson, Warboys, Huntingdon (Young England's Pride). Cart Stallion (open to all the world).— £30, T. Crisp, Butley Abbey (Conqueror). RIDIXG AND COACHING HORSES. Judges. — Kersey Cooper, Eustou, Tlietford. W. Hurrell, Ne^-tou, C'aml)ridge. Thorough-bred Entire Horse. — £15. No merit. Entire Horse, not thorough-bred. — £10, J. Goggs, Baddow (Norfolk Phenomenon). Commended: F. Butcher, Colue Engaine (Morgan Lightfoot). Weiglit-carrying Mare. — £5, E. Barker, Westlands, Ingate- stone (Alice). Hunting Gelding.— £5, Loftus W. Arkwright (Tudor). Highly commended : A. G. Robinson, The Priory, Dagnnm Park (Grey Plover), and J. Christy (Traverser). Hackney Mare, not exceeding 15 hands.— £5, Omega Perry, Thomwood, Harlow; £3, J. H. Lescher, ISoyle's Court Brentwood (Bella). Hackney Gelding, not exceeding 15 hands. — £5, T. White, West Hatch, Cliigwell. Eour-year-old Nag Marc or Gelding. — £5, J. Reeve, High Roothing Bury (Horatio) ; £3, J. Palmer, Stanford Rivers (Donegal). Three-year-old Nag Mare or Gelding. — £5, J. Gurney Frv, Hale End, Woodford (Brunette) ; £3, J. Bray, Pyrgo ;Park, Romford (Colthurst). Two-year-old Nag jMare or Gelding. — £3, Loftus W. Ark- wright. Highly commended : C. Clayden, Manuden. Com- mended: Geo. E. Joslin, Berners Roothiug (King Pippin). YearUnff Nag Mare or Gelding. — £3, Captain Sparrow, Gosfield. Brood Mare, witli Eoal at foot. — £6, C. Dames, Cliigwell (Chrysalis) ; £3, J. T. L. HaUum, Wormingford Grove. Highly commended : Sir Thomas Barrett-Lennard. Pony — entire, mare, or gelding, under U hands. ■ — (This premium was divided into two classes, large and small ponies.) — £4- for large, C. A. Murton, Buckhurst Hill, AVoodford ; £4< for small, AY. Harrison, Claybury Park, Woodford Bridge. The class of small ponies generally commended. Thorough-bred Entire Horse (open to all England) — £35, C-aptain Barlow, Hasketon (The Ace of Clubs). Commended : T. Crisp, Butley Abbey (The Abbot). SHEEP. Judges. — C. Howard, Biddenham, Beds. E. Little, Chippenham, Wilts. H. Woods, Merton, Thetford. Southdown Ram. — £5, J. Clayden, Littlebury ; £3, J. Clayden. Bam of any other Short-woolled breed. — £5, P. Portway, Great Sampford (Suffolk Down). Second prize withheld for want of merit. Cotswold Ram. — £5, J. Giblin, Little Bardfield; £3, J. GibUn. Long-wooUed Ram, of any age. — £5, E. Austou, Thorring- ton (Lincoln). Second prize withheld for want of merit. Oxfordshire or Shropshire Down Ram. — £5, J. Giblin (Ox- ford Down) ; £3, J. Giblin (Oxford Do^vll). Shearling Southdown Ram. — £5, Lord Braybrooke ; £3, Lord Braybrooke. Commended : Lord Braybrooke (for two other rams). Shearling Short-woolled Ram, of any other breed. — £5, P. Portway (Suffolk Down). Second prize withheld. Shearling Oxfordshire or Shropshire Down Ram. — £5, J. Archer, Saffron Walden (Oxford Down) ; £3, J. Giblin (Ox- ford Down). Shearling Long-wooUed Rain — £5, .J. Giblin (Cotswold) ; £3, J. Giblin (Cotswold). Pen of 5 Shearling pure Down Ewes. — £6, Lord Bray- brooke ; £-i, T. W. Bramston, Skreens. Pen of 5 Shearhng Short-woolled Ewes. — £5, J.R. Chapliui, Ridgewell (Blackfaced) ; £3, J. R. Chaplin. Pen of 5 Shearhng Long-woolled Ewes. — £5, J. Giblin (Cotswold) ; £3, D. Sewell. Pen of a Ewes and Lambs. — £5, 1). Sewell (Cotswold cross) ; £3, J. Archer (Oxford Downs). Commended: J. Stallibrass, Ongav (half-bred) ; G. Gingell, High Laver Hall (Southdown). I'eu of Eat Shearling Short-woolled AVethers. — £5, Lord Braybrooke ; £3, Lord Braybrooke. Pen of 5 Eat Shearling Cross-bred or Long-woolled AVethers. — £5, AV. Cozens Kirkby (half-bred). Long-woolled Ram, of a pure breed (open to all England). —£10, T. Brown, Marliam Hall, Norfolk. Highly com- mended : G. M. Sexton, AVherstead Hall, Ipswich (for two rams, Cots wolds). Short-woolled, of a pure breed (open to all England). — £10, Lord Bravbrooke. Highly commended : Lord Sondes, Elm- ham Hall," Norfolk. Pen of 5 Shearling Short-woolled Ewes (open to all Eng- land).— £10, Lord Sondes. Pen of 5 Shearling Long-woolled Ewes (open to all Eng- land).— £10, J. K. Tombs, Langford, Gloucestershire (Cots- wold). Shropshire or Oxfordsliirc Dowu Ram (open to all Eng- land).—£10, G. AA'allis, 01dShifford,Bainptou (Oxford Down). PIGS. Judges. — As for Sheep. Boar. — £5, J. Clayden ; £3, J. S. Lescher, Boyles Court, Brentwood. Commended : G. Griggs, Romford (Berkshire) ; AYm. Thompson, jim. Boar, not exceeding 12 months. — £5, J, Giblin (Berkshire) ; £3, J. Clayden. Sow in Pig. — £5, G. Griggs (Berkshire) ; £3, G. Griggs (black Suffolk). Commended: R. Laxton, Epping. Sow with her Pigs, the pigs not to exceed 12 weeks old. — £5, G. Griggs (Berkshire) ; £3, C. Benjafield, Passingford Bridge, Romford. Pen of 3 Sow Pigs, under 9 months old. — £5, J. Giblin (Berkshire) ; £3, J. Clayden. Commended : G. Griggs. Boar (open to all England).— £10, G. M. Sexton (black Suffolk). Highly commended: G. M. Sexton (black Suffolk) •, and G. M. Sexton (white Suffolk). Commended: R. E. Duckering, Northorpe, Lincoln (white). Sow (open to all England).— £5, G. M. Sexton (white Suf- folk). Highly commended : R. E. Duckering (white Sow and litter) ; G. M. Sexton (black Suffolk). DONKEYS. Judge. — W. P. Bogluirst, Fratiug Abbey. Male Donkey (open to all England). — 2 gs., T. W. Brams- ton, Skreens, Chelmsford; £1, L. J. Sparrow, Great Baddovr. Mare Donkey (open to all England). — £1 10s., H. Foyster, Braintree. EPPING TOWN PRIZES. Hunting Mare or Gelding (open to all England). — £10, G. S. Hall, Market Place, Ely (Double First). Highly com- mended : J. Christy (Traverser) ; G. M. Sexton ; J. Ottiu, Hutton, Brentwood (Baron). Hackney Mare or Gelding (open to all England). — £10, J. Gurney Fry, Hale End, Woodford (Welsh cob, Tafly). Highly commended: J. S. Lescher (Merrylass). Commended : G. D. Badham (Major). Cart Mare, not under 4 years (open to all England). — £10, D. Sewell; second prize, S. AA''olton, The Hall, Newbourn, Suffolk (Moggy). Cart Filly, under 4 years (open to all England). — £10, G. D. Badham. EXTRA STOCK. Riding Hokses. Commended : J. H. Smee, Theydon Place, Epping (pair of Norwegian Cobs) ; J. H. Smee (Norwegian Cob) ; AA*. H. Bor- ham, Halstead, Essex (pair of cream-coloured Ponies). SwoE. Commended : G. M. Sexton (white boar). Veterinary Inspector. — Professor Sinionds. THE DINNER, of about 100, took place at the Town Hall ; the president, Mr. Mr. J . AA''. Perry Watlingtou, occupying the chair ; who in proposing " Success to the society which brings us here to-day," said : In this very exceptional year, wliicli you all know has prohibited the possibihty of exhibiting THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 95 stock on account of tlie cattle plague, we have had in the aggregate a larger number of entries than we have ever liad before, even in that exceptional year 1805, at Brentwood. The total number of entries this year has been 538, and tliat at Brentwood 530, and you will remember that there is not a single head of cattle shown to-day. It is obvious to remark in the paper which I hold before me that the only class in which there has been any falling off has been in that of tlie donkeys. Last year there were 13 shown, and this year there were only three. I don't know how far that tells in favour of Epping or against it. I take it that in an agricultural county and at an agricultural meeting it is quite unnecessary for me to insist upon the importance of attention to the Indeed of stock, neither is it necessary for me to dwell, in these days of competitive examinations, upon the importance of seeking to gain excellence through the means of competition. Now this society aims at this object, and seeks to accomplish it by this means ; and therefore, I say, on both accounts it is entitled to your consideration and support. But it is not only on account of the direct operations of this society that I seek for your ap- proval and ask for your good wishes, but there are other rea- sons also why I now require you to drink to its success. Not only does this society olfer direct premiums on good stock, but it also holds out an inducement and gives a stimulus for the exercise of local exertions in order to produce exhibitions of fruit, flowers, and poultry, and by that means it very largely extends the great interest of the show, and also secures that for us which, in all gallantry let me speak it, we so much desire — a larger attendance of the fair sex. And besides that, it also gives opportunity of exhibiting extra stock, and of calling attention to any experiments which may be going on around us interesting to the agricultujist, as well as to the gene- ral observer. Here, for instance, at Epping we have had two reindeer broken to harness — very interesting, and doubt- less useful to man. Then we have had an exhibition — I don't know if all gentlemen saw it, but all gentlemen ought to have seen it — an exhibition of what is called ailanthi- culture, that is the growth of a plant which is to feed silk- worms, and which may grow upon the sides of our railways. The silk which is produced by it is now used for the manufacture of a kind of cloth, and the gentleman who showed it to us (Dr. Wallace, of Colchester) has reason to hope that by the use of it our looms in England may rival the looms of France and of Asia. At any rate there was this exhibition, which was extremely interesting to those who had a fancy that way. Besides that, there was an interesting exhibition of grass grown simply by the application of sewage upon pure sand. That, I say, was a most interesting exhibition. It is only a short year since that Professor Liebig told us that was a perfect impossibility. Now we have seen that in a short space of time very good grass can be grown on simple sand, and that sewage from the great sewer of London thrown upon the Maplin Sands would cause grass to grow upon them. It shows that scientific men, like doctors, do not agree : one tells us one thing, and one another thing ; so that they, like other men, are sometimes at fault. It holds out a great encouragement to that vast undertaking now in the course of construction, and which, if it does succeed, will be of great advantage to the low lands of jthis county, and a great delight to those who wish to see the Thames made pure by the transference of the London sewage to such places as I have stated. Lord Eustace Cecil, M.P., in giving " Prosperity to Epping and the health of the Local Committee," said: There is one prize which I should very much like to see given, and that is a priz.e to any resident in the county, or to any ex- hibitor, who has cured most animals of the cattle plague. There is much of theory — much, I must say, of false theory — on the subject ; but I think that any real, sound, practical experience, tending to mitigate or cure this dire pest, would be of the greatest value to the commimity. All sorts of remedies have been tried, from painting the cows' noses and hanging strings of onions round their necks, down to that most infallible cure — the pole-axe ; Init none of them reflected the slightest credit on the science we boast of, or the en- lightened age in which we live. The worst of the matter is that the very people v/liom we must look to for help and ad- vice in this matter, the Veterinary College, don't give us the smallest assistance. Now, I do not want to say one word in disparagement of what no doubt is a very honourable pro- fession, for I am quite sure they have had great difficulties to contend with, and, at the same time, I tiiink it but right to say of that profession that it has hardly had a fair trial. It will hardly be credited that in this kingdom there are only three veterinary colleges. One of them, as we all know, the Royal Veterinary College, has been instituted more than half a century in London ; there is another wliich is in existence still, although its functions are almost in abeyance, in Edin- burgh ; and a third has been lately instituted somewhere at the West-end. Something like a hundred or a hundred-and- fifty gentlemen a year are turned out by these institutions, and I confess it seems to me that is hardly a sufficient number te take care of the great number of stock in the kingdom, amounting to something like five millions. No doubt this is .1 great evil, and one which demands all our attention, and should be remedied as soon as possible. There are cases in connexion with the cattle plague, in which we have had to go into the street, and take the first man we find, and make him inspector ; and in a neighbouring county, which I have the honour of serving as a magistrate, on more than one occasion inspectors were appointed who were totally unfit for the duty ; and in one instance a man, who was either a tailor or a cobbler, was appointed, and no doubt did his duty in a pro- fessional manner. I mention this to show how much the subject requires consideration, and T only hope it will be taken up generally by the agricultural societies of the kingdom. But let us look at it in another point of view. We have been told that there are something like five million head of cattle in the kingdom, and that out of these we have lost more than a quarter of a miUion, or something like one in twenty. In Essex the proportion was very much the same ; for we had about ; 50,000, and have lost 3,500; or, to reduce it to a money value, supposing each head of cattle to be worth £10, which is not a very high figure, the amount altogether would be something like £25,000 or nearly double our ordinary county rate. When we take these facts and figures into con- sideration, we must feel how necessary it is that something more should be done for the encouragement of the veterinary art in this kingdom. The legislature have already taken a step in the right direction this session, and there is a Bill making it penal for any man to undertake the duties of a veterinary surgeon unless duly qualified. I hope the agricul- tural societies throughout the kingdom will back up the legis- lature in this matter : and if they do so, I am quite sure that before long every farmer will be able to take his stock to a really qualified authority, and to get useful advice at a very moderate charge. The only judge present was Mr- Boguurst, who, in re- sponding, said that he thought a good show of donkeys might yet be got up. EGGS. — The imports of eggs this year have, been on a larger scale than ever, having amounted in the five months ending May 31 to 196,955,760 as compared with 157,338,620 in the corresponding period of 1865, and 139,280,520 in the corresponding period of 1864. In 1856, the number of eggs imported was 117,330,600; so that in the first five months of this year the imports efi'ected have ali'cady outstripped the receipts of the whole of 1856. Ever since 1855, the imports of eggs have been striding on, in fact, at railway speed. Thus in 1855 we paid for eggs £236,865 ; in 1856, £278,4.23 ; in 1857, £317,04.6 ; in 1858, £303,617 ; in 1859, £336,663 ; in 1860, £478,658 ; in 1861, £550,557 ; in 1863, £593,813 ; in 1863, £673,638 ; in 1864, £835,038 ; and in 1865, £938,247. Fancy our pf^ying about £1,000,000 a-year for eggs ! FLAX AND LINSEED.— The imports of flax and linseed into the United Kingdonr have very greatly increased during the last twelve years. In 1854 they amounted to 828,513 q:s., in 1855 to 796,951 qrs., in 1856 to 1,180,180 qrs., in 1857 to 1,051,113 qrs., in 1858 to 1,017,844 qrs., in 1859 to 1,270,911 qrs.,inl860tol,330,623 qrs., in 1861 to 1,160,270 qrs., in 1863 to 1,088,472 qrs., in 1863 to 1,104,578 qrs., in 1864 to 1,434,973 qrs., and in 1865 to 1,435,414 qrs. The value of the flax and linseed imported in 1854 was £2,545,107, in 1855 to £3,544,708, in 1850 to £3,195,634, in 1857 to £3,061,684, in 1858 to £3,710,078, in 1859 to £3,041,707, m 1860 to £3,391,938, in 1861 to £3,108,055, in 1863 lo £3,210,869, in 1863 to £3,372,433, in 1864 to £3,947,221, and in 1865 to £3,983,243. 9t) THE FARMEE'S MAGAZINE. ON GRASS LANDS. At a meeting of the Pembrokeshire I'anner;.' Club, Mr. J5oxAR said : The subject whioli I have clioseu for your discus- sion to-day, is ' The best method of laying- down grass lands, or permanent pasture, the kinds and quantities of seed required.' I have not chosen this subject to give you any informa- tion on it myself, as I know my talents to do so will fall far short in many respects, but simply because I con- sider it to be a subject of the utmost importance to most agri- culturists, although it has as yet escaped our notice, to make ourselves better acquainted witli tlie most modern system of laying down permanent pastures, with the kinds and quanti- ties of seed most suitable for the different sorts of soils and situations whicli may present themselves in the course of our practice. We have discussed the growth and manuring of both white and green crops, and likewise the maruxring of grass land, but this appears to me to be of more importance than any other agricultural question. For this reason : — We may have a failure in our crop of oats or barley by grub or wire- worm or any other local cause, or we may experience a poor return of wheat, or the fly may take our turnips, or the disease, destroy our potatoes. To have any of these crops a failure would be, of course, a great loss to the farmer ; but still, it is but one year's loss : another crop next year might redeem his loss. But should \\e, through carelessness in cultivation or manuring, or, what is quite as important, should we err in the selection of sound seeds, properly suited to our soils, and thus lose a crop of grass, it is not only one year's loss, but a loss of many years to come. With these facts before us, it behoves us to turn our attention more particularly to the cultivation and laying down of our permanent pasture or grass land, knowing, as we all do, that the county of Pembroke is well adapted for the growth of grass, and that the grass lands in this county is the chief object of the farmer's pursuits. It is then no mean object for us to make ourselves better acquainted with the most approved method of laying down this, the largest portion of land we now occupy, to the best advantage. I don't mean to say in this case that the more cost the more honour ; but, from my own experience, I have found that the most expensive system, when conducted with strict economy, is the mout profitable in the end. A very respectable fanner in my neighbourhood told me, when discussing the different systems of farming and cropping, tliat the old system was the best that ever was, or would be. This may be so in the opinion of some, I have no doubt ; but I take a different view of it, and in this case a more wide and practical view, as the old system of laying down grass lands, or, rather, if I may use the expression, running the land down to grass, is to go on wth white crop after white crop in suc- cession until the land is completely exliausted, and then nature is left to provide the crop of grass. Now, what is the result ? Is it a crop of luxuriant, healthy, permanent pasture ? No, it is only a mass of coarse herbage, with neither nourishment nor feeding properties in it. I will not say it is not permanent, or else I shall be going astray ; it is too permanent, and that we shall find when we go to break it up again. It would take a good deal of time, trouble, and expense to extirpate such a mass, and in doing so we make the land so light that in a dry season we shall run a great risk in losing our next crop. There are many of my neighbouring farmers wiio would, at this season of the year, be very reluctant to change a stubble field with me, as they say they have got plenty of grass in them for their cattle, while mine would starve a jackass or a nanny- goat. But this only shows the two different systems of farm- ing, and I sliall leave every one to adopt the one that pays him best. But my first object is to clean the land (which I consider tlie best principle of farming) ; and everything I do not sow, I consider to be a weed ; and I think there is no other way of doing that properly without a fallow or a green crop. We may, in some seasons, under very fiivourable circumstances, be able to clean our stubble-fields in some measure for another white crop, and may cart or burn no end of couch from it ; but in a wet season we too often find it a failure. Although I consider myself no authority, yet I will give you my experience, and the manner in which I conduct this branch of husbandry, and leave the meeting to judge for themselves. I am a great advocate for deep ploughiug, and more especially for stubble lands before green crops. This I do in the autumn and tlie early part of winter, instead of allowing my stock to make the land into mortar ; and I invariably find that when this is done, and the surface completely buried, that a great portion of the weeds disappear before spring ; and as I make it a rule not to grow two white crops in succession, it is seldom that I have any trouble of cleaning in spring, further than one ploughing and harrowing. If anything more is wanted, as the land has been properly stirred to its depth, I consider the grubber or scarifier to be a more efficient implement than any other, more especially in a dry spring, as there is often an error committed in exposing the soil too much to the elements. The turnip crop will then be put down, and kept clean during the summer, in the ordinary way. We must not allow the spring to be too far advanced before ploughing, as the effect of the atmosphere will go further in pulverising the soil tlian Cambridge's roller. It is absolutely necessary that we should have our land converted into a firm mould or seed-lied before sowing the grass seeds ; and if that cannot be obtained after harrowing-in the barley, we ought to roll before sowing the gross-seeds, then cover them slightly, and then roll again. There .are many different opinions as to the best depth of cover at which certain grasses and clovers should be sown, but my opinion and experience is that the slighter the covering the better. There is a work published by Lawson, the seeds- man, on the cultivated grasses, which I would highly recom- mend to all who are connected with farming. It not only gives a full description of the various natural and artificial grasses, but embraces all that is useful and interesting regarding their nature and habit, the particular soils for which they are adapted, and the peculiar circumstances under which their culture is necessary or desirable. I shall have occasion to make further reference to this ; but, for the present, I might subjoin a table published in this work, to prove the best depth at which certain grasses and clover should be sown, from one-fourth of an inch up to three inches. It is here shown tliat the greatest quan- tity of seeds germinate at one-quarter of an inch. This is one fact worth knowing, among the many others it contains. It likewise shows us that we must have a fine mould or seed-bed. I would recommend the seed barrow, now in use, for sowing the seed, and more especially the clover, as by using it we not only save a quantity of seed per acre, but distribute them more equally on the surface than can be done by hand. But, before taking leave of this part of the subject, we must not overlook the use of lime. I'or my own part, I consider it to be one of the first and most essential manures applicable at this stage, as it has that powerful effect of acting upon all inert and irony substances, which abound in some soils, and which prove detri- mental to healthy vegetation, and it dissolves all vegetable matters, and renders them available in the shape of easily assimilated food for plants. I shall now come to that part of the subject — the seed, the kinds and quantities required for laying down grass lands, either for alternate husbandry or per- manent pasture. To give the whole series of tables contained ill the valuable work before mentioned, comprehending all the variations of soils, altitudes, climates, and other circumstances which might present themselves in the course of practice, would be inexpedient, and almost impossible, and would far exceed the limits of a common lecture on agricull ur;il pursuits. But I shall here class them in three divisions, viz., grasses for light soil, for medium soil, and for heavy soil. The wet light soils, with respect to the grasses suited to them, may be con- sidered as approximating to the heavy soils, and a dry and heavy soil as approaching towards the light soils. The light embraces soils more or less of a sandy or gravelly nature ; the heavy include clay and heavy loams ; v\ hile the medium are to be regarded as an intermediate class, between these two extremes. The seed suited to them would be iu these pro- portions : — THE FAKMER'S MAGA^IINE. 97 For Alternate Husbandry. Names of Grasses. Rough cocksfoot Italian rye grass Perennial rye grass Yellow clover, or trefoil.. Timothj-, oreatstail Hybrid, or alsike clover.. Common reel clover Cow grass White, or Dutch clover .. Extracted from a seeds man's priced list Light and medium soils. Heavy soils. lb. 2 9 15 1 2 2 i (jrj O (U , a> \ ^ '^ -. tH '^ tl '.' "^ fcl I i-^4i cS o I >5 o ra Dp-- *^ - : Si's ^ OS :^ O =S i< lb. 2 9 15 1 2 2 4 lb. For Permaneint Pasture. Light soils. XiMEs or Grasses. ■3 ! 11). Meadow foxtail l-J Sweet scented vernal OJ Rough cocksfoot 3| Hard fescue ' 2 Tall meadow fescue Various-leaved hard fescue Meadow fescue , Red, or creeping fescue Italian rye grass Perennial rye grass Timothy, or catstail Wood meadow grass Evergreen meadow grass Smooth-stalked meadow gi-ass.... Rough-stalked meadow grass Yellowish oat grass Conunou birdsfoot trefoil Greater birdsfoot trefoil Common yellow clover Hybrid, or alsike clover Common red clover Cow gi-ass White, or Dutch clover Medmm soils. ft a o u 03 a -g ■B o ^ ^ lb. lb. ^ 2 Ok OA 4 5 2 2* 2 2 2 2 3 3i 7 8 9 10 2 2^ 1 H 1 14 2 2^ 1 1 Oi 0^ Oi 0-k 1 1 li 2 1 li 3 3^ 4 5 Heavy soils. The quantities set down are for an imperial acre. Although some of these grasses are not sufficiently known in our neighbourhood, nor I believe sown to any extent, yet I have given them a fair trial for the last five years, and I find them to answer me well, and also tlie table as a guide for sow- ing. Judgment and discernment must, liowever, iu many in- stances be exercised, both in regard to the kinds and to the qualities of seeds to be sown. Thus it may be expedient iu peculiar cases to withdraw whoUy or partly certain kinds of seeds, and to substitute others, especially where lands are known naturally to produce any particular sort, which, althougli desirable to a certain extent, may, when too predominant, prove rather detrimental to the crop than otherwise. It is also very material to keep in view the attitude, exposure, and any otlier peculiarities whicli may present themselves in the constitution of the land ; as wliether tlie soil or subsoil be naturally wet or dry, and whetb.er it be of a calcareous, ferruginous, peaty, or other nature, at all likely to effect the growth of certain species or varieties of the grasses, clovers, and other points recommended in the tables. But in this work we should find the qualities, the soils, and situations for which they are adapted. We have now come to the last point, hut although last not the least — tliat is the quality of the seeds. We have cultivated and ma- nured our land, and we have selected the seeds we tliiuk best suited to the nature and quality of our soils and situations. This is one point which the majority of our farmers pay but very little attention to ; but withal it is the most important in my opinion. What will it avail us, after the expense of plough- ing, manuring, sowing, seeding, and every other expense, if our seeds should turn out to be a failure ? I do not say that such lias been the case in many instances tliat have come under my notice, but I do say tliat in many cases I have observed them the next thing to a failure, and in some cases I should say worse tliaii a failure, as tliey fill our fields with a host of in- vaders or usurpers which we had never bargained for. Pro- fessor Buckman tells us that an examination of 30 samples of ryegrass and clover shows that as many as 800,000 or 900,000 weed seeds are often found to be sown with a liushel of the crop seed. This is a fearful array of figures, explaining per- fectly how it is that clover and grass are very greatly injured by weeds, and may be taken as evidence that the farmer sows the most part of his weed pests ; they come with his seeds of various kinds ; and in the case of the clover crop, each seed sown subtracts from the sum of the clover seed. But this is not all, as very many of the weeds grow so fast as to smother and kill, or at least so much weaken, that winter kills many of the clovers in the vicinity of the weeds. Many weeds, too, seed the first year, and are succeeded in the next by an immense in- crease. Tliese circumstances in a great measure \^•ould account for much of the so-called clover sickness of tlie soil. It is then a matter of tlie first importance to have our seed from houses of known repute, as it is a common practice witli unscrupulous seedsmen to mix old and dead seed with good. The book I have referred to tells us that turnip seed of one year old will only germinate about 50 per cent., two years old about 30 per cent., four years old 15 per cent., eight years old 5 per cent. Others of course will be the same, so that we ought to be cautious, and when we purchase have our seeds separate, and as a trial sow a few of each in a flower-pot to prove them, and see how many will germinate, as tliere is so mucli spurious trash offered for sale that it would be better for us in some in- stances to pay the seedsman to keep tliem at home. We not only lose the crop we expect of tliem, but get one which will give us trouble to get rid of. For my own part I find it cheapest to have the best articles at the highest price, and do from experience recommend it to others. I don't mean to say that our seedsmen are to be much blamed in tliis case, as they must keep goods equal to the demand ; no, it is those who are so penny-wise and pound foolish as to have a clieap article and a cheap article only — and a large portion of our farmers are so ; they are so pleased with getting an article a few pence cheaper than another \\ould have cost, tliat tliey forget tlie ne- cessary drawback which is in the inferiority of tlie article, and altogether forget this fact, that wliat costs less will be worth less. This system is likewise too much followed by them with regard to their implements, as tliey generally give the pre- ference to a low-priced article. But such cheap implements are a continual source of waste and vexation, which I have too often proved. My way is, let me have the best materials, and make your price accordingly, as witliout proper implements we can never cultivate our land to any advantage. The culti- vating, manuring, seeding, &c., of too great a portion of our grass land is hardly an apology for it, and of such a system I have often said that it was neither done not left alone. During iny stay in Wales I have been more struck at this than with anytliing, to see how little attention is paid to this branch of liusbandry. Having come to tliis stage, the old-school fanner will then rest on liis oars apparently composed and contented, and say, " Now I have done my part, and I shall wait for Pro- vidence to do His"- — tliat is, provide him with a crop of grass, But some of tlie more modern farmers will venture to leave prejudice and the old system so far behind as to ask the assist- ance of some local country seedsmen, and it may he to try half a dozen pounds of red clover, two or three pounds of white, and perhaps a couple of pounds of trefoil, and perhaps ten pounds of cocksfoot and ryegrass : this they woukl consider an excellent mixture, and sutiicient for one acre ; and if tlie price is low enough they forget to ask or think v.iictlier such seeds are perennial, sub-pereunial, biennial, or annual, or at all likely to suit the sort of soil and situation for which they are intended. In conclusion, I would say to such that they tire farming under a disadvantage, as the expense of ploughing, 98 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. sowing, lianowiug', &c., rent, tithe, aud tasps are tlie same whetlier the crop he good or had. It is theu clear that if we, hy judicious nianagemeut, could augment our crops, we should be gainers in proportion to the extra value of the crop ; aud the good crop checks the growth of weeds, so that the expense of cleaning land that hears good crops is less than if it bore bad. Mr. Clitfe says that the couniiuuity have a moral right that tlic soil be farmed advantageously. Why, John Bull having but a small estate for the maintenance of his numerous family, which is crowded in the ratio of 333 to the square mile, it is his duty to provide for his own, and apply all his powers to rendering this little property as productive as possible ; for has it not been said that lie that provideth not for Ms own aud liis own house is worse tliau an infidel ? I liave very imperfectly hrouglit this valuable sulyect before you, and am only sorry that it sliould not have fallen to better liands. I liope tliat I have given no offence to any one by the liiuts I have thrown out, as I intended notliing of the kind, but merely for the sake of comparison. And I hope, as Mr. Har- ford once remarked, that we wiU all go liome thinking, aud not only that, but commence doing also, aud that we will with jjerseverancp aud judicious arrangement, soon raise Pemliroke- sliire to such an agricultural eminence as will he an example to all around us, I shall now leave this subject to be further discussed hy abler hands, apologising for the time I have occu- pied, and begging leave to thank you for your attention. The CiiAiRJiAX : Will you have the goodness, Mr. Bouar, to tell me what the seeds will cost per acre in the quantities which you say are necessary to produce this result ? jMr. BojJAii : It is according to the prices of tlic year. The Chairman : Well, we will take the prices of this year. Mr. BoNAR : Will you, in the first place, Mr. Chairman, tell me the description of the soil ? The Ctiaikmajn" : We will consider the three soils — light, medium, aud lieavy. Mr. Bo>'Aii : Well, for light soils the cost will he £1 10s. 6d. per acre ; for medium sods, £1 13s. Gd. ; for heavy soils, £3 3s. 6d. : but the tables that are recommended in the hook are not given as a standard that should not be departed from. As practical farmers we are to make variations, suggested by our experience of the qualities of our soil, subsoil, and other cir- cumstances. We are to deduct from or add to tliese grasses recommended, and make such alterations in the proportions as we may find by our experience to lie better adapted to the qualities of the soil \ve till. But as a guide for general prac- tice these tables are very useful, and so are the entire contents of the book: in it we have all the plants described, with ample information respecting their nature aud habits of growth, so that we cannot make a imstake iu selecting the - seeds best suited for the land. The Chairman ; I am exceedingly obliged for your infor- mation ; aud I lielieve myself that you are'f|uite correct. Mr. BoxAR : The quantities are aU given, Imt we may find that our laud is productive of some of the natural grasses, and a ])ortion of tlie quantity given may, in that case,- he withdrawn. The Chairman : It appears to me that you are quite right : more of one and less of tlie other comes to the same thing. Mr. BoNAR : It may he deemed advisable to reduce the quantities in some instances, and to use much less. If you had a field of twenty acres, you may order sufficient for sixteen, which would be ample for a field of tliat extent. The Chairman : I perfectly agree with you on that point ; you may vary them as you please, aud it will come to much the same thing iu the end. You have given us much information on the suljject, and I now want to know what is the value of lime at per load ? A Member : Nine shillings. The Chairman : It is a shilling a ton a mile ; I know that, for I am an old practitioner myself. Aud how many loads per acre MoiJd you put down for hme ? ilr. BoNAR : I liave no particidar quantity : the same rule holds good witli regard to the quantity of lime as the seeds — the nature of the soil must be considered. The Chairman : I know tliat must be considered. Mr. BoNAR : I believe that quantities varying from six to ten loads per acre is given to heavy laud, but 1 should observe that I do not give my laud that quantity. The Chairman : How many loads do you use ? Mr. BoNAR : Four per acre. Tiie Chairman : Now we are getting to the marrow : I use seven loads myself. Mr. Griefitus (of Poyntzcastle) : Tliere should be eight loads. Mr. Jenkins .- You, Mr. Griffiths, are so fortunate as to live near the lime-kiln. Mr. C. Carrow : May I ask you one question, Mr. Bouar ? What is the cost of the seeds in the alternate system ? Mr. BoNAR : For one year's hay, 16s. ; for one year's hay aud one year's pasture, 31s. 6d.; for one year's hay and two years' pasture, 33s. 6d. Mr. C. Carrow ; WHiose tables are those P ]\Ir. Bonar : Mr. Lawson, the seedsman's. Mr. C. Carrow : Are they for general use, or adapted to suit particular localities ? Sir. Bonar : They may be obtained by anyone who may send for them. IMr. Carrow : This county is well adapted for the growth of grasses ; and a less quantity of seed is required than in other places. Your system is, I think, very nearly tlie same as my ovvn. The meeting shortly afterwards broke up. THE RINDERPEST IN SHEEP, Mr. H. Woods, of Merton, has addressed the following letter to the chairman of the Norfolk Cattle Plague Committee : — " Sir, — In consequence of its iiaving been stated at the meet- ing of the committee last Saturday that Mr. Wellingham's sheep have been under my treatment, I beg you will allow me to give the particulars of the case. At the request of Mr. Wel- lingham I sent a person to Walton on the 34111 of May to give his ewes a dose of medicine, aud this was done because they appeared unhealthy ; and several had died (-IS had been lost between Michaelmas and 34tli of May, and 30 at least from the disease with which they were then affected) . I saw the ewes on Monday the 38th of May, and tlien learnt th.at tlie disease first showed itself in March, and that a month previous to my see- ing them the whole flock had been purged a great deal. I saw that much time had been lost, for there was then great constipation of the bowels, sore mouth, and a thick slimy dis- charge from tlie nose, in many cases streaked with blood, and a watery discharge from the eyes, the whole flock appearing to be more or less aff'ected. I advised that a second dose of medicine, rather stronger than the first, shoidd be given im- mediately ; and tJiis was done on Tuesday, May the 39th. I also recommended that the sheep should not liave so much succulent food, but, instead, some bran, crushed oats, and good hay ehafl', which had answered so well iu other cases. The bran aud oats were given, but unfortunately Mr. Wellingham had no hay, and therefore none was given. Although several of the diseased sheep kept dying, still there appeared an im- provement in the bulk of them ; for on the 1st of June I saw them again, and found that the discharge from the nose and eyes had almost disappeared, and on the following day Mr. Wel- lingham v^Tote to me as follows : — ' I am glad to say I like the ajjpearance of my 'sheep to-day very much more than I have done ; there are no more dead, nor yet fresh cases with the ewes ; two lambs have broken out with the scurvy, hut I think only one will die. I am in hopes they will now make a begiuning in doing better.' Mr. Wellingham named the lambs because he was away from home when I went, and 1 had left a message with his shepherd, that unless he treated them also, lie would soon lose a great number, as I could see they were falling down with the fever. On the Stli of June Mr. Wellingham sent me word that he purposed sending jiis ewes to marsli ; and in my answer to him on the following day } THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 99 said, ' I look with great alarm ou the mere thought of your contemplating sending your ewes to marsh, where I understand they can get what water they wish for. I strongly advise you uot to think of it for a moment, for the chances are it might kill half your sheep. I hear you have put three ewes where they can get water, as a trial to see if it will hurt them. Now, if these three sheep were to escape, I should uot tlnnk it autti- cient to warrant the risk of putting all your flock to a similar trial, when prohahly many among them nmy he in a feverish state, and would suffer from it.' Notwithstanding the numher of deaths given below, the Imlk of the ewes were improving ; and ou the 12th of June Mr. Wellingham wrote as follows : — ' I have sent my shepherd over this morning. The ewes I consider much better, and I think the fever has almost left them. I should like, if you think it advisable, to give all my lambs a dose of your mixture to-morrow morning, as they are very sadly and not doing well, being full of the fever.' The shepherd said he considered the ewes were quite well, with the exception of one or two a little sickly, but past all danger. When I went on the following day, June the 13th, I was sorry to see the ewes had been on a common, full of rank-grown grass, and where they could get as much water as they wished for ; and I learned that part of the flock was to be sent to the marsh at Wootton the next day. The ewes, however, v^ith the excep- tion of tliree looking rather dull and scouring a little, appeared perfectly well, and I thought a cure was etfected. Mr. Welling- ham and his shepherd believed that the sheep were so far re- covered that they would uot suffer from getting to water, and from eating the grass they were feeding upon, or from being sent to marsh. Tlie result, however, proved otherwise ; for on June the 20th Mr. WcUiuglmm wrote °as follows : — ' My flock of ewes are dying by wholesale, irom some cause I cannot ac- count for.' The following figures from Mr. Wellingham's book will best show whether the doubts I had of the propriety of the ewes beiug put on these lands and allowed to water were reasonable or not. In 20 days, from the 35tli of May to the I'tth of June, 30 ewes died; in 11 days, from the 15th to the 25th of June, f32 ewes died ; in 9 days, from the 26th of June to the 4th of July, 30 died. So that it appears that after the sheep were put on the common and sent to marsh, the dis- ease returned with great virulence, and in 30 days, from the 15th of June to the 4th of July, 98 ewes died, whereas during 20 days ending the 14th of June, only 30 ewes had died. I wish it to be understood that when sheep are healthy, I believe it to be judicious to allow them as much water as they wish for ; but vifheu they are in a feverish state, I have always found it most injurious to do so. When I saw the lambs on the morn- ing of the 13th of June, I was much struck with their altered appearance siupe I had seen them on the 1st, and found that 31 had died, and many more appeared past recovery ; I told Mr. Wellingham I was fearful hisloss must yetbe considerable, as the disease had got so much hold of them. They appeared so bad that a very experienced shepherd said from sis to seven score would die. They were affected in a similar way to the ewes, with the esoeption that numerous tape-worms were pasjsed with the slimy evacuations. All the lambs, except one nearly dead, liad a dose of medicine, which acted freely on the bov^els. I gave directions for the feeding, and saw them again on the 31st of June, when 1 found them much improved, although the sliephfu'd told mc there were nineteen fresh cases of purging that morning ; but wheri I looked at the lamljs, 1 found it had been produced by their having been fed for three days on a rank-grown layer, which had been fed with sheep all the spring. I had requested that they should not be put on this layer. They were now kept from it, and ou the following morning there were only four fresh cases of purging, and the next morn- ing only two. From the 13th of June, the day they had the medicine, to the 4th of July, 43 lambs died, of which 14 at least, Mr. Wellingham said, were past all chance of recovery. I saw the lambs yesterday, in company with one of your Com- mittee, Mr. Thomas Barton, of Threxton, and found them, witli a few exceptions, looking as well as could be desired. " Henry Woods." Mr. C. S. Read, M.P., asked Mr. Woods, who was present, whether that communication described the whole treatment of the sheep. Mr. Woods said it described the treatment with the excep- tion of the sheep having been bled about the 5th of June. Perhaps the committee would allow him to explain why that was done. He was considerably pressed by many persons, who were in favour of bleeding, to allow these sheep to be bled. He resisted the wish very much indeed, for he never allowed a sheep to be bled except in extreme cases, as he believed it to be injurious ; but when such strong opinions were expressed by men of great practical experience, he felt he was incurring too great a responsibility by adhering too closely to his own opinion, and therefore sent a man early in the morning of the 5th of June to Mr. Wellingham, with instructions to see him before he went to Lynn market, and to bleed the sheep if he (Mr. Wellingham) thought it desirable to do so. By ten o'clock that same morning, however, he (Mr. Woods) felt that he had yielded too readily to the opinion of those persons who thought it would do good, and sent off a messenger with instructious to the first man, that if he had not yet seen Mr. Wellingham, he was to tell him on seeing him that Mr. Woods objected to the bleeding. The man had, however, already seen Mr. WeUing- ham, who remarked that he had determined on their being bled, and wished it to be done. Accordingly, when the second man had arrived, the animals had already been bled. He (Mr.' Woods) thought the bleeding had done very little good or harm, because on the 12th Mr. Wellingham wrote that be be- lieved the sheep to be much better, and that the fever had left them ; and, moreover, the shepherd stated that they were quite well. That was all the treatment that he knew of his know- ledge they had received. Mr. Head asked v/hether, generally speaking, Mr. Woods would advise bleeding. Mr. Woods : Certainly not. I strongly advise that it should not be done as a general rule, THE MORTALITY AMONGST LAMBS In the midland counties, and especially about Birming- ham, Gloucester, and Stratford-on-Avon, hundreds of lambs have for several weeks been falling off in condition. Their wool becomes dry, harsh, and standing on end ; the best of fare appears of little benefit to them ; their appetite fails ; the strength and condition rapidly sink ; the little creatures scour and strain ; their bowels are alternately unduly constipated and unduly relaxed ; and, within three weeks or a month from the symptoms of ailment being first noticed, they are reduced to miserable skeletons, and die from sheer ex- liaustion. In the localities indicated we have this week seen hundreds of lambs suffering in this way. Many scores of promising lambs, that a fortnight ago were worth 30s. each, are not now worth 5s. ; and a large proportion, probably two- thirds of those affected, unless promptly and skilfully treated, perish miserably. In most of the sheep-breeding districts of England, cases of this description occur from time to time, and are annually becoming more frequent and serious. But the complaint, although so prevalent, is not very gene- rally understood. Such a train of mortal symptoms must obviously proceed from some definite cause, and the straining and diarrhoea induce us to look for the presence of some irritant matters in the bowels. An examination of the dung will disclose further particulars. It is voided more frequently than usual, it is usually light-coloured, and contains particles of imperfectly-digested food ; but, liesides these more ordinary appearances, there may be noticed amongst it fragments of tapeworms, which are sometimes very minute, are often sevB- ral inches loug, and occasionally are found hanging from the rectum, and have been drawn out to the length of four or five feet. Where the pasture is not very long, on the barer spots where the lambs gather, or on any road which intersects the field, and on which sheep are so fond of lying, and depositing their droppings, these segments of the tapeworms may be ])lentifully found. It is difficult to estimate the immense quantity of fragments thus discharged from the lambs affected, 100 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. and any calculation made from the portions which may be found, would probably fall far short of the quantities actually discharged ; for the fragments are promptly picked up by rooks, thrushes, and other birds, who appear to enjoy their feast, and hop about the fields tenanted by the ailing lambs, eagerly devouring their prey. Greedily swallowing these seg- ments, and doubtless with them the ova of the tapeworm, the unfortunate birds must in due course themselves l)ecome sufferers. From sonie such causes, there was a few years ago a great mortality amongst the grouse on several of our High- land moors. It is not easy to explain the yearly increasing prevalence of tapeworm amongst young sheep. It has been supposed to result from the larger number of shepherds' and other dogs kept. Dogs, it is well known, are frequent sufferers from tapeworm : they discharge on the pastures segments and ova, which are swallowed by the sheep, come to maturity in the in- testines, and produce the serious symptoms above detailed. But the slieep, as well as the dogs, doul)tless disseminate the pest, which, as might be expected, always abounds where the grazings are heavily stocked. The ova, sucli as are now being dropped on the pasturages, are Ijelieved by Von vSiebold and other competent authorities to possess wonderful vitality ; and even after being exposed for months, they will, when swal- lowed, pass througli the several phases, and reach the condi- tion of tapeworms. Amongst the many curious circumstances connected with the tapeworm pest in sheep is its proueness to attack lambs several months old. At present, amongst the affected flocks they are the chief — indeed, almost the only suf- ferers. Their more deUcate intestinal structures may, perhaps, form a more fitting nidus for the operations of the parasite. To some of the interesting speculations regarding the gene- ration and development of these curious creatures, we purpose returning at an early opportunity. JMeauwhile farmers, and especially those whose laml)s are dying- from the attacks of the parasite, will anxiously look to the practical question, and inquire, How can such cases be successfully treated ? The first matter must obviously be the destruction or ex- pulsion of the tapeworms. In dogs, or even in the human subject, this is seldom very difficult. The extract of the male shield fern, the powder of the areca or betel nut, powdered kousse and lemon-juice, infusions of gentian and other bitters, are prescribed in human medicine, with more or less success. In dogs, the powdered areca nut is probably the most effectual remedy. But these and other such remedies appear to have little effect on the voluminous digestive organs of ruminants, packed tolerably fuU, as they generally are, with bulky vege- table food. A most accomplished and observant agriculturist, ^^•ho has at present two hundred lambs dwindling from the tapeworm, has, for ten days, been giving them frequent doses of areca nut and male shield fern. A drachm of the areca nut, luiited with an ounce of the powdered fern root, repeated several times a- week, has produced little, if any, effect iu removing the worms, whilst little more than half that dose sufficed to bring copious discharges of worms from the shep- Iierds' dogs. Several patent nostrums, worm ])Owders, and drenches have been also tried, ynth the like indifferent results. YoT lambs we believe that the most reliable remedy is tur- pentine, which retains its pungent poisonous action on the worms even iu spite of the bulky vegetable food which it meets with in the stomachs. AVith the turpentine it will be desir- able to associate some bitter substance like gentian, which is best given here in the state of a strong infusion. Besides proving unsavouiy for the parasites, and thus inducing them to relinquish their hold on the intestinal walls, the gentian moreover helps to impart tone to the debilitated digestive or- gans. Por tlie same objects a little nitric acid or sulphate of iron may also be added to the mixture. Another ingredient of the dose should be common salt, which with the turpentine will gently move the bov^els, and thus clear out the nauseated or poisoned tapeworms, and carry away besides some of the unhealthy superfluous mucus which in such cases so abund- antly covers tlie intestinal walls, and forms a convenient nidus and shelter for the worms. The proportions of the ingredi- ents for a tolerably strong lamb three months old may be as follows : Oil of turpentine, an ounce ; infusion of gentian, an ounce ; nitric acid, diluted, ten drops ; common salt, an ounce. The dose may be given in water or milk, and be repeated every second day. If it purges unduly, or if the lambs are small or weakly, the quantity must be somewhat reduced. To support the little creatures' failiiig strength a variety of tempting nu- trive food must be given, and if they are stiU unweaned the feeding of the ewes should be liberal. After being drenched for several days with this mixture, and the tapeworms in great part removed, much benefit wiU result from the daily use of a good bitter tonic mixture such as the following : Infusion of gentian, an ounce ; nitric acid, diluted, ten drops ; tiuct. chloride of iron, fifteen iroi)s,~-i\'or//i Briilsh Agncnliiirisl, THE FARM SERVANTS' MOVEMENT. MEETING OF DELEGATES AT PERTH. A meeting of delegates of the Perthshire Farm Servants' Protection Association was held in the Tract Society Hall, Perth, last month, with the view of getting the various Associ- ations in the count}-, as far as possible, to adopt the same rules and to follow the same line of conduct. Mr. David M'AValter, Fowlis-Easter, presided, and several delegates were jiresent. The rules of the different societies in the county were read over and duly considered. The meeting then took up the sub- ject of the Hours of L.vbour. — After a long discussion, it was agreed to fix the hours of labour during the winter and summer as fol- lows : — To rise at six o'clock during the winter season, and make ready the horses ; that one hour be allowed for dinner, work till dusk, and have the horses suppered by six o'clock in the evening. In summer to commence at five o'clock, and work ten hours per day, including all manner of labour. Wages. — The meeting considered that no stipulated wage should be fixed on ; but that each member should sell his labour to the best advantage. Mode of Payme^jt of Wages. — It was also agreed that the wages should be paid monthly, and that i ne month's pay lie in the employer's hands as security. Harvest Work. — During hardest it was agreed that the hours of labour should be ten per day, the same as during the other part of the summer season ; and that sixpence be al- lowed for the dinner meal at harvest time. Extra Time. — It was unanimously agreed that iu the event of extra labour being required they be paid at the rate of time and a-half. Holidays. — The meeting did not think it advisable to stipulate for any number of holidays. This matter was left for the men to arrange when making their engagements. Extry Mo?jey. — It was agreed that the various associations in the county fix 2s. Gd. as the entry money, and 6d. as the monthly payments to be made in advance. What the Associations .vre to aim at. — The meeting was of opinion that the objects of the associations should in the mean time be entirely confined to the shortening of the hours of labour, and that the other questions of giving bene- fit in cases of sickness and distress be allowed to lie over until they were more firmly established. It was agreed that the various associations should, so far as possible, mutually support each other. A conversation took place with regard to forming a county association ; but it was agreed to defer that matter iu the meantime. The propriety of having a general fund into whicli the monies of the various associations could be lodged was also suggested ; but, as it was considered that there would be some difficulty, trouble, and expense in transmitting and drawing the cash, the proposal was not adopted, The meeting lasted four hours. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, lOi THE AGRICULTURAL PROGRESS OF AUSTRALIA. We have from time to time endeavoured to keep oiir I'eaders advised of the agricultural progress of Australia, to which for our wool supplies alone, to say nothing of food, we are so much indebted. But its strides are so great in all the elements of progress, whether in terri- torial settlement, in agricultural resources, in live stock, and various other important industries, that it outstrips all ordinary history, and requires careful vigilance to keep pace with its colonizing advances. Colony after colony has established itself round the shores of the great Austral continent, and these have so extended that division after division has taken place. First A'ictoria separated on the south fi-oni New South Wales, then Queensland on the north, and now we find this last new off-shoot of but a few years' growth increasing and extending to the far north in a manner that throws former colonization progress into the shade. AVhen we look at what Queensland is now doing towards the occupation of the vast territory lying around the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, she seems destined to eclipse some of the older colonies in time, unless like New South Wales she becomes shorn of her fair proportions by actual dismem- berment. The progress made in Queensland during the past year in those staple productions which must form the basis of the wealth of the colony has been most satisfactory. Al- though the extension of settlement has been going on at an unprecedented and rapid rate, the wet seasons rendered the three previous seasons anything but favourable to sheep farmers, and this was seriously felt by all but the occupiers of the very best runs, both the yield of wool and the increase of stock on all the older stations of a second-rate quality being much below an average. The season of 1865 was such as to pi'oduce a different result, and the present wool clip is expected to be by far the largest ever exported from Queensland ; while the in- crease of sheep over the colony is also much more than in previous years — so much so, as to go far towards retriev- ing the position of many of the older settlers on an in- ferior country. Some of the stations, taken up since separation, have now been established long enough to par- ticipate in this benefit, and to give a good percentage of increase on stock. The accounts from the extreme north are very favourable. The whole of Queensland, though a dry season has been experienced, has escaped the drought which has been so disastrous to the new settlements on the more northern portion of the continent. A new trade has sprung up in the export of fat cattle from Gladstone; and the increase of this description of stock is such as to induce the erection of boiling-down establishments at various places on the northern coasts, where the distance from any market renders this wasteful course advisable. On the whole, although the indebtedness of the squatters must be enormous, the past year has added very largely to the wealth of the colony in this description of property, and has added to its power of producing an income in years to come. The success which attended the first cul- tivation of sugar on the shores of Moreton Bay has led to the occupation of a large quantity of the land for this purpose, at different points on the seaboard, and numbers of capitalists are now engaged in planting the sugar-cane on their estates, with every prospect of receiving a satis- factory return for their enterprise. We may here refer briefly to the rapid extension of pastoral occupation, during the last four years, in the northern portions of the colony of Queensland over an area equal to that of France : " It is at all times a soui'ce of pleasure to trace the rise and progress of settlement in a new country ; to observe ite onward strides from point to point — how it spreads leavenlike over the land fi"om centres of occupation, whence fresh adventurers are continually taking their departure. The march of events in a new colony must always be more striking and rapid than in older countries, where the progress is more intimately connected with the material comfort of the inhabitants and the higher or- ganization of their social state. In the infancy of a colony, these latter objects are temporarily sacrificed in the pursuit of the discovery and utilization of the natural resources of the country. This follows from the natural law that a community must first provide for its support before its higher civilization can be worked out. It seems like a marvel as we look back for a few short years, and review the position of the territoiy now form- ing the colony of Queensland, and compare it with its present state. A large portion was unknown : the small belts of country that surrounded the tracks of some of the intrepid Australian explorers on the maps of the con- tinent gave little indication of the future suitability of the north for stock, beyond surmise which promised years for its realization. Leichhardt could scarcely have conceived the changes that have followed his footsteps. Little did that brave and hopeful man think that the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, which were no doubt associated in his mind with days of peril and painful labour, would in so short a time resound with the bleating of flocks and the lowing of herds ; that townships and homesteads would spring up on the banks of rivers, where the prime- val silence and solitude was, three years ago, broken only by a few wandering tribes of aborigines, seeking a meagre subsistence along their course. In the year 1861 there were in that portion of the colony lying north of the 25th degree of south latitude the following amount of stock; Cattle, 29,236 ; sheep, 402,358; horses, 2,161. In three years, namely, in 1864, these numbers had increased to: Cattle, 205,047; sheep, 1,846,426; horses, 7,334. A year and a-half has now elapsed since this computation was made ; so that, allowing for the annual increase and large quantity of sheep and cattle which have been driven into the Gulf country during that period by intending settlers, who, in accordance with the Pastoral Laws of Queensland, are obliged to stock the country before they are in a position to apply for it ; and as 4,973 square miles have been taken up in that way, and as the lowest amount of stock required to hold the country so acquired would amount to an equivalent of 124,325 sheep — it will not be an ex- travagant estimate to assign an increase of fifty per cent, on the numbers computed in 1864, as representing the amount of stock in January, 1866, existing in Northern Queensland." As to the pastoral district of Burke, of which Burke- town, on the Albert river, is to be the township, the amount of stock therein, a year ago, was computed at 71,000 sheep, and 8,000 head of cattle. This is, it is true, but a comparatively small number when the large extent of territory is taken into consideration ; but their capacity for increase is far beyond that of ordinary flocks, in consequence of their being mainly composed of ewes. It may therefore be fairly presumed that, by this time, 102 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. there arc fully 110,000 sheep ami 12,000 head of horned cattle in the district referred to. This district of Burke embraces the entire area of that portion of the Gulf country iu the colony of Queensland which is watered by the rivers Albert, Leichhardt, Nor- man, and Flinders, and compi'ises the very best country in the extreme northern portion of the territory. It has been officially described as foUows in the Queensland Gorernment Gazette : " The lands commencing on the sea-coast in the Gulf of Cai'peutaria, at Point Fitz-Maurice, and bounded thence on the north by a line bearing east to the south- western watci-shed of the Gilbert lliver ; thence by the range forming said watershed, in a south-easterly direc- tion to the range separating the waters llowing into the Gulf of Carpentaria from other waters ; on the east by aforesaid range, which is also the western watershed of the Bm'dekin river, in a southerly direction to the range forming the southern watershed of the Flinders river and its tributaries ; thence on the south by said range iu a westei'ly direction, to a point where it is intersected by the 21st parallel of south latitude ; thence again on the south by said parallel to the 138th degree of east longi- tude, being a portion of the western boundary of the colony of Queensland ; thence on the west by said meri- dian of longitude northerly to the sea-coast in the Gulf of Carpentaria ; and thence by the shore of said gulf, in an easterly and northerly direction, to Point Fitz- Maurice aforesaid, and including the islands adjacent thereto." The general character of the country in the pastoral district of Burke is such as to render it eminently adapted for stock of all sorts. It consists for the most part of extensive black soil plains and open downs, producing grasses of the best description, amongst which the well- known "blue" and " bai'ley" grasses largely abound. The land for the most part is elevated, ranging from 1,600 at the heads of the rivers, to about 400 to 500 feet above the sea, at a distance of a few miles from the shore. This extended elevation will have the effect of making the climate more extreme than is found on the coast. But this in itself will be an advantage, as being more suitable to the constitution of the sheep than the equitable tem- perature existing along the sea-shore. In addition to the grasses there are a variety of herbs on which stock are found to thrive exceedingly ; amongst which may be enu- merated "salt-bush," "native leeks," "wild cucumber," and " carrots," owing to the abundance of superior feed and the presumed freedom froiri drought (which is not generally experienced north of the 19th or 20th parallel of south latitude). Sheep will probably attain consider- able size and weight ; but this result wiU, of course, much depend on proper management and to due attention in the selection of flocks for breeding. Whilst the practice prevails of guarding sheep at night, having a shepherd to follow them by day, no marked improvement is likely to be produced for some time to come— particularly as the necessary erections on a run to enable a less artificial systen; to be pursued requires as a rule more capital than the present squatters are in a position to expend, owing principally to the high price of labour in the remote and partially settled districts of the colony. Under the existing system of managing sheep iu Northern Queensland, a greater yield of wool than 21bs. per sheep can scarcely be expected in the Gulf country; but as soon as fencing in the runs is generally resorted to, in accordance with the common practice now adopted in Tasmania, Victoria, and portions of New South Wales, a clip of Sjlbs. and upwards may reasonably be looked for —■assuming of course that due attention is pijid to the introduction of fresh blood at successive periods by pro- curing frona the South and its colder pastm-ages suitable rams for the purpose. The principal advantage the sheep farmer will derive in fencing his run into several en- closures, and allowing the sheep to roam at will, will be the superior quality of the wool grown on the sheep, the larger number of sheep the land will be capable of de pasturing, and also in affording them the most favourable conditions for lambing, when so much difficulty is usually experienced in providing green feed for the sheep, whilst the lambs are too young to move far. This wiU be readily understood when it is pointed out that the overcrowding of a large number of sheep into a fold iu a warm and perhaps a moist climate must produce an injurious effect ultimately on the sheep, which exhibits itself in the light- ness of the wool grown, and also in time on the general constitution, though this latter consequence does not ap- pear so certain. The early morning and the cool of the evening — the very best time for allowing the sheep to feed — is lost to them ; they arc brought out in a feverish state in broad sunlight, to graze and make the most of their time during hours when, under a more natural system, they would be found seeking shade and repose. There is every reason to believe that the mean annual temperature will remain very much the same in the higher lands of the Gulf country as at Port Denison (/. e., 7i deg. Fahrenheit) ; bnt that there will be an excess of daily range of temperatm-e in the former over the latter district. This climatic condition is unquestionably fa- vourable to sheep-farming, and, combined with the rich pasturage with which the Gulf country abounds, ought to produce sheep of large carcass. This is a point of great moment to the grazier who is quite alive to the high pi-ices which fat wethers bring at Calcutta — viz., 30s. a head. Sheep might be shii)ped at the head of the Gulf of Carpentaria by screw-steamer for Calcutta — a distance of some 3,500 miles— taking ad- vantage of the intermediate markets (if found desirable) of Batavia and Singapore. Or even in seasons of drought, such as the southern colonies have lately ex- perienced, a ready market could be found by driving stock across to Rockingham Bay, Cleveland Bay, or Port Denison, and thence shipping to Sydney or Melbourne. Large quantities of stock are now being shipped at Glad- stone (Poi't Curtis) for the southern markets. Looking at the fact that the habits of the wealthier classes of native Indians are exhibiting a greater uni- formity with those of Europeans, and that many of the prejudices arising from the stringency of caste and the jjcculiar nature of religious tenets are now dying out, coupled with the great advance the age has made in fur- nishing the Indian population with those mighty aids to civilization, the railroad and electric telegraph, which will ultimately tend to assimilate them to their European brethren, it is not at all improbable that a growing fond- ness for Australian mutton, by its superiority over tlie native article, may be fostered, and that in order to sup ply the demand a trade may spring up, which may bring wealth and happiness to many a homestead in Queens- land. Horses will also be found a source of profit in this district. The suitability of climate and other conditions for breeding, together with the compai'ative vicinity of a ready market in India, will ultimately develope a trade which will scarcely be less profitable than sheep- farming. The black soil flats extending aloiig the banks of the navigable rivers, which have been reserved from pastoral occupation, together with the coast resei-ve, extending back tlu-ee miles from the sea-margin, will be fouud ad- nrirably adapted for growing sugar and other tropical pro- ductions ; and upon the introduction of suitable labour, this district of Queensland may alone outstrip the colony of Natal. There is no district in the colony where so much first- THE T'AIIMER'S MAGAZINE. 101; class pastoral country exists. From the head waters of the principal rivers to within a few miles of the coast, the rich plains hefore alluded to extend without hreak. When fully occupied, the district will be capable of depasturing three or four millions of sheep, and at least two hundred thousand horned cattle and horses ; and when fencing is introduced, 50 per cent, additional upon that estimate. The resident population of the district is as yet limited to a few hundred souls ; but now that a resident magis- trate and an cfleclivc body of police are located at Burke- town, many large stores, public-houses, and dwellings arc being erected by men of capital; and the foundation has been laid, in the far north, of a great city and mart of commerce. The electric telegraph has, we believe, already been pushed on from Eowdeu (Port Denison) to Gardwell (Rockingham Bay), and thence 360 miles to Burketown, which is now the first xVustralian town to receive the news from Europe through the Indian and Australian telegraph wire ; and the Queensland Government has now a regular monthly mail from the Gulf to Brisbane. HOW TO HARVEST MANGEL WURZEL.— THE SILESIAN SYSTEM. [tkansiated from the germ.vx.] FIC.A. Ill Silesia, where the cultivation of wurzel (sugar-beet) is carried on to a large extent, it is customary to commence har- vesting the crop about the mouth of Octoljcr, as soou as the leaves of the plants have begun to assume a yellowish tiugc. For the purpose of extracting the roots the above iustrument (see Fig. a) is universally used. As may be seen from the above engraving, tliis instrument is of the simplest construc- tion. It consists of two shares, similar to those of a phjugh, but possessing a length of 15 to 20 inches. These shares aie situated at a distance of 15 inches apart at the top, and gra- dually near each other towards the points, where the distance between the two is not more than 6 inches. The shares are connected at the bottom by means of a perfectly round iron bar, and in order to ensure the requisite firmness (tlie resist- ance to be met with being considerable), they are further con- nected with the body of the instrument through two flat pieces of iron {a and « on the figure). As fore- wheels, those of a common plough may be used. This instruuient is driven dovra the rows of plimts,aud in such a manner that each root comes between the two shares of the plough. The soil around the roots being thus loosened, and the roots being pressed partly upwards by means of the aforementioned round iron bar, the plants can now be removed with the greatest ease liy gangs of women or children. With this instrument one man with a pair of oxen is able to plough up 3 Prussian morgen (equal to nearly two acres) of sugar - beets per day ; and 0 or 8 women following him can pull, clean, and cut off the leaves, and place in the buries about one morgen. Tlie plants are not in the slightest degree injured by this instrument (as is often the case when forks, &c., are used). Besides this, the saving of labour must be borne in mind, which is of the greatest importance at the present time, when the cost of labour is continually increasing. Another advantage resulting from the application of this instrument is, that it obviates the necessity of ploughiug for winter corn after wurzel, the land having already been sufliciently broken up by means of the two shares, and oidy requiring harrowing. In Silesia the land in- tended for winter corn after wurzel is exclusively prepared by means of the harrow ; and the rye-wheat tliere stands as well after wurzel as after any other crop. Au additional reason for this, however, is that the wurzel crop is always strongly ma- nured. The preservation of the wurzel crop there is nearly the same as in other jiarts of Germany. If there is sufficient time to spare, the roots are carted to one end of the field, and there placed in long buries about 8 feet broad and 5 feet high ; they are then covered with straw, and sufficient earth to pre- vent the straw from l)emg lilown away. At the eommence-. ment of the cold season anotiier layer of earth of several inches in thickness is spread over the whole bury, with the ex- ception of the comb, which remains oi)en. In order to com- plete the covering of the buries, a ditch of about 1^ feet in depth is dug round each mound, and the soil here excavated provides the necessary layer of earth. Boai'ds are placed along the top of the bury during tins operation, in order to prevent the iUliug up of the comb. After the roots have lieen left in this state for about three weeks, they are again covered witli a layer of earth of about 1 foot in thickness. At the top of the bury wisps of straw are then inserted at intervals of* from 5 to 6 feet. If there is a scarcity of working cattle during the harvest the following method of j)reservatiou is observed : The wurzel, after having bccu cleared by \\omeu, are thro^^■n iuto large baskets, and then placed in small heaps in different parts of "the field ; they are then covered with earth in a perfectly air-tight manner. Many farmers in the ueighbourhood main- tain that this method is preferable to the first, Ijut it has, at any rate, the disadvantages, first, of pre\enting the carting off the field in wet weather ; and, second, the roots become very dirty through the eoutaetwith the soil. For these reasons the first method is the one more generally adopted. The leaves of the wurzel are used as fodder, either in a green state or else dried or soured. The latter mode of preparation is the one most adopted. For this purpose all large farms are provided with pits for the preparation of this food. In these pits layers of chaff and leaves are alternately placed, and sometimes a small amount of salt is added. During the laying of the leaves they must be trodden down tightly. These pits must be provided witii a shelving roof, in order to prevent the penetra- tion of moisture. The last layer of leaves in the pit is covered with a one-inch layer of soil, thus preventing the circulation of air, F. Rhodius. ' I 2 10-1 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, ARE THE PRESENT HIGH PRICES OF STOCK LIKELY TO CONTINUE? The following paper was read at tlie quarterly meeting of the Galashiels Farmers' Club, by Jlr. William Scott, Mossilee : — The subject for discussion to-day is the important question. " Are the present high prices of stock likely to continue? " I have called this an important (question ; and most certainly it is so to the farmers of this and other countries, and also to the British public. It must surely be of the greatest consequence to the farmer to have this matter thoroughly discussed in all its bearings, for it is only in tliis manner he has any chance of ascertaining whether his business is likely to jjrove profitable or not. I suppose we may take it for granted that stock- farming has been pajiug well for the last two years, owing to the extraordinarily high prices which have been obtained for live stock and their products. But as people are apt to lose their usual caution, and run into wild speculations in times of extraordinary prosperity, little caring for the lessons of past experience, which should surely remind them of the dull times and misfortunes by which such periods have always been fol- lowed ; so, just as a sort of corrective remedy to the excite- ment caused by the present high rates, we would do well to consider the important question, " Will the present prices con- tinue ? " Well, then, it being an admitted fact that the pre- sent rates are higher than usual, let us now proceed to consider some of the causes which liave brought about this favourable state of things. The first cause is the scarcity of lean stock, there having been, of late years, great difficulty in getting any number of well-bred animals for feeding purposes. The fact is, that tiU within the last few years live stock and their pro- ducts have held quite a subordinate position in agricultural practice ; and it is not long since the question, " Does feeding cattle pay ? " was often discussed in our farmers' clubs, and settled in the negative. The grain crops, and in a few more favoured districts potatoes, were at that time the main products of the farm ; and the small quantity of stock that was kept was only put up with because it enabled farmers to grow better crops of these remunerative articles, so that it is really no wonder they paid so little attention to their sheep and cattle, and sent so many of their calves to the butcher. This state of things has also been favoured by the want of keep through dry scorching summers, followed by some very severe winters — such, for instance, as that of 18G0, when it is well known many of our hill farmers were nearly ruined by the loss of thousands, both of lambs and old sheep. And then, again, there is the modern improvement of forcing forward all ani- mals to maturity at a much earlier age than was done a few years ago, both sheep and cattle being now slaughtered at least one year younger than at that time. The next thing I would allude to, as conducing to these high rates, is the present pros- perous state of our commerce and manufactures, and the con- sequent abundance of money in all classes of the community. The result of aU this is, that there is such a demand for labour that wages have been raised very much, and our intelligeut working-classes are now living in a state of comfort and pros- perity, which can stand a very flattering comparison with the condition of similar ranks in other countries. The low price of grain should also be mentioned here ; for, by giving the people a plentiful supply of cheap Lread, they are enabled to spend the more on dear butcher-meat. Nor is this a mere empty theory, for most of the working-classes now sit domi to dinner with a good supply of butcher-meat and the best of everything, which were luxuries almost unknown to them a few years ago, when wages and meat were low and bread dear ; and it was only the other day a working man said to me, " It's expensive livin' in the toon tlie noo ; flesh is awfu' dear ; it's a blessin' the loaf's sae cheap, or we could never afi"ord to get a bite o' meat at a'." In such a statement as this of the rea- sons of the present high prices, we must not omit to mention the alarming disease which is now decimating our herds and ruining many farmers ; for there is no doubt that the cattle plague has helped in more ways than one to raise the price of flesh meat, and it seems more than ever likely to have a still greater effect shortly. And there is still another reason wliich has sprung out of the last-mentioned case ; but as that scarcely concerns us as farmers, I will not enter into parti'culars, but merely refer you to a December number ol Fnnch, where, as most of you will remember, he gives an account of the " The real Rinderpest." And now, geritlemen, having thus briefly brought before your notice a few of the principal causes which liave helped to bring about the present high prices, I wiU now go on to consider those and other circumstances more minutely, for the purpose of inquiring whether or not they are likely to continue to operate in such a way as to maintain the present favourable state of things. The PRESE^^T Scarcity of Lea^' Stock. — The first of the causes mentioned was the scarcity of lean stock ; and the reason of this was, that farmers have till lately been paying comparatively little attention to the breeding and management of sheep and cattle. However, the case is altered now, the tide of prosperity runs in a different direction, and the pro- duction of grain, which had long been the mainstay of British tiirming, has now become nearly unprofitable, through the enormous importation from abroad. Tanners are now wisely turning their attention more to the management of live stock, and the animals which were lately considered only necessary nuisances — mere manure-making machines — and the feeding of which did not pay for the food consumed, are now by far the most remunerative products of the fanu, and command a price in the market wliicli would have been regarded as fabu- lous and impossible only a few years ago. In consequence of these high prices, farmers are now making great endeavours to increase the number of these useful animals — and all success to their efforts ! What employment could be more praise- worthy than increasing the food of the people? This is nothing new in the history of agriculture. If we look back througli the last twenty years we will find tlie same thing going on as energetically as now, though with a different view. The increased production of grain was at that time the farmer's great object, and no wonder ; for corn was then very profit- able, wheat often bringing from 60s. to 80s. per qr., and the other cereals in proportion. And, as the natural consequence of these high prices, they paid most careful attention to the cultivation of tliese crops, and tried all plans to raise the fer- tility of their soil by more liberal application of manure, and so on. This very time gave rise to many of the most import- ant improvements which have raised the science of agriculture from tlie old jog-trot of drudgery and routine in which our grandfathers found and left it ; among these may be mentioned the improved system of deep drainage, the introduction of guano and other artificial manures, and the consequent ex- tended cultivation of green crops. Now it was that the thrash- ing mill, the reaping machine, and all the long list of new imple- ments came into use. They even turned to their own ends the mighty power of steam, which is destined to revolutionize all our farm economy, and to do as much for agriculture as it has done for manufactures. Not content with the laud already under cultivation, they turned their longing eyes on the wild hillsides and the watery bogs which had lain till then in a state of nature, maintaining nothing but the wild curlew ami plover, with, perhaps, a stray sheep here and there ; and soon they clianged the bleak moors into fertile fields, and covered them with luxuriant crops and numerous flocks of well-bred sheep. But I have no need to talk of reclamation and im- provements on the banks of Gala Water ; suftice it to tell that, urged on by their own inherent spirit of energy and the hope of the high prices, the fanners of this and other countries paid so much attention to their grain crops that in a few years, as we all know only too well, the supply exceeded the demand, and so the prices fell below the cost of production. The same thing is going on now, as it ever has done, and ever shall do, when the price of any one article gets high ; and as we are just going through the same process, let us beware that our boasted enterprise and wild speculations allure us not into the same state of wreck and misfortune as that into which corn farmers were a few years ago jilunged when the jirices of grain fell from their hia-h war rales to their natural level. But some THE F ARTIER' S MAGAZINE. 105 of you may think it imposs-iblc this sliould ever occur, suppos- iug that the number of live stock cannot be increased to such a degree. It has been stated that farmers are doing a great deal to forward this oliject ; and let us now go on to con- sider liow far they are likely to prove successful, and what room their exists for improvement. You know well that there is nothing easier than increasing the mere numbers of our stock ; and the only difficulties that lie in the way worth our consideration are comprised in the questions — Is it possible to increase the quantity of food for stock ? and, having done so, will it pay ? CA:>f AVE Keep moke Stock ? — Keeping in mind that farmers are going into this matter with their whole heart, let us inquire how far they are likely to succeed in increasing the amount of their food for sheep and cattle. There is no opinion so mueh against progress, none so apt to make us settle down into self-complacency and sloth, as the deluding idea that we have attained perfection. It is an admitted fact that tlie science and practice of agriculture have made great progress of late years, and we are all proud to know that our times will be handed down to posterity as tlie brightest earliest days of improvement ; Ijut stiU, taking the agriculture of England and Scotland as a whole, high farming is yet the exception, and not the rule, and in many parts of the country there still exists great room for improvement. Among them may be mentioned thorough drainage, which is au improvement of the first im- portance ; for till this is done where really required, it is needless applying large quantities of lime or other manures, for they are only half lost. The great progress which has yet to be made in this matter will be more apparent when you re- collect that there is the enormous extent of xl,OOU,Ut)0 of acres of laud still in want of this iirst step of improvement. Deeper cultivation is the next mode of improving our laud and in- creasing the amount of our food for stock ; and although the average depth of the cultivated soil of this country is generally estimated at four inches, yet the great advantage to be derived from deeper ploughing is now so well understood and acted on, that there is no doubt that in a few years this will be more than doubled. Tlie principal advantage of this will be larger crops ; but another consideration is, that when all this is car- ried out, our grass and other crops will not be nearly so liable to be scorched and burned up in dry seasons like 1864., and so our sheep and cattle will not be subjected, as they have lately been, to famine and drought every few years. A more liberal use of artificial manures and feeding stuffs would be a very direct and profitable mode of increasing the production of butcher-meat and wool ; but improvement is much required here, for many fanners still scarcely believe in the use of these at all. And then, again, there are the twelve millions of acres of good land, fit lor improvement by the plough, which, owing to certain hindering causes, are still iu a state of nature. It is certainly most astonishing that such should be the case at this advanced stage of agricultural progress, and it shows very plainly that there is something totally wrong with our whole system ; and the hypothec, game, and entail laws have already been so much discussed, and blamed with fettering and retard- ing the efforts of progress, that it is scarcely worth while say- ing more of these old remnants of feudalism here than that the sooner they are rectified, just the quicker will renewed improve- ment and prosperity come for landlord and tenant, and the community at large. The amount of food annually lost to the country through the want of the cidtivation of this enormous extent of laiut cannot be estimated iu these dear times at less than forty millions of pounds— a large sum certainly, to lose by our own want of energy and progress ; and the worst of it all is, that the very want of that food sends us to other coun- tries in search of supplies. Now, all this money miglit be kept at home to raise tiie comfort and prosperity of our own agricultural interests ; but it is sent abroad to foster and en- courage foreign agriculture — the very system which has lately changed the whole current of our prosperity, and brought many of our corn farmers to ruin. But in spite of all the dis- advantages under which they labour with great energy and perseverance, farmers are every^vhere making great encroacli- ments on this little country of waste land, and so the area of food-producing land is every year increasing. The quantity of food for stock miglit be very profitably increased were we to alter the system of cropping, and grow less corn, tlie cultiva- tion of which is both unprofitable and laborious. Though grain has got a little dearer this year, it is well known that it is entirely owing to some political disturbances of a temporary character, and it is only in years long distant, when the popu- lation of this world has doubled itself, that there is any chance of corn ever again rising to the old protection prices. If more attention was paid to the cultivation of roots, tares, and other food for stock, the numbers kept might be greatly enlarged ; and more especially would this be the case if more land was kept in grass. The status of the farmer with regard to educa- tion and intelligence is also rising fast ; and the time is coining when we, as a class, wUl no longer be liable to bo taunted and jeered by public writers as being far behind our commercial and raaniifacturing friends in this as weU as every other brancli of improvement and progress. And when the hindrances and fetters of which I have spoken are removed, and all the improvements we have just glanced at thoroughly carried out to the state of perfection to whicii they are fast hastening, then there can be no doubt that the produce of this country, and more especiaUy the amount capable of being used as food for stock, will be far more than doubled. And now, having plainly shown that it is easy for this country to produce as much butcher-meat as ever she is likely to require, I would take a glance at the other question proposed, which was Will it pay ? — Will it pay the landlords and farmers to carry out all these improvements ? This is very easily answered in the afiirmative ; in fact, so much have the o])inions of farmers advanced in late years, that people would think we had newly come from the backwoods of Canada were we seri- ously to discuss the question. So now, having seen that far- mers can easily increase the numbers of their live stock, and that it will pay them well to do so, there is no doubt that they will do this as soon as possible ; and they are doing so, for, on many well-managed farms, there is not half the land cultivated for grain that there used to be. On such farms the number of live stock has been nearly doubled ; and as this is going on over all the country, we may surely expect that in a few years hence (unless tlie plague proves all the more destructive) there will be no longer any need to complain of the scarcity of lean stock. The next cause of the scarcity, and consequent high prices, was the want of food, and great loss and deterioration of stock by the late severe seasons. When all the improve- ments just mentioned are carried out, there will be less need to complain of these losses ; for where land is well drained, and kept in good heart, the crops have more stamina and strength, and are, therefore, not nearly so liable to be scorched and burnt up by long droughts. There is also more attention now paid to growing a larger amount of food for stock, and cake and other concentrated feeding stuffs are now more largely manufactured in consequence of the great demand ; so that, taking all these things into account, when severe seasons like 1864 do come we will be very much better prepared for them ; and so there is little chance that our stock will ever again be subjected to all the horrors of famine and death, as they have lately been, and that cause of scarcity and high prices is scarcely ever Likely to return. The Pro.sperous State of ol"r Cojijierce and Manu- factures.— We come now to consider the present prosperous state of our commerce and manufactures, and the present high wages of the working classes, which are great causes of the present high prices. Has this country to be favoured with a long continuation of the present prosperity ? This is a world of hill and valley ; and as nature hates the level monotonous plain, so whether we turn to the history of individuals, nations, or trades, we find the invariable rule is the old story of the ups and downs of life. It has now become a well- known fact in the history of commercial industry that sea- sons of unusual prosperity always lead to over-speculation, which is as invariably followed by the consequent crisis and depression of trade. We have all too much cause to remember the last of these sad occasions, which occurred in 1857, when many who tiU that time had been living in com- fort and attluence were completely ruined. When we look back through the commercial history of the last forty years, we find six similar seasons of great prosperity, all followed by their corresponding terms of hard times, duU trade, and disas- ter. The rule of supply and demand comes iu here as well, and the present extraordinary desire for manufactured goods of all kinds is sure to be met by an increased supply. Take our own fiourishing town of Galashiels as au example of this. Look at the improvements her energetic manufacturers have introduced, and most expensive machinery which they have put 106 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. up. Think of the thousauds ot' intelligeut workers they have brouglit from ;ill parts of the country, and their factories going night and day ; and all with the object of producing the greatest possible quantity of tlieir valuable manufactures. And knowing that the same thing is going on all through the country, can you doubt that all this must end in an increased supply and a satiated demand P The manufacturers of the Continent, and America too, are now making great progress ; and the time is fast coming when they will not only supply their own wants, but compete witli us in all the markets of the world, and then our manufactures will not be so much re- quired. So that there is every chance of an increasing supply of all our high-priced manufactures being met by a lessening demand ; and the consequence of all this must be less need of labour and low^er wages, and so the great demand for our agri- cultural commodities among the middle and working classes will be very much checked. We come now to consider The Cattle Plague, in so far as it concerns our present subject. Tliis is a theme on which we must not enter in detail. I woitld only remark that had our Government adopted the strict regulations attlie first, which the virulence of the disease has at last forced them to issue, it is more than likely it would have died out ere tliis time ; and all we can now do is to assist the authorities as far as we can by attending to their well-meant orders. But in the meantime tliere is no doubt but the disease wiU cause a great deal more destruction among our cattle, and so raise tlie price of butcher-meat to a higher rate tlian it has yet reached. We often hear tlie opinion ex- pressed just now that if the disease is not checked soon it will make such havoc among our cattle that they will be both scarce and dear for many years to come ; now aU the facts of the case go to shew that this is an erroneous notion. Suppose the disease does spread, and that, in consequence, the prices do rise to a rate we never heard of, just the sooner wiUthelaw of supply and demand come into operation ; and so the num- bers will increase, for the old proverb says that "a seen dearth never comes." It is a fixed law of political economy that no article or branch of trade can continue for any time more profitable than the rest ; for when any one commodity ^'cts very high priced, all who have the opportunity strive to produce the largeut possible quantity of that article, and so tlie demand is more than met, and the price falls. I would just mention the past fluctuations in the price of wheat as an ex- ample of this principle. In the year 1800 wheat was as high as 130s. per qr., but in consequence of the naturally increased supplies, it fell again, in the short period of three years, to oUs., or less than half the former price ; however it rose again in 1812 to 127s., but it came down as quick, and iu 1822 we find it at -ios. In 1855 the rate was 7os., and we soon saw the consequence — the growing of grain was all the rage, not only in this country, but through the whole world, from the wild shores of the JBalti^ to tlie fertile plains of Italy, and the wide prairies of tlie far west. Wherever there was suitable laud, and men to tiU it, there was the cultivation of grain carried on, with such energy and vigour that iu a few years our markets and granaries were overstocked, and the prices fell far below what would have been a profitable return to the British far- mer for his capital and skill — so low, indeed, that it only paid well in tliose continental countries, where labour costs 8d. a-day, and good land a crown the acre. If we turn to sheep and wool, we find tliat the prices have always varied in a simi- lar manner with the supply and demand, and the following quotations from the Inverness market list will go far to estab- lish my present remarks : — In 181S the price of Cheviot wed- ders was 28s. In two years they were down to 20s. ; 1822, 12s. 6d. ; 1825, 29s. ; 1827, 15s. ; 183(5, 2-is. ; next year, 19s.; 1856,22s.; 1SG3, 30s. ; 1865,45s. In 1819 Cheviot lambs were selling at 10s. 6d. ; in 1822, down to 4s. 6d. , 1838, 12s. ; 1843, os. ; 1860, 12s. Gd. ; next year, 9s. ; 1863, 14s. ; 1865, 18s. We will find wool, which has lately been one of our highest-priced productions, subject to the same fluc- tuations ; and making laid Cheviot the subject of inquiry, we find it at 40s. in 1818 ; next year, 21s. ; inl823, 9s. ; next jear, 13s. 6d. ; 1843, 9s. ; next year, 15s. ; 1860, 22s. ; 1864, 37s. I have said that tliis is a world of ups and downs, and never-ceasing variations ; and here is a list of changes witli a vengeance! These quotations are of great importance, fori liey shew us that there had been great changes going on among the flocks through good and bad seasons : and also in the demand, through prosperous and dull time, war, and so on. When prices have varied so much in tlic past, what reason have we to expect that they will remain unchanging in the future ? Has human ambition — the desire to turn our industry and farms to the production of the most profitable articles— the certain law of supply and demand — have aU these established rules of the past to be abolished now ? and all, that the farmers of this country may continue to get large prices for their stock ? The idea is preposterous, for prices always have varied with the ever-changing circumstances in which our country has been placed ; and the facts of the case all go to show that they will alter in the future as they have done in the past. Nor will butcher-meat prove an exception to the general rule ; the people of this country will not long be content to pay the pre- sent extravagant price for that necessary article of their daily food. It must be apparent to all, who pay any attention to the Board of Trade returns, that had it not been for the disturb- ance caused in our cattle markets through the plague, butcher- meat would have been, even by this time, a good deal cheaper, in consequence of the enormous importations from other countries. Ireland. — We are likely to get greatly increased supplies from Ireland, now that she has got rid of three millions of her over-abundant population, and tliey have begun in right earnest to the work of agricultural improvement. I need say nothing here of the fertility of her soil, and the quality of the pastures, where good management does prevail ; for we all know that the best of them will feed a bullock in shorter time than ours will, even when cake is given in addition to the grass. It is estimated that there are 5,000,000 acres fit for improvement by the plougli ; and its only a pity such good land has been so long badly managed, and compara- tively lost to the world ; but brighter days have come for her at last, and great improvements are now going on. Ireland is by far tlie wettest part of the kingdom, but in no other country would the expense of drainage be so well repaid ; and her moist climate makes her better adapted for a grazing than an arable system of farming. They have sent us across many cattle and sheep for a long time back, but till lately these were very inferior ; however, the quality is much improved now, and the largest proportion of our store cattle are at present sent from Ireland. There are many superior cattle in that country, and they are paying great attention to improving the breed by purchasina- our prize animals and so on. Tliere are at present 3,493,414 cattle, 3,688,742 sheep, and 1,299,893 pigs in Ireland ; but these numbers give but a slight idea of what that evergreen island is capable of maintaining ; and if she escapes the ravages of the plague — as she is likely to do — her live stock will increase to such a degree, that she will send us a very much larger number of animals than she has ever done. Foreign Importations. — Our high prices have excited the attention of continental farmers too, and they are now sending large supplies of sheep and cattle ; but it is only of late tliat tliey have turned their minds to exporting live stock to this country, as a profitable branch of their business. They have been sending us a few every year since the introduction of free trade ; but it was not until last year tliat they sent us any considerable number. It was always the opinion of farmers here that foreigners could never compete with us in the production of butcher meat ; and as some of you may still hold that notion, I think it v,i\\ be very important for us to take a glance at the farming of the various European countries, and see whether or not they are capable of sending us much more live stock than they are now doing. I would first turn your attention to that part of the continent included in France, Spain, and Portugal. Great though France is in some respects, her farmers have stUl much to learn, and we must still rank the three countries just named in the second class, at least, as regards their agcjculture. France is comparatively very level — in fact, there is very little of it but might be very profitably be brought into cultivation ; so that the 58,000,000 of acres at present mider the plough will soon be doubled if they go on with improvements as they are now doing. It is generally allowed tliat they are a century beliind in tlie general state of their agricultural progress ; but in spite of all this they liave a large number of live stock, inchuling 9,900,000 cattle. Tliey have more slieep than we have, which is not to be wondered at, seeing that France is double the size of Britain ; but the total number of 35,000,000 is made u)) of many difl'erent breeds, of which the Merino is by far the most important. Most of the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 107 various Ijveeds of slieep and cattle niiglit be much improved ; and ill order to effect this they are importing large numbers of our best animals. There are great improvements going on, such as draining and reclaiming waste land, increasing and improving live stock ; and now that their energetic and far- seeing Emperor lias fairly turned his attention to the promotion of agriculture, we may surely expect to see her advance with rapid strides in the bright path of progress ; and there is no doubt but that her farmers will soon be able to maintain and send us more thau double the amount of live stock they do at present. Spain aud Portugal are among the most fertile countries in Europe, and well adapted for all sorts of farming, and manufactures too, if the easy-going inhabitants would only exert themselves, and use the means of success which Nature has scattered around them in rich profusion. These countries are very suitable for grazing sheep and cattle, and so they devote much attention to these, and more especially to sheep, the Merino breed of which is the best in Europe, and has done much to improve the sheep of the continent. The latest statistics with regard to cattle refer to IS'iG, and give tlie number as 3,000,000 ; but they have increased largely since then, and so has the quantity of sheep, which was at that time 18,000,000. To show the little expense they are put to in raising their stock, I may mention that grass land costs from 9d. to a fen shillings per acre, and wages are correspondingly low. These countries are now regaining something of their old splendour, and if they go on improving as they have done for the last ten years, they will soon rank among the best pastoral countries in Europe. The next countries I would glance at are Belgium, Holland, and the whole Germanic Confederation, which includes the best and most carefully-farmed districts of the continent. The system of farming in Belgium has long been famed, and is often held up for our example : and large parts of the other States would stand a very fair comparison with our own country. Like ourselves, they have till lately been paying more attention to the cultivation of grain than to live stock ; but they have now begun in right earnest, and are sending us sheep and cattle by the thousand ; and as an example of what this part of the continent can already pro- duce, I may tell you that some of their sheep brouglit 62s. each in Edinburgh market last year. Austria, and the inland parts of this extensive district, have long been comparatively excluded from commercial intercourse with us by their pecu- liarly central position and want of sufficient means of com- munication ; but, thanks to the railway system now largely introduced, the untold miUious of stock grazing on these fertile plains are now within a three days' journey of our markets. I cannot do better than introduce here a brief extract fi'om Professor Siraonds' late address on the cattle- plague, for it goes far to corroborate my statements, lie says: "Formerly little stock was brought to England from these districts, but within the last two or three years the great demand for foreign cattle for English consumption has so increased, that cattle during that time have been brought from Vienna, Hungary, Poland, and various other districts There are now three lines of railway stretching from Western Europe all through tliese countries, one of them going through Cracow." Time would fail me were 1 to speak of all the other countries in detail ; it is enough to know that, turn where we may — through Denmark (the Scotland of the continent), Sweden, or Russia, with its plains of unrivalled extent and fertility, and its grassy steppes swarming vidth sheep aud cattle — tlie people are all turning their attention as much as pos- sible to the management of live stock. The railway system is spreading very fast througli the continent, and there are already numerous lines stretching all through the best stock districts — one of them, as we have just heard, going all the way through Poland and llussia. And if, along with these lines, we take into account the many navigable rivers that How down through these fertile districts into the sea, at no great distance from our own shores, we see that they will have reaUy no difficulty with regard to the transit of any number of animals. The farmers of even the most distant States are now enabled to send us their stock in better order aud in shorter time than it took our northern friends to send theirs from Aberdeen to London a few years ago. Erom the facts already given re- garding these countries, it must be very apparent that they have unlimited resources at their command for the rearing of sheep and cattle ; and any farmer knows that when foreigners can send us about 00,000,000 cwts. of grain — as they lately did in one year — there is notliing to iiinder them to supply us with a great deal more stock than ever this country is likely to require, let her population and prosjierity increase as it may. There has been a great increase in the importations of tliese animals this last year, even in the face of the disturbed state of our markets and the restrictions put on the cattle trade in consequence of the plague ; and, indeed, the numbers have Ijeen increasing every year since our high prices began ; but the following statistics speak for themselves ;^ During 1 1 months of Imports of 1852. Cattle ... 61,650 Calves ... 2.i,870 Sheep ... 192,585 Swine ... 15,599 1803. 68,818 29,069 299,472 18,162 1851. 179,507 52,227 496,24.3 85,362 1864. 141,778 44,678 412,469 68,777 1865. 196,030 48,926 763,084 114,766 I am sorry I have not been able to obtain the returns for the whole of last year, as these are not yet published ; but during the first eleven months there has been a great increase over the corresponding period of 1864, the total number of all ani- mals imported being, 1,123,806 in 1865, against 667,702 in 1864, giving an increase of 455,104 animals in 1865. There is much to be learned from these Board of Trade returns, for they show us, in some measure, the capability of the continent to supply us with stock, and the astonisliing ease with which the farmers of other countries can change their system from the cultivation of grain to the management of sheep and cattle. But these are only the first-fruits of their new speculation ; the fact is, they are just newly beginning this profitable busi- ness, for, if we except Belgium, they have only kept stock on the hills and such other parts of their land as have not yet been brought into cultivation. Most of the Continent is fifty years, and some parts of it a fuU century, behind us in their system of agriculture, and more especially in their implements and management of stock ; but they are now fast awakening from the lethargy of ages — >they are selecting our most im- proved implements, and best stock for breeding purposes, and our high prices, and the great amount of money we are now sending them are urging them on so very fast in the right way of improvement and progress that in a few years they will send us four times the number tiiey are now doing. The Importations from South America and At;s- TRALIA. — We come now to consider the supplies of salted and dried beef and pork, which now form such important items in our importations of foreign produce, and these have also been largely on the increase since our present high prices began. We need not wonder at this increase, for these are the very articles which are easiest carried, and can be brought in as good order from Australia as they can from the nearest conti- nental ports. There were 294,138 cwts. of these provisions imported in 1853, and in 1803, just ten years after, they had increased about eight-fold, or to 2,329,429 cwts. This part of the importations is likely to go on increasing faster than ever ; nud it wiU pay the producers long after these commodities have got so cheap as to cease to pay the farmers of either this country or the Continent. And when we consider the vast re- sources of the countries from which we are to derive these sup- plies, we we will cease to wonder at the enormous importa- tions. Look at the countless miUions of cattle now grazing on the fertile plains of Australia, New Zealand, and South America, and most of which are of such little value to their owners that they are glad to boil them down for the sake of their tallow. How much better would it pay them were they to salt the beef and send it here, for they could well afTord to sell it at 3d. per lb. 1 in fact, I observe American beef, of first- class quahty, offered for sale in Edinburgh just now at 30s. per cwt. which is just about 3d. per lb. Our scientific men have long been trying to find out some easy way of preserving meat without salt, and tliey have been at last successful ; and a pubHc company has lately been formed for the very purpose of slaughtering and curing the animals in these countries and sending them across for our consumption. So we will hear no more of the farmers in these far-off lands boiling down their cattle, but they will send their millions of grass-fed ani- mals here by the ship-load ; aud when the importations are so much increased, are our present prices likely to continue ? The New Cheap Meat Companies. — There is great dissatisfaction at present through the whole country about the 108 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. liigh price of butcner meat ; and no wonder, for it must tell severely on our working-men when that important article of their daily food is so very expensive. However, they have the remedy very much in their own hand, for it is well known that wlienever any commodity gets too high-priced, they stop the consumption immediately, and so the price falls again to a reasonable rate. This check on the prices is coming into ope- ration already, for it is as much the lessened consumption, owing to the prices being beyond the reach of the great mass of our population, as either the cattle plague or the foreign importations, that is causing the present dulness of our markets. One of the most important questions of the day is how to re- duce the price of butcher meat ; and when public attention is fairly turned to tliis matter they will soon find the means of accomplishing the object on wliich they have set their minds. Ill fact, they have already found a good plan, for most of you wUl have seen accounts of those companies which are being formed, with great success, throughout the principal towns of England, for the purpose of supplying our country with cheap meat. T would direct your attention to '' The National Cattle and Meat Company," lately established in London, with a capital of £1,000,0U0, for that very purpose ; and they intend to do this by importing the animals direct from the Continent, where they have sent agents for purchasing stock on a large scale. I give you the following extract from their prospectus to sliovi' that they are in real earnest: " The present and past condition of the meat market proclaims this movement to be a ])ublic necessity. It is obvious that a company so regulated, directly purchasing on a large scale, must be able to supply )neat of a better quality and at a lower price than can be done by private individuals A careful consideration of the most reliable data shows that a company so founded can deliver meat to the consumer at Tid. per lb. at present, and still leave a handsome profit to the shareholders ; whereas the prices now charged in London are from lid. to 14d. per lb." If these companies can manage to sell meat at these cheap rates, butchers will be compelled, hy the force of competition, to lower their prices in the same manner, and so the price of the living animals will be lowered also. If they can afford to sell so cheap just now, what would the price have been a few years ago, when everything was a great deal cheaper ? — something like 4d. per lb., I suppose, which is a price we may hear too much of sooner than we expect. The tendency of the value or price of all articles is always towards the cost of production, and when it does fluctuate either above or below that standard, it is only because of the variations of the supply and demand. Before the improved means of locomotion came into use, this rule applied to every country by itself alone, and the price of wheat in this country was just what it cost the farmer to grow it; but when the means of conveyance were altered, and the expense lessened, the price fell at once to what it cost the farmers of other countries to produce and send it here, which was less that! 4<)s. per qr. In the same manner the price of the articles before us will soon be just what they cost on the Continent, with the addition of the expenses incident to their carriage to this country ; and these prices will always be lowered just as the system of foreign farming improves and the cost of conveyance falls. The Price or Wool. — The question before us also in- cludes the future prices of wool ; but, as I have already de- tained you too long, I must now he as brief as possible in these remarks. Wool has been the most profitable of all our farm jiroduce for the last two years ; and this was mainly owing to the scarcity of cotton, through the American war, and the opening up of new markets hy treaties of commerce, and so on. The American war is over at last, and that unhajipy country is now settling down into a renewed state of energetic pros- perity ; and one good result of tliat inhuman war will certainly be an increased supply of cotton from every country suitable for its jiroduction ; and so the price of it will be lowered also, and it will soon regain its place in the fickle favour of fashion, which, during the late scarcity, was usurped by articles of woollen manufacture. I have said tliat farmers are every- where turning their attention more to the management of live stock, hut this refers more especially to sheep, for the high price of wool has turned the balance in favour of sheep, where- ever the position of the farmer gives him the power of choosing Ijetwcen tliem and cattle. The cattle plague lias also helped greatly to encourage the keeping of sheep, both in this country and through the rest of Europe ; and if that disease does con- tinue much longer on this side of the wild steppes of Siberia, tliere is no doubt that sheep will, in a great measure, take the place of cattle, and then there is sure to be an over-supply of wool. And when the farmers of Australia and America begin to send us their butcher meat, then they will pay a great deal more attention to the breeding and management of their stock, and so they will be able to send us double the quantity of wool they are now doing. I have also alluded to the fact that there is little chance of our manufacturers being able to maintain their present high position in tlie markets of the world ; and if they go on as they are doing just now, the de- mand will soon be more than supplied, and tlien we will have plenty of cheap cloth, and, as a matter of course, cheap wool. Taking all these things into account, can we come to any other conclusion than that 60s. wiU soon be as much a thing of the past for a stone of wool* as it is now for a quarter of wheat ? Concluding Remarks. — And now, gentlemen, in bringing these remarks to a close, I would just remind you of the various facts now brought under your notice. We have seen that farmers are making great endeavours to raise ])oth the number and quality of their stock, and that they have still plenty of room for doing so : we have seen the enormous quantities of these valuable animals which are now coming to our shores from all quarters. You have also taken with me a rapid survey of the present state of farming in the continental countries, and seen that they are just beginning tlie profitable business of feeding stock for our markets, and come to the con- clusion that they are certain to send us a greatly increased number very soon. And you have lie.ard that along with these larger su))plies there is likely to come a lessened demand, caused either by the high price or commercial difficulties and dull trade. And having heard the whole circumstances of the case, we can surely come to no other conclusion than that our present prices are not likely to continue. I ought to apologise for detaining yon so long, but really the great importance of the subject is my best excuse for the length of these remarks ; and if I had not been requested by the Club to introduce the subject, I would never have ventured to trespass so far on your patience. This subject is doubly important at the present time, for really our affairs are in a very peculiar state just now. Farmers were just recovering from the effects of the losses of the late bad seasons and the ruinously low price of grain, when the cattle plague appeared with all its disheartening disasters -^loss of stock and capital, which a rack-rented tenantry can ill afford. AVe are now threatened witli yet another rise in the price of labour, which, in spite of all assertions to the Con- trary, has been steadily rising all through tlie last twenty years, and, taking all things into account, is nothing below the rate of remuneration in other unskilled departments. And along with rising wages there is now the falling prices of stock looming in the di.stance ; and this is sure to be the worst loss of all, unless we look well ahead, as we are trying to do, and prepare in time for the coming change. It would have been well for our arable farmers had they done this a few years ago, when corn was selling at war prices. They would have seen from the records of the past, that when the price got so very high it was sure to fall. If they had examined the .state of Continental farming, as we have done, they would have been better prepared for that overwhelming flood of foreign grain which was so soon to deluge their markets, and liring down the prices, and plunge them into the hopeless al)yss of poverty and ruin. We are aU the better for being reminded of these dark days of our own history, for we are ever prone, in the bright sunshine of present success, to forget all the sad lessons of the past ; and it is only by looking all the facts of the case sternly in the face that we can ever hope to escape from the coming return of the same sad disasters. But we must not despond ; there are bright days yet in .store for us all ; and tliough the transition period is sure to be rather disheartening, if we only look well before us, and take care not to get into the same rash blunders as so many did in the last season of agricultural prosperity, tlien our case will not be so utterly . hopeless as theirs was, wlien the present artificial state of things passes away, and the old duU times return. * T!ie Sf>r)trli " stone" of 241!)*. is here referred to. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 109 THE CORPORATION OF LONDON AND THE DEAD-MEAT TRADE. Tlie Corporation of London are evidently getting every day deeper and deeper into the swollen current of free-trade nieasures. To say that they have already got lieyond their depth, and hence must either sink or swim with the tide, is only giving hut a faint idea of their present peculiar predica- ment ; for, in plain English, John Bull has come to the final determination that for the future they shall have nothing more to do witli his " roast and boiled" than with his bread-and- butter, and that is simply no trade-tax on either, but free- trade in all. Hitherto everything edible coming from the country, the produce of the land, has been taxed enormously by the Corporation, so that it may truly be said — of course, tiguratively speaking — that for a long time back farmers have been fleeced with as little ceremony as costermongers skin eels ! So long as trade jogged on in the beaten track of the tilting times of Good Queen Bess, baronial castles and walled cities coidd well atl'ord to play at " beggar my neighbour," as blue eyes were a badge of honour in those days, and " black mail," a legitimate source of income ; but free-trade has so changed the philosophy of life, public and private, that all ranks of the community, high and low, now-a-days, will have nothing less for their creed than to buy and sell when and where they may, upon a footing of common equality. In this march of improvement public markets have become old style, and are slowly being substituted by private systems of exchange, modern political economy having made the dis- covery that the old maxim " honesty is the best policy" may be more successfully reduced to practice without the interven- tion of civic authorities and their weights and measares, than with such old-fashioned means of fair dealing. So long as the public could not be trusted with the measuring aud weighing of their goods, it was but reasonable, and even a matter of necessity, as the majority had nothing satisfactory wherewith to measure and weigh, that public functionaries should be appointed to determine the commercial value of quau- tities, and be paid for their labour " in toll and taxes." But all ournationalraceSjEnglish, Scotch, and Irish, have now adopted common standards of weights and measures, and also learned how to use them to the confidence and satisfaction of each other ; consequently, there is now no longer any reason or necessity to appeal to the weights and measures of the Guild functionary, while his interference has become intolerable, and his charges, toll, and taxes something worse. Modern science has even discovered a nearer way to fair-play and profit, in almost all branches of commerce, than the old cir- cuitous road to and from the public markets. In short, the printing-press, the railway, aud the telegraph are fast changing the whole commercial practice of the country — the abridg- ment directly and indirectly of time and space being the lead- ing characteristic in this change from a public to a private system of trade — commercial transactions at the same time being more open than under the old public-market system. Amongst the progressive changes thus taking place in the me- tropolis, the direct commerce of " dead meat" merits a special notice at the present time, owing on the one hand to the pre- valence of rinderpest and other contagious diseases amongst cattle, coupled with the influence which such are exercising upon farming and the butcher trade ; and on the other hand, to the fact that the Corporation of London is at the same time about to erect a costly dead-meat market on the old commercial plan, almost in the very centre of the British capital ! Whether the contrast in which we have thus placed the subject of our paper is examined in a scientific or practical light, the con- clusion appears all but nmnifest that the Corporation feel themselves under the necessity of helplessly adojjting the old proverb of "they are far behind who dare not follow" for their line of action ; for it cannot be that public men so high in the councils of commerce are so ignorant of their present position as their old plans of marketing prove them to be. From the losing speculation which tlie new cattle-market has proved itself to be, it was natural to hope that they would liave profited by every pocket-touching foresight of this kind, relative to the progress of trade, so as to avoid a second loss in the erection of a dead-meat market at a time when the pro- gress of trade had openly pronounced public markets to be the necessary instruments of a bygone age, but now out of date, and wholly unsuited for the more scientific and artificial circumstances of the present day. The farmer being the producer and prior seller in the commer- cial transaction under investgation, Ins peculiar position at the present time demands the first consideration, and to him rinder- pest, lung disease, and the other contagious maladies now pre- valent, prove that public markets are only tolerable so long as they cannot be done without, but not a day longer, always excepting for the sale of inferior meat or cattle that cannot be sold at home. And the objection applies to public markets of every kind, viz., lean-stock markets, fat-stock markets, and dead-meat markets ; for were the facts fuUy ascertained, con- tagion will, in all probability, be found to be more widely spread by people attending markets than by the cattle on sale; and the practical reason of this bespeaks its own conclusion, for the latter are individually almost exclusively confined in one place, whereas purchasers and drovers go handling and jdodding through the whole of the market, as if purposely in searcli of contagion, to sow over the length and breadth of the country they traverse 1 A farmer or cattle-dealer may thus purchase a clean lot of store cattle free from rinderpest ; he may take them home, tie them up in his stalls, or place them in his pastures, as the case may be, and afterwards spread contagion amongst them, which had been carried in his clothes or in the clothes of his servants or coat of his dog or horse. So little is yet known of the contagious matter of rinderpest, chemically or microscopically, that it may even be carried in the blood of persons, horses, dogs, itc, who inhale an infected atmosphere, and who hence must take the fomites of disease into their circidation ; and, for aught that can be said to the contrary, they may afterwards excrete the .same fomites from the pores of the skin, as active and contagious as ever. So long as markets exist for lean stock and fat stock, animals in tlie first stage of disease will be sent to them for conversion into money on any terms, and just as long will con- tagion be spread, as above, over the length and breadth of the land ; and now tliat the great continental lines of railway that collect both store cattle and fat stock for our markets extend to the steppes of Russia, to which rinderpest is said to be in- digenous, or ever-present, no system of veterinarian inspection or of slaughtering can be looked upon as a safe protection against imported disease, one way or another. In towns, again, salesmen, butchers, and drovers may spread the disease far and wide, not only amongst fat stock, but dairy-cows and lean stock, as salesmen, butchers, and dairymen are now many of them extensively connected with farming, in the adjoining counties. Again, it is an egregious mis- take to suppose that dead meat does not carry and spread contagion, and therefore that slaughtering foreign cattle at the disembarking ports and dead-meat markets wonld be a protection ; for the reverse of the former being true, the latter falls to the ground as fallacious. True, chemistry and the microscope have been unable to discover the poison of rinder- pest in the flesh of diseased animals ; but that is no proof that such flesh does not contain the contagious matter, for ex- perience has long since proved that the dead carcase of an animal which has died of rinderpest, or which lias been slaugh- tered, infects animals very rapidly — hence the reason why diseased bodies are buried in lime at a great depth the moment animals die or are slaughtered. And this is not more true of the last stage of the disease than of the first. Indeed, some suppose that every time the contagious matter acts it loses force ; so that, according to this theory, a given number of fomites, or whatever the unit measure of the poison may be, would be more powerful in the first stage than in the last! ]?ut without going into the details of such a controversy, it is manifest that they are powerful and highly contagious in the first stage, as they very soon break uji the system of the in- fected animal, the time between the first and last stages beino- often very short. I'roper cooking may destroy the poison", 110 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. but under-done meat may contain it inau activeform; andbefore it is cooked at all enough harm may be done ; so that if it passes through the body of nuin in an active form, or unin- jured in its poisonous character, no one in the present state of knowledge can tell what injury may be done by the concen- tration of diseased meat in a dead-meat market, and the dis- tribution of that meat, and the meat it contaminates, amongst dairymen and private families who own milch cows. In the marketing of their produce again, farmers must, in accordance with the progress of things, provide for the fact that the thorougli drainage of the country, with the other auxiliary improvements of modern agriculture, has greatly changed the climate ; so much so tliat exceptionary seasons like 1865 now closely resemble those in countries to which rinderpest is common, and where it is generated in the systems of cattle predisposed to it. The diiference between a metro- iiolitan climate of the present day and that when the Romans lirst lauded in Britain is something considerable, and even be- tween 1765 and 1865 as regards the marketing of cattle and dead meat in large towns, and also as regards the health of live stock in town and counti^. The proposition of making suitable provision for this diiference is therefore one of ne- cessity practically speaking, and this provision throws a 'H-eater task and responsibility upon farmers than perhaps is Generally imagined ; for, in the practical and scientilic investi- gation of rinderpest, the facts of the case, so far as revealed by chemistry and the microscope, are more in favour of the proposition that rinderpest was generated in the Metropolis in the summer of 1865, than imported from the Continent. But whichever way future discovery in these and kindred branches of science may turn the trembling scales, one thing has already been satisfactorily determined— viz., that the common system of marketing cattle and dead meat in the Metropolis is neither suited to the present exigencies of farmers as the producers nor to the wants of the inhabitants of the capital as consumers. And as the present system has annually been growing worse and worse, owing to the more and more artificial state of stock- management and inciease of mortality amongst cattle on the one hand, and the increase of population in the metropoUs on the other hand, it follows that the present system will be still less suited for the wants of tlie future. The system, too, is one that cannot be improved npon, because based upon an erro- neous principle — viz., the concentration of all sorts of cattle and all sorts of dead meat into one market, without regard to health and quahty : so that in the former (tlie cattle market) diseased cattle infect healthy animals, thereby not only destroy- ing the quahty of their meat when slaughtered, but also spreadiug contagious diseases throughout herds and flocks in the country, as in the case of rinderpest in herds and small-pox in flocks last year ; while, in the dead-meat market, unsound meat contaminates the sound, thereby reducing its commercial and intrinsic value. In the cattle market, and in the dead- meat market, there is no possible way, practically speaking, of keeping separate healthy cattle from diseased cattle, and sound meat from diseased meat, so as to avoid the heavy losses thus sustained by tlie prod\icers of the primest quality. The in- spection of live cattle and the inspection of dead meat has proved itself no protection to the spread of contagions diseases, much less to the contamination of quality due to the presence of putrid matter in a railway van and dead-meat market. Such then being the rotten state of the present trade in fat cattle and dead meat, we naturally come to the question as to the remedy which producers and consumers are in duty liound to provide in order to protect their respective interests; and that remedy is obviously the new butcher-trade proposition of getting the primest quality of meat directly from the producer, thereby avoiding the putrid pre- cincts of the old concentration public dead-meat market. In other words, if the successful farmer produces the primest qua- lity of meat, he should Imve a trade guarantee of the best price before he parts with it; and this quality the farmer should gua- rantee by slaughtering ; and the system of commerce should further guarantee to the butcher the delivery of the meat in his shop undeteriorated in quality and value. And these three trade conditions the new system now lieing organized realises to the farmer and butcher. Much might be said in confirmation of the soundness of this conclusion ; but to practical readers this is unnecessary, and therefore we pass onto the consumer's view of the subject, the preceding being the producer's. The interest of the inhabitants of tlie metropolis is obvi- ously identical with that of farmers as above, /. e., to get a regular supply of the primest sorts of meat undeteriorated in quality by the putrefactive processes inseparably connected with the present system of public markets ; and the duty of the Corporation of London is to make every commercial pro- vision in its power to forward the practical realization of this important object. How does this tally with its present line of policy in the investment of extravagant sums of public money in the erection of public markets adapted to the practice of times long gone by ? We can readily estimate the force of the practical arguments which may be advanced in reply to this, viz., " The trade as it at present exists must have a new dead-meat market, as proposed liy tlie Cor- poration." Granted ; but does the duty of the Corporation end here ? Unquestionably not. On the contrary, their duty as public servants is to commence the great work of diverting the present trade of the public dead-meat market into the channel of the new private system almost as soon as the foundatiou of the new dead-meat market has been laid, if not before this important masonic ceremony has taken place. Like the whale in the tub, the Corporation may lash iuto foam the water in which it swims ; Imt who, in modern times, cares for demonstrations of such an imposing character ? No doubt it may yet fill the eyes of many a modern blue-frock to over- flowing ; but the prospects and progress of the new butclier- trade, although only as yet of an experimental character, are fast acquiring an impetus which will eventually carry all such ofl'al to its natural embouchm-c ; for so long as the interest and duty of producers and consumers are mutually one and the same, trade in dead meat will rectify and take care of itself, as trade in all other branches of commerce invariably does. In point of fact, however anomalous, aud even suicidal, may be the conduct of the Corporation of London, and tliat of the great bulk of the butcher-trade, in upholding antiquated practices, the metropolitan trade in dead meat is nevertheless slowly rectifying itself, in a manner tliat already defies opposi- tion. It wiU no doubt be said that " a few private individuals getting their meat from the provinces, and even from Paris, during the late high prices, as reported in tlie Times news- paper, with the ultimate view of starting a ' Limited Liabihty Butcher Trade,' and the private continuation of the experiment, with the object of testing thoroughly, over a given period of time, the practicability of getting a daily supply of slaughtered meat direct from the country, cannot as yet be considered an established trade" ; luit the objection falls to the ground, from the fact that an unlimited amount of trade could be commanded in the capital ; so that under existing adverse circumstances, the highest degree of caution and prudence is necessary in the organization of a new system of commerce, involving so many important trade considerations as the one in question manifestly does. But such facts, instead of forming an objection, only increase the commercial responsibilities of the Corporation of London, and of those at present engaged in the metropolitan butcher-trade. Engineer. THE AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENT TRADE IN CANADA. — The very high duties levied upon English agri- cultural machinery by the Canadian Government has almost entirely prevented its export to this important colony. The duties under the commercial treaty with the United States were so much lower that the Americans had a monopoly of the market. The leading makers of EngUsh agricultural machinery have recently memorialised the Colonial Office upon the subject of lower duties, setting forth the hardship of being practically shut out from one of our largest colonies, and the loss sustained by the colonists in being debarred the use of our improved implements. ]Mr. Cardwell has transmitted the memorial to the Governor of Canada for the consideration of the provincial government. English agricultural machinery is also by the high scale of duties imposed shut out of the United States, whilst England receives American reaping and other agricultural machinery duty free. It is understood that Mr. James Howard, the senior partner of the firm of J. and I'\ Howard of Bedford, who is about to visit America, will make some inquiries during his sojourn, and put directly to the American Government the concessions which should be granted. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Ill ME KEW BUTCHER-TRADE, AND ITS ADVANTAGES. Of tlie many advantages which farmers and the inhabitants of large towns will derive by butchers getting their daily snpplies of meat newly-slaughtered and fresli as they require it directly from tlie provinces, as is now beginning to be done in the capital, the following three may be considered the principal, viz.: — 1. The superior quality of the meat ; 2, the economy of time, lal)our, and capital invested ; and, .3, the sanitary im- provement consequent on getting rid of the offal of town- slaughtered animals and the concentration of large quantities of dead meat of an inferior quality in large central markets — meat, much of which is always undergoing decomposition, and hence giving olf gases of a highiy deleterious character. The value of such advantages to farmers and butchers, the two parties more immediately engaged in the trade, will be best understood by contrasting the new system with the old, the one yet generally in operation. In doing so there will, no doubt, be found many sensible practical men in both profes- sions, farmers as well as butchers, who will experience some difficulty in the outset in making fair comparisons, owing to their minds being naturally biassed ifi favour of the latter, the practice they now pursue ; but sUch men must nevertheless always bear in mind that their own experience and peculiar views of the subject will not in the slightest degree interfere with those farmers and butchers who are successfully and ad- vantageously pursuing the new direct practice, as it may technically be termed. On tlie contrary, their fears and pre- judices, coupled with the working of the new system, wiU have tlie very opposite efl'ect ; for the longer they delay in adopting the improved practice of getting newly-slaughtered meat of the best quality fresh from the pure air of the country daily, the better it will be for those who have already adopted it, as this delay will enable the latter to extend their sphere of busi- ness. It wiU not require much practical reasoning to show how forcibly this applies to the case of the farmer as it does to that of the butcher, even under existing circumstances, which must be considered as forming part of the details of the old system — details not well adapted for the new one — while it will be still more easy to prove that the improvements in stock management and in the railway and steamboat convey- ance of dead meat now in rapid progress will he greatly more in favour of the direct practice thaii the old indirect round- about system. In other words, the details of the new practice are not in a sufficiently matured state as yet to enable a large number of farmers and butchers to put a practical estimate upon its merits in comparison with tlie merits of the practice tliey now pursue ; for although they m.ay have a long and suc- cessful experience of the latter, they have none of the former, strictly speaking, and therefore their more prudent course is to exercise a higher degree of caution and discrimination than too mauy of them now appear disposed to do ; otherwise they may allow the world to go past them in the race of improve- ment so far as to render it impossible in the vast majority of examples for either farmers or butchers to regain the ground which they may thus lose, or perhaps wliat they are now losing. There is at present a keen rivalry in all branches of in- dustry, competition, in many instances, being carried to a liap- hazardons degree of speculation. This perhaps applies with greater force to the various occupations carried on in towns than to farming. This may be granted ; but it does not fol- low that there is therefore no competition in farming, for, of late years, the very reverse of this has been experienced. True enough, if a farmer, Mr. A, occupies live hundred acres of land, his more successful rival and neighbour, I\Ir. B, ad- joining, does not take his broad acres from him, although by new systems of cultivation and manuring, and of managing cattle, he may double the marketable produce of his own farm. If, for the sake of brevity and perspicuity, we conline our subsequent observations to the two occupations at issue, viz., farming and butchering, farmers will be found to have some little advantage in this respect over butchers ; for Mr. A, by adoi}ting Mr. ffs practice, which he is alwftys at liberty to do if he lias the wiU, means, and professional ability, may lik c- wise double the produce of his farm. Whereas, if one butche r, Mr. C, allows his neighbour, Mr. D, to double his business, the cbances are ten to one that he loses some of his best customers, or perhaps the big half of his trade. Now, in this case, although Mr. C, when he tinds himself getting fast in the background, may adopt the new system of his rival, Mr. 1), he will nevertheless experience some difficulty in regaining his former customers or new ones for them. But allliougb Mr. A has thus a slight advantage over Mr. C in the adoption of improvements, so as to regain lost ground, by being able to retain his broad acres of land, yet if he does not so adopt Mr. B's improvements, or some equivalent improved practice, he is as certain eventually to " die out " as is Mr. C, who loses the half of his trade. The end of such a farmer may even be worse than that of the parallel case of tlie butcher, more especially in reference to the future. At all events, the more prudent and advisable course for both farmers and Initchers to foUow at present is to keep pace with the times in the de- tails of their respective occupations. Of the superior quality of country-slaughtered meat, in comparison with town-slaughtered meat, consumers will soon settle that question to their own satisfaction. Practically speaking, farmers and butchers who think otherwise would do well to keep tlieir opinions to themselves, for there cannot eventually be two opinions on the subject ; and that the opinion of the public will carry the day, is a proposition too self-evident to admit of a formal proof. Their duty and in- terest is, to produce and supply the public with a vastly su- perior article to what they now do. Of this there cannot be a doubt ; for the day is too far gone for the public to be told by them and a host of intermediate jobbers, including cattle- market bankers, sdesmen, and owners of cattle-markets and dead-meat markets, with their officials, that tlie present system of marketing improves the quality of their beef and inutton. Far liehind as the great body of consumers yet may bc in cliemistry and physiology, in comparing the advances whicli they have recently made in these sciences witli the untrod ground that lies before them, they have nevertheless attained to a degree of practical knowledge sufficient to establisji the contrary doctrine — that the present system of marketing greatly depreciates the quality of meat, reducing at the same time tlie quantity sent to market for consumption ; while tliey are equally satisfied, from recent experiments made, that a better article, and more of it, can be grown from the produce of the land, the common food of cattle. Such are, in the esti- mation of the consuming public, established data in the above two branches of science, chemistry and physiology ; aud there- fore the conduct of farmers and Initchers who advocate the contrary doctrine must eventually prove suicidal to themselves in a business sense, however different may be tlieir opinion- ative conclusions in the meantime. There is no rule in trade that is based upon a more per- inanent foundation tlian that people in all branches of com- merce must attend with fidelity to the wants of their custo- mers, otherwise the latter will give their orders to those wlio do so. And this is not all, for the orders of customers must not only be attended to witli punctuality, but with a degree of willingness and good faith, as much as to say tliat buyer and seller are of one mind on all points in the transactioil. And this is perhaps more particularly the ease with tile quality of the daily necessaries of life ; for if a consumer cannot get at one shop what suits him, he will straightway go to another where the desired (juality is to be had, and there continue his orders for tlie future. Such details in trade are so common- place and self-evident in character, that it is almost superflu(nis to do more tlian allude to them. In a country village, where there may be but one butcher, he may get rid of seeohd-rate meat to a first-rate customer for a time; but the latter will not be played upon in this manner a second time, aiid seldom for once without an apology. But in large towns like the metro- m THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. polls it would be professionally suicidal ou the part of any respectable butcher sending to a regular customer an article contrary to order ; for such an article would unhesitatingly be returned, and the order instanter given to another butcher. And this is ecjually true whether tlie butcher has what is termed a family trade or seUs over tlie counter to " comers and goers" for ready money, for in the latter case buyers only freq^uent those shops where they find the quality to suit. It follows therefore, in applying the above commercial data to the question under consideration, that if a customer or a family orders country-slaughtered meat on the new plan, the butcher must either supply the order or lose trade. A family may show some degree of unwillingness to leave a respectable butcher by wliom they have long Ijeen faitlifully served, and therefore they may continue to give him part of their custom for a time, in the hopes he will take to the new system ; Imt, if he does not, their orders for country-slaughtered meat on the new plan will increase, while those for town-slaughtered will decrease, so that the old butcher will be eventually hitched over the tail as the new butcher gets into the saddle. The practical conclusion is thus self-evident. Producers or farmers will thus perceive liow the orders of consumers for country-slaughtered meat on the new plan will affect them, and the trade in beef and mutton generally. And to beef and mutton we may add pork, milk, butter, cheese, eggs, poultry, rablnts, and game, wliere they are to be had, as im- provements in the marketing economy of all these products of the land are now being rapidly matured for general practice. But at present we shall confine our observations to the former t^o — beef and mutton — and to the metropolis as tlie place of consumption. Thus, as the inhabitants of the capital increase their orders for country-slaughtered beef and mutton directly up from the provinces by through trains, butchers, or rather their agents and partners in the provinces, will increase their purchases of fat stock or dead meat at their farms or pastures, as the case may be. In point of fact, the new plan is already in successful operation, with a rapidly increasing demand on the provinces ; but as yet the mode of slaughtering fat stock and of conveying carcasses to the metropolis is very imperfect, being on the old plan, so that until the whole project is fully matured by tliose at its head, it would be unfair to criticise many of its details, as they belong to the old system, and hence are as it were, illegitimate memljers, wiiicli wiU very soon, we hope, be got rid off. Suffice it to say, at present, that tlie thin edge of the commercial wedge is fairly entered, and the reader may depend upon it that the chops and steaks are so palatable that the steam-hammer of the consumer will be kept going effectively until the old system, with all its indescribable etceteras, is fairly overthrown^ and the new one permanently established. The effect which the new system is exercising and will exer- cise upon the trade generally merits a special notice, as all the primest quality of beef and mutton is being picked up by the country purchasers of town butchers — a practice which will in the course of a little time greatly depreciate the quality of meat sold under the old system. As yet the etfect produced in this respect is so limited in extent, as hardly to be felt by old-trade butchers and their customers ; but when once the new system has been extended over the whole of the home provinces, and over most of the Continental states, it will be otherwise, for then the whole of the primest qualities being drafted out for the new trade, the remainder left for the old trade will be of so depreciated a character that we shall not attempt to describe its true condition ; for, if old-school pro- ducers and consumers have reason to grumble at present — the former at the low prices, and tlie latter at the still lower standard of quality— as they doubtless both have, they will unquestionably have each ten-fold reason to grumble when the public live and dead meat markets are minus the primest qualities now exhibited for sale. On this there cannot be two questions raised. And here we may remind the superficial observer of the progress of fact in trade, that the fattest, sleekest, and best-looking animals, popularly speaking, do not always yield the primest quality of meat. The public palate, which is evidently at the head of this new movement, does not care a fig for sleek, syrametrieal appearances, wliich are generally produced by an excess of fat and gelatinous tissue ; for rich lean meat is what the pubhc prefers, and what it is determined to liave, cost what it may. Our present limits prevent us from going into the details of this peculiar head of our subject. All we can further add is that the turn in the trade in the above respect relative to quality of meat is likely to give a death-blow to the forcing, early-maturity, obese system now so fashionable in the eyes of perhaps the majority of producers ; while it will increase the value of some of our best old breeds, such as the Scotch-polled and Highland cattle. We now come to the second head of our subject, which has reference to the greater economy of time, labour, and capital under the new system than under the old. Generally speak- ing, something approximating to half the time and labour now spent wiU be saved in the commercial department of the work. There will also be a great saving of capital invested in in- dividual slaughter-liouses, as ground-rents and workmanship are cheaper in the country than in town ; but upon the whole, in this, as in most other improvements, more capital will be required in the mechanical department of the project ; but the money, nevertlieless, will be more profitably invested under the new system than it is now invested under the old. It is hardly worth while going into details to account for this, as the immense saving in the quantity and quality of meat will do much more than cover the extra capital invested in im- proved slauglitering-liouses, common-road and railway carcase- vans, together with the proper ventilation, disinfecting, and cooling of steamboats for the sea-and-river conveyance of dead meat. These are all questions of easy practical solution to engineers versant with the ilifferent mechanical branches of the subject. Our last topic for consideration embraces the sanitary ad- vantages whicli towns will derive from the new system of trade in dead meat, owing to the absence of offal, the removal of the unhealthy trades to which offal at present gives rise, and the virtual prohibition of unsound meat and the concentration of putrid gases in central markets, &c. No doubt such a desideratum is a work of some considerable time, for so long as obesity and its opposite prevail in the provinces to the extent they now do, the inferior meat thus produced must be got rid of, at some price, amongst the lowest of the low in large towns ; but in tlie more wealthy and fashionable parts of towns the sanitary effect produced by the new system will be immediately felt, as nothing but the finest quality of meat will be bought in them — meat blooming fresh from the provinces daily. Tiiis is so manifest as to render detail unnecessary ; and besides the liorrible amount of putrid filth thus got rid of immediately in the more aristocratic parts of the metropolis and of our other large towns, the ground now occupied by slaughter-houses and yards would bring in an immense revenue annually wlien built upon, as it would shortly be, so that the present prodigal and pestilential system will ultimately be converted into its opposite — one big with blessings, including an increase of trade to farmers and butchers. Such are the chief advantages wliich the metropolis and our other large towns would derive by butchers getting their daily supplies of meat fresh in from the country directly from the farmer, instead of from cattle markets and dead-meat markets, as at present. It has been popularly termed " send- ing the butcher to the ox," instead of " sending the ox to the butcher," according to the present practice. But this popular idea is faulty ; for, in principle, the butcher under the new practice remains in the country with the ox. The true idea, therefore, of the new system is a subdivision of labour on sci- entific principles. Instead of attending the cattle market and dead-meat market as at present, butchers, for example, employ agents or travellers in tlie provinces, who forward orders directly, as in other well-organized branches of commerce of a similar character — such as corn, wool, flax, &c. The foun- dation, therefore, of this new practice rests on sound princi- ples, which cannot be overthrown, and this fact commends it to the timely consideration of all parties interested. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.— The value of the agricultural implements exported from the United Kingdom, in 1865, was £209,871). In 1864, the corresponding total was £180,029; in 1863, £186,360; in 1862, £195,039; in 1861, £247,667; in 1860, £254,481^ in 1859, £193,661; in 1858, £190,261 ; in 1857, £190,868 ; in 1856, £154,993; in 1855, £112,301; in 1854, £116,338; in 1853, £77,379; in 1852, £59,341 ; and in 1851, £68,655. TH15 FARMER'S jMAaA;2INi:, 11:^ PROGRESS OF THE REPEAL OP THE MALT-TAX AGITATION. The malt-tax question may now be said to have assumed a new phase. When the Central Anti-Malt-tax Association first entered upon its arduous task some three or four years ago, the repealers were met with the assertion that it was ridiculous to expect the abolition of the malt-tax, as that tax was so prolific in its results to the revenue that no Minister would ever con- sent to give it up, and that, indeed, he could not afford to lose it. In fact, the suggestion of the repeal of the duty upon malt was openly met by a declaration in certain quarters that the only alternative in such a case was to impose a large addition to the income-tax. Those wlio were amongst the repealers some ten or more years ago, can well remember that the move- ment at that time was deliberately discouraged and put down by some of the leaders of the country party upon that very ground. From that time an impression has very currently pre- vailed that the repeal of the malt-tax must be compensated by an increased income-tax, aud this will account in a great measure for the backwardness of tlie so-called " Farmers' friends," in responding to the appeal made to them to join the Anti-Malt-tax Agitation, liut the repealers were determined not to accept tiiis view of the case, and having themselves no belief in the necessity of any such arrangement, they set to work to advocate the abolition of the malt-tax upon its own merits. Tliey resolved to commence their crusade by a direct attack — to show the severe pressure aud injustice of the impost — to expose its mischievous operation in unduly and artificially enhancing the cost of the national beverage — its interference witli the course and the processes of agriculture — and its flagrant violation of one great maxim of political economy, in the imposition of a heavy duty upon a raw material of manu- facture at the point of production instead of at, or near, tlie point of consumption. Their task was in oue sense by no means an easy one. No Finance Minister is disposed to lessen his grasp of a tax producing an annual five or six millions sterling to the revenue. The plea that the money could not be spared was always ready to hand, and was implicitly credited by the public ; while the fact that the masses scarcely knew that the tax on malt had anything to do with the price of beer, rendered them utterly indifferent to the agitation. County Members shrugged their shoulders and looked incre- dulous when their constituents spoke of the injustice and in- jury to agriculture inflicted by the tax, and landowners sought to stave off the question by the assurance that tlie farmers would reap no benefit from its al)oliton, that heavier rents for barley land would be the consequence, that foreign malt would swamp their best markets, and that the tax, which was practi- cally on beer, was the only engine by whicli the working town populations — the masses — could be made to contribute their share to the general taxation. The malt-tax, they declared, supplied the only means of getting at the working-man's pocket. Tliese were the arguments used by the opponents of malt-tax repeal. Let those who have watched the course of events in reference to the malt-tax agitation say wliether or no tliis is not a literally and strictly true description of affairs. Well, the repealers did not permit themselves to be dis- couraged. They appealed to the country, they appealed to the Minister, they appealed to the Parliament. They laid bare the oppression of the tax, and declined to admit the plea that a great injustice aud a palpable economical blunder should be perpetuated because of the enormous amount thereby accruing to the revenue. They refused to believe that the tax could only be abolislied by substituting an augmented income-tax, and they firmly and resolutely demanded that the principles and policy adopted during recent years in setting free the springs of manufacturing and commercial industry — principles applied with such pre-eminent and astonishing success — should be ex- tended in the case of a most important agricultural product. Their perseverance was in one sense rewarded. The Chancellor of the Exchequer gave a practical admission of the unjust and unwise operation of the tax in limiting the use of malt for the food of cattle, and drove the first nail in the coffin of the malt- tax by passing his well-known, futile, and much-ridiculed measure, the Malt Cattle-feeding Bill. The Central Association accepted this homojopathic instalment of justice as a direct confession of the truth of the indictment against the malt-tax. They continued to besiege tlie Chancellor of the Excliequer in Uowning-street — to open the eyes of the people by public gatherings, by the establishment of district associa- tions throughout the country, by pouring petitions into the House of Commons, and by following up that course by forcing on a discussion of the mah- tax question in Parliament. Mr. Gladstone had, as already stated, made one practical admission of the evils of the tax, aud he last session took a further step in the same direction liy producing his Malt-by-Weight Bill. But, nevertheless, not satisfied with the usual plea that the money could not be spared for the repeal of the tax, and with a direct refusal to grant the claim advanced, he was at the pains to go out of his way to defend the impost. Tlie repealers, still confident as ever in the justice of their cause, returned to the attack this year, aud although they were again met by the old excuse — the want of money, Mr. Gladstone nevertheless showed that the representations so persistently made to him had not been without their effect. The right honourable gentleman ad- vanced to a fresh, a further, and very important admission, lie admitted the principle so frequently laid down in these columns — viz., that it was a fundamental error to impose taxes at the point of production instead of at the point of consumption. Thus he said : " I admit tliat as an abstract argument it would be better to tax beer, as being a manu- factured article, than malt, a raw material." Further, Mr. Gladstone not only did not go out of his way to defend the malt-tax (as he did in 1865) ; on tlie contrary he exhibited a very different disposition, and closed his remarks to the depu- tation with these significant words ; " "VYith regard to the question itself, I hold no opinion that is not subject to cor- rection, and I am most willing that by free discussion any error in my opinions on the subject should be removed. It will be our duty, as a Government, to give the utmost con- sideration to a question of so much importance." We stop at this point, in order, as it were, to take stock of the advance made in the consideration of the repeal of the malt-tax since the labours of the Central Association com- menced ; and we hold that its members are fully entitled to congratulate themselves most heartily upon the progress achieved. It is no slight matter to have brought such a man as the present Chancellor " to book " on three different occasions and on three different points in reference to a source of revenue of such magnitude and importance as the malt-tax. When such a man admits openly and unreservedly that an impost is levied in direct and palpable violation of one of the soundest principles of taxation — when he admits that it is laid on at the wrong time, the wrong point, aud on the wrong commodity, it is impossible to doubt that the day must be fast approaching when the conviction thus forced upon his mind will exhiliit itself in a substantial measure of practical relief. We say, then, that the malt-tax repealers have no sort of reason for discouragement. On the contrary, we believe that the haven, though not yet reached, is already in sight, and that they have only to persevere in the one straight course, and to return again and again with redoubled vigour to the charge to accomplish their object. On the subject of a beer duty we have commented at length in another article in these columns, and we need not therefore enlarge upon that ques- tion here. Our aim now is to impress upon the malt-tax re- pealers throughout tlie kingdom that their labours have al- ready borne good fruit, and that they have substantial ground for looking forward with sanguine hope to the future. It is impossible that any impost can continue long to survive the damaging admissions wliich its defenders have been compelled to make in regard to it. When those admissions were once registered, it was obvious that " Humpty Dumpty," as per- sonated by the malt-tax, had "got a great fall," and that neitlier Mr. Gladstone, nor a score of Mr. Gladstones — in a word, not " all the Queen's horses nor all the Queen's men " would ever be able permanently to " set Humpty Dumpty up again." Whether he will recover so far as to be mounted astride on the beer barrel is another matter, but as regards the malt-liouse we trust his hours are numbered. — The Anti-Malt' tax Circular for June. 114 THE FARMEE'S MAaAZlNE. THE GROWTH OF HOPS. At a meeting of the Maidstone Farmers' Club, lately held, the president of tlie Cluh, 5Ir. G. C. Wliittaker in the cliair, jMr. Troutbeck read liis paper on " The Hop." He said : la introducing the subject to your notice I shall merely give you an outline of what has come under my own observa- tion during the nine years' experience spent amongst you, and if I can by so doing provoke a discussion, we may naturally conclude and expect some ^risdom may issue from such a mul- titude of counsellors, and that by rubbing our ideas together we may be able to arrive at a satisfactory solution of the pro- Idem. The district to which this discussion more immediately refers, being intersected by the South-Eastern Kailway and the river Medway, is one of great interest. The dryness and earli- ness of its climate, the richness of its soil, and the heavy crops which, in favourable seasons and with skilful management, are obtained, render it replete with interest to the lover of agricul- tural progress, for it abounds with instances of successful and remunerative farm management ; and, in coming to the subject chosen for discussion — the hop — several important points may be noticed and dwelt upon, which I trust will meet the con- sideration of some of the most extensive and successful culti- vators among the members of our Club. Permit me to put for your consideration the following questions : — 1. What are the characters of a good hop soil ? 2. What are the physical characters of good and bad hop soils, more especially with reference to texture, depth, and drainage? 3. Wlaat is the character of the subsoU, and how near does it come to the sur- face ? 4. Do all good hop soils contain much lime or not ? 5. Are good hop soils noted for a larger proportion of phos- phoric acid than is usually found in other soils ? 6. What is the composition of good hop soils ? 7- AVhat is the composi- tion of bad hop soils ? 8. Is there a want of lime in them ? Are they deficient in phosphoric acid or alkalies ? 9, What is the composition of the subsoil of good and bad hop land ? 10. Wiiat are the most important parts to be attended to iu manuring and cultivation P These are a few })oints which I believe to be important. I will only dwell shortly upon a few of them, feeling there are members of our Cluh who can throw more light upon them than my short experience will permit me to do, and I will not occupy your time. In looking at the analysis of the hop we may safely conclude it is one of our most exhausting cultivated plants, both in respect to the organic and mineral constituents which it extracts from the soil, and from the high farming required even in our best hop soils, it is proved to be ; and when agricultural chemistry has informed us from analysis of the mineral ingredients of the hop, given in the Journal of fhc llorjal A'jrtniliiiral Society, we are forcibly struck with the largeness of phosphoric acid and potash which is received from the soil, as well as nitrogen, we naturally conclude the most fertile soils should be chosen for its cultivation. Looking at the different districts of country, and the relation between the soil and rock it rests upon, which is shown by geology, we find they are almost ex- clusively confined to the strata existing between the chalk and oolite series. Of these series we have first chalk marl, green sand, weald clay, and iron sand. The chalk marl affords rich arable land, the marls have been used as dressings to land, and with great success. The reason of this may perhaps be found not only in the thin seams of coprolitic masses, but from its containing phosphate of lime diffused through its mass. The analysis of various specimens have demonstrated the presence of one to five per cent, of phosphoric acid, whilst the coprolite contain equal to about 45 per cent, of bone phosphate. Green Sand. — This formation is one of the most important, and cer- tainly one of the most valuable to the hop grower, between the oolite and chalk, both from its mass and number of its organic remains. It is this formation on which our best hop ground? rest, and in this district we have it in alternating beds with nodules of limestone over Kentish rag-, and also incliumg to clay, especially towards its base, where it passes into the Wealden group. The soils upon tliis formation are generally above the average quality. The general fertility is mainly due to the richness of organic remains. Tliey vary a good deal in refei'enee to texture, depth, and drainage — sometimes rich friable loams, sometimes exceedingly stiff calcareous loams on a clay bottom, difficult to work ; but when well drained and well cultivated, this soil ranks amongst the finest in this or any other country. 1 have before me a sample of a good hop soil, vith the analysis which has been lent me byDr. Voelcker. This soil is taken from a hop garden near Famham, a district where the quality of the hop is well known. I have much pleasure in giving this statement, coupling with it the high authority of Dr. Voelcker, who gave the analysis of the soil. We find it contains — Moisture Organic matter and water of combination Phosphoric acid... Oxide of iron and alumina Carbonate of lime and a little silicate of lime. Lime Magnesium Sand .. 5.43 .. 3.57 .. 7.37 ..15.84 ,..15.89 .. 5.17 ... 0.57 ..46.1(i 100. These particulars give us the information that a good hop soil, as well as being rich in phosphoric acid and potash, must also contain a fair proportion of lime. I believe it is the richness of our soils in these three ingredients which constitute their fitness for the successful growth of hops ; and in looking through the hop grounds of this district, we may see how plainly analytical chemistry harmonises with the judgment of those who have gone before us in the correct selection of the land ; and although the information on tlie composition of the soil of different parishes immediately around us is very much confined, I have no doubt the high character of some of our hop grounds could, by an analysis of the soU and subsoil, be traced to be mainly due to the remarkable richness in phos- phoric acid, potash, and lime, combining a favourable aspect, sheltered from the north, north-east, and south-west winds, and good natural drainage, whilst our inferior hop lauds wilt be found deficient, especially in phosphoric acid. On the Wealden Cl(i;i, which is exhibited in our district on the largest scale in the Weald of Kent, the land is generaUy tenacious, resting upon beds of various qualities, from a dark tenacious clay to a grey calcareous marl of a friable texture. I have not got anything more than an approximate analysis of clay soils, which show a large proportion of alumina and potash ; and from the analysis I made some ten years ago of clay soils of Berkshire, Oxfordshire, and Gloucestershire, they are very de- ficient in phosphates or phosphoric acids. One of the most important features in heavy soils, rich in alumina or ferru- ginous compounds, is their power to absolve ammonia from the air. They are know to have a peculiar attraction for am- monia, and they have the power of separating it from solution in water. On our heavy soils clay has been shown to be the active substance in retaining manure ; and our light soils that are sandy and gravelly not possessing sufficient clay, these are expected to be less retentive of manure. Soils of this descrip- tion are said not to hold manure ; on such soils it must be applied more frequently, and in smaller quantities than stiff soils, where, owing to the retentive power of clay, the manure of several crops may be safely deposited. 1 believe the most important feature, and actually required in our heavy soils, where natural drainage is defective, is ctHcieiit drainage of the land. We have many interesting confirmations of the advan- tages from facts that may be gathered from the best-managed farms in the AVeald of Kent. In the undrained land we find the manure is carried off the surface into the water-courses ; and when the land is drained the manure is preserved. It is dissolved by rain in the upper strata, and becomes more per- fectly distributed and brought into contact with the active soils below, and on these farms hops are cultivated with success. On our rich deep loams in the AVeald of Kent, where I have observed hops are found cultivated with success, much benefit has been derived from thorough drainage, and by abundant THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 115 Stirling' of tin: soil, tlio absorbing jiuwcrs of which are greatly Hugmcuted by fontimiKl exiiosure to atmospheric iutluenccs. The last of these beds is Iroii' Sitiid, which ubouuds iu the neighbourhood of Hastings, which is out of our district. I only know the soil is not celebrated for fertility. Looking, therefore, at the exhausting naluro of the liop plant, the com- position of the soil where it is produced iu the tinest qualities, and the position of the best ground about us, we may conclude a rich deep friable loam in this district, resting upon the upper chalk, and upon the out-cropping of the green sand, and the deep alluvial loams in our valleys, possessing a natural drain- age, and yet retaining a high degree of tenacity for water, are the characters of the soil favourable for its production. It is highly necessary the soil should be rich in organic remains, and that the analytical constituents should resemble the hop itself. Coming to the cultivation of the hop, I do not wish to dogmatise as to the best M'ay of treating or managing hop grounds in any particular form ; that must be left to the owner, who must judge for himself, though principles or facts may be noticed or dwelt upon by more experienced members of our Club, both in regard to cultivation and application of manure. Whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well, and I believe the lirst cost is generally the least, and in pre- paring land for growing hops my own experience lias taught me that after selecting the laud upon any of our farms the lirst and most important consideration is the drainage. My own observation on different farms has plainly shown that when land has not good natural drainage, it should be thoroughly drained ; the deptii of the drains and distance apart will be somewhat varied according to the soil and subsoil. On the majority of our lands I am not in favour of a less depth than four feet. On our heavy soils in the Weald of Kent, where they are stiff, adhesive, with power to retain moisture, the class which I have before observed have a great ailinity for ammonia and property, of retaining manure, we find them in- clined to be cold, and sometimes expensive and diiticult to pre- pare and cultivate, but, when properly cultivated, form some of our most fertile hop gardens in producing quantity. The faults are more confined to the mechanical structure than the want of the necessary ingredients required. On these soils I would certainly thoroughly trench, and attend as far as prac- ticable to loosening and stirring the subsoil, and if I found drainage required I woidd run the mole plough diametrically in an opposite line to the line of the drains. In this and all other cases in preparing land for hops, I would avoid burying the surface soil ; and as to how far it may be desirable to mix some of the subsoil with it depends upon circumstances. On our heavy lands we frequently find a deficiency of lime and phosphoric acid. In many cases I have seen most satisfactory results from applying a compost made of lime and vegetable mould, the cleansing of ditches and ponds, and fresh-burned lime, and I believe the addition of bone dust or half-inch bones would greatly add to increase the fertility of the soil and quality of the hop. There is little doubt the use of bulky manures are decidedly to be recommended, as well as to correct the mechanical structure of the soil, which is important. It is an important consideration, and one which rests much with landed proprietors, to give every improvement in the system of letting farms and the tenants security for unexhausted im- provements, and it also rests with them to afford every accom- Inodation to facilitate the production of the necessary manure wliich is required in every stage in the growth of the hop plant, both in organic and inorganic materials. It next remains with the tenant to practise such a system of cultivation as will afford him the greatest amount of profit for the capital employed in cultivation, and to assist him in so doing a knowledge of chemistry is absolutely necessary to tiU the soil to advantage. To illustrate this assertion, we may look at the practical results in our districts. We have the hop plant thriving for many years iu some particular spots. Hops have been grown for years in succession, until at last they become worn out. We have most striking examples of this in several farms, when, after the plant had been grubbed, and the land brought into the usual rotation of crops in tillage, it has been restored, and the productive powers for the support of the plant have become repaired. I believe the falling off of the hop plant is mainly due, but not entirely, to the gradual extraction from the soil of a certain quantity of that inorganic matter upon which the plant thrives. Tiie object of manuring is to restore the inor- ganic raattei", and the object of chemical analysis is first to ascertain what substances are delicient iu the soil, and next to supply them. It is also imjiortaut for the hop grower, as well as the agriculturist in general, to be acquainted with the nature of the soil he cultivates as to the presence of any pernicious substance, that its effects may bo counteracted, as well as to the supplying of any substance necessary for the growth of plants wanting in it. In the present state of chemical science I believe no certain system can he devised for improving lands independent of experiment ; but there are few cases in which the labour of analytical researches wiU not be amply repaid by the certainty with which they denote the most practical and best methods of melioration. I presume, gentlemen, there was no one present engaged in the practice of agriculture but will admit the art is an imperfect one ; and, speaking on behalf of scientific men, I can say that the principle upon which they gather knowledge, so far as science is concerned, is only on the threshold. The more they know the more they discover they do not know. Science and practice prosecute their inquiries tn the same manner. They are both founded on experience and upon the observation of facts, but to a certain extent different facts. We look at them from different points of view, and it is in this way that science can be of service to the prac- tical man. In the present state of matters, when science and practice are prosecuting the same object from different points of view, they come in contact occasionally, and differences arise. Then the experienced and practical man is inclined to say science is wrong, and the scientific man is inclined to meet him with the counter-statement. Both statements are incor- rect. Provided the facts are equally well observed, science and practice must be equally right ; and even if they do not agree, the fact of their disagreement would prove that there was some- thing at the bottom of all not yet known to us. A careful analysis of the soils we cultivate, and manure we use, is most valuable iu many ways. It is most apjiarent in many instances. A useless expense in the application of unsuccessful manures would not be incurred if the soil was submitted to an able chemist for inspection and examination. An analysis to be of service must be made with great care and accuracy, as the most important of inorganic substances are found in small C(uanti- ties. A knowledge, too, of the physical properties is of great importance to point out the manner in which various sub- stances operate to promote or retard vegetable life, and also to show the necessity of giving to the soil a proper texture. The physical properties of soils which directly affect their fertility are — capability of retaining atmospheric moisture ; power of containing water ; capability of becoming dry on exposure to the air ; capability of receiving solar influence ; power of re- taining heat, and absorption of oxygen from tlie atmosphere. Before any specific manure can be applied or laid down for the hop plant these properties must be ascertained, and the analyses of the soil — for soils possessing the same chemical elements and the same mineral constituents may be endowed with widely dif- ferent properties in an agricultural point of view, according to the degree of division among their particles, and the looseness and firmness of texture resulting from tlieir several modes of union. Therefore, coming to the subject of manure, which I have to bring under your notice, the first point we have to con- sider is — what is manure ? This is a simple question, and yet one which involves a great many considerations. A manure is something we put to the soil to promote the growth of crops by supplying food to the plant, and the most typical manure — farmyard manure — is a substance which supplies to the crop what it requires. The hop plant (and indeed any plant) is a complex matter made up of a great variety of substances, made up of a portion which disappears iu burning. For example, when we burn hop bine, and find the quantity of ash left behind, we are struck witli the smallness of the quantity, for in every tiiousand parts we have not more than five parts remaining. It is despoiled of its organic matter. We are aware that the atmosphere is the great reservoir for the organic substances existing in old plants, and which they can always draw on to comparatively an unlimited extent. These substances exist iu the air, while the substances which are found in a small quan- tity in the plant exist only in the soil, andean only be drawn from that source. When we turn our attention from the plant to the soil, we find that the substances most essential to the hop plant exist in the smallest proportion in the soil, viz., phosphoric acid, lime, and potash. If we direct our attention to any par- ticular substance, as potash or phosphoric acid, and examine the composition of a fertile soil, we are impressed with the fact that 116 THE FARMER'S ]\rAGAZIXE. wliat the plants R-quireiu a large pioportiou the soil onlycoa- taius to a trilling extent, and the importance is at once forced upon us to supply those things which are deficient. In applying manure, our object is to obtain from the soil a larger quantity of produce than it would yield in a state of nature ; and we are to obtain this larger produce partly by tillage, and partly by the use of suitable manures. Manure operates in supplying matters whicli the plant requires, as well as opening out the stores which exist in the soil, and places them in a condition available to it — — the great reservoir of matters which only slowly becomes available in our fertile soils, the object being to encourage these clianges, so that the plant can assimilate and take possession of them, and this is one of the most in»portant functions of which farmyard manure is capable. Farmyard manure, made from hop bines, &c., is not only a source of food to the plant, but is one of those whicli opens up the storehouse of unavailable food. While it is undergoing decomposition, it is yielding certain sub- stances capable of acting upon the soil, and of transferring from the unavailable to the available category — of putting in that con- dition in which the plant can absorb them — the matters of which it stands in need. I believe well-made and well-numaged farm- yard manure from fattening animals, when the hop-bine is era- ployed in part as litter in this district, to be one of the best and most perfect manures, insomuch as it contains every individual substance which the plant requires; it is directly or indirectly the vegetable matter, restoring to the soil those very substances which have been removed from it ; and hence it is that we may in many cases attribute, but not entirely, the success of many of our hop-growers. But farmyard manure has its defects, and one of them lies in the fact that the matters which it contains are not at once available to the crop. Take, for example, hop-bine — it contains all the constituents which the hop plant requires ; but place it upon the soil as a manure, and we find the substances contained are locked up in a condition in which they are incapable of absorption, and before they can be available they must pass from a complex into a simple state by virtue of decomposition. What we want is not only to supply food to the crop, but to supply it in such a form as can be returned to us as rapidly as possible in the form of a crop ; and in order to obtain such a result we must resort to the use of manures of the proper condition, which, in the case of farm-yard manure, is obtained by decomposition. The sub- stances of the plant are rapidly brought into an available position, and which change is produced most actively when the dung is heaped up, and allowed to get hot, as in a dung-heap ; and nothing accelerates the uniform decomposition more than putrid urine in liquid manure. Hence the advantage of a liquid manure tank in the neighbourhood of the manure pit. It not imfrequently happens decomposition is very much re- tarded by leaving manure in our yards, or spread over a large surface ; indeed, we hear examples when it stops altogether, and then farm-yard manure is as useless and inert as any- thing can well be. There is doubtless a serious loss, and it is a loss which deserves serious attention, in the management of farm-yard manure in the drainage from manure in yards as well as that from manure heaps. It is to be looked upon \vith regret that streamlets of strongly-coloured water should run away from the dung heap ; and the loss would be difficult to estimate. We have mauy striking illustrations in our hop gardens, when manure has been added in large quantity, and has become unavailable from another cause. For example, we conceive a soil which contains enough phosphoric acid to sup- ply one hundred crops, and at the same time only contains enough to supply tlfty crops. At the end of tifty crops the soil becomes absolutely sterile, as if it contained no valuable sub- stance whatever, because the growth of the plant is dependent upon its obtaining all the substances it requires, and the absence of one of these is as fatal as the absence of all of these would be. Experience has shown us that while aU the consti- tuent parts of a plant are equally necessary — must all be pre- .sent in the soil — it has also shown us that certain substances are more likely to become deficient in some soils than others, and that the one above all others likely to become exhausted is ammonia, hence the necessity of continuing to cultivate our hop soils with extraneous substances, and practice has esta- blished the importance of employing certain compounds rich in nitrogen and phosplioric acid. All our manures recently em- ployed are to a greater or less extent supplies of ammonia and phosphoric acid, which form the composition of the two im- portant fundamental classes of artificial manures, viz., phos- pliatic and nitrogenised. As far as my present cxpericuce goes, phosphatie manures tend to promote the quality of the hop, but not (iuantity. Among the manures 1 will briefly enumerate fresh lioiies, bone dust, bones treated with sulphuric acid, phosphatie matter of Saldanha Bay guano and Patagonia guano. Animal matter of all descriptions, rape cake, farm-yard manure, London dung, &c., nitrogenised matter, such as wool, blood, flesh, Peruvian guano, soot, woollen rags, shoddy, putrid animal substances, born shavings, glue refuse, dried blood, &c., arc all very conducive to the growth of the hop plant. In jioor sandy soils or thin porous soils, these preceding matters I believe should not be used alone, but in conjunction with bone dust ; or better still, dissolved bones, or accompanied with a dressing of farm-yard manure. These are the great funda- mental manures which are employed, and regard to the use of these substances, and the mode they are to be applied, are matters \\liich give rise to an immense amount of discussion ; in fact if I were to enlarge upon this at the present moment I fear I should tire your patience. I will conclude by endea- vouring to point out the general question, which arises out of the nature of these manures. The most important considera- tions are dependent upon the condition of the soil. If it is de- ficient in nitrogen, we know at once that ammonia must be applied, but the quantity and the manner in which the manure is to be added is to a great extent dependent upon the nature of the soil. The manure is put into the soil, and, according to its nature, is consumed with greater or less rapidity. On over- light lands, thin porous soils, we know manure lasts for a shorter time than it does in a heavier soil, and the reasons for this are — firstly, in an open soil to which the air has access, decomposition goes on with greater rapidity, and such soils have little power of retaining the decomposed matters. On the other hand, in our heavy soils decomposition is slow, but from the nature of the soil it retains the products of de- composition, lleady-formed ammonia, or ammoniaeal salts, such as sulphate of ammonia, is a substance highly soluble in water, and I believe should not be used for hops ; it is even dangerous to apply too much Peruvian guano, on account of the excess of ready-formed ammonia, of which it contains from 10 to 12 per cent. Experience has shown us that if we pour a solution of sulphate of ammonia upon a heavy soil, such as I have alluded to, it takes possession of the ammonia, retains it, stores it up in the condition in which it is available and useful to the plant. But if, in the place of our heavy soils, we pour the solution on clear sand, we find the water which passes through contains all the ammonia ; and one of the important features in applying manure to the hop plant, or any other crop, is the power of the soil to retain the food the farmer adds, as well as supplying it. We have many examples where ammoniaeal manures, or any substances very soluble and powerful, cause in wet weather a very vigorous growtli, which receives a sudden check in dry weather, and the crop ripens unequally, the colour of the sample is injured, and mould and fungi foUow. All very soluble matters, how- ever good as inauure, must be applied iu a very diluted state, or else they do harm and are apt to produce disease. In eases where the hop-grower is compelled for any reason to use any substance very soluble and powerful, I believe, where practic- able, tiie best mode is to divide it into small quantities and apply it at various times during the season. The application of any particular manure is a question very much of the nature of the soil, and in many cases a mixture of both phosphatie and nitrogenised manures, varying according to the condition of the soU, is to be recommended. In the case of our soils that are inclined to be hght, or lands rich in phos- phate, like the Farnham soil, I would use sparingly of sub- stances rich in ammonia. I would resort to a mixture which, although not containing much ammonia, is capable of leaving it. I would use the following proportions : One-and-a-half ewt. of dried blood, eight cwt. of shoddy, and a half cwt. of Peruvian guano ; or, five cwt. of rape-cake and five cwt. of shoddy ; or, three cwt. of rape-cake and three cwt. of dried blood. On the other hand, on our soils inclined to be heavy, m which decomposition is slow, lands whicli are deficient in phosphate — such as is the case with land in the Weald of Kent — I would use nitrogenised substances sparingly, and resort to phosphate, which I believe should be made soluble, at least in part. Probably one of the following mixtures would answer well, in the proportion of— three cwt. of super- phosphate of lime and two cwt. of dried blood ; or, four cwt. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 117 t)f dissolved hones (real bone-dust), treated wth one-third of sulphuric acid ; or, farm-yard manure and bines and bone-dust ; or, three cwt. of superpliospate and three cwt. of rape-dust. The application of manure is a question, as I have said before, depending very much upon the nature of the soil, and hence we find, if we carry the matter still further, that in case of our light soils, manures, such as bones, which contain only a small quantity of nitrogen and abundance of phosphates, operates ; but my experience has taught me that if we try to cultivate hops on a light soil we do not act wisely in using substances rich in ammonia, such as Permian guano. We find better results obtained from the employment of other substances, such as bones or Bolivian guano, wliicli contain a large quantity of phosphates and a small quantity of ammonia. On tlie other baud, we have examples of hops being cultivated witli success on our lieavy soils by means of Peruvian guano, whereas on light soils the manure is always thrown away. I do not say that the use of Peruvian guano is always the best practice on heavy soils, but that the results got from its appUcatiou to the hop on heavy soils is better than on light soils. All manures which possess their constituents in a readily available form should l)e applied to such crops as take their substances up with greater rapidity. When the crop is actually growing all rapidly-acting manures produce the best eifects when applied in this manner. The application of farm-yard manures is a question u])on whicli a variety of opinions exi.-st in the minds of practical men. For hops.1 am strongly in favour of apply- ing the manure in a rotten state froia our mixens. When it has been allowed to rot carefully, I recommend getting it into the soil and on our heavy soils during autumn, more particularly as by doing so I believe it is the least loss. Mr. P. S. PuNNETT said he rose for the purpose of asking the club to pass a vote of thanks to ilr. Troutbeck for his valuable essay on the cultivation of the hop. Mr. Trout- beck had handled the matter most ably, especially that portion of it relating to the constituents of the different kinds of soil ; and he believed he was most decidedly right on the point when he stated that different kinds of soils require different kinds of manures. Soils varied so much in their mechanical character that the same manures would not have the same effect. The paper was therefore most valuable. To imagine that this dis- trict, which was found to possess a large quantity of phos- phoric manure, was not the best kind of soil for the cultivation of the hop was an absurdity. The subsoil was the same, and if one took the trouble he could see that the hop instead of running down but five or sLx feet into the ground ran twenty and even fifty or sixty feet, showing that the plant had got into a soil which it thoroughly understood and intended to make use of. Mr. Troutbeck's remarks were very admirable, as they illustrated the peculiar qualities of the soils. The Ragstone soils contained naturally what the hop plant would seek for in its growth. It found there its food provided abundantly, and it was in fact there indigenous, with a given state of climate. But if they got into the Weald of Kent, the plant was not indigenous ; it grew there only by means of cultivation. It did not find there the necessary ingredients of the soil in which the plant naturally grew, and to successfully cultivate it the planter had to place it in a position, by means of manure, to that in which it was originally found, and he did this by adding to the clay soils that upon which the plant would grow naturally the best upon. The cultivation and the raising of tiie hop plant upon clay was therefore an artificial and not a natural process. When Mr. Troutbeck talked of drainage being essential, what, he asked, was that ? It was merely making the position of the plant similar in that respect to the one in which it thrived the best ; and after all, it only proved that the Almighty who had created all things had provided that men and women, and beasts and birds, and each part of the vegetable kingdom, should be placed in the position best suited to them ; and that He knew much better than we could ever liope to do the natural position in which the hop should be placed. He (Mr. Punnett) believed that the Almighty never intended hops to be grown down in the Weald of Kent ( Oh, oh) ; therefore he did not provide the requisite soil for them to grow upon. But man, by means of practice and experience, did manage to bring about results which God in His great Providence never intended. Mr. Troutbeck's remarks certainly contained a great deal of information, and they deserved a great deal of attention, for there was much in that paper which was valuable to those who reflected. He had therefore much pleasure in proposing a vote of thanks to Mr. Troutbeck for the able way in which he had brought the subject before them. The resolution was seconded by Mr. Marsuall. Mr. Kkmp said that the paper, which was a most able one, must enforce upon them all the uecessity of a knowledge of cliemistry in order to carry out their operations successfully. With regard to the remark that the Almighty never intended hops to grow in the Weald of Kent, he maintained that this was a mistake, for if it were so, God never would have allowed them to be grown there. If there were any deficiency in any part of the world, either in tlie matters required for man or beast, it was made up in some other way, or man by the exercise of his intellect was allowed to add to the soil the constituents necessary for the cultivation of any special plant. He thought a special vote of thanks should be tendered to Mr. Troutbeck, for they paid the complimeut always to a pro- fessional lecturer ; and when a gentleman of practical experience came forward and expended valuable time to give them in- formation, he thought it ought to be most amply acknowledged. The PuESinr.iVT (Mr. Whittaker) said he did not agree with the remarks of JMr. Punnett as to the growth of hops in the Weald, for it was a fact that where they grew here nine or ten cwt. to the acre, they grew fifteen cwt. do\^'n there. The Vice-President (Mr. HodsoU) said there was one matter which had not l)een referred to by Mr. Troutbeck — the introduction on old hop grounds of the male plant. It was a very peculiar thing, but it was found that upon old planted grounds, grounds which had existed for 150 or 200 years, the produce to some extent failed ; but upon the introduction of the male plant to the extent of one to about 144 of the female, in the course of four or iive years the ground was brought back to its former fertility. Mr. Rutley, who had obtained a prize for an essay upon hop cultivation, had proved this upon his own hokUng. He stated in his essay that he took a farm upon which there was an old Golding ground that was said to be Morn out, and that he introduced the male plant to tlie extent of one to twelve square which was 144. The lirst year the poUen of the male plant was circulated to a certain distance only ; the next year it extended still further, and in three or four years the crop was entirely renewed, and what flas before an insignificant and small crop became in the course of six years as large and as good a crop as had ever been grown before. Having read this essay he (Mr. Ilodson) had been induced to try the experiment, lie held an old Golden ground which had been planted some 200 years, and since 1859 that ground had neither produced in quantity or ([uality what he liad every reason to expect from it ; and he|therefore, last year, introduced 300 male plants into the ground at distances very mucli assimilating to that given in the essay. It remained to be seen what would be the result, but he had very great faith in the introduction. With regard to hop bines, he had never thought it an economical plan to burn them as some did. He had never done so but once, aud he had resolved never to do it again. He had always either dug them in green or carried tiiem into the yard, and after stacking them twelve months had returned theminto the soil as manure. He lielieved with Mr. Troutbeck that they were a most valuable ingredient in making manure, and that in using them they returned to the soil the constituents which the plant itself had extracted. The pRE.siDENT said Mr. Hodsoll had remarked that he sometimes dug the bines in green, and sometimes put them into the yard after a year : which plan seemed to answer the best ? Mr. Hodsoll said he was not able to say this, as it was only last year that he dug them in green ^for the first time. He had experimented on about thirty acres, and the result remained to be proved. Mr. Barling said he wished to say one word upon Mr. HodsoU's remarks. That gentleman had stated that Mr. llutley had experimented on an old liop ground which was said to be worn out, but he did not say how long he had had the ground in his cultivation before the advantageous results were shown. Mr. llutley had concluded tl\at the introduction of the male plant had" produced the alteration, when in all pro bability it arose from bis improved cuhivation. It was very ])ossil)le that he had come to wrong conclusions. It was supposed h\ physiologists tliat the female plant of the hop had matter within itself sutlicient for fecundation without having contact with the male jilaut ; aud it would not be strange if it should prove so, for it was well known that there were 118 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. similar instances in auLmal life. The aphis — the hop planter's plague — was' known to produce young- for ten successive generations without having connection with the male heing. There was one further remark. The lecturer had refel-red to the geological formations, and the great importance of a knowledge of the chemical constituents of the soil and its mechanical condition. In his (Mr. Barhng's) opinion, the latter suhject had not heen dwelt upon euoug'li. The clay was a stiff tenacious soil, while the sand possessed millions of pores. In the latter case oxygen couUl act freidy in assisting and rendering soluhle the manures applied, while in the former soil the same manures might without proper tillage remain inert and useless, owing entirely to tlie close character of the soil, and uot at all to its clieniical composition. In con- sidering tlie mechanical condition of the soil they sought to ohtaiji two things hy tillage — moisture and temperature ; and, therefore, they used the nidget, whicli, while it cut away the weeds, produced the right mechanical condition of the soil. It made tlie groimd mello«', or what they termed " hover." Heat was a matter necessary to hops, and he (Mr. Barling) had for some time had a longing to go a step further. He thought not only should the ground he cidtivated in this manner, hut that some system of tillage should he introduced hy which the oxygen of the air shoidd he ahle to reach, uot only just heneath the surface, hut fairly into the soil. Theohject of such tillage was, that instead of the soil remaining hard arul close, it should he rendered friable, so that the manures— those things for which they had paid money out of their pockets— should, in unison with a clieraical element in the air (the oxygen) he converted into the food of jdants. With regard to the matter of the hop-bine heing put into the ground green, or converted into manure by means of the farmyard, if used green it would have to remain long enough in the ground to become soluble before it could be used by the plant. The valualjle i)art of the bine as manure was evidently tlie leaf ami its footstalk, which, if put into water, even when it was Ijro-wn and ch-y, wovilcl bo found to he a ricli selatinous sub.stance. The study of the geology of this district was peculiarly interesting, the chief strata consisting of chalk, lamuiug from Rochester toward.s Lenham and Charmg on one side, and from Rochester to Wrotham on the other, a bed of gault clay cropping out under the chalk hills, and the ragstone rising from under this clay and occupying the centre of the district, and terminating at the Sutton, Jjinton, Himton, Peckham, and Ightham hills, where the Wealden clays and sands are at their Isase. It is m this ragstone district, rich in phosphoric matter, that the Golding hop is so largely cultivated, and where, takuig the average of seasons, it succeeds the best. Mr. Troutbeck in- ferred that the presence of lime was necessary to the cultiva- tion of hops. But lime has a strong attraction for a substance which we called carbonic acid, and which composed nine parts m twenty of its weight. No doubt there was considera- ble truth in the assertion that phosphoric acid is of great con- sequence to the hop. For in America those who cultivated hops do so on the strata which jaelds phosphoric acid. The presence of this is due to the same cause as that of the copro- lites which the farmer buys in the market— the fossiUsed re- mains of fish, and even their undigested food, which, thou- sands of years before, they had gobbled up in the sea. Mr. HoDsoLL said he wished to make one remark iu reply to Mr. Barling. He had suggested that the imiiro vemeut in Mr. Rutley s hop ground was due to superior cultivation, and that Mr. Rutley had improved upon the bad fanning of a former tenant. That was not the case with him (Mr. HodsoU), for if there was anything ^vl■ong upon his part it was that of over- manurmg. But Mr. Rntley's evidence upon the point was almost conclusive, for he stated that the fu-st year after intro- ducing the male hop plant an area around this plant became productive ; the next year this area became greater, until in three or four years the produce had increased immensely in weight and fiuality. It took aliout three years for the male plant to attain its proper gro^rth and strength so as to be able to unpregnate with its pollen the hops snrrouncUng it. but as soon as it did gam its fuU vigom- the whole ground received benefit— therefore he (Mr. HodsoU) thought the male plant necessary. '■ The Peesiddnt said he rememlicred very well that old Mi- iiilhs— who ^vas a capital grower of hops— always left a certain number of male plants ; he thought it was one to a himcb-ed. Mr. Barling said when a hop had grown a hundred years Jus fai-m conviction was that it had gi-own lone euouo-h The mterior and heart of the root became absolutely rotten and worthless, and the only source of iKjiirislinicnt the plant re- ceived was from the worn out old b:irk Avliich surrounded the crown of the root. He advised them to gi-ul, their old hops ^fi ?f ^'?!^" ^'^ ^■^'^y ''■"^•''- ^ favourable season acted to the PW hop like warmth to an old jiian, and tlieu these gi-oiuids might bear, but should an unfavourable Peason come the old gromids were the most liable to be attacked with blight and Hy. He believed that after a time life would cease from age in the hop, as certain as it would cease in him. The Chaikman inquired how it was then that it had not ceased m the old Vine hills, and in Mr. Buckland's grounds ? Mr. HoDsoLL said, following out Mr. Barling's idea, he had suggested to Mr. Peel the advisability of grubbing up the old gi-ounds. His reply was, " God forbid that I should ever live to see it." (A Member — " He's an old man.") Mr. BABLma said they had only one object in view — the arri-^-ing at the truth as near as they could. He had taken the opinion of many well-known growers, who were of opinion that iu eighteen or twenty years the fruit of the hop was as fine as it woultl be if the plant were a himdi-ed yeaxa old, wthout the risk attentling the old plant. Mr. HoDson said it certainly was a fact that since 1859 he had had no crop worth having from his old ground, and he wanted to know the cause of it. He had applied plenty of manure. Mi-. Peel told him to have patience, and the hops would come round again. The essay by Mr. Rutley, which he had mentioned, was in the club library, and could be had from the secretai-y. Mr. W. H. Maeshall said, as far as his experience went, the old groimds produced a superior hop to the younger ones. Kvery planter who had cultivated them was aware that the tiuality was very superior, but the yield was not great in ((uantity. There were grounds 200 years old, which grew hops of the very best quality possible. He therefore thought they should not condemn the old grounds while this was the case. Mr. BEiDGLAin), jun., said it was a well-known fact, how- ever, that a ground thi-ee years old would produce a much larger quantity of hops than aground 2(X) years old, and if this was the case, did any one believe that the old gi-ound could stand the \'icissitudes of seasons that the yoimg ground could ? With the difference in price, if the new groiuid grew 15 cwt. to the acre, and the old ground but 8, which, he asked, was the most advantageous ? Mr. BiTCKLAND, sen., said the produce of Ms old Bell ground was so well known in the Borough, that a factor told him on his extending his gromid slightly, that he had detected the difference, and that he could put his linger on every hop pro- duced from the old Bell groimd. This proved the difference in the quality between old and new grounds. The Uhaiesian said he should like to ask Mr. Bnckland whether as many hops were grown on the old Vine hills and on his old Bell grounds as on other grounds ? Mr. BucKLAND said cjiiite as many. The Chaiejian said that then was conclusive. One quality was worth £'i per cwt., and the other £6. Mr. Beaed inquired whether Mr. Buckland provided the male hop to make the female more prolific ? Mr. Buckland said he did not. All the male plants he found he gi-iiblied up. Mr. Baeling said he contended that there was a period of life even to the hop, and that they would find in time that it was impoUtic to rely on very old plants. Mr. Hayles said he was of opinion that there was no planter in England who had a hill 200 years old. There was a story, they would remember, of an old woman, and a knife which had had ever so many new blades and ever so many new hantUes. That he believed to be the case with the old Golding gi-ouiids. The owners were constantly fetchmg out the dead hops and putting ni new ones. He questioned whe- ther on Mr. Buckland's famous groimds he had any hops 50 yeaa-s old. Mr. Bl-ckland said he had not renewed since 1833. The Chairman said he wished to ask Mr. Barling one ques- tion ^vith regard to the decay of vegetable life. Some 30 or -W years ago he had some apple-trees which had been grafted with a good kind of apple, and one year they all ceased bear- ing and did not Iiear after. His neighbours told him the roots had got do-svn to a soil that tlid not suit them. However, he had them grafted with another sort, which took well, and the trees recovered their fruitfulness. They were then grafted with another sort— the Goff— and they were now bearing well. What in Mr. Barhng's opinion was the cause of this ? Mr. Baeling said no doubt the trees ceased bearing from the death of the iiai-ent tree. It was a well-known, but a ciu-ious fact, that a seedling apple-ti-ee may furnish gi-afts to other trees, and from these other grafts may be taken, and they may be removed from the pareiit tree humb-eds or thou- sands of miles, but as soon as the parent seedling tree died, the other trees gi-afted from it or its descendant grafts would fail, sho\ving that the principle of Ufe was not in the root, but in the piece of bark and flesh of the tree taken for the purpose of gTatting. There was no doubt there would come a time when even the well-known Goff apple woidd die out, as the old tree was alive somewhere still. Mr. Teoutbeck then briefly ro|ilied to the vote of thanks. He said that he onlj- trusted tliat any deficiencies he had shown would be forgiven, for the.y would remember that Jus THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 119 opportunities for gaining information on the subject during nine years were small comjiarod witli tlie forty years' expe- rience of Mr. Buckland, and the longtliened experience of other nieniljers of the club. Hisobject had Ijeeii to promote tliscussion, and in that he had succeeded, and had iDoen much interested iu >Yhat he had heard. Mr, Kemp then suggested that the discussion should be ad- journed, and that Mr. BarUng should be requested to open it. The Presidunt said this was a question for the committee, but he was sm-e that Mr. Barling, if he could afford inibrma- tiou to the clulj, was always most auxioufi to do su. The proceedings then terminated. SPANISH AGRICULTURE. Recent oflicial details place us in possession of sonic valuable statistics respecting Spanish agriculture, which appears to be prosperous ia most districts, and especially in Andalusia. The direct tax levied on real property, on agricultural produce, and on cattle has doubled there during the last twenty years ; while it has nearly doubled tlu-oughout the whole of Spain, and in the Madrid lists stands as follows : In 1S4G to 1S4S it amounted to .12,500,000, in 1804 to 1S6G to £4,300,000. Passing over the production of wine, the exports of which to Eng- land seem to have been less in 18G5 owing to the exces- sive shipments of the previous year, we may iucideutallj' allude to Spanish grain and cattle. The Spanish Government, a few months ago, proposed to the Cortes to admit all kinds of foreign corn on pay- meat of a moderate duty. Hitherto the inii)ortatiou of corn was prohibited except when the price of wheat should leach £o iOs. per quarter ; and the result has been that tlicre is often a ditfercnce in price between the centi'al corn-growing districts and the northern seaboard of from 30s. to 40s. per quarter. The duties proposed were, wheat lis. 6d. per quarter, maize 10s., barley fis. Gd., rye 6s., oats 28. Gd., and flour 3s. lOd. per cwt. ; but the ])roposition at present meets with considerable opposition. The following extreme range of prices shows how neces- sary it is to admit grain from abroad. The British consul gives the rates, in IVIarch last, at 24s. per quarter for wheat at Sepnlved, in the province of Segovia, Old Castile, and 80s. per quarter at the seaport of Pravia (Asturias) ; showing a difference of 56s. per quarter be- tween the maximum and minimum. Again, in the inland provinces of Burgos, Segovia, Soria and Saragossa, the average price was below 30s. per qr., whilst in those of Alicante, Barcelona, Cadiz, Malaga and Pontuadra, all of which border on the sea, the price exceeds 50s. per quarter. The maxinmm price of barley was 42s. per quarter in the maritime province of Oviedo (Asturias), and the minhnum lis. 9d. per quarter in the inland province of Saragossa, As to the cattle-plague, there being no importation to speak of from other countries of sheep or cattle, it is pro- I)able that Spain will escape. A clever article appeared lately in a Seville paper on the origin of the rinderpest, and its effects. It attributed the original disease in the ilussian Steppes to starvation and poisonous inoculation by flies from the putrid bodies of the dead (starved) cattle — in Germany to the iilthy state in which cattle are kept there, to stall-feeding and over-working, and to per- mitting the cattle to feed on decayed refuse of vegetables — in England to over-care and over-feeding, producing a habit of body which predisposes to infection of every kind, and to the rich food of English pastures reeking with animal manure. These worthy Spaniards may be mistaken in this, and may set too much value on simple unstimulated pasture and food for cattle ; but perhaps they may be right up to a certain point. Were the rinderpest to reach Spain, it would ])robably sweep away the most of the cattle. There would be a great deal of talking ; and local boards, each with its own views, would make strin- gent laws and regulations, many of them judicious ; but the peasants wovdd not obey them, and there would be no system in carrying them out. The system of cattle-rearing in Spain is conducted on two plans — one in which the cattle are left out all the year round, and the other in wliicli they are housed half the year. The large herds of cows in the soulli of Sjjain destined for breeding are kept on the first plan : they nie never sheltered, live continually on the pasture-grounds, and no food is ever provided for them. If there be enough for them to graze on, they live ; if not, they die. To a certain extent this open-air system is followed iu the Castiles, La Manches, Arragon, and Navarre ; whilst in the Asturias, Gallicia, and part of Catalonia, where land and landed property are much divided and subdivided, and where the climate is sometimes very cold, this system would not do at all, and is not practised. Most of the cattle iu Spain are, however, born under the wilder system of perpetual open-air pasturage. The second sys- tem is brought to most perfection iu the provinces of Gallicia and the Asturias, where they are housed, groomed, and even clothed iu winter. Experiments made occa- sionally to cross the Spanish breed of cattle with the Durhani have not hitherto been successful. In September last, when the dread of cattle disease called the attention of the Government to the subject, a careful census of the live stock throughout Spain was made, and the following is a comparative return for two periods ; 1858. 18G5. Horses 268,248 072,550 Mules 415,978 1,001,878 Asses 491,600 1,200,814 Cattle 1,380,861 2,904,598 Sheep 13,794,959 22,054,907 Goats 2,733,906 4,429,576 Pigs 1,018,383 4,264,817 There were also, in 1805, 3,104 camels unenumerated. Whether there was more care shown in taking the last census by the Ministry of Eiuauce we know not, but the increase in seven years is very large — equine, bovine, and oviue, not omitting pigs. The cattle epidemics, which have ranged some time from 1709 till now, have all assumed quite a ditt'erent character, and the large kinds of these animals iu Spain have nevei- been attacked iu its present rinderj)est form. There is comparatively little beef eatsn throughout the country, and more is produced than is consumed. The cxpoi'tation, especially from the north and Gallicia, is considerable. The Galliciau and Asturias cattle find their way to France and to England, but none go thence to Spain. Had but one ox been imported into Spain, and come into contact witli the cattle of the country, there can be little doubt the epi- demic would have spread ; just as happened at Padua, in Italy, in 1711, from a diseased ox, coming from Dal- matia, being introduced into the stalls of Count Borromeo, and others, causing the painful murrain Avhich at that time almost ruined the pastoral wealth of the north of Italy, K J 120 THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE. THE SUFFOLK AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. MEETING AT BURY ST. EDMUNDS. It i3 to the credit of the Committee of this Society to say that tlie conduct of the show has materially improved, for the meeting on Friday, July 6, was far away the best- plauued of any ever yet held ; thus very satisfactorily de- monstrating that neither actual experience nor outside sug- gestion had been tlu-own away upon the executive. There were, indeed, so many good features developed, so much to see in so many ditt'erent ways, that, as it strikes us, almost the only mistake was in not extending the exhibi- tion to over two days, instead of bringing the business to a close after only a few hours' opportunity of inspection. As we left the ground a little before three the people were still pouring in, whereas the horses also left their places at three o'clock precisely, and great no doubt as were the attractions of the machinery, the flowers, the poultry, and so forth, the play was still played out to the half-price visitors with the leading character omitted. There is the more reason for prolonging the proceedings, from the stock being all now under cover in capital roomy stand- ings, and so effectively correcting the confusion we had to complain of last year at Ipswich. To be sure, Thurs- day was a kind of opening day with some steam plough- ing to be seen near the town, and a horticultural display in the old Abbey grounds during the afternoon ; but the multitudes would not come specially upon such con- siderations, whereas, we believe, another day for every- thing would be found to pay famously. So numerically strong at any rate were some of the horse classes, that the judges had not finished their labours until between twelve and one, and the subsequent parade was con- sequently much curtailed, or necessarily hurried over, in order to save time when time was so precious. Although there were many very good animals exhibited in the classes the agricultural horses must be con- sidered on the whole as a falling-off compared with many former years ; and it is evident that however de- sirous the residents in West Suffolk may be to have the show held in their capital, they cannot manage to com- pete successfully with their eastern brethren in the cart- horse department. But four stallions were shown in the tirst class ; and, as events turned out, the owners of three of these must have wished they had been left at home, for, sad to relate, the hitherto victorious Harwich Em- peror could not pass the veteiinary inspector; neither could May Duke and another horse, whose name we could not learn. This left 3Ir. Boby's Conqueror master of the field and the winner of the prize. Mr. Rist, we hear, is much dissatisfied, and intends to move for a new trial at Epping, before another veterinary inspector. Mr. Badham entered, but did not send, his three-year-old colt by Royal George, and there being no other entry the three prizes offered lapse to the Society. The two-year-old colts made a good show as they entered the ring, the eight com- petitors being, however, very soon reduced to four. For a few minutes there appeared to be a doubt on the part of the judges whether ^Ir. Crisp's Conqueror, by his Con- queror— what a pity it is there should not be a register or stud-book for the Suffolk stallions ! or, if the Suffolk men cannot get away from their " Captains," "Britons," " Boxers," and " Conquerors," they should have a dis- tinguishing number, as " Conqueror 1st," " Conqueror ~nd," and soon — the doubt we say as to whether Crisp's Conqueror or Mr. Wilson's colt without a name, was to be the winner. They both had capital action, good colour, the latter the better, and good size ; the power of Mr. Crisp's colt, however, gained him the prize, and seldom has it been our lot to see a better animal at the age. His shoulders, girth, and back are something wonderful to look at; but his fore-legs might be better, and we thought his back ribs were a trifle short ; though he is nevertheless a very superior animal. Mr. Wilson's colt has beautiful qua- lity, is very active, but his joints and legs are too small for his carcase, and he has not the muscle of the other colt. Mr. Sheppard takes first prize with a very smart yearling entire colt, and Mr. Easterson is second with a thick strong but rather under-sized colt, in a class of only four com])etitors. The mares with foal at foot were few in number, and although there were one or two Royal So- ciety winners amongst them, the class was not so well represented as we have often seen in bygone years. Sir Edward Kerrison's Lady Jane had no difficulty in shaking oft' the lot, but she did not look up to the mark ; while Mr. Packard's second prize is a useful mare, but hardly a show animal ; and ^Nlr. Ward's mare has worn stale, and her loin is very bad. The cart foals were a bad lot, and Sir Edward has a right to expect a better sample from his mares ; for the sire hitherto used is evidently not suited to them. ^Ir. Freuer's colt foal was selected by the judges, but he had a malformed foot, which sealed his fate ; the prize, therefore, went to Mr. Gates, who, if 2)roud of his foal, must, we think, be ashamed of its dam. Captain Barlow gets a commendation for a neat foal by Canterbury Pilgrim, but it was too young, and had snftered too much by its journey to stand a chance of winning. The gast mares formed one of the best classes, Mr. Wolton's wonderful old mare " Moggy" looking as fresh as ever, and winning easily, Mr. Ward's four-year- old being a not unworthy second, with Mr. Freuer's and the Marquis of Bristol's mares each highly commended. The Three-year-old fillies, generally a very strong class, were liere badly represented ; but the two-year-old fillies were much better ; and Mr. Robert Wrinch's is a very superior animal ; as her size, colour, shoulders, girth, and activity show that Raglan, au old favourite of ours, has at last got decidedly to be a nonpareil. Mr. Wolton has a good second to her, Mr. Frost and Mr. AVolton receiving commendations. Mr. Cross shows a verj handsome yearling filly by Harwich Emperor, to which Mr. Wolton is again second. ^Mr. Kersey Cooper takes the prize for the best gelding, the Duke of Grafton being commended for two very useful horses. Mr. Crisp's two-year-old colt wins Sir Edward Kerrison's Cup value £20, open to all England, for the best cart stallion ; whilst Sir Edward wins that given by the town of Bury, for the best pair of mares, as well as a similar one, also given by Buiy, for the best team of four mares or geldings. If there were not so many of the famous Suffolks sent as heretofore, it struck us there were more " nags" than ever, the competition in some cases almost overflowing the ring, although the quahty was not so remarkable. In two or three classes, in fact, the prizes were withheld for want of merit, and not a single commendation was added by the riding-horse judges to the premiums they awarded. Speaking by the book, their branc^h of the business com- meuccd with the thorough-bred stallions tur hunting pur- poses, where j\Ir. Dobito's Dutchman and Captain Bar- "THE i^ARMER'S MAGAZINE. ni low's Ace of Clubs met to light Iheir battle o'er again, the Dutchniau having last year at Ipswich been placed first, when we thus wrote of the decision : " The Dutch- man, to whom the judges eventually awarded the tirst prize, is a sour-headed, coarse-looking, light-middled, rambling-going son of the Flying Dutchman, yet still preferred to the Ace of Clubs, an elegant true-made son of Stockwell, and decidedly one if not the best-looking horse ever shown in this part of the country, and whose good looks would do credit to any show-yard in the king- dom The judges' decision caused some little astonishment ; in fact, people could hardly believe their own eyes when they saw the prize ribbon handed to such a horse as the Dutchman, and we long to see the two before another bench of judges, firmly believing as we do that the prize was given to the worst horse of the three." Elmsdale, the third at Ipswich, was not entered at Biuy, where the judges were very unanimous as to the Ace of Clubs being the best of the class, as eventually they placed Mr. Crisp's four-year-old, the Abbot by Corocbus, before the Dutch- man ; and the young one is full of promise for his purpose as a country stallion, being a good brown iu colour, with plenty of substance, great bone, and some style about him. The only other thorough-bred horse entered was Mr. lionnick's INIusketeer, a three-year-old by Voltigeur, another colt not without merit, so that Suttblk is at present pretty well provided in this way. The coaching stallions were not by any means so good a lot, and the best of them, Mr. Cooke's Fireball, with capital action, but bad feet, is as much or more of a trotting horse than a coacher ; while the two prize roadster stallions were both of a very superior sample. Captain Barlow's Confidence, the second here, was also second at Islington the other day, where it was the pretty general opinion that he should have been first. And to stand alongside of, he is almost a model of the sort ; but he is not so good going — a strong point for a roadster, iu which he was beat out of sight by Sir Edward Kerrison's Fireaway, one of the grandest movers ever seen, and a taking horse altogether but for being so light in his middle. There was nothing further against Sir Edward's horse for the All-England Cup but a great roan Norfolk horse, whose coarseness prevented the competition between the two being very close. The hunting marcs were a very bad lot, with the exception of Mr. Grout's winner, an apparently well bred, lengthy one, that should pay at the stud ; but the one coaching mare, " Genuine Yorkshire," was well worthy of the prize awarded. The best hunting foal is a credit to the Ace of Clubs, the best coaching foal to Surplice, and the best roadster foal to Evening Star — -all llasketon horses ; but this strong stable was beaten for cob mares by another very clever one from Broome Hall, if more of a smart hack than a cob proper, as another fine mover and a deal too fresh on her legs for the rest of the class. ilr. jMumford's weight- carrying three-year-old is a really fine filly by j\Ient- more, a stallion that people are beginning to abuse rather precipitately, though there was only one to beat here, and the other classes of young things were more unmistakably a failure ; in two there being no entries whatever, and in three other divisions the prizes being withheld for want of merit. Amougst the hackneys Sir Edward Kcrrison still kept his hand in, taking first and second with two very sweet nags ; the chesnut, full of breed and fashion, being as nice a horse to look over as a man need wish to see. He, however, rolls and labours terribly in his trot ; whereas the skewbald went as straight, strong, and as merrily as a hack should do, and his action of course placed him. As neither of these were entered for the All-England Cup, Mr. Cooper succeeded to it with a handsome brown mare ; Mr. Badham's now well-known grey taking second as a pleasant horse to ride, if nothing so very particular to look at. This open class ran up to a very long entry ; but with Sir Edward's two out of it, the amount of merit was nothing extraordinary. The hunters, again, were soon weeded out, and a very nice brown of jNIr. Gayford's being disqualified as lame all over, the first prize went easily enough to jNIr. Sexton's good weight-carrying chesnut, a horse with a character in the field as well as on the show-ground; the second-best being eventually taken from the same stable. But the bay is only half-a-horse to the other, and just a useful currant-jelly sort of nag, that never seemed to extend himself. "The reserve" of this large class was a leggy chesnut of Mr. Grout's, a deal more fancied by some of the lookers-ou than by the judges, and the " wooden- spoon," another chesnut, a sort of half-Suftolk slouching beast, that looked far more like going to plough than going a-huuting. Nevertheless, he went bravely into the AU-England Class, of no higher form, where Captain Barlow won the cup with an old-fashioned "hunter" all over ; but who took a deal of riding to get him along, and exercised all young jNIr. Schriebcr's abilities as a show-man ; and that is saying something too, for Mr. Schrieber is quite the Mrs. Beverley of these parts, riding one winner for j\Ir. Sexton, another for the Captain, and being, iu fact, in con- tinual request. The competition for this Hunt Cup was all between the son of AVeatherbit, and a brown colt of more power and substance, that was ultimately put out of it by the veterinarian. Sir Edward Kerrison's coaching- horse, if but the best of a small class, would have stood as well in better company, while the ponies came out in more force, and furnished two very good classes with plenty of plums to pick out of the pudding. The best, however, in the county class, had not much true pony character, and as he was eventually disqualified as being over the thirteen-two standard, a very pretty brown mare that could wallv and trot was let in for first, and a more varmint roan for second. Amongst the unnoticed here was Mr. Eansome's Exmoor Sir Harry, purchased, if we remember aright, at one of JVIr. Robert Smith's sales for eighty-odd guineas, though he made no mark at Bury ; as against much the same competition Mr. Bramwhite won the All-England Pony Cup with a wonderfully itseful maid-of-all-work, putting her head as straight as an arrow and getting over the ground in rare style. StiU, she was wanting in some of the fashion of Sir Edward Kerrison's hacks, and the eye, tired with all it was tried on, grew gradually more and more fastidious. But it cannot fall to every man's lot to hold an Ace of Clubs, a Crawl, or a Harlequin. With the disease of some sort now raging so terribly amongst the sheep iu Norfolk, the presence of Mr. Brown's rams was scarcely a welcome sight; but it is only fair to say that without these long-wools the show of sheep would have been very poor, if indeed it can under any circumstances be ranked above mediocrity. Mr. Dobito, as usual, held a lead with the black-faces, and the Marquis of Bristol sent sheep of dift'erent descrip- tions, long and short-wools, that could only have won "under the circumstances;" while Mr. Nunn, one of the judges, said at the dinner : " After the show they had had, the sooner the Downs were down the better, and he hoped the Society would discontinue the class." This is strong language, that will hapjjily not ajjply to the jiigs, of which ^Ir. Sexton, Mr. Crisp, and Mr. Steam sent some very capital specimens ; Mr. Sexton's blacks being especially good, as his boar and pen of three young sows were never better. In fact, tlie strength of this section of the show may be estiraafcd from Mr. Steam never getting nearer than sec^ond, so that the hapjiy tidings would not bear wafting to lirandeston, where, as wc hear, the Union Jack is hoisted when a sow pigs, and the bells set a ringing when a first prize is awarded ! 122 THE FAEMER'S lilAGAZINE. The show of implemeuts was very large, the entries numberiag 660, as compared with 4'J6 in 1865, 400 in . 1864, 515 in 1863, 428 in 1862, 392 in 1861, and 198 iu 1860. As sevei'al of the country shows will not take place this year, by reason of the rinderpest, it may possibly happen that tlie implement-makers may have entered more eagerly at those meetings which have stiU been left. On the Thursday preceding the show-day properly so called, there was an exhibition of steam ploughing and cultivating ap])ai'atus in a field lent for the purpose by Mr. G. H. Nunn, of Eldo House, near Bury. Mr. E. Greene, !M.P. for Bury, exhibited Howard's cultivator worked ou the " I'oundabout" system, aud with which he has done some profitable work on his farm, at "Westley, near Bury. :\lr. Burrell, of the St. Nicholas Works, Tlielfo-id, exhibited a locomotive engine, with clip-drum underneath, working a three-share plough of his own manufacture, but ou the Fowler principle. Then came tlie Fowler ap- paratus properly so called, in which two engines are employed parallel to each other, at opposite ends of a tield, drawing alternately a wire-rope between them. The engines are locomotive, and thus the application of horse- power is dispcused[with. The objection to this system is the expense attending the two engines ; hut the apparatus gets much more rapidly to work than any other, aud in this regard proved itself clearly superior ou Thursday, while it got through a larger amount of work. The apparatus was also more powerful, and adequate for deeper cultivation. As regards other imple- ments, we ought, perhaps, to mention the jiatent " vowel" washing machines of Messrs. T. Bradford aud Co., of Loudon aud Manchester; the patent chain corn-drill of Ilawes and Spencer, of Tiverton, which supci'sedes the old cup baiTcl by a chain, the links of which bear away the seed ; the rotary harrow, pulverizer, and twitch extirpator of Holmes and Sons, Norwich ; the collection of Messrs. llansomes and Sims, Ipswich, who ai'e about to open a new warehouse at Bury St. Edmunds, the American and Eureka gi-ist mills of Messrs. Kiehes and Watts, Noi'wich ; and the excellent collections of Messrs. Tuxford and Sons, Boston ; Messrs, Garrett and Sons, Leiston ; and Messrs. Woods and Cocksedge. We might go on almost ad i/ifiiiitimi, in noticing collections all indicating more or less ability aud perseverance, but we can only find space for au enumeration of the remain- ing exhibitors : E. G. Allen, J. C. Andrews, R. S. Baker, F. Beaumont aud Co., J. Beach, T. A. Beary, Bennett and Botwood, E. H. Beutall, R. Boby, T. Bradford and Co., Bridges, C. Burrell, Coleman and Morton, G. Chea- vins, A. Dodmand, A. and W. Eddington, Garrod and Gower, T. J. Gostling, Grover and Baker, T. B. Hitch- cock, J. Hubbard, E. Humphreys, A. Lyon, C. J. Mea- dows, R. jNIeeking, the Mildenhall Engineering and Agri- cultural Implement Company (Limited), ^Nlurton aud Turner, Page and Co., Page and Girling, Picksley, Sims, and Co. (Limited), W. and J. Rands, G. Rands, Richardson and Whetherhogg, Samuelson and Co., T. Smith, J. Smythe and Sons, J. Smyth, W. Swootman, Jan., H. J. Taylor, E. R. and F. Turner, Ward and Silver, T. Webb, Webb and Son, Whitmore and Sons, and W. P. Wilkins. The exploits of the traction engines excited much amusement and attention, and the company had often to scamper away to avoid being ridden down by one of these grim giants, which occasionally moved with rapidity over the undulating show ground. Horticultural aud poultry shows were also organized as appendages of the Society's exhibition ; and there was some horse-ploughing as well as steam-ploughing. In a champion match a s|)ecial prize of a silver watch and chain was awarded to George Brunning, of Honiugton, in the employment of Mr. W. W. Cooper, of Barnham, ■\vith one of llausome's ploughs. PRIZE LIST. HORSES FOR AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES. JuDUES. — N. G. Barthropp, Bury St. Edmunds. M. Bicldell, Playford. D. SeweU, Beaumont Hall. Stallions having served not less than 20 marcs in the county, £10, to C. Boby, Stiitton (Conqueror) ; £0, for breeder of first prize animal, to C. Boby ; second prize not awarded. StaUions for agricultural purposes. — SirE. Kerrison's speciid prize, a cup of the value of £20, to T. Crisp, Butley Abbey (Conqueror) ; highly commended, N. W. Bromley, EansJield Hall (Prince). Two-year-old entire cart-colts. — £6, to T. Crisp (Con (jueror) ; £4, to W. Wilson, Baylham; £3, to C. Frost, Wher- stead. One-year-old entire eart-colts.— £5, to J. G. Slieppanl, Cauipsey Ash (The Colonel) ; £3, to T. Eastersou, Bawdscy. Cart mares with foals. — £6, to Sir E. Kerrison (Lady Jane) ; £3 to E. Packard, Westerfirld (Matcliet). Cart foals. — £5 to J. A. Gates, Sapiston ; £3 to Executors of T- Capon, Deunington ; commended, Captain J . Barlow, llasketou. Gast mares. — £6 to S. Walton, Newbouru (Moggy) ; £4 to T. Ward, East Mersea ; highly commended, the Marquis of Bristol (Diamond) ; A. Freuer, Debenham (Scot) ; and Sir E. Kerrison (Dcpper). Pairs of Suffolk cart mares. — (Special prize.) Buiy St. Edmund cup of the value of £10 10s., to Sir E. Kerrison. Three-year-old cart fillies. — £6, to Sir E. Kerrison (Nancy) ; £4, to G. D. Badham, Buhner Tye. Commended, T. King, Preston (Smart). Two-year-old fillies.— £5, to R. II. Wrinch, Holbrook ; £3, to S. Wolton. Highly commended, C. Frost. Commended, S. AVolton, jun., Kesgrave. One-year-old cart fillies. — £4, to T. N. Cross, Holbrook ; £3, to S. Wolton, jun. Cart geldings. — £4, to G. R. Cooper, Euston. Commended, Duke of Grafton (Jolly and Punch) ; and H. J. Talbot, Stan- ningfield. Teams of Suffolk cart horses. — (Special prize) Bury St. Ednmnds cup of the value of £10 10s., to Sir E. C. Kcnison. RIDING AND COACHING HORSES, Judges. — H. Corbet, London. H. D. Dove, Langhara Hall. H. Overman, Weascnham, Norfolk. Veterinary inspector. — R. Taylor, Colchester. Thorougli-bred stallions for hunting purposes. — £10, to Captain Barlow (Ace of Clubs) ; £5, to T. Crisp (The Abbot). Stallions for getting hunters. — (Special prize.) Society's cup of the value of £20, to Captain Barlow (Ace of Clubs) . Stallions for coaching purposes. — £10, to C. Cooke, Liver- mere (Fireball) ; £5, to T. Harvey, Timworth. Roadster stallions. — £10, and (special prize) Society's cup of the value of £20, to Sir E. Kerrison (Fireaway) ; £5, to Captain Barlow (Confidence). Hunting mares with foals, £5 to J. Grout, Woodbridge (Alice). Coaching mares with foals, £5 to T. Easterson (Rainbow). Cob mares, £4 to Sir E. Kerrison (Favourite). Hunting foals, £4 to M. Mumford, Greeting. Coaching foals, £4 to T. Easterton, Roadster foals, £4 to Captaiu Barlow. Three-year-old weight-carrying mares or geldings for hunting purposes, £5 to M. Mumford. Threc-yeK,r-old roadster mares or geldings, not awarded. Two-year-old mares or geldings for hunting purposes, not awarded. Two-year-old mares or geldings for coacliing purposes, not awarded. Hackney mares or geldings, £5 to Sir E. Kerrison (Harle- quin) ; £3 to Sir E. Kerrison (Crawl). Riding hackneys, special prize. Bury St. Edmunds cup of the value of £10 10s., to R. J. Cooper, Blythbnrgh Lodge (Charming Kate) ; second cup of the value of £5 us. to G. D. Badham (grey hack). Four-year-old hunters, special prize. Bury St. Ednmnds cup of the value of £20, to Captain Barlow (Will o' the AVisp). THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 123 Hunting mares or geldings, £5 to G. Sexton, Thoringtoii Hall (gelding) ; £3 to G. BI. .Sexton, Wherstead (gelding). Coaching Mares or Geldings, M to Sir E. Kerrison (b. li. Quartermain). Ponies, £1 to W. OrbeU, Hawstead (Cinderella) ; £3 to T. King, Preston ; special prize, Bury St. Edmund's cup of the value of £6 6s., to J. Branwhite, Long Melford (b. m. Express). S H E E P. Jduoes. — H. Lugar, Hengravc. G. Nunn, Eldo House, Bury St. Edmund's. Southdown Tups, £(! to Marquis of Bristol. Shearling Southdown Tups. — Not awarded. Tups of the Blackfaced or Suffolk breed, £6 to G. Doljito, Kirtling. Shearling Tups of the Blackfaced or Suffolk breed, £6 to G. Dobito ; £-2 to G. Dobito. Long-woolled Tups, £6 to T. Marhani ; highly commended, T. Brown and G. Sexton. Shearling long-woolled Tups, £6 to T. Brown ; £3 to T. Brown. Pens of five Southdown shearling Ewes, £6 to C, Boby, Stutton ; £3 to C. Boby. Pens of five shearling Ewes of the Blackfaced or Suffolk breed, £0 to the executors of H. Wilson, Stowlangloft ; £3 to W. Harvey, Timworth. Pens of five shortwoolled shearling Wethers, £3 to Blarquis of Bristol. Pens of long-woolled shearling Wethers. — Not awarded. Pens of twenty Wether Lambs of any breed, £4' to E. Greene, M.P. ; second prize not awarded. Pens of twenty ewe lambs of any breed. — £4 to G. Gayford, jun., Rymer ; second prize not awarded. Pens of five fat shearling sheep. — Special prize of £i-4s., given by W. T. Simpson, to S. C. Roper, llougham. PIGS. Judges. — G. D. Badhara, Bulmer Tye. H. BiddeU, Playford. Boars of the black breed. — £5 to G. JL Sexton ; £3 to S. G. Steam, Brandeston ; commended, T. Crisp. Boars of the white breed.— £5 to G. M. Sexton ; £3 to G. M. Sexton ; commended, G. M. Sexton and T. Crisp. Sows and pigs of the black breed. — £-i to T. Crisp ; £3 to S. G. Steam. Sows and pigs of the white breed. — £i to J. Sawyer, Tunstall; £3 toS. G. Stearn. Breeding sows of the black breed. — £3 to G. M. Sexton ; £3 to T. Crisp. Breeding sows of the white breed. — £3 to G. M. Sexton ; £3 to S. G. Stearn. Young sows of the black breed. — £3 to G. M. Sexton ; com- mended, S. G. Sti^arn. Young sows of the white breed. — £3 to G. M. Sexton, CHEESE. Judge. — G, Oliver, Bury St. Edmunds. Suffolk cheese.— £3 to T. Sawyer, Thwaite. THE DINNER. The dinner took place in the Corn Exchange, but from some cause or other was very thinly attended. Six or seven long tables had been ranged across the hall, and were covered with substantial cold comestil)Ies ; but not more than three of these tables were fully occupied, and two were cpiite empty. The toast list was of inordinate length ; and to make nmtters worse, some extra toasts were allowed to be interpolated by the chairman, the Marquis of Bristol, who occupied the post of honour in the absence of the president of the Society, Sir E. C. Kerrison, M.P. Sir Edward was on the show-ground, but his health not being yet fully re-established he abstained from the excitement and fatigue of a puUic dinner. Although the company was then thin, and thinned still further as the evening advanced, some of the speeches were of more than customary agricultural interest. Jlajor Parker occupied the vice-chair, and the company embraced Lord Augustus Hervey, M.P., the Ven. Archdeacon Lord Arthur Hervey, Mr. 11. J . H. Harvey, M.P., Mr. M'Lagan, M.P. (Scotland), Mr. J. A. Hard- castle, M.P., Mr. E. Greene, M.P., Mr. C. S. Read, M.P,, and Mr. de Grice, the Mayor of Bury St. Edmunds. After the usual string of loyal and complimentary toasts, Lord A. Hervey, M.P., and M'jjor Pamcer, M.P., replied to the sentiment of " The County Members." Lord Augustus said the measures adopted by Parliament with regard to the cattle-plague had, bythe blessmg of Providence, nearly extirpated the disease. He wished he could congratulutc the meeting upon the total disappearance of the plague, but he believed that in a very few weeks there would be a clean bill of health. Another campaign had also been commenced against the malt tax (laughter and cheers), but that he would leave to the fu- ture (laughter). With regard to the relbrm question the noble lord expressed a hope that whenever the matter was settled, the interests of the land would not be neglected. The Ckairjian, in giving the " Mayor of Bury," observed that although the cattle plague had been greatly lessened, no relaxation of the rules enforced could take jilaec for sometime. In many counties there was a tradition still extant with regard to the plague that visited the country now nearly 100 years since, viz., that it gave way to treatment in the summer, but returned again in the winter. This was a jjoint which must not be lost sight of; and if the Privy Council should think it right to continue the measures at present adopted, he hoped the tiirmers would generally agree to place no obstacles in the way (Hear, hear). The Mayor of Bury replied, and gave " The Borough Members." Mr. Hardcastle, M.P., and Mr. Greene, M.P., re- sponded. The latter hon. gentleman said he had never seen a better show of horses than he had witnessed that day ; the President especially sent a class of horses which the meeting would do well to copy. Although some admirable specimens had ijeen on view, he feared, that the breeding of horses was coming down. If he might make a suggestion to his agricultural friends, he woiild remark that as they must keep a horse with which to drive to market and to ride round their farms, they might just as well keep an animal with some quality about it, which when not fit for riding woiild throw out a foal worth having. They might as well do this as keep an animal wliieh woidd eat just as much corn, and yet be worth nothing to breed from. He hoped next year, when " The Royal" "came to Bury, there would be as successful a meeting as had now taken place. He would also impress upon the executive of the Suffolk Society the desirability of extending the meeting one or two days. Mr. Hardcastle, IM.P., proposed " Success to Agricul- ture," and expressed his regret that Mr. Read, the member for Norfolk, had been obliged to leave, as other\vise his name would have licen coupled with the toast, and he would, doubt- less, have contributed some of that good practical sense for which he was so well known. The tenant farmers, in electing Mr. Read, had shown their power, and they had also shown that they could trust one of their own body to represent their interests. Although Mr. Read had left, there was a gentle- man present whose name was very well known — Mr. Over- man ; and although he (Mr. Hardcastle) had been obliged to find a fresh fox, he had, perhaps, found as good a one as the one which had left (laughter) . jMr. Overman, after remarking that Mr. Read had had of late more experience in " speechifying" than he had enjoyed, said there was much significance in the word " success." He was sure that the farmers wanted it, for what with the bad crop of 1865 and the cattle plague, they were almost come to a stop. But they must not look back ; they must look forward, and he was happy to say that their growing crops were looking as well as they could wish. They must earnestly hope that no hailstorms nor anything might blight them, for they wanted aU they could get. Some landlords had been taking down hedge- row timbers, and some had been killing ralibits. These were very great helps, for by large hedge-row timbers' the farmers lost many acres, and by rabbits God only knew what they lost (laughter). He was sure that when landlords found that their tenants were in difiiculties, they would be ready to give them a little credit. This was very essential ; in fact, it would be more useful to them than the repeal of the malt tax (laughter and cheers). Lord A. Hervey, M.P., gave " The Successful Exhibitors," on whose behalf Mr. T. Crisp responded. The Chairman gave " The Strangers," associating with the toast Mr. M'Lagan, M.P. Mr. M'Lagan, M.P., in acknowledging the compliment, said, connected as he was with agriculture in the Lotliians of 124 THE FARMER'S MAGAZmE. Scotland, and fond of agricultural pursuits generally, lie was not loath to accept the invitation of his friend IMr. Green to visit Suffolk, to inspect its farming, and to l>e present at the shovv that day. His expectations were certainly higlily raised, as he had read much of Suffolk, and he was glad to say that those expectations had not heen disappointed. He had not heen disappointed in the beauty of the town of Bury St. Ed- munds, rich as it was in historical associations, and famous for one portion of England's history which had contributed so much to Englaiurs prosperity, England's liberty, and Eng- land's glory. He jiad not been disappointed with the careful cultivation wliich he had seen in short drives in the county, and in the magnificent crops of barley which were the results of that careful cultivation. He liad not been disappointed in the excellence of the show and the quality of the stock exhi- bited ; where all was so excellent it would be invidious for him to name any particular stock. He must express his admiration, however, of the enthusiasm and spirit with wliicli the shovv had been conducted, not merely by the agriculturists, but by the town's-people. He tjiouglit it was wise to comliinc jiorti- culture with agriculture ; for there was nothing which more tended to elevate the taste of the working classes than to pre- sent tiiem with something beautiful, such as flowers ; and to add a horticultural exhibition to the show indicated that its object was not merely tlie improvement of stock, but the im- provement also of the labouring classes. The exhib'tion of steam cultivators which he had witnessed on the preceding day also said mucli for the enterprise of the Suffolk farmers, be- cause he believed that some of that apjiaratus belonged to gentlemen practically engaged in agriculture in Suffolk. An old Roman author, when asked what he considered the best science for farming said, " Cultivation, cultivation, cultiva- tion ;" or to put it in otlier words, in a motto wliich he saw- inscribed on one of the triumphal arches, " As ye your lands do tiU, So ye your barns do fill" (cheers). We might manure our lands well, but we could not really ,get the benefit of that manure unless we cultivated our lands well, aud there was no better way of doing this than the adoption of steam cultivation. Many of tliose who had just commenced steam cultivating never thought of returning to the old system. Thus far he had given nothing but praise, and it might be tliought that lie dealt in notjiing but butter, but he would just say a few words to show that he had also a little pepper and salt. He thought the ploughing of Suffolk was somewhat behind that of Scotland. The fault he found vvitli the ploughing which took place on the preceding day was that the furrows were laid too much on their backs. On tlic clay soils of Scotland, the farmer would not think of keeping a man who ploughed in that way, although perhaps on the light lauds of Suffolk the point was not so essential. This was a mere minor point, and he must, as a stranger, express the great gratification he had felt in attending the meeting ; so great was the hospitality and kindness which he had re- ceived that he hoped that this would not be the last visit he should make to Suffolk (cheers). The toast of " Mr. Ord and fox-hunting" having been very enthusiastically received, Mr. HLvKVEY, M.P., gave " Tlie Judges." Mr. Barthkopp replied, and adverting to the first-class of stallions, said the award made might perhaps have excited some surprise, but the matter did not rest entirely with tlie judges : it was taken out of tlieir hands, and for further in- formation on that point they must refer the meeting to the veterinary surgeon. In tlie prize for three-year-olds there were no competitors. The two-year-old entire colts were very good ones : tliere were two particularly good horses in tliat class. The mares showed a great falling off from what he had seen at former meetings of the Society. He renienibcred the time when the entries comprised ten or a dozen lirood mares witli foals at foot, and very much better than had been seen tjiat day. The two-year-old filUes were very good indeed, and the yearUng filly was also a very nice one. The prizes so liberally offered by the to\TO of Bury St. Edmund's for pairs of mares aud teams of cart-horses were very often very ditlicult prizes to award. A man might have one or two very good animals, but it was difficult to get four to enter, and therefore he felt it was rather a mistake to offer prizes for a team ; it would be better to give prizes for two instead of four. Mr. Overman also responded, and said he regretted that his colleagues had bolted, as otiierwise the meeting would have had an able speech from his friend Mr. Corliet, who had been associated with him as one of the judges of riding-horses. He must congratulate the meeting upon the magnificent animals shown that day : tliere had been a great improvement in their action. Tlie animal which struck the judges more particularly was the roadster staUiou of Sir Edward Kerrison. He (Mr. Overman) wished this horse was his own ; if he were, he would call him "England's Gem," for he much questioned whether there was another such animal in England. Mr. NuNN acknowledged the toast on the part of the judges of sheep. Referring to Down sheep, Mr. Nunn said no one liked Down mutton better than he did, but Down sheep did not produce enough of it. He hoped, indeed, that the society would discontinue prizes for Downs, unless they got a better show. His colleague, Mr. Lugar, who used to be a Down man, had given up Downs altogether ; and he (Mr. Nunn) could assure the meeting that the Downs entered were certainly not worth the prizes. There was no better meat produced than Down mutton, but it was too long in coming into the butcher's shop. The other classes were also badly represented : in fact, he never saw worse sheep shown in his life (laughter). As regards the horses, he happened to be, last year, at the Plymouth meeting of the Royal ; and he could assure the meeting that the horse show at Bury that day very much surpassed that of the Royal last year. He hoped that in the coming year the county would strain every nerve to show tjiat, in the matter of horses, Suffolk could beat the world. Mr. Gleed responded for " The Stewards." Mr. Kersey Cooper proposed "The Implement Ex- hibitors," who, he remarked, had contributed very much to the success and interest of the meeting that day (cheers). He would associate with the toast the name of Mr. Greig, the representative of ]\Iessrs. Eowler and Co., of Leeds. Mr. Greig replied, and said he regretted that it had fallen to his lot to respond to the toast ; as the per- son who had contribnted more than any other man to the success of steam-ploughing had gone at the season when he would have seen the fruits of his labours. Steam- ploughing was one of the most difficult engineering problems of the day. Some of the best talent in England had been em- ployed upon it, but nothing but the dogged perseverence of the man who was gone had brought tlie matter to a successful issue. He was often asked why steam cultivation was so slow in its progress ? Mr. Overman had made an allusion to rabbits and hedge-row timber. Rabbits offered no great impediment to steam cultivation, but Jiedge-rows did. If these obstructions were removed, the system of steam cultivation now introduced would pay 20 per ceut. or 50 per cent, to the farmer ; but where there were small fields and no roads, the matter was attended with great difiiculty. Another difficulty was the education of the labourer. The farmers were not able to in- struct their labourers ; and if engineers were not able to teach their men to go and do such and such a tiling, their machines would fail. The advantages of steam cultivation were, how- ever, very great. For instance, if a farmer could have his fields ploughed in a certain time, farming would be ranch more remunerative than it was at present. It was objected that steam cultivation was impossible, on account of the expensive- ness of the machinery ; but he was prepared to refer to the accounts of persons who had been using steam ploughs for | some years, and who, after paying for breakages, &c., had yet made a larger profit than they ever did before. Persons with small holdings ought to combine for the purchase of a steam jilough. The state of the labour-market rendered it important that farmers should consider how they could do their work at tlie I least expense and witii the fewest number of men ; for if labour tt rose in price, as it was likely to do, farming would become less 1 remimcrative instead of more profitable. It was agreed that || the feeding of stock was more profitalile than the production of cereals, and would it not be better for the farmer to have fewer horses at work, and to use coal instead of the produce viliich such stock consumed ? Another point which called for con- sideration in connection with most systems of steam-ploughing was the impediment occasioned by the continued treading of the horses employed, which led to the consumption of a great amount of coal. Mr. Gree.ne, M.P., said he had given steam-cultivation a THE FAEMER'S MAGAZmB. 125 triRl, and he found that it Iiad marvellously improved the men whom he had set to work with it : in fact, he had cultivated without any diiticulty whatever. If you made it worth a man's while to do a thing, he very soon found out the best way of doing it. Eor a farmer to Ije able to cultivate his land at a particular season of the year might be worth three times as much as it was at another season. Steam-cultivation could, liowever, be only tried on fields of sufficient size to admit of the outlay of capital. A farmer of enterprize would, however, probably have a steam-engine to do his thrasliing ; and as it could also do his ploughing, it would not be right to charge more than half the outlay to the ploughing, lie had come to the conclusion tiiat steam-cultivation was deserving the serious attention of every occujiier of the soil who intended to compete with the foreigner; for he might mention that from the enormous amount of land which steam was bringing into cul- tivation abroad, the late Mr. 11. Garrett had recently expressed to him an o})inion, that before three or four years had elapsed, wheat would be down to 38s. per qr. Mr. NujVN said he thought his forty-acre field ought to be cultivated by steam in one day. Then he should think some- thing of it. Mr. W. BiDUELL, in proposing " The Town and Trade of Bury," argued briefiy in favour of the repeal of the malt-tax. BIr. K,. BoBV responded ; and after a few other toasts the company separated. ITALIAN RAY-GRASS. The separate cultivation of ray-grass lias been in use as a foddering plant in England for upwards of two centuries, as it appears from " Woldridge's Husbandry," first edition, to have been cultivated prior to 1677 ; besides which, red clover, spurry (Spergula arvensis), trefoil, and nonsuch were the only plants then cultivated as art'ijiaul grasses. Ireland was never backward in adopting improved husbandry, wliich generally may be attriljuted to the return of gentlemen of rank from service in the army abroad, wlio brought home much information, from time to time, as to the forming prac- tices in the Netlierlands, Germany, and other countries, whence the introduction of turnips, transplanting rape in the autumn, lucerne, &e., all of which are to be found in the early pro- ceedings of the Dublin Society. Common rye-grass (Lolium perenne) is a native plant, aiul found more or less in all natural pastures or meadows ; Imt the first account we have of its being cultivated as a separate crop in Ireland is to be found in a paper read before the Dublin Society on the 25th of November, 1731, soon after its formation, by Captain Stothard, as practised by him at Maherlin, in the county Down, with a computation of tlie profits of an acre for five years successively, and ordered to be registered. In this paper Captain Stothard says that " he has had par- ticular advantages from the use of ray-grass, which is this : " That wliereas before he came into the use of it he lost every year some sheep by the rot and other distempers, and such sheep as did not die of the rot and were in good order yet had their livers tainted; but since the time he had fed his sheep with the ray-grass, which was the last five years, though the ray-grass was but the least part of their feeding, yet it has this efi'ect, that he hath not lost one sheep these five years past by the rot, or any other distemper, nor have their livers been the least tainted, but all proved very sound ; and he finds upon inquiry, that sheep are nowhere, that he could hear of, subject to the rot where they liave ray-grass for part of their food." We liave given the above extract from the manuscript copy of Captain Stothard's excellent paper, to show that the beginnings of the Royal Dublin Society all tended to the advancement of agriculture, several members contributing excellent papers the first year of its existence, amongst which we find another from the same gentleman on tlie cultivation of clover. Since those times several improved vafieties of ray-grass have been introduced, such as Pacey's, llussel's, Whitworth's, Stickncy's, &c. ; but of late years the Italian ray-grass lias been introduced, which in a great measure supersedes all the others in its use of alternate husbandry, yielding the quickest and heaviest crops when properly treated, both as a soiling and hay crop. The Italian ray-grass is by some botanists regarded as a distinct species, and l)y others as a marked Variety of the common perennial ray-grass, and is itself divided into two varieties — one more upright than the otlier, and of a paler colour, the palere of the plants having a long awn which dis- tinguishes the Italian from all other ray-grasses ; tlie other kind has a more fibrous root, the colour darker, a spreading stem, and with awns comparatively shorter. This latter variety is regarded as the true sort by the most intelligent cultivators, as it product's the most liLxuriant and heaviest crops. This question is pretty well set at rest by the following report of Mr. Rodwell, of iUderton Park : — " Having observed, in the growth of my crop reported oniu the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal in the year 1841, some plants that were, as I supposed, not genuine, that is, not of the pale colour, nor producing with long awns, I determined upon a fresh importation of seed direct from lUily, from which I have since tested the properties of the two varieties, both of which I have since cultivated \\ ith great care and attention ; and I am now fully convinced, from every comparison I have made, not only of the diiferent kinds of plants in ditierent fields, but of both kinds in the same fields, and in every case have satisfactory proof that the best grass — namely, that which is the most productive and the most nutritive for all cattle — is the plant wiiich spreads upon the ground, is dark-coloured, and being the produce of seed with sliort awn ; and my conclusion has been more fully confirmed during the past week by testing the varieties, both in weight and bulk, finding that the dark- coloured plants from the seed of the short-awned grass exceed both in weiglit and bulk the palc-eolourcd plants by more than 30 per cent. It will be also worthy the observation of those wlio intend to cultivate this grass that if intended as a biennial or a perennial grass, in that case the dark-coloured is juueh preferable to the pale-coloured grass, the former branching and becoming thicker, and the latter spindling up, and thus be- coming thinner in plant every succeeding year." Either sort has a stronger braird, broader and more abundant foliage, and longer spikes than any of the other sorts of ray-grass, and are preferred by cattle, either as soil or hay, and to the farmer is more valuable for one year's grass than any other sort, in its early maturity and bulk of produce. But from tlic rapidity of its growth, it is not so well suited for mixture with any other sorts, except that in small quantity it may be sown in permanent pastures, to give shelter to the more tardy and more permanent grasses, and give an early bite to tlie ewes in spring, for which it is admir- ably adapted ; but this very rapidity of growth renders it unsuitable to sow as a soiling crop with corn in the spring, for it grows so strong that it injures the corn crop, though it improves the straw as fodder ; besides, it exhausts itself the season it is sown, and does not produce so early or so well the following one. On this account it should not be sown as a soiling crop tiU the autumn, when the corn crop is removed ; but the better practice, when designed for an early soiling crop, and to cut repeatedly, is to sow it immediately after the removal of early potatoes ; the land is then in the highest state of cultivation to receive the seed, being rich and thoroughly pulverised ; the seed brairds freely, becomes strong and luxuriant, and so well estal)lislied in the ground that no amount of frost can throw it out. Jlanaged in this way, it produces, in some seasons, an 18 or 20 inch cutting so early as the middle of March ; in others, such as the present, it may not come in for anotlier month, and with a top-dressing of a little ricli compost, or liquid manure, after each cutting, three, and sometimes four and even five, cuttings may be obtained during the season. 126 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. STUNTING CATTLE." Much is saiil about the iinprovoment of bropd, Ijut com- paratively iiolhiii;.;- about stuiiliug cattle, although the latter is and always has been the more conimou ))ractice. In point of fact, the latter must of necessity precede the former, which is merely a restorative work, otherwise improvement would be impracticable, for cattle were originally created perfect in the most comprehensive sense of the word, in tlie sunny realms of Paradise, so that they were then incapable of improvement. It soon became otherwise when they were turned outside, adrift into the world, the domestic companions of our fallen race; for with the sad change a thousand misfortunes befel them. History, sacred and profane, is entirely silent as to the Para- disian breeds of cattle, and also as to the effect produced upon races during the period of the autedUuvian worUl ; but it may be safely concluded that they lost much of their original excellence, because the " curse" fell upon cattle as upon all other products of the soil. Again, it is natural to suppose that !Noah, who was by profession a husbandman, would make the best selection iu his power at the Flood, with which to stock the plains of Shinar. Indeed, some suppose the selection was made by the infallible hand of Providence, so that there could be no mistake about the matter. It may be farther assumed, that so long as the human family remained together a much greater degree of uniformity of breed than at the present day prevailed ; but subsequent to the confusion of tongues at the Tower of Babel, and the splitting up of the humau race into tribes according to their respective languages, and their dis- persion over the whole of Asia, Africa, and Europe, the physi- cal changes thus experienced by cattle from a diversity of food, climate, and management would less or more interfere with their natural growth, the result being all that interesting di- versity so prominently exhibited in the different native breeds throughout most of the habitable globe. In the outset there would be three causes at work in effect- ing the stunting process, viz., food, climate, and manage- ment ; but after a while, or after a diversity of breeds had been produced, the crossing of those breeds would also produce a certain effect ou physiological development, and may therefore be taken as a fourth cause. Were it possible to trace any of our native breeds, such as the Devon or Shetland ox and sheep, to their original parent- age either in Paradise or in iS'oah's ark, the narrative would form an interesting chapter of events in stock management, lying, as it were, between two extremes doubtless wide asunder. The former extreme, say the Shetland ox of the present day, one of the most stunted breeds of the bovine race, is subject to observation ; but the latter, the Paradisian or Noahitic ex- treme from which he is descended, is a question of hypothesis far beyond the reach of a practical or satisfactory solution. Some superficial writers have supposed this, and the next breed somewhere in Europe or Asia, the parent stock from which the Shetland ox sprang ; but tlie hypothesis is almost too absurd to merit a hearing, much less a formal refutation ; for the parent stock according to this hypothesis is itself a stunted extreme, which has perhaps undergone more changes since its ancestor left Noah's ark than has the Shetland ox itself. In Paradise the two breeds in question may be said to have had a common parentage, but whether the Shetland ox or his as- sumed ancestral prototype is the nearest in likeness to this common parentage ; is a question which cannot now be satis- factorily solved. People are naturally disposed to give a greater prominence to their o^\ti native breed of cattle in ques- tions of this kind than they desene, and accordmgly we have heard it argued that our Higliland breeds of cattle stand nearer the symmetry of their Paradisian primogenitor than our low- land breeds. Eut opinionative arguments of this kind go for nothing in the solution of the question at issue. Were it a proposition only involving si/,e, the Shetland ox under such an hypollipsis would doubtless be farther from the original than some of our larger breeds, as the Hereford ox ; but size ha-s less to do in the matter than form, organization, and vitahty ; and therefore, however conspicuous and imposingly attractive it may be, it ought not to be allowed to lea1,702 Os. lid. The quarterly statement of subscriptions and arrears to 30th June, and the quarterly cash account, were laid on the table. The committee recommended that with regard to those mem- bers in arrear of their subscriptions for 18G1 and 1862, amounting to £55, the solicitors to the Society, Messrs. Garrard and James, be instructed to take such measures as they may thiuk necessary to recover the amounts due. They had to report that they had received the deed of security duly executed by the secretary and his sureties for the due performance of his duties. An estimate of the receipts and expenditure for the current year, ex- clusive of the sum already voted (£500) for the Steam Cultivation Inquiry, was submitted for the consideration of the Council. This report was adopted. Prize Essays. — Mr. Thompson, Chairman of the Journal Committee, announced the awards of the judges ; and, the motto-papers having been opened by the Chair- man, the names of the successful competitors were de- clared, as follows : Class I. Farming of Leicestershire. — The prize of £50 to W. J. ^Moscrop, Esq., Kirkleatham, Redcar, Yorkshire. The papers bearing the mottoes " The cattle are grazing" and " Labor omnia vincit" were commended. Class II. Farming of Worcestershire. — The prize of £50 to Clement Cadle, Esq., Land Agent, Gloucester. Class III. Town Dairies. — The competing essays are not considered worthy of the prize. Class IV. Mountain Breeds of Sheep. — The prize of £20 to H. H. Dixon, Esq., 10, Kensington-square, W. The paper bearing the motto " Soil and climate modify all animals" was highly commended, and " Mountaineer" commended. Class VII. The Use to a Farmer of a Magnifying Glass.— The Piize of £15 to K. Bridgman, Esq.,' 69, St. Giles'-street, Norwich. Steam Cultivation. — Mr. Thompson stated that the Committee recommended that members of the Inspection Committee (not acting as reporters) shall receive two guineas per diem eacli, and their travelling expenses, not including hotel-bills. The Committee were of opinion that this mquiry cannot be completed satisfactorily for the sum of £500 \-oted by the Council for this purpose, and recommended that they should he authorised to ex- pend a sum not exceeding £1,000, though they consi- dered it probable that the whole of that amount may not be required. It was then moved by Mr. Wells, seconded by Mr. Lawrence, and carried, that the Steam Cultivation Committee have power to spend, if necessary, an addi- tional sum not exceeding £500. Education. — The Committee, having received from the Examiners in Mechanics and Chemistry applied to Agriculture the marks obtaiued by the candidates entered for the special prizes at the recent Oxford Local Examinations, have awarded the following prizes, viz. : I. Mecii.\.nics applied to Agriculture. P. E. Kiiigdon, R. A. College, Cirencester £5 H. R. Goddard, R. A. College, Cirencester 4 T. J. Elliott, R. A. College, Cirencester 3 J. L. Waldon.WestBuckland 3 II. Chemistry applied to Agricultuke. F. B. Kingdon, R. A. College, Cirencester £5 J. L. Waldon, West Buckland 4 H. R. Goddard, R. A. College, Cirencester 4 I. Tlie Committee have resolved to offer the following principal prizes at the ensuing Cambridge Local Examina- tions in December, 1866 : I. To prizes for Candidates who answer papers to be set in Mechanics and Chemistry as applied to Agriculture. Open to Juniors and Seniors who have passed the Pre- liminary Examination as above, and also to any young men not exceeding 25 years of age (duly recom- mended). Mechanics applied to Agriculture £10 Chemistry applied to Agriculture £10 Junior. Senior. Candidates who obtain a Certificate, regard being had to their place in the General ClassList £5 £5 Candidates having passed the previous Exami- nation, distinguished in — Pure Mathematics 5 5 Mixed Mathematics 5 5 Chemistry 5 5 Zoology 5 5 Geology 5 5 Botany 5 5 and that £30 be distributed in Secondary Prizes of £3 each among such of the candidates in the several classes as the Committee may judge most deserving. II. The Committee further report that the number entered for the Society's prizes at the Oxford Local Ex- aminations, which took place in June last, was only 45, whereas the number entered at the Cambridge Examina- tions in December, 1865, was 120. Under these circum- cumstances they consider that it would be better to have only one examination in the year, and to try the experi- ment of giving in addition to the ordinary jn-izes, cer- tain Senior and Junior Scholarships limited to the sons of tenant-farmers, or of owners, if not exceeding 500 acres, occupying their own land. They recommend, therefore, the Council to authorise them to offer one Senior Scholarship of £60, and four Junior Scholarships THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 137 of £20, to be competed for fit tlie ensuing Cambridge Local Examinations in December, 1866. That the Senior Seholarsliip shall only be given on condition that the scholar spend a year with a practical agricultm-ist, to be approved by tlie Education Committee, or at one of the Agricultural Colleges, such as Cirencester, Glasnevin, or the Agricvltnral Department at Edinburgh, and that the money shall not be paid until a testimonial as to good conduct and industry be produced, at the end of the year of scholarship, from the body or person under whom the scholar has studied. That the Junior Scholarships shall only be given upon condition that the scholar spend a year at a school to be approved by the Education Committee, and that the money shall not be paid until a testimonial as to good conduct and industry be produced at the end of the year of scholarship from the person under whom the scholar has studied. House. — Major-General the Hon. A. N. Hood pre- sented a rough plan of the proposed alterations and addi- tions to the Society's house ; but on the motion of Mr. Kandell, seconded by Mr. Pain, that the matter be re- ferred back to the House Committee, with power to consult Mr. Eowler or any other architect, and to prepare alternative detailed plans and estimates for the execution of the work before the Council in August, the adjourn- ment of the consideration of the report was carried. On the motion of Major-General the Hon. A. N.Hood, seconded by Colonel Challoner, the grant of £200 to the Royal Veterinary College for the current year was renewed. The election of a Member of Council in the room of Mr. Ilaraond, resigned, was deferred at the suggestion of Mr. Thompson, who moved that a committee be appointed to consider and report to the next Monthly Council whether in their opinion it is desirable that any change should be made in the present mode of filling up vacancies in the Council, and that the existing vacancies shall not be filled up until the report of the committee has been received. The motion was seconded by General Hood, and carried, and the following committee was nominated : Earl of Cathcart, Earl of Powis, Lord Vernon, Lord Walsingham, The Speaker, Major-Gen. the Hon. A.N. Hood, Sir J. Johnstone, Bart., jM.P., Mr. Clayden, Mr. Dent, M.P., Mr. Druce, Mr. Holland, M. P., Mr. Randell, Mr. Thompson, Mr. Torr Mr. Owen Wallis, Mr. Jacob Wilson. On the motion of Mr. Dent, M.P., seconded by JMr. Torr, the loan of the Society's small dynamometer was granted to the Yorkshire Agricultural Society for the trial of mowing machiues now going on in that county. The following extract from a letter of Mr. Haymans Hye, British Vice-Consul at Ghent, dated June 21, was received from her Majesty's Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, for which the thanks of the Council were ac- corded : " The new system of treating ilax consists in planting elm trees round the ponds or along the ditches iu which the flax is retted. When the leaves fall, they are gathered and thrown into the water, where of course they decay, which impregnates the water, and gives the fiax a more even colour (as it is called, silvery blue), and ren- ders the fibre softer and silky. When the ponds and ditches become almost dry, they carefully take out the first layer of mud, and place it in heaps on the sides which is again thrown into the water when the retting season returns, and thus repeated every year. As colour and softness increase in value so considerably, and as the method of producing those qualities appears so simple, the information given by Mr. Haymans Hye may per- haps be of much interest." The General Meeting of the members of the Society was held at the Star and Garter, Richmond, on Thursday, Lord Powis, in the absence of Lord Tredegar, the presi- dent of the year, in the chair. There was no business to be transacted, the meeting having only been called in order to comply with the terms of the Charter, which requires the members to be convened three times in each year. The secretary, Mr. Hall Dare, explained that it was the usual practice for the annual general meeting to take place in the show-yard; but this summer the Society would hold no cattle show, in consequence of the pre- valence of rinderpest. On the motion of the Hon. O. Duncorabe, seconded by Mr. Oliphant Ferguson, it was resolved that the thanks of the meeting be conveyed to Lord Tredegar, for his conduct as President during the past year. The proceedings closed with the usual com- pliment to the chairman for the day. THE STEAM PLOUGH. The July meeting of the Cirencester Farmers' Club was held at the Assembly Rooms, King's Head Hotel, on Monday after- noon, 2nd July, wlieu there was a good attendance of members. Mr. E, Bowly presided. The subject for discussion was " The Steam Plough," and it was introduced by Mr. Edmund Ruck iu the following remarks : Mr. Ruck said : I don't in any way stand before you as a teacher of steam culture ; my object is to explain what I have undergone, and to suggest what I think should take place in the future. Steam culture has been tried for many years ; but I think if we look back to the last seven it will answer the purpose for which we have met to-day. Commencing with the " direct system" of Mr. Fowler, I may remark that that consists in drawing the plough with a rope to tlie engine, or with a rope from the engine to the anchor, and from the anchor back to the engine again. Then there is Smith and Howard's plan, which is termed the " roundabout ;" and with that system the rope is put round the field, the engine standing in one corner, and as the Held is ploughed the plougli gets nearer to the engine. 'J''here is another system of which we know but little— it is called Halkett's " railway," and was thought some- thing of eight or ten years ago. Mr. Halkctt put his engine and machinery upon rails with the intention of cultivating the land between the rails, perhaps at a cost of £20 per acre. But he went further than that. Tlie " coulters" of the plough were made hollow, so that he could take liquid manures down these pipes and deposit them at the bottom of the soil that was stirred. The next system was Mr. Romaine's, or the " rotary." That plan was for the engine to travel over the land with a rotary machine underneath it, digging and stirring, and scratching as it went, till at length the land presented the appearance of innumerable mouse-scratchiiigs, or, as was descriljcd by Mr. Wren Hoskyns, was reduced to perfect saw- dust. Now, in looking over these four systems, I am bound to say there is none that can touch Fowlers in simplicity and direct work. There is no system so plain, so serviceable, so easily managed, so suitable t^ farms that I am acquainted witli, or to any farms, a6 that of Mr. Fowler. The Smith or " roundabout'' system may do very well on a small scale ; but when you come to a lara;e piece of tough clay-lanrl, yon want a monster power, and with steam we possess a mighty agency that may be made very efi'ective for good, if i)roperly applied. Jjct it always be borne in mind that the more steam the more power, and the more power the more work and tlie more command 138 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. over the land we occupy. I have now done with the past ; and, in speaking of the present, I may remark that the mode of steam culture adopted by myself is to have two l-i-horse- power engines, with a rope to coU on the drum by machinery. This system has been looked upon with some doubt by farmers who knew nothing of the rope-coihng process. They thought itwould be impossible to get the rope coiled on the drum without considerable wear ; but it is now done by machinery in such a beautiful style that even cotton on a reel is not wound truer or better. Then many people objected to using two engines, because they thought that wjiile one was stand- ing still there was a loss ; but there reaUy is not the waste that some persons imagine, as one engine is " bottling up " the steam while the other is at work. With this system no horses are required for removing. When work is finished, the implements are attached to the engine, and away they go as fast as a man can walk. The present implements used are a plough, with harrow and presser attached ; and, with the plough, you have a broad board, digging breast, and stirring breast. Another implement is the scarifier with harrow attached, the plough taking about three feet and tlie scarifier six. There should also be at hand a set of heavy harrows that wiU take twelve feet. There is a great doubt amongst farmers as to the best system of laud culture — whether it should be the plough or the scarifier. Biscnssion on that point is desirable. With regard to expenditure, there are three points that vnil arise after the engine is purchased — viz., coals, water, and manual labour. Now, speaking of the first item, some people are un^er the impression that in a short time England will be run out of coals, and they speak of economising; but surely a mine of wealth like that ought not to be allowed to remain any longer in the Ijowels of the earth. I take it that if we had copper, iron, or any other mines, we should not allow the mineral to remain in the earth be- cause we fancied it was coming to an end. My advice is — take up the coals, and turn them into money as quickly as possible, resting assured that by the time they are ex- hausted we shall liave something to take their place and which win put us in a different position from that which we are now in. As to water, there may be some difficulty with regard to it on some farms, but one man and a liorse can well supply two 14-horse-power engines with all the water they may require in a day, and coals also. With respect to manual labour, I re- gard that as a point wliicli we have seriously to consider. Taking into account the great increase in the demand for that kind of labour,the question arises whether in the future we shall have the same amount at our disposal that we formerly had, and here, I think, steam wHl come to our assistance very greatly. I believe that we shall have as much ploughing done by one man, with the aid of steam, as was done before by three men with horse or ox power. Now, gentlemen, I have no doubt you expect me to say that we, the leaders in steam cul- ture, have had no troubles ; but I assure you that those who first started this system of land cultivation have experienced many obstacles. They have had a great deal to undergo ; but, fortunately, I think they have arrived at a point when they can console themselves with the reflection that their troubles are overcome. It strikes me very forcibly that the question we have to consider is — Wliat do we cultivate for ? What is the object sought to be accomplislied ? I take it that you want to aerate the soil and subsoil, and make them the storeroom of atmoapheric influences. Now I ask you is it the right way to put three or four horses or oxen to plough in a line, when it is known that every time such team crosses the field something like two tons have slid and trampled from one end of the land to the other about every ten inches in \vidth ? This must harden the ground ; and every practical farmer must acknowledge that this appears a most clumsy and unlikely process for obtaining tUtli. The creating of a hardened floor beneath the soil, and above the subsoil, which in a great measure cuts off the con- nection between the two, is a real injury to fertility, and the destruction of this pan or indurated layer by steam-ploughing is one of tlie greatest benefits of steam cultivation. The thorough drainage of clay soils is thus accomplished, and the material of the subsoil is added to the scanty supply of shallow soil whicli has liitherto fed our crops, and an immense increase of fertility is by this means obtained. It is not fair to make a comparison of the cost of one operation by steam-power with a corresponding operation by horse- power, because it will be apparent from the above remarks that steam- culture is so far superior. I was of opinion that you could plough land with oxen free of cost, and that the oxen would generally pay the rent of the land they lived on by their im- provement ; but I believe now that if you can plough your laud free of cost by oxen, I should be right in advising you to take to steam, for the superior manner in which the work is done by steam is sufficient to encourage anyone to make the outlay. It is not ray intention to advocate any system that will not bear strict inspection into the balance sheet, for no system is worth mentioning unless it can be proved to be pro- fitable. A tenant cannot be expected to embark in steam- cultivation unless he has a proper holding. There are roads to be made, fences to be put straight, and fields enlarged ; and it is not fair to expect a man to go to so great an outlay if he is only a yearly tenant, with a chance of being turned out of his occupation with a six months' notice to quit. The next thing to vchich I would direct your attention is that by steam- culture you get your land into such a state as to constitute it good land. You get a deep surface-soil, with a porous sub-soil, so that the rain-water will not in any way do it injury, nor the sun burn it up. This is the case with all lands under spade husbandry. Allotment lands under spade husbandry are of more value than lands alongside that are worked by the plough. It is not my intention to trouble the meeting with a long array of figures, but to confine myself to the cost of one day's work. You will be better able to arrive at a practical conclusion as different farms have different soils, different labourers, and different management. With respect to the cost of one day, to plough 10 acres of stiff land you require 1 ton of coals, 16s. ; two engine men and ploughman, 10s. ; water man, 2s. ; oil, 2s. ; and horse, 2s. ; making a total of o2s. for the day, and for this you wiU be able to plough any 10 acres of strong land in England. The above estimate is of course ex- clusive of the cost of the engine and the wear and tear. Respecting the wear and tear, I have come to the conclusion that it is reduced to the lowest possible amount. There is nothing but the rope and one or two small pulleys, of small value, that can wear out. I think, when steam comes to be more generally used, and men are paid for the work done by the acre instead of by the day, it wiU be a great advantage to both parties. The improvement thus resulting to the labouring man is very considerable. He feels an interest, with liis master, in the work of the day ; emulation is encouraged, and a desire awakened to rise in the ranks ; although, let me add, I have the same engine-man and ploughman now that I had when I first adopted steam, seven years ago. Then, there was a great prejudice against steam- plougliing among the labourers ; but that is now quite over- come, and the fact is, my people at the present time take as much interest in the success of the system as I do myself. To continue the results of my own experience, I may remark that the steam-horse never tires, and it may be found advisable to employ two sets of men. If you were behind with your work in any way, I hardly dare say what amount of labour you would be able to do in a week with two sets of men. But if you were not behind in your work, and had a steam engine, the question would arise, whether you would let to hire ? I think, with the present mode of having two engines, the moving being so easy and the wear-and-tear so slight, that you will find the system of letting to hire generally adopted. Then, as to drainage, the land under steam culture drains very much better, I have a piece of land which liad been drained fourteen years, yet it lay quite wet under horse and ox culture ; but since it has been cultivated by steam not a drop of water is to be seen on the surface, although no altera- tion has been made in tlie under-drains. I can quote Mr, William Slatter, of Stratton, as having experienced the same thing in a field in his occupation. All land will be greatly improved by steam ploughing ; but I wish particularly to draw your attention to its use on light land. It is on the light land of England that there wiU be the quickest returns, as by one operation you entirely change the nature of the soil. By breaking the pan and stirring the subsoil, you pre- vent burning and drying up. The opinion I am about to ex- press may be received by many present with considerable doubt ; but I believe Messrs. Slatter and Porter have proved that Eowler's steam plough is the cheapest stone-digger, and that steam ploughing has become quite practicable on the Cotswold Hills, I perfectly recollect saying, some time ago, that I expected in a few years to see steaiM THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 139 ploughing on the steepest stone declivities of the Cotswold Hills ; and I believe that time has now arrived. One great advantage of steam culture is that when a day's work is finished there is no baiting, no harness to take off. The labourer makes the most of his time ; he has not to walk in the morning first to the stable and then to the flekl, but he goes direct from his house to the field, and he returns direct to his home as soon as the work is done. Tlie land works better, and you can get at it quicker after rain when steam-ploughed than when horse-ploughed ; and if, as is stated, the rainfall here is 36 inches, it wdl seldom do any damage to land so managed. We are told by scientific men that no less than 3 cwt. of guano falls annually on every acre of land, and if we can keep the ground in such a state as to retain tliat valuable fertilizer, we shall have done much towards improving agriculture. Garden ;dlotments seldom require draining, in consequence of tlieir superior spade cultivation. Superphosphates will act much belter on strong land after being cultivated by steam than after horse-power, owing to tlie finer tilth that is produced ; but superphosphates on strong- land left in a rough state will do no good, yet tjiey will accom- plish wonders after the soil has been worked to a fine surface. There is no better criterion of the capability of land to grow a crop than the size of the worms. If you have large worms you will have large crops, and if small worms small crops. Respecting the turnover system, it must be borne in mind that the plough, from its wedge-like form, will turn over a greater amount of soil with less power than any other implement that has yet been Ijrought out. The pace of the plough is of very great importance, but I would strongly recommend you not to plough too deeply or suddenly at first. Nearly all the land in England can be successfully cultivated by steam. If it is in ridges it should be ploughed lengthways, and not levelled too quickly. Farmers who are inclined to embark in steam culture should take care to procure sufBcient power. There is the same cost of manual labour with a small as with a large set, and the latter always gives you a chance of being well up with your work. My experience with steam has been considerable, and I assure you there is less risk with a steam-engine than with horses. Drilling can be done in the same direction as the land is ploughed, and I have seen one-third more wheat grown in the same field when it was drilled the same way as it was ploughed than when it was drilled across the furrow. Drilling, horse-hoeing, mowing, reaping, horse-raking, and carting can all be done better after the steam plough than after the horse plough, because there is no furrow. You lose uo sheep on their backs in the furrow, and steam-ploughed land is much dryer and more healtliy for them. Digging by steam is equal to digging by manual labour, because the subsoil is not pressed. With corn at a low price, if tlie English farmer is to maintain his position he must resort to the use of steam, as foreigners will be sure to do so. As I before stated, travelling with the engine is extremely simple, and I would as soon trust my man with it as with a one-horse cart. I also repeat that, in my opinion, there is no system of steam cidture equal to the direct system of Fowler. I have seen a great many tried, and that is the conclusion I have come to. I am no partizan, and would not advocate any system that I did not believe to be the best, the most economical, and the most ser- viceable. I am aware that many farmers would have used steam before, but they have been puzzled to know whose sys- tem to decide upon. Some have said : " This is a very high- priced engine ; I should like one at about £350 instead of £1,000 ;" but I believe that if you are to have your work done properly and well you must have one ot Fowler's double set of engines of 14-horse power. You could do as much work with Fowler's set wlule Smith is fixing lus tackle as Smith could do aU day. In conclusion, I have a word or two to say of the late Mr. Fowler, who was personally known to many of you. I beheve there never was a gentleman in England of liigher character than Mr. Fowler. He possessed a spirit that I have never seen surpassed, if ever equalled. When he made up liis mind to embark in the undertaking to make steam cultivate land he used an amount* of energy that is seldom met with ; and that, combined with the capital he employed, gave evidence of a fixed determination on his part never to be beaten. I believe lus name wiU be handed down to posterity as the only steam inventor worthy of mention. Mr. John Archer stated with regard to drilling the same way as the plough went that he had noticed it for 40 years, and where that system was adopted it took one-fourUi less seed to the acre than where the land M'as drilled across the furrows. It was an old-fashioned way ; their forefathers used to do it, and in matters agricultural they were not the biggest fools in the world. In his parish, 30 years ago, they never knew of sucli a thing as drilling across the furrow. The crops came up more readily when they drilled with the plough. The Chairman remarked that circumstances had not ren- dered the employment of steam necessary in his case, and he was sorry he was not able to give them much information ou the subject. It was a great satisfaction to him to find that his old friend, whom he should never forget, was so well supported and spoken of there. Though he had gone, his works lived behind him. He was glad to see present a gentleman (Mr. Grcig) who was very closely connected with the late Mr. Fowler, and he woidd be able to give them much valuable in- formation on the subject then under consideration. With regard to drilling with the plough, if that was the better sys- tem, it struck him as being rather singular that they did not adopt it. Mr. Archer said there could be no doubt that it was the better plan. Where it was pursued, the wheat came up earlier and with greater regularity. The Chairman : Then had we not better alter our system ? We always driU across the funow. Mr. Grieg said there were a few points suggested by Mr. Ruck's remarks to which he woidd briefly refer. In the first place, when Mr. Ruck was speaking of the advantages of steam culture, the question naturally presented itself to every thinking mind. If the benefits are so great, vfhy is steam so seldom to be seen in this neighbourhood ? He came from London that morning, and aloug the whole line of railway he did not see one steam plough. How was this ? It mtist be because a prophet had no honour in his own country. They started steam-ploughing in this neighbourhood first, in the Swindon district ; but the number of breakages to the ma- chinery caused uo end of expense, and the energy and the patience of the people were entirely exhausted by these acci- dents, expenses, and delays. Now, farming was a business that would not stand delays. What they wanted in farming was that the land should be cultivated at a given time, and the operations done to the hour. In his opinion, the break- ages and mishaps that occurred on the first introduction of steam-ploughing in this district were the sole cause of the tardiness that had been manifested in the further adoption of that system of land-cultivation. They all knew that when a man was disappointed in any cause, it took twice as much ta convince him afterwards as it did at first. As an illustration of that, he might remark that formerly they sold twenty steam ploughs in Wiltshire to one in Lincolnshire ; the case was now reversed, and they sold twenty in Lincolnshire to one in Wilt- shire. He had at the present time at least twenty or thirty in- quiries for macliines to go into Lincolnshire, where the land was easier of cultivation than in Wiltshire ; thus proving that there was nothing wrong in the machinery, but that the delay evinced in the adoption of steam in this locality was attributable to the disappointments and prejudices occasioned by the great number of breakages in former times. Mr. Ruck's experience was simply this — he had pulled through, and was convinced that he was right. His (the speaker's) impression was, that l)y adopting steam cultivation they would have command of •iO-horse power at any moment. When that power was stand- ing in the " stable" it was not costing them a shilling, and it would enable them to get everything done in proper season and time. If the success of a crop depended on the operations being performed in time, was it not well that every farmer should have command of proper force? Then the expense of labour was a point that was worthy of consideration. Last week Mr. Ruckhad had a 60-acre field to plough, and in five days at least 55 acres of it were done, only four persons being employed in the operations altogether. They as mechanics went about for labour and could not get it, and he was quite certain that before three years had passed they would have labour twice the value that it was now. If such was the case it was absolutely necessary that they should begin to think about steam-plougliing, if the labourer was not to beat them. It was of very great importance after harvest that the land should be exposed to the atmosphere at once, and it was impossible to do this well and expedition !y witli- 140 THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. out the agency of steam. Another point to be considered was this : When soil was cultivated by liorse-power two or three other operations were necessary which were not required with steam, as the machine passed over the t;round leaving it, not trodden, but in a properly pulverized state, rendering rollers and clod-crushers unnecessary. Speaking of the difficulties that formerly stood in the w^ay of an adoption of Powler's system, Mr. Greig remarked that they were now all but en- tirely removed. The transporting of their engines used to be difficult, and they also experienced an oljstacle with regard to the education of the agricultural labourer. This was a point he had watched from the commencement ten years ago. He recollected when he came to Wiltshire first he had an engine which had cost liini 20,000 miles of travelling, and when he got there and went to speak to the njen they could talk of notliing but beer. After going there, however, about two years, lie must say that the men entered properly into the spirit of the thing, and they spoke of nothing but their mas- ter's crops. With tespect to Howard's roundabout system, he would say nothing more of it than that it was easily applied, and was a great deal better than horse-power. The sjieaker in conclusion thanked Mr. Kuck for his kind mention of the late Mr. Fowler, with whom lie was connected from the commence- ment of steam-ploughing. Mr. Tiio.M.vs Porter observed tliat they had experienced no difficulty with their tackle, and he instanced a case where his machine had to work on a piece of land shaped like an orange cut in two, and it was expected by some persons that the engines would find their way into the river, but they went and did the field without any difficulty. They had done 300 acres in two months. Mr. Euck referred to the cost of oxen when at work, but he did not say what tliey cost when stand- ing still. Respecting another remark made by that gentle- man, lie might say that they paid everything by the acre, and their men received so much per mile when travelling on the road. , Mr. Edmonds, after remarking on the utility of the drag, stated that the management of land after it had been left by the steam-plougli was a matter that required attention, and should be carefuUy considered by all who commenced steam operations. They might use the steam-plough judiciously, but it was possible, by neglecting the after-management of the land, to fail to secure a good crop. Last year he ploughed a piece of laud in autumn, scarified or dug it, and tlieu iu spring dragged it witli a steam drag, and he had really a capital crop of turnips. A year or two before that he pursued a different course, ploughing in spring and cultivating after that, aud tlie crop was not so satisfactory. He had no hesitation in say- ing that both wheat aud root-crops on lieavy land were im- proved by steam operations ; but then came the question — they had a great many moderate-sized fiirms of 300, 400, or 500 acres, and on what sized farm could a steam-plough be used with profit to the occupier ? It was quite certain that a man with 4(J0 acres of arable land could not use two 14-horse power engines, and the question for them to consider was — what sized engine ought they to have on farms of small acreage, and on what sized holdings could steam-ploughing be commenced with advantage ? lie did not nuich approve of hiring out, as, if there were several persons in treaty for the same engine, it would be impossible for all to get it at the i proper time, and serious delay might be the consequence. If they had an 8-horse-power engine on a moderate-sized farm, it could do their thrashing and other steam work, and it might thus be used well and profitably. Mr. BEN^■ETT urged farmers not to purchase very cheap coals for their engines. He once obtained some of inferior quality, and was unable to get but very little steam from them. Mr. Grieg said the after-management of land was a most important subject, and it had not yet been dealt with. He had a question under consideration, and providing the land was entirely cultivated by steam he could deal with it, but not if horses had trampled over it, as the plan he proposed was adaptable only to land which had been steam-cultivated. Speaking of letting to hire, Mr. Grieg remarked tliat he was " fortunately " connected with the Gloucester Steam Com- any, which cost him many a night's sleep. It was a very un- fortunate affair, but if it had been properly managed it might have succeeded. With regard to the item of coals, he was of opinion that, if they got l-orses off their land entirely, they would before long get to a point when 1 ewt. of coals would do as much as G cwt. did now. He believed that an engine cost- ing £1000 would be found to answer on a farm of 400 acres ; and with regard to small holdings he thought that a contract might be entered into by a number of small farmers, who should take care to bind themselves to get the macliine at a certain time. The Chairman said he was one of the unfortunate share- holders in the grand Gloucester Company, aud he was in- formed that tlie cause of its failure was, waiting upon small farmers. Mr. Grieg remarked that he went to Gloucester before the company was formed, aud he advised the promoters to have two engines. But they had only one, which was unfitted for the character of work it had to perform ; aud through that the company booked tlieir failure. Mr. llucx made a few observations in reply, remarking that whatever he had liitherto expended in adopting steam as a land cultivator, he did not repent it, and there was no chance of his relinquishing the system. When land had been three or four years under steam cultivation, the expense and risk were greatly reduced, because the culture was so much more easy and effectual. He endorsed Mr. Grieg's remark that ploughing by steam would cost notliing, in consequence of the great increase of crops which it ensured. In reply to a question, Mr. Ruck said he paid his engine- men 20s. a-week when engaged with the machine ; aud when they were not using steam, they worked on the farm, and were paid the same as the other labourers. In answer to a further interrogation, ]\Ir. Ruck repeated his belief that land under steam culti- vation would be sufficiently improved to pay the cost of the ploughing. The CiiairMjVN said no one could doubt the importance of this question ; and he was glad that the Royal Agricultural Society of England proposed to spend a thousand pounds in fully investigating the subject, by sending commissioners to visit the working of steam ploughs iu different parts of the country. A vote of thanks having been accorded to Mr, Ruck for liis paper, the meeting separated. LANDLOED'S CAPITAL. Laud adapted for agricultural purposes is a saleable com- modity, whose market value is regulated by supply and de- mand, and also by intrinsic values, according to its improve- ment or deterioration. In this respect, it is subject to the laws of commerce, like all similar articles in tlie market. Owners of estates may entail them, to prevent their being sold and alienated from their posterity ; but this is only a statutory commercial provision, so that " those who make laws can mend them," or annul them altogether, thus throwing the entailed estates again into the market, to be sold and b'', ught at the pleasure of the vendor and purchaser. The tenure of land may be freehold, copyhold, or leaseliold ; but these are only so many conditious to which land as a com- mercial commodity is subject ; and although they greatly affect the investment of capital, it is more as a matter of working detail than principle. Again, there is a difference of tenure in England, Scotland, and Ireland ; whilst almost every county and district has its own peculiar " customs ;" and although these latter have reference chiefly to the investment of tenants' capital, they nevertheless affect also, more or less, the landlords' investment. And lastly, all lands may be mortgaged to pay-off debts, legacies, and so forth ; so that when a landowner enters into possession of the estate of his ancestors, his capital ior a time is virtually in the keeping of his creditors. He may or may not have the power to sell and pay-off the burdens upon the estate ; but, as a practical qnes- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 141 tiou, such is of no material consideration, if the more honour- able and advisable course is to retain possession of the whole, thus paying-off tlie debts by instalments, according to the dying wishes of the testator, the economical management of the pro- perty, and the future interest of the family. It is to the agricultural view of the subject, rather than the political and commercial, which we purpose confining our ob- servations at tlie present time. A landowner, for example, is not a mere capitalist, as some political economists ha^e in their ratiocinations fallaciously assumed hira to be, but an agriculturist by profession. In an uncultivated state, the natural produce of the land may be worth something; but this view of the (|uestion has long since ceased to have a prac- tical meaning in the British Isles, for every step a landowner advances in the race of time brings home to his experience the well-attested truths that " land has its duties as well as its rights," and that he, as a landowner, must of necessity make himself master of his profession, and go with the times in the march of improvement. Tlie day is gone by wlien a landlord can depute or assign to his tenants the performance of his own professional duties with advantage ; for such is now the progress of things that he must either perfr — ^^fn him- self or abide by the consequences, which means, in plain Eng- lish, sell liis land to somebody qualified to discharge the pro- prietary duties belonging to and due by the— -v-, Some political economists have even gone so far as .-; V ^".y down the rule in their doctrine that every farm slioulf. ^'^ ^v separate estate, cultivated by its own landowner, on the plea that the tenant system is contrary to sound economy. This narrow- minded and erroneous view of tlie subject evidently arises from a misconception of the facts of ease, or from viewing the owner of- land as a mere capitalist, and from making no distinction, or an improper distinction, between tlie working capital of tlie tenant invested in procuring from the land its animal and vegetable produce, and the working capital of the landlord invested in reclaiming the land and placing it in a condition ready for the investment of the tenant's capital, and the keeping of the laud in this tenantable condition. A long experience has proved that the landlord and tenant system of this country makes a good going plough, when each keeps up his own end of the yoke. The soundness of this wiU readily be appreciated by all who are practically versant with the details of agriculture and capalile of drawing a trust- worthy conclusion from the facts of the case. To argue as some do that a small proprietor who owns and farms his own land is stimulated by a higher degree of confidence in the in- vestment of capital in the permanent improvement of his land, and in the maintaining of it at a higher degree of fertility, is tantamount to playing at " blind man's butt;" for it is draw- ing general conclusions from exceptionary practices, or, rather, from premises which never existed, and in all probability which never will exist in this country ; for in ninety-nine cases out of every hundred of these exceptionary cases landlords are anything but profitable farmers to themselves, and the few who, contrary to this rule, can show a favourable balance-sheet are wholly indebted to the tenant system for their practical men, who grow the corn and cattle, and thus make the money for them. In point of fact, properly speaking, a landlord system means a peasant proprietary, who each liolds his own plough, and does all the manual labour upon his estate, with the assistance of his family — a system which will not bear a moment's close investigation at the bar of practice ; for before his family is grown up, a small proprietor has either too ranch work upon his own hands, more than he can perform properly, or else if he himself is able to do the work of his farm, he must then have idle good-for-nothing sons and daughters when they grow up to manhood and womanhood. A small estate planted here and there, as it were, amongst large ones, the latter being managed on tlie landlord, tenant, and labourer system, with an abundance of labour to hire, when it is needed by the small proprietors at the outset, and plenty of employ- ment when their families grow up, is manifestly no practical rule from which satisfactory and reliable conclusions can be deduced. In short, the day-dreams of those political econo- mists who thus advocate the breaking-up of large estates into small holdings, each occupied and cultivated by its owner, are incompatible with the science and practice of capital invested in agriculture liy the landowners and tenants of this country, and the growing necessity experienced by both for a still larger amount of working capital being invested in the application of modern discoveries in science to the productive resources of the land by each party in their own respective subdivisions of professional employment — the former each in putting his farms into the most profitable crop-bearing and tenantable state, and the latter each in keeping his farm in the highest order, so as to procure from it the greatest possible amount of produce of tlie best quality it is capable of yielding. " Estates," says Loudon in his Encylujhcdia of Affriculturc, "are of good and bad character." Those with a good character soon find good tenants to farms when they fall into their owners' hands ; while those with a bad character are in a very opposite position — one whose details invariably tell their own sad tale. The force of the argument thus expressed in the preceding paragraph is beginning to make itself practically heard in every province of the kingdom. In other words, landowners are be- ginning to find to tlieir cost that capital invested in land is not a permanent investment, but a redeemable investment. The rental of an estate, for example, is redeeming interest on the capital invested, and not a permanent annuity ; for a portion of the rental is required to keep up the property to its working value. It is common to call houses, roads, fences, drainage, and the like, permanent improvements ; but it is a well authen- ticated fact that such is not the case, as large repairs and not unfrequent renewals are required, involving an outlay of capital, which in the course of time runs up to the original purchase- price of the land, or its current value in the market. If, for example, the fee simple costs £30 per acre, the whole or greater part of this may represent the original cost of reclaiming the land, drainage, houses, fences, roads, and even manure, so as to put it into a tenantable crop-bearing state. Now, altliough some of these improvements may partake of a some- what permanent nature when superficially viewed ; and altliough some grass and meadow lands are looked upon as naturally rich and fertile, yet it is also a well-authenticated fact in practice that not one of these is permanent. It clearly follows, therefore, that what the landowner receives for his £30 per acre is a property in land that is subject to tear and wear ; hence the outlay in repairs, and in renewals when re- pairs become impractical)le. When repairs and renewals arc fairly taken into account, the actual or permanent interest which a landowner receives for his capital is very small, even upon the best-managed estates. Tenants may, in their leases, be bound to do the repairs ; but the economy of this old rule is annually be- coming more and more questionable, for repairs by tenants are always executed in conformity to the duration of their leases, and hence, towards their expiry, are less or more superficially done, which, practically speaking, means not unfrequently worse than no repairs at all, as they prematurely hasten the necessity of renewals Ijy the landlord. Some things may, no doubt, be economically performed by the tenant, such as keeping the roads upon the farm in repair, and the annual cleaning of the ditches or open drains, where such are re- quired ; but even these repairs, if done by the tenant, involve tlie supervision of the landlord, and hence the outlay of less or more redeeming capital. In other words, a well-managed estate requires the services of a regular staff' of officials, whose annual expense amounts to no inconsiderable item in the redemption of the fee-simple, so as to keep up the pro- perty to its value. It is not unusual for purchasers of land to estimate the rent as so much interest on their capital permanently invested, after deducting the expense for repairs and renewals ; but this we aver, for several reasons, is far from a scientific or correct mode of expression, while it is apt to engender erroneous notions relative to the relation between landlord and tenant, and the responsibility of both parties to the public. The Irish tenant-right question may be quoted as an example of this latter kind in reference to erroneous notions about the tenure and improvement of land, and the bounden duties of landlords and tenants, professionally, to the country — erroneous notions which, in all likelihood, will continue to distract the sister- country so long as her landowners and tenants are guided by the opinionative extremes of the past, relative to the nature and economy of their respective professional duties and invest- ments of capital in Irish agriculture — landowners occupying tlie one extreme, and their tenants the other. So long as landlords on the one hand, for example, look upon the pur- chase-money as a permanent investment, on the ground that 142 THE FAEMER'S KAGAZmE. their estates will realize the purchase-money in the market ; and so long as they bind their tenants to do the repairs and renewals at reduced rents for redeeming periods of time ; and so long as they preach up the old philosophy, once familiar in the ears of English and Scotch tenants, of getting tenants of skill and capital to do all the professional work of agriculture (landlords' work as well tenants' work) for landlords' interest only, and often less ; and so long as game-preserving, political, theatrical, and court extravagances form the order of the day with them ; and so long as tenants, on the other hand, are necessitated by the force of competition for farms to comply as much as possible with landlords' terms ; and so long as they dream that the money and labour which tliey spend for their landlords is a permanent investment, simply because at the expiry of their leases incoming tenants would be found who would give them full value on tlieir original outlay for this investment ; and so long as they erroneously conclude that shortsighted and anti(j^uated craft of this kind either keeps down rent, or secures a permanency of occupation — just so long wiU the relation of landlord and tenant in Ireland remain an unsettled question, distracting her provinces, and retardmg the progress of Irish agriculture, and the establishment of manufacturing and commercial industry. So long as the market value of land continues to rise, from its limited supply and increasing demand, landowners may be safe, in a pecuniary sense, to play at their old-fashioned " do, nothing game ;" but the more intelligent of their body begin to see, and even feel, that it is a losing game — one which is annually becoming more and more precarious to rely upon for remunerating interest on capital, as fanners make practical pro- gress in their professional branch of agriculture — in manures, machinery, corn, and cattle. In other words, there is a maximum market value of land for agricultural purposes, to which land- owners and their estates are fast approacning ; and when they get this length in the marcli of improvement, the old aristocratic do-notliing bubble wUi explode, when the force of circum- stances will compel them either to invest their own redeeming and renewing capitals, or else take their farms into their own hands, and thus invest both the landlord's and tenant's capital — a result which few or none are prepared to en- counter, practically speaking, either in a pecuniary or pro- fessional sense. The economy of things special and general is fast convinc- ing all considerate landowners that the direct method of performing their own professional duties as to repairs and re- ne\»als is the more profitable plan both for themselves and their tenants. Houses, fences, and drains require not only to be repaired, but in a very short time to be renewed ; and work of this kind imperatively demands, from an economical point of view, peculiar professional talents, which few prac- tical farmers possess ; and the few who have such talents liave not time to use them. Tenant's capital we cannot discuss in this paper ; but the increase of working capital now required in live and dead stock, and the increase of skill and labour, together with the increase of interest to which he is entitled for capital thus in- vested, is fast placing the duties and investment of the land- lord beyond liis sphere of action. The proper investment of landlord's capital in keeping up the tenantable and even crop-bearing value of farms requires a higher degree of professional skill than is generally credited ; but, if properly and economically invested, it will return fair interest — repairs in the form of greater durability, and re- newals in an increase of their productive values to tenants. Tenants can safely close with mutual agreements of this kind ; but fair interest to the landlord will not remunerate the te- nant. In short, terms that will remunerate tenants involve a heavy sacrifice on both sides — of rent on the part of the land- lord, and of time, produce, and money on the part of the tenant. Many landowners are even paying off tenant cus- toms, such as tillages, due to outgoing tenants at the expiry of their leases, so as to afford tliem more working capital, in cases where they continue possession, and to make the entry more easy to the incoming tenant, when the old one dies out or removes ; and to the sound economy of such a course a single objection cannot' be raised on eitlier the landlord's or tenant's side of the question. No doubt many exceptions wLU be pleaded, such as the want of skUl and capital on the part of the landlord ; but where there is the wiU and skill, capital will be forthcoming at command, so that, practically expressed, the exceptionary plea means that the tradespeople and la- bourers employed take the advantage of the landlord — a line of argument which plainly bespeaks its own exposure ; for, in both branches of agriculture, an apprentice-fee must be paid before either landlord or tenant can farm witli profit. JUSTITU. THE BIRMINGHAM HORSE-SHOW. Had there been no horse-show at Islington there would have been none at Birmingham. The one is a close copy of the other, even to the engagement of Mrs. Beverley, and the amusing bit of flunkeyism of making men judges because they happen to be lords. Unfortu- nately, however, the capabilities of Bingley Hall are any- thing but equal to the larger area of the Agricultural Hall, and, as mapped out diu-ing the past week, never was a sight seen under greater difficulties. Unless you fought your way close up to the side of the narrow awk- ward ring, there was nothing for it but a reserved seat, although the public were emphatically cautioned by the officials that these said seats were intended chiefly for ladies, most probably their own wives and daughters, with room, of com'se, for their noble selves. Indeed, matters were caiTied with such a very high hand by these authorities, that exhibitors began to puf; pertinent ques- tions as to the fitness of Bkmingham citizens for the du- ties they so complacently undertook, as to revert to the old and still unsolved enigma of how much or how little share the agriculturists themselves have in the conduct of the agricultural exhibition annually held on the same pre- mises ? To keep, though, as closely as possible to our present text, the mistakes were so many, the arrange- ments so bad, and the utter ignorance of such a business so palpable, that if the Birmingham Horse Show is to go on, the example of the Smithfield Club should be followed, and Bingley Hall let out for the week to a committee or society of gentlemen, who have some knowledge of what they are about, and who can consequently command the confidence of horse-breeders and sportsmen. It is true that Mr. Horley, JMr. Osborn, and Mr. Lort were in commission on Tuesday ; but it was quite as clear that the actual direction did not rest with these gentlemen, but centred rather in others who should themselves be the first to admit how small were their qualifications for the appointments to which out of their own mouths they had been gazetted. The proceedings were so nicely adjusted, that three sets of judges were put to work at once, and these gentlemen so admirably disposed that if you only watched the busi- ness of the ring you could know nothing whatever of all that was going on in the adjoining lane. Such an under- standing was indeed very emphatically impressed by a notice, we will say given as oft'ensively as possibly, that if you left your seat you lost it, although we gravely ques- tion whether any law or custom would sanction so arbitrary and inconvenient a regulation. Breaking somewhat be- yond the bounds of its metropolitan model, the Birming- ham list included classes of cart-horses, which were scat- tered here and there, two or thr-ee together, just as an odd corner could be found to put them in, and where but few THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 143 of the visitors cared to follow them. Not that the spec- tator suffered much from his negligence, as the heavy draught horses were very indifferently represented, and so thoroughly out of place as to continually suggest the aptness of the equivocal welcome which went rather for your room than your company. About the best entry in this section was the pair of dray-horses exhibited by the Midland Railway Company, and one of which was a particularly fine animal, but they were both overdone witli flesh, and looked as if they had not done a day's work for a twelvemonth. The seventeen cart-stallions num- bered far more middling than meritorious horses ; but Mr. Manning's black, with plenty of substance, is a good mover, though seemingly very light of bone below the knee. However, it is a clean flat leg, free of much of that superfluous hair in which the Shire horses so gene- rally rejoice, and the lack of which should be put as a point in the Champion's favour. About the next best to get alongside of was Young England's Glory, standing seventeen hands thi-ee inches high ; but he has lost his action, and the second prize went to a good young roan, that will with luck be better still. The third was an animal of no style, while ]\Ir. Grifiiths sent one, and Mr. Shaw, of Yaxall, a couple of as indift'erent beasts of bur- den as ever were allowed to travel a country ; and Mr. Smith Tate a Yorkshire coach -horse, called Stonewall Jackson ! Mr. Brierley's pair of plough-horses were of good quality and active " habits," as Jlr. Graham's were another smart pair, with the mare, a wonderfully clever one, only requiring a better partner to have reached higher on the list. The cart-mares and foals were a very bad lot, and Sir Charles Isham's first just a useful animal and no- thing more ; but Mr. Bennett's three-year-old is a great weighty filly, famously done by, that would turn into ready money any day and anywhere. There was nothing very noticeable amongst the two-year-olds, and the introduc- tion of the agricultural element to so cramped a show- yard as Bingley Hall was indisputably a mistake. Even the dray-horses never " took" at Islington. The hunting classes were far better filled, and in plain truth were almost too much for the judges, as we never saw three men with apparently less knowledge of their business than Lord Coventry, Mr. Cook, and Mr. Eel- lowes. The hesitating, see-saw way in which they went fi-'om one horse to another without manner or method, and the slowness, not to say timidity, with which they came to a verdict was more than provoking, and one had occasionally to leave them for half-an-hom- or so only to find them very much "as you were" on om* return. Fortunately they had the Islington awards to go by, and so Voyagem", Master of Ai-ts, Ingleby, and Rural Dean were again amongst the more prominent of the prize- horses ; and deservedly so too, as there is no doubt but that the hunters in London were very ably "appraised." Voyageur and Ingleby, indeed, both showed better than heretofore, having been judiciously reduced in the in- terim, as it was quite a treat to see so handy a horse as Ingleby take Jlrs. Beverley over the hm-dles, about her very pleasantest ride in a very hard and hot day's work. Master of Arts, on the contrary, does not improve upon acquaiptance, and Rm^al Dean, is as we have previously said of him, more after the fashion of a showy charger than a horse to get over a country. Mr. Sargeant's was a deal more like a workman, if nowhere in the class, although he fairly won the cup as the best hmiter the property of a Warwickshire farmer. The judges, however, held very tenaciously to a middling old chesnut of Mr. Alkin's, and Lord Coventry and Mr. Fellowes in turn got on his back. But his Lordsliip is not much of a horseman, and though Mr. Fellowes is said to be a capital performer with hounds, low shoes, socks, and baggy trowaers scarcely tend to exhibit a rider round the ring to the best advantage. Cobnut, auother of the firsts at Islington, again refused to jump ; but Mr. Battam's black flew his fences beautifully, and being moreover a very good-looking horse, it is strange that he missed a commendation at the least. There were a few more good weight-carrying nags ; but the sweetest horse of the show was in the open class, " without conditions as to weight," and where Mr. Jones, the veterinary surgeon from Hereford, won with a ches- nut that Mr. Percival, of Wandsford, would have at any price, though 200 guineas secm'ed him. Up to a certain weight, this is one of the most complete and stylish horses we have met with for many a long day ; but, then, Mr. Jones has generally a good one or two in his stables, and we remember his sweeping the decks a year or two since, when showing on his own ground. The three-year- olds and two-year-olds for hunting purposes were also led off by entries over which there could be no mistalve, Mr. Holmes' black brown, out of an Augur mare, being really a grand horse ; and Mr. John B. Booth's chesnut, by The Drake, for depth, limbs, power, and fashion, even better, as to say that The Bird of Passage is a worthy successor to Beechwood does by no means justice to the merits of the young one. The three-year-old class was very handsomely filled with a quick Irish horse of Mr. Harrison's for second, and three or four more well-bred ones, such as Mr. Butt's and Mr. Harvey Bayley's to pick out from the field. The hunting mares and foals were another capital class ; bvit the particulars in the catalogue must have had a deal to do with the adjustment of the awards, as the condition " adapted for breeding hunters" appeared to be overlooked ; and after a debate almost as long as that over the Reform Bill, they took to a couple of bloodlike mares for first and second, balanced by a coarser sort for third, with one of just the right stamp by way of commendation. We should have preferred seeing this class out earlier in the day ; but, going by the book, the business commenced with the thorough-bred stallions, a veiy moderate lot of just a dozen in all. From these, they put up the steeplechaser Penarth as first, although the Lord only knows why 1 as there was nothing to show for it over a very plain, common sort of animal, just out of training. The handsome Idler, with his showy action, was more deservedly second, and old Neville third ; while a promising three-year-old by Ox- ford, a hunting horse of Mr. Drage's by Sprig of Shille- lagh, and the awkward Clapham were in the next degree. It is said that Clapham has beaten Penarth about home ; but nobody could ever pass the chesnut's action save on the supposition that he is ricked in his back, and if either has ever been a prize horse previously, there must have been a funny field against him. But the placing of the thorough-bred sires was really " done hansum" in comparison with the awards over the stallions fo?- getting cobs or ■po)iies, where another set of judges gravely gave the first prize to a coach-horse standing nearly sixteen hands high, and this moreover with two as clever cobs as a man need wish for, in the class. If you wanted style and action, you had it in Lord Brownlow's Lucifer, late Captain Barlow's Morning Star; or should more strength and substance be the object, it was as ready at hand in Mr. Griflith's Ancient Briton, both, we repeat, model cobs, and yet the first prize went as we have stated. A more absurd award, or one in more open defiance of the conditions, we do not hesitate to say was never announced, and the judges might just as well have given the premium for such a purpose to lAx. Man- ning's other entry, the black cart-horse. Champion. These same gentlemen got on better amongst the riding-horses in work, where Mr. Percy's old Crafty had it once more all her own way, and scored her thirtieth, fortieth, or fiftieth win. A once familiar name in the prize-list, that lU THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of Jonas Webb, comes again to the fore with a useful weight- carrj'iug hack, and Mr. Milward holds liis own amongst the ponies, being highly commended for action in one place, and winning outright with a Bobbj' in another. A reference, however, to the standard led to numerous disqualiiications, and one of the Thurgarton entries, passed as winner a week or two back in Yorkshire, was now put out of it, as was Mr. Lecvor, much to his astonishment and proportionate annoyance, while others received their rejection with more resignation. The two pony proper classes were excellent, and as they stood in the poultry department, where there was something like light and ventilation, the chief enjoyment of the show was centred here ; that is, if the visitor could tear himself away from the jumping, which was made quite as much of a biurlesquc as the same business at Islington, and that is a bold word too ! Neither of the two pairs of carriage-horses was worthy of a premium, though both were duly awarded ; but the ladies' horses included some of the gems of the show, and Major Quentin's chesnut is one of the best broken horsesfor such a pur- pose that ever was exhibited, if rather above the standard we should put a lady's horse at. StUl, he shows a deal of breeding iu his looks as well as conduct ; while his owner, if we remember aright, has already been dis- tinguished in our colums for his giant wheat, his sample of oats, and so forth. The second here, Mr. Holyoake's grey, to stand alongside is almost a model for such a class, .so neat and so bloodlike, as at four years old with plenty of time to settle dowu to his trade. There were three or four more nearly as good, at some of which we managed to just get a glance or so ; but we must repeat that any such inspection was made only under difficulties, there being a repellant almost ofl'ensive front offered by the officials, that deterred a man with anything like feeling of self-respect from asking for, or insisting upon those facilities being afforded that we are happy to say are generally proffered with so good a grace by gentlemen who are equal to the offices they themselves undertake. The thing here is in the wrong hands aud the wrong place ; as it is clear enough that if a Midland Counties Horse Show is to go on, the country gentlemen aud farmers must be in a majority and not a minority, and that the exhibition must be removed from so hot, close, and in- couveuient a building to the more healthy and enjoyable open. When one calls to mind a horse show in York- shire, aud then thinks of one's trials elsewhere, /toiresco refer ens. PRIZE LIST. HUNTERS. Judges: J. R. Cookes, Woodhampton, Stourport. Lord Coventry, Crooiue Court, AVorcester. R. Pellowes, Eitteswell, Lutterworth. ThOEOUGH-BKED STALL10:!fS rOK GETTING WeIGHT- CARRYiNG Hunters. — First prize, £30, W. S. Cartwright, Newport, Monmouth (Penarth) ; second, £15, T. J. Merrick, Northampton (Idler) ; third, £5, W. Gulliver, Swalcliffe, Ban- bury (Neville). Hunters, equal to Iost., Pour Years old and up- wards.— Pirst prize, £15, T. Suttou, Alvvent, Darlington (Voyageur) ; second, £10, T. Gee, Dewhurst Lodge, Wadhurst, Sussex (Master of Arts) ; third, £5, H. J. Percy, Howseurig-g, Aspatria, Cumberland (Ingleby). Commended: R. Alkin, Hartshill, Atherstone (Harkaway) ; and G. Van Wart, Edg- baston (IJrayton). Hunters, without condition as to Weight, Pour Y'emis old and upwards. — Pirst prize, £15, P. B. Jones, Hereford (ch. g. by Rangoon) ; second, £10, H. S. Lucy, Charlecote Park, Warwick (Rural Dean) ; third, £5, P. Hob- son, Leamington. Extra Prize of 5gs. for the best hunter in the two pre- ceding classes, the property of a Warwickshire farmer.— D. Sarjeaut, Long Itcliington, Rugby (Argus). Three-year-old Colts or Pillies for Hunting pur- poses.— Pirst prize, £15, G. Holmes, NewbeRin, Beverley (Tom) ; second, £10, A. Harrison, Metchlcy, Birmingham ; third, £5, E. Wadlow, A''attou, Much Wenlock. Disqualified as being entire : AY. Robinson, Benehill Cottage, Tam\vorth (Napoleon). Two-year-old Colts or Pillies eor Hunting pur- poses.— First prize, £15, J. B. Booth, Killcrby, Catterick (Bird of Passage) ; second ;£10, AY. D. Manning, Rothers- tborpe, Northampton ; third, £5, T. Easterson, The Red House, Bawdsey, AA'oodbridge (Youug Zuydcr Zee). Commended: T. Butt, Pirtou Farm, Kempsey, AA'orcester. M.VRES WITH POAL AT PoOT ADAPTED FOR BREEDING Hunters. — First prize, £15, W. Leach, Gorse IlaU, Staly- bridge (Jessy) ; second, £10, E. Phillips, Bushbury Hill, AVol- vcrhampton (Lady Langford) ; third, £5, J. Tite, jun.. Live- ridge Hill, Henley-iu-Arden. Commended : E. AYeston, jun., Over AA'liitacre Hall, Coleshill. CARRIAGE HORSES. Judges : P. Keuch, Milverton, Leamington. J. Payne, Market-Harborough. J. AYalker, HolyweU, Halifax. Pairs of C-'oiriage Horses. — Pirst prize, £20, T. Avery, Church-road, Edgbaston (Monarch and RoUo) ; second, £10, Capt. J. Simpson Ballard, The A^erlands, Cowbridge (Chan- ticleer and Grimalkin). HACKS, ROADSTERS, AND COBS. Hacks and Roadsters not exceeding 15 Hands 3 Inches high. — Pirst prize, .£15, H. J. Percy, Ilowsenrigg (Crafty) ; second, £5, J. Oilman, jun., Lancaster-street, Bir- mingham (Jenny Jones). Highly commended: R. Milward, Thurgarton Priory, Southwell (Britisli Queen) : A. Harrison, Metclilev ; J. Gihnan, juu. (Salop) ; and J. Holland, Dantzic- street, Manchester (Piddy). AVeight-carrying Hacks from l-t to 15^ Hands high. — Pirst prize, £15, J. AA'^ebb, Melton Ross, L'lceby, Lin- colnshire (Brunette) ; second, £5, II. Ashton, Polefield, Prest- wich, Manchester (Barmaid). A'^ery highly commended for action : R. Milward, Thurgarton (Crisis) . Highly commended : R. W. Johnson, Bricklehampton Hall, Pershore (Turk). Dis- qualified as above height : R. Norman and Son, High Close, Aspatria, Cumberland (Billy Barlow). Cobs under 1-1- Hands high. — First prize £10, Captain J. Simpson Ballard, The Verlands (Sturdy) ; second £5, R. Norman and Sons (Jack). Highly commended: Mrs. H. Cliavasse, Hamstcad, Birmingham (Lalla Rookh), and AA''. Lort, Tlie Cotteridge, King's Norton, Birmingham. Dis- qualified as above height : R. Milward, Thurgartou (Dunstau). LADIES' HORSES. Ladies' Hacks of any Height. — Pirst prize £15, Major Quentin, AA^oodleigh, Cheltenham (Knight Templar) ; second £5, G. Holj'oake, Neachley, Shiffnal. Highly commended: R. J. L. Price, Rhiwlas, Bala, Merioneth (Firefly), and Haines and Parker, Birmingham (Corsair). PONIES. Ponies under 13 HjVJVds high. — Pirst prize £10, R. Milward, Thurgarton, (Lunette) ; second £5, E. Ludlow, Nechells Park Road, Birmingham (Ranger). Highly com- mended : T. Worthington, Derby (Pilgrim), J. Cooke, Oak- ham, Rutland, and J. Hennessy, AA'est Street, Bristol. Dis- qualified as above heiglit: Rev. AA'. H. Beever, Peucraig Court, Ross, Herefordshire (Alice Hawthorn), and J. Scott, King's Arms Lane, Carlisle (Donald). Children's Ponies under 12| Hajjds high. — Pirst prize £5, P. Matthews, Unett Street, Birmingham (Piebald) ; second £3, AY. E. AA'edsfe, Queen Street, AA^olverliampton (Fanny) ; third £2, C. Collins, Oakfield Place, Selly Oak, Bir- miugham (Tommy). Highly commended: T. B. Thomson, High Street, Birmingham (Little Ebony). Stallions for Getting Cobs or Ponies. — Pirst prize £10, J. Manning, Orlingbury, AA^elliugborough (British Statesman) ; second £0, Earl Brownlow, EUesmere, Salop (Lucifer) ; tliird £1, D. GrifTiths, Aubrey Arms, Bonvilstone, Cardiff (The Ancient Briton). Commended: J. AA\ Ladkin, Lutterworth ( llci'-uhitorl . THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 145 DRAY HOUSES. Judges. — R. Doig, Lillingstoue Hall, Bucks. R. J. Newton, Campsfield, Woodstock. R. Swale, Saredou, Wolverhamptou. Vetekinaky Referee. — E. Stanley, V.S., Broad Street, Birmingham. Paiks of Dray Hohses, Four Years Old and Up- wards.— First prize £20, the Midland Railway Company, Birmingham ; second £10, R. Evans, Duddestou Mill, Bir- mingham, AGRICULTURAL HORSES. Stallions. — First prize £30, J. Manning, Orlingbury (Cliampion) ; second £15, W. Wynn, Grafton, Alcester (Sensa- tion) ; third £5, Yeomans Brothers, Pennymore Hay, Wolver- hampton (Black Sea). Highly commended: T. Greenwood, Calverley Bridg:e, Rodley, Leeds (Young England's Glory). Pairs of Houses Four Years Old and Upwards. — First prize £20, C. W. Brierley, Rhodes House, MidcUeton, Manchester (Dick and Sharper) ; second £10, G. Graham, Y'ardley, Birmingham ; tliird £5, W. H. Bull, Weohley, Here- fordshire (Duke and Duchess). Mares witu Foal at Foot — First prize £15, Sir C. Isham, Bart., Lamport Hall, Northampton (Flower) ; second £10, S. Davis, Wollershill, Pershore (Darby) ; third £5, R. Madeley, Combe Fields, Coventry (Darling) . Three- Year-Old Colts or Fillies. — First prize £15, J. E. Bennett, Ilusbauds Boswortli Grange, Rugby (Blossom) ; second £5, W. Wynn, Grafton (Matcliless). Two-Year-Old Colts or Fillies. — First prize £15, E. Lythall, Radford Hall, Leamington ; second £5, R. Marples, Astou-on-Trent, Derby. Commended: F. Nash, Brancote, Stall'ord (Princess). to the editor of the mark-lane express. Sir, — On my arrival lierc last night, I found that I had had the first prize awarded to me in the under 13-hand pony class over 29 competitors ; but that, after wearing the blue- ribbon for two hours, my mare was measured a second time on those uneven boards, and disqualified. Mr. Milward, who succeeds to the prize, was disqualified, I hear, himself in another class, and then took exception to my pony. He, a practised judge himself, would never have met with that fate unless there was an element of uncertainty in the measuring. I hold that the measurement of the judges' V.S. is wrong. A horse should be measured by a perpendicular line, let fall upon a level floor, from the poinf throufjh which a slra'irjld line drawn cent rally vp the shoulder-lladc from the shoulder point emenjes. The central line of the shoulder-blade indicates, as all know, the obliquity of the horse's shoulder. The plan adopted here is to measure from the corner of the shoulder- blade next the horse's neck. That is wrong, and measuring on shrunken boards is wrong. As I am informed by the secretary that all appeal is useless, I ar.i anyhow determined to see if some rule cannot be laid down by wliich on future occasions we exhibitors may be spared the mortification of forfeiting a fairly-won and liighly-honourable prize, but of being subjected to the discredit of having attempted a cheat. Yours, &c., Birmintjhani, July 11. W. Holt Beevek. FIGURES FOR FARMERS, BY HOWARD REED. It is not a little strange that we should have been dependent, so late as 1855, on a foreigner for the most correct statistics of the cattle produce — the produce of beef, mutton, pork, veal, and milk — of this country. Porter and M'CuUocli had previously presented us with estimates, which were very much disputed. Lavergne seems to have been the iirst to give us anything upon which we appeared to rely. Some despotic caliph or other — the adjective, however, might be omitted, since all caliphs are supposed to be despotic — with a profound contempt for statistics, re- marked, " Should I govern the better for knowing how many tiles there are on the roofs of the houses ?" " Even so, caliph," it might have been replied; "for with this information thou wouldst have been just so much the more knowing. We never know when our knowledge will be required of us, nor how it will be turned to account. In a high wind, for instance, the information might be useful." I am far from disputing that dishonest and vexatious uses are made of figures ; but, at the same time, one can- not close one's eyes to the benefits that have accrued to us by the establishment of a society whose members arc pledged to register the facts concerning the social life of the people of this country, and honestly to reduce them, as far as can be, to figures. The statesman, the philo- sopher, the man of commerce, and the tradesman are all interested in obtaining such data as they can rely upon. It is only thus that wc can compare the past and the pre- sent, for the purpose of determining whether any, and what, way has been made. It is thus ouly that the statesman can discover the effect of any definite line of policy : it is only by such barometric observations that those engaged in commerce and trade can regulate their operations with economy to themselves and tlie country. Were it not for the registration of data obtained by the Registrar- General, the mortality-bills would show as high a death-rate now as that which characterised this country thirty years ago ; and now, although we might suspect it, we could not prove that this tendency of popu- lation to concentrate in large manufacturing foci is a serious charge to us, in human life. We are now pointed to the fact that in cities like Manchester and Liverpool mea and women die off sooner than they do in London, and that the rate of mortality is twice as severe as it is in the rural districts. Apprised of such a fact, of course we begin to look about us for the cause and the remedy. Were we not certain of the fact, we should scarcely trouble ourselves with such investigations. The same remark applies to many other branches of statistical inquiry. I have long urged in the columns of this magazine the necessity which exists for correct statistics as to the area of land under the principal crops grown in these islands. The produce of Ireland is already so tabidated, aad with the best results. We are gradually inclining to the same practice. The present year has given us a very valuable document, by which we see the number of live stock in each division of the United King- dom, and the number of each kind of live stock in each county. From this return we are able to test the accuracy of former computations, especially those of M. Lavergne, which are founded on Spackman's, McCuUoch's, and Porter's figures, corrected by his own observations. In 1855 he assumes for us the following possessions in cattle : — Live Stock. jjn^f^v1jp5_ Scotland. Ireland. Cattle 5,000,000 1,000,000 2,000,000 Sheep 30,000,000 4,000,000 2,000,000 The proportion of cows in this total of 8,000,000 head of stock was 3,000,000, 146 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The area was tlien estimated at 77,394,433 acres, of which twelve or fourteen millions of acres were supposed to be in permanent pasture. It is clear that the stock covered the area of the United Kingdom in the propor- tion of 10.40 head per 100 acres; or, in other words, that England grazed one head of stock (eow% steer, calf) to every 7i acres, Scotland one to every 20 acres, Ire- land one to every 10 acres. At the same time the same authority computed France to possess 10,000,000 head of horned stock (comprising 4,000,000 cows) dispersed over an area of 132,000,000 acres, in the proportion of 8.33 head per 100 acres. The following tables show other computations made at various dates, as compared with the official retui'us of 1866 :— Live Stock. Eng. and Wales, 1854. Horses 1,309,010 185,409 547,867 Cattle 3,423,165 974,437 3,493,414' Sheep 18,691,088 5,683,168 3,688,742 Pigs 2,633,724 146,354 1,299,893 The return of 1866 give the following official figures under the same heads : — Scotland. 1857. Ireland. 1865. Cattle I 3,886,053 Sheep 16,850,887 Pigs I 2,280,700 937,411 I 3,493,414 5,255,077 3,688,742 219,716 I 1,299,893 In comparing the area and the cattle in each country of England, I find some facts that deserve to be kept in mind by all whose voices are apt to be raised and listened to in agricultm-al assemblies. In the fii'st place, it appears that the 32,590,397 acres which are measured on the surface of England proper support some 10.14 head per 100 acres, having lost by the cattle plague 4.14 between July 1865 and April 21, 1866. There are 46.34 sheep in like manner to each 100 acres. In Wales, the area is 4,734,486 acres, and the heads respectively of cattle and sheep upon each 100 acres are 11.50 and 35.45. In Scotland, the area being 19,639,377, there are found to be 4.92 head of stock, and 26.24 sheep on each 100 acres. The table below has been prepared at some pains, to give a comparative view of the number of cattle and sheep possessed by each of the English counties to each 100 acres. It is a pity that we are not able to show the dis- tribution of cattle and sheep over the grass land; l)ut we have as yet no return of grass land as distinguished from arable. The fii-st column of this table shows the coun- ties in their order of precedence, as respects the number of cattle to each 100 acres. The second eliminates the cows from the first column, and shows their proportion as to the area separately. The nest shovvs the loss sus- tained by each county from the cattle plague. The fom-th exhibits the per-centage of sheep to each county. The fifth is added to explain the third, by classifying the sheep counties in four groups of ten counties each, accord- ing to their order of precedence. The counties marked in italics stand pre-eminent — Lei- cester, for cattle ; Berhy, for cows ; Chester, for loss by cattle plague ; Rutland, for sheep. Rutland, it may be observed, is in the first group both as respects cattle and sheep, and seems to have been but a slight loser by the plague. Somerset is similarly situated. Those counties which are in the fourth gi'oup for sheep, it will be seen, stand for the most part in the first group for cattle. It will be observed that the cows are most numerous in the first group of ten counties ; and were we to take the steers of two years old, the yearlings, and calves, we should find very nearly the same distribution that we do in the case of the cows. It may also be remarked that the plague, while it visited Chester, which stands in the first gi'oup for cows, was comparatively little felt by the others, but made gi-eat havoc upon counties far less numerously supplied with cows, and I may add with cattle. County. Leicester Derby Somerset Lancaster Cornwall Stafford Chester Salop Nottingham Rutland Hereford Gloucester Warwick Northampton Westmoreland Devon Buckingham Dorset Cumberland Monmouth York WUts Worcester Lincoln Oxford Bedford Durham Sussex Huntingdom Berks Norfolk Northumberland Cambridge Suffolk Surrey (extra metropolitan) Hertford (extra metropo.) . Kent (extra metropohtan) . Essex (extra metropolitan) Hants 17.31 17.16 16.53 16.61 15.31 14.72 13.15 12.97 12.75 12.41 12.18 12.02 11.92 11.93 11.38 11.19 11.10 11.07 10.90 9.98 9.73 9.69 9.69 9.53 8-90 8.73 8.40 7.96 7.69 6.76 6.81 6.27 6.04 5.87 5.82 5.81 5.21 5.01 4.55 1 ° it « § -S ^ P^-^^ S £ — .2 « o o Oo rt o O r-t 1 n4 a Oi5 o< % fc. if S ^ „» « 3 en 5.70 .37 56.50 8.85 .90 26.76 8.04 .10 60.82 8.76 1.87 17.84 4.43 .69 34.34 8.25 3.26 31.70 8.08 34.28 13.70 5.18 4.89 39.05 3.78 3.37 46.67 2.70 .16 79.07 3.70 .83 48.08 4.31 .12 44.26 4.65 .88 52.46 2.91 3.24 11.78 4.32 — 46.27 4.53 .09 46.41 5.02 3.53 56.32 6.70 .02 77.95 3.82 4.78 39.55 3.65 35.60 3.68 C.30 38.76 5.17 .43 69.68 4.40 .43 43.23 2.19 5.66 61.29 3.06 5.90 70.50 2.63 1.70 60.97 2.67 .77 23.56 2.78 1.40 51.66 1.87 11.30 51.32 2.90 1.62 72.57 1.81 5.81 44.05 1.43 1.16 50.86 1.74 17.90 48.56 1.86 3.53 43.03 2.12 5.04 32.27 3.02 2.29 58.14 1.87 2.66 72.74 1.46 3.66 36.96 2.42 .61 57.89 II. rv. I. IV. IV. IV. IV. III. n. I. II. III. II. IV. III. III. II. I. III. ni. m. I. III. I. I. I. IV. n. II. I. m. 11. II. in. IV. I. I. III. 11. The publication of a table like this cannot be without its advantage. The great dependence of the farmers of this country must be henceforth in the production of meat, milk, and butter. Each district must bestir itself, and do its utmost. Let the remainder ask themselves why the standard of Rutland, Leicester, Somerset, Hereford, Gloucester, Warwick, Dorset, Bucldngham, and Wilts may not be reached ? Now that we are lessening the risks of infection, it will be well that this question should receive more attention. THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE. 147 THE CULTIVATION OF OATS. Oats are grown more widely perhaps than any other grain crop ; and on good soU, with fair cultivatiou, produce good, remunerative crops. It (the oat) has fewer enemies than most of the cereals, and may be raised with less labour tlian any of them — in fact, so easily are oats raised, that very great negli- gence prevails iu almost all parts of the country where they are grown, iu properly preparing and enriclung the land. It would seem that a crop which is so universally grown as to exceed the wheat crop of the country by over a million of bushels, according to the census statistics of 1860, would re- ceive better attention ; but a notion prevails that the oat has strong assimitative powers, and it is best to use it to extract the little remaining fertiUty of an almost exhausted soil — at least such might be inferred from the course of culture pursued too often. Soils and their Preparation. — Oats thrive the best on a rather moist soil, of a somewhat closer, heavier texture than required for the best crops of corn. The ground sliould be ploughed as soon after the frost is out as it will admit of working well ; plough deep and with a narrow furrow-sHce ; no matter if a small quantity of subsoil is brought up, as the oat will bear it better than most other crops. The frosts of winter have the effect to loosen the soU, and leave it in a favourable condition, so that teams, fre^h and strong, wiU better perform their part in deepening the soil than at any other season of the year. The judicious farmer should ever keep in mind that it is better to add to liis farm by deepening the soU. than in adding to the acreage. I should have said before that oats should follow some hoed crop, properly. Varieties. — Every section has, or is supposed to have, its favourite variety, which has some fancied or real quality better than any other, and that variety is generaUy cultivated to the exclusion of others. It would tlieretbre be vain to recommend or say that any particular variety was best ; but aU agree, I believe, that the heavier the grain weighs the better, as a general nUe. Oats, long grown on the same soU, unless par- ticular pains are taken iu selecting and saving seed, are liable to deteriorate in quality, and an advantage is often derived in obtaining seed from cooler localities. SELECTiNa Seed. — A great faUing, too common among farmers aud cultivators generaUy, is the want of care in select- ing and saving seed for future use. In selecting oats, the lieaviest, brightest, and plumpest only shoiUd be used. Take the best to he had, aud assort them in one of the foUowing ways : By throwing them across a long floor, retaining only those which go the farthest ; the lightest will fall short. By running them through a fanning miU, turned rapidly, to blow over the lightest ; the heaviest and best wiU run down, and those only should be used : to procure seed at first, this is the best way ; but when a crop is grown, the better way is to take from the best part of the field that wanted for seed. Take the bundles and wliip them across the head of a barrel, aud select therefrom such as wUl readUy sheU out, and divide still farther as before. In this way the standard weight may be kept up indefinitely, and an improvement oftentimes made on the ori- ginal. Were farmers to use similar care in selecting seed of all kinds, there would be less complaint of the products being of poor quality as weU as quantity. Sowing. — The seed should be sown as soon after ploughing as practicable. DrUliug-in seed, sowing broadcast, harrowing in and ploughing in, are the different ways practised iu different sections and by different cultivators. For several reasons, I give the preference to drUling-in the seed, for by so doing the quantity per acre can be more exactly regulated ; the covering is more uiuform than by the other methods ; the seed is more uniformly distributed tlian in hand-sowing. Being covered uniformly, it comes up simultaneously, and it does not present the spotted appearance wluch is otherwise often seen. There is also less liabiUty to lodge than in hand-sown, even when sown on similar soil side by side. It will usually pay to let the land lie long enough to dry sufficiently, and roU it to break down any clods, and fit a good seed-bed ; then drill ia the seed — the depth to be governed by the soU — from one to two inches, and finish off with the roll. In sowing broadcast, the seed is put on immediately after ploughing, and harrowed twice over, length and crossways of the field, foUowed by the roU to finish off — an important item to help to keep down the weeds and facilitate in harvesting the crop. Ground liable to have standing water should be underdrained, or, at least, water furrows should be opened after sowing, to conduct the water off ; for no kind of grain is expected to thrive where water is allowed to stand upon it, if we except rice. Different cultiva- tors use from two to four busliels of seed per acre. As a gene- ral ride, the better and heavier the soil, the more seed it will bear ; a safe average amount would be three bushels. The earliest sown produces the best crop, both as to yield and weiglit ; the latest the next, and between the poorest. Harvesting. — Oats, unlike wheat and rye, are better and heavier for not being cut too green, although the straw is less valuable for fodder ; being cut green, they pack closer, do not cure so weU, and are liable to injure in the mow or stack. The best way of cutting is with the grain cradle, which leaves them spread thin in the swathe, and gives an opportunity to dry so as to be gathered, bound, and put in the stack or mow, without danger or injury, as is too apt to be the case when cut with the reaping machine, and thrown off in "gavels." In the former case, if wet they soon dry out, often without turning ; but in the latter they require to be spread. The straw of the oat wUl retain wet with much greater tenacity than that of any other grain. The grain is bound in suitable-sized bundles, and set on the butts to sun and dry a few hours, and then either carted to the barn or shocked in the field, where they may remain in perfect safety for some weeks. Lay three or four slieaves in the centre, so that the heads wUl not come in con- tact \vith the ground, which is easUy done by weaving them together ; build around these in a circle, keeping the heads of the bundles higher than the butts, and in the centre ; keep the sides perpendicular to the desired height ; then draw in evenly, and finish off with a cap sheaf, set and boimd on firmly. Thrashing. — The old modes of thrashing with the flaU, and tramping out with horses, have given way to the improved macliine driven by horse or other power. An important part is cleaning the grain, as a nice, clean article will always com- mand a ready sale, aud a better price, than an equaUy good article mixed with dirt, chaff, &c. The grain run through the fan-mUl twice — first with a coarse meshed riddle, and again through a finer — wUl usuaUy expedite the cleaning and do it more satisfactoi'ily. Rotation. — Oats are generaUy esteemed an exhaustive crop ; but when they occupy a place in a regular course of rotation, they are no more exhaustive than other straw and grain crops ; but when grown, as is sometimes the case, many years in succession on the same ground with only one plough- ing, and without fertilisers of any kind, the land is often ex- hausted of its fertUity, and the soU is filled with Canada thistles, dock, and other noxious weeds, thus rendering it unproductive. There is no better grain with whicli to sow graas seed for stocking down than oats, and for that purpose I would grow them, seldom if ever growing them oftener on the same ground. Oats are benefited by most of the usual fertilizers, except such as contain much nitrogenous matter or lime, they retarding the ripening, or producing a rajik growth of straw, causing it to lodge. The preferable way is to enrich the soil through pre- vious crops, getting it into good heart and tilth, not applying any stimulant to the growth of the plant. A cool, moist season usuaUy gives us the heaviest and most prolific crops. — Wm. H. White, in The Country Gentleman (American paper). POTATOES.— The value of the potatoes imported into the United Kingdom m 1854 was £17,467 ; in 1855, £10,196 ■ in 1856, £19,322; in 1857, £175,094; in 1858, £337,821 • in 1859, £101,038 ; iu 1860, £136,576 ; in 1861, £112,374 • iu 1862, £333,842; in 1863, £341,139 ; ia 1864, £143,986 j and ia 1866, £161,907. 148 THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. TEXTLESS NOTES. BY A CROTCHETY FARMER, Somcv.Lcrs about two years ago — long before a thought of the cruel pest, which is now committing such ravages amongst our herds, had entered the minds of men as a possibility — I ventured to write for the pages of this journal, which I love to make the vehicle of my crotchety thoughts, some remarks which I kuow by not a few of its readers were thought crotchety enough, but which, if they were honom'ed by a second perusal now, would uot, I am crotchety enough to believe, be considered crotchety in any sense of the term. These remarks were upon the subject of the cruelty which was then practised upon our cattle during their transit from place to place on our rail- ways. Am I right or am I wrong in supposing that this cruelty has no longer an existence ? I for one am not so sure that it is a thing of the past. Although I mainly, in the remarks I gave at the time above alluded to, took up what may be called the ethics of the question, I did not hesitate to speak, or rather to write, plainly upon what might be the result of such cruelty upon the healthy condition of our stock. Of com'se I indulged then in no vaticination as to the breaking out of the pest which is now so appalling in its course amongst us ; but indeed it required no prophetic powers to be able to trace at any time the result in a r/eaeral way of the habitually exer- cised carelessness and cruelties in which our railway transit companies indulged towards the unfortunate animals con- signed to their — I was going to say care — -most shameful neglect. I do not think it is by any means a compli- mentary consideration for our railway managers to ponder over, that the reform of a system which I then denounced " as perfectly and inexcusably disgraceful and character- ised by abomination," has been partially brought about by considerations other than the right ones, and that, by a pressure from without which no right-thinking body of men would ever have required, they have inaugurated, or are now apparently beginning to inaugurate, a mode of treatment of stock committed to their charge more in accordance with the principles of humanity, which every Englishman claims to be guided by, and less in accordance with a sickening savagery which, I do not hesitate to say, characterised their proceedings for a long series of painful years. I do not know — I was going to say I do not care, but I do care, and much, very much — what the ultimate result of this outward pressure will be ; but much I fear that when it is relaxed, when we get over, shall I say, our cowardly fears, that a return to the atrocious system of neglect and cruelty which I denounced two years ago will be the case in many instances. The question then comes to be — and now is the time to put it and argue the matter fairly out — shall these things be again? Is it true, or is it not, that if the farming community rose up iu their might, and demanded, or rather insisted, that these things shall no longer be, that this demand or insistance would be listened to and acted upon ? Or is it the truth that the fanning community have iio might ; or if they have it, that they are too indifferent, too careless, to exercise it, even when that exercise would be so bene- ficial to their own interests and to those of humanity ? Truly, amongst a by no means limited portion of the community, it seems to be a settled couviction that farmers are nobodies. That they have grievances may now and then be admitted, which should perhaps be remedied ; tut which, haviug not the spirit Oi- the power to have remedied themselves, need not therefore be taken at all into national account. That this is by no means an ex- aggerated view of what estimation the farmers are held iu, by a large portion of the community, and the low notion also of their political or social power, it is easy enough to prove. It may be proved, indeed, any day by going amongst, or reading the organs of the trading and com- mercial parts of the kingdom, and, indeed, need not be sought for in auy wide part of the social system ; for in the narrowest circles some will be found who glibly enough "settle the hash!" (pretty phrase) of the farmers very soon, and show them up very easily as a portion of the community which no one will concern himself about, as likely to have any weight whatever in the social and political scale. Other bodies may and do get their grievances remedied, or at least get a respectful degree of attention paid to them, if not remedied, which, at the least, is more pleasant than the rough and rude way in which the complaints of the farmers are met. As for getting their grievances remedied, that is alto- gether out of the question ; and indeed so thoroughly is the popular mind indoctrinated with the truth as they call it, belief as I name it, that farmers are always grumbling, that therefore, because they are so, that they have nothing real to grumble at — the fable of the boy and the wolf over again, in fact. Until the farming community please itself to rise up in its might of right (for I am crotchety enough to believe that, as they have the right, so have they the might), and show that their interests are in reality those of the nation, and that in their being neglected a national wrong is being per- petrated, we shall go, year after year, the same weary round, circle fashion, ever returning into itself — continual motion, but no progress. All this is very rambling and crotchety, no doubt ; but, I take it, it has some meaning, though, I confess frankly enough, I may not have been able to make it clear to the reader. But when from Chancellors of the Exchequer to editors of Manchester- school papers, the veriest children's dogmas are promulgated — in defiance, too, of the darling political economy which they thiuk so much of — I do conceive that it is about (if not quite) time for the farming com- munity to rise up, and say what they think of all this fine talk, and of the continued exercise of indifference to their interests, which an influential part of the community have displayed for so long a time, and markedly — very markedly — since the outbreak of the pest, the ravages of which have brought destruction and ruin to many a home- stead in the pleasant vales and dells of our country. And, by the way, writing of this ruin reminds me of the very easy way in which it is looked at and written about by the organs of bodies other than farmers. " It would be moastrousJy absurd,'^ says a well-known ex- ponent of modern political economy, so-called — "it woald be monstrously absurd " (I have a strange desire to repeat the "monstrous " words) — "for the nation to be called upon to do anything to assist the farmers." If these are not the very words, they are nearly so, and quite the meaning of those which were given. Of course, the editor of the paper in which this was printed had an entire oblivion of the fact that the nation loas once called upon to help the cotton people iu their distress ; but, then, if he had remem- bered such a very trifling thing as this, he would at once THE FARMER'S MAGAZI^TE. 149 have seen that it was a "monstrously" "proper" theory to do, because it was the cottou people who had been helped, and of course in a degree it was proper, and, shall I say, politic ;Uso for the Goverumeiit to do so — -for, bless you ! the operatives and their masters must be kept quiet at all hazards or no hazard, as the case may be. But I do the Editor a wrong in keeping back his reason — probably I am very unreasonable in calling it a reason at all — for showing that it would be a " monstrously absurd" thing for the nation to be called upon to aid the farmers in the ruin which has laid many, and threatens to lay more, low : it is this — and I pray you, good reader, note it well — " until the farmers do something to help themselves." It is indeed a fine sample of a " political- economy reasoning" which asks a ruined man to help himself; and it puts us in mind of the "robbing Peter to pay Paul" style of things; only it happeus that in many cases in point both Peter and Paul have nothing to be robbed of. But the fine feeling of the reason above stated is beautifully manifested in remembrance of what was done by the community at large, as associated indi- viduals, not as the nation with a national purse. The people not connected, not even in the remotest degree, with the manufacturing districts, did not wait " until" the manufacturers helped themselves, or even wait to see whether they would try to help themselves, but large and munificently liberal sums were thrown into the coffers of the committees as soon as the distress was known. We know at least one large manufacturing town where the ma- nufacturers did not begin to help themselves first ; but the help first came from those by no means connected with cot- tou. But the whole matter is scarcely worth arguing upon its merits, or rather demerits ; it is only the outcome of a too wide-spread indifference to agricultural interests, as if — as //' these were not just as truly the interests of the nation at large as those of the cotton, the wool, the silk, or any other part of the trading or commercial communi- ties. And are we, or are we not, bound in the bonds of a common interest ? It would seem to be not so, if we are to believe certain organs of the press, which boast themselves to be the only representatives of our enlarged humanity. And yet, after all, is it true, as the writer we have quoted seems to infer, that the farmers have not helped themselves ? although I for the nonce take no notice of the queer humanity that prompts a man to stand quietly by, and see another drowning, and refrain from helping him till the drowning man helps himself, perhaps with his hands tied. I say it is not true ; and if the writer wrote them in ignorance, he ought not, occupying the position he chose to assume, to have been so iu ignorance. I know whether the farmers in many districts have or have not helped themselves. But away with this finesse of humanity advocated by the writer I have quoted. The questions, and the only questions are Does distress exist ? does ruin stare many in the face ? has ruin not met many already ? These are the questions ; and if they are, as they can be, answered in the affirmative, then there is only one answer to them : and I say, crotchety as I may be thought for saying it, it will not be " monstrously ab- surd"— on the contrary, it will be just and proper — for some national notice to be taken of this national calamity. It is not the calamity of a class : it affects us all ; who can say Iww much it has yet to affect us ? Times like these are not the times to stir up class feelings, and bring into the field arguments to prove that we should not help our falling and failing brethren. Brothers in birth, we should be brothers iu feeling ; and if so, even such a pestilence as is now scourrjing us, if it draws us all nearer together, may, although now a grievous trial, henceforth be a matter even of congratulation, in that it brought out the better feelings of the community, and made us less and less akin to the brutes, who think, if they think at all, only of themselves, because more and more akin to the true man, who thinks of those other than himself. It is the happy belief of not a few amongst us that the " world kcejis moving," as the phrase is, meaning thereby that in all ways it is getting better, and moving on in the riyht direction. I, for one, can scarcely bring my niind to this belief, and am convinced at times, in view of the misery, deep degradation, vice, and foUy which surround us on all sides, that in a few things we are standing sfill ; and probably are blessed only with that kind of movement shadowed forth in the Irishman's instructions to his men to progress backwards ; or in the no less absurd instructions which a real John Bull gave to his men, who were hoisting up some goods, to " elevate them a little lower." I am not sure but that some of om- classes are being very rapidly elevated lower, to quote our worthy friend. I have been so completely bewildered by all that has been written of late about the position of the "working class"— I wish some other title could be got for that class, as if they were the only working classes amongst us ! — their future, what they are doing, what they are going to do, and what they shoidd do in those good times, which are so often, so very often, sni^g about (by the way, in some very bad places) as coming, but which are always to eome. I say I am so bewildered by all the absurdly contradictoiy things that are said about this class — unfortunate or fortunate, I posi- tively scarcely know which to call or think its members^ and said by people who assert that they know all about it, that I am tempted at times to give up all consideration on the subject, and welcome, if I can only attain to it, a con- dition of perfect oblivion about all concerning it. But then that is impossible to be done — that is, unless I shut myself up as a monk, attend no markets, go to no farmers' club, or read no farmer's and other newspapers ; for by no other means is it possible, I conceive, to get out of the way of hearing of, or reading about, what, to borrow a phrase — or rather to paraphrase it — from our United States friends, I propose to call the " inevitable working man." Simply, by way of a change, if not for a higher reason, would it not be possible for awhile to let the working men alone ? We have been leading them a good long time in leading strings, treating them as little children, and feeding them, shall I say, upon the " pap" of the silliest advice and the most absurd proposals. We should then see whether in all respects it is true, what many do insist on as being true, that the " inevitable working man" is progressing in the right direction ; whether he is all some claim him to be, a perfect paragon of all the virtues, or whether he is not like some of his neighbours, tainted with just a trifle of the sin of the human stock. Probably we would begin to see that he is not all that the fancy of some have painted him ; that this progress is backwards, and that some of his elevating processes, so called, are rather lowering in their effects. But then it is so difficult to decide now-a-days what progress is. I have heard people congratulate themselves on what they called the progress some were making, and which I looked upon in my innocence as retrogression of a very decided kind. Some look upon a thing as happy, while I look upon it as the reverse ; and truly, as I have said before, it is a most difficult thing for me to arrive at what is likely to be a safe conclusion ujjou many social questions, if I give my- self up to be buffeted to and fro by the winds of diverse doctrines of so-called " organs." I wish they would play some sweet concord " for once and away." For instance, am I to look upon the annonncement which I have seen lately made in the agricultural newspapers, and papers not in any sense given to look honestly and kindly at things agricidtural — that the farm labourers of certain districts of England and Scotland have joined, or are about to join, 150 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. themselves into a strong nnion to raise funds, and then to strike, in order to compel theii' masters to give them higher wages — I say, am I to look upon this announcement as evidence that "progress" is going a-head amongst the work- ing classes, and that this is an elevating process ? As the Yankees say, after crushing in upon you a crowd of ques- tions, I now say " I want to know — pray du tell." I want to know, moi-eover, which of the two is right of two 3LP.'s, who ought, I fancy, to know, or if //ie>/ don't, why what chance is there of poor non JNI.P.'s, like you or I, good Reader, knowing — the one M.P. who counselled, or very nearly counselled, the farm-labourers above alluded to, to strike as the dest thing they could do ; or that other M. P., who felt " a glow of indignation against a system which again and again has wrought such deep, bitter, irreparable anguish, not to the working man alone, but to his wife and little ones" ? What, in the name of logic, can we make of this, which calls up in one M.P., as I suppose I may say, a " glow of hope" that good will come out of the strike; in the other M.P. a "glow of indignation at the thought of the misery which a strike can do" ? Which is right ? I want to know. Or is it one of those things which "no fellah f«H understand?" I want to know a good many more things about this, and perhaps other questions which concern the reader of this journal very closely. I want to know — for I protest most positively that for this occasion, at all events, I shall not venture to give any opinion of my own plainly, as on all other occa- sions I have done — but in the belief, or upon the supposi- tion— no matter which — that it is not possible, with so many conflicting circumstances, to come to any conclusion : I ask as if I knew nothing, or had no opinion of my own. I want to know therefore whether any good is likely to' come out of this union movement amongst the farm labourers ? Am I to under- stand, on the faith of some mouthing M.P.'s — upon my word, when I think of some of these gentry, I am com- pelled to perpetrate parenthetically a horrid pirn, and say that the letters M.P. make me remember what rail- way-goods' carriers know so well, and knock about so carelessly, namely, "empties," or "empies," as they are sometimes loosely in North Britain called — am I to un- derstand, then, on the faith of some mouthing M.P.'s, or " empies," that it is exceedingly desii'able to originate and organise unions, aud to promote strikes? or on the contrary, am I henceforth to believe all the dicta and plainly-expressed opinions of a host of men, masters, servants ("empies" and " non-empies") regarding unions for strikes, of which dicta and opinion a few may he expressed as thus : Freedom of individual action in all things lawful to the very birthright of Englishmen • — the right to take his labour where he will, and give it at what price he may ? Unions strike at the very root of this inestimable privilege — indeed, show that it is no privilege at all. The union compels him to be a marked man — a slave, and nothing else. It tickets him at the price it chooses him to work at ; it gauges his ability, or rather makes him to use that ability accord- ing to its fancied scale ; puts all upon a dead level, and allows no chance of that ability pushing its owner for- ward. The rules of the union are a make-up of a series of negatives ; its members dare not do this, must not do that. " It would fill pages," says one who knew the rules of some unions — "it would fill pages to relate all the things he must not do and dares not do, and for doing which he might be punished." Workmen sing in chorus that as " Britons they never will be slaves." The union, if they are in one, allows them to be nothing else. Its members are entered in books, docketed, and numbered ; they dare not go from one semce to another without notice given to the union ; they dare not marry, they dare not move, without notice ; aud if they fancy that they breathe the breath of free England, and dream that they are free like it, they are mistaken, for a " secret- service" company of the imion dodges all their steps, registers all their movements. But the worst has not been said of the curse that many men look upon unions as being. Trade is brisk, work plenty, wages good enough to enable a man, if he is prudent and sober — ah! that "if" — to do well and save something for a rainy day. He is desirous to work, happy to work, glad at the prospect of work — when, lo ! down comes the order from the council of the union that he is to join the strike. No matter whether right or wrong — no matter whether he does believe it to be wrong — he must go out, or be a marked man — a knob-stick ; and it is painful to think what being that involves, in this the boasted land of liberty. But then he is not a free man ; " he has no business to consult his own reason, or his own will. Obey he must. He strikes ; and, perhaps, after months and months have gone by — when his furniture is at the pawn-shop — when his home is shattered, his energies en- feebled, his spirits sunk, his temper exasperated — when but too probably his wife's health is ruined, and his little ones are grown pale, thin, and mournful— at last the society in its wisdom vouchsafes him leave to return to his work at the very same wages, on the very same terms, that it had forced him to reject." The laws of labour cannot be set aside by any such combinations as unions aim at. These laws are, we have every reason to believe, invariable in their mode of action — at aU events, ex- perience has shown as yet that this is the case. AU this, good reader, which I have here stated is not my own opinion — that is, I give it as a resume of the opinion of an immense majority of those who have given their attention to the subject ; and I come back to my old question. I want to know if aU this is wrong, or is it all just and true ? The question is a most momentous one, look at it in any light we may, for those who ai*e contemplating to introduce such a novelty into the prac- tice of farming, as I have at the beginning of my paper alluded to — most momentous ; and, if I had any in- fluence with those concerned in the movement (which I have not), I would most strongly urge upon them to con- sider well the step they are proposing to take. Once taken, it cannot be recalled. I can do no more than use the influence which I have, and that is the influence I am here using — that of the press, a potent engine for good or evil (may it be my lot to move it always for good) ; and I would put before them only this one consideration — The uniform and invariable result of all strikes which have been inaugurated has been loss, deep, bitter loss, to all concerned. COLTS RUBBING THEIR TAILS.— Colts sometimes rub their tails when in apparent health, and wlien by the most careful examination we can detect neither lousi- ness, eruptions, nor any unnatural or unhealthy appear- iiuce of the skin whatever. In such cases, and when the colt rubs only the tail and the neighbouring parts, we must look for some other cause for the itcliing; and in niue cases out of ten it wiU be found to be caused by the thread or pin worm lodged in the rectum, and for this Dr. Dadd recommends an injection of salt in solution. This, no doubt, would afford temporary relief. Salt when fed in sufficient quantities to domestic animals is believed to be not only a preventive of worms, but also of many other diseases — the opinion of some writers to the contrary notwithstanding. My method of feed- ing salt in winter is, ko make a strong brine, put it on the poorest liay, and fodder the cattle and sheep with it twice a week. To horses give the salt clear. I don't like the plan of keeping salt lying by stock, as in that way they sometimes get cloyed. H, Q,—New Lisbon, N, Y. THI] FABMEU'S MAGAZnsTE. 151 THE PECK OF WHEAT PER ACRE. Sir, — Year by year I become more and more couviuced of the immense damage done to tlie British farmer by an over- sowing of seed. The question is one much less important as a saving of seed tlian as a preventive of damage to and dimi- nution of the growing crop. I have proved this by a simple experiment ; aud every farmer can, at small cost, bring to Ids own mind a proof of the proper quantity of seed to be sown, according to liis soil, climate, and circumstances. Tills is the third year that I have tried the experiment of half a peck on half an acre, in the middle of a field where my usual quantity of four pecks is sown. The former results liave been recorded, the peck an acre having yielded 7 qrs. 2 bushels per acre of fine v^fheat, and was the best yield on the field. The experiments have been perfectly fair ones, the wheal being all put in at one time, and under the same circumstances in every respect, except quality. The thin-sown was dibbled in, one keruel in a hole, about 6 iuclies by 4^^. The rest ot the field was tliis year drilled with 4^^ pecks per acre. The experiments for three years have been on clover lea, once movved for hay, and then folded with sheep eating cake, &c. The thin-sown came up with single points, and looked all the winter and early spring like a bare fallow, especially at a distance ; on the hill-side, it looked as though the four stetches had not been sown. So very wet and unfavouralile were the winter and spring, that we thought, this third year, the thin-sown could not come to a crop. But slowly and surely it advanced, and has at length become the best crop on the field, undistinguishable from the rest except by its superior height and tlie largeness of the ears. It will, of course, be tested by thrasliiug. I have no doubt it wLU, as on former occasions, yield more weight of straw as well as more corn than the rest of tlie field. I expect it wiU give about 5 qrs. per acre. This is not a good yielding year on our stitf, non- calcareous soils. It has astonished many who have watched its progress, and made mauy converts. Thin-sowers must bo content to hear from all who see their thin-sown crops during the early stages of their growth that they mast prove a failure. These three years' experiments have given me perfect confidence in thin-sowing under like circumstances ; and I shall practise it gradually on a more ex- tended scale, as a safe and profitable investment. I think that the proper term for thin-sowing should be " sufficient sowing." I will endeavour, by illustration, to show how really un- reasonable and injurious our general quantity sovfn must be. According to Mr. Caird and general estimates, the quantity of grain sown (wheat, oats, barley, &c.) equals one-ninth of the produce ; so tliat we get, taking the whole kingdom, nine kernels for each one sown. An average ear of wheat, barley, and oats would have forty kernels : therefore, we only get a fifth of an ear for each kernel. Now I will defy anyone who puts into the soil a perfect ker- nel of grain to produce so little as nine grains, or about the one-fifth part of an ear. The probability is, especially in the case of wheat, that if a space of three to fi^ve inches intervenes between that and the next kernel, the increase will be from 200 to 300 instead of nine. Many of mine have produced 600 ; how is it theu that we arrive at the present miserable return of nine for one ? Those who observe Nature's operations wiU soon receive a reply. By our system of two to four Imshels per acre the kernels are crowded together, the young fibres are pushed forth, and fight with each other for tlie small available portion of soil. The result is many wounds, many deaths, and plenty of cripples among the few survivors, whose diminutive development gives evidence of the severity of the deadly struggle. The crop that came up thick as a grass field soon becomes thin and weakly. The reverse of aU this takes place with thin-sowing, as the roots ramify and extend without meeting hungry and numerous competitors. Baron Liebig justly says that the greatest enemy that a wheat plant can have is another wheat plant. This alone is a sufficient explanation, Many farmers say " We don't like a thin wheat crop ;" drawing their conclusions from the cases where the crop had become thin in consequence of overcrowd- ing. So far as my experience goes, the grains are finer in size and quality, the straw more brilliant and glassy, and more free from blight or mildew than the thick-sown. There is more weight of straw per acre. But see what benefits the young grass or clover plants derive from thin-sowing. They thrive having air and light in the thin-sown, while the thick-sown and poor soft-strawed laid crop smothers and destroys them. A neighbour of mine who farms well got so angry at losing his clover plant among his oats that he was determined to have a clover crop at the cost of his oats, so he only sowed one bushel instead of four, and to his great surprise (but not to mine) he had the best crop of oats he ever grew, and an ample clover plant besides. Of course, in speaking of tliin-sowing, I assume that the driU is used and the seed thus properly de- posited. I use the blower to my seed com so as to have only heavy perfect seeds — 9-lOths of which at least wiU vegetate. It is really distressing to be told, as I have been lately, that " We always sow broadcast seven bushels of oats per acre, and four bushels of wheat." Supposing forty animals were placed in a luxuriant pasture, which would keep in good condition 10 animals for three months, at first all would go well, but long before the three months had elapsed there would be plenty of deaths and a few cripples left. So it is with thick sowing. Jidi/ 2. J. J. Mechi. BEES. — This has been a fine season for bees, which are ex- tensively cultivated in Ayrshire and Galloway. In the neigh- bourhood of moors, particularly, they thrive well, and the hea- ther gives the honey a high and peculiar flavour. The old straw skep is still freely used ; but the necessity it involves of suffocating the bees with sulphur to get the honey has led to an increasing use of bee-boxes with compartments to enlarge the accommodation, prevent swarming, and enable the owner to withdraw part of the honey, leaving tlie bees uninjured. But, of course, this sytem requires a regular bee-house, inside which the boxes are set, with the entrance outside for the bees, and glass windows (with little wooden shutters) on the boxes, by which the progress of the bees can be watched inside the house. The famous Stewarton boxes are very suitable for this system, one being added over the other as the lower ones are filled; a slide opening an aperture to let the bees ascend to the empty box. We believe it was Mr. Highet, Newton, formerly ironmonger, Ayr, who, ingenious in many things, invented a difi'erent form of box that suits very well. This is a centre box with two wings. The honey is never taken from the cen- tre box ; but as soon as the glass window behind shows it to be full, a slide pulled out lets the bees into one wing, and this filled, the slide in the other wing is opened, and the bees fill it. The honey in the first wing is then removed, and one wing al- ways kept empty. There is a little trouble, as with the Stewarton boxes, in getting away the full box, for the bees do not wLUingly aU leave it. Some experienced hands can sweep out the bees with a feather without being stung, but most liee- masters have a bee-proof dress with glass spectatcles in front of the hood, that completely protects them at all points. Oc- casionally it has been tried to lay down the full box at some distance from the hive, in the hope that the few bees in it would depart and join those in the hive ; but these wonderful insects are not so siUy ; on the contrary, they summon all the bees from the hive, who in a few hours will carry back all the honey to the main hive. The advantage of these boxes is, that the bees, as long as they have spare room, never swarm. Indeed, we have a well-authenticated instance of a swarm that settled under the slates of a mansion-house in Carrick, and having plenty of room amongst the joisting under the roof, de- feuded their position against all comers for years ; and when at last they were smoked out, the honey was actually lowered dowa in buckets ! Some time ago it will be recollected that M 2 152 THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. Dr. Curaraing took to bee culture, and wrote a good deal about it, which experienced English bee-masters pronounced to be as great " bosh" as liis prophecies. Indeed, the ways and work- ings of bees are mysterious enough to baiiie the most scientific observers. There is no doubt much nonsense written about them. For instance, the queen is popularly kuo^^•n as a very " swell" individual, very much larger than the common bee, and of brighter and varied colours : this is very poetical, but quite incorrect. The queen-bee is precisely the same colour as her subjects, is scarcely any larger, and can be distinguished fi-om them only by being a little longer in the body. But there is sufficient of the marvellous about the bee-kingdom without necessitating any romance. Take the act of swarm- ing, for instance ; the liighest flight of science — the electric telegraph — is simplicity itself compared with this extraordi- nary process. The first swarm from the straw skep usually alights on a bush or branch of a tree. Before swarming, however, some of tliera collect on the front board of the hive, to the edge of which about twenty or thirty of them cling ; the others pass over them and hang on by each other in clus- ters till the ball is oiten as large as a man's two fists. Wlien all is ready and the royal command given, they all come pour- ing out in a stream as thick as a man's wrist, and t;ike a turn through the air. Suppose them to settle on a thorn three inches in circumference, their weight, for the cluster is as big as a boy's head, will bend the thorn stick nearly to the ground. Comparatively few of tliem have hold of the branch : the rest all hold on by each other. How can those who liave hold bear the weight of tlie mass ? How long would a man hold on by the branch of a tree if the weight of 300 men were sud- denly attached to him ? And yet we suspect every bee witli a hold sustains a much higher proportion of weight in the cluster below. This is one of many mysteries of creation that mocks at human science. — Ayr Advertiser. THE ADULTEEATION OF SEEDS. Every farmer is aware of the value of good seed, but few are familiar with the frauds practised by some seedsmen, in order to obtain a dishonourable prolit. "We shall here confiue our remarks on this subject to the seeds — as the various species of turnip, cabbage, and cauli- flower— the most easily tampered with ; there beiug other seeds of the same tribe [Brassica) much inferior in value, but so similar that it is impossible for a common observer to detect tliese, or, in fact, to perceive the differ- ence between such and the genuine seed. Thus, rapeseed may be purchased at about half the price of turnip seed, fi'om the grower, and may be mixed without the least fear of detection ; charlock also may be obtained still cheaper than rape, and, although smaller than many species of the turnip, may be equally employed in adul- teration Avith impunity. The temptation, therefore, to substitute these for the genuine seed is too strong to be resisted, and the consequence is, that the sale of spurious seeds has become a regular, though secret, trade; and we have known wholesale seedsmen who would deli- ver turnip seed mixed in any proportion required, with from fifty to eighty per cent, of good seed, the price being re- gulated by the proportion. But if the mixture were sold without any precaution, it would, in its growth, tell tales, and lead to detection. The dealer in the 0.0.0. seed, as it is called in he rade, finds means to destroy its vegetating power, either by hot water, dry heat, or a chemical preparation. All these means have, we believe, been used, but the latter is now the most approved and common method. In any case, however, the seed becomes innoxious because impotent ; and, as much more seed is generally sown than is required to produce a crop, unless the seedsman is too covetous the fraud escapes detection, although the farmer may fancy that the plant is " too thin." But there are so many other casualties — the fly, for example — that will destroy the turnip plant in the first stages of its existence, that this circumstance is ascribed to anything rather than adulteration of the seed, and thus the fraud is not sus- pected. Mr. Buckland has done good service by the ex- posure of this nefarious practice in his recent work on " Science and Practice in Farm Cultivation." In order to bring to the proof the fact and the extent of adultera- tion of turnip-seed (and cabbage-seed is equally liable to it), he instituted a series of experiments upon different samples obtained from seedsmen, the results of which are given at full length in the work. Thus in one case of ten sorts of good turnip, out of a hundred seeds of each sort. an average of 92 came up, the lowest being 84, and the highest Sutton's improved Green Globe 98 jjer cent. These seeds were of the growths of 1859 and I860, in which latter year they were sou^n. But in order to show the effect of keeping the seed too long, he sowed some of the same in 1862, when the result was very different, as the following statement will show. Name and date of Seed. Came up in 1860. 1. Mousetail, 1859 per cent 2. White Globe, 1859 3. Nimble Green Hound, 1859 4. Lincolnshire Red Globe, 1860 5. Yellow Tankard, 1859 6. Smart's Mousetail, 1860 7. Green-topped Stone, 1860 8. Sutton's Imperial Green Globe, 1860 9. Green-topped Scotch, 1860 10. Early Six-weeks, I860 Average grown Ditto failed Came up in 1862. 96 86 96 90 84. 98 90 92 46 44 94 58 62 92 86 70 72 28 Thus, by keeping the seeds two years, they sustained a loss averaging 20 per cent., but in one case of 50 and in another of 42 per cent. Be it observed, however, that there is no charge of adulteration in these samples, the experimentor considering them good seeds, and not con- taining more than a natural proportion of defective seeds, although the deficiency in No. 2 was 14 and in No. 7 16 per cent. It should also be observed that the seeds in the first year came up at intervals between seven and eleven days. In four other experiments the averages that came up were respectively 68, 77, 70, and 70; the first being from nine to fifteen days, the second from ten to seventeen days (with one exception), the third from four to eleven days, and the fourth from four to eight days. I'hese four parcels of seeds, of ten kinds each, were "mar- ket samples," and of course the year of their harvesting could not be ascertained. Every precaution was taken to preserve the vegetative power of the seeds, and to favour their growing by keeping the temperature of the house at the proper range, say between GO and 70 degrees Fahr. The axiom laid down by the Professor is, that " all well- grown well-preserved seeds should be capable of ger- minating to the extent of at least 90 per cent., but that seeds in general, and more especially turnip seeds, as THE FAEMER'S MAG-AZINE. ir,3 usually delivered to the farmer, are generally incapahlc of gei'minating to the extent of from 25 to 30 per cent., and frequently more even." Professor Bncklaud endeavoured to procure a sample of the 0. 0. O. seed, or killed seed. But although he could have hecn supplied with some bushels of it, as if for sale, uo one could procure a sample of it, a suspicion being at once excited that it n-as wanted lor experimenting. A letter is inserted in the work, addressed to Messrs. Sut- ton and Sous, of Reading, from some person at South- ampton, offering an iuvention for killing the seeds of rape and charlock expeditiously and effectually without any danger of detection. Mr. Sutton had the curiosity to call on the fellow, and found it was a genuine affair, but instead of ordering one of the machines, he sent the letter to Professor Buckland, who, on writing to the inventor was promised a machine if the money was sent Jirst ; but having apparently felt the undesirable nature of paying in advance, he declined the risk. Mr. Buckland recommends farmers to make trial of all seeds before purchasing, by sowing a given number and noticing how many of them vegetate, and in what time. Above all, he cautions growers to purchase their seeds from men only of character and long standing, or who are known for integrity and uprightness in their dealings. PEOPOSAL FOE A LABOUEBES' ASSOCIATION. Sir,— Allow me to call the attention of the readers of your admirable journal to the outlnie of an Association, which, if estabUshed, will greatly promote the interests of farmers and farm labourers ; and to certain considerations to be urged in its favour. Its objects may be stated as follows : To super- sede the evil custom of liiring at statute fairs, by substituting in its place a system of registration throughout Great Britain, by which the farmer may readily engage agricultural labourers of good character of every description ; and to secure a better class of farm workmen in the United Kingdom. The pleasure fair, the accompaniment to the hiring, undoubtedly exercises a pernicious iullueuce upon those who frequent it ; and if there was no other proof of this, it might be proved by the bad character of the men who get it up — showmen and gipsies— as much the stealers of morality as the plunderers of the hen- house, who are uo friends to farmers, and no friends to civili- zation, morality, or religion. If statute-fair hiring were abolished, these vagabonds with their questionable entertain- ments would be in a great measure abolished also. But placing this consideration aside, it must be most apparent that statute-fair hiring is a clnmsy and unsatisfactory way by which to obtain farm servants. It was instituted a long time back, when scarcely anything better, I suppose, could have been adopted ; and it should be intolerable in these days of advantages, when a better method can be pursued. The ob- jections agamst it may be classified thus : 1st. It indirectly supports the pleasure fair, with its gipsy aud show attendants, with its unquestionable influence for evil. 2nd. It is far from being the best way by which labourers may be engaged. Because : (1.) There is the time and trouble spent in attending the fair, often with failure to secure the labour required. (3.) There is no guarantee that the man hired has a good cha- racter. (3.) The number out of which the farmer has to select his men is confined to a few. (4<.) It does not readily dis- tinguish out for him the comparative worth of candidates for farm employment, or the best man for his money. This As- sociation proposes to estabhsh register oifices throughout Great Britain, to record the name and residence of the farm labourer in want of a farm situation ; his qualification, the place and wages he wants, &c., upon the production of a satisfactory character, and upon payment of a small fee to the local re- gistrar. A ■pvinled lahidar statement containing a list of labourers iu want of farm situations, and all desirable in- formation concerning them, made up from the local registers, to be distributed weekly to each member ; who is to be such farmer as pays an annual subscription, the amount to be in proportion to the size of his farm. A certificate of qjialificatioii, made up from the " character" to be given to each registered abourer by the local registrar ; to be renewed every year from September 1st, from a fresh " character" ; to be kept by the member while the labourer is in his employment, and to be subject to forfeiture upon bad conduct. The character to be given in answer to certain printed questions, to be classified, so that accuracy and uniformity may be secured. It must be allowed that the communication of the reciprocal wants of masters and men, respectively, for labour and employment should be of the readiest, of the most extensive, and of the most ample description. They should both have a method of making these wants known to each other as quickly and as extensively as possible ; because it is evident that the quicker the master, or man, as the case may be, can communicate his wants, and the larger the number of masters or labourers to whom that communication can be made, the more speedily and the more certainly will their wants be satisfied. It must be allowed also, that tlie more extended the locality, as the less subject to contingencies, upon which the farmer depends for bis supply of labourers, the better. In districts where there are excessive demands for labour, owing to mills, &c., the labourer gets, as matters are now, more for liis work, but the master does not get in proportion more for his corn ; because the local labour-market is governed by local circumstances, while the local corn market is not. This Association would obviate this disadvantage, because to the farmers in these districts it will make kuown where labourers can Ise had at a cheaper rate ; and will secure a channel of speedy and extensive com- munication to convey labour wants. It is evident that some inducements must be offered to men to register, to show them good conduct is appreciated, and to nicrease the number of r/ood farm-workmen. These inducements to be presented to "aU agricultural labourers who can get the Association's cer- tificates of good character, which can be obtained for this purpose by those not in want of employment, and who will be considered as registered farm labourers. I. Prizes for good conduct. 2. Prizes for skilful labour, as for ploughing, shepherding, &c. Ex. (jr.: That every registered shepherd who can prove ])y proper printed reports, signed by his master, the lowest number of deaths in his flock, iu proportion to its size, shall have a prize of The next ten, say a prize of each, aud so on. 3. An Insurance Club, the master paying a small proportion towards its funds; aud having special advantages for infirm and deserving labourers. But all these advantages — and this is an important reserve — to be forfeited by labourers out of members' employment longer than a certain time, except in case of illness, &c. ; to secure the interest of members, aud to keep men from renegading to other employment. These inducements arc offered as much out of consideration of the farmers' as the labourers' interests. It is plain that our country is becoming increasingly a manu- facturing country, and that " skilled labour" is more profitable than agricidtural labour ; and consequently more advantages must be given to the farm labourer, or else he will forsake his calling for something that pays him better. It may be said that the proper cure of this will be a proportionate rise in farm wages ; but the farmer canuot keep pace with the manufac- turer, for corn can be imported to us cheaper than it can be exported by us ; but it is vice versa with manufacturers. America, too, is now engulphing many labourers, who can get one and two dollars a-day— in " green backs" though. I have had the honour to receive letters of approval of the objects of the Association from the Earl of Essex, the Earl of Verulam, Lord Ebury, Mr. Clare Sewell Head, M.P., and others. The Earl of Essex and Mr. Read may be regarded as authorities on such a subject, and they speak most favourably of the pro- posed Association. I shall be glad — and I hope farmers will take up the matter — to receive the names of any who will be willing to act in committee upon the matter, and of any in- terested in it ; and to have suggestions in reference to the subject generally. I have the honour to he, Sir, your obedient servant, Eemel Hempstead, Herts, Jidy 10, ISGO. Andrew Reid, 154. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. SHEEP VERSUS CATTLE. When Lincolnshire speaks, it behoves the agricultural world to listen. The spokesman for the county, this time, is Mr. William Torr ; the occasion, a Hanover-square " weekly meeting ;" and the subject, that old-fashioned inexhaustible one of " Sheep versus Cattle." Mr. Torr repudiated the idea of reading " a paper" on the question, because he objects to " everything in the shape of paper- farming;" so, of course, he was prepared to replace a cut-and-di'ied " paper" by something more lively, in- structive, and improving. But unfortunately, his ad- dress, not two columns long in our last week's number, is ill-calculated for illustrating the superiority of a ram- bling discourse over a carefully -written essay. Half of it was what a schoolboy would call " an awful crib" from Kandall's paper in an old Journal, headed and tailed by random talk of his own, stating facts without value, from the omission of half their conditions, and dealing in argu- ments which yield us no conclusions. Prom a man of Mr. Torr's practical knowledge and experience, this is a great deal too bad, seeing that he could have given us something more exact and demonstrative than a mere ipse dixit from his undetailed " experience." What does he teach us? " I hold an opinion," he siys, " that on second-rate grass lands, sheep have been, and can be made, far more profitable than cat- tle." A great many people think the same; and it is gratiiying to hear that a first-class manager like Mr. Ton- gives his voice along with many of his sensible country- men. But on what details of cost and quantities is this " opinion " based ? We have only Mr. Torr's assertion that it is " confirmed by practical experience." "Name, name," we cry, who has established the point? and where ? and how ? " There is not a greater improvement in farming than an allowance of oilcake to grazing sheep." WeD, we have heard this before ; and as vast numbers of farmers in Great Biitain foUow the practice, the pro- bability is that it does not lose money. But surely, if the practice is worth urging at all, it should be recom- mended, not by simply affirming that it is good, but by offering debtor and creditor proof that it pays. Mr. Torr has sold biUlocks under four years old at £45 each, from first-rate grass, by treating them daUy to 81bs. of oilcake a-piece ; " and they paid well for their summer grazing." But how much more significant this fact would have been, had Mr. Torr informed us what the outlay as well as the return was, and had he shown whether or not the bullocks would have realized as much profit without the oilcake. To exhibit the relative superiority of sheep to cattle, Mr. Toir adduces a case of hoggets sold at £5 a-piece : " You have here, say thi-ee hoggets, making £15, versus a very good year-and-a-half old steer, or, in many coun- ties, two years old. See the great disparagement, and a large margin to spare." This, for anything we know, may be regarded by some people as a convincing argu- ment; but for ourselves, we don't remember meeting with anything like it. What is the cost, we ask, of producing the £15 steer? and what of the £15 hoggets? If cash received is the sum total of the account, it becomes precious easy book-keeping ; and as fai- as any comparison is con- cerned, we might as weU represent the superiority of pigs to either sheep or cattle by instancing fat porkers of the same age sold for more money. A friend of ours, however, caps Mr. Torr altogether in the same line of argument, having established the superiority of pigeons to any grazing animal by selling a pair of year-old black carriers for £25. There is the comparison : three hoggets against two black carriers ! "seethe great disparagement, and a large margin to spare." Of the other points which we gather from the address, one is that we may spread chaff, cut-straw, or almost anything upon second and third-rate pasture, in the ab- sence of lime and salt or bones (which would be better), and the good effect is vouched for by the magical change effected on Mr. Torr's own farms. This, we believe, is a very valuable suggestion, and will be novel to many readers. The other piece of advice is, that when sheep have largely replaced cattle, and we are puzzled how to bestow our straw, we may consume more by horses all through the year, instead of foolishly spoiling our pas- tm'es with their hoofs. This is probably very sound teaching, although nearly as old as Adam. Now, we have faUeu foul of Mr. Torr's ideal agricul- tural communication, simply because he decried the more literary productions called "a paper;" and we venture to say that an elaborate and weU-digested treatise, no matter how short it might be, in which the inferences were properly built upon a sufficient groundwork of facts, would have attracted infinitely more attention and have ac- complished more good than a tissue of loosely-strung re- marks, unsupported by evidence and the test of figures. We have had a great deal too much of this sort of thing ; but Mr. Torr kept it up to the last. His reply to the debate ended thus : " xVs to the question of sheep versus cattle, he might state that last year he wintered over 3,000 sheep, as against 300 cattle ; and his experience was that for every £2 he got from the cattle, he realised £5 by the sheep. The fact was that sheep were always retm-ning money, no matter what the time of yeai*," This, we suppose, was considered a clencher : the logic of the case was clear. But does the speaker glibly call his opinion his "experience" ? or has he any statistics by which the relative gain was made manifest ? What were the values of the two kinds of stock before and after the season's feeding? What was the total expenditure upon each? and what was left by each in manure ? The discussion of such a desultory discom'se, as might be expected, partook too much of a watery nature, and digressed into ahnost everything but the topic really be- fore the meeting. Mr. Frere suggested an alteration in the form of a lamb-gate, related how he managed to keep a bigger flock than formerly, cautioned poultry-keepers against overstocking, recommended crops of barley in place of wheat, and explained his winter tillage for bar- ley. His white turnips, upon farmyard manure, stood the drought better than others upon artificial manure, which he attributed to the moisture " drawn up from be- low" after the ploughing-in of 8,510 tons of straw ma- nure, threefoarths of which 7Das composed of water." Fancy the water in farmyard dung becoming available in the soil for moistening the earth about the roots of young plants, and six or seven tons of water per acre being thus applied, so as to beat the water-di-iU hoUow 1 Would not a single heavy shower do more good than either ? Mr. Frere concluded his observations by lamenting the continued absence of an artificial potash manure, in place of the potash of straw maniu-e. Mr. Dent went strongly for winter-keeping sheep in yards, as a solution of the problem how to breed lambs upon heavy clays; from which Sir George Jeukiuson THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 155 drew the conclusion that you " might keep lambs any- where." Mr. WeUs would recommend nobody to force a breeding flock upon n stiff, tenacious soil unsuited for the purpose; Mr. Stratford very properly putting in a re- minder as to climate and rainfall making all the difference, where sheep might do well in the field or only in yards. The Chairman, Lord Feversham, closed the conversa- tion by sticking up for our herds, urging the impolicy of increasing sheep stock if, in consequence, our noble horned stock were to suffer any neglect. We say again that very little can be learned from this " poverty-stricken meeting " of the " Royal ;" and if no better information is forthcoming from members and council-men, could not the subjects themselves be selected of a more simple character ? If you are not prepared to tell ufi whether, when, where, or how sheep will pay better than bullocks, can you give us a hint as to which is the best reaping-machine for a given description of crop and surface? because that is a point of vital interest to a good many hundreds of farmers just at this moment ; and, as the wise man said, " a word spoken in season, how good is it !" THE GAME QUESTION. SiE, — There is one point in connection with the " Great Rabbit Question" lately agitated by Lord Denbigh and others, whicli I think deserves notice, that is the effect produced on pasture land by the overpreservation of game. From hislord- sliip's very fuuny " Notice to tenants," it is fair to infer that he does not consider that the rabbits injure grass land; but is it so.P Of course the damage of hares and rabbits on arable land is jjatent to every one not wilfully blind. Nobody can enter a game estate without witnessing the miserable specta- cle of men spending their best days, their energy, and their capital, in fighting with a host of vermin, to see who shall reap a mangled and half-spoiled crop. I would not wisli my enemy a worse position. But on grass laud the thing is not quite so clear to a casual observer, although I believe tlie damage to be quite as great there; and I ought to know some- tliing about it, because my experience of the matter lias come to me through the pocket, and thus it happened : Some years ago I took a farm, chiefly grass land, where a great deal of game was preserved ; of course the usual promise was given that the game should be killed down, whicli of course was not done. I found tlie grass late in appearing, because the hares and rabbits bit it off as fast as it came in the spring; and when I took to market my beef and mutton, the butchers con- stantly objected to it, because having been grazed amongst game they could not reckon on much rough fat ; m fact, they said my stock never proved weU. Clovers were not worth growing, because tliere could be no early sheep kept on them. The mowiug grass was one net-work of rabbit tracks, causing the mowers, and I am afraid their masters also, to use "words not fit for ears polite," and the grass so filthy near the coverts, that the cattle did not Uke the flavour of tlie fodder ; as how should they ? The ewes were only kept in creditable condition in winter by the aid of a great deal of artificial food, and even then in March some of them appeared to have copied the slim figure of their neighbours, thejack-hares. At length, to the satisfaction of the tenants, the estate passed into the hands of a gentleman (aU honour to his memory), who killed the game and rabbits, and discharged the keepers. During the two or three seasons which followed (for he was not spared to us long) the clovers aud grass came much earlier, the cattle throve considerably better, and there was a marked improve- ment in the condition of the sheep wintered on the grass, and also in the condition aud weight of the wool, not to mention the improvement in the quantity and quality of the corn, which was very great. These are simple facts, and require little comment, A word on game preserving-generally, as between landlord and tenant. I suppose no reasonable man would wisli to deny to his landlord any amusement which his tastes may lead him to follow on his own estates ; for I think it very much to the interest of the tenant that his landlord shoidd employ his time and his money there, and I will venture to say that there is no respectable tenant-farmer in England who would not do his utmost to keep a fair quantity of game, and take a pride in finding for liis landlord or his friends all the sport a reasonable mau coidd wish. But why place such a class of men under the surveillance of a dictatorial game-keeper, or his under-strappers the rabbit-catcliers ? Surely this must destroy all kindly feeling, not to mention the ruinous loss to the tenant by game damage. Tliere seems to me to be something very degrading to both parties in a landlord seeking to make, it may be, a needy and hard-working tenantry bear the expense of his amusements. But, further, the excess of game of wliicli we complain is not, as is generally supposed, kept entirely as articles of sport. I believe I speak within the mark when I say that on the majority of game-preserving estates 75 per cent, of the game is killed by the game-keeper and his friends, and in many in- stances a running account is kept with the fishmonger in the nearest market town. Again, all rabbits should be regarded as vermin, aud the tenant should be allowed to destroy them as such ; but I am sorry to say that they are too frequently held sacred by proprietors as a source of profit to pay keepers aud to meet sundry other expenses connected with game-preserving. This state of things requires alteration before there is much temptation for a man to invest his capital in the culture of land ; and I will own myself no true prophet if the cattle-plague and other reasons which have lately appeared do not effect a change in such matters, and if the effect shoidd be that some landlords I know of should find it necessary to act more on the " give and take" principle, and to treat their tenants as men and not as machines, so much the better. No doubt there are many landlords (I know some) who have the good of their tenants at heart, and are wiUing, if necessary, to make a sacrifice for them ; but this class does not own all the land — more is the pity. One word to yoimg men in search of farms. Whatever may be the inducement ; however rosy the thing may look ; as you v;due your chance of advancement in life, aud as you value your peace of mind and comfort, take advice from one who lias sufi'ered, and don't take a farm on a game-preserving estate. I am, Sir, your obedient servant, A Tenant Fajimer. 166 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE WARM WEATHER AND THE MEAT TRADE. A weekly visit to the cattle market and dead-meat market of the British capital, and a daily perambulation amongst her butcher's stalls, her slaughter-houses, hide market, tallow- chandlers, and bone-boilers, at this season, suggests many tilings in the way of progress to those who wish to keep up with the steam-coach of the present day. And more than this ; for such a visit proves that the meat trade has fallen, in many respects, a long way behind almost all other branches of commerce, whilst, by lights, it ought to have been ahead in the march of improvement. And the worst of it is the fact that those engaged in the trade are unconscious of being an inch behind their day and generation. This is doubtless a national pity. But we need not dwell upon an unfavourable view of the subject, whose details we do not propose to discuss. In hot weather, stinking meat speaks for itself, whether it be in the railway -truck, the dead-meat market, the butchers' stall, or in the private family larder. To obviate smells is one of the grand sauitary questions of the day ; and tlie practical prob- lem to wliich we propose turning attention for the present is a cheniico-mechanical one — the conveyance and preservation of meat at this season. Salmon comes up to the capital in ice, so do mackarel and fresh fish of almost every kind. But packing in ice neither suits dead meat nor live cattle. The practice, however, of conveying fresh fish in ice suggests the conveyance of both live cattle and dead meat in an artificially-cooled atmosphere ; and there are more ways than one of effecting this, on pro- mising terras, both in a pecuniary and professional sense, more especially the land and sea conveyance of dead meat. Again, frosty weather, m the winter-time, is adverse to both dead and live meat ; so that the reduction of our proposition to practice extends to the deficiency of heat experienced during winter as well as to an excess of it during summer, the mean between these two extremes being the grand desideratum at issue, or, more practically speaking, the lowest degree of tem- perature between these two extremes at which meat does not suffer harm, which will be found close upon the freezing- point. The first practical lesson, therefore, which farmers, railway and steamboat companies, butchers, and private families have to learn, is that taught by the thermometer, viz., the proper degree of temperature at which cattle and dead meat should be kept — fat cattle before they are slaughtered, and the dead meat which they yield up to the time it is placed before the fire. There are tims two degrees of temperature involved — the one for live cattle, and the other for dead meat. No doubt there is a me- dium degree in which neither would sutler mucli harm. This may be granted; but it is nevertheless manifest that dead meat requires a lower temperature than live meat ; and in both cases the thermometer requires to be closely studied by each of the above parties in their respective departments — by the fanner in determining the proper temperature at which his fat bul- locks and sheep should l,>e kept immediately prior to, and when being slaughtered, and for cooling, setting, and delivering of the carcases to railway and steamboat companies, when he slaughters his fat stock at home ; by railway and steamboat companies in providing the best temperature for the convey- ance of both live stock and dead meat ; by the butcher, as in the case of the farmer ; and by consumers, how best to pre- serve their meat before it is eaten. There is involved in tliis work an extensive field for action, and we need hardly add tliat the thermometer must be a more frequent and welcome instructor and guide than it now is under die present system. A proper temperature, however, is not the only thing that requires to be artificially provided both in summer and winter, proper ventilation or a free circulation of pure air being equally indispensable. It is a well-authenticated fact th.at a confined atmosphere is highly injurious, not only to the health of live cattle, but also to the preservation of dead meat in a sound, wholesome slate ; and the practical rai'ionalc arises from the impure air or gaseous matter evolved from the surfaces of both — i'lom t!ic \wv^<- and skin r,f the ox and slicep, and fn^ni tlie surface of carcases, not only during the time they are cooling, l)ut also up to the time they arc disposed of by the cook and consumer. There is nothing which butchers and cooks dread more tlian a close, confined atmosphere, especially at this season. Cattle-houses, slaughter-houses, cooling and setting-houses, railway-vans, butchers'-shops, and family larders may be kept cool in the warm weather of summer by the removal of the heat through the instrumentality of evaporation. Cold, from being a negative quality, may be produced by the removal from the meat of combined heat or caloric, a substance somewhat analogous in its physical properties to light, and between v.'hich some have supposed there exists probably a close identity of relation. Cold is also produced by various freezing mixtures, by refrigerating machines, &c. It may also be produced by the condensation of the atmosphere. The reader is no doubt familiar with iEsop's Fable of " blowing hot and cold," which is a practical illustration of this. Thus when your fingers are cold you open your mouth wide and blow hot upon them an atmosphere rarificd as much as possible under the circum- stances of the case, but when you burn your fingers you con- dense the atmosphere and blow cold, through a small orifice, by contracting the mouth as in the act ot whistling. The truth of the fable is best understood by the simple experiment itself of blowing hot and cold. All tliese cooling practices are in daily operation, as the seipiel will briefly show ; but much improvement upon them is necessary to fit them for keeping cattle-houses, slaughter-houses, railway -vans, butchers'- shops and larders, cool in the liot weather of July. In tropical climates the practice of cooling Ijy evaporation by covering vessels and bottles with wet clothes or mats to keep their contents cool is common, the evaporation tlius pro- duced carrying otf the he.at ; and those who have pursued that practice when residing in warm countries, as in India, seldom fail on their return home to continue it in seasons of oppres- sive heat. Indeed, there are few houses in which it is not in use in some way or other so as to keep butter and the like cool. Again, it is common for brewers'-dray carts to be covered in the summer time with wet cloths for the same pur- pose, carrying otf heat by evaporation. The roofs of both Houses of Parliament have water tlirown upon them to keep them and the interior cool. But with the exception of the last example, all these practices are carried out in a very rude and out-of-date manner. Of refrigerating machines and processes in operation, such as that in use by the Wenham Lake Ice Company, examples are in a higher state of perfection. But it is only during ex- ceptional extremes of heat that such examples would be re- quired on land in the process of cooling and setting meat. On board steam-boats it may be otherwise. But condensed air at a temperature several degrees below that of the ocean can be easily thrown into the hold of steam-boats, similar to the plan adopted in the American war ships or monitors, one of which, the jMiautomonoh, is now on a visit to this country. By means of a flat feeding worm or pipe round the outside of a steam-boat below water-line, the atmosphere by being forced in tlirough this pipe by pumping apparatus, would be thrown into the hold sulficiently cool to preserve meat during a short distance, as from Scotland, Ireland, and the Continent, to the English market. With regard to the practice of " blowing hot and cold," it is th it now in use amongst butchers. When a draught can be produced in a narrow passage — leading, say, from the slaughter-house to the shop, or into the shop through any back door leading into a court- yard or garden — it blows cold. But when the hot breeze or wind comes in at the front door and window upon which the sun perhaps is blazing, then it blows hot. So that at one time it blows hot, at another cold, and not unfrequcntly both hot and cold at opposite sides. In other examples it will be found blowing hot in the morning or up to mid-day, and cold towards I- or 5 p.m., when the sun Ijegins 1o get low. More detail need not be advanced to show liuw rude and iiapeifcet the practice is at present exemplified. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 157 No doubt it is a striking illustration of /Esop's fable ; but in point of fact it is, more frequently and correctly speaking, tlie practice rather of blowing stink out at the door than cooling the meat, by keeping the atmosphere in the slaughter-house and shop at a temperature sufficiently low to prevent decom- position. The tliermometer will be found to prove the sound- ness of this conclusion ; for, as Liebig observes in his Animal Chemistry, " Heat is like the action of a mechanical force. By heat a number of substances have been decomposed, and in these cases its action is entirely analogous to that of a mechanical force. Heat acts like a wedge which is forced between the atoms." Butcher-meat is a very complex organism, and hence very liable to undergo chemical change, unless kept cool ; for the lower its temperature the more conso- lidated it becomes. It is heat that keeps water in a fluid state : remove the heat, or caloric, and it becomes solid ice. At the natural temperature of the living body meat is soft; but as you cool it down it becomes more and more solid as the temperature falls. Butchers may boast of their well-ventilated cool shops ; but so long as their meat is soft, all trade gossip of this kind is only " blowing hot and cold" on the subject, for the soft meat tells its own temperature, whatever blue frocks may say to the contrary. Our farmers and butchers, and indeed the general body of consumers, are a long way behind their transatlantic cousins in the preservation of their meat by means of a low tempera- ture, artificially produced. True, Necessity is the mother of Invention, and no doubt necessity compels the inhabitants of the Southern States of the Union to adopt frigorific means for the preservation of many perishable things which are not even thou;'sbl'rg Brothers. ALGOA BAY MONTHLY AYOOL, SKIN, &c., RE- PORT.— Port Elizadetii, June 8. — We are now in the height of the wool season, and large quantities are being re- ceived daily from the country districts. The chp this year in the uorth-eastern district and the Free State is an unusually heavy one, and of superior quality. The local wool market has been very animated, though the excitement caused by the report of the London Marcli sales has somewhat abated. The scarcity of tonnage, the report that the alteration of the Ame- rican tarifl^ had passed the Legislature, and a faUing rate of excliange have made the market weaker during the last fort- night, and brought prices a shade lower. Unsatisfactory news from America, and the advice of lower prices at the London May sales just received, will doubtless cause a further reduc- tion. Present prices may be quoted as follows : Fine fleece- washed Is. 'i^A. to Is. 3^d., medium Is. Id. to Is. 2d., seedy and faulty lid. to Is., superior scoured suow-wnite Is. 8d. to Is. lOd., hand-washed superior Is. 3d. to Is. 5d., medium to good ditto Is. Id. to Is. 3d., inferior seedy 9|d. to lid., fine unwashed superior light and clean 8d. to S^d., good average 72d. to 7|d., medium 7d. to 72d., inferior and seedy 5id. to Gd., coarse unwashed 42d. to 5d. per lb. Tiie following are the clearances for the month : To Loudon, per Arthur Pardew 896 bales, per Annie Duthie 1,036 bales, per Icon 1,158 bales, per Gem of the Nith 1,279 bales, and per steamsliip Briton 935 bales. To Boston, per Silvery AYave 535 bales, and per Nicoline 300 bales. To New York, per Saxon 1,355 bales ; and to Sandy Hook, for orders, per Armenia 697 bales. Total, 9,061 bales (2,9S9,5051bs.) Of 2,650 bales offered at our produce sales, 1,310 bales w'ere withdrawn, leaving bona fide sales 1,340 bales. — Me.ssrs. A. C. Stewart & Co. ENGLISH WOOL MARKET. CITY, Mo:!JDAY, July 23.— AA^e have no new feature to notice in this market. The transactions both for home use and export have been on a limited scale, at the late decline in the quotations. The supply of wool on offer is very moderate, but more than equal to the demand, owing chiefly to the high range in the price of money in the discount market. CuEEENT Prices or English AYool. s. d. s. d. Fleeces— Southdown lioggets per lb. 1 ijtol 5i Half-ljred ditto ,, 16 17 Kent fleeces ,, 17 is Southdown ewes and wethers „ 14 15 Leicester ditto „ 16 17 SOETS— Clothing 14 1 84 Combing ,, i 3; 1 gi t74> TSE FARMER'S ]VIAGAZINE. REVIEW OE THE CORN TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. Notwithstanding the unpromisincr aspect of May, with its cutting and unusual frosts, which gave the idea of a very late gathering, the weeks of harvest seem likely to arrive at about the usual period. The close of June brought us the first pledge of real summer, and though a part of July was boisterous and broken, there has been such a liberal allowance of intense sunshine, on the whole, that the sickle, as well as the scythe, has commenced its work, and another fortnight will bring us into the thick of it. The wheat crop is not, however, expected to turn out an abundant one, but rather under an average. There are, indeed, localities — such as the well-drained fens and other good soils, where the winter rains did not lodge and chill the roots — which have good promise; but the heavy lands send poor reports. In France it is even less favourably reported, and the first samples from the south are complained of, the grain having been too hastily ripened by the torrid temperature lately ex- perienced. Other countries have not given final reports. Northern Europe not yet being ready. But as the war in Germany and Italy so recently commenced seems likely to rapidly close in favour of Prussia and Italy, our fears as to the great destruction of the growing crops may be withdrawn, and it is only as regards the abstraction of labour for military purposes that the gatherings are likely seriously to suffer. The sudden and decisive vic- tories of Prussia, attributed to the needle gun, un- fortunately exhibit the sudden and serious decline in prices experienced in wheat, though at its highest the average never reached over 55s. lOd. Every market in June was upon the ascending scale, ex- cepting the first; but July has another tale to tell, and it is one of incessant reductions, say to the extent of fully 8s. per qr., so that the whole ad- vance from the lowest point has about been lost. The state of the money market prevented any spe- culators stepping forward to arrest the downward tendency; but, as we have receded so far, there is a proportionate chance of a reaction, for the chapter of accidents is always in favour of low prices. Barley is well spoken of, as a whole, though it varies. Oats also have been favourably reported ; but peas are said to be the heaviest crop on the ground. Beans vary, being partly fine and partly defective, but seem to excel last year's produce as a whole. But our cattle plague has not left us, and whatever crops may yet be on the ground they have to be gathered. The hay, which was threatened at first, is now reckoned to be a fair produce. The following were the prices quoted in the several foreign places named : The best white wheat in Paris (64lbs. per bush.) is 52s. per qr., red 50s.; red at Antwerp, 54s.; at Liege, 51s. 8d. ; mixed Polish at Amsterdam, 57s. ; the best red at Ham- bro', 48s. 6d. Cologne quotations were 48s. per qr. ; Porrentruy, in Switzerland, 50s. Fine high- mixed was extremely scarce at Dantzic, and held at 52s.; red at Stettin, 44s.; at Rostock, 46s.; Hol- stein qualities, 45s. ; at Galatz the low quality of the principalities was quoted 3ls. 6d. per qr. Odessa Ghirka has been selling here afloat at 47s. per qr. ; Spanish white at 53s. Spring wheat at Montreal, 50s. 8d. per 480lbs. ; at New York, 55s. 2d. per 4S0lbs. The first Monday in Mark Lane opened on mo- derate English supphes of wheat, but there was a liberal foreign arrival. There was a very scanty show of samples during the morning from Kent and Essex ; but the forcing weather experienced for a week previous made a very dull market, and millers insisted on a reduction of fully 2s. ; which only being partially complied with, very little busi- ness was done. Holders of foreign would willingly have conceded Is. per qr., for the sake of business ; but the concession was not enough to meet the views of buyers, and so very few sales were re- ported. With but few cargoes at the ports of call, prices remained nominally unchanged. The earlier country markets showed little change in the course of prices, but Liverpool was down 3d. per cental. Hull, Boston, Newark, Newmarket, Newcastle- upon-Tyne, and several other towns were Is. to 2s. per qr. down. Stockton-on-Tees and some other places were 3s. per qr. cheaper, and Norwich was still lower. At Edinburgh the wheat trade was down Is. to 2s. perqr. ; Dundee, Glasgow, and other Scotch towns made similar reports. Cork noted a decline of 6d. per brl., and Dublin was 6d. to Is. per brl. lower. On the second Monday there was an unusually small English supply, but again plenty of foreign. The show of samples through the morning was about the smallest of the season from Essex and Kent; but with a set-in of genuine Midsummer weather, and news of a probably speedy peace in Germany, there was no seUing without a reduction of Is. to 2s. beyond the real rates of the previous Monday, making the fortnight's decline fully 3s. to 4s. Foreign was also down 2s. per qr. without much progress being made, and the floating trade was about suspended ; but to sell, it would have been necessary to take Is. to 2s, per qr. less money. The country this week was quite as much affected by the extraordinary victories of Prussia and the very forcing weather, and there seemed a sudden and general agreement on the part of farmers to take a reduction of 3s. to 4s. per qr. on the previous rates ; but Guildford supported prices, while Halesworth accepted a decline of 4s. to 5s. per qr. Liverpool was down 6d. to 8d. per cental for the week. Edinburgh and Glasgow noted a further reduction of Is. to 2s, per qr., as well as Dundee. A.t Dublin the decline on wheat was 6d. per brl. Cork noted a reduction of 6d. to Is. per brl. On the third Monday there were short English, but plentiful foreign supplies ; but a small show THE FAEMER'g MAGAZINE. 175 was made durinor the morning by the fresh samples from Kent and Essex, yet the forcing heat and pacific tendency of the foreign news made it a standstill market, and to sell would have required another reduction of 2s. per qr. But little was also doing in foreign, though a few sales of selected Russian were made at the previous prices. With very few cargoes off the coast, there was no change of value noted. The heavy decline already sub- mitted to in the country, as the consequence of a rapid approach to harvest, seems nearly to have wrought a general determination among farmers not to make further concessions, but abide the re- sult of the gatherings, the stock of old wheat being everywhere admitted to be very short; indeed, at Liverpool an advance of 2d. per cental was quoted, a speedy peace being by no means certain; but here and there, as at Fakenham and Devizes, Is. per qr. less money was taken. Edinburgh was Is. per qr. higher for wheat, and Glasgow without change. There was so little native wheat exhibited at Dublin that holders of foreign were very firm, and able to sell at fully previous rates. On the fourth Monday there was a moderate quantity of native wheat reported ; but the foreign imports almost doubled any previous returns during the year, amounting to over 54,000 qrs., as the consequence of late orders during the time of ad- vance. It mattered little, therefore, that the fresh samples from Kent and Essex during the morning were limited. The market was in suspense, and to sell it was necessary to make another concession of 2s. to 3s. per qr., or say 4s. to 5s. for the fortnight. In foreign also there was quite a pause to business, though holders would readily have accepted a re- duction of 2s. per qr. Floating cargoes were of- fered, though few in number, at a reduction of Is. per qr. Many of the country markets submitted this week to a decline of 2s. to 3s. per qr., but some resisted any further reduction. The imports into London for four weeks were 10,960 qrs. English, 136,940 qrs. foreign, against 21,912 qrs. Enghsh, and 73,399 qrs. foreign for the same time in 1865. The exports from London for the month were ],060 qrs. wheat, and 218 cwts. flour. The foreign imports into the Kingdom for four weeks ending July 21 were 1,946,201 cwts. wheat, and 291,450 cwts. flour, against 1,771,556 cwts. wheat, and 236,826 cwts. flour in 1865. The general averages commenced at 4Ss. 5d., and closed at 553. lOd. : those of London began at 54s., and closed at 55s. 6d. per qr. The flour trade has followed that of wheat, and prices of Norfolk? have receded fully 4s. per sack in the course of the month, falling from 40s. to 36s., with a very difficult sale at the reduction. French have been reduced in a like ratio, and barrels, notwithstanding their scarcity, have fallen fully 2s. per sack. Town rates have not yet been reduced, the top price still stand- ing at 50s. per sack; but this rate is not likely to be maintained with a fall in wheat amounting from the lowest point to about lOs. per qr. The im- ports into London for four weeks were 56,431 sacks country-made, and 6,655 sacks 15 brls. fo- reign, against 56,580 sacks country-made, and 1,746 sacks 6,347 brls. for the same period in 1865. The barley trade, which at the commencement of the month was firm, in consequence of the shortness of stocks has gradually given way with increased foreign supplies and the finest possible weather, more especially as the crop is well re- ported. The decline as yet has amounted to only about 2s. per qr. ; but as this grain is relatively dearer than maize, there is probability of a further reduction. Low Danube sorts have lately been selling at 26s. per qr. The imports into London for four Vi^eeks have been 793 qrs. British, and 38,820 qrs. foreign, against 485 qrs. British, and 44,134 qrs. foreign for the same period in 1865. In consequence of continued foreign imports upon a weekly increase till the last week reached to 71,000 qrs., the oat trade has been steadily declining, and the reduction has reached to 2s. or Ss, per qr. for inferior and Russian sorts, while the fine heavy sweet qualities have scarcely given way to half that extent. The opinion given, as to the shortness of last year's crop being justified as to its deficiency, has led to these free foreign imports ; but as there can be no stock of old oats in the country, it is very probable we may have some reaction in Rus- sian sorts, as the recent importers lose money heavily, and foreign stores are much reduced. Sweden seems the country destined to provide us with the finest quality of corn, there having been some recent arrivals of Poland from thence, which were of such exceptionally fine quality (weighing 45lbs. per bushel) that they brought 39s. at the last market. The imports for four weeks into London were 1,555 qrs, English, 300 qrs. Scotch, 1,090 qrs. Irish, 191,437 qrs. foreign; against 1,161 qrs. English, 728 qrs. Scotch, 3,770 qrs. Irish, 246,148 qrs. foreign in 1865. The malt trade through the month has been quiet, and a decline of Is. to 2s. was noted on the last market. There has been but little doing in beans, partly from the extremely high prices at which they have been held, and partly as the effect of the warm weather. Prices have therefore declined about Is. to 2s. per qr. ; but not much change can be antici- pated before the new crop begins to appear. Some new beans from Zaffi, in Morocco, very dry, and fit for splitting, have already arrived, and brought 46s. in the middle of the month, which is fully 10s. above the average of seasons for such quality. The imports into London for four weeks were 1,014 qrs. Enghsh, 1,409 qrs. foreign; against 1,009 qrs. English, 3,647 qrs. foreign, in 1865. In peas also very little has been passing, the season being against any very active inquiry, though English supphes have been extremely scanty. Arrivals from Canada have been fair in quantity and quaUty, and prices have reduced about Is. to 2s. per qr. The linseed supply has been on a very dimi- nished scale, and therefore prices have been firm ; but so many substitutes have been found in con- sequence of the high rates that the demand has considerably lessened. Cakes have, however, gone ofT well, prices being more moderate relatively. There has been nothing stirring in the seed trade. New trefoil has appeared of fair quality; but prices have not yet been settled. New rape- 176 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. seed has been on the market some weeks, and a large reduction from the first-made prices has taken place. Fair seed could be boujjhl at the last market at 56s. per qr., with higher prices in pro- portion for extra quality. Irish, feed, white 19 Ditto, black 18 BEANS, Mazagan ...41 Harrow 43 PEAS, white, boilers.. 39 CURRENT PRICES OF BRITISH GRAIN AND FLOUR IN JIARK LANE. Shillings per Quarter. WHEAT, Essex and Kent, white new... 43to55 ,, ,, ,, red , ... 42 49 Norfolk, Lincoln, and Yorkshire, red 42 49 BARLEY 30 to 34 Chevalier 38 42 Grinding 29 31 Distilling 32 37 MALT, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, new 69 68 Kingston, Ware, and town-made, new 59 66 B^o^vn 52 56 RYE 26 28 OATS, English, feed 20 to 26 Potato 25 31 Scotch, feed 20 27 Potato 25 31 22 Pine 23 27 21 Potato 23 28 43 Ticks 41 43 47 Pieeon 46 50 42 Maple 40 to 42 Grey, new36 37 FLOUR, per sack of 2801bs., Town, Households 47 60 Countrj', on shore 3G to 37 , 39 43 Norfolk and Suffolk, on shore 35 30 FOREIGN GRAIN. Shillings per Quarter. WHEAT, Dantzic, mixed 53 to 55 old, extra 68 to 61 Konigsberg 50 55 extra 56 57 Rostock 51 55 fine 56 57 SUesian, red 48 62 white.... 51 55 Pomera., Meckberg., and Uckermrk. ...red old... 50 63 Russian, hard, 43 to 47... St. Petersburg and Riga 45 47 Danish and Holstein, rod 45 46 French, none Rhine and Belgium 50 53 American, white 00, red winter 50 to 56, spring 00 00 BARLEY, grinding 26 to 28 ....distilling and malting 35 39 OATS, Dutch, brewing and Rolands 20 to 28 feed 18 23 Danish and Swedish, feed 20 to 25.... Stralsund... 20 25 Russian, Riga 20 to 22. ..Arch. 20 to 22....P'sburg 22 2.5 TARES, Spring, per qr small 38 42... large ... 45 60 BEANS, Frieslandand Holstein 37 42 Konigsberg 40 to 42,..Egj'33tian, none 00 00 PEAS, feeding and maple... 37 40... fine boilers 37 40 INDIAN CORN, white 30 32.. .yellow 28 30 FLOUR, per sack, French. .37 40.. .Spanish, p. sack 37 40 American, per brl 24 26...extraand d'ble. 28 30 BRITISH SEEDS. MtTSTAED, per bush., white 83.tol23. Canary, per qr 45s. 52s. CLOTERSEED,red 00s. 00s. CoBiANDBR, per cwt 00s. 00s. Tares, winter, new, per bushel Os. Od. Os. Od. Trefoil 00s. 00s. Ryegrass, per qr 00s. 00s. Linseed, per qr., sowing 00s. toOOs., crushing 60s. 68s. Rapeseed, per qr 64s. 68s. Linseed Cakes, per ton £9 10s. to £10 10s. Rape Cake, per ton £5 lOs. to f 6 Os. FOREIGN SEEDS. CoRiANDEH, per cwt 16s.to20s. Cloterseed, red 45s. to 56s., white 60s. 80s. Trefoil 18s. 23s. Ryegrass, per qr 2os. 263. Hempseed, small — s. per qr., Dutch 00s. 40s. Linseed, per qr., Baltic 58s. to 60s. ..Bombay 68s. 00s. Linseed Cakes, per ton £9 10s. to £11 Os. Rape Cake, per ton £5 Os. to £6 Os. Rapeseed, Dutch 00s. OOa. Careaway ,, 00s. OOs. IMPERIAL AVERAGES For the week ended July 14, 1866. Wheat 30,932iqrs. 558. lOd. Barley 385J ,, 35s. Id. Oats 1,344J ,, 27s. 7d. COMPARATIVE AVERAGES. AVHBAT. BARLEY. OATS. Years. Qrs. s. d. Qrs. s. d. Qrs. s. d. 1862... 39,857-^ ... 57 0 6001 ... 31 9 2,153|... 24 1 1863... 42,7o5i ... 46 10 662* ... 30 10 l,379i ... 23 6 1864... 60,378i ... 41 9 9401 ... 27 8 2,670| ... 21 10 1865... 50,018i... 43 1 1,186| ... 27 3 l,721i ... 22 5 1866... 30,932 i... 55 10 3851 ... 35 1 i,3iii ... 27 7 AVE RAGE S Fob the last Six Weeks : June 9, 1866 June 16, ISfiO , June 23, 1866 June 30, 1866 July 7, 1866 July 14, 1866 Aggregate Average Averages last year Wh 3at. Barley. Oats. s. d. s. d. s. d. 47 1 35 9 25 8 47 4 36 0 25 9 43 5 34 4 20 7 51 0 34 0 20 0 54 6 35 5 27 7 55 10 35 1 27 7 50 9 35 1 26 6 43 1 27 3 22 6 HOP MARKETS. BOEOUGH, ]Mo^■D.vY, July ~3. — Our markets continues heavy, but prices have not materially altered, and quotations must still be considered nominal. Keports irom the planta- tions arc on the whole of a more favourable character, the liealthy bine is making fair profcrcss, while tlie infected por- tions arc cleaning and have nearly thrown off the vermin ; but the thin spindly shoots now being put forth can do but little good. Accounts from West Sussex, Mid and West Kent are hardly so encouraging, fresh fly having appeared in some of the grounds, and tiie late fogs and cold nights have not proved favourable to the growth of the bine ; East Kent, Farnham, and the country districts are progressing well and promise a fair yield, llcports from Belgium, Bavaria, Baden, Alsace and the Erench districts are more favourable ; but the imjirovemcnt is not yet sufficiently manifest to increase mate- rially the prospects of an average crop. New York ad- vices to the 11th instant speak very discouragingly of the hop prospects, many of the old yards show nothing but poles, while otiiers exhibit a very light growth of bine ; few yards present the appearance of the old-fashioned luxuriant growth. Vermin liave not appeared yet to any alarming extent, and the late copious showers have had the eirect of cleansing the jjlant from honey-dew, which liad previously prevailed to some extent. Experienced hop-growers estimate the yield at about half an average, and of good fair quality. Mid and East Kent... 105s., 140s., 180s. Weald of Kent ... 100s., 120s., MOs. Farnhams & Country 100s., 125s., 160s. Sussex 90s., 110s., 140s. Bavarians 130s., 147s., 170s. Belgians 100s., 112s., 125s. Yearlings 95s., 110s., 130s. PRICES of BUTTER, CHEESE, HAMS, &c. BUTTER, p. cwt.— s. s. ] CHEESE, per cwt.— s. s. Priesland 104 to 106 Jersey 90 100 Dorset 114 120 Carlow — — Watcrford — — Cork — — Limerick — — Sligo — — Fresh, per doz., 10s. Od. to 14s. Od. Cheshire 72 to i Dble. Gloucester 74 78 Cheddar 76 84 American 60 74 HAMS: York 90 100 Cumberland 90 100 Irish 90 100 BACON :— Wiltshire 72 78 Irish, green 68 72 ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET. LONDON, MoT*DAY, July 23.— The price of Butter is firm, but trade is not active. Dorset, fine 118s. to 120s. per cwt. Devon 106s. to 110s. Fresh 12s. to 14s. per dozen lbs. CORK BLOTTER EXCHANGE, (Saturday last.)— The supplies average aljout 1,900 firkins daily. Owing to the high rate of money and the heat of the weather the demand has not been very brisk, although nearly all the arrivals are bought up at the quotations. Prices have consequently fallen. Since Monday, firsts fell from 113s. to Ills., seconds from 110s. to 107s., thirds remained at 100s., and fourths fell from 94s. to 92s. Mild-cured arrivals average CO firkius daily. It quotes to-day from 107s. to 118s. ■ TVE Wll^UrE "AND LEADENHALL POULTRY MAli- KETS. — Geese 4s. to 6s., goslings 4s. to 6s., ducks Is. 6d. to 3s., ducklings 2s. to 3s., tame rabbits Is. to Is. 6d., pigeons Od. to lOd. each ; Surrey fowls 9s. to 12s., ditto chickens Cs. to 10s., barn-door fowls 3s. to 7s. 6d. per couple. English eggs 7s. Od. to Ss., French ditto Cs. 6d. to 7s. per 100 ; fresh butter Is. to Is. 2d. per lb. Printed by Rogerson and Tiuxford, 246 Strand, Loudon, W.C REAPING AND fflOWING MACHINES FOR THE HARVEST OF 1866, MANUFACTURED BY BUEGBSS AJ^D KEY, On their New Patent 6yi5t«», whereby the Crank is level with the Knive, and the Cutter Bar in a line with the Axle of the Main Wheel. (2).-SCRi:W-DE£.IVERY REAPER. Delivers in swathe at the side and out of the way of the horses. Worked by one man and two horses it will cut from one-and-a-half to two acres per hour, according to the state of the crops and land. It is well known, 4,000 having been sold since 1854, and Twenty-two First Prizes received in this and other countries. By adopting our patented system the draught is much reduced, the parts much simplified, the width much less, and its operation rendered more certain and efiectual. Price £36, exclusive of extras ; delivered carriage free to any Station in England for 30s. extra. (3). — BACK SHEAF-DEIiIVERY Delivers hehind by means of a very simple automatic Rake. It cuts 5 feet 3 inches, and is v>rorkGd by one horse and a boy to drive. Price j6'22 10s., delivered free to any station in England for 20s. extra. The Machines Nos. 2 and 3 were not completed in time to compete at the Roy. Agric. Society's Meeting this year, and in consequence, Jacob Wilson, Esq., the writer of the Prize Essay on Reapers, and for which he received the Highland Society's Gold Medal, kindly undertook to work them this year. The following is his Report : — * Woodhara Manor, Morpeth, Nov. 30th, 1860. Gentlemen, — It is with considerable pleasure that I have to report to you the very satisfactory work done by your tioo New Machines brought out since the Plymouth Meeting, and which I employed during the whole of the past harvest. Having used one of your original Screw Delivery Reapers since 1857, since which period it has cut upwards of 2,200 acres, I can readily appreciate any improvements which occur in your more recent inventions. It appears to me that the main improvements in the New Screw Delivery Reaper consist in the arrangement of the gearing, so that the Crank is on a level with the Knife, and the Knife projecting in a line with the Axles, and the two Wheels being opposite, or nearly so. By this plan the Machine is made very nar- row, light in draught, and very simple. The reel being worked by a chain, and the screws by gearing, a stop- page is consequently scarcely possible in the delivery. The Back Self-Sheaf-Delivery Reaper is to me quite new, and certainly the simplest on that principle I have yet seen, and it does seem a pity that it was not ready in time for the Plymouth trials. The easy automatical action of the drop platform and reel makes a very neat sheaf, while the lightness of draught surprised me extremely. The Screw- Delivery Reaper cut over 100 acres in a most satisfactory manner, depositing the corn in a well- formed swathe, some of the crops of oats and beans being unusually heavy. The Back-Delivery Machine cut about 70 acres equally well, leaving a very neat sheaf. When we consider that these Machines were quite new the wear and tear was scarcely appreciable, and I therefore predict that you will have a very considerable sale for both Machines as they become known to the public. I am, Gentlemen, yours faithfully, Messrs. Burgess & Ket. JACOB WILSON. (6).-MOWIN6 MACHINE, for Natu- ral and Artificial Grasses. Constructed on B. & Key's new patent system, viz., the Crank level with the Knife, and the Knife in a line with the Axle of the Main Wheel. Cuts 4 feet 3 inches. Price, with all extras delivered, £20. The parts necessary to adapt it to reap corn crops, £3. The above prices are for nett cash on delivery. Further particulars may be obtained of BURGESS & KEY, 95, NEWGATE-STREET, LONDON, AND BRENTWOOD, ESSEX. Mnnn tijc patronage of antr i^opal dFamilj) o( ©reat iSritain, antr OTourts of (JBurope. «nd universally HELD IN HIGH ESTEEM. IIOWI.ANDS' MACASSAR OIL, iS^ wi©[iir/£i[BLii iF5[?^@©y(gTrfl@[i^g Is universally known as the only article that really promotes the GROWTH, RESTORES and PRESERVES the HUMAN HAIR. It prevents Hair from falling off or turning grey, strengthens weak HAIR, cleanses it from Scurf and Dandriff, and makes it B«AtJTIFUI.I.Y SOFT, [PI^IABI^E, A1¥I> C^tOSSY. In the growth of the BEARD, WHISKERS, and MUSTACHIOS, it is unfailing in its stimulative operation. ' For CHILDREN it is especially recommended as forming the basis of a BEAUTIFUL HEAD OF HAIR ; while its introduction into the Nursery of Royalty, and the numerous Testimonials constantly received of its efficacy, aiFord the best and surest proofs of its merits. ^fvoinrsERFUii recoteikt of hair. " A striking instance of the power of scientific art to remedy the defects of nature has lately occurred in the case of a Mr. P. Balls, a gentleman residing at Wortham, in Norfolk, who, some years since, on returning from Harleston Market to Weybred, where he then resided, sustained so severe a fall from his horse, as to bring on an illness of several months' duration, during which period his hair continued to come oflf, till he became, to use his own terms, ' as perfectly bald as if his head had been shaved ;' and the Rev. J. E. Daniel, then clergyman of the parish, oflfered him a wig as a substitute for his lost hair. Under these circum- stances he was lately induced to try the eflfect of Rowlands' Macassib Oh, and it is gratifying to add with the most happy results. As soon as part of a bottle was used the growth commenced, and he has now to boast of a very thick and luxuriant head of hair, which presents this peculiarity, that though prior to losing his hair it evinced no tendency to curl, the new growth is curly and strong. The fact speaks too strongly for itself to require observation." — BelPa Messenger. Price 3s. 6d., 7s. Family Bottles (equal to four small), 10s. 6d. ; and double that size, 2l8. ROW LANDS' KAIiY DOR, AW ORIEWTAI. «OTA]!(fICAIi PREPARATION, This Royally-patronized and Ladies'-esteemed Specific exerts the most soothing, cooling, and purifying action on the Skin, eradicates Freckles, Tan, Pimples, Spots, Discoloration, and other Cutaneous Visitations, and renders TME ^atiaf SOFT, ei^SlAII, A]^^l> B1.00MI1VC}. During the heat and dust of Summer, the frost and bleak winds of Winter, and in cases of sunburn, stings of insects, or incidental inflammation, its virtues are universally acknowledged — Price 4s. 6d. and 8s. 6d. per bottle. IVSITE AND SOUND TEISTB Are indispensable to PERSONAL ATTRACTION, and to health and longevity by the proper mastication of food, ROWLANDS' ODONTO, OR PEARL DENTIFRI CE, Compounded of ORIENTAL INGREDIENTS is of inestimable value in PRESERVING AND BEAUTIFYING THE TEETH, STR£M€}TBX:]VII¥0 XKE OUM§, and in giving a PI.X:A9I1V0 I'RAORAIVCX: TO THE BREATH. It eradicates Tartar from the Teeth, removes spots of incipient decay, and polishes and preserves the enameli to which it imparts a PEARX-IilKE fVHITEWESS. As the most efficient and fragrant aromatic purifier of the Breath, Teeth, and Gums ever known, ROW- LANDS' ODONTO has, for a long series of years, occupied a distinguished place at the Toilets of the Sove- reigns and the Nobility throughout Europe ; while the general demand for it at once announces the favour in which it is universally held. Price 2s. 9d. per Box. TO PREVENT These are small Articles as they their IMPOSITION. opies of the appear in Wrappers. Sold by A. ROWI.AND & SONS, 20, Batton Garden, X^ondon, and by Chemists and Perfumers. * Ask for •* ItO^friiAWl^li' " Articles. ROGERSON & TUXFORD,] [PRINTERS, 246, STRAND. No. 3, Vol. XXX.] SEPTEMBER, 1866. [Third Series. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE AND MONTHLY JOURNAL OF THE AGRICULTURAL INTEREST. TO THE FARMERS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. LONDON : PUBLISHED BY ROGERSON AND TUXFORD, 246, STRAND. PRICE TWO SHILLINGS. BOGEBSON AND TTTXFORD,] [PBINTBBS, 246, STRA>l/ H O TV A RDS' CHAMPION PLOUGHS WON in 1865 and TWO PEEVIOUS YEARS tlio Unprecedented Number of SIXTY. EIGHT ALL ENGLAND PRIZES, AND UPWARDS OF EIGHT HUNDRED LOCAL PHIZES, BY FAE THE LARGEST NUMBER EVER GAINED BY ANY MAKER. HOWARDS' CHAMPION PLOUGH Gained at the LAST TRIALS of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, at Newcastle, The FIRST and ONLY PRIZE for the BEST WHEEL PLOUGH FOR GENERAL FTJBPOSES. This is the most important Prize for Ploughs offered by the Society, it being for the Plough best adapted for both light and heavy land, as well as for the best work at various depths. For the LAST TEN YEARS J. & F. HOWARD have been the Winners of this Prize. HAS RECEIVED FIFTEEN FIRST PRIZES FROM THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND, Being the Largest Number of Prizes awarded to any kind of Plough ever exhibited. MORE THAN SIXTYIhOUSAND ARE IN USE. The following Prizes have been awarded to J. & F. Howard by the Royal Agricultural Society of England : FORTY-FOUR FIRST PRIZES FOR THE BEST PLOUGHS FOR LIGHT LAND, BEST PLOUGHS FOR HEAVY LAND, BEST PLOUGHS FOR GENERAL PURPOSES. BEST RIDGING PLOUGHS, BEST SUBSOIL PLOUGHS, BEST HARROWS, BEST HORSE RAKES, BEST HAYMAKERS, AND BEST HORSE HOES; ALSO THE GOLD MEDAL, AND OTHER PRIZES, FOR STEAM-CULTIVATING MACHINERY FULL PARTICULARS MAY BE HAD OF THEIR AGENTS THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, OR IVILL BE SENT FREE ON APPLICATION TO JAMES AND FREDERICK HOWARD, BRITANNIA IRON WORKS, BEDFORD, ENGLAND, LONDON OFFICE : 4, Cheapside-Three Doors from St, Paul's. THE ORWELL WORKS, IPSWICH RANSOMES & SIMS, OEAVELL WORKS, IPSWICH, ENGLAND, Are especially celebrated for the Agricultural Machinery described in the following Pages, J^ANSOMES & SIMS construct their Machines of the Best Materials, manufactured as far as possible by Machinery, and -with the greatest attention to Simplicity, Durability, and Ease of Repair ^without the employment of skilled labour. They are sold at the Low^est Prices at v^hich sound Workmanship and good Material permit. Up^wards of 1000 men are employed at the Orwell Works, and they are aided by the best modern Tools and appliances. Illustrated Catalogues will be forwarded Post Free on Application to RANSOMES & SIMS, ORWELL WORKS, IPSWICH. EANSOMES & SIMS' PEIZE PLOUGHS. Ransomes & Sims have been engaged in the manufacture of Ploughs for upwards of seventy years, during which time they have sold an immense number^ and taken a great number of Prizes from the Royal and many other Agricultural Societies at home and abroad. These Ploughs have, during the last two years, obtained greater success than any others. They won Four First Prizes at the last great plough trial of the Royal Agricultural Society at Newcastle, July, 1864, being Four times as many Prizes as were awarded to any other Makers. They won more All England Champion Prizes in 1864, and more again in 1865, than any others, making altogether up to the present time the unprecedented number of 50 All England Champion Prizes in less than a Year and a Half, Together with a large number of Prizes in other classes, and Fifteen Silver Cups in hands of Farmers' Sons and others. These Ploughs are made in various sizes and to suit all purposes. Price of a good General Purpose Wheel Plough, R.N.E. £4 lo O The whole of the Wearing Parts, especially Ransomes' Patent Chilled Plough Shares, are of the best possible description, and very economical. Special Catalogues and Full Particulars on Application. EAISOIES & SIIS' STEAl PIOUGHHa lACHIlfEUT, (FO"WLER'S PATENT). Illustrated Circulars of the most improved Machinery for this purpose (Fo"wler's Patent) will be forwarded on application, and RANSOMES & SIMS will furnish, with much pleasure, most satisfactory evidence of the profitable employment of Steam Power in Tillage. RANSOMES dc SIMS' PATENT STEAM THRASHING MACHINERY Is guaranteed to perform its work in the most perfect and satisfactory manner, and from its peculiar construction and excellent Materials, it is with- out exception the most desirable and economical in the Market. RANSOMES & SIMS' PORTABLE STEAM ENGINE. RANSOMES & SIMS' PATENT D3UBLE BLAST & FIHSHING STEAM THRASHING MACHINE (Class A). RANSOMES AND SIMS HAVE GREATLY REDUCED THE PRICES OF THEIR STEAM THRASHING MACHINERY WHICH IS THE BEST AND CHEAPEST MADE. CATALOGUES AND TESTIMONIALS FREE ON APPLICATION. AN EXAMINATION SOLICITED. E]>^GHIS-ES aixd. M^CKII^ES Constantly Kept in Stock. THIS MACHINERY HAS BEEN AWARDED THE FOLLOWING PRIZES — F^f IsTe^'^'SmLf 1«.^fi ^"^•'"'^' ^^iW^'^l' 'f ^' '^^'' ^^''^- ^^y^^ Agricultural Society, Ireland, '1854, 1855. ^lLl^^H(^^Zvff \'t^.\^^^'- ,^^««t\1857. Amsterdam, 1857. Rotterdam, 1858. Brussels 1858. i r 863 H«-W iS ^T';^ hi .) ii ^^^ '^'' \ London,. PuJ7lL:heii ty Rogerjcn& Tiuford. :?46. Strandj.lBBG THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. SEPTEMBER, 1866. PLATE I. CORINNE; A Prize Shorthorn Co\y. THE PROPERTY OF MR. JOHN WOOD, Ol<' STANWICK PARK, DARLINGTON. Corinne, a roan cow, bred by Mr. Wood, and calved on July 4lh, 1860, is by Cardij^an (12556), out of Carmine by Prince Arthur (13497), her dam Carnation by Newton, (2367) — Cowslip by Young Magog (2247), — Duchess by Margrave (2263), — Premium by Sir Charles (593), — by Sir Dimple (594), — Dy St, Albans (1412), — by Layton (366), — by Charge's Grey Bull (872), — by Brown's Red Bull (97). Cardigan, a roan bull, bred by Mr. Richard Booth, was calved on February 8th, 1854, and got by Crown Prince (100S7) out of Caroline by Fitz- Leonard (7010), her dam Christiana by Bucking- ham (3239). Cardigan was also the sire of Lord Adolphus, Mr. Wood's first prize bull at Battersea. Carmine, the dam of Corinne, and also bred by Mr. Wood, was calved on April 21st, 1854. In 1863, at the Stockton Meetmg of the York- shire Agricultural Society, Corinne made her first appearance in public, when she took the first prize for three-year-old heifers in-calf or in-milk, but where it struck us she was rather overdone in the way of condition. In the autumn of the same year she also took the first prize at Bernard Castle for cows of any age. In 1S64 Corinne won the first prize for cows at the Middlesborough Meeting of the Cleveland So- ciety, and the first prize in a similar class at the Howden Meeting of the Yorkshire Society, and when we spoke to her merits as " a very sweet lengthy cow, at all points the best" of her class. These were the only two occasions on which she was exhibited during the year, though she had been prepared for the Royal Meeting at Newcastle- upon-Tyne, but she calved the night previous to the opening of tlie show. In 1865, However, at the Plymouth Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, Corinne took the first prize of £20 for shorthorn cows, beating Mr. Stratton's Diadem, Mr. Sharpe's Elegant, Lady Pigol's Perfume, Mr. Stratton's Maid of Honour, Messrs. Hosken's Moss Rose, and Mr. Tennant's Frederick's Farewell, all of which were distin- guished either by prizes or commendations, and when we said " the shorthorns were fairly saved by the cow and heifer classes, with some very good specimens amongst the dowagers. The first of these, Mr. Wood's Coi'inne, has been very ju- diciously reduced since we saw her in Yorkshire, and now looks sweeter and handsomer than ever." During last year she also took first prizes at Brid- lington, Driffield, Durham, and Morpeth, beating at the last-named of these meetings Sir Matthew Ridley's Royal Xewcastle prize cow ; and also taking the silver cup given by the late Mr. R. Booth for the best animal on the ground. Corinne has furthur proved her worth in the herd, as she has had three calves, the last of which, a bull calf now about five months, should with luck be as good as his mother. The Stan wick herd at present consists of just a dozen females, cows, heifers, and heifer-calves; of two young bulls, and five bull-calves, all full of promise, and very healthy. Lord Albert, one of the late Mr. R. Booth's bulls, is now being used at Stanwick. PLATE II. ON THE REIN, The grey pony is warranted — to do anything but speak; and to stand on the rein for three hours together, until the keejier has settled the poacher's business, or the terms for the next day in the covers. The grey is of course "the property of the artist," Old Skhtes.I who has a kind of patent in this way, that, we are happy to say, he never abuses. Abraham Cooper's greys are as well matched as were Sir Henry Peyton's, and the eftener he puts them on parade, the better they go — with the public. 0 [Vol.. LX.— No. 3. 178 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. THE GAME FED BY A TENANT FARMER. BY CUTHBEET W. JOHNSON, F.R.S. The preservation of game, although attended with great general advantage to the community, has, unfortunately, sundry attendant evils. These may be classed under two heads : first, an abundance of game renders it essential to their greater enjoyment that the land on which they are preserved should be kept partially or entirely out of cultivation ; or, secondly, if the land is well cultivated, to the more or less injury to the crops it produces. As regards the first of these heads, we find in all periods that the owners of game were too often desirous of keeping their land in the state that nature left it. PhQip Pusey, in his graphic way, long since sketched some of these injurious effects. As he well remarked (Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc, vol. iv., p. 309), " On the Exmoor wastes, you find the heath growing knee-high, a proof that the land has strength ; you frequently find tall ferns mixing their bright green or yellow fans with these purple bushes, yet fern is an unfailing sign that land has depth as well as goodness, and wherever ferns grow, unless, indeed, the elevation is too great, wheat might be reaped. But in that neighbourhood there is a wonderful indifference in the owners to the use of their land. These moors are divided into large sheep-walks for the neighbouring farms. Sometimes you find a large piece of the best land enclosed with a high fence, and you hope that the owner is about to begin to till his freehold ; on the contrary, the object is to keep out the only sign of farming — the sheep — and to preserve the best of the land (for where the land is best the covert is highest) an undisturbed realm for the black- cock. Every black-cock killed by an owner of these moors has cost more, I am convinced, than a full-fed ox ; but it is nothing new that sporting should impede farm- ing. The new forest was made for the deer, and Henry I. afforested 70,000 acres of fens ; ' doing,' says Dugdale, for the pleasure of hunting, much harm to the common- wealth.' In later times, when it was proposed to lay the fens of Lincolnshire dry, the fen-men obstinately opposed the scheme, and their main argument (as I found in a curious old pamphlet) was the destruction which would fall on the wild ducks and other water-fowl. In the last generation rabbits resisted the long-wooUed sheep, and now grouse and black-cocks are the main impediments to the extension of cultivation." Some years afterwards Pusey again alluded to the injury done to the farmer by four-footed game {Hid, vol. ii., p. 405). He remarked forcibly and truly that the rabbit is now admitted to be indefensible : he will clear by the covert-side three or four acres of barley, which never comes into straw : he is self-convicted. But the hare will travel out two miles by night for his supper ; and yet, though less palpable, the hare's bite is not the less mischievous. Even he wUl feed down, in winter or spring, acres of wheat ; which comes to a crop indeed, but is apt to mildew, and is perhaps thus rendered worse by a quarter per acre. Swedes, too, are gnawed and exposed to frost ; so that farmers sometimes store their swedes for pro- tection, not against the weather, but the nightly visitor. I have known farmers give up the growth of winter-vetches altogether, where hares have been swarming. The amount of loss may be measured, in this case, by the fact of the farmer having been obliged, as I know, to send his flock twenty miles off, in spring, to water-meadows, for the use of which he paid £60, "it is asked indeed, sometimes, how many hares eat as much as a sheep ? But the ques- tion is wrongly put. Sheep do not roam at will, and help themselves from the growing crop. A hog does not eat many potatoes, but who could bear a loose hog in a kitchen garden ? A good farmer rated to me the injury on his land from hares at 5s. per acre. The amount of injury done by game appears, indeed, to be the main element in this important question. It is idle to suppose that with the present and increasing demand, game can be banished from the farmer's crops ; for, not- Avithstanding the enormous supplies poured into the market from our own islands, a very large and increasing importation of game now exists. The following little table gives the declared value of the game and poultry imported in the year 1865, and from what countries (the declared value of these was about £131,000 in 1864) : — Norway HoUaud Belgium France Other countries £2,056 9,993 70,653 64,532 1,408 £148,642 Norway chiefly sends us white hares and ptarmigan ; Belgium, Ostend rabbits and other game; France, poultry. If, then, it resolves itself into a question of fair com- pensation between the tenant and the owner of the game, it becomes important to inquire into the real damage inflicted upon the farmer by a head of game. Now, some years since the question was carefully examined by a Committee of the House of Commons, of which, amongst others, Mr. Manners Sutton, Mr. Bright, and Lord George Bentinck, were members. It is to be remembered that it is commonly in the sudden increase of game, after a tenant has taken a lease, that the loss the most severely arises. Now, before that Committee a witness appeared, who was an instance of the hardship of a rapid and large increase of game, such as that to which we have just referred. This was Mr. William Bates, of Stagenhoe, near Hitchin, in Hertfordshire, who on his first entry upon a farm he formerly held found neither hares nor rabbits, and had the clear understanding that it was not intended to preserve them. He said, " I took the farm for an agree- ment for a 14 years' lease; the lease was not signed, but the agreement for a lease was signed ; but when I had been there for about a year and a-half, it was said that the Duke of Wellington came down on a visit, and admired the situation very much for game, and inquired whether it was preserved or not. Then it was that I was told by diiferent persons that the game was to be preserved. Keepers were put on, and the game was preserved to a considerable extent — to an extent beyond anything that I ever saw in my life. As to the increase within a certain time, where there is a large quantity of woods situated as those were (it was a Bedfordshire farm), and they are well looked after, it is astonishing how quickly they get a head of game." In his opinion hares did the greatest damage. He added, "If I had a farm of 300 acres, I would as soon keep one sheep as I would two hares. The calculation I make is this, that if I had 300 acres of sheep- land, I consider that I ought to keep, for the good culti- THE FARMEE'S MAGAZINE. 179 ration of that land, one sheep to an acre, and that sheep ought to pay me £1 vrith the wool and the carcase of the sheep ; I would take the keep of one sheep, and I would not keep hares if I could make 10s. a-piece for them for their keep for one year." It will be well to note in this research, as Mr. Pusey remarked, that it is not the mere weight of food consumed by the animal that must be taken into the account ; we have to regard the destruction they commit on the growing crop, on plants which they bite, and only partially consume. This was well described by another Hertfordshire farmer, Mr. J. S. Nowlson, of St. Alban's, who remarked to the committee : " As the gi'ain gets towards perfection, the hares and rabbits will cat it off about six inches to a foot above the ground ; they cut what we called recks in the wheat. I can speak to one instance, where I was called in to view it just before harvest, where some of the furrows were literally cut for, I should say, from a foot to a foot and a-half on each side ; that is, a yard, including both sides of the fmTows, was literally cut off by the hares and rabbits, so that the straw lay as old stubble in the middle of the lands. Where they had not made a thoroughfare, there the wheat was good. It is common for the hares to bite the joint of the stalk, which is supposed to contain a quantity of saccharine matter ; we always consider that the hare takes off the first joint, which is about 9 to 15 inches out off the ground, according to the size of the straw." The ravages of the hare upon certain green crops is equally mischievous. The mangold and the kohl-rabi, for instance, roots of which this animal is peculiarly fond, are bitten by them in the most restless and persevering manner. It is true that they do not consume the entire root, but they bite out a V mouthful, and then pass on to other roots. "The turnips, too, are injured," added Mr. Nowlson, "by being bitten by the hares and rabbits ; and, consequently, if there comes frost, the frost will destroy them. After the skin is broken, the frost wQl take hold of the bulb, and it will decay. I have seen an instance of this ; in fact I can speak of one field of turnips that were sold at £3 10s. per acre, in consequence of being so injured by the bite of the hares and rabbits, which otherwise, within two months k afterwards, would have realised £8. My general impres- sion is, that three hares wUl consume and damage more than will maintain one sheep." If we examine the evi- dence on the same question, from another district, we find a Suffolk farmer, Mr. S. Lock, of Barton Bendish, giving similar testimony : " I have formed an opinion," he says, "as to how many hares do as much injury as a sheep. Considering that with the sheep you get some manure, and that you can fold them, and make them eat all that you give them, whUe the hares destroy a great deal more than they eat, and roam over the farm, that damage wiU vary very much; in 1844, certainly every three hares on my farm did me more injury than the amount of the keep of a sheep — that was a dry season. In a wet season, pro- bably I could keep half-a-dozen hares for the same injury. Another Suffolk farmer, Mr. J. W. Cooper, of Ingham, after remarking that "a hare, having an unlimited i-ange and a humorous appetite, will do double the damage if adrift than the cost would be if it was kept in confine- ment," he added, as the i-esult of his observations and some experiments, at which he had been pi-esent, "If the sheep and hares were confined within pens, I consider that four or five hares would consume as much food as one sheep." The damage which they cause on the richer soils is apparently less. Mr. \V. E. Hobson, of Kettleby Thorpe, in Lincolnshire, considered that six hares would eat and destroy as much as one large Leicester sheep." Mr. W. Morris, of Ricklands, near Louth, thought fi-om four to five; and that they did most damage in winter, because they do such great injury to the turnips, Some Scotch farmers gave similar testimony. Mr. James Landale, of Woodbank, in Fifeshire, said, " There is no certain rule to go by, but the general opinion is that from four to five hares roaming through the whole crop are equal to one sheep." The evidence which was produced to rebut the evidence of these and many other excellent practical farmers was of a rather discordant character. The Hon. G. C. Berkeley laboured ingeniously and zealously in behalf of the hares and rabbits. He urged upon the committee very fairly that it is true the hare is always at large ; but against that fact it is but right to place another. The hares, as well as the rabbits, live half their lives in the landlord's woods ; they feed upon wild herbage, dry bents, diy leaves of all kinds, wild parsley, sow thistle, and the yoiing shoots of heather and gorse. When seen in wheat or barley they are not always feeding upon the crop, but very frequently on the small wild grass that springs between the stalks of the corn, as I have frequently proved by shooting the hare or rabbit ^\hile at feed, and examining the contents of the mouth. The hare will also cross through and leave whole crops untouched, to reach and feed in distant heaths and downs, to feed on the short sweet herbage of the latter, of which she is fonder than of any other. The hare, as well as the rabbit, frequently feeds in the deer park, and in the grassy glades, rides, and paths of the landlord's woods, as well as on the stack of barley, loose barley, and swede turnips placed in the cover purposely for the game. In the fall of the year, the hare also feeds to a considerable extent on acorns. The hare and rabbit, therefore, are frequently in a position to do no damage whatever. "Taking all the facts into consideration, and viewing them side by side, the nearest conclusion that can be arrived at by calculation (added Mr. Berkeley) is, that in amount of consumption 55 hares must be equal to 1 sheep." This was the lowest estimate of the damage done by the hares produced before the Game Committee by any one of the hare's many sporting friends. Mr. Henry ViUebois, of Marham, thought that "a sheep would eat as much as 50 hares;" Lord Malmesbury "as 40 hares ;" but Mr. Stephen Hooper, gamekeeper to Sir Edward I5utler, of Chdworth, thought " that one sheep would not eat more than 20 hares." Mr. R. Brierly, of Nottingham, calculated " more than 16." The general evidence, then, was by far the strongest as to the very considerable damage done to the farmer's crops by hares and rabbits ; and although we are quite disposed to agree with the committee in their report that, under the present law, " the tenant has at all times the power to secure the game to himself, or reject the tenancy if the proprietor insists on a reservation being made of the game in his (the proprietor's) favour," yet still we are equally well aware (knowing that this independent com'se on the part of a proposing tenant is only really practicable in the small minority of cases) that it would much promote an equitable adjustment, and the consequent permanent com- fort of both the contracting parties, if the real damage caused by game was more generally understood, and allowed for by the landowner. It is to the want of a proper and well-founded calculation on these points, and a fair observance of the agreement, based on such a clear understanding, that all the discomforts caused by the ravages of game are to be generally attributed. It is, indeed, evident that when the landlord has bargained for the keeping, and the tenant has covenanted to keep, a certain amount of game of any kind, that then so long as the bargain is fairly kept on both sides, no one to whom we addi'ess ourselves has any cause for complaint. But then, as we know very well, these bargains are not com- monly made with the requisite degree of consideration by the parties to the lease— and from the nature of the case Q 3 180 THE FATIMER'S MAGAZINE. the damage arising from game cau 1)6 only equitably settled by subsequent valuations. in reviewing the general mass of evidence produced before the same committee, it is very evident that the denunciation of the jjheasants by every one was much more qualified than that of the hares. The very first witness — Mr. \V. Bates, a farmer from near Hitchin — placed this pretty correctly when he said, " I do not object to partridges : pheasants do considerable damage at one season of the year, but not equal to hares." The pheasant, too, destroys a con- siderable portion of insect vermin, which prey upon the farmer's ci'ops ; but too much must not be made of this fact, for, as Mr. W. Sewell, a fanner of Caldecote, near Swaffham, observed, "I think that pheasants and par- tridges are, as well as rooks, of great service in destroying wireworms, because they feed a good deal upon insects ; but I think that the rooks will do more towards destroy- ing wireworm than pheasants will. Tlie pheasant does not roam far enough into the fields to do much good in destroying the insects; they keep on the sides of the covers." The period when the pheasants do the most injury, said Mr. AV. E. Hobson, of Kettleby, near Brigg, is after the corn is sown. "Where they arc strictly pre- served, and numerous," he added, " they arc at that period very injurious to corn, but I do not think they are so injurious to growing crops." An account was produced by the Hon. H. AV. Wilson of the number of pheasants and other game annually llUccI on an estate of about 4,000 acres, at Didlington, in Norfolk, during several vears. It was as follows: — Year. Partridges. 1837-8 577 .. 1838-9 1231 ., 18.39-40 1091 .. Pheasants. .. 550 ... .. 609 ... .. 711 ... 1840-1 1021 1104 125G 1841-2 1439 75() 1040 1S43-3 958 853 1454 1843-4 923 801 1314 1844-5 ; 502 820 1319 Hares. Rabbits. 585 — 1035 419 973 318 548 305 608 722 427 He placed the value of a game-presen-ed estate upon a fair footing when he added, " We sell the game, we give a great deal away ; but what is not wanted for our friends and myself we invariably sell, and that meets with as ready a market as any other description of food which we produce uj)ou the farm." " I regard the game," he con- tinued, " in every point of view as a lucrative species of private property ; it adds considerably to the value of iill our light-laud properties." His mode of agreeing about the game in the letting a farm afibrds an instance of the openness and honourable bearing which commonly mark the English country gentleman, but gives an excellent illustration of the indefinite kind of game agreements to which we have already alluded. He told the committee, " (rame farms are usually imder-let, or let at rents to compensate the tenants. I never knew an instance to the contrary. I never had a valuer, or a farmer, who came to take a farm (and I have done all that business myself), that has not said, ' What is to be done about game ? What sort and quantity of game are we to have?' And ray answer has always been, ' I let the farm with ample allowauce for the game upon it ; we will take care that it does not do you more damage than usual ; but the game we insist upon ; in fact, we consider it a great portion of the value of our estate.' " For the owners of ])reserves considerable stress was justly laid upon (he amount of the insects consumed by game. TJie late Colonel Challoner, of Portnall, in Berkshire, jjlaced this very fairlv. He said, " From experience I have found that you never cau rear young game in a shut-up place of any description, no matter how large ; nor cau you ever rear young game with success upon the same spot two years followiiig : they always require to be taken to a dilferent locale, and my belief is that it is in consequence of the insects and seeds, and matters of that kind, that are in the soil, which are quite necessary for the rearing of young game." He added, in another place, " "\A'e believe that game, in certain lands, look more for insects and the wireworm than they do for corn. Vou will see young pheasants in a wheat field, either newly-sown wheat, or wheat partially up, and you will find their crops full of anything but the seed of wheat. I do not mean to say that they will not pluck off the green blades, but very partially ; but I never saw or heard of an instance of pheasants being found with any quantity of corn in their crops, but I confine (he concluded) my evidence entirely to the wheat crop." On this head, too, Mr. Henry Yillebois, of Marham, in Nor- folk, spoke out with all the open warmth of a true sports- man. He told the conmiittee that he was well aware that pheasants and partridges feed upon insects to a great extent ; that they destroyed the wireworm, and conse- quently did a great deal of good to the farmer's crops, so much so that he deemed the good done in this way by the pheasants and partridges to a great extent allbrded com- pensation for the harm done by a moderate number of hares ; yet he spoke with the honest doubts of one who wished the case to be fairly stated on both sides, for he also remarked, in reply to a question as to the possibility of growing good crops in conjunction with a thick preser- vation of game, " I think that all depends upon the seasons. Two years ago it was a tremendous breeding season for hares ; there were twice the number of hares, two years ago, that there were ten years before. Then last year was a very bad year again ; but taking one year with another, I do not think that game does that mischief that people tell you it does; that is my opinion of it. I think the opinion of the Norfolk farmers is, that they like partridges and pheasants upon their property, that they would rather have them ; it is hares that they object to, but I never heard a Norfolk farmer object to pheasants and partridges." The evidence, then, on all sides was, as we before remarked, nmch more strongly directed against the preservation of hares and rabbits, than against the existence of au equally larsje proportion of pheasants, since in their case there are many qualifying circumstances — they aid the farmer in the destruction of the predatory insects ; they injure his crops at only one period of the year ; at that time it is true he has to support them, but then his burthen ceases with the season ; it does not con- tiuue, as in (he case of hares and rabbits. It woidd then surely simplify the question, and remove all sources of uncertainty (the ])arent of litigation) if a covenant was introduced into the farmer's lease, to the eftect that the damage done to his crops by game shoidd be allowed him, as a deduction fj'om his rent, and this might be easily and fairly determined every year, in need, by any competent valuer. It is dillicidt to see any other way of getting out of the difilculty. In feudal days, the serf had to keep a horse, or a cow, or perform some work for his landlord, but the number of the animals was stated in his grant ; it was never supposed, even in those iron days, that a horse or a cow intended a drove. If then, as we all know, the amount of game on a farm varies so very materially, in difl'erent seasons, and under difl'erent arrangements over which the landlord has the sole control, it does only seem fair that the allowauce to the tenant should vary with the extenfof the burden he has to bear. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. .131 ON. HARVESTING CORN Tliis being one of the most important works on the farm, lias received much attention in every land and every climate ; the variation of climate having had more to do in deciding- the course pursued than any other consideration. If we commence our survey with the northern and western parts of the United Kingdom, where the greatest difliculties have to be eijcoun- tered in consequence of the wet and changeable seasons there prevalent, we find the wary Scotchman and the impetuous Irish under the same atmospheric influences adopting the same modes of saving their corn. Lithe rainy districts of the West of Scotland the plan of " ricking," or hand field-stacking, obtains partly in consequence of the prevailing custom of returning to tillage after the land has for three or four years been laid down to pasture. Here the first corn crop, which is oats, has generally a large quan- tity of grass amongst it, to save which in good condition is of much importance ; they take care therefore to cut low, either by scythe or hook, while dry, and to 1)ind the sheaves with the bands rather near the ears ; these in fine weather are set up singly for a day or two ; then they are collected and built into small round stacks, rather less in diameter at bottom than two lengths of the sheaves, and gradually tapering till finished at the top with one sheaf tied close to the butt, and put on with the ears down so as to thatch all the ears of those below. The builder stands on the ground at first, and finishes with a short ladder. If the weather is wet and precarious, the corn is " rickled" close up to the hook, scythe, or machines ; the use of the sickle is almost unknown. Wet never penetrates these little stacks, because the sheaves lie elevated at the centre at an angle which becomes higher and higher, until the last sheaf placed vertically makes a cap for the whole. These " rickles" contain from 100 to 150 sheaves, and cost about 2d. per 100 sheaves, or from Is. to 2s. per acre for building. When the crop is stacked, before it has stood in the sheaf long enough to harden the grain, a triangle is always formed of three poles about 12 feet long, fastened together at the top. This is raised on the stands with the bottom ends about three feet apart ; or, if stands or staddles are not in use, then a stone or brushwood bottom is formed, with an opening leading to the triangle so as to admit free circulation of air ; on this bottom the crop is built around the triangle, in stacks of from three to five yards in diameter, according to the condition of the corn, and thus the grain i^ preserved from heating and the straw from damage. In the western and midland counties of Ireland a similar sys- tem prevails, with this difference — that there the crops are all reaped and tied into very small sheaves, and that in building the field-stack the builder kneels on the stack, which is objec- tionable, because the sheaves get packed too close, and the wind and air cannot permeate the stack freely. About thirty years ago, John Love, Esq., of Oakfield, in the county Kildare, invented a plan of making round shocks, with twelve sheaves and four small head sheaves, which, while they resisted the rain, permitted the wind to act on the whole mass ; this costs about l^d. per 100 sheaves. The damage done by these shocks standing too long in one place upon grass layers in wet seasons induced the author to invent a simple contri- vance, at the cost of 12s. Gd., which enabled two men to move these sliocks bodily at 6d. per 100 shocks of 10 sheaves each. This contrivance consisted of two bars of ash, 3 inches in depth by 1^ inch thick, and 7j feet long, rounded at the ends for the hand to hold by ; two f -inch round rods of iron, 4:} feet long, are fastened into the flat side of one of these ash bars, at about a foot from each end ; corresponding holes being made in the other bar to receive the two rods, so that the bars can be drawn close together or slid apart atthe wiU of the carriers. From the inside of the said ash-bars project four iron teeth, 3 inches long, set 15 inches apart. The carriers set these bars wide enough ajiart for them to pass over the shock, and lower them to within two-thirds of the bottom ; they then press the bars together, and the teeth enter into the shock, which is thus tightly grasped and lifted bodily on to fresh ground. With this simple contrivance two active men can, with a good crop, move shocks at (id. per 100. When the shocks are few and far between it will cost more. As we travel from the north of England southwards, or in Scotland from the west, eastwards, we find that these extra precautious die away, until even the practice of putting head- sheaves on the shocks gradually disajjpears, and the grain and straw are alike left to the mercy of the climate, which of course seldom does much damage, or the intelligence of the farmer would prompt him to adopt the same means as others to pre- vent the loss. Still there are occasional seasons, such as those of 1841, 1815, and 1800, in which the plan of making shocks well capped and secure would have saved a vast deal of both grain and straw', which as it was were bleached and damaged. With tfie present rage for cutting corn green, capping is found to retard the hardening of the grain, and may be dispensed with, if the sheaves, placed with the knots of the bands turned in- wards, are made to straddle properly, the ears being well pressed home together, and each pair of sheaves in the sliock so adjusted that they can stand alone unpropped, even if some of the other sheaves be removed. Before entering into the expense of the various operations of which this essay must treat, it will be desirable to calculate the annual expense of keeping a farm-horse. The keep may be thus estimated : — For 32 winter weeks — £ s. d. 32 bushels of oats, at 3s 4- 10 0 32 bushels of beans, at 5s 8 0 0 50 cwt. of carrots, at Is 2 10 0 Wheat chaff gratis. For 20 summer, &c., weeks — 20 bushels of beans, at OS 5 0 0 5 tons of green rye, tares, Italian rye or clover, equivalent to one ton of hay, at 3 0 0 Totalfo'rfood £23 12 0 Blacksmith's biU, shoeing, and mending traces, &c 0 12 6 Harness-maker's, oiling, kc 0 7 0 Interest and tear and wear of harness, 10 per cent, upon £3 10s 0 7 0 1 7 0 Insurance of life, with tear and wear on £35, the value of horse, at 10 per cent 3 10 0 £28 9 0 Tear, wear, and interest on machines, &c., for preparing food, 10 per cent, upon £1 10s 0 3 0 £28 13 0 Further, as to the rate to be charged for the use of a horse, this ought to vary with the demand for his service at different seasons. There are not more than 250 w^orking days in the year in all. Of these — GO days for harvesting and seeds, charged at 3s. will make U 0 0 90 for manure carting, root harvesting, &c., at 2s. 6d. 1 1 5 t) 100 days at slack time, charged at Is. 8d SOS £28 11 S — a sum which agrees with our estimate of the total cost of keeping a horse. I shall now proceed to the consideration of my subject in reference to the various methods of harvesting practised in England, viz. : — reaping high, reaping low, bagging, mowing, machine mowing, and machine reaping ; in all of which I have- had nearly thirty years' experience and close observation. For above twenty years I have been in the habit of taking the^ number of sheaves, of a given size, as the fairest and best test of the economy of those different systems, in all their bearings, as to cutting, carting, stacking, thatching, and threshing. I find that a full crop of wheat gives about the following. 182 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, number of slieaves per acre (of from 8 to 10 iaclies diameter) : — when reaped high, 160; bagged, 180 ; movvu, 300; ma- chine-reaped, 170 ; machine-mowu, 180, for each foot in length of straw. Oats gives about a fifth more ; and barley, when free from seeds, a third more, but with a layer often double. We may take as our standard a crop of wheat, one of about 40 bushels per acre, the straw of which wiU be about 5 feet long ; this, if reaped 18 inches high, will give 560 sheaves, which, at the price of Is. 9d. per 100, wLU cost 9s. lid. per acre for reaping. The same reaped low, at 6 inches, gives 720 sheaves ; and, at the same rate, costs 12s. 7d. per acre. Bagging should be done so as to leave a stubble 3 inches high, and will in the aforesaid crop produce 855 sheaves, which at Is. 2d. per 100 cost 9s. lljd. per acre. Mowing is done at about the same height as bagging, at the price of lO^d. per 100 sheaves ; producing 959 sheaves, and therefore costing 8s. 3Jd. per acre. By machine-reaping I mean the work of such reaping- machines as by manual or mechanical power deliver the crop in parcels large enough for slieaves ; such as Hussey's, M'Cor- mick's. Dray's, and others, made on the same model by other makers. Among these Dray's stands foremost, which, with fair management, will cut an average of 8 acres a day, or 120 acres in ] 5 days, which will represent the average quantity cut in a season. The tear and wear of the implement must be dis- tributed over that number of acres. If this be estimated at 30 per cent, on £30 (the average cost of the reaper, including carriage and extras), the charge for the use of the implement amounts to Is. per acre on these 120 acres. Three horses will also be required, 3s. apiece per day ; likewise two good labourers at 4s. each including beer, who will take it in turns to drive and deliver the crop. These together cost 17s. for the 8 acres, or say 2s. per acre, which, with Is. for wear, &c., of machine, gives 3s. as the whole cost of machine-cutting and laying in parcels ready for tying into sheaves. Our standard crop when thus harvested will produce about 810 slieaves, which for tying and shocking wiU cost 4|^d. per hundred, or 3s. per acre, making, with 3s. for cutting, a total cost of 6s. per acre. Bell's, Burgess & Key's, Lord Kinnaird's, Smith of Dean- ston, and CrosskiU's, are all svrathe-delivery or mowing ma- chines, wliich ought to take a wide cut, or the swathe will be so thin that the cost of gathering runs away with much ol the saving effected in cuttuig. The differences to be found in the reports of various persons who have used these machines have arisen chiefly from the different management of their respective drivers, upon which both the increase in bulk of the straw cut, and in the cost of gathering and tying, has depended. Having used these machines more or less during the past nine years, I will now give an estimate of their expenses for a swathe of about 5 feet in width. These machines, with extras and carriage, will cost about £50 ; if we allow £10 (or 20 per cent, on the prime cost) for wear and tear and for repairs, and assume that 150 acres is the extent wliich each will cut in an average season — then £10 distributed over 150 acres \\ill give Is. 4d. per acre as the charge for the use of the implement ; to this must be added the cost of men and horses. Now four horses at 3s. per day. as before, and one man at 4s. including beer, making together 16s., will cut ten acres a day, so that the charge per acre for men and horses wiU come to Is. 7d., and the entire cost of cutting to 2s. lid. The number of sheaves on our standard crop will be about 850, which, for gathering, tying, and shocking, at 7d. per hundred, cost about 5s. per acre, with about 3s. for cutting ; about 8s. per acre in all. Tor upwards of twenty years I have paid for cutting and carting my crops at per hundred sheaves, finding this the best criterion to go by, as the immense difference in the bulk of straw, produced by difference of soils, as well as by high or low farming, renders any other standard defective. — From Prize Essay of the Royal Agric. Society of Engtaiid, by Mr, Love. HIGH FARMING FOR IRELAND. We give Mr. Hope's account, from the North British Agri- culturist, of his farms of Fentonbarns and Dirleton, in fuU, considering it will be of use to our landowners and tenants, and induce the graziers to cultivate their rich land on the same system. In England and Scotland the farmers of capital pre- fer renting land to purchasing, for the capital invested in pur- chasing would prevent them cultivating the land properly. Alderman Meclii, of Tiptree, is both farmer and landlord of about 300 acres. As Mr. Hope pays about £4 per acre for his good lands, we question if Tiptree be not exceeded in its farming by Fentonbarns. In Ireland the small farmers would like to be their own landlords, differing in this respect from the capitalists of England and Scotland, who expend so much in labour and manure on their holdings. Fentonbarns consists of 670 acres. This includes the space occupied by buildings, gardens, fences, and roads. The farm is held under a lease of twenty-one years, nearly two-tlurds of which has expired. The farm was occupied by the father and grandfather of the present tenant, and has been in pos- session of the family for upwards of eighty years. The farm is well known in the annals of British agriculture in connec- tion with the name of the present tenant, Mr. George Hope, and his father, Mr. Robert Hope. The visitor can form only an imperfect idea of the original state and condition of the lands previous to the reclamation of a considerable portion, the completion of the drainage by the insertion of parallel drains, and the adoption of a system of high farming. The elevation is from 30 to 100 feet above the high- water mark. The farm is generally level. About one-third of the farm con- sists of a fertile loam on interjected greenstone : another third a heavy or clay loam of medium fertility, lying on boulder clay and interbedded felstone; and the remaining third is a yel- low moorish sand on alluvial clay of great depth, and which comes to the surface at various parts. The fields are all divided by thorn hedges, the whole of which were planted by the father and grandfather of the present tenant. The latter has placed large tUes in almost the whole of the ditches which for- merly surrounded every field, and thus added to the arable land. He has also, by removing fences, increased the size of some fields, and rendered others more square in shape. The lands being frequently difficult to reduce, involving a great amount of horse labour, one of Howard's cultivating ap- paratus with engine was obtained in the autumn of 1864. The engine, manufactured by Messrs. Clayton, Shuttlgworth, and Co., is of ten-horse power. The price of the whole was £650. The length of wire rope originally obtained was 1,600 yards; since that time 400 yards additional have been procured. The increased length of rope has tended to expedite the cultivation of the land, particularly where the fields are large. The addi- tional length of rope has proved so decided an advantage that Mr. Hope recommends that not less than 2,000 yards should be obtained at first by those purchasing one of Howard's steam cultivators. The cost of repairs of tackle has been almost nothing, the breakage having been so insignicant that £5 wiU cover the whole outlay. This expense for repairs, taking into account the number of landfast boulder-stones, and the extent of land gone over, is a remarkable example of the successful application of steam-power to the stirring of the soil. We were shown a heap of stones weighing not less than one hundred tons, which had all been taken from one field- These stones had been under the common plough-furrow, and it was only when the steam-cultivator was used that their pre- sence was discovered, and their consequent extraction from the subsoil effected. The landfast stones are marked as they are touched by the points of the cultivator, and labourers afterwards remove them by means of spade, pick, crowbar, and frequently by the use of gunpowder. Where the obstructing rocks reach the surface they have in two or three fields been quarried, and earth carted on to form a soil. The fields, num- bering twenty-seven, are generally large. The fences are usually straight — a condition favourable for the application of steam-power, even when the engine is stationary as in this case. The time required to lift, convey, and lay down the cultivating-apparatus takes from three to four.and a-half hours. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. IfiS The extent cultivated or grubbed is about seven acres daily ; ex- tent harrowed about ten acres. The depth the grubber enters the soil is from eight to twelve inches. The harrow moved by the steam-engine is found to be a great acquisition to the other cultivating implements. During tlie autumn of 1865 the extent cultivated for wheat, upon the removal of the potato and bean crops, was 103 acres: 27 acres of the bean land were gone over twice by the grubber: 94 acres of stubble land were also grubbed. This spring there were grubbed 114 acres, from which a turnip crop had been removed, one-third to one-half of the crop being eaten by sheep folded on the land. The sheep having received cake, corn, and hay in addition to the turnips, the land was as much compressed as if the whole turnip crop had been eaten by the sheep folded. Thirteen acres had to be grubbed twice to enter deep enough into the soil, and to reduce it sufficiently. Be- twixt 140 and 150 acres were grubbed in preparation for the potato and turnip crops, and 105 acres were harrowed by means of the steam-harrow. The steam-engine and cultivating apparatus have proved, during the springs of 1865 and 1866, of great utility in the preparation of land intended for turnips — expeditious and deep stirring being of advantage in the seeding of the land ; on rentonbarns the turnip crop, since steam-power was applied, has been got in early and been superior. For several years none of the ordinary rotations have been followed. In future the six-course rotation is to be observed, to bring the farm into the state required at the expiry of the lease. The extent of the various crops of the present year is as subjoined : Potatoes, 83 acres ; beans and vetches, 33 acres — grown in rows 16 inches apart ; turnips, 88 acres — the ex- tent of swedes, yeUovs-, and white turnips being about one-third of each, the greater proportion, however, being swedes ; wheat, 126 acres ; barley, 88 acres ; oats, 54 acres , mixed ray-grass and clover for cutting, 21 acres ; pasture, 85 acres of young grass depastured ; extent of second yeiir's pasture, 50 acres ; in permanent pasture, 3 acres ; turnip seed, 15 acres, the variety being East Lothian purple, top swede. In addition to the farm of Fentonbarns, Mr. Hope occupies another farm on the Dirleton Estate. This farm lies close to the estuary of the Fiith of Forth, betwixt Dirleton and the sea, and contains on the north the links or duns raised at one time by the drifted sands of the sea-shore, and now retained by the roots of the bent-grasses and other coarse herbage plants. Dirleton farm amounts to 220 acres arable, and about 500 acres of " links" and permanent pasture. A part of the links is waste, there being almost no vegetation of any kind, " bent grass" excepted. The improvement of the sandy and calcareous soUs of this farm by claying is a most remarkable example of what can be effected by a liberal application of clay to such light soil, having so little cohesion that, when broken up by the plough and reduced, the strong breezes blow away the soil and tender crops. The claying has been carried out by employ- ing horses in single carts to remove the clay dug in various parts of the farm to those portions where the soil is a fine sand with broken sea-shells interspersed. Sand is there taken to fill up the spaces from where the clay has been removed. As the " claying" proceeds at the rate of about two hundred cart- loads per acre, the texture and fertility of the land is changed. Previous to " claying," the stunted crops rendered it question- able management to attempt to cultivate such apparently worthless land ; now the whole appearance of the crop when growing is changed, their productiveness is more than doubled and in some instances it has been quadrupled. About 100 acres have been clayed, at the rate of two hundred tons per acre, the clay being found on the farm ; the expense of cart- age is not great, as the work has been done generally when the horses could not be otherwise employed on the farm. This change in the productiveness of the soil has not been due to the clay alone. A liberal application of auxiliary fertilizers has advanced the manurial condition of the land, and the two acting in combination have rendered the crops greatly superior to any previously grown on the land, and, indeed, fully equal to those raised upon the naturally-good soils in the parish of Dirleton — a parish justly celebrated for the productive crops grown by the enterprising and skilful occupiers of the soil. The following is the extent of land under the various kinds of crops growing at present : Potatoes, 31 acres; turnips, 50 acres, nearly all sown (10th June) ; barley, 38 acres; wheat, 9 acres ; oats, 34 acres ; rye, 6 acres. The remainder of the arable portion is in pasture, the land being usually grazed for three years. The potato break was pastured for three years, the land being ploughed out of grass for the potato crop. Mr. Ho]pe finds it advisable to take potatoes immediately after the grass this season. Fifty acres of the potato-break on the farm of Fenton were depastured the last three years. The grass-land is ploughed with a furrow from 12 to 14 inches deep. A two-horse plough turns down the surface sward, and a second plough follows, which turns up the soil left by the first plough. The manure used consists of a mixture of Peru- vian guano and superphosphate, four cwts. of each substance being used to the acre. The drills are 28 inches apart ; dis- tance between sets, 10 inches. Mr. Hope does not approve of wide-apart setting, his experience being that when the sets are placed wdde apart the tubers are very unequal in size, a portion being too large for the English market, while many of the large potatoes are hoUow in the centre — due, some believe, to their rapid grovrth. The weight of produce is considerably above the average grown on similar soils, even with the application of farmyard manure, when succeeding a grain crop. The potatoes are more uniformly good in appearance, and when cooked are found to be generally of a superior quality. By this method of grow- ing potatoes farmyard manure is not requisite to ensure full crops ; but to ensure this, the grazing stock are liberally sup- plied with linseed cake and corn. Mr. Hope usually plants a part of his potato crop after a turnip crop, eaten on the land with sheep, or an equivalent amount of cake and corn con- sumed in lieu of a portion of the turnip crop carted off for cattle. Large crops of potatoes have been raised by this method, and the succeeding wheat crop is generally luxuriant and prolific, and the clover and grass which follow are invari- ably well planted. The crops of corn, potatoes, and turnips raised are generally superior, being usually more productive than their appearance when growing would indicate. The wheat (" Fenton") pro- duces an abundant return ; barley (Chevalier) yields well ; the oat (potato) gives a large produce of fine plump grain. The beans and tares, grown as a mixture, also produce abundantly. We know of no farm where the yield of grain per acre exceeds that usually grown at Fentoubarns. The average produce has been greatly raised during the last twenty years: the beneficial effects of the system of parallel drains, deeper stirring the soil, and the liberal application of manures continued for years have acted and reacted on the fertility of the land, and consequently upon its productive capabilities. Hence has resulted the doubling of the marketable produce alike of corn, beef, mut- ton, and wool, since the time of Mr. Hope's management. The fine crops grown at Fentonbarns are by many considered to be due more to the natural fertility of the land than to the application of the principles of successful cultivation, labour judiciously and skilfully directed, and manures liberally used to maintain and advance the exliaustive process of growing large crops for sale. The expenses connected with the labour of the farm are higher than the average of the district. On Fentonbarns the number of servants engaged by the year is nineteen ; including one steward, one shepherd, and one man who acts as gardener and attends the thrashing-engine, makes gas, &c. At Dirleton. there is one shepherd, three ploughmen, and two orra-men. Upon both farms there are a number of men employed by the day. Besides these there are betwixt thirty and forty women and boys engaged on the farm cleaning the crops, harvesting, and preparing the crops for market. The annual expenditure upon labour is not less than £1,850 for the two farms, being at the rate of 40s. for each acre cultivated. Thirteen pair of horses are still kept. The reduction ia the number required since the steam-engine with tackle was acquired has been only two pair ; the saving in the keep and tear and wear of four horses is small. The explanation is that the improvements at Dirleton which have been proceeded with during the last two years have involved a great deal of horse work in the carting of clay, stones, &c. ; the carting of the farm manure and the large potato crops likewise involve a great amount of work to be done by carts. It is necessary to keep in view that the horses are now less severely taxed in the stirring of the land ; they are, consequently kept in better condition ; the field labour is always well advanced ; the vari- ous operations of the farm are executed at those seasons the best adapted to ensure ef^cieat and perfect cultivation ; and 184 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. there is less auxiety felt for the dehiys arising from the occur- rence of a tract of wet or uuseasonable weather. The stock kept is as follows : Fe>to:nbakas. — Cattle : One short-horn bull ; live 'cows kept for the rearing of calves, &c. ; twelve cows belonging to tlie farm servants ; eighty cattle are fattened annually in courts, receiving turnips, and straw witli cake. Tlie calves reared uuniber from eight to ten ; this year tliere are eighteen or twenty ; these are fattened and sold at the age of from twenty to twenty-four months; the price this winter averaged £.23; I iittle imrcliased, and sold fat when three years old, realized from £20 to £31 10s. Sheep : A Hock of Leicester sheep is kept, the number of ei\es being 110. Three crops of lambs are taken, when the ewes are sold fiit. The ram lambs, numbering about 60, are kept and sold as shearlings. The Ijest of the ewe lambs are re- tained for keeping up the Hock : the draits are sold. Prom ISO to 200 Clieviots ewes are annually bronglit to Eenton- barns and Dirleton from the sheep farm Gleucotho, tlie pro- perty of Mr. Hope. These cvres produce one crop of hali'-lired lambs. The lambs are reared and sold fat as hoggets. This spring there were 240 hoggets fattened, and upwards of 300 Cheviot two-year-old wethers ; the latter, sold iu March, aver- aged 65s. On Dirleton farm there are also 112 half-bred ewes — Leicester Cheviots — kept for producing three-parts-bred lambs, and 300 Cheviot hoggets wintered. 1'hese form part of the lull stock of Gleucotho. i'eediug substances used auEuallv consist of about 100 tons of corn and cake, principally liuseed cakes, but about 200 qts. of grain are eaten by the stock. Manures : This season there were purchased 56 tons Peru- vian guano, 7 tons nitrate of soda, and 70 tons of superphos- phate. Formerly broken bones were largely purchased, seldom less than 200 qrs. being used in spring. The amount of guano purchased was also greater in previous years. The super- phosphate and nitrate of soda are being substituted for the more expensive fertilisers, Peruvian guano and broken bones. Police manure is also obtained from Edinburgh. The carriage by the railway is Id. per ton per mile ; price of the manure put on tlie railway, from 2s. 3d. to 2s. 6d. per ton. The out- break of the cattle plague in the Edinburgh town dairies put an almost entire stop to the use of police manure in the country, and for the last twelve months none has been brought to Fentonbarns. Lime in the form of compost is now being applied; from 50 to 60 tons of lime being annually brought to the farm to be mixed with the collected weeds, road- scrapings, and other substances. The amount of produce peracre, alike of corn, potatoes, beef, mutton, and wool, greatly exceeds the average of the county of Haddington. This is the result of high tarming. The ex- penses of cultivation are necessarily above the average, while the annual outlay for feeding purposes and for manures aver- ages about £i per acre. Duriug the last thirty years the ex- penditure upon manures has seldom been under £2 per acre for each acre under cultivation. — Sl/r/o Iiidejje/ideu/. \ THE MAKING OF CLOVER AND LUCERNE HAY IN THE SOUTH OF GERMANY. Sir, — On reading the article on the preparation of clover- hay, which appeared in your number for August (page 133), I was struck by not finding any mention of the method (much ])ractiscd iu this country) of drying the hay on wooden frames of a pyramidal form. Not knowing whether tliis system is in practice in any part of England, I take the liberty of giving the following short description of it here. The clover or lucerne, after having been cut with the scythe or machine, is left in swathes until sufficiently dry, and is then placed on the aforementioned jiyramids, where it is left until fit to be carried. It often happens, in very bad weather, or when no time can be spared for carting it, that the hay remains in this situation for several weeks. The following fig. is a representation of one of these struc- tures or pyramids. On the extraction of the wooden peg shown at E, the whole structure can easily be taken to pieces, and is thus rendered much easier of carriage. The three principal poles have a length of about 10 feet, and are of the thickness of a common hop-pole. The advantages which this method possesses over that of placing the hay in cocks, are the following : In the first place, A mucli smaller surface, in comparison to the bulk of hay, is exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather than is the case with cocks; secondly, the hay not lying in immediate proximity witli the soil, is not so detrimental to the growth of the young clover uuder it ; and, besides this, a thorough circulation of air in tlic hay can take place. Added to this, if tlie clover or lucerne is in the last year, there is always suflicient room between the pyramids to partly plough up the stubble before the removal of the hay. About 16 to 20 pyrsmids sullicc per imperial acre. The disadvantages alleged against this method are : firstly, the original cost of a suJficient number of pyramids on a large fjirm ; and, secondly, the additional annual expenditure for the repair of the same. Added to this, the liay cannot be loaded off the pyramids so quickly as from the cocks. In conclusion, tlie following deductions may be drawn as regards the respective merits of the two systems, viz.. That on all small farms the system with jiyramids is decidedly the best, whereas on large farms the question arises, " whether the improved quality of the fodder obtained by this method sulH- ciently repays the larger outlay necessary for the purchase and repair of a sufficient number of pyramids." C. y\ ■ S. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 1S5 AGRICULTURAL MATTERS IN SCOTLAND. At a Lite iiiectiiig of the Leslie Ag'ricultural Society, Mr. Wii.MAM M'CoMiiiE, of Tillyfour, w ho w;is called "to the chair, said : We must look up to such prouiisiug youug ineu as are here to-night ior the advauccraeiit and progress of fur- tlier improvements in Aherdeeushire. It is surely the duty of the old to lend them a helping hand in such a commendable undertaking. My young friends, I congratulate you on the formation of this society, and I cannot express the pleasure it allords me to be here to give you my support. One of our best proprietors, Colonel Gordon, of Fy^^^j •^'' ^ dinner I Imd the lionour to receive some years ago, in the ^lusic-hall of Aberdeen, was pleassd to do justice to the tenant-farmers of Aberdeenshire. lie stated that " the great improvements of tlie country liad been elTected by the tenant-fiirmers." I am sure, gentlemen, I not only speak my own feelings, but the feelings of this meeting, and of the tenant-farmers of Aljerdcenshire, when I say that we bear the highest respect to our good landlords ; and no one deserves that respect more than Colonel Gordon, of lyvie. It is with confidence that I affirm that it is to the indomitable energy, skill, per- severance, and sobriety of the tentmt-farmers that Aberdeen- shire has attained the higliest position as the greatest cattle- breeding and feeding county in Britain. Most important subjects must come under the consideration of this association. I shall only glance at a few of them. The breeding, rearing, and feeding of cattle is the most important. It is by our cattle we take our stand, and through them we have attained our fame. Aberdeenshire, owing to its climate, must ever remain a cattle-breeding and feeding county. It can never come into competition with the more favoured climate of the south, and some counties in the north, as a sheep-feeding county. You will have to study the best methods of raising our turnip and grass crops, as without good turnips and grass our cattle would be worthless. You will also study the dif- ferent varieties of the turnip-plant best adapted to your soils, exposure, climate, &c., the proper season for sowing the dif- fenmt varieties, their treatment during their growth, and the storing, as far as is in your power, when ripe. The selection of your grass and clover-seeds will also meet your attention ; and as much of our land is clover-sick, and refuses to grow the red, and even white clover, you may try experiments on the subject. An increase of clover, with less of ryegrass, miglit be one experiment. I have adopted the plan with con- siderable success. The rolling of the laud, and a fine mould, are absolutely necessary before the seeds are sown. AVheat and mangel-wurxel cannot l)e grown with advantage generally in xVbcrdeeushire. We must leave their cultivation to our friends in the soi»tU and the favoured counties in the north ; but the cultivation of oats and barley will meet your attention. Their dift'erent varieties, and the collection of their seeds, will prove a most interesting and valuable study. We have much to learn as to the selection of oats adapted for different soil, exposure, climat'£, of Mosstown, on • The Friends and Foes of Agriculture": — The subject you hme chosen for this day's meeting is one of comprehensive citcut, and of deep interest to eveiy one of us. I am not com- j:ctcnt to bring the subject in an adequate manner before you; liiit at your desire, following the good example of each of my [predecessors at our monthly meetings, and trusting in your xind indulgence, I propose to read a selection of facts and ob- ; ervations taken from various sources. Many of the animals iudigenous to this country, whether quadruped, bird, or insect, are found in their habits at one season to be injurious, and at another beneficial. It is of great importance to the farmer to make himself thoroughly acquainted with the halnts of all thrise animals that are supposed to be so injurious to the crops, ;ind to study their instincts at all seasons of the year. This knowledge enables him to check their injurious practices, and to encourage their beneficial ones. The weasel destroys the eggs and yoiuig birds of the poultry-yard, but it also over- comes the rats and mice, whether in the granary or stack, and these do no good at all to the farmer. The rook and hedge birds devour grain at the ripening of the crops, but in the sea- son of rearing their young especially they destroy myriads of the insect tribe. All insects are not injurious to the farmer ; (HI the contrary, many are positively beneficial. The lady bird destroys multitudes of the aphides, which injure many useful plants and trees, wliile the lady bird itself does no injury at :iny time. The song birds cheer our hearts in spring ; they also devour large numbers of insects and snails, aud when in autumn they delight to feed on ripe fruit, we can protect it li'om their depredations by the use of simple safeguards. Among the quadrupeds of injurious habits are the wild cat, the fo.\, the weazel, the stoat, the marten, aud the pole-cat ; f ome of these are well known by us ; others are scarce, and, jirrliaps, not known in this coimtry, though more abundant in our sister island. The stoat and the weazel are sometimes lonfoundcd with each other, but the stoat may be distinguished by its having a black tip to the extremity of its tail ; it is a somewhat larger auimal than the weazel. The stoat in colder i.liuiates becomes white, and is then called the ermine, but the tip of its tail remains black. The weazel has a short tail, the extremity of which is never black. They may be taken with spring traps. Although there is but one acknowledged sjjRcies of British rabbit, there are four varieties of the animal \rluch can be distinguished by the practised eye, namely, '■ warreners," which always remain in and about the warrens ; the fur of this variety is the most valuable ; " parkers," which leave the warrens and take up their abode iu the open grounds ; " gipsies," called also " hedgehogs," have no fixed abode, but travel tinker-like from place to place, and are, like those wan- dering smiths, usually but ill clad. " Sweethearts" are the ordinary tame rabbits : their fur is of little value. Whether t hese varieties be the result of successive generations indulging in similar habits, or whether they may be merely eccentricities of conduct in certain individuals, is rather doubtful ; the fact, however, exists. The rabbit, when left to its own unrestrained 'ievices, is, of the four-footed animals, one of the worst foes to agriculture, but one which, nevertheless, may, with proper management, be rendered a very considerable source of emolu- ment, and thus may be tratisferred into the rank of the friends of agriculture. Tliere is not iu all the class of animals called game oue which does half of the harm to the farm that is done by the rabbit. The hare will eat her track, but the rabbit is always nipping a little corn here and there, and prevents its coming to mutui'ity for acres together. Grass land is similarly eatcu, trampled, and injured by numerous paths. To swede turnips and carrots, to wheat and barley, to seed fields they do an amount of damage for which the tanner is scarcely ever compensated. They breed also with such rapidity that they are the sotirce of continual inflictions, which are not confined to the eating of green crops^ and so damaging subsequent grain crops of the farmer, but also extend to the burrowing in seed fields and amongst corn and turnips, and in the banks of streams, and of open fence dykes, and by scraping down mould, checking the flow of water, and injuring the drainage of the land. When rabbits find their way into a well-stocked garden they do very much mischief in a few hours ; they eat away the young and tender i)lants, vegetables, and flowers, nibble off tlie tops and new shoots of shrubs, and in default of better food, or even in sheer wantonness, will bite away the bark from tlie fruit trees, and leave it lying in flakes upon the ground. In the nursery and young plantations they eat the f opinost shoots and bark of young trees ; but mice, rabbits, and hares detest the smell and taste of tobacco, therefore it may be used as a preventive. Mix strong tobacco-water (i. e., wafer in which the roughest and coarsest tobacco has been boiled) with clay, cow-dung, or other substances to make it thick and adhesive ; some add a little glue and lime ; stir the mixture till it is about the thickness of paper hangers' paste, and with a Ijrnsh apply it plentifully to the bark, working it A\cll it into the crevices all round the tree for three feet from the ground ; or use common coal-tar — gas-tar — with equal portions of cow-dung and lime ; but with very young trees or young branches the coal-tar may do injuiy ; or mix soot and milk till it becomes like thick paint, and apply with a brush on a dry day ; or try lime-wash ; some of these may be useful to prevent horses, deer, or even goats from injuring the bark of ash and other smooth-bark trees. Small branches of thorn dipped in gas-tar and pushed into rabbit holes, where not numerous, will have the effect of driving away the rabbits. The operation may have to be repeated, and the mouth of the hole should be stopped with mould, and tramped firmly after the tarred bush had been pushed in. The gun, the ferret, and the net, the pit-fall, and other trnps are useful preventives against the excessive increase of rabbits. But " if you would have rabbits, and only profit, without suffering from their na- tural propensities, keep them iu iuclosures, and provide them with well-sheltered huts ; the hutches should stand on dry ground and be well ventilated ; if sloping, so much the better, as this allows the wet to run, and let there be tanks placed in front to receive it : when mixed with straw it is valuable as manure. There were two very extensive breeders some years ago iu England ; one of them kept a stock of between three and four hundred, sending three dozen weekly to the London market. The manure produced was one load per week, and two loads were suflicient to manure an acre. This manure was sold at the rate of six pence to eight pence a bushel. I am not certain how many bushels go to a load, but I think thirty. Valuing the rabbits sent to market at nine pence each, we have a result of £1 7s. for them and £1 for dung, besides the ma- nure made by the urine mixed with straw, which was valuable for home consumption. When wanted for sale the dung must not be mixed with litter, but kept pure. This gentleman did not include in his calculation such rabbits as he used at home for the table." (See Richardson.) In such cases we may count the rabbit among friends. Next comes before us the well- known timid hare, a pretty, picturesque object in the park, and when not too numerous, also in the field ; in the sportsman's view a well-found object for his gun, or for the hound : one who has been a means of yielding us an occasional hour's re- creation in the bracing air, the open field, and in cheerful company. The timidity of the hare is proverbial. A full- grown hare has been taken off her form with the hand from behind whilst the dog has pointed at it in front. It is a com- mon belief in some parts of the coimtry that if you place your hat in front of one you may walk behind it and take it with your hands; this looks like the saying, " Put a pinch of salt on a bird's tail and you can catch it ;" but an author of much experience in coimtry matters says, " We never tried this expe- riment, but have no doubt of its truth, and that it arises from a degree of fascination, under the influence of which the ani- mal has its sole attention fixed upon the object in front, aud has no power to extricate itself from the danger that threatens it behind." A boy, while tending cattle, heard loud screams THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 201 in a neigliljouiiug plautatiou ; on his ruuuing to ascertain tlie cause, to his astonishment lie beheld a magpie standing on the back of a hare almost half-grown, picking out one of its eyes, the other having been torn out before the boy's arrival. It has been observed in coursing that if a hare, when she is started from her form, has her ears dowTi she is a weak run- ner, but if one of her ears is carried erect the hare generally beats the dogs. But at present the liarc comes before our notice with reference to our cultivated crops. In this respect it is one of the foes of agriculture : when allowed and en- couraged, it multiplies to an excessive degree, and commits serious injury. In the neighbourliood of large preserves as many as three hundred hares have been seen feeding one morning upon a iield of wheat ; wjierc they are not numerous some of the preventives may be used that were mentioned in reference to the rabbit ; painting gate-posts and palings a white colour, at intervals, wiU in some degree scare them. Of all four-footed vermin, rats and mice, with their varieties, are the greatest foes to the agriculturist, and to man generally. There are three kinds commonly known as a nuisance to the farmer and the merchant — the indigenous black rat, the com- mon brov^n rat, or Norway rat, and the water rat ; but the last is seldom a true rat, for what is usually known as water rat is not a rat at all, but an animal of a kindred genus, pro- perly to be called vole — a water vole. The most formidable is the brown rat, said to have come from Norway, and since then to have nearly extirpated the black rat. Waterton says the brown rat came from Germany, and calls it the Hanoverian rat ; others say the brown rat was imported into Britain from Persia and the East Indies, about the year 1730, and has since spread over the whole of Europe and Ajnerica. The Albinse, or white rat, is rare, and merely an accidental variety of the brown. They are all equally mischievous and resemble each other in their habits, so that the same mode of destruction will answer for all ; for this purpose traps and poison are used, both equally good under certain circumstances, and of each there are endless varieties. There were exhibited in London about 200 dLfl'erent kinds of vermin traps ; I believe they are stUl to be seen in the gardens of the Royal Horticultural So- ciety, at South Kensington; they were there in June, 1S65. Steel spring traps, when used with skill, and occasionally, not constantly, arc very eft'ective. Stephens relates a feat of rat- killing performed by a Yorksliire man, John Eetherstone, who, with twenty-one small spring traps, kept by him very clean and bright, in one day killed 385 rats. He bargained for a penny a rat and his own food. He occupied two days in pre- parations, so that in three days he earned in money £1 12s. Id. In setting traps the operator should disguise the natural odour of his person by rubbing between his hands each time a little malt, impregnated slightly with a mixture of equal parts of oil of rhodium and oil of carraway ; one part of the mixed oils to 5,000 parts of malt. This is one of the most attractive baits for rats, and may be used either in baiting traps or as a vehicle for using poison. An effectual and safe poison for rats is the phosphorated lard, the formula for which was communicated by the well-known chemist. Dr. lire, to the Iloyal Agricultural Society of England. Take one pound of lard in a large wide- mouthed bottle or jar, plunge it in a vessel filled with water, heated to about 150 degrees Fahr. ; wait till it is thoroughly melted, then pour in one pint of proof spirit or whisky, and one ounce of phosphorus (some say ^ oz.) ; cork the bottle firmly, take it out of the water and shake it until the whole mass becomes of a milky white colour, and quite fluid, without any knot or streaks in it. If the ingredients should not mix properly, place the bottle in the hot water again, and repeat the process till the operation is satisfactorily completed. Lay the bottle aside to cool, and the phosphorated lard will form itself into a hard white mass, wliile the spirit lies clear on the surface, and can be poured oflT for use on another occasion. When required, take out a portion of this compound, mix it with flour, adding some sugar, and flavouring it with oU of rhodium, oil of aniseseed, or such attractive odour ; make this dough into pellets, and lay them for the rats in their holes and runs. Some persons do not use lard or dripping, but use instead of it starch, the phosphorus being added just when the starch is formed into a jelly with hot water ; then stirring it up with a wooden spoon or a flat stick. Phosphorus is a dangerous substance to handle ; it should never be touched with the fingers, nor cut in the open air ; it should l)e kept in water, and cut under water. The safest plan for one not accustomed to handle phosphorus is to get the druggist to weigh it. Hat poison should be laid in the evening, before dusk, after the poultry have retired to roost, and any portion not eaten during the night time should be taken up at earliest dawn. Instead of flour and sugar Ijcing used with the above compound of lard and phosphorus, some use fresh malt, and add the follow- ing as an allurement to the rats : — oil of rhodium 1 scruple, oil of carraway 1 drachm, oil of lavender 5 drops, oil of aniseseed 10 drops, tincture of musk 2 drops : this is to be added to the compost in the proportion of 10 drops to the ounce. If kept in a well-stopped bottle, and a bit of bladder tied over the stopper, it will retain its strength for a length of time. To keep rats from corn stacks shake a handful of the following mash on every second course up to the easing, when building the stacks : — Dissolve 1 lb. nitre and 1 lb. alum in two quarts of spring water, put two pints of this liquid into a mash of about a bushel of bran, and mix. It is said that putting garlic in the bottoms of stacks wiU protect the stacks from vermin. Sir H. Davy is said to have recom- mended carbonate of barytes 2 oz., mixed with grease, 1 stone ; it produces great thirst, and death immediately after drinking. Carbonate of barytes, or arsenic, mixed with chopped rabbit flesh, or with a salt herring, is given by some. Oil of amber or ox-gall in equal parts, added to thin oatmeal and flour suf- ficient to form a paste ; divide it into little balls, and lay it in the middle of the apartment infested ; lay several vessels of water close by ; mix intimately 1 stone plaster-of-Paris (in its unslaked state) with 1 stone oatmeal ; place it within reach of rats and mice : the moisture in their stomach wOl cause the plaster to set, and speedily produce death ; begin by giving pure oatmeal ; mix 2 oz. of dried oatmeal m ith I'i drops oil of aniseseed ; give this one night ; the ne.xt night, 1 oz. dry oat- meal, 1 oz. linseed meal, 1 oz. bread crumbs, ^ oz. moist sugar (don't touch it with your liands) ; stir all together with a wooden spoon ; when tliis is put together dry, add 2 oz. quick lime, and well mix together ; put this on slates in the places most frequented ; and at a short distance place several flat vessels holding about a pint of sweetened water ; powdered squills, 2 oz., strong smeUing cheese, 8 oz. ; mix and place in their haunts : it acts immediately. Waterton, when on board ship, adopted the following expedient i — He caught a rat in a box-trap, and dipped the hinder parts in warm tar ; then let him off : the others then took themselves away. A singed rat let go into the holes about the house is said to have a similar eifect for a time. Also coal-tar smeared about the mouth of their holes, where such a noisome remedy can be adopted. A house where they frequent, or a room, should be carefully shut up, and kept stUl ; lay in it a plate of oatmeal, or even flour, for several days, adding as it becomes nearly finished ; when well hal)ituated to be fed on this, sprinkle arsenic over it ; the rats will unsusijectingly eat it, and die, which they would not do if it was given at first. In some extensive premises where rats have increased to vast multitudes, special buildings have been constructed for the purpose of capturing and killing them. Such a building was erected in Limerick by Jlr. John RusseU ; it is described by Richardson ; in it as many as seven or eight hundred have been killed at one clearing. In the lofts where straw was kept, on the same premises, the rats became very numerous, being fond of straw, and cutting it into short pieces with their teeth, and rendering it useless for the purposes it was required. The proprietor tried the eifect of putting a pet fox to mount guard on the lofts, and found that he killed such quantities of the rats, the fox looking fat, contented, and happy with its new occupation, that three or more foxes were pro- cured to garrison the place, instead of one. The late ingenious Robert Paul, of Starston, in Norfolk, the inventor of the tur- nip-fly trap and other curious modes of destroying vermin, constructed on his farm a building that he called a rattery. By this contrivance he ett'ectually cleared his own premises, and also largely benefited his neighbours. Figures and de- scriptions of it and of the turnip-fly trap are given in LoudoiCs Eiwi/clopedia uf Agricidlure. Two or three ferrets, kept on the farm-yard premises, will do much to banish rats. The fer- ret should be well fed, otherwise he will not return when he has driven out the enemy. Weasels are destructive of rats, but will also kill fowl and steal eggs. Cats should be encouraged to frequent the barns, and the out-houses. They should be regularly fed : then the cat hunts best, because then it hunts for sport, and not being pressed by hunger, will watch at the same spot for hours. Being in stout condition, from its 202 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. daOy wholf ^onic food, it feels itself stroiig enough to eucounter any Vermin, and will destroy numbers in the course of a day. A starved cat, on the other hand, which hunts for food, eats the first prey it catches, and gorging itself hes down to rest, in accordance ■svith the natural habits of the feline race to which it belongs. The great use of a cat is to kill or scare away, not to devour vermin. A good means of preventing the lodgment and breeding of vermin about farm offices is to build up the tops of all walls of stables, cow-houses, hammels, and other houses, beam filling between the legs of the couples with stone and mortar, keeping the mortar from contact with the timber. The walls of the old, as well as the new, houses should be thus treated ; the walls of barns, granaries, &c., should be plastered smoothly and whitened, especially at the corners, from floor to roof. " These precautions act as hindrances against rats and mice nmning up to escape : a smooth triangular board or slate placed across each corner near the top of the wall is sometimes useful. Rats are thirsty beings ; and if a stack be built on well- made staddles, and a colony of rats should contrive to get into it by means of a stick or a tool left carelessly leaning against it, forming a bridge over which the rats can run, even under these circumstances they may be dislodged by drought, either by waiting for fine weather or by placing a rick cloth over the stack. The rats would speedily die of thirst in such a locality, and are obliged to jump to the ground in search of water, when, of course, they are unable to make good their admission afresh. Mice, however, cannot be dislodged in this simple manner, as they find sufficient supply of water in the dew that collects upon the thatch, and may be seen in the early morn- ing poking their little red heads out of their holes, and licking up the dewdrops that hang glittering upon the straws. On board a man-of-war rats have been known to consume a hun- dred-weight of biscuits daily, and when, to destroy them, the ship has been smoked between decks, six hampers a day have for some time been filled with their carcases. The Isle of France was once abandoned on account of their immense swarms. In Paris rats are very abundant in the sewers near the markets and slaughter-houses. Some years ago, at the slaughtering estabhshment of Montfaucon, the carcases of the horses killed during the day, sometimes amounting to thirty- five, were seen in tlie evening covered with these vermin, and were found next morning picked bare to the bone. The pro- prietor of one of the slaughter-houses decoyed the rats into an enclosed part of the establishment, where, after one nignt's slaughter, the dead amounted to 2,650 ; the result of four hunts was 9,101 ; and by repeating the experiment at intervals of a few days, he and his men killed within a month 16,050 rats. Their ferocity as well as voracity surpass anything that can he imagined, to prove which the following fact was stated : — Mons. Magendie having gone himself to procure twelve rats, upon which to make experiments, had them put together in a box. On his return liome he opened the box, and found but three rats, the others having been devoured by the survivors, and nothing remaining of them but their tails and bones. The fact appears incredible, but the reporters declare they had it from Mons. Magendie's own lips." No doubt this fact is cor- rect, but cannot we Irish match the French fact by our story of the Kilkenny cats, which fought with each other till nothing was left but their heads and tails? The water rat, or more properly, water vole, has a short tail and small round ears. It does not frequent the farmstead, but lives on the borders of rivers and ditches that have water in them constantly, and of canals, mill-dams, and ponds, undermining their banks and fences with its long, crooked burrows, which, like those of the beaver, usually have openings under water, and frequently end with a sort of room, or magazine, in which it stores its pro- visions for the winter. The store-room is generally placed so as to be above the reach of ordinary floods. The water vole is a vegetable feeder, living chiefly on aquatic vegetables and roots, but is most injurious by undermining fences, letting down land by the sides of rivers and ditches, and thus imped- ing the drainage ; also by making holes in banks, as well as gnawing away sluices, to the ruin of vast areas of property when flood time arrives. Of that well-known, very destructive little animal the mouse there are several varieties, including the common house mouse, or domestic mouse, the long-taOed field mouse, the short-tailed field mouse, or more correctly called the field vole, and the httle harvest mouse. This last is the smallest of British quadrupeds, two of them not weighing much more than a halfpenny. This kind makes a beautifd nest, as round as a cricket ball, and about that size. The long- tailed field mouse is in many points like the domestic mouse, and by its much longer tail, sharper nose, and longer ears, may be readily distinguished from the field vole. The field vole, or short-tailed mouse, is small : its total length is about 5 inches, the tail being little more than one inch in length. It is not more than half the size of the water vole, but, like it, having very small ears, barely showing their Hps above the fur. The field vole can readily be distinguished by the chesnut-red upper part of the body, the blunt muzzle, the very short tail, which is barely a quarter the length of the body, very scantily covered with hair, and blunt at the tip, presenting a great contrast to the long, graceful, and pointed tail of the domestic mouse. The body below is ashen grey, the feet and tail are brown, without much red in them. The field vole does not rightly belong to the mice, but is allied to the beavers, forming, to- gether with the water vole and the bank vole, or bank campagnol, the only relics of that group of animals. Mice multiply with ahnost incredible rapidity ; their ravages sometimes amounting to ruinous destruction of seed corn. In such a case the remedy given by an old book published a hun- dred years ago in Dublin is, never sow under the furrow until the intruders have been expelled ; the mice then must come to the surface, and meet anything laid on the ground for their destruction, such as white hellebore root, powdered, one pound ; staves-acre (a kind of lark-spur), powdered, four ounces ; bar- ley-meal, one peck ; mix and sift, and add honey half a pound and milk, to work all into a paste ; break this in pieces and scatter over the field, or use the phosphoric compound described when treating of the rat ; or nux vomica very finely powdered, one ounce ; wheaten flour, one pound ; treacle, three ounces. In the garden a layer of fine coal ashes, an inch deep on the ground, over peas, beans, bulbs, &c., is a useful preservative ; but where mice are very numerous in the field or wood, the pit- fall trap has proved tlie most effectual. At Angerville, in France, whole farms have been given up to the proprietors, in consequence of the continued devastations of mice ; the only known method of checking them was to defer growing any grain until the spring. Jesse gives an interesting account of the great injury committed by mice some years ago in the new plantations made by order of the crown in Dean Forest, Glou- cestershire, and in the new forest, Hampshire : " The mice eat through the roots of five years old oaks and chesnuts, generally just below the surface of the ground. Hollies also, which were five or six feet high, were barked round the bottom, and in some instances the mice were seen feeding on the bark of the trees, even at the height of three or four feet from the ground, having climbed up the trees to that distance, and even on the bark of the upper branches the mice barked hollies, oaks, ash, beech, and willows, but very few of the fir tribe. In one plantation of three hundred acres not more than four or five plants were found which were not injured by the mice, or, in- deed, destroyed by them. Many of the plants bitten through were as thick as a man's arm ; the roots were gnawed so close to the stem that some of the young trees were seen either re- cUniug on one side, or level with the ground. Various plans were devised for the destruction of the mice ; traps, poison, cats, &c., with little success, till at last holes or pit-falls were made in the ground about eighteen inches deep, two feet by one and a-half feet at bottom, but at top only eighteen inches by nine, or as narrow as the earth can be taken with a spade out of a hole that depth, the bottom of the hole three or four inches wider every way than the top, and the sides firm. The holes were made about twenty yards asunder, or about twelve on an acre. In these holes, in nine enclosures — total 1,693 acres — part of Dean Forest, at least thirty thousand mice were caught in the course of three or four months ; of these, only about one hundred and fifty were the long-tailed kind, nearly the whole number being short-tailed mice. It was, however, calculated that a much greater number of mice than these were taken out of the holes by stoats, weazels, kites, hawks, and owls ; by crows, magpies, jays, &c. ; by cats and dogs, and a great many were destroyed in traps, by poison, by birds and animals of prey : as many as fifteen have been found in one hole in one night. When not taken out soon, they devoured one another ; so that in Dean Forest alone the mice killed were estimated at about oue hundred thousand. The total destruction of mice in the two forests would probably amount to more than two hundred thousand. The shrew, com- monly called the shrew mouse, is much smaller than the THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 203 domestic mouse ; has a long, slender snout, longer than its jaw- bones, and a squared tail. In many respects it resembles the mole, and is somet.mes called the blind mouse. It feeds princi- pally ou insects, corn, nuts, roots, and other vegetable matter. The shrew is not venemous, nor capable of biting, for it cannot open its moutli sufficiently wide to seize the double thickness of the skin of horses or cattle. Its mouth will shew that it is one of the insect-eaters, like the hedgehog and the mole. It has a strong smell, which is peculiar to itself, and so olfensive to cats, that thougli they will chase and kill the shrew, they yet will not eat its flesh like that of the domestic mouse. The mole does not exist in Ireland. It feeds on worms, slugs, snails, beetles, cockchafers, grubs, and other such creatures, and in this respect is useful to the farmer. AVith respect to his bur- rowing habits there is difference of opinion. The hedgehog, sometimes called the urchin, hedge-pig, or furze-pig, deserves to be placed among tlie friends of man. The many stories told of its carrying away apples and eggs on its spines are mere tra- ditions handed down from one generation to another, or are tlie result of imperfect observation. The chief food of the hedge- hog consists of insects, beetles being its special favourites. It will also eat earthworms, snails, slugs, frogs, and field mice. It is very useful in kitchens infested with beetles and cock- roaches, which it soon devours. It is easily tamed. AU British bats may be reckoned among our friends, as they are strictly insectivorous, feeding during the night and earliest dawn, snapping up almost every winged insect that comes across their path, even the cockchafer, that terrible pest of the garden and field. Many moths also are eaten by the bats, and as the larvee of the moth tribe are, as a rule, injurious to vegetation, it may be imagined that the bat renders us no slight service. Like the hedgehog, the bat is providentially endowed with a capa- bility of hybernation during the winter, while no insects are seen on the wing, as otherwise it would inevitably perish with cold and hunger. When, however, the warm breath of spring causes the insects to burst forth from their shelly prisons, and to assume their wings, the bat also awakes from its wintry torpor, and even in daylight may be seen to pass ponds and lakes witli rapid wing, snapping up tlie gnats that are dancing about in the sunbeams. The kestrel, or windhover, as it is often called, one of the hawk tribe, may be distinguished from its relatives, such as the sparrow-hawk and the merlin, by the peculiarity of its flight. It does not flash along like the former bird, nor skim along like the latter, but flies quietly for a little distance and then hovers in the same spot, just as the boy's kite remains fixed by the opposing influences of the string and the wind. The kestrel feeds partly on the larger insects, espe- cially the fat-l)odied moths and the beetles, and partly, I may say principally, on field mice. It is to look out for these that the bird poises itself in so strange a manner. Gifted, as are all the birds of prey, with an eye that can be changed at wiU from a microscope to a telescope, it is equally ready to drop down upon some unhappy field mouse that is creeping along and flatters itself that it is unseen, or to make a sadden dash at a passing insect, seize it with a foot, and transfer the prey to its mouth without taking time to alight. Sometimes it will settle on the ground and devour grubs and caterpillars, or even catch the earth worms and pull them out of their holes. It lays its eggs on top of some tall tree, taking possession of the deserted tenement of the common crow; it never seems to con- struct a nest for itself, but only squats, as it were, on alien property. Mr. Waterton tried the experiment of turning a pair of crows out of their nest iu hopes that a kestrel would take possession, and found that the vacant premises were occu- pied in less than a week by a pair of these birds. All tlie British owls feed chiefly on mice, although they occasionally vary their diet with a sparrow or other small bird, and at times seem to prefer the larger insects, especially the beetles. The different species of owl take up different residences. The brown owl, or tawny owl, prefers to roost in hollow trees, and is so much attached to this particular residence that unless it can find out one suitable it refuses to breed. The white or bar owl likes to settle itself near man, and mostly fixes on some building, old ruins, or towers. The goat-sucker is another of our agricultural friends. It is a most determined insect-hunter, its nocturnal habits enabling it to chase and devour the insects which fly by night, and remain hidden during the day — cock- chafers, moths, &c. ; its large mouth enabling it to seize those large insects which are most injurious to our crops. The goat- sucker has an extraordinary cry, resembling the humming sound of the spinning wheel. This has given the bird the name of spinner. It is also called the night-jar, and in some places the jar-owl, the fern-owl, and the churn-owl. Its name goat- sucker is derived from the ridiculous notion that it sucks goats and cows ; an idea which is equivalent to the pigeon's milk, so largely in demand on the first of April. The number of cock- chafers which it eats is almost incredible. The cockchafer is one of the very worst foes to agriculture. Most farmers are aware of the terrible damage which it does during its three years of larval existence as a grub, and how it loses nothing of its appetite in its perfect condition as a beetle, but eats as vora- ciously as before, stripping trees of their leaves, as it had before robbed plants of their roots, and as the bird catches the beetles just after their rising from the soil in which they had been hidden, it effectually prevents them from depositing their eggs, so tliat one cockchafer eaten at that time is equivalent to hun- dreds kLUed after the eggs have been laid. The whole of the swallow tribe, including the swifts, swallows, and martens, are of the greatest value to agriculture, performing by day the task which the goat-sucker so successfully carries on by night, and devouring insects from the early dawn until the shades of night have closed upon the earth. It is astonishing how large a number of insects of the smaller size can be captured and car- ried oft' by a swallow in a single journey. It catches the flies in its mouth, and packs them away in a kind of pouch formed under its chin, where it presses them so closely, that when the pouch is emptied the dead insects roU out in a tolerably solid lum}), just like currants from a barrel, or figs from a drum. The common rook has a similar capability of carrying food to its young. In order to enable the swallow to capture the swift-winged insects, its mouth is made with a very wide gape, extending so far into the head, that when the bill is open the bird looks as if the mouth had been slit open with a knife. It has been estimated that the marten consumes upwards of 500 insects in a day. Sir Richard PhUlips says it is calcidated that the birds of passage that visit the British Isles consume fifteen millions of insects daily. The robin and the wren are real benefactors to the human race. They destroy thousands of living insects, and by picking up the eggs and chrysalides prevent the coming of as many more. When the groimd is hard, as if made of flint, when the thick ice rings merrily under the skater's steel, the wren may be seen still hopping about the hedges, pecking here and there at some object too diminutive to bee seen by us. These minute objects on which the bird has been feeding are the eggs of various insects that have been laid on the branches, so that when the young burst their way through the eggshells they may find themselves close to the leaves on which they were intended to feed. These little insect eggs and chrysalides, which are hidden in all kinds of corners, awaiting the coming of spring, the wren is very sharp-sighted in discovering, and by its continual researches saves many a plant and tree from destruction. In these ways the wren and other smidl birds confer great benefit on our garden and farm crops by preventing the increase of injurious insects. The common song thrush and the blackbird, in common with many other birds, feed largely upon insects, caterpillars, slugs, snaiis, and worms. Snails in particular are devoured by the hungry and persevering thrush. Having carried off his prey to the accus- tomed spot or stone, the thrush puts it down for a moment and contemplates it. Should the shell be thin, the bird breaks it up quickly with its beak ; but if it should be thick and hard, as is the case with the older and harder snails, the thrush picks up the snail in its beak and bangs it against the stone with such hearty good will that the shell is dashed to pieces and the exposed body of the snail left open to the assaults of the sharp beak. It must be admitted that both thrush and blackbird do injury in the fruit garden. They are very fond of good ripe fruit, cher- ries, currants, &c. ; but let us remember, especiaUy in tlie case of wall fruit, that the thrush has eaten snails which would have not only eaten the fruit, but covered it with slime, and would have gnawed the leaves and young buds ; so that we may allow the bird some little per centage of the fruit it has helped to save. The fruit robbery in the autumn is more than compen- sated by the snail killing throughout the year. Its depreda- tions are only carried on for a short time, while the fruit is ripe, and may be prevented by using a net in front of the trees. Thus we may benefit by the thrush's insect and snail-killing propen- sities, have the pleasure of hearing him sing, and keep all our fruit to ourselves. Though the blackbird may not be so useful a friend as is the thrush, yet do not count him a foe. Is the 204 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. rook injurious or benelicicial to tlie agriculturist ? Some pr;ic- tical men take one side of the question, and other practical men take the other. Each brings forward arguments that seem un- answerable until you hear the arguments of their opponents. Tlie rook wiU take up the young plants of potatoes after they have sprouted, for tlieir own sake, being then in a sweet state, and not merely in search of any insects in them ; it will pull up the young plants of turnips to get at insects that may happen to be near their roots in the manure, and it is poor consolation to the farmer to be told that the plants were destroyed that insects might he captured. It will light upon laid corn of all kinds, and pick and scratch out much more than it can eat. It alights also on stocks, pulls out the ears, and eats the grain. It wUl break into the heads of stacks to get at the grain. All these are facts which I myself, says Stephens, " have observed of the rook, and they are sufficient to support the assertion that it is a destructive bird to the farm. At the same time, the rook, in moderate numbers, would do no material injury to the fields ; it is only when it is nourished in excessive numbers in large, protected rookeries that it does sensible injury." In light aoils, reclaimed bog or upland, rooks injure the potato crop by picking out the sets in the early season, and the tubers in the latter. The injury may be commenced in a iieldby only a few rooks, but if they be left for a few days undisturbed their numbers become largely increased, and then in the drilled crop, or that in narrow ridges, may l)e seen many holes bored by the be ak, mould scraped down by the feet, and many potatoes torn out and left lying exposed on the surface, in addition to those that had been eaten on the spot or carried away by the birds, and dropped in the adjoining fields, where they are often to be seen. Let us now consider some of the rook's habits that are beneficial to the farmer. Grass land is sometimes frequented by numbers of rooks, which day after day pick it up in all direc- tions, making it look as if it had been treated with a scarifier ; but examine and try to discover what their object can be. Take a spade, turn over some of the grass at which they have been pecking ; the object of their search will be found in certain grubs, some large, very fat, half coiled, and lying on their sides, and some straight, moderately fat, and about the dimensions of a goose qmll. These are two of the deadliest enemies of our gardens and grass lands — the larvte of the cockchafer and of the crane fly or daddy-long-legs, as it is familiarly called. These two ]arv;ie, pursuing their destructive labours unseen, and never appearing above the surface of the ground until they take their adult form, are far more formidable enemies than even the slug, the snail, and the caterpillar, creatures which can be detected and destroyed by man, but neither human eye nor touch can discover the subterranean larv;e as they silently consume the very life of the plants on which they feed, cutting away the tender rootlets, and causing a " blight," as it is called, to fall upon the herbage. Many an acre of grass, many a fine crop of vegetables, has been blighted from no apparent cause ; the plant ceases to grow, the leaves lose their fresh, liealthy outline, they become weak and droop, the vivid green fades out of them, and changes to yellow ; the edges crumple up, and tlie plant dies. There is no external sign of injury, and until the plant be uprooted and search made below, no destroyer is visible. But in the earth, or entangled in the roots of tlie dying plant, will be found an inconspicuous, brownish, smooth- skinned, sharp-jawed grub, whose sleek condition shows the extent of its feeding, and whose cutting teeth have eaten away the sources of life. Hidden, however, as they are from human observation, they are not so from the keen senses of the rook. If a rook be shot while thus employed the stomach will be found to contain a quantity of grass root, together with a mass of substance which an experienced observer would not readily recognise, but which an entomologist sees at once to he com- posed of the remains of large larv;e, the liard, horny head and jaws remaining as proofs of its true nature. The grass roots are mostly swallowed together with the grub that has entangled itself in their delicate fibres. The object of the rook is not to eat the roots, but to devour the grub that destroys them. The quantity of insects which a rook will carry home to its young is really surprising. In order to perform this task, and to avoid the inconvenience of repeated journeys to and from the fields, the rook has recourse to a plan similar to that which is followed by the swallow tribe when hunting for a like purpose. The gathered insects are not swallowed, but are collected in the mouth, where they form a solid lump under the lower jaw, the skin of which is distensible like the cheeks of a man When the bird has collected its full complement, and is flying home, this lump is discernible at some little distance, and has caused the popular but erroneous beUef that a rook is furnished with a pouch at the root of the tongue. It cannot be denied that the rook does much damage to the crops, nor, on the other hand, can its good services to the crops be denied, and, as in other beings, we cannot expect unmixed good any more than such a quality can be expected from ourselves, let us balance the good against the evil, and in our little court of justice follow the British maxims, that the accused is to be treated as innocent till he is proved to be guilty, and that in any doubtful case he is to have the lienefit of the doubt. Thus let us judge of and act towards the rook, not tryiug to exterminate him, but check his depredations, and feel thankful for his benefits. Various scare-crows are employed to protect the crops. Gun- powder is the most effectual means of scaring birds from tlie fields. An occasional shot does good, aided by the Inirniug of gunpowder matches here and there, now and then, along the windward side of the field. These matches may be made of rags, or soft, thick paper, steeped in a solution of gunpowder and dried. Stephens describes an apparatus which he called a rook Ijattery, and contrived of 24 small brass cannons, four inches in length, to keep up a succession of shots throughout the day. It is said that one pound of sulphur mixed with gypsum and wood ashes scattered on the ground as the corn is coming up, will protect an acre from the rooks. By the heat and action of the ashes the sulphur throws out sulphurous fumes. Another mode often used with success over potatoes is to have sticks in alternate rows firmly driven into the ground, and a stout string passed zigzag-wise from one stick to anotlier, about a foot from the ground, and drawn tight. The common hemp sold in balls for saddlers will answer. No feathers or streamers are required, as the rook is afraid of being entrapped, and wiU seldom venture within the angles enclosed by the strings. The crow, commonly called the carrion crow, is dis- tinguished by liis horny or black bill from the rook. The bill of the rook is bare of feathers as far as the eyes, and appears of a whitish colour. The rook's feathers are of purple splen- dour, or gloss, but the carrion's crow are of a more dirty black. The crow is a feeder on carrion, mice, lizards, chickens, game, insects, molluscs, &c., robbing the nests of other birds of both eggs and young birds, attacking a stray leveret, and even an early, just dropped lamb. Though bold in attacking other birds, yet the crow is shy of man. Watch for their nests, and shoot them in the breeding season. By tying a cat or feiret to a stake they may be occupied with these till they are shot. The raven is the largest of the crow tribe in this country, and is a scarce bird here. It may be caught by steel traps baited with the entrails or pieces of rabbits, rats, or fowls. The wood pigeon is considered more injurious than the rook ; yet it is not without some good services. From its roots in the larger branches of trees it issues at sunrise, to search the open fields for its food — the seeds of wheat, barley, and oats, beans and peas, also the seeds of some very bad weeds, the field mustard, charlock, and ragweed. It eats the leaves of turnip, cabbage, and clover ; picks up pulse and grain of all kinds from the sown fields, vtrhenever it can find it exposed on the surface, but does little or no damage by scratching or digging up the seed. They are very injurious to the ripening corn, and will settle down upon it in dozens, whether it be lodged or not : in this they differ entirely from the rooks, which never alights in standing corn. The wood pigeon has strong wings, and uses them like flails in thrashing out the grain, and thus cause much more loss than what they eat ; they use their wings also in a similar way on the fruit trees in the garden, to obtain goose- berries, &c., beyond their reach. In winter's severe weather the collect in large flocks and do much injury to turnips. Nearly ten thousand have been observed in a field of twelve acres. They are very shy and wary. In time of suow a hat covered with snow has been found a useful cover for tlie sports- man and his gun. The starling is an invaluable benefactor, picking up flies, beetles, and other insects that creep among the grass or torment the cattle, and wonderfully keen in dis- covering and unearthing the subterranean grubs and larvae. The sparrows, the finches, the linnets, and other small birds are, no doubt, at some periods very destructive to the crops ; but there is equally little doubt that they destroy many of the enemies of the cultivated crops. Sparrows and other small birds feed largely on grain and peas as the crops are ripening. They eat in spring a portion of the seed when scattered on the THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 201 gi'ouiid, and when turnips, cabbage, and rape and other small seeds appear above the ground they suffer much injury from the little birds, and when these last crops arc grown for seed they suffer largely from the linnets and other small birds, not only from the quantity eaten, but also from the larger amount shelled and dropped to the ground. In the garden the bullfinch espe- cially is injurious to the buds of fruit trees, pulling to pieces the buds, which may he seen scattered in profusion on the ground beneath the apple and the gooseberry trees ; yet it must be admitted that these small birds feed largely on the noxious insects in their three-fold states of existence ; they feed largely also on the seeds of weeds. The injury committed by spar- rows and other small birds has led some persons to consider them as enemies that should be exterminated, and the efforts to accomplish that object in some places have been too successful, as the inhabitants, and especially the farmers, of those districts afterwards found to their great loss. In the year ISGl petitions were presented to the French senate asking that laws might be made for the protection of small birds. In some districts of France the birds have been killed to sucli an extent that some kinds of small birds have become extinct, and others very scarce ; their eggs have been taken, tlie birds have been snared, and destroyed ; the consequence was that the insects increased to such a destructive degree that the crops become very poor, the vines, olives, and even the tall, hardy trees all suffered. In exterminating the birds, man had exterminated his best friends. It has been said, " The birds can do without man, but man cannot do without the birds." Some years ago many letters were written to the Times, the Field, and other newspapers on this subject. One writer from the vicinity of Liverpool says : "Here there have been on the part of the farmers and cottagers great complaints made of the mischief done by small birds to corn fields and gardens. In vain did some hold the argument that these small robbers did as much good in destroying grubs and caterpillars as harm to wheat and currants. For the last two years the township has not only paid for dead sparrows, but so much a dozen for birds' eggs. I am afraid to say how many thousand dozen of eggs were taken and paid for, and, as I believe, mainly in consequence of this, we have this year such a plague of caterpillars, and grubs as I never re- member. I have had three women constantly employed picking our gooseberry, currant, and apple trees. Our destruction of caterpillars has been by bushels. I feel so convinced that this plague was partly owing to the last two years' destruction of birds that in my grounds and in all the coverts I ordered the nests not to be molested. I enclose you the head of a sparrow shot this morning in my garden : this was done to test what food it took to its nest. I hope the head may reach you in the same state in which it was picked up, viz., with three green caterpillars and three daddy-longlegs in its beak. If in one journey from its nest it could collect as many, it is easy to guess how much may be done l)y tliem to dear trees. My trees from hand-picking are now pretty clear ; but I am quite sure it would have been done better and clieaper by birds had they been let alone." The green caterpillars mentioned in this letter were probably the larvae of the small cabbage butterfly, a most destructive species. Another correspondent says that he found in the crop of a sparrow that he shot as it was coming out of his fruit trees no less than twenty green cater- pillars and a number of aphides. Sparrows and other small birds feed largely on the wireworm, the dark gray grubs of the gooseberry-fly, and other caterpillars, also on cockroaches and weevils, and even in their seed-eating propensities do good to the cultivator in feeding on the seeds of groundsel, dandelion, and the sow-thistle, all noxious weeds to our crops. Consi- dering the very great benefit the small birds confer upon us at other seasons of the year, they ought not to be killed, bat rather driven away from the sprouting crops for a short time, till the plants have attained sufficient size to lose their softness and be no longer an attraction for the birds ; and from the ripening crops the birds should be scared away, but not with sparrow club exterminating practice. Perhaps the most effectual way of driving away the small birds is to fire a few charges of shot among them occasionally : powder alone will not be sufticient. As a protection for garden, vegetable, and flower seeds, a solution of naphtha or asafcetida is useful. A tablespoonful of rectified naphtha, mixed with two gallons of water ; water the ground after the seeds have been sown, and again when the plants first appear above ground, or steep a ball of woollen thread in naphtha, and strain it over the beds or rows of seed. Perhaps a very weak solution of gas-water may be useful for protecting rows of peas. Mr. Wood used at each end of the garden a wooden arch fixed in the ground, with strong white thread passed back and forward, so as to form a con- tinuous passage or tunnel ; the birds are afraid of the thread, which also serve to support the peas in their early growth. A cat or hawk kept in the garden, or even the figure of a cat made of sheet iron, tlie figure to be in a sitting posture, or a little windmill on the top of a pole, driving a rattle, will for a time scare birds ; but inanimate scare-birds are only temporary in their effects. Steeping the seeds, turnip, cabbage, &c., and dry- ing them with sulphur, and other such modes are found useful. 1 owe my acknowledgments to the author of " Our Garden Friends and Foes," " The Book of the Farm," " The Pests of the Farm," one of Richardson's rural hand-books, " Agricul- ture, Ancient and Modern," " Jesse's Gleanings in Natural History." Those who wish to study the subject we have so slightly referred to this day will find in each of these books very much that is interesting and instructive. AN OHIO CHEESE rACTORY. An Ohio dairyman makes the following report of his opera- tions in one of our exchanges : — " I commenced the erection of my factory buildings on the 18tli day of March, 1865, and they consisted, when completed, of a continuous building 191 feet in length, and 30 feet in width ; 100 feet of it three storeys high, and CO feet one and a-half storey high, and the balance, 31 feet, but one storey high. There is capacity and pipes laid for putting in six vats, of five hundred milk gallons each, although there were but four put in last season. The first milk was received at the factory May 2nd, and the last December 9th . Commenced with mak- ing two cheeses the first day, and closed up vritli making thirteen the last. The greatest number made per day, 37 ; and the total number made, 3,449. Seventeen hundred ave- raged 85 pounds each, and the balance about 48 pounds each. " The number of pounds of milk received was 3,125,145, equal to 306,324 gallons, from which I made and sold 328,514 pounds of cheese, for the sum of 17,701 dollars 89 cents, averaging 16^ cents per pound for the cheese. If cents per pound for the milk, I85 cents per gallon for the milk, and a yield of one pound of cheese to 94- pounds of milk. One-half of the milk was skimmed after the 4th Oct., and all skimmed after the 22nd Oct. The average number of cow from which we worked the milk was 530, averaging 431 pounds of cheese per cow, and 71 dols. 13 c. gross, and 63 dols. 51c. nett to the dairyman, clear of aU expense. That amount is simply for the cheese made and sold after the 2nd of May. " The total expense to the dairymen getting the milk drawn, made up, everything furnished by the manufacturer, and the cheese marketed, was two cents per pound, leaving net li^ c. For one dairy of 13 cows I made 505 pounds cheese per cow, 83 dols. 33 c. per head ; another of 31 cows, 461 pounds cheese per cow, and a number of others near that amount. Some may think that yield not large, but I wish them to re- collect that one month at least of the cheese-making season was gone before I commenced making at my factory. The factory will start again this season the 1st of April, running on the same principle as last season, making a miiform ancl No. 1 article of cheese, and for which we shall expect to get a No. 1 price, and give satisfaction to the buyer and dairy- men. My factory has capacity sufticient to work the lailk from 1,200 to 1,500 cows, which I expect to have the pre- sent season." 206 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE MEAT MANUFACTURE. The productiveness of the meat manufacture depends, as was illustrated hy me at some length in a paper published in the 11th volume of the English Agricultural Socielt/s Journal —(1) on increasing the fertility of the laud ; (2) on giving expression to that fertility by the selection of the best plants for cultivation ; and (3) on selecting the best animals for the consumption of those plants. (1.) Grass Land v. Arable as Producers of Meat. — Land yielding 12 or 15 tons of green food per acre yearly, vidthout any labour but that of repairing the fences vi'hich divide it, destroying the docks and the thistles which invade it, and sup- plying manure to maintain it, is producing more at less ex- pense than perhaps it could do in any other condition. It is not in such cases as this, then, that our comparison must be made : there is much poor pasturage in the country, which lies, nevertheless, under a climate proper for arable farming ; and it is about this that the question obtains. There is no doubt that over much of this, which, though drained, would not yield 30 tons of green food per acre in four years, an equal quantity might, if it were properly cultivated, be obtained in turnips and clover, with probably 3 tons of straw and GO or 70 bushels of grain, in the same time. Grass is probably more nourishing per ton than turnips ; but when the one is consumed in aU weathers by unsheltered animals, and the other in well-bedded houses, it may be doubted whether the resultant produce of meat may not be about the same in either case — \^^th a clear balance, of course, of so much grain as food for man in favour of arable culture. But this matter requires a detailed estimate, and this I shall endeavour to give, merely premising that tlie above figures are not given without reason ; as on the farm I write from, three-quarters of which were formerly grass, a stock of about 40 head of oxen fattening to 60 or 70 stones, and be- tween 200 and 300 sheep fattening to 341b. a quarter, with 50 or 60 pigs, are now kept during winter, and about half those numbers during summer, where formerly a herd of 35 cows, and about 20 yearling and two-year-old heifers, with a few pigs, were maintained in store condition ; while, in addition to the above, the land now permits an annual sale off it of about 4,000 bushels of wheat. Grass land worth 30s. per acre of annual rent may be sup- posed to yield 8 tons of grass per acre per annum ; and this may be believed able, by careful consumption, to produce 9 imperial stones of beef; or, at 6d. per lb., a money value per acre of £18 18s. in six years. The same land broken up would under good management yield during — The 1st year, 25 cwt. of wheat-straw ; 2d „ 24 tons of mangel-wurzel ; 3d „ 25 cwt. of wheat-straw ; 4th „ 18 tons of Swedish turnips: 5th „ 20 cwt. of barley-straw ; 6th „ 10 tons of clover ; or 52 tons of green food, and 3i tons of litter, in six years, besides the produce of grain. Of course, it is easy so to state figures as to arrive at any result that may be desired ; but in the above I have gone upon what I believe to be reasonable data, viz. : That 24 or 25 cwt. of hay is a probable produce from land of such value ; That hay is one-fifth or more of the grass from which it is made; That the growth of aftermath is to the growth up to hay harvest as 1 to 3 on such land. We know from experience that turnips consumed without any artificial food, as it is called, given with tliem, will not yield more than lib. of beef or mutton for every 1501b. of green food ; and giving grass credit for a little more nourish- ment than this, we have assumed that 1401b. of it will yield the same meat. On the side of arable land, again, I have stated amounts of produce wliich from several years' experi- ence I know to be probable. The 53 tons of green food, (supposing the straw to be all used as litter) will on the above datum yield 7761bs. of beef, and this at 6d. per lb. is worth £19 8s., an amount rather larger than that which was the whole return from the grass, wliile here we have in addition the produce of three crops of grain. Wliether the whole extra expense of this mode of ma- naging the land will be more than paid by this extra produce is hardly within the province of this inquiry. It is hardly worth wliile considering the case of arable land whoUy devoted to meat-producing crops, and we therefore go on to compare in this respect the various rotations of crops commonly adopted. If a cultivation wholly of green crops, or of crops for con- sumption by cattle on arable land, would pay, it would be a source of immense wealth in many parts of Ireland, where waste-land reclamation proceeds so slowly, mainly because of the unprofitableness of corn cultivation under their watery skies. The results of the above estimate, however, must be the standard with which to compare the productiveness of grass, and it has been seen that the former, besides the large crops of grain on the arable land, yields more meat than the latter. The conclusion which therefore seems to be unavoida- ble is, that in cases when equal skill and care have been brought to bear both on arable and pasture farming, the latter might be converted without diminishing, and probably with an in- crease to the national supply of animal food. (2) Various Rotations as Producers of Meat. (a) The first, the Norfolk, or four-course rotation, may be supposed able to yield in the 1st year, 25 cwt. of wheat straw per acre; 2nd „ 19 tons of Swedish turnips; 3rd „ 20 cwt. of barley straw ; 4th „ 11 tons of clover and grass. This is equal to 30 tons of green food in four years, or 7^ tons per acre per annum, a quantity which, at the rate of one for every 1501bs., is able to produce about 1 cwt. of beef per an- num. {b) In the second, when this rotation is extended one year by keeping the grass down two years, we may suppose a some- what larger acreable produce of green crop. Thus— 1st year, 25 cwt. of wheat-straw ; 2nd „ 20 tons of swedes ; 8rd „ 20 cwt. of barley-straw ; 4th „ 11 tons of clover ; 5th ,, 9 tons of clover ; giving 38 tons as the produce of five years, or nearly the same acreable produce per annum as in the former case. {c.) We now may take the Dunbar six years' course of crops as our third quotation, and here we may expect— 1st year, 20 tons of swedes ; 2nd „ 20 cwt. of barley-straw ; 3rd „ 13 tons of clover ; 4th „ 25 cwt. of wheat-straw ; 6th „ 25 cwt. of bean-straw ; 6th „ 35 cwt. of wheat straw ; which will yield 33 tons of green food, or 4781b. of meat per acre in six years — a quantity equal to about 801b. per acre per annum. (d.) In our fourth instance we take the eight years'- course followed on the farm from which we write. It may produce — 1st year, 35 cwt. of wheat-straw ; 2nd „ 25 cwt. of bean-straw ; 3rd J, 25 cwt. of wheat-straw ; 4th „ 24 tons of mangel-wurzel ; 5th „ 25 cwt. of wlieat-straw ; 6th „ 13 tons of clover ; 7th „ 25 cvrt. of wheat-straw ; 8th „ 20 tons of swedes ; or, in eight years, 56 tons of green food, corresponding, according to our original datum, to 1041b, of meat per acra per annum. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 207 ((?.) As regards heavy land rotations of crops, we take the following from an essay on that subject in the fourth volume of the AgricuUvral Journal. It will produce probably 1st year, 12 tons of vetches and 16 tons of rape and turnips ; 2nd „ 25 cwt. of wheat-straw ; 3rd „ 13 tons of clover and tares ; 4th „ 25 cwt. of wheat-straw ; 6th „ 25 c'svt. of bean-straw ; or, 40 tons of green food — i. e., about 6001b. of meat per acre in five years, equal to nearly 1201b. per acre annually. (/) Our last instance shall be selected from Professor Low's work, where it is praised for its suitability in rich clays. It may yield — 1st year, nothing — summer fallow ; Snd „ 25 cvrt. of wheat straw ; 3rd „ 13 tons of clover ; 4th „ 25 cwt. of oat straw ; 6th „ 25 cwt. of bean straw ; 6th „ 20 cwt. of barley straw. It thus produces 12 tons of green food in six years, or 301bs. of meat per acre per annum. It is proper to remark that the above estimates are more likely to be relatively than positively true ; the datum on which their produce of meat is calculated is of course subject to the vicissitudes which affect all agriculture, and stultify aU farm estimates; the herd which is to convert this food may be carried off by disease, and its produce of meat will then of course be anything rather than l-lSOtli weight of the food. But aU the rotations named are Uable to this risk alike, and it may therefore be useful to compare them : — Pounds of Meat pro- Name. Period. duced per acre per annum, c Norfolk ... 4 years 110 5 Ditto ... 5 „ 110 c Dunbar ... 6 „ 80 d ... 8 „ 104 eStace ... 5 „ 120 /Low ... 6 „ 30 Of these, the fifth is less likely to realise its estimate than of the others, as its large produce depends upon the possibiUtj', on an average number of years, of obtaining IG tons of rape or turnips on a clay soil after a spring crop of vetches, and this is extremely doubtful. Of the fourth rotation — our own — we would only say, that we have grown in a past year 30 acres of clover (15 of them for horses), 30 acres of mangel wurzel, 15 acres of swedes and turnips, 14 acres of carrots and potatoes (of which at least 12 acres have been sold, or eaten by horses), so that on 3-8ths of the farm we have had a produce for consumption of 960 tons of green food ; and if all had been converted into meat, as it might have been, the produce available for that purpose would have been — 30 acres of clover ... ... 360 tons. 30 ,, mangel wurzle ... 420 „ 15 „ swedes ... ... 300 „ 14 „ carrots, &c. ... 280 „ Total 1360 The meat made from 960 tons was as follows : — 70 sheep, bought at probably 151bs. a quarter, Lbs. were sold at 251bs. = 70 X 40 2,800 About 160 sheep, bought at l31bs. a quarter, were sold at probably 231bs. = 160 X 40 6,400 10 oxen, weighing 5 cwts., became 6 cwts. each 1,120 20 oxen, weighing 6 cwts., became 8 cwts. each 4,480 6 cows, weighing 5 cwts., became 7 cwts. each ... 1,344 Add (say) 30 cwts. of bacon and pork 3,360 Total meat made ... 19,504 But at least £240 worth of food has been purchased ; and if it be supposed to have made its worth of meat (which is, by the way, a very doubtful thing) , then, at 6d. per lb., we must deduct at least 9,5041bs. from the amount of meat made, leaving 10,000 lbs. as the produce of 960 tons, or about 13,0001bs. as the produce of 1,360 tons — the produce, in fact, of a farm of 240 acres. This is only about 601bs. of meat per acre : it is only lib. of meat produced by the consumption of about 2001bs. of green food. It is a result, however, probably as near the truth as we can attain, including the circumstances of illness suffered by stock, and of a deduction of the whole value of cattle-food purchased. In the sixth rotation named, the small produce of meat illustrates the effect of the naked fallow. I believe that there is no more effectual method of increasing our supplies of ani- mal food than the substitution of a green crop, such as the vetch, the cabbage, or the mangel-wurzel (all clay-soil plants) for the naked fallow. The substitution could be effected with- out expense — that is, at a cost paid for by the additional returns it would produce. A crop of 24 tons per acre once in four or six years would be a clear gain of animal food to the amount of 601bs. or 901bs. respectively per acre annually over those districts wliich admit of the change. We have thus to recount, as the conclusions to which the second section of our subject has led, that the substitution of green cropping for naked fallows would be cheaply productive of meat ; that the rotations in use on arable land vary as much as from ^ of a cvrt. to more than 1 cwt. per acre in their produce of meat, and that much therefore may be added to the national supplies by the selection of a good succession of crops ; that the conversion of inferior grass land to arable culture, while it would add largely to the supply of human food in the shape of grain, would also to a small extent pro- bably increase the supply of meat.— jlfor^o?*'* JEdition of Arthur Youngs Farmers' Calendar. TIME TO CUT TIMOTHY HAY. C. S. Paine, of Vermont, writes to the New York Farmer's Club : " The question should not be, at what stage will it pro- duce the most weight, bulk, or nutriment, if that nutriment is turned to a hard crusty shell of wood, and cannot be made available to the animal that consumes it. Such hay may be best for a city consumer, where he cuts and, perhaps, steams it to make it tender, but I think not for the farmer. I have noticed that animals are more fond of hay cut at least before aU the heads are in blossom. I nave noticed that if after feed- ing such hay you change to timothy cut after the seed is ripe, they will look at the feeder, as much as to say ' I want some- thing better.' And then again, you will find the mice wiU burrow in such hay, and you will find it full of chaff and chankings. A man of my acquaintance cuts liis timothy mostly before in blossom, and always finishes before it is out of blossom, and it is astonishing to see how much stock the bulk of his hay wiU keep ; the hay looks almost like green grass ; his sheep and cattle fat on it, and so far from the sod dete- riorating, it is improving every year, and he winters more stock on the same number of acres than any farmer I am ac- quainted with. His crop of rowen is almost as good as the first crop." Alfred Young writes : — " My father cut timothy when in full bloom, and I know that he fatted cattle on that kind of hay, without grain or other feed. Also one of the best dairy- men in this township says that cows will give much more milk fed on early-mown hay than late. I have always believed that ripe timothy was not much better than straw. It is what I call grass straw, being woody and fibrous, with but little nutri- ment,".—Pr««W« Farmtr, 208 THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE. TAKING THE YOUNG PIGS FROM A SOW WHEN SHE LITTERS. A letter from " Harden, Yorksliire," appeared lately, which somehow escaped our attention, or we should have replied to it ; however, as it is of some little importance, and as it takes us to task for onr teachings, we re-insert it : — SiE, — Under the head of " Queries and Answers," in your paper of last Saturday, you instruct some "Greenhorn" from Ennis how to manage his fat sow in her first parturition as foUows : — " Attempt no quacking (!), but have her closely watched, and as she litters let each he taken from her and put into a basket with some fine hay or warm wool, tiU all are come forth. Then put each by hand to suck, and wlien they get enough return them to the basket. Attend to this for three or four days before they are permanently left with tlie sow, &c." Now, sir, I venture to say that no sow will stand lier youn(j ones le'uig iahen away in a basket, and brought back in tliis manner for ihree or four days, if 'tis lined with silk, instead of warm wool or fine hay. Your friend will never rear a pig. Let him try this plan : Have the sow lean, not fat. Let the regular attendant only be present on the occasion. As each one comes forth let him place it to the teat, and get the litter to suck as quietly and as soon as possible. He must try to keep them from being lain on or trod upon by the sow, but rather allow some to be sacrificed in that way than irritate the 'mother. After they have all found the way to the teats and had a slight breakfast, let him retire and leave them to the care of their natural and generally most aifectionate guardian. This i? the experience of — Yours, Harden, Yorkshire. To this the original querist from Ennis replies as follows : — " Sir, — I see by your last number that your answer to my query — what should I do with a valuable sow on her first litter, within a week of her time, from which I apprehend trouble in her parturition owing to her being very fat ? — has induced ' Harden, Yorkshire,' to give us the benefit of his ex- perience, and recommends me to try his ' plan.' Before recur- ring to his plan I must say I followed your instructions, and succeeded quite to my satisfaction. That ' interesting event' is now over, and, I am happy to say, the 'fat sow' and her young are now all right. " 1 have found no difficulty in removing the young into 'the basket,' and leaving them near, not ' talclmj them away in a hasket for three or four days,' as ' Harden' phrases it. After two days I found I could \rith safety leave the young ones with her. " Now, sir, as to ' Harden's plan,' viz., ' Have the sow lean, not fat. Let the regular attendant only be present on the occasion. As each one comes forth let him place it on the teat.' T differ a hit from him. 1st. I don't like to breed from a sow that will not keep fattish even on grass, with very little other feeding. 2nd. I consider the better the condition, the better she will breed and rear her young. 3rd. A ' lean sow' will hardly, if ever, bring two litters a year regularly, as a well fed, fattish sow will usually and ought to do. 4th. I don't think it is possible to ' let each be placed to the teat as he comes forth.' .5th. The young ought not to be placed to the teat until the placenta has been ejected. " I would like to know on what authority ' Harden' says ' your friend will never rear a pig.' I may tell him I hope to do so, and have reared some good ones, which he would admit if he saw my present stock. More, I would like to know is it because I seek information in your columns he calls me ' Greenhorn from Ennis.' I beg to tell him it is a long time since I was a ' greenhorn.' I also tell him I agree with him in leaving sows to farrow with the ^regular attendant only' as the less they are irritated the sooner they let down the milk ; also that I am obliged for his plan, which is not a bad one, save those little objections I have raised. — Yours, &c.. Sub- scriber, Ennis, -ZSth May, 18GC." ^^ Our subscriber's letter is certainly a sufficient answer to " Harden, Yorkshire ;" but as he calls in question the authority and practical value of the information and recommendations given, and by so doing would lessen the confidence which the Gazette has for so many years enjoyed, as far as " Harden, Yorkshire" can do by stating " your friend will never rear a pig," we have but to say that the mode of treatment recom- mended by us has been adopted by numerous pig breeders and fanciers in Ireland. It will be in the recollection of many of our readers who have frequented the Royal Dublin Society's Spring exhibitions of live stock that sows have been shown which have littered on the way to or in the show-yard, and that the owners and attendants treated the mamma pig and her offspring exactly as we have recommended, and that the visitors were daily witnesses of the interesting sight of seeing the hasket brought near the crib in which lay the unwieldy mother, a great over- grown fat white Yorkshire sow, and the tiny young things, handed one by one, put in through the bars of the crib, still held by hand, and allowed to suck till satisfied, and then removed. In addition to this public instance, we have a beautiful Berk- shire sow since it was eight weeks old. The 27th February last she had her first litter, no less than 14 black beauties. She littered in the middle of the night, and the young things as they came forth were one by one basketed, and were brought regularly from the warm kitchen to the sow and regaled in the manner recommended, and restored to the basket and warm kitchen till the " lady in the straw" was perfectly recovered and able to perfor m her maternal duties, which slie did with care. Had we not adopted this plan it is quite possible we would never have reared one of them ; for, after having given birth to thirteen, we thought all was over, and in some hours after she gave birth to the fourteenth, which she devoured. Well, we reared the rest, and have now six of as well-looking swinish lads and lasses as can be seen. So much for " Har- den's" assertion, that those who follow our teachings will never rear a pig. AVe had begun to tliink, after reading " Harden, York- shire," that Yorkshire and Irish pigs were difi'erently consti- tuted as to temper and disposition ; but curiosity tempted us to look into " Youatt," the best and most reliable author in the English language on our domestic animals ; and he says, page 110, in his valuable treatise on the pig, "The young ones should be taken away as fast as they are born, and depo- sited in a warm spot ; for the sow, being a clumsy animal, is not unlikely in her struggles to overlie them, nor should they he returned to her till all is over, and the afterbirth has been removed, whicli should be done tin? moment it passes from her ; for young sows especially will invariably devour the afterbirtli if permitted, and then, the young being wet with a similar fluid, and smeUing the same, will eat them one after the other." So that we are led to believe the practice is in vogue in Eng- land, and that we certainly are not singular in adopting it. In our own case, as the sow got accustomed to the removal of her young ones, we had some doubts about her not being careful enough in lying down to suckle them, and that there was some danger of her crushing some of them under her as she did so, and, therefore, kept them in the basket for three or four days, till they got strong enough to take care of them- selves. It is fortunate for " Harden, Yorkshire," and also for some more of our readers, English as well as Irish, that he called in question the propriety of our teachings, as he will now have learned a little more of such matters than lie evi- dently did before. We should not forget to thank our Ennis subscriber for coming so promptly to the rescue ; and though " Harden, Yorkshire," has in his wisdom designated our respected sub- scriber a " greenhorn" from Ennis, he has in liis letter in reply shown " Harden, Yorkshire," that he is not so green as the letter has gratuitously supposed, but a sound, practical, experienced man, from whom " Harden, Yorkshire," and many otiiers, could gain valuable information, if they would only cast aside prejudice .and seek knowledge. But, unfortunately. Englishmen, and Scotchmen too, that do not know us (it is the contrary with those who do) imagine that in Ireland we are a parcel of know-nothings,— 7 w/; Farmers'' Gazette. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 209 HIGH FARMING AND GOOD EMPLOYMENT. We take the following interesting articles from the Sligo Independent. On the 30th June the editor wrote as follows : " Among the fanners of the empire, with the comhined system of tillage and grass, the gentlemen of the Lothians stand A 1, and of tliese we will select Mr. George Hope, of Fentou Barns, with 670 acres, and Mr. Peter Handyside, of Fenton Deem, with a similar holding, as fair examples. Mr. Handyside about forty-five years ago improved 100 acres of light moor- land producing blue grass unfit to feed sheep or cattle, by ploughing it up and covering it with better soil, subsoiling eighteen inches, a crop of oats, and carting the clay over the light lands ; becoming in a few years equal to the best land of the farm, producing as much as £40 per acre in potatoes. The system of Mr. Handyside's farming — 2-5th3 generally in grass, half being two years and half one year old; l-5th turnips and potatoes, for winter-keep of sheep and cattle ; and S-5th grain crops. On this farm a large quantity of oilcake is used on the pasture and in the yard, the sheep getting lib. daily, and cattle 5 to 7 lbs., by which means two flocks are turned out instead of one. A man and pair of horses are kept to every forty-five Scotch acres. They employ a steward, four labourers besides ploughmen, twelve women in winter for four months, and twenty-six in summer cleaning the green crops. The women get Is. per day. Our rents could not be paid if our land was in grass, nor would any employment be then given, except to a couple of herds ; a man and a boy are re- quired in addition, to look after the cattle in summer. The women are Irish or Highland, and do their work well. As to our manures, &c., the same is carried forward as on Mr. Hope's farm, described in the North British Agriculturist of 20th June, which we recommend to every proprietor and far- mer to read. From it we extract that the farm of Fenton Barns, Haddingtonshire, consists of 670 acres, under a lease of twenty-one years, the family being on the farm for eighty years. One-third consists of fertile loam, one-third of heavy clay of medium fertility, and one-third of yellow moorish sand on alluvial clay. All the farm has been drained and the ditches tilled, tims adding to the acreage working-land. In ISGi a stationary steam-engine of ten-horse power was bought at a cost of £650, with 2,000 yards of wire-rope, which has done well, grubbing or cultivating seven acres per day and harrowing ten acres across. The grubber enters the soil to the depth of eight, twelve, and fourteen inches as required. In the autumn of 1865, 103 acres of wheat were sown in place of potatoes and beans, 27 acres of the bean land having been gone over twice, and 94 acres of stubbles grubbed. Since steam-power was applied the turnip crop has been got in early, and has been superior. The crops of the present year are — potatoes 82 acres, beans and vetches 33 (grown in rows sixteen inches apart), turnips 88 acres, wheat 126 acres, barley 88 acres, oats 54 acres, mixed rye- grass and clovers for cutting 21 acres ; pasture, 85 acres of young grass depastured. Extent of second year's pasture 50 acres, in permanent pasture 3 acres, turnipseed 15 acres of purple top. Mr. Hope holds another farm (Dirleton) of 220 arable acres, aud 500 of links and pasture, bent chiefly grow- ing on the links or sands. The sands are clayed at the rat« of 200 carts per acre, and in tliis way 100 acres have been made fertile. On Dirleton farm the present crops are 31 acres potatoes, 50 of turnips, 38 of barley, 9 of wheat, 34 of oats, 6 of rye, the remainder in pasture, the land being grazed for three years — the land being ploughed out of grass for the potato crop. The market produce of corn, beef, mutton, and wool has been doubled from the system of tillage compared with grass. Number of farm servants on Fenton 13arns nineteen by the year ; at Dirleton, one shepherd, three plough- men, and two corn-men. On both are numbers of daily la- bourers, and thirty to forty women and boys, the annual amount paid for wages on the two farms being £1,850, or at the rate of £2 for each acre cultivated. Besides the steam-engine thirteen pair of horses are kept. Cattle kept on Fenton Barns — 1 shorthorn bull, 5 cows for rearing calves, 12 cows belong- ing to the farm servants, 80 cattle fattened. Sheep (Leices- ter)—Number of ewes 110, and cheviots ISO to 300. 100 tons corn aud cake, and 200 quarters grain' are consumed by the stock. Manures used this season — Fifty-six tons Peruvian guano (£750), seven tous nitrate of soda (£120) seventy tons superphosphate (£480), or over £1,300; besides manure from Edinburgh, costing 2s. 3d. to 2s. 6d. per ton, and Id. per ton per mile rail. Fifty or sixty tous lime are annually brought to the farm and mixed with weeds, road-scrapings, &c. The annual outlay for feeding substances and manures exceeds £4 per acre ; and for the last thirty years £2 per acre has been spent on every acre under cultivation. While we do not wish small farms turned into large, because small farmers are the bone and sinew of this country, we want our graziers who give no employment to follow the examples of Messrs. Handyside, Hope, and such gentlemen, who pay annually in wages from £1,700 to £1,800, instead of as here, a couple of herds, with lower wages than the girls in Scotland cleaning the turnips. We are much indebted to Mr. Handyside for the information he has sent us from the article we wrote on, an " Alderman of the National Association," calling English and Scotchmen coming to reside among us and give employment " bloated farmers." These are the men to stop our population from emigrating, but the National Association deters them from coming here to spend their capital and make money. This statement drew forth the following letter from " au unbeliever," who signs himself " X. Y. Z." : — " To the Editor of the Sligo Independent . — Sir,— 'I read your article on ' High Farming aud Good Employment,' ia last week's Independent, and can't know how £2 per acre in labour and £2 per acre in Peruvian guano and superphos- phates, or £4 per acre, can pay in addition to the rent. Pro- bably in East Lothian the rents may be only one pound per acre, while good lauds in this country are let at 30s, to 40s. If Messrs. Handyside and Hope gave a balance sheet, stating on one side what the rent and all other charges and taxes are, and on the other the receipts, putting them under separate heads, the farmers here might then be able to judge. There is an old saying, ' You may tell it to the marines, but the sailors won't believe it,' which seems applicable to this case.— • BaUymote, 5th July, 1866." To this letter the Editor replies in the following article with the appropriate heading HIGH rAUlIING AND GOOD EMrLOYMENT ONE OF THE CUKES EGR IRELAND. When we find East Lothian farmers expending annually in labour and manure over five pounds per Irish acre, besides paying rent forty per cent, higher than in Meath, Roscommon, Tipperary, and our grazing districts, we must come to the con- clusion that tillage, with capital and skill, is best for the farmer and best for tlie country — double the quantity of stock is fed by indoor feeding aud green crops, while grain is grown by hun- dreds of acres unknown here in the grass-lands. We do not advocate the consolidation of farms, as in Ulster there are in- dustrious and well-doing tenants on holdings from ten to thirty acres. We wish to keep our people at home, and our small farmers to hve ; but we wish to see all our grazing farms con- verted into tillage, and thus give employment to the people wlio are willing to give a fair day's work for a fair day's wages. " Y. Y. Z.," doubting the figures in our article on " High Farming and Good Wages," has drawn from one of the largest farmers in East Lothian the foliowmg reply : " To the editor of the Sligo Independent. — Sir, — Your cor- respondent signed ' X. Y. Z., Ballymote, 5th July,' says ' he does not believe how £2 per acre in labour and £2 per acre in Peruvian guano aud super-phosphate, in addition to rent, can be paid, unless the rents in East Lothian be only one pound per acre, while good lands in Ireland are let at 30s. to 40s. per acre.' I may tell ' X. Y. Z.' that very inferior lands in East Lothian are let at 30s. to 40s. per acre, aud our best at £4 to £5. I can also tell him that the higli farming-men who pay these rents are willing on expiring of leases to renew, the pro- prietors seldom or never changing such tenants ; while thoee Q 210 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZIKK fanning otherwise seldom run out their leases. I woiJd he happy to show ' X. Y. Z.' or any practical farmer my holding, and introduce liim to some of the high furmiug-inen here, but certainly would not ask them to lay open their ledgers. But if seeing is to helieve, I could convince him that high farming only does pay ; and if he tluuks of visiting me, he can drop me a note with re;il naine, addressed " E. L., Post-ofSce, Hadding- ton, Scotland," and it shall liave my atteutiou. — Haddington, 15th July, 1S66." We would he glad to see our great proprietors, either in their demesnes or attached to their demesnes, establishing farms of fifty, one hundred, or two hundred acres, with a proper set of hooks kept and left open for the inspection of their tenants, shoeing a rent of twenty-five to forty shillings debited to the farm, with the cost of guano and other manures. Put our cess, tithe, poor-rates on the one side ; and on the other, the receipts put under various heads of crops sold and profit on cattle ; and this might induce the tenants to follow the ex- ample if they saw it paying. One cause of the high rents in Haddiugtousliire exceeding those in Meath and Kildare is the proximity to Edinljurgh and Haddington markets, generally the highest in the kingdom. The Government, next session, should introduce a hiU allowing landlords boimd up by entails and family settlements to grant adequate leases — all to be voluntary, none compulsory, both parties making their own barg-ains on the principles of free-trade without any inter- vention of the law. We see that Mr. Haudyside improved, on a nineteen years' lease, one hundred acres of moorland, and, when getting a renewal, paying an advanced rent even for his own improvements without complaining, because during the nineteen years he profited by his outlay. Tliis is a fact we give to those demanding, in Lord Palmerston's lan- guage, " landlord wrong," that is, fixity of tenure. Let our farmers with capital act as the Scotch farmers do on twenty- one years' leases, and employ the people when enricliing them- selves ; and this is a better cure to stop emigration than pre- venting farmers of capital and skill investing in Ireland and tiUing the country, by calling them "some' bloated farmers from England and Scotland," and others holding them up to ridicule ; but the people would look on such gentlemen coming to set an example of industry, and give a fair day's pay for a ii]xr clay's work, as their friends and benefactors. ICE-HOUSES, ICE-SAFES, VAPOUR-SAFES, AND REFRIGERATORS. It is far from our purpose to frighten old-school farmers out of their wit on the present occasion. Suffice it to say that people are becoming so hot in the race of progress, that it is hartUy possible for even the majority of youngsters to keep up with them. And that is not all ; for the climate of the coun- try itself is so improving, and the temperature becoming so mucli higher, that one is almost forced to admit the peculiar notions of those who lay it down in their natural philosophy that " the internal fires in the centre of the earth are ap- proaching nearer and nearer the surface," or else that " the great globe in which we live was, when the curse went out against it, hitched out of its original orbit, and has been con- sequently wheeling nearer and nearer the sun ever since," according to the teaching of others, in order to account for diff'erences like those in question. We shall, liowever, after a little quiet reflection, account for such differences otherwise ; for, iu consequence of an improved drainage of the land, the country is fast losing its natural ice-houses, ice-safes, vapour- safes, and refrigerators, and hence must have recourse to arti- ficial ones. There can be no mistake about this, for the ther- mometer proves it in the most convincing and satisfactory manner. Prom time immemorial, the castle and manor-house have had their ice-houses, but more — so some critics say — for the sake of fashion tlian utility and profit. But as regards the rising and urgent demands of the famier, tlie conclusion of our critics must be reversed ; for the whole of the animal produce of the land, including the produce of the dairy, poultry-yard, and feeding-stall, requires to be cooled down to a proper: temperature in a dried and purified atmosphere, in order to fit it for market. The question which we thus propose discussing is a chemico- mechanical one. When ice absorbs so much caloric, or heat, it becomes water, or melts ; and when the heat thus absorbed is removed, the water again solidifies and becomes ice. Por a similar reason, butter and all animal fats and fluids become liquid or solid according to the quantity of calorie they ab- sorb or give out. The alternation of the seasons, as of sum- mer and winter, furnish annually familiar examples of this kind. The melting of the snow on high hills in the summer- time, and the covering of them again on the return of \vinter, is an example on a large scale. These are natural examples. Art also furnishes examples on a scale, if not equally magnifi- ceat, at least worthy of notice. Thus the thorough drainage of some wet districts has, by the rapid removal of the melting snows and rain-water from the land, and by the great decrease of evaporation, and by the direct absorption of heat which has thus taken place, greatly increased the general tempera- ture of such climates, advancing both seed-time and harvest upwards of a month. The clothes which we ourselves wear, and the household accommodation and shelter which we pro- vide for our cattle iu winter, and the shade which we aud they seek from the sun's rays in summer, are ako examples of a kindred character. Such examples may be said to he for general purposes ; but they are suggestive of others, to meet the wauts of public life in all its varied and multifarious de- tails, so to speak ; and these latter are those involved in ouf proposition, viz., ice-houses, ice-safes, evaporation-safes, and refrigerators for farmers, so as to enable them to send their milk, cream, butter, poultry, beef, mutton, and pork to mar- ket at a proper temperature, so as to realise its highest com- mercial value. The farmer, whose butter is so liquefied at this season that it cannot be handled, and whose poultry, beef, mutton, aud pork are so soft that in coming up to London tho meat, by the shaking-to-and-fro action of the bones, under- goes a sausage-making process by no means favourable to its market value, must bear in mhid that an excess of caloric is the cause of all this loss. Such is the pliilosophy or the science and practice of the day. At tliis season of tlie year, when the inhabitants of the capital are being ahnost roasted alive, an excess of caloric is the most worthless thing in the world that farmers can send them. And, besides, if it is not foolish, it is at least very silly and shortsighted, as it is many degrees worse than " sending coals to Newcastle," inasmuch as milk, cream, butter, poultry, beef, mutton, and pork would fetch more money without the caloric tluui with it. In the winter time, when the face of the earth is icebound some inches deep, combined caloric may be worth its weight in gold and sometiiiug more ; but in the summer time, it is now-a-days in the opposite side of the ledger — an article that is worse than worthless, as it reduces the value of everything with which it is incorporated ; wliile, along with oxygen and the countless millions of microscopic little zymotic 'bodies that float or swim in the atmosphere at this season like shoals of herring in the oceau, it plays the very mischief with the animal products of the farm into the bargain. And this, too, is not all ; for sending up beef and mutton to London on their own feet (as some do to obviate such losses) at this season, makes tlie matter if possible worse for the farmer. Droves of fat oxen and sheep, for example, in the streets of the metropolis, panting, with their heads hanging and tongues protruding from their mouths, like a pack of hounds after a long and hard run, may be getting rid of latent caloric with a vengeance, but it is neither cooling down the beef and mutton to the proper temperature, nor preparing it for that process. Such a system of refrigeration may be in harmony with the .^sop fable (hot and cold blast) of the old blue-frocked school ; but it is not only now out of date, but equally derogatory to the professional character of all who are connected with it^— farmers, salesmen, butchers, and consumers — the latter for its toleration. Willi the form, construction, and inauagement of the land- THE FARMER'S MAaAZIKH. 211 owner's ice-house at the castle, most farmers are familiar. Those belonging to salmon fisheries are equally well kno\«i. So are those belonging to ice companies in most of our large towns, for the storing and pieservatiou of ice for sale. Farmers, however, recjuire an ice-house for a purpose some- what different from any of the above examples, and hence it must needs be differently constructed. Ice may even be dis- pensed with altogether; and in some southern localities, where the winter is often so mild and open as to render it difficult to get a supply of ice for an ice-house, it may be prudent in such cases to make provision for doing without it (natural ice) ; but in most places it is so easily and cheaply got, as to turn the balance of economy greatly in its favour. The iee-house and cooling room for the setting of newly- slaughtered carcases should be erected together — the former being either under the ground-floor of the latter, or closely ndjoiuing it. In practice, the uature of the subsoil and locality- will determine which plan is the best. As milk, eream, and butter intended for market should never be cooled in the same room with pork, beef, or mutton, the ice-house may be situated between the dairy and the cooling-room for setting carcases, either for market (as beef or mutton) or home curing (as pork). The common form of ice-houses is that of an inverted cone, drained from the apex : this form permits of the interior being easily lined with a layer of straw. But a long, narrow buildiag, in the form of an inverted jA-ism arched over, would permit of the covering of the in- terior with straw and the drainage of the ice-house equally as well as the old form of an inverted cone. Tliis old plan of a narrow bottom is not, however, essentially necessary ; for, if spring water or rain water at a thermal temperature is kept from the walls below, and the heat of the sun from the top or outside above, there is no necessity whatever of a muddle of straw within. If the walls below are kept cool, they may be perpendicular ; and, we may add, if they are not kept cool outside, then straw, although a bad conductor of heat, is not to be relied upon inside. In examples therefore where there is spring water below, the more advisable plan is to build a double wall above ground, filling the space between the two walls with charcoal or sawdust, and then to cover the outer wall with a suf&cient mound of earth, so as to keep out solar heat. Less permanent and less expensive ice-houses may be made by covering any old house with a thick thatching of straw, the floor and inside being also covered with the same kind of material (straw) ; or a temporary ice-house may be made in the heart of a straw or hay-stack. In such cases, ample provision for the timely removal of water from the ice is essentially ne- cessary, otherwise it will melt the ice in contact with or im- mersed in it. To the young agricultural tyro or student we may observe that the water in an ice-house proves the pre- sence of caloric — i. e., the ice, by absorbing caloric, becomes fluid : hence the removal of the water produced by the melting of the ice is the removal of heat. Such is the simple science involved in the drainage of an ice-house ; and its practical im- portance will readily be understood. Ice-safes are of various sizes and styles of workmanship, as for the cellar, pantry, hall, or even for the dining-room, and may be had of most iroumongers, at from £3 and upwards. In principle of construction an ice-safe is simply a box within a box, a small space between the two being filled with some non-conducting material, as charcoal, wool, &c. The outer box, or chest, is commonly of painted wood ; the inner one of zinc, galvanized iron, or white metal, having a wooden lid, covered with woollen cloth. The two are so formed as to have the appearance of only one box, or trunk, with two lids, and four short castor-feet, like a table, one at each corner. The ice is put in the bottom of the inner box, over which there are shding and perforated shelves for holding, cooling, and preserving wines, fruits, and provisions, without permitting them to come in contact with the ice. More expensive ice- safes are in the form of a chest of drawers or wardrobe, the interior having shelves, and a separate apartment for the ice. A farmer who has the command of ice, and who knows what he is after, can get his carpenter to make a substantial and useful ice-safe for little money. In the United States of America cooling and setting-rooms are sometimes made on the principle of an ice-safe, as above, being a house within a house, the space between the two walls being filled with charcoal, also the space betweea the roof and flooring below. The ice is kept under the perforated floor, or grating, of the cooling-room. They are termed ice-houses ge- nerally, and are chiefly used for cooling pork and beef intended for curing and exportation, as they cool down the meat ra- pidly, and thus prevent tainting. In 1804' a project of tliis kind was patented in this country by Mr. Thomas Harriss, of Calne, Wiltshire, as a communication from Mr. George Harris, of the United States. The specification is " No. 3,995 ;" short title, " Rooms for curing Meat." But there is no novelty in the principle, as hundreds of old patents might be quoted of a similar character — Keith's, for example, which was reduced to practice in 1854, in London. We may also observe that there are several hundred patents in force at the present time, in connexion with our subject, but without throwing any impedi- ment in the way of landowners and tenants erecting suitable ice-houses, ice-safes, vapour-safes, and refrigerators. Instead of using ice directly in the cooUng-room, as above, another plan is to force cold air into the cooling-room by means of a fan, bellows, or pump, and to keep out heat either by double walls, thatching, or evaporation. In 1864 a Mr. Joseph S. Richardson, of Waterford, Ireland, patented a pro- ject for " preparing carcases for curing," by throwing into the cooling-room not only cold air, but that air loaded with cer- tain antiseptic properties when required. His specification is No. 876 (1864). We might quote other examples from the same year (1864) ; but the annual crop of patents under refri- gerators, freezing and cooling, has of late years been so abundant as to render it impossible to do anything like justice to their merits within our narrow limits, or even to make a further selection. Air may be cooled by passing it through pipes lying upon the top of or imbedded in the ice of the ice-house. As so much ice wiU be melted in the process of cooling, provision must be made for the immediate removal or drainage of this water, so that the position or laying of the air pipes in the ice-house, so as to reduce the consumption of ice to a minimum, is there- fore a very nice practical question. And this is not all ; for in the warm moist weather of summer the atmosphere is always greatly loaded with moisture or vapour, which will be con- densed in passing through the pipes, and the water thus formed requires likewise to be drained off. The process is thus of a two-fold character ; for the air is both cooled and dried, and each of these two effects produced is essentially necessary ia the setting of newly-churned butter or carcases of newly- slaughtered animals. The current of polluted air produced by butchers on the plan of iEsop's fable is only dirty condensed air — not pure dry air. We have even met witli blue-frocks in the British capital so far behind in the philosophy of their craft as to propose drying the air by means of fire, hot bricks, &c. ? ! — moist air being very injurious to meat, more especially during the process of cooling and setting carcases, as it takes off the " bloom," or, more correctly speaking, prevents the bloom rising. The better-informed, however, are perfectly aware that tlv».cold frosty air of winter is drier than the blowing hot and cold of summer ; and that they cannot enter into com^ petition with farmers in getting up " the bloom," if the latter know the market value of their meat, and how to give it the attractive selling appearance so liigUy prized by the first-class butchers of the metropolis. Three things have thus to be closely considered ; The re- moval of as much heat as possible from the pipes before they enter the ice, so as to economize the consmnption of the 'latter (ice) ; the condensation and removal of as much vapour as possible from the cooled air before it euters the setting-room, so as to dry and purify it ; while the heated air and moisture from the cooUng, drying, and setting carcases require to be drawn off, from the top of the setting-room. Flat pipes give off heat faster than round ones, and small pipes faster than large ones, as small pipes present a greater heat-abstracting surface, while they admit of being made thinner. If tlierefore there are a number of small air-feeding flat pipes, and if these are taken up the sewer that drains the ice-house, passing under the grating in its bottom, and are then led along the grating immediately under the ice before they are allowed to enter the ice upwards at the sides towards the setting-room, a large proportion of the latent caloric wiU be removed from the ingress current of air before it enters the great body of the ice, so that very little melting will after- wards be experienced. Another plan, where there is an abundant supply of ice, would, 212 THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE. be to paw the feeding pipes up an accessible long wooden trough full of broken ice, and well-drained fresh ice being sup- plied from time to time from the ice-house. On their egress from this trough the feeding pipes might then pass either up through tlie ice at one or both sides, or euter at the surface of the ice, passing round the sides, from which any water from melting ice could be drained off as fast as produced ; or, instead of ice in a wooden trough, the water drained from the ice-house might form a well at a lower level, so that if the air- feeding pipes were to make a circuit or two in this well the air in them would be cooled to nearly the same temperature as the water in the well. The improvements which have been made of late on the steam engine have given rise to innumerable plans for the rapid condensation of steam, so as to economise and purify water and protect boilers. With these plans, or many of them, the reader is doubtless familiar. They differ in several respects from the condensation of vapour or steam suspended in the atmosphere, and its removal along with other impuri- ties with which it may be contaminated, so as to cool, diy, and purify it for the setting-room ; but there is, nevertheless, a close similarity involved in the two condensation and purifi- cation processes worthy of attention. Vapour which may remain in the cooled air after it has, in a forced and condensed current, passed through the ice-house pipes, may be thrown down in a condensing chamber in the form of water with other impurities ; the air, after it is thus purified, being allowed to enter the cooling-room for cooling and setting the meat, and from this condensing chamber the water can be drained off as fast as it collects. With nothing to break or agitate the current of air passing through the pipes at a considerable velocity, the greater portion of the vapour would be carried directly into the cooling-room, if no condensing ch.-^mber intervened. On leaving the pipe, this current would blow cold and freezing ; but, being allowed to expand, it would absorb the heat from the cooling carcase ; consequently, the vapour would be rarefied again to a degree approaching that which it had in the atraospliere at the com- mencement of the cooling process, the result being that ex- perienced by the butclier — the discoloration of tlie meat — the rising of the bloom (as in the dry cold air of winter) being prevented by the vapour being cheniically attracted to the carcase along with other impurities, as the spores of fungi, &c. The object of the condensing chamber is to produce the dry, pure, keen, cold air of winter, so as effectually to con- solidate the meat, and get up its commercially attractive pinky bloom. Various plans may be adopted for tlie separation of vapour and impurities from the atmosphere in a condensing chamber — such as forcing or filtering it through a condensing and purifying medium, or over frigid surfaces, thereby withdraw- ing it in the form of water ; or it may be attracted to sub- stances having a powerful aflinity for moisture ; or it may be tlirown down in the form of snow, hailstones, or icy particles ; or it may be got rid of by a combination of these processes. Into the working details of such processes, owing to their number, our limits will not permit us to enter at present. They form a subject which might be profitably discussed by meteorological writers — much more so than the long prophetic bickerings about the future weather. Instead of a single condensing chamber adjoining the cool- ing and setting room, a number of small condensing chambers might be made at the bends of the pipes, or at suitable and convenient places and distances along their length. The slower the air is passed through the pipes in the ice, the greater the length of time afforded for the abstraction of the heat ; consequently, the lower tlie degree of temperature to which the cooled air is brought down, and the more efi'ectual is the condensing process performed. It is not so much a large supply of cold air that the cooling and setting room re- quires as a continuons supply of the proper temperature and quality as to dryness and purity. If advantage is taken of such data, the small condensing chambers in question may in character be only an enlarged portion of the pipes, to an ex- tent sufficient to hold condensing material or surface, so as to aUow the air to pass through or over it at a slow velocity. In Ling's patent " ice-safes," or " ice-houses " (patent. No. 10,781,1845), the vapour is condensed upon the outer surface of the ice-wells, which are situated vertically in the middle of the ice-safe or ice-house, the latter, more correctly speaking, being only a cellar or closet fitted up on the principle of au ice-safe or refrigerator. Mr. George Keith, ice machinist, 55, Great Russell-street, Bloomsbury, W.C. (late Lings and Keith), has made numerous improvements upon the patent of his late partner. These improved ice-safes were exhibited in the Great International Exhibitions of 1851 and 1863, on both of which occasions prize medals were awarded them, as some of our readers will doubtless remember. Since 1854 several of our large metropolitan butchers have had cellars or closets fitted up, oil the principle of an ice-safe ; while these improved ice- safes are conimon in our national clubs and hotels — not only in the capital, but iu most of our large provincial towns. In examples where the ice-safe has two cupboards there is only one vertical ice-well between them ; but where there are three cupboards, as in the largest examples exhibited in 1851 and 1862, there are two ice-wells. In two of the butchers' ice- cellars which we have examined, one — a small chamber leading off from the slaughter-house — has only one ice-weU in the mid- dle ; the other, under the shop, has two ice-weUs. They are made of galvanized sheet-iron, circular, and riveted like the funnel of a steamboat, of the height of the cellar. A small double hatch door opens in the floor above, in at which the ice-well is filled. It is drained from below, as the well of an ice-house. Around the wall of the ice-cellar there are hooks, as in butchers' shops, for hanging joints or quarters of beef, and whole carcases of mutton. Salted parts are kept iu tubs on the floor. Around the bottom of each cylinder, or ice-well, there is a receiver, to collect and drain-off the vapour which is condensed upon its surface, and which trickles down to this receiver. Ice-wells may be constructed in larders, on the above prin- ciple of an ice-safe, either for butchers or private fomilies, for preserving meat ; but they do not answer for cooling and set- ting newly-slaughtered carcases, and hence are not adapted for farmers. If the meat is firm and well set when hung up in an ice-cooled larder, it will keep safely untU used, coming out as fresh and sound as when put in ; but, when put iu warm and soft, the atmosphere in such places is too confined and muggy for getting up the bloom. Soft meat can be easily cooled down to the proper temperature, such as quarters of beef and carcases of mutton from the dead-meat market at this season, or badly-set meat from the slaughter-house or shop of the butcher, the quantity being limited to the size of the safe and the consumption of well-ice in the wells. The owner of the largest cellar under his shop, noticed above — the one with two ice-wells — on finding he could cool down meat, and thus check for a time decomposition, bought largely in New- gate the softest and cheapest qualities, iu the hopes of driving at the gallop a paying concern ; but by so doing, he fell into two egregious practical blunders — first, by putting too large a quantity of meat into his cellar, more than he could cool down to the proper temperature necessary to arrest decomposition : ill other words, he put more latent caloric into his ice-cellar than he could remove, with a limited cooling surface, within the limited time which practice placed at his disposal ; secondly, he made a mess of the whole, both as to saleable appearance and quality. The WindmiU-street experiments gave rise at the time to a voluminous amount of trade gossip, which, we need hardly say, ended unfavourably to the extension of the ice-cooling project, owing to the gross mismanagement in car- rying it into efl'ect. Small ice-safes are greatly more expensive, both in the con- struction and consumption of ice, than large ones ; and those erected in the Metropolis for butchers have hitherto been on too limited a scale for the economical demands of trade. And this, too, is not their only fault ; for no attention has been paid to supply them with a pure, dry atmosphere, so essen- tially necessary to success. Indeed, butcliers everywhere, not more in the capital than in our provincial towns, are prover- bial for the blind and non-professional manner in which they muddle their meat, in a stinking and steaming atmosphere, more especially iu the summer-time. What between smell and the deluging ablutions in shop and slaughterhouse, and the cooling and setting of meat in the dirty, muggy atmosphere thus produced, it is not surprising that it remains soft, and soon begins to get green or to taint at the bone. It is no wonder, therefore, although the more intelligent and enter- prising metropolitan butchers are anxious to get ahead of their preseut antiquated position, that they are turning their atten- tion more and more to the dead-meat trade, and that they l^HE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 213 would gladly support the pvoposition of a direct trade with farmers in properly-slaughtered and cooled meat. Many of their slaughter-houses could easily he converted, at no deadly outlay of capital, by double walls, roofs, &c., into excellent preserving-rooms, by means of ice-wells and the other refrige- rating and heating apparatus now being brought to bear upon the preservation of meat in summer and winter. In the cooling of meat in nn ice-safe, the latent heat re- moved passes off with the melted ice, in the drainage of the ice-well. Tlie thin sheet-iron forming the well being a good conductor, the caloric readily passes from the meat to the at- mosphere, from the atmosphere to the iron, and from the iron to the ice, melting so much ; and the quantity thus melted always corresponds to the quantity of caloric abstracted. But if the meat has been properly set in the country, and comes up to the capital cool and firm, and is put by the butcher into his ice-safe in this condition, the quantity of caloric to be removed is in the minimum. Hence the consumption of ice is also in the minimum ; and, consequently, the expense of keeping the meat in a wholesome and marketable state is comparatively nothing to the advantage gained. Those butchers who are just now studying the subject from a professional point of view will readily perceive that the old objection raised to the expense of ice in ice-safes falls to the ground, under proper manage- ment. Hence the practical conclusion. All ice-safes involve a stagnant atmosphere ; and although there is less objection to meat being in a stagnant atmosphere at a low temperature than at a higli one, we very much ques- tion if the exclusive principle of an ice-safe is that to whicli butchers should look for the preservation of their meat in summer-time. On the contrary, we aver that what suits the farmer will l)e found best adapted for them ; which brings us to our third proposition — the ventilation of the farmer's cool- ing and setting-room. If a continuous blast of pure, wintry-cold air is thrown into the cooling-room in whicli newly-slaughtered carcases are hanging, it must have an ingress near the floor, and an egress in the ceiling for carrying off moisture and caloric from the drying and cooling meat. The heat may have a tendency to diffuse itself through the room ; but as the heated air and steam ascend, a slow current upwards, from the bottom, will carry both off together, through discharge-pipes above. These discharge-pipes should have valves for shutting when not going, so as to prevent an influx of moist, hot air in summer, and cold during the extremes of winter. Under such conditions, if the solar heat is carried off l)y evaporation by means of water being thrown upon the roof and walls outside, or if it is kept out by means of a thick thatching of reed or straw, a further supply of cold air would be unnecessary after the carcases are cooled down to the pro- per temperature and firmness. Practically speaking, as soon as this is effected the meat is ready for being sent off to mar- ket, so that it is only under exceptional circumstances that it would be allowed to hang longer in the cooling-room of the farmer. With the butcher, however, it would often be other- wise, and as the consumption of ice would be directly as the quantity of cooled air thrown into the cooling and preserving rooms, it follows that it is only during the cooling process that a supply of cold air is chiefly needed. However cool and firm butchers may get their meat in from the country, it will always, in warm weather, absorb much caloric between the cooling room of the farmer and their shops ; while what is not sold during the day will largely absorb solar heat from hanging in their shops ; consequently what is not sold to-day has to be cooled down over night for to-morrow. A continuous supply of cold air, for carrying off the heat and moisture from carcases while cooling and drying, would often be required in the winter time as well as in summer, or we may say at all seasons of the year, with the exception of clear, dry, frosty weather, when ventilation might be more economi- cally effected by other and cheaper means. At such seasons as the latter, the practical difficulty experienced is to keep out frost, especially during a long period of hard frosty weather, owing to the complete abstraction of latent heat from every part of the building. But there are short periods of close muggy weather in autumn, winter, and spring, which is very injurious to meat, botli in cooling and preserving; consequently such an atmosphere must be got rid of as fast as possible, by means of throwing into the cooling-room a supply of pure, cold, dry air. Tliere is another description of cold muggy weather, nearly as injurious to the meat as the former, when the air might re- quire to be heated, and afterwards cooled in order to effect the processes of condensation, of vapour, and purification more suc- cessfully. A cheap tent vapour-safe may be made by fixing four posts or standards in the ground in any free, airy, exposed situation. On the top of these place a cistern, for supplying water. Put in shelves below — the lowest four or five feet above the ground. Around the whole throw canvas or a woollen cloth down from the bottom, of the cistern. In the sides of the cis- tern, near the bottom, let there be a few small holes ; in these put pegs, for regulating the discharge — sufficiently loose, when working, to let water ooze out — for keeping the cloth wet; and from this wet cloth the solar heat will be carried off by evapo- ration, and more effectually when in the sun than when in the shade. The cistern may be supplied with water, from time to time, as required, by means of a small forcing pump and gutta percha tubing. For small farmers and labourers who have not an ice-house and cooling-room, a vapour safe would be of inestimable value in the summer time, for keeping vegetables and provisions of every kind. Any country carpenter could put up one for a few shillings ; and not a few handy small farmers and labourers could knock one together in an evening or two after the day's work was over in the field. The canvas or cloth might be open and overlapping at one side, so as to place the contents of the safe, if desirable, under lock and key. Such is a general view of our proposition; and tliose of our readers who have been able to follow us practically wiU readily perceive that its universal reduction to practice is only a work of time — a period, we may add, shorter tlian the vast majority of farmers and butchers at present imagine. THE APPLICATION OF MACHINERY TO AGRICULTURE. At a meeting of the Logic and Lecropt Farmers' Club, held in the AVesterton Arms, Bridge of Allan, Sir J. E. Alexander in the chair, the following paper was read by Mr. Pinlayson, Pindreich : Mr. FI^■LAYsoN said — It is needless to say, I crave your indulgence for anything I may bring forward to-niglit ou the subject of discussion, vi/,., "The most Profitable Application of Machinery to Agriculture." In regard to the thrashing machines, whether plain beater, spike or hotting drum, revolv- ing or crank shaker, or whatever plan, small pinions and bevel wheels should be avoided as much as possible. Pitch chains are a very easy method of driving the rollers and shakers, but the first and most inlportant thing to be looked at is a good large horse-shed. First give the horses a good lever power, and the rest becomes easy. Make the horses strong, and you gain the additional advance of a large outer wheel and pinion, ■ large spur wheel and pinion, large second power and drum I pinion, and you thus make four Iiorscs do the work of six with j everything the other way. It may be laid down as a general I rule that small pinions are ill to turn, and a great drawback to ; thrashing maciiines ; but tlie only way to remedy tliis evil in j many cases, and keep up the required speed, is to begin at the i beginning and give the horses a good leverage. Not a few of our mill sheds are just as tliey were when the flail was first hung over the couples as a thing of no use, and was succeeded by the thrashing mill, and it is no wonder they should be a little antiquated. Some of them in the district, where there is a good deal of thrashing to do, are not 33 feet witliin walls, whereas there should lie no shed less than 33 feet. I have had a long trial of both, and the large one in my experience has all the advantages I ascribe to it. There is room for improve- ment, too, I apprehend, in the way and manner of cleaning 214 THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. our grain. Not a few of oiu- faaners in the district, with little alterations in detail, are the same as when this " terrible deil's wind" was first found out. The prevaUing principle of the old fanners is long blades, about three feet, some of them more. The invention of fanners was no doubt a great affair, however li-'ht we may tliink of it now. A great improvement on the old plan of cleaning the grain between the barn doors, or going up to the top of a liill, to catch the passing breeze, and perhaps catch the passing shower instead. But we could not expect these men, geniuses though they must have been, to jump to the best construction of farmers at once, and I find, as any one eloe may find, by standing beliind them, that in tl\ese long- bladed fanners every blade has its own blast. There is a luU and a puff as every blade comes round, and they of necessity heavy to drive. The most modern fanners again, which we see taking prizes at shows, are not so long in the blades — somewhere about two feet, and not very heavy to drive ; but in their haste to attain perfection, as I suppose, in cleaning tlie grain, they have fiUed the whole inside with riddles, so tliat the wind has next to no chance at all in doing its duty, as it has no way of acting upon the grain, but through and among these riddles, which is far from sight. Grain, you are aware, can only be discriminatcly cleaned when it is falling, not when it is striking against or resting on anything ; and lience the absurdity of blocking up the wliole interior of fanners with riddles. Riddles I would have, and riddles I wonder we have not had, in all our mill and hand fanners long ago. But then they should be so placed as not to interfere on any account with the wnnowing of the grain. There should only be a sUght part of the blast allowed to play upon them, and a ' foot or more clear below for the wind to act on the grain as it falls from the riddles. I find tliat wire riddles are apt to get clogged up with corn coats hanging about them, and that pierced iron or zinc is preferable. But to approach perfection in the win- nowing of our grain, I would recommend that our fanners be short in the blades and double blasted, that is, that they should have two pair of blades or fans, the one going out when the other is coming in, or working half stroke to each other, to prevent that Mliug and puffing that is in all fanners, and to make a regular and constant blow. Three riddles, wlien pro- perly applied, may be said to add nothing to the weight of driving, and such a form of fanners would give plenty of room below for the wind to act on the grain as it falls from the riddles, while they could be made the same heiglit above and below as otiier fanners and as easy to drive. To allow the blast to act on the grain, when it is resting on anything, as is too often done, is like striking a man when lie is down ; it gives him no chance of his life. The strong man is weak then, and so is the strong grain. It is an expensive affair riddling grain by hand, and not every one of our best men can do it. But there is no use for it when it can be done otherwise. For I hold tliat we are much more able to riddle our grain by machinery than the raiUer is to sift his meal — and how perfectly he does it, though the one is a much nicer operation than the other. We ought to leave nothing to manual labour that can be done by machinery. I am only speaking in refe- rence to our own district, for many may be, and many are,' I know, far in advance of us in this point. Wlierever iron can be introduced into our farm implements it sliould take the place of wood ; iron can be used with advantage in harrows on the great proportion of land. On some light soils, perhaps, and hiUy farms, they can scarcely be made light enough to stand the obstacles they have to meet with. The old Scotch wooden plougli is stiU in use in some parts of the district, but wooden ploughs, in whatever form, are not tlirifty. The " Scotch Rational" can be made in its native form, and as light and strong in iron as in wood. It would then neither cling with summer's drought nor swell and rot with winter's wet — would last generations in place of a few seasons. But two sets of ploughs are expensive and unnecessary, as our improved iron plough, witli a plain broad level sock and a straiglit coulter, will do winter ploughing equally as well, if not better, than the other, and be as easily drawn. Very short, convex, sharp turned, hollow-breasted mouldboards are better for scooping loose land than ploughing it; while a medium length and twist will do fair work on all soUs, and prove more generally useful. Wheels, when rightly attached, make a plough very easy to guide ; and though a good man at a plough- ing match may make better work without them, a very inferior ploughman will, with a day or two's practice, make superior work with them. And it would he a great saving of our ploughmen's bones were wheels more used than they are. What we call grub harrows, when well made, have been found exceedingly useful in tearing up and loosening land that has to be often rolled in the breaking down ; and when land is foul for taking weeds to the surface. The grubber was thought at one time to take the place of the plough, but now it will have enough to do to keep its own place, A turn of tlie grubber may sometimes be better than a ploughing ; better for keeping in the moist, for the sake of a braird in dry weather. But there is a danger in going too far, as nothing but the plough can turn the soil over thoroughly to the influences of the atmosphere, which influences, although we have them for nothing, are often more enriching to the soil than the best and most costly manures we can apply. Water power may be said to be the cheapest of all known powers when conveniently got; but, unfortunately, where most' grain is grown, and most needed, it is difficult to get. And it appears to me question- able whether it would be profitable to keep a steam engine for thrashing alone, for these reasons among many — That we often can't get on our land for weeks togetlicr, and in such seasons it is an advantage for our horses to have thrashing to do ; and with a good going machine much of our thrashing can be over- taken in such seasons. Besides, we have the portable engine and thrashing machine to apply to in a strait, wliich does all the departments of the work well, and is not long in making a slap in the barn-yard. True it is, that in the Lothians, and many other districts, you will see few larm steadings without the engine stalk towering above all around. But in many places the straw is sold, and dung is bought, so that when the horses are not on the land, they are on the road. Other places, from their proximity to coals, or the dry texture of their land, that can be wrought on at any time, may account for the difference ; but in the vales of Monteith and Stirling the straw is generally made into dung on the farm — the coals are expensive, and the land stiff; so tenacious much of it is, that one day's work on it, when not in trim, would tell on it for a rotation. Steam power has done much for the world, but comparatively little as yet in the cultivation of the soil. Till recently we used to see cotton factories and mills of all sorts in out-of-the-way places — besides burns, and streams, and rivers ; but taking advantage of steam power, we now see the manufacturer birring at his mill, without any such restraint, anywhere and everywhere — in the midst of large cities, on the quays and banks of navigable rivers, where goods can be im- ported and exported to and from all parts of the world ; and we farmers can only say we wish we could get on that way. We hope we wiU get the same advantage of this giant power. The difficulty of applying steam to agriculture is too manifest, from the time it has taken to introduce it. Could it have been done as easily, and with the same advantage as in the other case, the steam engine would have been snorting on every farm. There has been no such indefatigable energy or inge- nuity, and I should say pliilanthropy, shown in introducing steam to factories as to farms, for the fact is, it was not needed. The manufacturer, as I have hinted, has only to erect his work, set dowa. his engine in the place and position required, and away it goes, saying to itself, we may suppose, this is the place for me. I'll drag long trains, inclines I hate. Sometimes I'll stick in .spite of fate j Rnnning off rails, or into trains, I sometimes dash out people's brains. And sometimes, too, my own. I'd cultivate the soil, 'tis play, But can't drag ploughs a m.ile away j That long wu-e rope, go tell the folks. Is just like shearing Samson's locks. It clips me of my power. How fearlessly I'll plough the ocean, Though all against me seem in motion — Though winds loud lash the waves to foam. But here I say I am at home — But here I am at home. It is no doubt difficult to estimate the benefit manufacture and mechanics have derived from the perfection to which they have brought their machinery, bu^ no one thiug in our day, I am persuaded, has done more to advance their interests than steam power. It is like the root from which other improve- ments have sprung — the trunk on which they grow and flourish; and we, as landlords and tenants whose interests are so linked THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 215 together, ought to strain every nerve to have tliis wild yonng horse brought into their service. Most people like a young horse to he bold and forward a little in the breaking-in. They say there is something in hira. If this holds true then you may depend there is sometliing in steam, and we ought not to be frightened for any pranks and cantrips that may take place at first, and we should be encouraged to persevere from the advance already made in our own, and from the success that has attended the steps of this bold horse — this noble power — in every other department of industry. It has not yet l)een established, it is true, that cultivation by steam is cheaper than by horse power, but such a comparison is premature. It is certainly not reasonable that a power that came into exist- ence yesterday should already cope with another that has been in existence since the tinae when Adam was a yonng man or soon after. It is not so long since we have got quit of the gad- man for cleaning the ploughing and guiding the horses ; some here may have used him in their younger days ; so give this youtliful power time — I would not say four or five thousand years, but four or five years — and we will get the gadmau paid off here too, and many other seeming mountains that stand in the way of progress. There have been great improvements made since this young vrild horse was first yoked in our district, which should be noticed, but I must pass on. It may be observed here that this fiery horse eats coals, not corn, and eats and drinks only when he is working, decent fellow that he is ; while our other horses eat and drink, and must be attended to, work or no work, lazy fellows that they are — are they not ? No doubt the present extensive form of applica- tion of steam power is beyond the reach of the great body of farmers, and may have frightened some and grieved others ; but it was the larger aud wealthier farmers and the more spirited farmers that took the lead in the movement, and it was such forms they required, and no one need be concerned, as it can be brought down to any size or form. I only wish I saw it brouglit out in a form suitable to a farm of lOU acres or so : all 'then would be able to judge of its capabilities aud cost of application m their own case. But I must say that I don't like the idea of tlie engine toiling so far from its work, shorn of half its power ; for recollect that an engine of 13-horse power, so far as I have seen, only drags two or three ploughs, the work of four or six horses. It is of course easier far to find fault tlian find a remedy. But allow me to say, for the sake of argument, would it not do to have the engine, instead of standing at the end expending half its power doing nothing, traversing our fields, short-angled cotners, and fields of all forms, with a cultivator somewhat of the principle of a clod- crusher or Norwegian harrow to travel on, in place of the hbid wheels. The fore wheels for guiding the engine would be the only compressing weight on the soil, and would do less damage than the pokering and dabbling of the horses' feet. Supposing there were three cultivators, the one going deeper than the other as they came back. The depth could be regu- lated by wheels. It would be Uke tooth and pinion for taking the engine over a height, the wheels would not skip round and leave the engine standing helpless, and those who liad knolls on their farm would not need to consider themselves excluded from a share of the advantages of their more favoured brethren in the plains. But, without joking, if a principle somewhat 'ike that described would do, then the gadman, viz., the wire rope, porters, anchor, attendants, the laying and lifting of this gear, would be dispensed with, and this magnificent power brought within the reach of every one. I see many difiiculties to the plan, but a great many advantages if it would do. At all events, it is by stating our views and discussing such t»pics that we can endeavour to help on improvements that so much interest ourselves and the community. Some of the other members will give us the advantage of their experience with the reaping machine, as your patience must be already over-taxed. Allow me to observe, however, that though the reaper has much to contend with in our variable climate, it is gratifying to see the lieadway it has made against obstacles, seemingly insurmount- able, since it came into use. Those only wlio began with it can estimate tlie advances that have been made. The real improve- ments, or labour of effecting them, cannot be appreciated by a casual observer. Many thought, at one time, that when we got the lengtli of a " manual back dehvery," we could get no farther. Some machines at first, when the knife got the least Ijluut, would come to a dead lock for want of power, although driving nothing but the knife ; but now, from the knife being made lighter, of better stuff, kept sharper, and other parts made more perfect, we find there is power not only to drive the knife, but a large side dehvery reel into the bargain. Heavy cum- brous machines cannot be expected to be liandy or profitable in average circumstances, as, from the laid state of our crops gene- rally,'they can only be cut one way, and such machines are about as difficult to take back empty as others are to bring forward full. I am not aware whether our last year's exhibition has brought out any new machine, hut if it were the means of per- fecting those already out, and bringing them into notice, which no doubt it has, from the number of self side-deliveries ordered in the district, our labour has not been altogether thrown a\A-ay. The perfecting of the reaper is becoming more and more impor- tant for the efiicient aud profitable harvesting of our crops, and calls for more attention than it receives from farmers' clubs. It is not like an implement that is used aU the year round, that can he repaired or improved at any leisure time. It would require to come into the field like a warrior armed to the teeth — without a weak point or flaw in its equipment. The soldier may find out the defects of his armour in the battlefield, but that is neither the time nor place for repairing his loss. So it is with the reaping machine. The harvest field and throng of harvest is neither the time nor place for inefficient machines, or for repairing their defects. Stoppages are a great loss and annoyance, but this evil is lessened, you will observe, by the side-delivery, as it can he wTought at any distance ahead of the binders, which the back delivery cannot. Neither is there any time lost by the hinders going backwards or forwards, as each has Ills own row to bindfrom end to end ; consequently more work can be done. But the advantages of the side delivery come most prominently out in the bean field, where the lifters are dispensed witli altogether. Self side-delivery is the great point of perfection we have long striven to attain, and it is most gratifying to see it brought out so completely in so many dif- ferent ways, each throwing a lustre on man's powers of inge- nuity and perseverance. After the reading of the above paper the various suggested improvements caused considerable discussion. SOILIHG CATTLE. Tliis practice is, oil Most arable farms, especially where pro- vision is made of crops near the feeding-boxes and yards for carrying it out, a profitable method of increasing the store of manure upon tlve farm. Where Italian rye-grass and lucerne and clover, liberally treated, are near the feeding-house, cattle can he fattened during tlie summer months more cheaply than during winter, witli at least as great advantage to the fertility of the fann. The practice is very warmly advocated in the earlier editions of " Young's Tarmers' Calendar," as fol- lows : " Enlightened farmers have in many districts adopted this system for horses, Ijut still reject it for cattle ; and it will probably take a century to render it as universal as it might be, most profitably. The objections to it are not of any im- portance. It has been argued that the expense is an object, aud that cattle will not thrive so well, nor will cows give so much milk, as if fed in the field. That the expense is some- thing cannot be denied, but that it amounts to anything con- siderable is contrary to fact. Mr. Mure fed ~iO fatting oxen in sheds, through a whole summer, by the mowing of one scythe. If the attendance upon the beasts be added to this amount, the whole will evidently come to a sum which, when divided either per head or per acre, will be so low as to do entirely away with tins objection. As to the question of tliriving, the assertion has been made, as far as it has come to my knowledge, without a trial, and is consequently mere theory. The beasts mentioned above were all sold fat at Smithfield, and did as well as similar beasts had done fed abroad in the most favourable seasons, and better thau in any 216 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. summer not remarkably favourable. I practised i| for several years together very carefully for fatting cattle, weighing alive periodically, both while in stalls and when at grass, and I found that" in soiling they throve better than when abroad. If the world will reason upon every question of farming, they should do it without prejudice, and then their reason would, to my apprehension, agree with these facts. Everyone knows how tormenting flies are to cattle when abroad : ride into a field in summer to look at stock, and where do you find them ? Not feeding, but standing or resting under trees, in ponds, in rivers, and, if there is no better shelter, in ditches under brambles ; in a word, anywhere but feeding in the open air. ■Wliat they graze is in the morning and evening ; and in many cases tliey lose in the lieat of the day all they gain at those moments of their comfort. To this superiority we must add that of the main object, which is the dunghill. In one case this is accumulated in a degree even superior to what is etfected in winter ; in the other, it is scattered about the pas- tures, and nine-tenths of it carried away by the flies, or dried almost to a caput moriuum by the sun. The prodigious superiority of thus raising a large and very valuable dunghill in one case, and none at all in the other, ouglit to convince any reasonable man that there is not a practice in husbandry so decidedly superior as tliis of soiling, were there not one other reason for it than what have already been produced. Those farmers who have given particular attention to the state of farm-yard manure, as it is made in winter or summer, and to the efficacy of both, can scarcely have failed to remark that the superiority of the dung arising from any sort of stock in sum- mer is very great to such as is made in winter from stock no better fed. Cattle, when soiled upon any kind of good food, as tares, clover, chicory, lucerne, or grass, make so large a quan- tity of urine as to demand the greatest quantity of litter ; the degree of this moisture, in which their litter is kept, while the weather is hot, much assists a rapid fermentation. On the other hand, when I view the common spectacle of a large yard spread with a thin stratum of straw or stubble, and a parcel of lean straw-fed cows wandering about it, I see the most in- genious way of annihilating litter without making dung that the wit of man could have invented. Burning such straw upon the land before sowing turnips would be an application not inferior. Cows, thus managed, are amongst the most un- ])rofitable stock that can be kept on a farm. With tlie best food and management, their dung is inferior ; but thus kept on a wide expanse of thin litter, well drenched in rain and snow. running to ponds and ditches, they destroy much, but give little. There is, however, another fact of equal importance that the food given in stalls or boxes goes so much farther than it will do when grazed where it grows ; and when we recollect the old remark, that a beast feeds or consumes with five mouths, we shall not be surprised at this fact. A greater stock may thus be supported by the same farm, in one system than there can be in the other. Two circumstances demand attention, which if neglected wiU considerably lessen the benefit to be derived from soiling : the one is to have a plen- tiful provision of litter, and the other much care in feeding — to give the beasts but little at a time. If much be tumbled before them it heats, they pick it over, and tiie waste may be great ; and if a cart he left in the yard loaded, the contents heat, and then cattle will not eat it. A certain degree of care is necessary in everything, and in nothing more than in feeding all sorts of cattle. As to litter, it is an object of such im- portance that provision for the system should be gradually made through the winter, if corn enough be not left for summer-thrashing to supply the beasts. All dry vegetable matter capable of providing a dry lair in stalls or boxes — leaves, in woodland countries ; fern, dried peat, &c., should be thus collected against the summer mouths. An enterprising, vigilant farmer, when he has such an object as this in view, will exert every nerve to be prepared for a system the profit of which will depend so much on the care previously taken to be well provided with litter of some sort or other. The first crops that will be ready for soiling are the rye, lucerne, and the Italian rye-grass, and the Trifolium incarnatum, which may be supposed to last aU the stock till the first-sown winter tares are ready, when the lucerne left uncut should be mown for hay. The second-sown winter tares come next, then clover, to be succeeded by the third sowing of tares, and by the second growtli of Italian rye-grass and lucerne. After this come spring tares, and the second growth of clover ; and the third cutting of Italian rye-grass and of lucerne may follow. If chicory be applied to this use, for which it is well adapted, it will, on any good land, be mown thrice, and on very good soils four times. The quantity and value of the manure thus made will surprise those who have not witnessed it. Whether the stock be stalled, or fed in boxes, or kept in weU-litfered yards, covered or open, in divisions according to sort, size, age, fat- ness, value, or any other rule of separation, if they are fed carefully, have water at command, and are kept clean, all sorts will thrive to the farmer's satisfaction." THE HARVEST OF EVERY YEAR; OK, rLAlN HINTS TO FARMERS ABOUT THE WEATHER. Although it is not in man's power to secure sunshine or completely to supply the deficiency of rainfall, still there are resources at our command to mitigate the consequences of these deficiencies, or to make amends for them by acting in accord- ance with the hints of Nature. If a year is likely to be bad for grain crops it will be good for roots, tares, and other food for stock. In such a case we only invite loss if we do not take means to secure a compensation by having recourse to this rotation, supposing we can discover the probability in time for the alteration. Now, there are numerous facts or classes of facts which enable us to foresee with more or less probability the nature of coming seasons. I. THE WEATHER AT THE EQUINOXES. Tlie weather at the equinoxes (21st September and Slst March) is a sign of that which is to follow. If the weeks im- mediately before and after the autumnal equinox (21st Sep- tember) pass off almost free from any great atmospheric dis- turbance, the temperature will continue higher than usual far into the winter months. Such being observed, it will be evident that the deficiency of frost will tell on the soil, and the irregular temperature will prepare unsettled weather for the following spring. The contrary will happen under opposite circumstances. On the otlierhand, a calm spring equinox will be followed by a very low temperature for many weeks : the reverse \vith a boisterous spring equinox, which means a dry spring. The wet and cold spring of the present year (1866) prognosticates a bad or inferior harvest. The rainfall of the country seems already to have amounted to the greater part of the annual average more or less everywhere, whilst the general ten- dency of the winds is decidedly variable, denoting a continu- ance of unsettled weather. It would not be a waste of pre- caution to check the drainage, especially of high-lying lands, against the possibility of dry weather, if not drought, with thirsty winds to diminish the moisture of the soil. Eor the great majority of years it seems that farmers cannot expect very remunerative harvests ; but the quality of food for stock might be very profitably increased were we to alter the system of cropping, and grow less corn, the cultivation of which is both unprofitable and laborious, as recently observed by Mr. William Scott, at the quarterly meeting of the Galashiels Farmers' Club. Though grain has got a little dearer this year, it is well known that it is entirely owing to political circumstances, pro- bably of a temporary character, and it is only in years far distant, when the population of this world shall have doubled itself— should that ever come to pass, tliat there will be any chance of com ever again rising to the old protection prices : wheat wiU never again be dear, and beef will never again be THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 217 cheap. If more attention were paid to the cultivation of roots, tares, and otlier food for stock, the numbers kept might be greatly increased, and more especially would this be the case if more land were kept in grass. If these hints be taken, the farmer will not be so dependent on the weather as he is at present. By etTcctive drainage we can counteract the consequences of excessive rainfall ; but then we should save the water — preserve it as a precious thing, against the possi- bility of having to pay for it at (id. a pailful, as some had to pay during the last excessive drought. But even more than tiiat : if from the hints we have to suggest it be found that we are likely to liave a dry season, means may be taken to stop or check the drainage, whicli should always be done in spring after a wet autumn, especially in high lying-localities. By a knowledge of the " climate" or natural temperature of localities, which depends upon their aspect with respect to the sun, and the nature or geological qualities of tlie subsoil, we should be able to neutralize the consequences of drought by the nature of the cultivation or crop we raise from it. Those plants which have broad leaves, such as roots, &c., are not so likely to suffer from drought as the cereals, which is another reason why farmers had better turn their attention to food for stock. II. SIGNS or THE iiaii\t:st fkom the winds. Every wind has its weather, more or less influencing vege- tation, or interfering with agricultural operations. Conse- quently this is a subject to which farmers should direct their attention, and endeavour to turn to account what little cer- tainty we may have secured in our knowledge as to the play of the winds. Owing to the want of continuous records of the changes of direction in the wind, but little is known as to the mean prevalence of certain directions during the different months and seasons. No doubt if self-registering anemo- meters (or instruments for measuring the force and direction of the winds) were used throughout the country, this want might be supj'lied, but even then the results would scarcely amount to certainties, owing to the many causes which deflect or turn out of their courses the great currents of air as soon as they enter the varied landscape of our islands. Besides, many a wind may blow nnder a false name ; that is, it may be only the return current of one and the same wind — sometimes in an exactly opposite direction. The only means of dis- tinguishing such false winds is, the hygrometer, or dry and wet bulb thermometer (of which more in the sequel), which will accurately show the quality of any wind as to moisture, and therefore enable us to class it accordingly with either of the great currents to which it may belong, absolutely or in composition, namely, the polar or the equatorial, which have theirmarked and distinctive features. It is the relative prevalence of these two main currents that constitute the winds which mainly influence vegetation. Wiiatever, then, may be our difficulties in the inquiry, it is highly desirable that the farmer should have regard to the di- rection of the wind ; for, if we cannot predict for certain the class of winds which we are likely to experience during a certain period, we know that certain winds have certain pecu- liarities of their own, as regards their degree of humidity or moisture, dryness, tendency to bring settled weather of some kind, whether good or bad ; and, therefore, these become very important elements for consideration in pre'Ueting the weather. A good trustworthy wind-vane or anemometer, which need not be very expensive, would be a very useful thing to the farmer, as will presently appear ; at all events, he should always have an eye to the direction of the wind or its shiftings ; for, after all, everything depends upon the winds as far as tlie crops are concerned. The deficiency or excess of one class of winds at particular periods will forewarn us of results which might otherwise meet us unawares. From a table drawn up by Mr. Glaisher from observations made ,at Greenwich, it appears that the average duration of each wind throughout the year is as follows : Days. North wind, mean yearly continuance equal 40.7 North-east „ „ „ 47.6 East „ „ „ 22.6 South-east „ „ „ 19.9 South „ „ „ 34.2 South-west „ „ „ 104.0 West „ „ „ 38.3 North-west „ „ „ 24.1 The air is calm on 33.7 According to this summary, the south-west wind is by far the most prevalent, and the south-east the least so. Tlie north and north-east rank next to the south-west winds in point of duration ; and there are, on an average, only thirty-three or thirty-four days in the year on which the air may be said to be calm, although, strictly speaking, perhaps there are but very few days, if any, during which the air is perfectly motion- less. Of course, this general average can only serve to give some idea of the regular crop of winds that prevail in our islands. Tliere must be differences in various parts of the country owing to local causes ; for instance, at Liverpool, the most prevalent winds are from S. to S.E., which last 54 days, and the N.E. and S.W. winds, whicli are our longest winds gene- rally, only blow for 24 days at Liverpool, where they have the N.E. wind for only 8^ days. \A^e give the statement as we find it recorded by the observers at the Liverpool Observatory, but we submit that the very low and otherwise objectionable position of the observatory is scarcely adapted for accurate aneraometry, and therefore it probably records only locally re- flected winds. But westerly winds mostly prevail in England, that is S.W., W., and N.W. winds ; and it seems that this fact accounts for the tendency of the wealthier population to move westward or towards " the West-end," because the air there is freer from smoke, &c., the prevalent westerly winds not only driving back the smoke of the City or " East-end," but carrying to it the smoke of the West-end. Of course, it is the same with ex- halations, and so the westerly wind keeps the West-end healthier as well as makes it " respectable." We may observe that in east winds — owing to the greater density of the air, the smoke and exhalations of both East and West-end rise higher, and so each gets rid of a greater part of the nuisance. Curiously enough, it is the same in other great cities — Paris, Vienna, Berlin, Turin, St. Petersburg, Liege, Caen, Montpellier, and almost every other capital or large city of Europe — where the best districts are in the vest, with the same results. Moreover, it was the same at Pompeii and other ancient cities, and the same may be observed even in small towns and villages throughout this and every other country in the northern hemisphere. Thus, if instinct did not lead to this preference, it may be satisfactory to know that for once, at least, fashion is right in its requirement. According to the Astronomer Royal, there are only eight points from which the wind ever blows steadily for any length- ended period in England. It never blows at all directly from due south ; the two most prevalent winds are the S.S.W. and the W.S.W.; the S.S.W. invariably bringing rain, the W.S.W. accompanied by dry fine weather; between W. and N.W. there is another point of duration, also between N. and E., another between E., and S.S.W, which, with N., W., and E., make up the eight points as above stated. This statement accords with our observation, and we believe it will be found generally correct, that the aboveuamed winds S.S.W. and W.S.W., winds blowing between W. and N.W., between N. and E., between E. and S.S.W., and N., W., and E. winds are remarkable for their continuance. Now, it is evident that the farmer can infer the conse- quences accruing to his crops with some degree of probability at the commencement of any of these winds. Those which blow from the left side of the compass will be more or less wet, whilst those that blow from the east side will be generally dry. In general, the stronger the wind the longer it will continue. The wind usually turns from N. towards S. by E. quietly, and without rain ; but returns to the N. with a strong wind and rain. The strongest winds are when it turns from S. to N. by W. After a long continuance of westerly winds, with wet, a shifting by the N. towards E. may be expected, between which points there \vil]. be a wind of some duration, with dry cold weather, as may probably be expected after the late unsettled weather, followed by variable viinds and heat. If the wind turns to N.E., and continues two days without rain, and does not turn S. the third day, and there be no rain on the third day, we may infer its duration, and it is likely to continue N.E. for eight or nine days, all fair, and then to come to theS. again. Fair weather for a week, with a southern wind, is likely to be foUowed by a great drought, if there has been much raia out of the S. before. 218 THE FARMER'S IklAGAZINE. If, in unsettled weather, the vrind veers from S.W. to AV., or N.W. at suuset, expect finer for a day or tAvo. It is a very old saj-ing, that when the 'svind turns against the sun, the contrary way to the hands of a watch, the weather will he wet and stormy. Whether stormy or not, it will then be unsettled, and thus be prejudicial to the crops. Now, this well-established maxim, besides being applicable to any period of time, seems to apply equally to the entire year. It will, we believe, be found, wthout hardly an excep- tion, that when the number of these retrograde or backward re- volutions have nearly equalled or exceeded the revolutions of direct motion in any year, that year has been characterised by stormy and bad seasons ; and that the opposite effect is ob- served to take place when there has been a large preponderance of direct over retrograde motion. From 184'J to 18(51 inclu- sive (thirteen years), the vane made 16(5 complete revolutions more in the direct than in the retrograde motion, or, on an average, nearly thirteen revolutions per annum, wliich shows the sequence or regular shifting before given. In all this inter- val, two years only, 1853 and 18G0, gave a contrary result, and that only to the total amount of two revolutions in excess the wrong way in each. ]Vow, the harvest of 1853 was certainly below the average, and so was that of 1860, which was espe- ci;illy characterised by stormy weather; so was 184;6; and we may expect the same next year (1867) a bad or inferior harvest. In other words, the minimum of direct motion appears to be reached at every seventh year, which may be termed the Sab- bath of the land, when " it rests from its labours." The maximum of direct motion, indicative of good years for the harvest, occurs at periods equidistant from those of the minimum, or at three-and-a-half years from each minimum, and still seven years apart. Thus 1803 was a good year, the crops being returned everywhere as " over the aver- age," " above the usual yield" — in fact, a maximum harvest, the like of which we may expect in 1870 — the intermediate harvests being either average or below it ; and this, we think, is indicated by the behaviour of the vane — that is, the rota- tion of the wind — from January to June. Continued backing of the wind during spring is a bad prospect for the harvest ; for it means nnsettled weather. The following is the record of Osier's anemometer from the year 1841 to 1860 (inclusive), in which year the wind made rather more than two retrograde rotations, or in the direction of N., W., S., E., N. The letter D denotes when the wind turned in the direction N., E., S., W., N. ; and R when in the opposite, or N., W., S., E., N. : The vane made in the Year. Revolutions. 1841 ... D 5.4 1842 D 13.1 1843 D 20.7 1844 D 21.7 1845 (10|^ months) D 8.9 1846 ... D l.S (minimum) 1847 D 11.0 1848 D 12.1 1849 ... ... D 23.3 1850 D 15.9 1851 D 19.1 1853 • ... D 8.8 1853 R 1.9 1854 D 6.8 1855 D 10.8 1856 D 16.1 1857 D 14.7 1858 D 24.1 1859 D 14.0 1860 R 2.1 The Astronomer Royal suggests that the explanation of this septennial cycle, or period, must be in a "periodical throb of temperature from the interior of the earth ;" but, supposing that wind-currents are influenced generally by tem- perature and by the action of agencies exterior to the earth, the fact of " a periodical throb" from the interior of the earth would hardly seem to be a true cause for changing air-currents (unless it were local, like a volcanic eruption), if stated by any ordinary authority ; hut, coming from Mr. Airey, it must, of course, be taken to be important. As to particular times, it has been observed that in the space of fourteen days, or half the lunation, the winds or- dinarily make an entire revolution, and blow successively from aU points of the compass. At new moon, if the \\m<\. be north or northerly, it passes on to the east in a few days, then to the south, and so on to the west, and returns to the north about the full moon, with settled weather. In unsettled seasons, as before remarked, the winds will often vary, and run a little backward, apparently against the course of the sun ; but they seldom veer quite round in this manner, stopping at some in- termediate points. The following table gives the relative prevalence of the dif- ferent winds during the year, in days and decimal parts of a day, as observed at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich ; and it may serve to give an idea of their play, if nothing more : — :n. w.e. e. s.e. s. S.W. w. jj.av. Calm. January 3.0 3.3 0.8 2.2 4.1 9.8 3.5 1.5 2.8 February ...3.0 3.6 2.1 1.3 3.0 8.0 2.9 2.0 2.6 March 3.7 4.1 2.5 2.1 2.6 7-7 3.3 2.8 2.4 April 4.0 6.1 3.5 3.1 2.4 6.3 2.6 2.3 1.0 May 4.3 7.0 2.5 1.7 2.7 7.6 2.0 1.3 2.0 June 3.3 3.6 2.2 1.7 2.2 9.9 3.7 2.1 1.6 July 3.4 3.7 1.2 0.6 2.7 10.6 4.0 2.5 2.6 August 3.0 3.0 1.2 1.3 3.0 10.5 3.9 2.0 3.4 September... 3.6 5.3 1.9 1.7 2.0 7-3 2.6 1.5 4.4 October 3.1 2.5 1.2 1.8 3.4 9.1 4.3 2.1 3.7' November... 3.8 3.6 2.1 2.0 3.4 7-7 2.1 2.2 3.3 December ...2.7 2.1 1.8 1.8 3.0 9.9 3.9 2.1 4.1 As to the most important matter — whether we are likely to suffer from drought or not in any year — we believe that there is no chance of drought if the vnnds on the left-hand side of the compass, including south, do not greatly predominate be- yond the number of days recorded in the above table from December to March. Steady winds from the right-hand side of the compass during March, in excess of those from the left, wiU never, we believe, be followed by drought, but, on the contrary, by genial wea- ther and an abundant harvest. " A dry, cold March never begs bread." " A wet March makes a sad autumn." If the wind be east or north-east in the fore part of the summer, the weather is likely to continue dry. If the wind be westward towards the end of summer, then will it also continue dry. In low-lying lands, but with a good sunny aspect, a cold and windy May is a good prospect for the harvest : hence the special proverb : — " A coM May and windy Makes a full barn and findy." Much wet in May is worse than excessive drought : hence the proverb ; — •'A May flood Never did good." If the last eight days of February and the first twenty days of March are for the most part rainy, then the spring and summer qu.arters vril! be so too. It is said that a great drought always enters at that season. Obviously, this axiom is con- nected with the observation respecting the spring equinox before-mentioned ; but we believe that the boisterous or calm weather of that period will be found to be a safer sign than wet only. Generally, a moist and cold summer portends a hard winter. A dry, hot summer and autumn, especially if the heat and drought extend far into September, portend an open beginning of winter, and cold succeeds towards the latter part and be- ginning of spring. A warm and open winter portends a hot and dry summer, or if not hot, at all events a dry one. Birds that change countries at certain seasons, if they comB early, show the temper of the weather, according to the country whence they come — as, in winter, woodcocks, snipes, field-rakes, &c., if they come early, show a cold winter ; and the cuckoos, if they come early, show a hot summer to follow. A serene autumn denotes a windy winter ; a windy winter, a rainy spring ; a rairy spring a serene summer ; a serene sum- mer, a windy autumn ; so that the air, says Lord Bacon, " on a balance, is seldom|debtor to itself; nor do the seasons succeed each other in the same tenor for two years together." In the absence of an anemometer, farmers should note, the THE PAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 219 shiftiug of the wnds as showa by an ordinary vane or wea- thercock. Care shodd be taken, however, that the vane be placed in as open and elevated a position as practicable, so as not to be influenced by indirect or reflected currents of wind. Nothing is steadier than an elevated vane, such as that at the top of the Cattle Market at Islington, and we wonder why that elevation, or the top of one of the great hotels so long empty, has not been converted into a regular meteorological or weather-observatory for the guidance of the fiirmcrs. i'ur- nisbed with the usual few instruments required, and attended to by a competent observer, such an institution would be of great aid to those who are striving to collect the facts from which they have to answer the numerous inquiries made to them by farmers and others from all parts of the kingdom. If the proprietors of the Cattle Market will only take our hint and put it into execution, there can be no doubt that in a few years the science in which they and all of us are so much inte- rested— as connected mth tlie greatest of our material interests — wiU be greatly promoted. Besides what is going on below near the ground, it would be a great aid to ascertain what is taking place in the current of air some seventy or eighty feet above, or at a point not so likely to be influenced by casual causes of error. in.— THE TEMrEllATURE OT THE SOIL. In tlie previous sections we have drawn attention to a Variety of signs, whereby the nature of coming seasons may be foreseen with more or less probability ; and it is evident that we lay. the greatest stress on the necessity for studying and observing the winds ; for, from whatever cause they may pro- ceed, all of them directly influence vegetation for good or for evil, because every wind has its weather. In a thing of such variety as the wind it may seem a hopeless task to arrive at anytliiug like definite conclusions ; but even the variety of the winds admits of an easy and comprehensive explanation, and one that may serve to clear xip not a few doubts and difficulties regarding their play in ditferent localities. The wind always moves in the direction of what is called " a great circle ;" that is, one which, were it continued, would divide the globe into two equal parts ; so that, if the wind proceeded from two of the cardinal points of the compass — that is, either from north or south — it would then retain its name over a great part of the globe. In that case it would blow along the meridian or line passing from pole to pole. But should the wind proceed in any other direction, it will seem very different in whatever distant places it may pass over, unless under the equator when it blows due east or west. ' The reason is, because, according to the principles of geography, all the lines (called rhumb-Unes) which give names to the winds, between the equinoctial and the poles, are not straight, but spiral lines, like a corkscrew. For instance, should a wind set out from the equator in the direction of an angle of forty-five degrees— then, in order to retain the same name — south-west, for example — it ought to cross the meridian of every place it passes over, in the same angle. But if it keeps right forward, tliis is impossible ; be- cause the meridians are not parallel, but incUned lines — all meeting in a point at either pole. Therefore, the wind which is termed south-west in one latitude will always carry a different name in another. Such is the explanation of the variety of the winds in general, in addition to the numerous local causes which may give rise to thein in aU parts of a country. It is therefore obvious that it is in our power to trace, so to speak, the story of any wind, either from or hack to its origin ; and no doubt this must be done if we ever set up a true theory of the winds. But, fortunately, as before alluded to (and it cannot be too much insisted on), we have a safe guide to the true nature of every wind by means of the hygro- meter. With this instrument we shall always be able to prove the true identity of every wind, in spite of its various aliases. But the discovery of this important fact is not all that must be secured for the purposes of agriculture. The winds are constantly fanning the soil ; and if they do not warm or keep it warm, they carry away its warmth ; and so the relative pre- valence of certain ^yinds in various districSs must have a great deal to do with their vegetation. Those favoured with the more or less warm winds from south to west will be in a very different condition in this respect to those afflicted by winds from north to east. jN'ow, whether such is the case must be discovered by direct experiment in the soil itself; and, considering the matter in all its bearings, it is surprising that so little attention has been paid by farmers and gardeners to so important a matter as the temperature of the soil below the surface. The temperature of the air is admitted to be an important consideration ; but the temperature of the ground, which is certainly not less important as regards the health of plants, is scarcely recognized as a necessary point of investigation. We seem satisfied to look at the outer garment without giving a thought to the under-clothing, upon which, for the most part, robust health mainly depends. Latent heat, as it is learnedly called, or that inherent heat not perceptible to sensation, which exists in things positively cold to the touch, plays a most important part in the economy of vegetation ; indeed, many plants can better stand against a cold season than resist the efTects of a damp or cold soil ; and there certainly is not one that would not have a better chance, during a bad season, for having a warm soil at its roots — warm under-clothing next to its skin. Take the hop plant, for in- stance. How many more growths have been saved, and how many poor growths improved, since the ground has been paid more attention to by draining, and manuring with a non- conductor of heat — namely, pieces of old wooUen rags, which keep in the heat or prevent it from escaping, just as the material does in our own under-clothiug ! This shows what might be done for other kinds of cultivation. Moreover, it seems very probable that the various diseases, and blights, to which all plants are more or less subject, proceed from the deficient learmtli about their roots, so that when the parching easterly and north-easterly winds come upon them, they are not provided with the means of resisting the cold, their vessels shrink, their fluids become vitiated, their blood, so to speak, is corrupted, and inevitable disease is the conse- quence. To discover the temperature of the ground below the surface, ground-thermometers are employed. We should like to see such instruments multiplied and planted in every establish- ment devoted to agricultural pursuits throughout the land. There is not a farm where they would not be highly useful, as they would indicate the precise temperature of the earth at any desired depth below the surface at which the bulb of the thermometer is placed ; and thus the farmer would have a guide in draininr/ his land, or for regulating the temperature by the addition of a warmer or colder bed, according to the requirements of the particular crop which it may be intended to put in. It seems that the idea of such instruments being too " scientific" for the practical man, has prevented their use ; but this is quite erroneous, as there is really no more scientific difficulty in using this instrument than in the thermometer or barometer, as we shall endeavour to show by a few remarks on the instrument and the mode of using it. Of the amount of heat which the earth annually receives from the sun, some portion is lost by radiation into space, or is taken off by the air or wind in contact with the soil. Some is absorbed by the soil and gradually descends, being conducted by the earth to a considerable depth below the surface. But the heat thus absorbed is slowly given off again during the Spring months, to be restored by the sun when the hot season comes round again. The amount of heat thus received and garnered up for the benefit of vegetation, will depend upon the nature of the soil. Those soils which take it easily and rapidly wiU part with it as easOy and rapidly, and it is only by means of the ground-thermometer that we can discover this very important ((uality of the soil, although, of course, in theory a geologist wiU tell you at once the capability of your soU as to the receiving and retention of heat. And, for our part, we should never take a farm without having a thorough geological knowledge of its acres, any more than we should buy a horse without knowing its points and defects. As in most tilings here below, the outside or surface is apt to deceive us ; and it is only by going deeper into the soil that we get to know beforehand whether we are likely to succeed with it in any cultivation we may have in view. In the varying seasons,' however, the best of lands may prove deficient in warmth,- and so we had better have recourse constantly to the ground-i thermometer, as it were to feel its pulse like the doctors, in order to see what is to be done for it. The thermometers for agricultural purposes need not be of that degree of delicacy, nor be sunk to so great a depth as those used for philosophical experiments, Generally it will be 220 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. found that about two or three feet ^ ill be deep enough ; but of course this must be determined by the kind of crop for which the ground is prepared. Some of your roots grow to a prodigious depth, although very tiny, and we apprehend that much depends upon securing an adequate amount of warmth to nil the roots of plants. At all events, look to the temperature of tlie soil at a sufficient depth to keep all warm below. If the bulb of an ordinary thermometer, suspended in the air, be coated over with a spherical or round covering of some kind, and the index of such a thermometer be observed, we shaU find that it is far less affected by changes of temperature than one wliose bulb is freely exposed ; and the daily range or dif- ference between the highest and lowest readings during the day will grow less aud less as we increase the covering in thickness, but particularly so if the covering is made of some substance that is a bad conductor of heat. Now, by sinking our thermometer into the bosom of the earth, we arrive at a similar result : the earth will act as a shield, protectingthethermometer from the influence of thegreat and sudden changes to which the air is liable, and causing it to be effected by the heat conducted to its bulb by the earth only. Instruments so placed will then exhibit the exact amount of the solar heat absorbed by the earth at the depth at which the bulb is planted. Care must be taken to bed it up well, or pro- vide it with a shield to prevent rain-water from swamping the bulb ; if this happens, the indication will be false, of course. The temperature at the surface of our globe is, from a variety of causes such as we have mentioned, liable to great and sudden fluctuations ; but this is not the case as we get be- low the surface. The lower we descend the smaller the fluctu- ations become, until at length we get to the stratum or layer of invariaUe temperature, which varies in different soils from 50 to 100 feet below the surface. We have before us a table showing the mean monthly tem- perature at various depths, and in the air, at Greenwich, from an average of thirteen years ; and it appears from this table that the full effect of the solar heat received by the earth in the summer months does not reach to the depth of twenty-four feet until about the end of jVovember or beginning of Decem- ber ; and that the lowest temperature is not attained till June, by which time the absorbed heat has been radiated, and the ground receives a fresh supply. The following are the dates of the middle of the warm and cold periods for six thermo- meters, from an average of thirteen years, at the Royal Ob- servatory, Greenwich : — Middle of Middle of Thermometers. warm period. cold period. (1) Air July 31 ... January 20 (2) 1 inch underground „ 20 ... „ 24 (.3) 3 feet „ August!) ... Februarys (4.) 6 „ „ „ 25 ... „ 24- (5) 12 „ „ September 25 ... March 27 (6) 24 „ „ November 30 ... June 1 From this table, we see that the thermometer whose bulb is only covered by one inch of soil reaches its highest and lowest readings at dates differing only a day or two from the lines of highest and lowest, as marked by the thermometer free in the air. The three-feefc thermometer is about nineteen or twenty days behind the instrument in the air ; that six feet below the surface is retarded by still more ; and this goes on increasing with the depth, until at twenty-four feet the times of maxima and minima are retarded between four and five months. The range of the mean monthly temperature at the different depths is as follows : — Thermometer in the air 29.8 degrees. „ sunk 1 inch 25.4 „ „ „ 3 feet 21.7 5, J. C ,, 15.4 „ » 24 „ 3.4 „ As before observed, the geological peculiarities of the soi in which the thermometers arc sunk will make some difference in their readings, some strata or layers of the soil having a much greater power of conducting heat than others. It takes about five or six days for the impression of heat to penetrate through one foot of earth, subject to slight variations in dif- ferent soils. from these facts, the reader will perceive how much warmer the roots of plants are during the winter than the portions that remain above the ground ; and the contrast becomes more striking when the winter is very cold. AVhen we are hardly able, witli the greatest care, to keep life in some of the plants above, those beneath are luxuriating in a temperature many degrees warmer — provided they have fair-play, and are not over-supplied with moisture, the excess of which makes lands " cold " and ungenial to vegetation. Thus we can understand why the natives of the ice-bound regions of the north retire, when their short summer is over, to homes below the surface of the frozen ground to pass the long winter. The practical application of these facts and principles should be easy enough. Having by means of your ground thermo- meter discovered the maximum or middle of the warm period of your land, the farther it is from the maximum or middle of the warm period in the air the greater the certainty that your land is in good condition of heat, and that the cold period will be delayed, so as to counteract the effects of a cold, un- toward spring, which is more or less likely to occur, as it ap- pears, in the intermediate years between the septennial period explained in our previous article. The effect of judicious drainage in thus getting the land into good heart — that is to say, in point of fact, increasing its capacity for absorbing heat — has been generally admitted ; but we are tardy as yet in seeing the immense advantage, in the same line, that is likely to result from deeper subsoil culti- vation. If anything will tend effectually to counteract the stress of untoward seasons, it is, we believe, deeper cultivation, of which nature gives us a hint in the length to which the tiniest roots wiU delve below the surface, seeking better con- ditions of life and growth. IV. PERIODICITY or RAINFALL, Several cycles or periods of maximum and minimum rainfall have been devised by ingenious investigators ; but, after a very elaborate examination of the subject, Mr. Synions has been unable to attest the accuracy or sufficiency of any of them. He has, however, discovered the important fact that the wettest years have run in i'?f(7^rff-year periods — 18G0, 1848, and 1836 had a mean of 34.27 inches, which is hijhcr than any other individual year except 1852. The dry years, on the other hand, seem to run in /(?;/-years periods— 18G4, 1854, 1844, and 1834 had a mean of 23.18 inches, which is hirer than any other individual year, except 1858. But then there have been two consecutive " wettest" year (1848 and 1840), and even three "wettest" years (1828,1829, 1830) ; also two and three " driest " consecutive years (1854 and 1855—1854, 1855, 1856). At the present time, when so much interest is felt on all hands respecting our excessive drainage, diminished water supply, and the condition of our rivers, the following results deduced by Mr. Symons from an examination of the rainfall of fifty years (from 1815 to 18G4), in ten widely separated stations, may at least be interesting if they do not lead to any definite inferences as to the periodicity of maximum rainfall. Tlie stations are in the following counties — Devon, Kent, Middlesex, Surrey, Essex, Lincoln, Lancashire, York, Edin- burgh, and Argjle. In the first ten years (1815 to 1824) seven were above the average of fifty years ; in the next ten (1825 to 1834) six ; in the next (1835 to 1844) >>e; in the next (1845 to 1854) foiir ; in the last (1855 to 1864) three. In the first twenty- five years sixteen were ahore the average, and in the next six- teen were tjeloiv it. This fact seems to infer something like periodicity, involving apparently that compensation or tendency to equilibrium which characterises all nature ; but there may be another cause for it, which will be mentioned in the sequel. From the means of tliese fifty years, classed in periods of five years, Mr. Symons reasons as follows : " From these tables we find that, when, as in this case, local irregularities are neutralized by the combination of observations from a large tract of country, rainfall records evince a regularity not before expected, the main and marked feature being the drought in the years 1854 to 1858. Omit these five years, and then the records run in /cff-year means, without a single departure of an inch from the average. But it will not do thus to omit them ; they were exceptional, but are part and parcel of the whole, and must by no means be separated ; the THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE, 221 whole must be carefully examined. For several reasons it seems better to take the ten-year means ; and from them we tind that the annual fall in each ten years from 1815 to 1854 was nearly equal, and always greater than in the last ten years (1855 to 18{j-l) ; and, moreover, that the ten years 1845 to 185-i had a rainfall (38.61) nearly identical with the mean (28. CO) of the preceding thirty years (1815 to 18-14). Hence, it is evident that at any stations where observations liave been made continuously from lS-15 to 1864, we may take the ten years 1845 to 1854 as representing the forty years 1815 to 1854, and the difference between the first and last ten years as representing approximately the decrease of rainfall at that place." According to Mr. Symons, the leading features at present seem to be (1.) a decrease averaging four per cent, over the whole British Isles, but unequally distributed, the decrease being exchanged for an increase in parts of Ireland and tlie south of Scotland. (2.) In England, although the amount of decrease varies up to 18 per cent., it never falls below an ex- cess (if the expression jnay be allowed) of 3 per cent. (3.) Although at first the figures seemed very discordant, yet, on drawing the lines on a map, some order seems to become evident — namely, that the maximum deficiency has existed along a line running S.W. to IN'.E. from Cornwall to the Wash. Proceeding north-westward, the deficiency becomes less, until the parallel line running through the centre of Ire- land, and passing into the North Sea at Edinburgh, marks a district in which no deficiency has existed, but, on the con- trary, an excess of nearly 10 per cent. This is, we believe, a striking fact, and we shall revert to it in the sequel. The next districts follow nearer to each other, and seem to involve the eventual adoption of west to east, instead of south- west to north-east as at first apparent. Possibly this is not the case ; but the difference is rather due to errors of observation at the lighthouses, whence most of the values herein assigned for Scotland are derived ; or it may f arise from the modifying influence of Ireland not being felt in those higher latitudes. " But," said Mr. Symons, address- ing the British Association for the Advancement of Science, " I might farther point out that the deficiency seems in some degree connected with the large drainage operations in the middle and eastern counties of England ; but until, either by my own etforts, or the assistance of the Association, the ob- servations are rendered more complete, it is not safe to at- tempt to determine the causes of the recent fluctuations." We incline to believe that the last suggestion is the proba- ble cause of the deficiency ; for certainly in no period has f man's activity been so great as during the last ten years in altering the face of the country, by railway cuttings, by clear- ing out spaces, by agricultural and other drainage, by the operation of huge manufactories consuming prodigious quan- tities of water, and turning still more to waste. But, indeed, these causes liave been in operation during the entire period of the last 25 years, wherein, as before shown, the rainfall has been below the average, excepting in those localities which have been exempt from these effects of advancing " civilization." And here we must again turn to the line of maximum, of ex- cessive rainfall, so curiously discovered by Mr. Symons — a most important fact, as we take it, in meteorological investiga- tion. This line of masimumand increase of rainfall begins at Valen- tia, in Ireland, in the S.W., proceeding N.W. between Dublin and Belfast, crossing the lake districts of England, and through the Border Land to the German Ocean. Now, througliout this belt of copious rainfall all the conditions of vegetation, tall trees, and elevated points exist, and man has done little or nothing to interfere with Nature. We beheve it will be found to be tlie same everywhere else ; the more natural the locality the more mil Nature favour it with the fruitful rain, which is the milk and honey of the land. But if we cannot undo the past, is there no remedy for the future ? Can nothing be tried, to restore our waters by in- creased rainfall in addition to checking waste ? Let us consi- der the proposition. Rain clouds are attracted to certain lo- calities more than others ; and probably Nature's conductors are the points of the leaves of all vegetation, particularly trees; and hence, to the cutting down of trees may be traced their ultimate sterility — such as the present sterility of tlie once most fertUe, but now deserted and desolate regions of Syria, Barbary, and ClHvldea. The Euphrates often menaced ancient Babylon with inundation ; but at present, thanks to the clear- ance of the woods from the mountains of Armenia, the river is modestly confined to its banks. The ancient river Scaman- der, which was navigable at the commencement of the Chris- tian era, has completely disappeared with the cedars of Mount Ida, where it took its nse. If trees do not prevent the drought of countries, their roots open the soil for the percolation of water, and they oppose the scattering of tlie sands of the sea- shore upon the plains — another cause of infertility. Such are the results of depriving a country of its trees, and the question is whether we cannot take a hint from Nature, so as to make amends for having interfered with her provisions. As suggested long ago by Sir Eichard Phillips, should we not be able to prevent these disastrous droughts with which we have been of late so often visited, by erecting meUillic condndors over the country, which might even be more effective than trees, besides vastly diminishing the chance of suffering from the thunderstorms ? Placed on elevated sur- faces, a suflicient number of such conductors would arrest the clouds, and produce sufficient rain to sustain vegetation, and refil the almost exhausted rivers in the most barren regions. On the other hand, it may not be useless to suggest the pro- priety of reverting to our old custom of " cultivating" the oak. British oak will always be in demand, and it is now by no means superabundant. Then, not only on its owii profitable account, but with the direct object of increasing our rainfall where deficient, let it be planted on the hill tops, and every locality unfit for other cultivation. Some trees have a natural aptitude, apparently owing to their moisture, to attract the thundercloud, and the oak is one of them. Many an owner of wide lands should take this hint, and become a benefactor to himself as well as the nation, which is the best way of making both ends meet here below. Artesian wells would, of course, be another means to sup- ply the deficiency of water, and indeed the only means of ob- taining a supply sufliciently large to meet tlie requirements of effective irrigation, if this is to be done artificially. There is no comparison between the quantity of water that falls in an hour's steady rain, and that which could be applied by any artificial means at present in our power. A fall of rain mea- suring only one-tenth of an inch seems a small matter, and yet toequalit artificially would require about 10 tons per acre, or 2,263 gallons of water ! But take another illustration : Half- an-inch of rain is a very moderate amount for a thunder-shower. WeU, how many cans of water would be required to equal half-an-inch on a garden of 22 yards square (a tenth of an acre) ? If your can holds 4 gallons, you will have to fill it no less than 282 times, and pour out no less than Jic^ tons of water ! Every gardener knows that watering is useless in drought unless it be copious and drenching. In its normal condition the rainfall of our island has been very varied in its amount in different localities, depending upon tlie peculiar features of the country as before stated. In the lake districts, for instance, the yearly fall is sometimes as much as 150 inches or over ; in the extreme south of England it averages from 30 to 31 inches ; in the neighbourhood of Lon- don, 25 inches ; about 24 inches in the midland counties, and considerably less in some localities ; SO inches on the west coast, which, in the hilly districts of Cornwall and Devon- shire, is sometimes increased to 40 inches, and about 20 inches along the east coast. As a general rule, the rainfall is greater on the west than on the east coast, and on mountains than on plains, precisely for the reason we have given, namely, the power of the innumerable points of trees and minerals to disturb the electricity of the clouds and make them fall in rain. Were it not for the late disturbance in the averages through- out the country, we might at any time foresee approximately how much more rain wUl fall during the year by deducting the quantity fallen, as recorded by the rain-gauge, from the aver- age of the locality. Thus, according to Mr. Symons, the rain- fall at Camden Town during the six months ending with June, was 17.08 inches ; then, as the average of the locality is 24^ inches, there remain only about 7^ inches to fall in the ensu- ing six mouths. But then, wlien we consider that in the dis- turbed state of the matter the last six months' rainfall was more than that of the whole 12 months of 1864, it is obvious that this otherwise reasonable rule cannot be trusted. It may, however, be well to remember that the rainfall generally has been iu excess of the average of the last five years (1860- QOO THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZIKE. 1865) during the last sis months. In England and Wales the fiill has been about 2^ inches above the average, say 15 per cent, in excess. In Scotland, the fall has been about 1 inch above the average, say i per cent, in excess. In Ireland, the fall seems to have been about 2 inches above the average, say 11 per cent, in excess. Speaking roundly, the rainfall of the past six months has been about oue-tenth part greater than usual, but in Middlesex, Kent, and Eampshire it has been nearly half as much again as usual — 43 per cent, in ex- cess. In like manner the number of rainy days, or days on which some rain falls, has been laid down for each montli of the year ; but there seems, at present, great reason to doubt the periodi- city, whatever it may have been during the years from which the average was deduced. Certainly the average is very far from tallying witii that of late years, in wliich, however, the seasons have seemed " out of joint." According to the table before us, on an average of 46 years, it appears that some rain falls on 136 days out of the year, and that the average is divided over the several months in the fol- lowing proportions : January 11 days, February 10, March 10, April 11, May 11, June 11, July 12, August 11, September 12, October 13, No- vember 12, December 12. Tills table has been calculated more particularly for the immediate neighbourhood of London ; but it was believed to be very near the truth, if not absolutely so, for a very large part of the country generally. The reader will doubtless be struck by the equal distribution of the rainy days over each month, as shown by the above table — the greatest difference being three days only between tlie number for February and March, and October. Grouping these numbers according to the four seasons, we have the following result : Spring has an average of 10.7 days in each month on which some rain falls ; summer, 11.3 ; autumn, 12.3 ; and winter, 11.0. Autumn gives the greatest number of rainy days, as it also gives the largest amount of rain. But all this seems to be rather a thing of the past. Ac- cording to Mr. Symons's llainfall Circular, the number of " rainy days," or days on which rain, snow, or hail is recorded to tlie extent of at' least one-hundredth of an inch, is very irregular over the country, and generally much greater than the above, at aU events for last year. Still, however, it may be useful in each locality to consider the number of rainy days noted in & fire-year period, and so discover if there be any- thing like regularity in the recurrence, and thereby know the number of rainy days that are to follow at any time or season. Of course, the average rainfall of a locality is a serious consideration in taking a farm, and the continuous record of the rain-gauge must enter into the prospect of coming har- vests. The possession and proper use of rain-gauge must, therefore, be considered indispensable to farmers. Having considered the various signs that may enable us to form a reasonable opinion as to coming seasons, we now pro- ceed to the study of those which may enable us to foresee coming changes from day to day and hour to hour. The lower animals get an idea of coming weather from their sen- sations ; but for the most part man relies upon the instruments which Ids inteUeet has devised, and which are, so to speak, substitutes for the instinct of the former. No single weather- instrument is absolutely sufficient in itself, even for ordinary indications, unless it be the hygrometer ; but even with this instrument we are obliged to interpret signs by the help of laws established by means of the barometer. The barometer tells us the pressure or weir/hf of the air at any given time. Now, what does this mean, and what has it to do with coming weather ? The chief difficulty of this ques- tion is explained by what happens in a common pump. Water can be raised, or made to rise, in a common pump from 33 to about 35 feet in height, being kept there by the pressure or weight of the air on the water in the well. Tims the weight of a column of air of equal diameter is lialanced by the column of water in the pump — which is thus a liarometer, lion ever imperfect ; and if there were no spout to it, and the upper part were of glass and graduated with feet and inches, we should see that whenever the pump is kept in action by moving the handle, the water would rise to different heights in different weather, precisely Uke the mercurial barometer, remaining at a certain height, according to the weather, and unable to get higher, ia spite of continued pumping. The imperfection of the pump as a barometer conBiats in the fact that the air above the column of water cannot be prevented from exerting some pressure, the space not being a perfect vacuum, or exhausted of all air. Now it was known that mercury or quicksilver is fourteen times heavier than water, and therefore it was supposed that l-14th part of 35 feet of mercury would in like manner be an equipoise or balance to the column. Accordingly a certain philosopher took a tulie of glass, closed at one end, tilled it with mercury, and tlieu turning the open end into a small cis- tern or cup containing mercury, he found that ])art of the fluid, when held perpendicular, flowed out, but that the other part remained standing at a certain height, just like the water in a pump ; this height being noted on the glass tube, and various alterations in the height appearing from time to time, at length, after a long series of observations, it was found tliat the pressure of the atmosphere, when least in very foul and stormy weather, is much about equal to the weight of twenty- eight inches of mercury, and in tine and serene weather that it will support about thirty-one inches of the fluid ; between which extremes aU the changes that happen in tlie weight of the air near the surface of the earth are generally found to exist. Such is the nature of the barometer, and such were the experiments that led to its invention. It will now be evident wjiat is meant by the pressure or weight of the air and its con- nection with the weather and its changes. When the air is dry and free from vapour, or calm, it is keavier than usual, and presses more upon the mercui'y in the well or cistern of the barometer (concealed by the wood- work), and forces up the mercury ; then the mercury is said to stand hiyk. When the air is moist or filled with vapour or windy, it is lighter than usual, and the pressure consequently diminishing on the mer- cury in the cistern, the column in the tube falls, and is said to be low. Now all these changes are observed in different kinds of weather ; and as the barometer shows them, for the most part, before the changes actually come on, we see how it cau be used as a weather-instrument. In a thermometer the mercury is sealed up from the air en- tirely, instead of being open to it at the bottom in a cistern, as in the barometer, and the mercury rises or falls as the vaiying temperature or degree of heat expands or contracts it. The heat of the air passes through the glass tube to the mercury and causes it to expand, whilst by the eft'ect of cold it con- tracts ; and so the thread of mercury rises or falls with heat or cold respectively. With respect to the kind of barometers in which farmers sliould confide, it cannot be too forcibly inculcated that the ordinary wheel barometer is objectionable. It easily gets out of order, and rarely gives accurate indications of the rate of rise and fall, which are essential as warnings against bad wea- ther. Either the aneroid or the pediment mercurial barometer should be used by farmers, in order to prevent surprises by bad weather. If the mercury fall ever so little between eight in the morn- ing and noon, it indicates decreasing pressure and consequent bad weather far more surely than even a greater fall would do if occurring between noon and four o'clock in the afternoon. Hence the importance of consulting the barometer at those early hours for the day's probable weather ; because, according to experience, the barometer naturally rises between 8 a.m. and noon, and naturally falls (both in a slight degree) between noon and 4 p.m. So if it falls when it should naturally rise, tliere must be some great cause for it. But there is another cause which will make the barometer fall, without, however, the least chauce of being followed by bad weather. This is owing to air getting into the vacant space above the column of mercury. All may go on tolerably well whilst the temperature of the room remains moderate ; but in the evening, when a brisk fire perhaps has been blazing, the air above the column expands and drives down the mer- cury. If the farmer then consults his barometer before giving his orders for the next day, it is evident that he will be far out in his reckoning. AVe believe that many barometers are in this condition, and they should be occasionally tested for it, by canting them at an angle sufficient to drive the mercury up to the top of the tube. If, then, you do not hear the metallic clink of the mercury, there is air in the space, and you should go on cant- ing the instrument in like manner until you Jiear the clink, alter thus driving out tlie air. THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 22a As tlie higher we ascend from the sea-level the less tlie pressure of iiir above us, it is evident that the column of mer- cury will get shorter and shorter the higher it is fixed above tlie sea-level. It differs or stands lower about one-tenth of an inch for each hundred feet of height directly upwards above the sea, its average height being :i9.95 inches at the mean sea-level in England. Allowances must therefore be made for barometers on high land or iu buildings — each elevation hav- ing its own line of pressure or " mean." Indications of approaching change of weather, and the direction and force of winds, are shown less by the height of the barometer than by its falling or rising. A rapid and considerable fall is a sign of stormy weather, with rain or suow. The wind wiU be from the northward if the ther- mometer is low for the season ; from the southward if the thermometer be high. The average temperature of the seasons for the locality should therefore be known and remembered iu consulting the barometer — on such occasions especially ; indeed, it is never safe to draw conclusions from the barometer aloue, without considering the temperature and the state of the air as to moisture as shown by the hygrometer. Many errors in prog- nosticating result from the neglect of this precaution. The average temperature of the seasons for every locality can be easily ascertained upon inquiry. The following is the average at the three following places : — Spring. Summer. Autumn. Winter. Greenwich 4.8.4 60.3 49.4 37.8 Liverpool 46.3 67.6 49.1 40.5 Edinburgh 45.0 57.1 47.9 38.4 The chief maxims relating to the weather in connection with the barometer, ^ivith which the former is specially con- cerned, are as follows : — 1. If the barometer has been about its ordinary height — say 30 inches at the sea-level — and is steady or rising, whilst the thermometer falls and dampness becomes less, then north- westerly, northerly, or north-easterly wind, or less wind, less rain or suow may be expected. 2. If a fall take place with a rising thermometer and in- creased dampness, wind and rain may be expected from the south-eastward, southward, south-westward. 3. In winter, a fall with a low barometer foretells snow. 4. A fall of the barometer, with unusually high temperature for the season, will be followed by a southerly wind, with rain ; and during the gale the barometer may begin to rise, and be followed by another from the northward ; but then the thermometer will fall for chamje of temperature, and show the direction of the coming wind. 5. But northerly winds will follow a fall of the barometer at all times if the thermometer be low (for the season), and southerly wind, if the thermometer be high for the season. 6. The barometer is lowest of all during a thaw following a long frost, because the air, which had been much dried by the frost, absorbs the moisture of the fresh warm current of wind from the south or south-west ; aud, secondly, the air, having been much condensed by frost, is suddenly expanded by the warm wind which is introduced. 7. In like manner the glass falls very low with south aud west winds in general, because these winds are generally ladeu with vapour, and vaporized air is lighter than dry. The lighter the air the less the pressure. Such falls with a south- erly wind iu the autumn are very often attended by thunder- storms. 8. If the barometer falls with the wind in the north, we must prepare for weather of the worst description — rain and storms in summer, snow and severe frosts iu winter and early spring. 9. A rapid rise in winter, after bad weather, is usually fol- lowed by clear skies and hard white frosts. The pressure of the air is increased by cold. 10. During frosty weather, if the barometer falls it denotes a thaw ; but if the wind goes again to the north, the mercury will rise, aud the frost set in again. 11. During broken and cold weather in the winter, with northerly winds, a sudden rise of the barometer foreshows a change of the wind to the .southward, with rain. 12. If, during a northerly and easterly wind in winter, the barometer rises slowly, expect snow or cloudy weather. 13. In a continuous frost, if the mercury rise, it will cer- tainly snow, 14. Whilst the barometer stands above 30, the air must be very dry or very cold, or perhaps both, and no rain may be ex- pected. For, if it be very dry it will absorb moisture, and not part with it iu rain. If the air be very cold, it is so much con- densed that it has already parted with as much moisture as it can spare. 15. Of course a great rise in summer means dry and warm weather, and if tliis be of long duration the question is, how will it end ? If a sudden fall, say, of two or three tenths occur, we must prepare for a storm of rain, or thunder and rain. This usually follows a period of unusual heat, unless northerly and easterly winds are to succeed, with drought. 16. Thunderstorms are not always foretold by the barome- ter ; indeed, the barometer cannot indicate electricity, as some of the barometer-maxims seem to infer. We must consult-the clouds aud our feelings for thunder. The barometer falls, but not always, on the approach of thunder and lightning. It is in very hot weather that the fall of the mercury indicates thunder. Thunder clouds rising from north-eastward against the wind, do uot usuaUy cause a fall in the barometer, simply because they are borne onward hy s. polar current, \s\\\(i\\ is dense. An approaching thimderstorm is indicated by a rapid decrease of the daily evaporation during hot weather. 17. A rising baroiueter — with a southerly \rind — is gene- rally followed by tine weather ; but then it will bo generally observed that a change of wind occurs at the same time, or very shortly after. 18. During stormy weather the mercury will be seen to rise and fall continually, and to be in a state of general agitation. Whilst this lasts no hope of good weather can be entertained. 19. Although some rain may occasionally fall with a high barometer, it is usually of trifling amount, and of short dura- tion. 20. When the barometer stands very low indeed, there will never be much rain ; although, on the other hand, a fine day will seldom occur at such times. The air must be very warm or very moist or both, aud so there will only be short heavy showers, with sudden squalls of wind from the west. For, if the air be very warm it will have a tendency to imbibe 7nore moisture, and not to part with what it has. If the air be ever so moist, rain will never fall till cold air has been in- troduced to condense tlie vapour, and the moment the cold air is introduced the barometer will rise, because it will condense the air. 21. A sudden fall of the barometer, with a westerly wind, is sometimes followed by a violent storm from N.W. or N.N.E. 23. In summer, after a long-contiuuance of fair weather, the barometer will fall gradually for two or three days before rain comes ; but if the fall be very sudden, then a thunder- storm is at hand. 23. When the barometer is high, dark, dense clouds wiU pass over the sky, without rain ; but if the glass be low, it will often r«in without any appearance of clouds. 24. If wet weather happens soon after the fall of the baro- meter, there wiU be little of it. In fair weather, if the glass falls much, aud remains low, expect much wet iu a few days, and probably wind. In wet weather, if the glass continues to fall, expect much wet. 25. The barometer sinks lowest of all for wind and rain to- gether ; next for wiud, except it be an east or north-east wind. 26. Instances of fine weather with a low glass occur, how- ever, rarely ; but they are always foreruimers to a duration of wind or rain, if not both. 27- Our storms are generally announced by a fall of the barometer, and a tendency of the wind towards east and south ; the return of fine weather, by a rise and a pretty strong west wind, apparent iu the motion of the clouds before it is felt below. 28. A great and sudden change, either from hot to cold or from cold to hot, is generally followed by rain within tweuty- tbur hours ; because, in the change from hot to cold, the cold condenses the air and its vapour, which being condensed falls in raiu ; and iu the change from cold to hot, the air is (luickly saturated with moisture, and as soon as night comes on, the temperature is lowered again, aud some of the abundant moisture falls iu rain. 29. Wiicn heat rapidly follows cold, the evaporation, which was checked by cold, is carried on very rapidly, in consequence of the diminished pressure of the air by heat. The less the pressure of the air, llie more rapid the evaporation of moisture. 30. The barometer varies most iu winter, because the dif' 224 THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE. ference of temperature between tlie torrid and temperate zones is much greater, and produces a greater disturbance in the state of the air. It varies least in summer, because the tem- perature of our island is so nearly equal to that of the torrid zone or hot regions of the earth, that its state is not much disturbed by interchange of currents. 31. Heat and cold do not of themselves affect the baro- meter, but because cold weather is generally either dry or rough, with north-east winds, the air being denser and heavier — therefore the mercury rises in cold weather ; but in warm weather the air is often moist and less dense, with south-west winds, and therefore lighter, and so its pressure is less, thus causing the mercury to f;ill. 33. If tlie top of the column of mercury be convex, or higher in the middle than at the sides, it is rising ; if lower, or concave, it is falling. This is caused by the attraction of the glass-tube in contact with the mercury. Such are the chief rules and maxims of the barometer with reference to agricultural pursuits, the seasons, and the crops. No attention should be paid to the words engraved on certain barometers, such as " set fair," " rain," &c. These expressions have done much injury, since many persons have been misled by tliem ; and they should be discontinued by general consent of the instrument-makers, together with the total abolition of the banjo or wheel-barometer. Moreover, the words " Pair," " Changeable," S:c., should be removed and placed more fitly, and with some reference to the elevation above the sea at which the barometer is used. It is clear that at the sea level, the height of 29.80 will more truly represent the vied'unn or limit of fair and wet weather, than 29.50, at present marked " changeable." In employing the instrument as a weather-glass it is needful to the success of the observer to attend to it daily, and to watch the approach of the quicksilver to the true limit of the fair and wet indicaiioiis, and its reading from this in ascent or descent ; with attention to past as well as present circumstanes. Fair weather and sunshine may often be found to accompany a low state of the barometer ; but they are not in that case to be depended on. Continued movements in eitlier direction may be safely taken as indicative of a corresponding duration in the weather they imply — as in the weather following the recent change at the close of July. When the mercury in its downward course has passed the true changeable point above given, rai/i., if it have not fallen, is to be expected in its rixing ucjain above it ; after which, the fair weather indicated by that rise is found to prevail. The most difficult weather of all for the farmer, when his labour requires a certain degree and continuance of dryness, is that in which the quicksilver makes frequent short movements, in ascent and descent, stiU keeping about the point which answers to tlie limit above mentioned ; and mhich point it is thtrefore necessary to settle accurately for him, according to the elevation at which he is placed above the sea. One word respecting the " storm glasses " may be required. They consist merely of a solution of camphor, saltpetre, and sal-ammoniac, in diluted spirits of wine. These toys are use- less in prognosticating the weather, being only aflected by light and temperature. Perhaps they show the state of the air as to moisture ; and if so, this is the utmost extent of their utility. We need not state that they cannot indicate the pressure of the air, which is essential in all states and changes of the weather. THE HYGROMETER. It is impossible to over-rate the hygrometer as a means of foretelling coming weather. Indeed, the knowledge of a few facts will suffice to show that the hygrometer is indispensable if we wish to form an accurate opinion on this subject. One of these facts is, that the air is rendered lighter not only by its expansion, but also by the amount of invisible -watery va- pour in it ; and this is accurately shown by the hygrometer, thus enabling us to distinguish whether a fall in the barometer indicates wind or rain, or both together. In connection with the barometer and thermometer, this in- strument affords infallible notice of impending weather — pro- vided we know how to interpret and reason out its indications, which is by no means difficult. Several kinds of hygrometers have been invented, but the instrument now in use is the dry-aud-wet-bulb thermometer, originally designed and introduced by Dr. Mason, and subse- Huently modified in a slight degree by Mr. Glaisher, The hydrometer consists merely of two thermometers fixed side by side, one of which has its bulb kept moist with water, by means of muslin or cotton-wick, one end of which dips in a cup with which it is furnished. As the instrument must be used out of doors, it is obvious that the hygrometer attached to what is called " the farmer's barometer" is a very useless affair as an indicator of weather. It can only serve to show the amount of moisture in the air of the room where the barometer is hung, and that imper- fectly. In testing the moisture of the air for the prognostica- tion of the weather the hygrometer must be suspended in a convenient position out of doors, free from draught, on a proper stand, sheltered from rain, about 4 feet from the ground, not very near buildings, nor exposed to sunshine. Of course the instrument may be kept in-doors and only carried out for observation after 5 or 10 minutes' exposure. In summer time apartments are cooled by sprinkling water on the floor, and the same happens to our streets after the watering-cart has passed. The reason is that the water eva- porates and in so doing parts vrith heat, the consequence being the production of cold. This is the way the wet bulb ther- mometer acts. As the water in the cotton round the bulb evaporates it parts with its heat, and the consequent cold is shown by the height ^of the mercury in the tube. If the aii be absolutely saturated with moisture, which is sometimes the case, the two thermometers will read off' alike ; if it be very dry, then the difference between the two will be consider- able. The difference between the two thermometers doubled and taken from the lower, wiU approximately show the dew point, that is, the temperature to which air must be reduced at any time before the moist we in it, in the invisible form of vapour, can be deposited as dew. But this rough method only answers at a few temperatures ; in the great majority of cases it wiU make it either too higli or too low. Of course the nearer the approach to saturation with moisture, the greater the tendency in the air to part with it in dew or rain by the lowering of the existing temperature. A set of tables has been drawn up by Mr. Glaisher, which give by inspection the dew point and percentage of moisture in the air for all temperatures of the dry and wet bulb. Com- plete saturation is taken at 100, and thus the other states are expressed by decreasing the numbers according to their pro- portion of moisture. There is also another method of ascertaining the dew point, namely, by calculation with a set of " factors" furnished for the purpose ; but for the practical man it will be quite sufti. cient to notice the approach to saturation with moisture in the air as indicated by the small difference between the tempera- tures of the dry and wet bulbs — from equality down to about 5 degrees in summer with southerly and westerly winds, but less in winter, and with north-easterly winds in summer. When the difference is beyond 4 or 5 degrees there is very little pro- bability of rain, in spite of the appearance of the sky — as lately, during the long spell of north-easterly winds — when it often deceived even weather-wise people into the expectation of rain. With respect to the degree of moisture in the air, an ap- proximate idea may be formed from the following table of pro- portions of humidity for every degree of difference between the two bulbs, at 50 degrees temperature — taking equality in the two thermometers as indicating complete saturation, or 100. Difference at 50 degrees. Humidity. 1 degree 93 2 „ 86 3 „ ...... 80 4 „ 74 5 „ 68 6 „ 63 It will be as easy to apply these figures in estimating the probability of rain. For instance, the humidity in the air on Monday, June ISth, as well as the day preceding, closely ap- proximated saturation (96) — the bulbs being pretty nearly equal in temperature ; we had rain, and it fell heavily in the north- western counties, the wnd being chiefly south-west. On Fri- day, the 22nd, the humidity diminished to 69, which would infer a difference of rather over 5 degrees between the two thermometers, and fine weather set in, the wind veering to the eastward. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 225 No doul)t it will he useful to have a fcw rules for guidance iu proguostieatiug coming weather hy the hygrometer, which is better for the purpose than the barometer, as before stated ; due regard being had to the time of day and the time of year when we make tJie observations. 1. Iu summer, wlieu the daily range of temperature is great, if iu the morning the difference between the air temperature and the dew-point temperature be small, and the rise of tem- perature during the day be considerable, it is probable that the difference will increase ; and if the temperature of the dew- point at the same time decrease, it is an indication of very fine weather. 3. If, on f,he contrary, the temperature of both should in- crease with the day in nearly equal proportion, rain will almost certainly foUow, as the temperature of the air falls with the declining sun. 3. In winter, wlien the daily range of temperatuie is small, the indication of the weather is shown by the increase or de- crease in the temperature of the dew-point, rather than the difference between the temperatures of the air and of the dew- point. If tlie temperature of the dew-point increases, rain may be expected ; if it decreases, fine weather. 4. In showery weather the indications vary rapidly, and if we examine the hygrometer at short intervals we may predict the approach of a storm, especiaUy if we make at the same time observations with the barometer. But the hygrometer, pro- perly interpreted, will be accurate when the barometer may misguide us. Thus, on the 3rd June, 1866, the wind blew strong from S.W. at Corunna and iu England, notwitlistauding a rise in the haromefer, which was followed by clouds and copious rainfall, as indicated by the hygrometer ; the difference between the bulbs being about 5 degrees. 5. Again : From the 24th to the 29th of June, the wind blew from N.E., witli very little (if any) effect on the mean temperature— tlie thermometer increasing from 6-i degrees on the 24th to 75 descrees on the 28th, at Frant, Sussex, as stated by Mr. Alnatt. Now, during the whole interval the hygrometer indicated from 70 to 80, alternately, of moisture, but without rain. On the 29th, however, the temperature fell to 63 from 75, the liygrometer indicated 80 of moisture, and lialf an inch of rain fell accordingly, the wind having hacked to N., and the barometer having risen — namely, from 29.60 to 29.65. This instance also shows that tbe high amount of humidity (80) was not in itself sufficient to cause rain whilst the tempe- rature remained high. So we must watch for the fall of tem- perature in prognosticating rain. 6. A high and rising thermometer forbids the prospect of rain, in spite of the large amount of moisture iu the air ; but the shghtest decrease of temperature settles the matter forth- with, even with less moisture and a westerly wind. 7. During the continued sultry weather, such as we had be- fore the late north-easterly winds, the appearance of big clouds is apt to make us rush to the conclusion tliat rain is coming. It is not the fault of the clouds if they deceive us, but our present inability to interin-et them accurately. Tlius, on the 14th of July, between 7 and 8 o'clock, the sky became overcast, and big clouds appeared above, so that a thunderstorm seemed at hand. Even the electrometer indicated negative electricity, which is considered a certain sigu of rain. The only contrary sign was that there was red in the sky, showing that the vapour of the air was not actually condensed into clouds, but only on the point of being condensed, and therefore that the weather would still be fair, according to the Scripture maxim, " When it is evening, ye say it will be fair, for the sky is red." And the hygrometer still said there would be no rain as yet, as, indeed, there was not, for it showed 6 degrees of dift'erence between the bulbs, besides high temperature. 8. Tlie hygrometer wiU tell us vVhether wind alone may be * expected from the fall of the barometer. If the barometer falls suddenly two or three-tenths, without any material alteration in the temperature, and the hygrometer does not shov; much raoisture, a violent gale of wind may be expected. 9. When the hygrometer shows much moisture, with only a trifling fall in the barometer, it merely indicates a passing shower aud little wind. 10. Wlien the barometer falls considerably, and the hygro- meter shows much moisture, the thermometer remaining stationary or rather inclining to rise, then both violent wind and rain are likely to follow in the course of a few hours, from the southward and westward. 11. If the barometer falls during north-easterly winds, and tlie difference between the dry and wet Inilbs increase or be great (over 5 degrees), expect strong or more wind from the north, before which tlie barometer will rise, with sky densely overcast aud cloudy. 12. A rapid increase in the difference between the bulbs in the morning will indicate a fine day, in spite of aU appear- ances to the contrary. 13. On the other 'hand, extreme dryness or great difference between the bulbs with a S.E. wind should be suspected. Great rains may follow in a day or two. 14. If in the morning after a fair day the difference remains stationary or increases, expect rain. This is perhaps the most certain indication of rain. 15. An increase in the difference between the bulbs during rain or snow is favourable at whatever time it occurs. 16. After continuous north-easterly winds, the increase of moisture, as shown by the hygrometer, will clearly show the coming change to the southward and westward, with wet ; hut then the barometer will have fallen considerably, and the tem- perature diminished. 17. A slight increase of moisture during north-easterly winds must not be taken as a sign of rain, especially after a warm day, without the indication of the barometer and ther- mometer. 18. If the difference increases iu the evening, after rain, with a south-westerly wind, finer weather may be expected, although the difl'erence be not considerable. The wind will probably back to a drier point— S.S.E. and E.— but, of course, unsettled weather, as recently occurred, July 28th, from the backing of the wind. 19. But the most reliable signs are afforded by a progress from day to day towards the moist extreme of the season by the approach towards equality in the bulbs. A retrograde movement towards dryness often takes place during wet or showery weather which the prcccdiug advance towards the moist extreme had prepared us to expect. Such are the chief rules that may guide the farmer in con- sulting tills invaluable instrument, which, as far as coining rain is concerned, is more reliable than the barometer, be- cause it deals with its immediate cause at every instant— namely, the amount of moisture in the air and the change of temperature. There are, however, a few variances in tlie indications of the hygrometer during unsettled weather, connected with eiHipora- tion, of which more in the sequel. The instrument shoidd be in universal use, in our change- able climate, not only during haymaking-time and the all- important time of harvest, but also to do away with the many doubts about the weather from the mere appearances of the skies, causing the great inconvenience of carrying umbrellas when not at all likely to be required, and their consequent wear-and-tear by carrying ; all which might be avoided by in- vesting twelve or fourteen shillings iu one of Casella's really good and cheap hygrometers, which we have been using. If Admiral Fitzroy and his successors at the Meteorologic Oflice had attended to the hygrometer, they would have been much more correct iu their " probabilities" about the weather. Instead of the almost-useless iteiiis in the daily "Weather Table" about the skies, they should get the figures of the hy- grometer from all the stations ; and then there would be little or no difficulty iu prognosticating what sort of weather is " probable" at any of them. This is what is wanted ; and if people will then attend to the few rules we have given, there \\\\\ seldom be any mistakes aliout coming weather, on any of oar coasts or anywhere else throughout the country. RAISING POTATOES UNDER STRAW.— On a recent trip in St. Clair County, Illinois, we saw hundreds of acres of land covered with straw. The ground had been ploughed and harrowed and marked olf, and potatoes dropped, and then the wliole surface covered about six inches deep with straw. The potatoes have no further attention till digging-time, when two or three hundred bushels per acre are obtained. The straw keeps the weeds down, and the soil cool and moist. The straw is raked away in autumn, and there lie the potatoes white and clean. The straw potatoes bring the highest price in market — Rwral World. 226 T'BM FABMBR'S MAGAZINE, THE FOREIGN CATTLE TRADE. The foreign cattle trade is beginning to attain gigantic proportions, and is moi-e especially a cousiderable one for the port of London, where the demand for meat for the millions of its m-ban and suburban population is enormous. Not only are the imports rapidly increasing, but they are likely to continue to do so from the high price of meat. In ten years the live stock imported for food has increased six- fold, from 238,281 head of all kinds in 185G to 1,330,384 head in 18G5. In 1850, according to Ormandy's report, the stock imported from Holland, &c., by sea, for the su2)ply of Smithtield Market, was 44,818 beasts and calves, 125,269 sheep, and 2,000 pigs. The following figures from the Board of Trade returns give the annual mmibers imported into the kingdom iu the last ten years : — Beasts and Calves. Sheep aud Lambs. Kgs- 1856 — 83,306 145,059 9,916 1857 — 92,963 177,207 10,678 1858 — 89,001 184,482 11,565 1859 — 85,677 250,580 11,084 1860 — 104,569 320,219 34,453 1861 — 107,096 312,923 30,308 1863 — 97,887 299,472 18,163 1863 — 150,898 430,788 37,137 1864 — 231,734 496,243 85,363 1865 — 283,271 914,170 133,943 ""jum"} 81,934 411,729 29,873 The increased imports last year over the previous year are very large, especially in sheep and pigs ; the returns, however, for the fii'st six months of this year shows a cousiderable decline. The estimated value of the foreign stock imported last year, at the current rates, would be fuUy six millions. Although there are thirty-niue ports at which cattle are imported, two-thii-ds of the whole are brought into the river Thames. The imports into Loudon were from the following countries : — Beasts ci -n- aud Calves. ^^^^^P' ^'S^' Germany 8,184 133,750 21,143 HoUand 79,608 380,888 31,676 Belgium 4,365 37,971 741 Portugal 1,153 — — Spain 3,187 13 — Denmark 40,555 53,281 75 France 3,626 17,583 23,735 Sweden 1,291 2,074 1,033 Norway 134 — — 143,103 Lauded at Thames Haven 16,551 505,559 18,955 77,403 873 Total 159,654 534,514 78,375 Holland, it will be seen, is the great exporting country ; but the cattle are not wholly produced in the States from which they are shipped : animals ai'e brought down the Rhine iu boats, and from the interior of Germany by rail- road ; whole Hocks and herds are driven over the roads to the places of embarkation. Last year there were shipped from the port of Rotterdam 69,970 head of cat- tle, 40,780 calves, 242,410 sheep, and 33,840 pigs. The cattle plague, unfortunately, made great ravages in Hol- land, in spite of euergetic measures by the government : military and maritime cordons were established round the infected province (South of HoUand), and weekly retm-ns were published by the government in the ofiicial * gazette ; stringent regulations were adopted in conjunction with the local- authorities, some of whom, however, proved some- what troublesome and refi-actory ; but, in spite of every precaution, the disease increased, and when the cattle were removed from the pastures to the stalls the weekly returns showed a fearful development of the disease, rising on the 80th December last to a total of 21,000 head at- tacked ; whilst the first week in December had only esta- blished a total of 11,000 head attacked. The military and maritime cordons did not confine the disease to the pro- vince of South Holland, as it has since spread to the pro- vinces of North Holland and Utrecht, without, however, showing itself in such an aggravated form. An exception was made to the stringency of the cordon regulations in favour of the through-traffic of cattle fi'om Germany along the Rhenish railway, which passes through the heart of infected and non-infected districts. Considering that the export of cattle to England from the Dutch ports amounts to about 140,000 head per annum, this conces- sion in favour of so large a traffic was almost necessary, but it is placed under the strictest surveUlauce. Out of the total number of animals brought into the port of London from abroad, and inspected by the veterin- ary sm'geons or other officers of the Customs during 1865, there were 196 beasts, 74 calves, 838 sheep, and 421 pigs condemned and destroyed at the landing-places up the river, and 44 beasts, 87 sheep, and 4 pigs at Thames Haven. In consequence of disease, or injury of some kind, 240 beasts, 74 calves, 425 sheep, and 425 pigs were condemned after entering the river Thames. There were slaughtered, and passed as fit meat for human food, 1,451 beasts, 57 calves, 755 sheep, and 2,519 pigs. The per-centage of animals affected with disease was smaller in 1865 than in former years, being — of pigs 3 per cent., of beasts 1.3 per cent., of calves 0.42 per cent., and of sheep 0.22 per cent. As to the rinderpest, the Commis- sioners of Her Majesty's Customs, in their annual report to the Lords of the Treasury, state "that the inspectors have been urn-emitting in their attention, and careful in the discharge of their duty ; and though, in the case of a dis- ease where the period of incubation has been found to be so unusually long and uncertain, it is impossible to say that animals containing the germs of such a disease, though showing no sign of it on their arrival, may not have been admitted into the country, we can state dis- tinctly that from the commencement of the outbreak up to the end of the year only one case of rinderpest was discovered on importation into London. That was the case of a cow which arrived at Blackwall in the month of September, more than two months after the first outbreak of the disease in London, having been smuggled surrepti- tiously on board the steamer ' Maas' at Rotterdam, with- out the knowledge of the agents or the master of the ves- sel." The whole of this cargo was slaughtered on the wharf, but the oxen that came over with this infected cow showed no signs of disease. The two cows, however, which had been confined with the one that had the rinder- pest, having been iept iu quarantine thirteen and twenty- one days respectively, gave indications of the disease, and were, consequently, destroyed. This is the only case of rinderpest detected at any of the cattle-wharves in the port of London, though there were two cows iu a cargo landed at Thames Haven in 1865. The animals on the Continent suffer from the same kind of ordinary dis- eases that are to be seen iu British produce, but the in- spectors never allow cattle, sheep, or pigs to pass that have any complaints likely to render Ihem unfit for THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 227 human food. The ports following nest in rotation, and in accordance with the number of animals imported, are Hull, Harwich, Southampton, Leith, Falmouth, Plymouth, Newcastle, Liverpool, and Hartlepool. At a recent meeting of the Privy Council it was re- solved not to revoke the Order compelling cattle to be slaughtered within four days after landing, so that our importations are now confined to the requirements of the meat trade ; but the shipments, though not nearly so ex- tensive as they might and would be were all restrictions I'emoved, and farmers could ])urchase for stock, are still very large. These imports employ a considerable ton- nage, and during the past two years several steamers have been built expressly for the service. The Select Committee of the House of Commons, ap- pointed in March to inquire into the manner in which the home and foreign trade in animals by sea and railroad is conducted, consider that the importation of foreign cattle ought to be encouraged, as the importation tends to keep down the price of meat ; and in their report the Commit- tee recommend, for the public interest, slaughter-houses, where cattle could be killed and sent to the dead- meat market without driving them through London and other large towns. As regards placing cattle in quarantine, the Connnittee are doubtful whether such a system could be enforced, for the accommodation to be provided would be too extensive for such a trade, and dis- ease might be propagated during the detention. " The only disease," says the report, *' for which quarantine ap- pears to be at ail reasonable is the rinderpest. Where countries, like Spain or Denmark, are not only free from rinderpest, but are not a channel for the exportation of cattle from infected inland countries, there seems to be nq reason for a quq^rantinp for cattle exported from them." FOREIGN AGRICULTURE. The reports of Her Majesty's Consuls in foreign countries, which are now issued very promptly by the Poroigii Office, abound witli much useful information on foreign crops and stock. Tlie sixth of the series for the present year has just been presented to Parliament, aud relates to Austria, Prussia, Prance, Holland, &c. The Consid reports that from ANTWERP the wool entered in transit amounted in 1865 to about 20,000 bales, against 43,313 in 1864. The prices, which rided higli at the beginning of the year, gradually receded until after the summer sales, rising again during the November sales, aud tlie year closed with prices well sustained and a good demand. The stocks in hand were estimated at about 5,000 bales, against 8,333 at the close of the previous year. Grain. — The year 1865 exhibited a falling off in the amount of wheat and barley imported as compared with 1864, a result to be attributed to the large stocks on hand at the comraencement of the year, combined with the low range of prices wliich continued to prevail until its close. The Bel- gian crop of 1865 having, however, proved deficient in quality, a demand for foreign grain arose towards the latter end of the year, the general transactions in respect of those cereals remaining notwithstanding duU and inferior to those of preceding years. There was, however, a considerable de- mand for rye, a large quantity of wliich \\as delivered from Prance by railway, not only for domestic consumption, but also for exportation towards the Netherlands, owing to the lower range of prices for rye of Belgian aud French growth as compared with tliose which prevailed for rye grown in Russia and the Baltic. Cattle Trade. — There has been a large aud increasing export trade in cattle from this port, which was, however, considerably checked during the past year by the restrictions established by the Government consequent upon the breaking out of the cattle plague in Holland and Prance. Horned cattle having ceased to be admitted into Belgium since tlie Arrete Royal of the 30th of August, 1865, the transit trade from Holland aud Germany towards England became confined to sheep, of which large numbers were shipped in the steam- ers from Antwerp to London and Harwich. There is the following statement from TONNAY-CHARENTE (FRANCE). The employment of land in this Consular district varies considerably, according to the locality and tlie nature of the soil ; the northern parts, consisting partly of deep alluvial plains, are devoted principally to the cultivation of wheat aud other corn crops, beans, &c. ; this land is mostly very fertile, and will bear a succession of crops without manure and with but very little preparation ; the southern districts are chiefly occupied by vineyards for the production of brandy, the wine produced being of inferior quality, and used mainly for home consumption ; the midland parts are variously occu- pied, wheat being a principal crop ; the poorer low grounds are reserved for meadows and grazing : vines are again the chief feature in the islands aud lands aloug the coast, but in those localities the produce gives inferior brandy, though vinegar of superior quality. The favourite port for the shipment of corn is Marans, at the embouchure of the river Sevres, the valley of that river being particularly rich in agricultural produce. The Consul at Amsterdam reports the following official state- ment of the agricultural doings in THE NETHERLANDS. Wool. — The public sale held in the early part of the year by the Netherlands Trading Company went off at steady prices for the fine sorts, and Cape wool of good quality was specially sought after. Tlie news of the cessation of hostilities in the United States of America, instead of creating a rise, as was generally anticipated, brought about fi fall in prices, particularly in consequence of the fact that enormous quantities of Austra- lian and Cape wool were sent into the London market, and that the news arrived in Europe just at the shearing time. The sales during Blay and June in London, comprising 160,000 bales, went off feebly, and at from 6 to 8 per cent, under the prices of March. Grain. — The business in wheat was again limited to what was needed for the interior ; but various circumstances, such for instance as the firmness of foreign markets aud the incessant wet weather, caused prices to ascend, so that there was actually a rise of from 40 to 60 florins per 2,400 kilos, on the prices paid at the commencement of the year. At this figure some quan- tities were even bought up for the steam mills, it being more advantageous to purchase on the spot thau from a foreign market. What was done in rye was for the most part restricted to the requirements of the interior, and excepting March, when the breaking up of the ice made business more active, there was nothing much stirring, provincial wants having been satisfied during the summer, and in the autumn by imports from Belgium ; nevertheless, towards the end of the year prices had risen considerably, and mainly through news from abroad. The most important transactions were again those on delivery, and extensive purchases were efl'ected both for home and abroad, whilst prices fluctuated greatly. In barley there was little briskness other than in foreign produce, and either for home consumption or bulling. Prices rose gradually. The early country harvest was very small ; the winter one, though far from plentiful, was better than that of last year. The news from Denmark and Holstein were both satisfactory as to quantity and weight. Butter and Cheese. — The quality was on the whole satis- factory throughout the year ; during the lengthened dry weather less so, but in the autumn the quality was excellent. The cat- tle disease, however, which made its appearance in August in the province of South Hollandj slowly aud gradually spread K 3 228 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. itself to North Holland and Utrecht, thereby causing fears for the supply in the forthcoming year. It is nevertlieless worthy of note that the murrain did not manifest itself in the great grazing provinces of Friesland and Groningen. The Consul at Kouigsburg gives a detailed account of the corn trade of PRUSSIA. The quantities shipped to Great Britain have been as follows '■ Seed. In 1865 1864 Wheat. 714,194 451,075 Rye. 45,382 120,284 Barley. Oats. 50,087 150,065 Peas. 149,027 262,898 50,022 90,469 239,850 269,336 Prussian scheffels of 5g^ to 1 imperial quarter. The importation from Poland was 642,161 scheffels less than in 1864, and the importation from tlie province at least 1,550,384 scheffels less. Wheat. — The prices of this article were ruled as usual by the British markets, and in March from 40 to 62 and 72 sgr. perscheffel. In summer there was little business. In August prices rose to 60, 80, and 86 sgr., according to quality, and in September stagnation again took place. Hye. — The total exportation of tliis article only reached about one-third of the preceding years, but rye is the article for speculation on delivery-contracts, and although the price of rye in the beginning of the year was 33 to 35 sgr. per schefl'el, contracts for delivery in May and June were closed at 37^ to 39 sgr., and reached 40 to 40^ sgr., and no notice was taken of the value in other places, such as Dantzic. This speculation was kept up on account of the apparent bad harvests iu this province and in Poland, and the Polish dealers sold their real stocks on the spot, and bought contracts for delivery in autumn 1865 and the spring of 1806, and such contract prices were forced up to 64 sgr. per scheffel in December. The conse- quence has been that considerable quantities of rye, 10,000 asts, were in the warehouse, so that a want of food is not pro- bable. But the prices of the day for real effective loco lye is not in proportion to the contract prices. The result will have to be seen. Barley is consumed chiefly iu the province. The inquiry in England for barley for feeding purposes from 23 and 35 sgr. to 30 and 45 sgr. per scheffel. The quantity liarvested was not small, but the quality, particularly of large barley, inferior. Oats were nearly aU used for home consumption. Small parcels were shipped to England at gradually rising prices, 21, 22, to 26 and 30 sgr. per scheffel. Pea.s. — The quality was particularly bad, so that they mostly could only be used as fodder, and some cargoes went to Eng- land for this purpose. Tlie better parcels were eagerly bought up for human food, for which they are in much request here. Prices for yellow and blue peas were from 55 to 65 sgr., for grey 65 to 80 sgr. per schelfe], according to quality, Bean.s. — The quality was very small ; they were shipped to England. Prices were from 57 to 67 sgr. per scheffel. The Consul in Spain, writing from Vigo, gives interesting figures as to the condition of the cattle in GALICIA. At the present moment, in which England is, and has been, suffering so greatly from the cattle plague, it cannot but be in- teresting to present some detail as regards cattle in this part of Spain, and the great increase in that brancli which has de- veloped itself within a period of six years in the fou I'provinces of Galicia, as shown by the subjoined return printed by tho General Department of Statistics, and published in January last: Ef.tuun of Bulls, Cows, Oxen, and Calves, in the un- dermentioned Provinces. 1859. 1865. Increase in Six Years. Corunna Lugo 133,829 100,908 70,464 67,549 255,446 184,953 142,314 173,642 121,617 1 48,045 Orense 65,850 Pontevedra ... 106,093 Total ... 378,750 756,355 341,605 The disease known as rinderpest or cattle plague has not hithftrto invaded Galicia, nor, as far as I can learn, Spaia. AGEICULTUEAL STATISTICS The following documents have been forwarded from the Home Office to the Lord-Lieutenants of the different coun- ties : — " Whiteh.'d Half-bred Sheer. — Mr. Charles Borth- wick, Yeavering, Wooler; Mr. John Jardine, Arkleton, Lang- holm ; Mr. M. Thornton, Thornton, Morpeth. Horses for Agricultural Purposes. — Mr. Thomas Hunt, Thornington, Wooler ; Mr. James Scott, High House, Alnwick ; Mr. John Tumbull, Branton, Alnwick. Horses for the Field. — Mr. James Cookson, Ncasham Hall, Darlington ; Mr. Thomas Gibbons, Burnfoot, Longtown, Carlisle ; Mr. John Clay, AVinfield, Berwick-upon-Tweed. Swi:vE a:^d Implements. — Mr. C. Wilson, Hipsburn, Alnwick ; Mr. N. Milne, Faldonside, Melrose ; Mr. Goodrick, Dilston. Wool. — Mr. Joseph Humble, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The following were the awards : — LEICESTER SHEEP. Prcmiu»is open to the Kimjdoni of Scotlaiul, and the County of Northumberland, only. For the best Ram of any age, £10, and second, £5, Rev. R. W. Bosanquet, Rock, Alnwick. Third, £3, A. BeU, Linton, Kelso. Commended, J. Angus, Whitefield, Morpeth. For the best Shearling Ram, £10, Rev. R. W. Bosamiuet. Second, £5, A. Bell. Tliird, £2, W. Purves, Burfoot, Kelso. Highly commended, G. Torrance, Sisterpath, Dunse. Commended, J. C. Bolem, Low Trewhitt, and G. Torrance. For the best pen of five Ewes (to have reared lambs this season), £-i, J. Angus, Whitefield. Second, £2, Messrs. Langdale, Newton R.ed House, Mor- peth. For the best pen of five Gimmers, £4', Messrs. Dinning, Nilston Ridge, Haydon Bridge. Second, £3, Rev. R. W. Bosauquet. LEICESTER SHEEP. Open, to the United Kingdom, with the exception of the King- dom of Scotland and the County of Northumberland. For the best Ram of any age, £6, and second, &i, J. Bor- ton, Barton House, Malton. For the best Shearling Ram, £6, and second, £1-, J. Bortoii. CHEVIOT SHEEP. Open to the United Kingdom. For the best Ram of any age, £6, G. Borthwick, Cowbog, Kelso. Second, £4, Thomas Elliot, Hindhope, Jedburgh. For the best pen of 2 two-year-old Rams, £4', and second, £3, Thomas Elliot. For the best pen of 2 Shearling Rams, £•1', and second, £3, Thomas Elliot. For the best pen of five Ewes (to have reared lambs this ' season), £4, Thomas Elliot. Second, £3, Robert Shortreed, Attonburn, Kelso. For the best pen of five Gimmers, £4, T. Elliot. Second, £3, R. Shortreed. HALF-BRED SHEEP. For the best Ram of any age, £5, R. Mathison, Waudylaw, ChathiU. Second, £3, George Barber, Titlington Mount, Alnwick. For the best pen of five Ewes (to have reared lambs this season), £3, Messrs. Scott, Alnham, Alnwick. Second, £3, M. H. Dand, Hauxley, Acklington. For the best pen of five Gimmers, £3, James M'Lain, Snipe House, Alnwick. Second, £3, R. Matliisou, Wandylaw, HORSES FOR AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES. For the best Brood Mare, to have a foal at her foot, or be in foal at the time of the show, £10, Messrs. Browell, Apper- ley, Stocksfield. Second, £5, II. Railton, Snittlcgarth, Wigton. Commended, John Henderson, Ilorsley Hill, South Shields. For the best Colt or filly, three years old, £5, F. Potts, Ovington, Prudhoe. Second, £3, John Henderson. For the best Colt or Filly, two years old, £5, J. Ruther- ford, Way-to- Wooler. Second, £3, J. Henderson, Horsley, South Shields. Commended, R. H. King, Wooperton, Wooler. For the best colt or filly, one year old, £5, and second, £3, Messrs. Hills, North Charlton, Alnwick. For the best Brood Mare, with a foal at her foot, or to be in foal at the time of the show, £10, M. Brown, Wiggenly, Wigton. Second, £5, John Hogg, Hazon. For the best Colt or Filly, three years old, £5, J. B. Booth, Killerby. Second, £3, George Dove, Wark, Coldstream. For the best Colt or Filly, two years old, £5, J. B. Booth. Second, £3, Messrs. John Bowes and Co., Gateshead. For the best Colt or Filly, one year old, £5, A. Robson, Alnmouth, Alnwick. Second, £3, R. Dand, juu.. Field House, Bilton. Premium given by his Grace the Dulce of Northumberland. For the best Horse or Mare, five years old, and under ten years old, a Silver Cup of the value of £30, to which the So- ciety added £10, and there was a sweepstakes of 10s. each, Thomas Sutton, Alwent, Darlington. Highly commended, Henry Railton, Snittlegarth, Wigton ; Joseph Bainbridge Fife, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Premium given by the Earl of Ta>ikerville. Open to the United Kingdom. A Silver Cup of the value of £30, to which the Society added twenty sovereigns, for the best Horse or Mare for hunting purposes, £20, Thomas Gee, Dewhurst Lodge, Sussex. Highly commended. The Right Hon. Lord Ravensworth , Ravensworth Castle, Gateshead. Premiums given by IF. B. Beaumont, Esq., M.P. For the best Stallion for agricultural purposes, £10, and second, £5, Messrs. Hills, Alnwick. SWINE. For the best Boar of the large breed (of any colour), £"!< John Dyson, Adelphi Hotel, Leeds. Second, £2, Joseph Wilson, Woodhorn Mains, Morpeth. For the best boar of the small breed (of any colour), £4, R. E. Duckering, Northope, Kirton Lindsay. Second, £3, C. W. Graham, Leeds. For the best Sow of the large breed (of any colour), £4, John Dyson. Second, £3, 11. C. Duckering. For the best Sow of the small breed (of any colour), £4, R. C. Duckering. Second, £2, S. II. Smith, Galagate House, Norham. For the best pen of three Sow Pigs, of the large breed, under sixteen weeks old, £3, John Dyson. For the best pen of three Sow Pigs, of the small breed, under sixteen weeks old, £2, R. E. Duckering. WOOL. For the best five fleeces of Leicester Wool, £3, John Angus, Whitefield, Morpeth. 230 THE FARMER'S MAaAZINE. For tlie best five fleeces of Cheviot Wool, £3, R. Donkin, Ingram, Alnwick. For the best five fleeces of Half-bred Wool, £3, Robert Donkiu. IMPLEJIENTS. A special prize of £10 for the best Manure Distributor was equally divided amongst the three following competitors : Messrs. T. E. Colegrave, Newcastle ; Mr. W. Thompson, Alnwick ; and Messrs. Wilkin and Dickman, Alnwick. Messrs. Brigham and Bickerton obtained a prize for their Buckeye Reaping and Mowing Machine. An EXTRA PRIZE of £10, offered for the best combined machine or driU for sowing corn and grass seeds, was awarded to Jacob Wilson, Woodhoru House, Morpeth, for Sainty's combined seed drill and horse hoe. Mr. John Spencer, 5, Euston Road, King's Cross, London, entered a protest against Mr. Wilson receiving the prize, on the ground that the ma- cliine exhibited was not a combined corn and grass seed sowing mncliine, as required. The committee will consider the protest. THE DINNER was held in the Corn Exchange, at four o'clock, Lord Ravens" worth in the chair, and Mr. W. B. Beaumont, M.P., in the vice. There was a large company present. THE BRIDLINGTON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. The thirty-first annual show of this society took place on Wednesday, July 25, and the field used last year, belonging to Mr. J. Kirby, was appropriated to the same purpose on this occasion. Although there were no cattle exhibited, about the same amount as before, viz., £300, were ofl'ered in prizes, those which would have been given for cattle having been applied in augmentation of the list in the other departments. Notwith- standing the absence of tlie shorthorns which have been from year to year so much admired at this exhibition, the entries were more "numerous than last year, when they amounted to 447. On Wednesday the total number was 456, and was made up of the following proportions: Sheep, 15; horses, 180; pigs, 16 ; poultry, &c., 149 ; and implements, 96. THE JUDGES. Of HujiTiNG, Roadster, a:\d Coaching Horses. — Mr. John Brooks, Immingham Grange, Ulceby, Lincolnshire ; Mr. Jolin B. Booth, Kiilerby Hall, Catterick ; and Mr. Charles Wood, South Dalton, Beverley. Of Sheep, Pigs, axd Agricultur-U- Horses. — Mr. John Wood, of Stanwick Park, Darlington ; Mr. Richard Row- lay, Welldale Beck, Ebberston, York ; and Mr. J. H. Priestley, Altofts, Normanton. Of Implements. — Mr. George Crowe, Nortli Dale ; Mr. Matthew, Craaswick, Reighton ; Mr. Thomas Boynton, Ul- rome Grange ; and Mr. G. S. Simpson, North Burton. PRIZE LIST. SHEEP. Shearling tup, £5, Mr. John Borton, Barton House, Malton ; second, £2, ditto. Pen of fi-ve shearling tups, £5, Mr. E. Riley, Beverley ; se- cond, £2, Mr. J. J. Simpson, Hunmanby. Aged tup, £4, Mr. John Borton ; second, £1, ditto. Five shearling wethers, £1, Mr. G. Walmsley, Bridlington. Pen of five breeding ewes that have suckled lambs to the 6th July, £4, Mr. Richard Lovel, Kiiapton, Rillington. Five shearling gimmers, £4, Mr. E. Tindall, Rillington ; second, £1, Mr. G. Walmsley. Fat wether, ewe, or gimmer, £3, Mr. E. Tindall. HORSES. Hunting mare and foal, £4, ]\Ir. John Smith, Mart on Lodge; second, £1, Mr. J. Simpson. Three years old hunting gelding, £4, Mr. Geo. Holmes, Be- verley ; second, £1, Mr. Robert Danby, Routli, Beverley. Two years old hunting gelding or filly, £3, Sir George Cliobnley, Bart., Boynton Hall ; second, £1, ditto. One year old hunting gelding or iilly, £2, Mr. Edmond Hornby, Flotmanby. Three years old hunting filly, £3, Mr. Wm. J. Simpson, Easton ; second, £1, Mr. Henry Robinson, Carnaby. Coaching mare and foal, £4, Mr. Edward Robinson, Naffer- ton ; second, £1, Mr. H. Woodcock, Flambro'. Three years old coaching gelding, £4, Mr. Robert Wise, Sewerby Field ; second, £1, ditto. Two years old coacliing gelding or filly, £3, Mr, Robert Wise; second, £1, Mr. Geo. Wubnsley. One year old coaching gelding or filly, £3, Mr< George W almsley. Three years old coaching filly, £4, Mr. W. Coleman, Hais- thorpe ; second, £1, Mr. M. Rounding, Fraisthorpe. Roadster nag or mare, £4, Mr. Joseph Robson, Windle Beck, Ganton; second, £1, Mr. F. C. Matthews, Dritfield. Roadster mare and foal, £4, Mr. John Major, Sledmere Grange, Malton ; second, £1, Mr. John Simpkin, Bridlington. Two-year-old roadster gelding or filly, £2, Mr. John Cromp- ton, Thoniholme. Mare and foal for agricultural purposes, £4, Mr. George Simpson, Marton ; second, £1, Mrs. Smith, Bempton. Horse or mare for agricultural purposes, £3, Mr. W. J. Simpson, Easton ; second, £1, Mr. G. Simpson, Marton. Two-year-old agricultural gelding or filly, £3, Mr. Thomas Cranswick, Rudston ; second, £1, Mrs. Sawden, Flambro'. One-year-old agricultural gelding or filly, £2, Mr. John Burdas, Thwing ; second, Mr. J. Grainger, Auburu House. Pair of liorses of either sex for agricultural purposes, worked during the season, £4, Mr. J. Simpson, Field House, Hun- manby ; second, £1, ditto. Nag or mare pony not exceeding fourteen hands high, £3, Mr. Henry Warley, Frodingham. * Nag or mare pony not exceeding twelve hands high, £3, Master T. Smith, Ulrome. Stallion for hunters, £4, Sir George Cholmley, Bart., for Angelus. Stallion for roadsters, £4, Mr. J. Cook, Nafferton, for Den- mark. Stallion for coach horses, £4, Mr. John Johnson, Brigham, for Prince Arthur. Stallion for agricultural purposes, £4, Mr. W. Simpkin, jun., Burton Agnes, for Nonpareil. Four-year-old hunting gelding or fiUy, £5, Mr. Joseph Rob- son, Windle Beck, Ganton ; second, |£3, Mr. Thomas Gee, Dewhurst Lodge, Wadham, Sussex. Hunting mare or gelding four years old or upwards, £7, Mr. T. Sutton, Alwcnt, Darlington ; second, £3, Mr. Joseph Rob- son, Windle Beck. Special Prize. — Silver cup, given by Sir J. V. B. John- stone, Bart., M.P., Mr. T. Sutton. PIGS. Boar, large breed, £2, Mr. John Dyson, Adelphi Hotel* Leeds. Sow or gilt, large breed, £3, Nr. John Dyson. Boar, small breed, £3, Mr. Charles W. Graham, York-road, Leeds. Sow or gilt, small breed, £2, Mr. George Chapman, Seamer, Scarbro'. Mr. John Smith, of Marton, gave an extra prize of £1 for a pig of the middle breed, and it was awarded to Mr. Graham, IMPLEMENTS. Messrs. Samuelson and Co., York, 20s. for royal prize pa- tent self-raking reaper, with side delivery in sheaf. — Mr. Wm, Sawney, Beverley, 10s. for improved winnowing machine, and 5s. for self-raking winnowing machine. — Mr. Jolm Baker, Bainton, near Driffield, 208. for improved S-horse reaper, with new patent lift and chain ; 10s. for Yorkshire prize waggon with wheels 4ft. 9in, and 3ft. 4in. high, tires3in.by f, patent axles and THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 231 brass caps, and with pole ; and 10s. for i by jin. 25 cwt. New- castle cart. — By the Beverley Iron Waggon Company (Limited), 5s. tor improved linseed-cake mill, and os. for American grist mill. — Messrs. E. W. and G. Osgerby, Beverley, 10s. for im- proved market caVt. — Mr. Wm. Smith, Foston, 5s. for sixteen feet self-feeding sheep rack. — Mr. Harrison, Dixon, Carnaby, IDs. for an assortment of implements. — Mr. J. J. Burl)ery, Bridlington Quay, 5s. for new patent Leicester ornamental open flower vase. — Mr. Matthew Dale, Bridlington, 10s. for improved 9-rowed corn drill, complete ; 5s. for improved tur- nip and mangold drill ; 5s. for drill for small seeds broadcast ; £5 for general assortment ; 5s. for improved horse rake with iron teeth ; 20s. for patent swathe delivery reaping macliine for two horses ; and 20s. for patent mill for bruising agricul- tural produce.— Messrs. P. and W. Smithson, Bridhngton, 20s. for assortment of implements. Between one and two o'clock about 130 of the members and their friends partook of luncheon, which was provided by Mr. Crannis, of the Black Lion Hotel, in a tent upon the ground, when Lord Hotham, M.P., presided. PONTEFRACT AND WEST RIDING AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. The ninth annual exhibition of this society for horses, sheep, pigs, implements, aue dogs, was held in a large and commodious field belonging to Mr. R. Hirst. There was no show of cattle. The entries were, notwithstanding this drawback, very good ; and all classes were in excess, in point of numbers, over last year. The horse show occupied the principal portion of the ground, and it certainly attracted the most attention ; for the ring, in which the judges tested the various classes, was sur- rounded by hundreds of people anxious to see the animals, and also to witness the jumping, which is an important feature at this show. The best roadster of any age, for which the Mayor of Pontefract offered a cup of the value of £5, induced the greatest competition ; and a considerable time elapsed before the judges had discharged their arduous duty. They eventually gave iu their award to Jlr. W. Ingle, of Westfield House, as the winner of the cup ; Mr. J. A. Thornton, of Wakefield, taking the premium of £2 offered as a second prize ; and Mr. W. Norfolk, of Knottingley, was third. Mr. Atkinson, of Woodleford, and Mr. Simpson, of Fairburn, were respectively highly commended and commended. The sheep were in excess of last year as regards numbers, and the quality was undoubted. For the best pen of five long- woolled ewes, the silver cup was taken by Mr. Waide, of Ack- worth Moor Top ; Mr. Carr, of Bain Lodge, being second. Mr. Brown, of Ackworth ; Mr. Parkinson, of Upton Hall ; Mr. Longstaff, and Messrs. Moxon and Sons, each showed in this class. Wether and gimmer lambs were also well represented, Mr. Boulton, of Kirk Smeatou, taking first prize in both, Messrs. Moxon and Sons being second in each class; Mr. Waide, of Ackworth, being third for wethers, and Mr. Makin, of Woodfield House, third for gimmers. For tup lambs Messrs. Moxon and Sons, Mr. Thomas Leng, Darrington ; H. Salt, Esq., Methley Park ; Mr. D. Longstaff, J\Ir, Petty, Hensall ; Mr. Joseph Shillito, Wrangbrook ; Mr. Waide, Ackworth Moor Top, and Mr. J. W. Brook, Monkroyd, competed ; and after a careful consideration of the merits of each pen, tlie first prize was awarded to Mr. Petty, and the second to Mr. Salt. The show was a very successful one in aU respects ; and the company was also large. PRIZE LIST. SHEEP. JxtDCfES. — Mr. L. Baxter, Hurst Courtenay, Selby. Mr. T. Johnson, Chevot, near Wakefield. Mr. J. Kirby, Pocklington. Long-woolled Ham of any age.— £3, H. Poskitt, Darrington ; £2, J. Petty, Hansall ; £1, J. Shillito, Wrangbrook. One-shear Ram. — Silver Cup, S. Hirst, KeUington ; £2, ditto. Pen of 5 Long-woolled Ewes which have suckled lambs this season up to July 1. — Silver Cup, F. C. Wade, Ackworth Moor Top ; £2, T. Carr, Bain Lodge. Pen of 5 Shearling Gimmers. — £2, W. Makin, Woodfield House ; £1, J. Vandravart, RoaU ; 10s., J. Stables, Moor- house. Pen of 5 Shearling Wethers.— £3, T. Carr, Bain Lodge ; £1, R. Mann, Campsall ; 10s., T. Taylor, Darrington. Pen of 5 Shearlings of any cross breed. — £2, T. Taylor, Darrington ; £1, R. Mann, Campsall ; 10s., ditto. Pen of 5 Wether Lambs, Long-woolled. — £2, T. Boulton, Kirk Smeaton; £1, W. Moxon and Sous, Pontefract ; 10s., r. C. Waide. Pen of 5 Gimmer Lambs, Long-woolled.— £3, T. Boulton, Kirk Smeaton; £1, W. Moxon and Sons, Pontefract; 10s., W. Makin, Woodfield House. Pen of 5 Lambs of any cross breed.— £1 10s., W. Brown, Ackworth ; 5s., John Allright, F'airburu. Tup Lamb.— £1 10s., J. Petty, Hensall ; £1, H. Salt, MetUey Park. HORSES. Judges.— Sir. William Dodgson, Monk Bretton, Barnsley. Mr. John Heptinstall, Kirk Bramwith, near Don' caster. Mr. Thomas Hodgson, Wreslentack, Howden. Thorough-bred Stallion of any age.— £3, J. R. Dennison, Minsthorpe. Stallion for draught purposes.— £3, J. Cutt; Thorpe Audlin. Three-year-old draught Gelding or Filly.— £2 10s., W. Roberts ; £1 10s., J. V andavart. Commended, T. Spink. Two-year-old draught Gelding or FiUy.— £2, G. Wilson ; £1, J. Dixon. Commended, G. Hammond. One-year-old draught Colt or Filly.— £2 10s., B. Child ; £1 10s., G. Wilson. Draught Brood Mare and Foal.— £3, T. Carlton ; £1 10s., M. Amery. Highly commended, H. Tonkinson ; commended, J. Dixon. Roadster, Horse or Mare, of any age. — Silver Cup, given by the Mayor of Pontefract, W. Ingle ; £2, J. A. Thornton ; £1, W. Worfolk. Highly commended, W. S. Atkinson. Roadster, Mare and I'oal. — £2, B. Lister, Hillam ; £1, John Fletcher, Kirk Smeaton ; 10s., Robert Foulds, KeUington. Pair of Agricultural Horses used solely for agricultural pur- poses.— £3, J. Robinson, Stauiugley ; £3, G. Pearson, Pon- tefract. Pair of Dray Horses. — £2, W. H. Barker, Pontefract." Coaching Colt or Filly 1 years old. — £2, John Green, Hems- wortli ; £1, J. A. Brown, S. Hiendley. Coaching Brood Mare and Foal. — £3, J. Moore, Hillam ; £1, E. Simpson, Fairburn ; 10s., J. Moore. Hunter, expected to leap the hurdles provided by the com- mittee.— Silver Cup, Mr. Sanderson, AVomersley Grange ; £3, J. Austin, Castleford. Commended, J. R. Dennison, Mins- thorpe. Three-year-old Hunting Gelding or FiUy. — £2, B. Michol- son. Stourton Grange ; £1, John Liversidge, Wrangbrook. Two-year-old Hunting Gelding or Filly. — £3, H. Proctor, Thorpe Audlin; £1, C. Oxley, llambleton. Commended, J. R. Dennison, ]\Iinsthorpe ; J. Rowley, Norton Priory ; C. Oxley, and W. S. Wood, Grove. PIGS. JUDOES.— 'The same as for Sheep. Boar, middle breed. — £1, Major Thursby, Suydale HaU. Boar, small breed. — £1, George Waddington, Ivrottiugley. Sow in Milk or Pig, middle breed. — £1, E. Farrar, Ponte- fract ; 10s., Henry Clayton, Dorrington. Sow in Milk or Pig, small breed. — £1, W. Parkinson, Up- ton IlaU ; 10s., Mr. Carr, MonkhiU. Two Store Pigs under 10 months old. — £1, John Foster, Pontefract ; 10s., Rev. G. Pease, Darrington. COTTAGERS' PIGS. Store Pigs of any breed. — £1, Wm. Hewitt, Thorpe Audlira ; I5s., John Foster, Pontefract. 232 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. THE YORKSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. MEETING AT YORK. The visit of the Prince of Wales to York during the past month has served to solve a difficulty of some stand- ing. Despite all that has been urged to the contrary, it is possible to put back the show to the second week in August without any detriment or inconvenience whatever. Of course, the presence of His Royal Highness might be made to answer in some degree for the attendance ; but with such entries of horses, hounds, and so forth, the gronse-shooters would, under ahuost any circumstances, have mustered as strongly as they did on "Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, Aug. 8, 9, and 10. Never, indeed, was there such a gathering of leading sportsmen on an oc- casion of this kind, as at every other turn you encountered a houndsman or horseman of some celebi'ity ; and here, over hunters and hounds that is, the success of the meeting centred. There was a good show of sheep, a fair entry of pigs, and so much to see after was there in other ways that the Shorthorns were never missed until one came across the Editor of the Herd Book or jNIajor Gunter's managing man. For an exceptional year theie could not have been a more brilliant demonstration, although some of the members of the Yorkshire Council are beginning to fear that the sporting element may be carried a little too far for the legitimate business of the association. With the trials of the reapers postponed until the week following, it is very certain that the implement makers were put quite into the shade, for " the nags" took two good long days to judge, during which time few of the spectators ever left the ring-side; and on Friday they swarmed like flies over a treacle-pot about the hound kennels, if there was little enough to see of what was being done on the flags, except on the payment of a some- what serious extra-charge. At a merely local gathering like that in Cleveland, a hound show may be a very acceptable addition to the proceedings ; but we very much question whether at a meeting of the calibre of the All- Yorkshire, such an accessory does not interfei-e with the pristine and more proper objects of an agricultural exhi- bition. We speak with ahnost as strong a leaning in favour of field sports as Mr. Parriugton himself, the most able secretary and manager that ever took a meeting in hand ; but even his energy may at times run away with him, and when we get the Shorthorns back it will be a nice point to determine whether the hounds shall not be drafted ? There would still be ample material for the ruling passion to feed upon, as the Yorkshire Horse Show, by far away the finest we have ever seen, was essentially a show of hunters, roadsters, and other hacks. Many of the classes of both carriage and cart-horses were but indif- ferently filled, and it was only when the judges came to the lighter breeds that they began to ponder and dwell, with eight or ten before them of an entry, any one of which was well worthy, as most probably he had pre- viously taken a first prize. The Y^orkshire Society has an admirable rule, or rather no rule in this way, that is well worthy of imitation by the National Society — as to the eftect. That no animal is necessarily debarred from fur- ther competition from having taken the chief honours of any former meeting — and thus in the class of thorough- bred stallions there were three or four again exhibited that had been already distinguished as the best of their kind. The entry, which was really extraordinary for its excellence, reached to twenty-five nominations, including such well-known horses as Cawston, St. Clare, and King Brian, the first, second, and third last year at Doncaster but not one of which was noticed here ; Cavendish, the first-prize stallion at Stockton ; Motley, another well- known horse in the ring ; Stratliern also a frequent winner; Piccador, KingFisher, and Fingal, with such arun- ner as Welcome to give eclat to the class and to remind one of what had been done in other ways over Knaves- mire. Of these, Cawston, a hunter all over in appear- ance, drags his hind-legs after him worse than ever ; so much so, as to give one the notion that he must be ricked in the back, and he was early out of it ; while St. Clare only the more and more justifies all we said of him at Doncaster as being about the worst-shaped animal that ever took a prize ; nor does King Brian improve with age, having gone in the back, with his neck looking longer than ever, and, as usual, " dishing" fearfuDy when set agoing. Cavendish, on the contrary, never showed to more advantage, having been very judiciously eased of the heaps of flesh they were wont to put on him, so that he came out a fine combination of blood and power, and the general opinion outside the ring was that he must be first. Strathern, again, had a deal of quality with symmetry, barring a little hoUowncss in his back ; and Piccador is a very neat, lengthy, good-limbed horse, with well-laid shoulders, though a trifle heavy at the points. Fingal is another taking nag, long, level, and deep ; and Norwood by Orlando a very bloodlike gentleman, with a fine top, good arms and thighs, but light of bone below the knee, and terribly " scarified" by the irons. Of those, however, with which the world is less familiar, the judges and the public alike settled over a couple of chesnuts, one of which, Mr. Dennison's three-year-old. The Grand Master by The Great Unknown, is a really sweet horse, with a good saga- cious head, a fine neck, and plenty of length and blood- like character, put on to a short leg, as at his age quite a wonder for growth and good development. We believe the three-year-old was highly and deservedly commended, though, as the Society publishes no prize-list, there is nothing to go by, beyond the first and second as placed on the telegram board — a want that is still a sad flaw in the arrangements of so otherwise well-conducted a meeting. There was no such uncertainty over the place of the other chesnut, as, aftei' a deal of deliberation, the judges awarded the first prize to Sir George Cholmley's Angelus by Or- pheus, a six-year-old, of great substance, with a fine old- fashioned hunting fore-hand, very high in his withers and very deep in his girth; running up light in his back ribs, but with good quarters, thighs, and arms, set off by short pasterns, rather woodeny forelegs, and a very remarkable lack of thorough-bred, bloodlike character. Still there was no question but that Angelus was a fa- vourite with the public, who would have nut him next to Cavendish, whereas the second place fell to Motley, looking certainly very well in his coat, but anything but a true- made horse, being short in his shoulder and light in his girth, and, so far as appearances went, with at least half- a-dozen others to be preferred to him according to his qualifications for getting weight-carrying hunters. We should have put Cavendish, Strathern, Piccador, Grand ^Msster, and Bcloochce, a horse with a deal to like, all or any before the son of Touchstone, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 233 The roadster stallions ran up to tliirty-fouv entries, the best of these being cliiefiy cob roadsters, with the judges going all for coarseness, and taking as their prize horse an animal called the Norfolk Cob, and Norfolk bred on both sides of his head. This is a short powerful beast of burden, a heap ot flesh above, with great limbs under him, but an infamous dishcr, and altogether one of the olden and of a by-gone time. The chosnut put second was of much the same common stamp, the class being far better represented by other entries, such as Mr. Eichardsou's No Name, a very neat one, with a good top, but falling away in his hocks ; or Messrs. Cockshot's Renovator, a horse of fine character and good action, with a nice sensible head, a . light neck, level and lengthy, with strong limbs. Mr. Cook's Denmark, Mr. Siicpherd's Young Dcerfoot, and Mr. Ti-iffitt's Sir Edwin Landseer, a horse full of quality, were also worthy of commendation, though the two best of the entry seemed from the outside to be Mr. Hart's well- known All-Fours, so neat in his frame, and so true in his action, and Mr. Triflltt's Young Fireaway, by far the best shaped one of the lot, and quite a model of a clever cob ; but Mr. Spooner stood in the way here, and rejected the one-eyed brown for spavins. Of the thirteen brood mares for breeding hunters most of them were pretty well known, including Mr. Clark's Jlarigold, although the lust prize went to another tliat has also seen twenty summers, Mr. Scott's Plucky, the se- cond at Newcastle. Sally, which was then first, is now without a place, although we infinitely prefer the foi'mer award ; Mr. Brown's mare being of a rare stamp, with plenty of power, without lumber, and wearing well atsi.\teeu years old. Mr. Clark's mare, which took second, though herself very bloodlike, with big limbs, was chiefly notice- able for her foal by Blair Athol, with bone below the knee of about the substance of a Cochin China chicken ! The roadster brood mares Avere a very moderate lot, with the chief honours bestowed on a brute with tremendously heavy shoulders, light bone, and hammering action, as all over about the worst of a bad class. Amongst the two- year-old hunters, on the contrary, we come upon one of the best horses of the show, Mr. Booth's Bird of Pas- sage, that made his mark at Birmingham, and again placed himself here, being long, low, and deep, with plenty of bone, breed, and good looks, as a prize horse all over. Mr. Barley's colt by Woolwich is another very clever colt ; Mr. Vaughan's sample of Cavendish's get, a deep compact hunter in embryo, and Mr. Morley's Collegian, by Oxford, very stylish and bloodlike. Lord Middleton and Mr. Duncombe also sent a couple of promising young ones into this class, but there was not much to fancy in Sir George Chomley's short sickle- backed son of Orpheus ; nor anything extraordinary to select from the eight or nine two-year-old hunting fillies ; though the three-year-old hunting geldings were worth going all the way to see. They reached to twenty-five in number, and with more than half of these fit for first prizes as times go, led oft" as they were by Mr. Holmes' Tom by Angm', a winner at Birmingham and elsewhere, as booked to be first .again here. But Tom, with all his tine power, hardy character, great limbs, and beautiful forehand, falls away sadly behind, and from his hips to his hocks wants making over again. This is especially noticeable when he is in action, as he looks to go lame, so badly does he draw his legs after him ; and he deservedly got no nearer than second, being sold for £300 never- theless. Mr. Clark, of Hovvden, sent in a couple of chesnuts, of which The General, by Magnmn, was pre- ferred, though we should go for the other, called The Colonel, by Sir John Barleycorn, out of Marigold, a very deep compact powerful horse, with good ends, great limbs, and plenty of fashion. Mr. Clarke had another ia that should have also been commended, a compliment that, if not extended to the class, might be fairly shared by such entries as Sir. Danby's, Mr. Milbank's half- brother to the Bird of Passage, Mr. Gilbert's, Mr. Groves', Mr. Hugh Percy's, Mr. J. B. Booth's, Mr. Thomas Y^oung's, and Mr. Tom Cole's Alfred the Great. Mr. Robson's black, a nice light hunting filly, was a long way the best of a short class, with Mr. Garbutt's showy, good stepping hackney mare a moderate second. Tlie four-year-old hunters were another wonderful lot of thirty-seven, though we do not go with either the first or second on the award. The Master of Arts sadly lacks breeding, while he is stilf in his movements, as he looks like a very wooden horse to ride ; and Buffoon, though with some good looks, has grown short and high, aud is also not perfect in his action. For our own taking, the nicest horse of the class was Mr. Barkworth's I"'ire- brand, a beautiful sample of the modern hunter, well put together, full of fashion, and quite up to a pace without distressing himself. Mr. Hall, of Scarboro', had also another valuable horse here, with plenty of substance and quality, and chiefly distigm-ed by the absurd title of iSiomach Ache, a poor and not very refined joke on the horse being by Magnum Bonum. Mr. Robson sent a very useful black by King Caradoc, and, amongst the other commendations, being utterly ignorant of what the judges did in this way, we should include Mr. Robson's Emi- grant, Mr. Marlcy's Admiral, Mr. Robson's Bantam, Mr. Peirsou's Lucifer, Mr. Dunhill's chcsnnt, Mr. Nel- son's Motley horse, Mr. Bruce's Emperor, and Mr. HawxwcH's Death Struggle — another disagreeable name, as associated with Strychnine, the sire. The fom'-year- old hunting fillies were again a moderate lot in compa- rison with the colts of the same year, and the winner, Alice, a harness sort sort of mare, weak behind, and with awkward fumbling action ; whilst Mr. Brown's second had a deal more huuting character, if by no means per- fection at all points. The five-year-olds up to 14 st. fur- nished a f;\ir class of twenty-six, with the winner, The Moor, despite his wearing looks aud true action, objected to, and Sir. Jackson Everatt's Memnon, two or three times previ- ously the best of his class, now passed over, though a won- derfully nice horse, and infinitely to be preferred to the slack-backed chesuut which took second place. A very good-looking horse again is Mr. Botterill Hornby's; whOe Mr. Vaughan's bay was only spoilt by his shoulders being so badly placed; and Ingleby, though quickly put out of it, never looked so well. There were many other good ones in this class, as there were in the light division, amongst whom young Mr. Peirson led off on a corky, fine-framed horse by Flatcatcher, followed by a sou of Canute, so deep and level, and with such good limbs, that but for his loaded shoulder he might have stood higher. Sir George Chomley's chesuut mai'e, Mr. Marley's Austin, Mr. M'Cartney's The Falcon, and Mr. Robinson's Red Wine were all commendable ; and Sir. Sutton, with a deep, compact son of old Farnham, led the way to the great horse and great class of the year. The conditions of this went for hunters of six years old or upwards, geldings or mares, by a thorough-bred horse ; and the entries included Sprig of Nobility, Hawk's Eye, Sports- mam, Silas Marner, Voyageur, and some four-aud-thirty others of more or less repute. Still it it was aU over be- fore they even came into the ring ; for Voyageur has been winning all over the country since he came out at Islingtori, though he is far better under cover than in the open. Barring his loaded shoulders he is a mag- nificent horse to stand alongside, but he marches rather than walks, and goes a deal worse in his faster paces ; though, to be sure, never was there so poor a hand at showing a nag as his owner. Mr. Jacob Smith, on the contrary, is about the finest rider in the ring we ever saw, and his style should be a lesson to many a Loudon dealer 234 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. or dealer's man. Instead of keejjing his horse fidgeting on the curb, he gives him head and really lets him walk. It was quite a treat, in fact, to watch the wpy in which he handled The Swell, and we believe the man won quite as much as his horse. Still, The Swell is a very taking nag, a hunter all over up to a certain weight, with famous action, and indeed a deal better going than stripped, as he is very slack in his back ribs, a point in which Sir George Wombwell's horse also does not shine, although when at work we should back him to go faster and longer than the winner. Nevertheless it was a good bold deci- sion, and pretty generally approved. Of the other pre- vious prize-winners. Sprig of Nobility, a fine grown horse at six years old, has quite lost his action, and nothing went worse ; while Silas Marner was the most elegant horse on the ground, though he has not filled out or furnished an ounce of late ; and Sportsman is still a model of a hunter to look on, but for his faulty forelegs and cramped action. There were some twenty more or so, that any man might have been well satisfied with — a grey of Lord Middle- Ion's that went like oil; another of Mr. Hall's, all over like business ; a very varmint mare of Mr. Macbean's ; and an old-fashioned cramp-countrynag of Major Gunter's. Mr. Sykes, again, had a nice yellow chesnut, and as one looked through the drafted at the lower corner, it was with a feeliug of regret that the prizes could not be mul- tiplied. We only hope that the judges did their duty, and commended the class. In the other half of the ring — a mistake, by the way, as there should be two separate rings if only out of regard to the convenience of the public — in this division another Bet of judges were hard at work over all sorts and all sizes, from cart stallions to ponies of sundry hands and inches. Of thirty weight-carrying hacks Mr. Percy's Crafty was once more first, the third year in succession at the All-Yoi'kshire Show, and we hear she will never be ex- exhibited again, saving in the Farmer's Magazine, for which her portrait by Corbet has just been taken. Mr. Pease's well-known Whitefoot, another very clever hack, was a good second in a good class, with young Mr. Jonas Webb's Birmingham mare well up. In the lighter troop of thirty-one, British Queen, having quite recovered herself, scored again for Mr. Milward, though it was a near thing with three or four of them ; but amongst the Ladies' Hackneys the reading was rather the other way, as they were such a middling lot that the difiaculty, as they say in another ring, was to " name the winner." The ponies up to fourteen hands made a very good show, both for numbers and merits, and the Judges put them about and about until people became weary of watching. However, the telegram xiltimately proclaimed that they had fixed on a useful commouish chesnut as first, with the much smarter Dunstan as second. It is somewhat re- markable of this said Dunstan that Mr. Milward can always pass him as within the fourteen hands standard in the North, but that the pony gets above it when he travels South ! There were some other very sweet things in this class, but the smaller ponies only ran up to half-a dozen, and the sorely tried authorities had little more to do. There was certainly a special prize for pairs of car- riage horses, which Mr. Pease won with two good-looking browns, the one by Ashgill and the other by Voltigeur ! We cannot say whether Mr. Spooner happened to be in the way when the other pair of blacks were put through their paces, but one of them wiU certainly make a noise in the world. Nevertheless, they received a second prize, as it is said that the first horse in one of the most important classes was a rank roarer ! But then the Veterinary In- spector was only consulted in any case of difficulty. Of the coach horses, generally, the best class was that comprising the staUions, with an entry of four-and- twenty, most of which were brought into the ring, though with a repetition of the Doncaster award in Prince Arthur first and Caudidate second. Mr. Johnson's horse, that, like Crafty, has now been first three years in succession, is wearing well, if rather over-topped ; while Candidate has all the character of the carriage horse, being very handsome, but by no means too gaudy for his purpose. Mr. Bell's Burland, another stallion of fine quality, was the third on the list. Mr. Burton's Young Ruebeu has a deal of grandeur in his appearance; and the judges clung to fom* or five more before they arrived at " a determination." In fact, both sets took their time over it, and, if anything, were rather too deliberate for the spectators, if not for the exhibitors, who were for hours in the very tortures of prolonged suspense. One missed Yenus from the Cleveland mares, though Rose who now succeeds to the place has plenty of fashion, good bone, and a clean leg among her recommendations ; while the Warwickshire mare, placed second, has a rather var- mint wicked look, with a lean head set on to her neck as fine as a race-horse's shoidd be ; but the class was a small one. Then, the two-year-old coaching geldings only reached to fom* or five ; and the fillies of the same age to but three entries, of which the second appeared to be the more lengthy and level of the lot. The three-year- old harness-horses made a far better front, and, only after the stallions, this was the best class of the section, with twenty-four nominations, and a deal of competition when it came to conclusions. The fillies once more were not so strong, and the coaching mares without foals counted to no higher than five on the telegram. In plain truth, as we have already intimated, neither the coachers nor the agriculturals did much to malie up the great York Horse Show. There were, for instance, but three cart-mares with foal at foot in the catalogue, and one of these we could not find in her box ; as of two- year-olds in work there were in all just half-a-dozen, the first prize from Newcastle being a clever, active good- bodied filly, though without any honour in her own country the other day at Alnwick. The three-year-olds dropped down to four of no veiy remai'kable merit, and the three pairs in work would bear no comparison with what we have previously seen "in couples" either in the north or south, though Messrs Jewitt's blacks, two great powerful geldings, were worthy of their place, if with nothing very particular to beat. Even the entries of cart-stallions stopped at fifteen, as against tweny-five thorough-breds, twenty-four coach horses, and thirty-three roadsters. Nor beyond the two or three placed was the quality very remarkable. The first and third horses are both by England's Glory, and the actual winner, with length, depth, and substance on a short leg, has already earned some similar distinc- tion at Durham and Morpeth. The handsome Clydesdale Champion, the best at Doncaster and second at Ilowden, was now passed over ; but Lincolnshire, who has been first and second, turn and turn about, here and at the Royal meetings, still keeps his place iu front, and a won- derfully powerful true-framed horse he is. He looked, moreover, very fresh and well on Knavesmire, though, as we did not see him out iu company with his conqueror, we will not cavil at the decision, if side by side we should have given the old one the preference. The sheep show was both a large and a good one, more particulai'ly in the long-wool classes, where the Lincolns seldom or ever came out to greater advantage. With size, wool, and symmetry, they were very firm in their touch, affording ample evidence of a due proportion of lean wholesome meat — a merit not always to be met with in a long-wool, especially when prepared for public exhi- bition. In the old class the rams of Mr. Abraham and Mr. Marshall were veiy gi-and and good ; indeed the Baraetby sheep as a six-shear is quite a wonder for hi9 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 235 age, and no doubt the judges made some very proper al- lowance in this way when awarding him the lirst prize. Mr. Marshall's second, the best shearling at Plymouth and Doncaster, is as handsome a specimen of the sort as was ever tui-ned, while he clipped 211bs. of wool, and he pulled down 30st. 121b., jockey weight, when started from Branston for York. This flock gained some further notice in the extra stock for a capital wether, and Mr. Abraham's pen of gimmers were very neat and sorty, showing a deal of breed and style ; as a nice antithesis to the third-prize lot, so poor and plain that they could only have been placed from the lack of competi- tion, for the class was a small one. Amongst the shearling rams neither Mr. Abraham nor Mr. Marshall was in any force, the highest honours going to Mr. Richardson for an admirable, lixm ram, a long way the best of the entry, as Mr.WiUiams's second, though broad and sti'ait, lacks qua- lity, and Mr. King Tombs's third, the first at Reading a month or two back, is by no means a first-rate sample of the Cotswold. The Longford gimmers, again, woiild be nothing more than moderate about home, though Mr. Tombs is going the right way to improve them, as he gave the 210 gs. the other day for a ram at the Broad- field sale. Mr. Beale Brown had also some entries in each of these " other Long-wool" classes, but they made no mark, and Mr. Reid, of Elkstone, a really prime three- shear ram that has been distinguished in his time about home. In the North, however, the Lincolns fairly ran away from the Cotswolds, as we did not hear a decision in this section objected to. There was more discussion over the shearling Leicesters, where Mr. Barton lost his lead to Mr. Cresswell, who won with a large well-matured sheep, carrying a capital fleece, but clearly wanting in some of the fine character of the Leicester. The Barton flock were certainly superior on this point, as they have never shown more quality, though occasionally spoken to with something like disdain as " those Yorkshire Leicesters." The second-prize sheep has already been first this season at Burlington and Driflield, and the first-prize two-shear was also first in 1865 at Plymouth and Doncaster, and first again during the past few weeks at the local shows. The reaction was thought to have set in at the Royal Show last year, and certainly there was an admirable display of the breed at York, though good old Mr. Wiley stood over his rams, and somewhat plaintively told of how many years he had bred pure Leicesters, if he could no longer take prizes with them. Amongst the other ex- hibitors were Mr. Riley of Kipling Cotes, Mr. Marris of Ulceby, Mr. Stamper, Mr. Wright, Mr. Simpson, Mr. Brown of Spalding Moor, and Mr. Lovel of Knapton. Mr. Level's ewes were a very pretty pen, beginning with clean thorough-bred heads, and answering as well to the hand as to the eye — that is, so far as one was enabled to prove them, as they were carefully smeared over with some precious ointment that acted as a caution to keep ofi'. Amongst the gimmers, Mr. Brown managed to separate the two Barton pens with some very neat well-bred animals, though completely out-sized by i\\Q, first-prize, pen, which were marvels of growth on early and well- developed maturity. The short-wools were by no means 80 uniformly good, as but for Lord Walsingham's entries this branch of the business would have fallen through. "With a few Shi'opshircs from Escrick, Kuutsford, and Shrewsbm'y, the Sussex Downs carried all before them, Mr. Woods having no one to make a race witli him amongst the shearlings, and finishing first, second, and third. The wool, however, of some of the Merton sheep was badly " set," or the awards might have read difi'er- ently. This was particularly the case with the com- mended ram in the old class — a second-prize sheep at Plymouth, and that in better form might have been second here. The first place went clearly enough to a ram not exhibited last year, but with a deal of good about him, a true type of head, and eveiy sign of a fine con- stitution. The second was another thick useful sheep, entered by Mr. Waters, of Motcombe, who, we regret to say, died on the Saturday previous to the show. Beyond the pm-e Downs Mr. Mansell was deservedly commended for a Shropshire ram ; and in a moderate class of gimmers Mr. Davies, of Mere Hall, took a second prize with a pen of the same sort. Lord Wenlock had also some success with his Shropshire flock, but the sheep were put together in a very slovenly manner, and the steward, or the shepherd, or whoever is answerable for the duties of showman, shoidd not escape " the wigging" he so well deserves. Considering how handy Escrick is to York, a much better stand might have been made with liis Lordship's flock. There were a few Blackfaces of no remarkable merit, and amongst the extra stock Major Gunter made up a very nice lot of Cotswold ewes and lambs. Prom the want of milk Mr. Mangles is not this year an exhibitor, nor does Mr. Wainman intend showing any- thing, and the pigs were decidedly the weak place of the programme. In fact, we are inclined to think that a Yorkshire pig show is becoming something of a mistake. You come upon an immense brute, fearfully over-fed, and often enough not able to stand, with little or no coat on his back, but still horribly coarse in his character — and over his ugly head a placard intimating that this is the first prize ! There were some of just this sort amongst the large breeds at York, the big sow being as bare as if she had been shaved ; and the big boar with little beyond his mere size to recommend him. To prove this kind of beast, strip him of his superfluous flesh, and you will not find a more ungainly animal in creation than a big wliite pig in store condition. Many of the small and middle- size pigs were again but moderate ; and about the best boar was one entered by Mr. Clark, of Glusbm-n, a new exhibitor, who only breeds a few, and who does not as yet seem to have fallen into the Yorkshire fashion of shearing ; for his pig, beyond his good head, capital shoulders, and lengthy frame, has a famous coat, not too thick nor too coarse, but just what a well-bred one would wish for. The best class, however, was the companion one of sows of any breed, where Mr. Dyson won with a " blue-white ;" whilst four or five more almost as good received some compliment from the authorities. The small sows, under twelve months old, made up another excellent class ; but the small boars of the same age were generally so indifferent that, after awarding the one prize, the judges refused to give in a reserved number. There are, though, few pret- tier pigs in the north than Sir George Wombwell's whites, good and true enough to be exhibited in store condition, where Newburgh won with a pen of three, full of quality, and as " matchable " as Cleveland carriage horses. Flags were flying, bells were ringing, and beds were rising to a guinea each, when the Prince started for the hound show on Priday morning, and where nearly all the crack packs in England were to come in competition. Amongst these were the Badminton, the Heythrop, the Cottesmore, the Ruflord, LordPitzwilliam's, theBrocklesby, the Bramhara Moor, the Yoik and Ainsty, the Puckeridge, the Badsworth, Lord Eglinton's, the Wynnstay, Lord Middlcton's, the Iloldcrness, Lord Portsmouth's, the Vale of White Horse, the Lothians, the New Forest, Lord Poltimore's, the Cotswold, Mr. Harcourt John- stone's, the Tynedale, and the Sinnington. This was far away the largest hoimd-show ever got to- gether, but, from the look we had through the ken- nels, we mv;ch question if it was the best ; and we saw nothing like the Fife bitches. Lord Wemyss' wonderful three couple, or the grand, handsome hounds Mr, 236 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Hill was wont to send on to the flags wlien these com- parisons were first instituted by that same Mr. Tom Par- rington, who has now gained the countenance of royalty. StiU it is said the Prince took more to the horses than the hounds, and no wonder, either, for it requires a very keen hand to go thoroughly with the instincts of a " houndsman." With a notion of shedding after the manner of Mr. Jonathan Gray, who came down specially to see how they carried out his West-of-England system, the implement makers were never so comfortably housed, as never did they muster in such force at the Yorkshire Meetings. With the exception of the Howards, the Hornsbys, and Alfred Crosskill, nearly all the leading firms made entries, whilst these were backed by a number of more local ma- nufacturers or agents. The prize list this year was con- fined to harvest implements— mowers, haymakers, rakes, and reapers. The trials of the mowers have already come ofi^, and those of the reapers are fixed for this week ; so that there was little or no excitement on this part of the showground ; and, as we have already intimated, what with horse judging, hound judging, the visit of the Prince, and divers other attractions all over the city, business was never so bad. It was "just" a fair, and a dull fair too; for there were few or no actual novelties. Fowler's loco- motive cultivator was certainly parading a small ring, and Kansomeshad sent another locomotive all the way from Ips- wich by road, taking eight or nine days to do the journey, and knocking the two propelling wheels about terribly ; so that we can scarcely be said to have arrived at perfection in this branch of mechanism. Then Nicholson of Newark had patented a steam hoist, after the idea of Mr. Scott Burn ; but the wind and the rain put this all awry, as the jack-straws were also stopped by the elements. Rarely have the avenues of stands or rows of engines at work been so thoroughly deserted by the public as at York, even after the immense outlay incurred by the society and the exhibitors. It is not for us to say how this is to be done, but it is very plain that a little more interest must be thrown into what should be so important a feature in any such a festival, as the Machineiy of the Farm. PRIZE LIST. SHEEP. LEICESTERS. Judges (for Lcicesters and other Long-wools) — W. 13artliolomew, Waddinjiton Heath, Lincoln. J. Painter, Mount Verner Villa, Nottingham. W. Sanday, Holme Pierrepoint, Nottingham. Shearling Rams. — First prize, £15, R. W. Creswell, Raven- stone, Ashby-de-la-Znuch. Second of £10, J. Borton, Barton House, Malton. Third of £5, J. Borton. Aged Rams. — First prize, £10, J. Boiton. Second of £5, J. Borton. Pens of Five Ewes. — First prize, £10, R. Lovel, Knapton, Malton. Second of £5, G. Wright, Broughton, Malton. Pens of Five Gimmers. — First prize, £15, J. Borton. Se- cond of £10, W. Brown, Holme-on-Spalding-Moor. Third of £5, J. Borton. LINCOLN OR OTHER LONG-WOOLS. (Not fjualified to compete as Leicesters.) Shearling Rams. — First prize, £15, J. W. Richardson, Wil- loughton, Kirton Lindsey. Second of £10, C. Williams, Carl- tou-le-moor-land, Newark. Third of £5, J. K. Tombs, Lang- ford, Lechlade. Rams of any other age. — First prize, £10, AV. Aliraham, Barnetby-le-Wold, LTlcchy. Second of £5, T. B. Marshall, Branston, Lincoln. Com'mended : T. B. Marshall. Pens of Five Shearling Gimmers.— First prize, £15, W. Abraham. Second of £10, J. K. Tombs. Third of £5, W. Chaplin, Tathwell, Louth. SHORT-WOOLS. Judges. — H. Fookes, Whitchurch, Blandford. C. Randall, Chadbury, Evesham. W. Rigden, Hove, Brighton. Shearling Rams. — First prize, £15, Lord Walsingham, Mcrton Hall, Tlietford. Second of £10, Lord Walsingham. Third of £5, Lord Walsingham. Highly commended : T. IManseU, Adcott Hall, Shrewsbury. Commended: J. Waters. Rams of any other age. — First prize, £10, Lord Walsing- ham. Second of £5, J. Waters, Motcombe, Eastbourne. Pens of Five Shearling Gimmers. — First prize, £15, Lord Wenlock, Escrick Park. Second of £10, D. R. Davies, Mere Old Hall, Knutsford. Third of £5, Lord Wenlock. MOUNTAIN OR BLACK-FACED. Shearling Rams. — Prize of £10, W. Rudsdale, Danby, Grosmout. Rams of any other age. — Prize of £5, C. Smith, Broadgate, Westerdale. Pens of Five Ewes certified to have reared lambs in 1866.— Prize of £5, C. Smith. EXTRA STOCK. Medal to T. B. Marshall (for two-shear Lincoln wether) ; and jMedal to J. and E. Tindall, Knapton Hall, Malton (tor one two-sliear ewe and one five-shear ewe). PIGS. Judges (for Large Breed). — W. Bartholomew. J. Painter. W. Sanday. Judges (for Small Breed). — H. Fookes. C. Randall. W. Rigden. Boars of a large breed. — First prize, £5, J. Dyson, Leeds. Second of £2, R. E. Duckering, Northorpe, Kirton KinJsey. Sows of a large breed, in pig or milk. — First prize, £5, J. Lakland, Retford. Second of £2, R. E. Duckering. Boars of a small breed. — First prize, £5, J. Crabtree, Ship- ley, Leeds. Second of £2, W. Hatton, Addingham, Leeds. Sows of a small breed, in pig or milk. — First prize, £5, H. Abel, jun., Wigginton, York. Second of £2, W. Linton, Sheriff Hutton, York. Boars of any breed not qualified to compete in the previous classes. — First prize, £5, W. Clark, Glusburn, Cross HiUs, Leeds. Second of £2, R. E. Duckering. Sows of any breed, in pig or milk, not qualified to compete in the previous classes. — First prize, £5, R. Barrett, Sutton Mills, Cross Hills, Leeds. Second of £2, B. Calvert, Bingley, Bradford. JHyJdij commended: J. Gledhill, Normanton ; J, Dyson, and W. Sagar. Three Store Pigs of any breed and of the same litter, from four to nine months old. — First prize, £5, Sir George 0. AVombwell, Bart., Newburgh Park. Second of £2, R. E. Duckering. Pigs not exceeding Twelve Months Old, Boars of a large lireed. — Prize of £3, R. E. Duckering. Sows of a large breed. — Prize of £3, R. E. Duckering. Boars of a small breed. — Prize of £3, W. Sagar, Saltaire, Bradford. Sows of a small breed. — Prize of £3, W. Holmes, Groves, York. EXTRA STOCK. First Medal, R. E. Duckering (for pen of white pigs). Se- cond Medal, M. "Walton, Halifax (for middle breed gilt). HORSES. Judges for Huxteks and Roadsteus. E. M. Burbidge, Thorpe Arnold, Melton Miowbray, Nicol Mibie, Faldonside, Melrose, N.B. S. Slater, North Carlton, Lincoln. Judges eor Coaching and Agricultural Horses. AV. Godson, Normanby-by-Stow, Gainsborough. C. M. Nainbv, Barnetl)y-le-Beck, Grimsby. A. Turnbull,^AIiddle Ord, Berwick, N.B. Stallions, thoroughbred, for getting weight-carrying hunters. — First prize, £50, Sir G. Choraley, Bart., Howsham (An- ijelus). Second of £20, J. Cassou, Burgh Sands, Carlisle (Motley). Stallions for getting Coach-horses. — First prize, £20, J THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 237 Johnson, Brigham, Driffield (Prince Arthur). Second of £10, G. Holmes, Newbiggiu, Beverley (Candidate). Stallions for Roadsters. — First prize, £20, J. W. Pease, M.P., Woodlands, Darlington (The Norfolk Cob). Second of £10, W. Stilborn, Darlington (Pretender) Stallions for getting Agricultural Horses. — Pirst prize, £20, E. L. Moffett, Tanfield Lea, Gateshead (All Glory). Second of £10, S. Strickland, Headley HaU, Tadcaster (Lincolnshire). Third of £5, Mathew Reed, Beamish Burn, Chester-le-Street (England's Glory). Brood Mares for breeding Hunters, with Foals sucking. — First prize, £10, W. T. Scartli, Keverstone, Darlington (Plucky). Second of £5, W. H. Clark, Hook House, Howdcn (by West Australian). Brood Mares for breeding Coaching-horses, with Foals sucking. — First prize, £10, E. Robinsou, Natferton, Driffield (Rose) . Second of £5, J. S. Tate, Budbrook Park, Warwick (Katy). Brood Mares for breeding Roadsters, with Foals sucking. — First prize, £10, W. Major, Sledmere Grange, Malton (Polly). Second of £5, A. Cook, Huggate, Pocklington (Favourite). Brood Mares for breeding Agricultural Horses, with Foals sucking. — First prize, £10, David Gouudrill, Hagthorpe, Howden (Damsel). Second of £5, G. Linton, Low-street, Bedale (Jewel). Two-year-old Hunting Geldings. — First prize, £10, J. B. Booth, KiUerby, Catterick (Bird of Passage). Second of £5, H. Darley, Aldby Park, York (Minor Canon). Two-year-old Hunting FiUies. — First prize, £7, W. Vaughan, Middleton-St. -George, Darlington. Second of £3, the Hon. W. E. Duncombe, M.P., The Leazes, Bedale. Two-year-old Coaching Geldings. — First prize, £10, J. Appleyard, Wistow, Selby. Second of £5, J. Reader, Holme- on-Spalding-Moor, York. Two-year-old Coaching Fillies. — First prize, £7, R. Myers, Harun Mill, Helmsley. Second of £3, C. Tindall, Scampston, Malton (Wild Flower). Two-year-old Agricultural Geldings or Fillies. — First prize, £7, W. Cochran Carr, South BenweU House, Newcastle-on- Tyne (Trimmer). Second of £3, W. Parker, 0.\ton, Tad- caster (Diamond). Three-year-old Hunting Geldings. — First prize, £15, W. H. Clark, Hook (The General). Second of £5, G. Holmes, New- begin (Tom). Three-year-old Hunting Fillies. — First prize, £10, Jos. Rohson, Windlebeck, Ganton. Second of £5, T. Garbutt, Yarm (S:iUy). Three-year-old Coacliing Geldings. — First prize, £15, R. Nelson, Barton Hill House, York. Second of £5, J. Kirby, Burton Fields. Three-year-old Coaching Fillies. — First prize, £10, R. Barker, Dunnington (Polly). Second of £5, J. Jackson, jun.. Great Ayton (Chtf Lass) . Three-year-old Roadster Geldings or FiUies. — First prize, £7, W. Major, Sledmere Grange (Miss Giles). Second of £3, J. Ward, Bohemia, York (Grace Darling). Three-year-old Agricultural Geldings or Fillies. — First prize, £10, J. Appleyard, Wistow. Second of £5, Thos. Upton, Allerthorpe (Rose). Pairs of four-year-old and upwards Agricultural Geldings or Mares. — First prize, £10, W. and R. Jewitt, Brackenholme (Tom and Jack). Second of £5, S. Thompson, Skipworth (Diamond and Mettle). Coaching Mares, from four to six years old, without a foal. — First prize, £10, G. Richardson, Moor Town, Beverley. Second of £5, H. Moore, Beverley. Four-year-old Hunting Geldings. — First prize, £25, T. Gee, Dewhirst Lodge, Wadhurst, Sussex (Master of Arts) . Second of £10, G. Holmes (BulFoou). Four-year-old Hunting F'illies. — First prize, £15, T. B. Ireland, Tadcaster (Alice). Second of £5, T. Brown, Butter- wick, Barton-le-street, Malton. Five-year-old Hunters, geldings or mares, by a thorough- bred horse, and up to 14 stones and upwards. — First prize, £30, H. Jewison, Raisthorpe, Driffield (The Moor). Second of £20, W. Hartley, Rosehill, Carlisle (Templemore). Five-year-old Hunters, geldings or mares, by a thorough- bred horse, and up to 12 stones and upwards. — First prize, £20, G. B. Peirson, Baldersby, Thirsk (Maroon). Second of £10, G, Riugrose, Flixton, Ganton (Canute). Hunters, six years old or upwards, geldings or mares, by a thorough-bred horse. — First prize, £25, J. Smith, Humberton, Boroughbridge (The Swell). Second, Sir G. Wombwell, Bart., Newburgh Park (Hawk's Eye) . Gentlemen's Hackneys, of any age or sex, up to 1-t stone. — First prize, £20, H. J. Percy, Howsenrigg, Aspatria (Crafty). Second of £10, J. W. Pease, M.P., Woodlands, Darlington (Whitefoot). Gentlemen's Hackneys, of any age or sex, up to 12 stones and upwards. — First prize, £15, R. Milward, Thurgarton Priory, Southwell (British Queen). Second of £5, J. B. Barkworth, WiUerby, Hull (Cornice). Ladies' Hackneys, of any ai?e or sex. — First prize, £10, W. B. Richardson, St. Mary's Lodge, York (Kitty). Second of £5, the Hon. Admiral Howard, Castle Howard (Columbia). Ponies, above 12 and not exceeding U hands high. — First prize, £10, E. Tranmer, East Horsley, Northallerton (Vis- count). Second of £5, R. Milward (Dunstan). Ponies, not exceeding 12 hands high. — F'irst prize, £7, J. W. Richardson, Willoughton, Kirton Lindsey (Uncle Tom). Se- cond of £3, J. Mitchelson, Pickering (Fanny). Special Prizes for, Horses. — Pairs of four years old Carriage Horses to be shown in harness. — First prize, £30, J. W. Pease, M.P., Darlington (Ashgill and Voltigeur) ; second of £10, R. Smith, York. Extra Stock, Horses. — First Medal, W. Brigham, Be- verley (for half-bred hunting stallion. Wild Hero) ; second, R. Schofield, Howden (black coach-horse). DAIRY PRODUCE. Judges. — T. P. Dickinson, Stockton-on-Tees. W. Wilson, York. Cheese (not less than 1 cwt. in quantity, made since Octo- ber 1st, 18G5, the produce of one dairy). — £5, H. Saville, Rufford Abbey, Ollerton. Butter (fresh, 61bs. in single lbs.) — £3, J. Nightingale, Guisbro' ; £2, G. Daniel, Elvington ; £1, Harriet Fletcher, Tadcaster. WOOL. Judge. — T. Clayton, Stainley House, Ripley. Five hogg fleeces (long wool) . — First prize, £5, T. Marris, Ulceby ; second of £3, Wm. Blackburn, Stokesley. Five hogg fleeces (short wool). — First prize, £5, T. Mansell, Shrews- bury ; second of £3, T. Marris. Hif/hl;/ commended, D. R. Davies ; commended. Lord Weulock. Special Prize for the heaviest and best fleece of long wool. — J. Barker, Scoresby, Kexby. HOUNDS. Judges.— The Earl of Macclesfield. The Earl of Portsmouth. Lord Poltimore. Lord Dacre. Sir Watkiu W. Wynn. Mr. J. A. Thomson. Two couples of entered Hounds, dogs (no hound being older than a seven-season hunter).— First prize, £20, Lord Yarbo- rongh ; second of £10, Lord Poltimore. Two couples of entered Bitches. — First prize, £20, G. Lane Fox ; second of £10, Duke of Beaufort. Unentered Hounds, dogs (pupped since 1st December, 186-i).— First prize, £10, Sir J. Trollope, Bart.; second of £5, C. F. C. Colmore. Unentered Bitches. — First prize, £10, Lord Yarborough; second of £5, Sir C. Slingsby. Stallion Hounds (not less than three-season hunters, and certified to be the .sires of living puppies). — Prize of £10, Lord Poltimore. Brood Bitches (having reared litters since the 1st of De- cember, 1S65). — Prize of £10, Lord Middleton. THE GENERAL MEETING was held on Thursday, the Hon. Admiral Duncombe, M.P., as President of the year, in the chair. Deputations attended from Scarborough, Thirsk, Malton, and Whitby. The sub- scriptions promised for the next year's sliow, at Thirsk, amounted already to nearly £800, and from Whitby to £700. Sir J. V. B. Johnstone, M.P., proposed that the next year's show be lield at Scarborough, which was seconded by Mr. J. D. Dent, M.P. 238 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Earl Cathcaut proposed Thirsk, and the motion was se- conded by the Hon. G. E. Lascelles. Mr.G.LEGARD proposed and the Hon. "W. G. Eden seconded Malton ; and Mr. H. S. Thompson proposed and the Hon. "W. E. Buncombe seconded Whitby. On tlie votes being taken there were thirteen for Thirsk, eight for Malton, and for Scarborougli and Whitby tliree each. The two latter were struck out and the votes taken for Tliirsk and Malton, when there appeared fifteen for the one, and ten for the other. The show of the Society in 1867 will conse- quentlv be held at Thirsk. On "the motion of Lord Catiicaet, Sir George WombwcU was elected President for the ensuing year. The Vice-President and Council for the ensuing year were then appointed as follows ; Vice-Presibents. — The Duke of Devonshire, Earl Cath- cart, Lord Wenlock, the Hon. Admiral Duncombe, M.P., J. Brown, and W. llutsou. Council.— Lord Bolton, Lord Herries, Lord WliarDcliire, the Hon. W. E. Duncombe, M.P., the Hon. W. G. Eden, the Hon. G. E. Lascelles, T. C. Booth, Sir J. V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P., J. D. Dent, M.P., W. Hodgson, Sidney L. Lane, B. T. Woodd, M.P.,'Major Gunter, P. Saltmarshe, G. Legard, H. S. Thompson, Viscount Downe, J. Wells, T. C. Johnson, T. Garbutt, George Lane Fox, Blajor Stapylton, R. F. Shawe, F. Jordan, E. J. Beutley, Rawdon Briggs, T. P. Outhwaite, Robert Swann, John Peirson, S. Wiley, and T. Dawson. The proceedings terminated with a vote of thanks to Ad- miral Duncombe, the retiring President, " for having worked so hard and so steadily throughont the year." TRIAL OF REAPING MACHINES AT PETERBOROUGH. Spite of wind and water the Peterborough Agricultural Society has managed to come out with one of the neatest " trials" of the season. The event had been fixed for Friday, Aug. 3rd ; but though continued rain and stona necessitated a postponement, a clear-up on that morning brought many hundreds of fai-mers to the city on " spec," and consequently implement-makers were telegramnied for, and in the afternoon most of the entered machines "were put through their paces. However, it was on Mon- day that the official trial came off, on Mr. WagstafF's farm, at Woodston, within a long half-mile of the Peter- borough Railway Stations ; and a large number of spec- tators assembled to witness the contest for a couple of ten-pouud cups. As to the general arrangements of the meeting under the able and obliging stewards — not forget- ting the soul of the day's enterprise, namely, the ever- active and genial Mr. Barford, who in the toasting after dinner (" The three gentlemen who had been the main instruments in promoting this contest, Messrs. Amies and Barford and Mr. George Vergette") was so cla- morously called upon to " say ditto " to his amiable partner Mr. Amies — we have only room to say that they met with decided approval, more particularly the prime midday dejeuner, in a really water-tight mar- quee. The weather was threatening from the very first, and it was only by the smartest practice in bringing each machine into play directly its forerunner had completed its round — in the first trial — that the business was put through before "the rains descended and the floods came." Showers, which wetted at intervals during the day, finally settled into a steady down-pour, quenching all enthusiasm about reapers ; luckily, however, not until the fun was all over, and Mr. "Wells, the chairman, had carried by accla- mation thanks to everybody concerned, and had presented the pieces of plate to the winners, and the company had tasted bottle after bottle of champagne out of the " self- delivery" prize chalice. "To-day, if ever," we expected, "will the testing be severe ; for what crops are likely to be found upstanding staight and bright after the weather that has been raging for the last few weeks ? Now, if ever, we shall find out which machine can best cope with a six-feet-strawed fifty-bushel-an-acre crop like those which in most places grow upon very high-farming, and which are now lying prostrate or standing in twisted shocks over thousands of acres in the Fen Level and elsewhere." But no: the crops were on the light land noted for ripening its corn early ; the wheat was a nice crop standing about elbow high, with only a few slight patches laid low — the easiest job imaginable except that the wind blew rather too stormy and gustily ; and the barley, with a two-and-a half to three feet straw, presented no difficulty beyond being wet, and therefore awkward in delivery. We were evidently in for a nice easy trial, favourable to the machine makers; the machine that should cut well would, undoubtedly, be a good test for the average of English corn fields ; but which would be best adapted for bulky, lodged, and stonn- broken crops would by no means clearly appear. First of all, the wheat was " opened out" by that independent piece of mechanism which hails from Beverley, and with- out which the stewards and judges on the occasion would not be able to stir a step. The Beverley Company's ma- chine charged boldly into the crop anywhere and in any requisite direction, without stoppage, laying its swathe to right or left hand as required. Tlie other machines fol- lowed suit ; and it was observed that all, or perhaps nearly all, made their " preliminary" round without a hitch of any kind, though, when the actual competition came, some of the machines seemed to have got nervous, meeting with troubles they had before escaped. The first trial was of the " self-delivering" machines, for which a cup was offered by the Society. The competitors drew lots for their tm-us, and a very effective peripatetic cordon having been improvised, consisting of a gang of sturdy workmen carrying a rope to hold the crowd off the horses, the machines, and the officials, the machines in rotation were worked one course along all the four sides of a square of several aci'es. The judges were eminently practical hands — ]\Ir. William Cranfield, of Buckden, Hunts ; Mr. Jno. Walker Watts, of Orlingbury, Northampton ; and Mr. Charles Derry, of Geduey, Long Sutton, Lincolnshire : they carefully fol- lowed each reaper, not remitting their attention for a single instant from the work before them ; and we believe the universal opinion of the large gathering of agriculturists present exactly agreed with the verdict ultimately pro- nounced. Of course it must be borne in mind that the allowance of only one round to a machine makes sharp work for a judge as well as for a competitor ; and this occasion furnished additional evidence in favour of a lengthened trial, instead of the haphazard draw-your- number, follow-somebody-else's-work style of contest, which necessarily obtains in brief trials, lasting but half a day, and giving nobody more than a few hundred yards' race. The first machine tried was Burgess and Key's " screw-delivery" reaper. " What ! that old thing come up again ?" says somebody ; " that has been out of date a long time." " But, my friend," says somebody else, " you have never seen fliis ' screw-delivery,' which is a bran-new machine, very different to the rather lumbering affair that you are speaking of." It appears that Messrs. B. and K., reflecting that a tool must have some solid value to eft'ect its own sale at the rate it has done since they THE FARMBR'8 MAGAZINE. 239 introduced it, decided upon combining the screw-platform witli the new framing and driving-gear invented by Mr. Burgess Junior. And as this machine seems likely to make some figure in the world, we may as well try to describe to our readers what it really is. The general form is much like that of the old machine (as evident from our friend's little mistake above) ; the revolving conical " divider" picking up and laying outside corn over the cutters, the three red transverse screws on the sloping platform receiving the cut corn from under the reel, and delivering it in swathe behind the seat of the driver. But you notice at once that, while the width of cut is 5 feet 3 inches, as before, the total breadth of the machine from outside to outside is 8 ft. 0 in., instead of (as it used to be) 11 feet ; so that it will pass through ordinary gateways. The makers tell us, also, that the weight is reduced from 15 down to 12| cwt. In place of the stout but clumsy knife-beam of wood, we have here an iron one, much bet- ter for cutting close down to the ground in barley and short-strawed crops. An endless link-chain di-ives the reel directly from the main-wheel axis ; and the first screw, instead of receiving motion by a strap, has its axis prolonged, and carrying a pinion gearing directly with the main driving-wheel. The driving-gear for the crank- shaft, the crank and connecting-rod, and indeed the prin- cipal iron framing and adjustments of the machine, are all placed between the driving-wheel and the platform — packed as it were in a nutshell — one of the compactest and prettiest arrangements ever seen. The crank con- necting-rod being very short (though three times the length of the stroke, which is the best proportion for giving strength without undue fr-iction) is placed, not be- hind or in advance of the main-wheel, but in a line with the main-wheel axle, the knife-beam also being in the same line ; so that when this wheel sinks into hollows or rises over hills the knife-beam does the same, and the machine is perfectly balanced. The crank being so low as to be on a level with the knife, avoids the usual downward thrust and hard rubbing and wear of the slide, correspondingly lightening the draught of the entire machine. The " performance " of this new tool is soon told. The cutting round all four sides of the field with smooth-edged knives, instead of the old sickle-toothed cutters, was perfect ; but (as many people observed) "anybody can cut — the bother is in delivery." Well, the corn was laid (even on the windward side) in a regular and beautiful swathe, with less of the "two dif- ferent angles" than we ever saw come fi'om the "old" screw machine. The action of the first screw (next to the knife-beam) in instantly taking the cut corn back from the front, and so clearing the knives that nothing loose can stay for a moment to cause clogging, was ad- mirable ; and, indeed, the smooth motion of the whole screw delivery seems to be just what is required in dealing i-apidly with very ripe grain. Owing to the slow motion of the reel — this having, moreover, only lour blades, in- stead of six (and is to have a new mode of fastening the arms, in place of the wedges, which work loose in hot weather) — and owing to the platform being laid low and retiring back, so that the reel-boards do not touch any portion of the corn which has once fallen upon it, there is the least possible amount of thrashing. And the whole duty performed by the machine, with the obvious light- ness of the work for the horses, at once commanded general approbation, and drew forth lots of opinions that this would be amongst the " favourites." The next machine was Bm-gcss and Key's improved " M'Cormick," which, with a rake carried by the revolving reel, sweeps ofi^ the corn in sheaf-bunches at the side. The " cut " is five feet, the stubble was left closely shaven, and the bunches were delivered tolerably square-ended and neat, with very little scattered corn, though much in- ferior in this respect to the work of the best-handled manual reapers. Third on the list came the mammoth machine of the Beverley Iron and Waggon Company, which, propelled by a team of three horses, mows down a breadth of eight feet, delivering at either side in swathe at the rate of 25, 30, " quite commonly " 33, and, as a maxhimm, 36 acres in a-day. The cutting was close nnd good, excepting the occasional inequalities where the steersman raised the knife-beam in passing over furrows, and the swathe was beautifully laid, though on the windward side of the field the corn was caught once or twice upon the projecting bar. The capacity of tliis machine to cut the largest area per day, and to deliver in a well-laid swathe, was very ap- parent ; but a heavier crop would have better proved its value, and in a short round the rather awkward turning of the machine produced an unfavourable impression on the crowd of criticising followers, who deem every delay a token of failure, whereas this particular reaper more than any other shows its full powers only in very large en- closures, or when worked to-and-fro along one side of a long field. Complete independence of any scythe-man for opening a crop will always be a grand point in favour of this machine ; while lightness of draught in proportion to work done is another advantage to be added to the many possessed by this lately-improved form of what was really the original model and ideal of what a reaper should be. Number four was Burgess and Key's side-sheafing M'Cormick — the old pattern, with the reel-rake. There was a choke once at starting on the windward side, and the sheaf-bunches were not well delivered, being much too rough, with too much loose corn trailed on the ground. The jerking motion of the rake is very imperfect in com- parison with the smooth action now adapted in the " Im- proved" raker-oif already described. Hornsby's swathe-delivery machine came next, cutting exceedingly well and delivering a well-laid swathe, though the work was not quite perfect on the windward side. After turning the first corner, some loose corn, littered by the previous machine, catching in the knives caused a hitch in the cutting, a narrow, strip of the crop being left only partially cut. This was all rectified by clearing the knives at the next corner. Now here comes in the in- adequacy of short trials like these, which, though fair for one as another, partake too much of the character of a raffle. If Ilornsby had followed his own machine, pro- bably no annoying incident of the kind would have oc- curred ; if the reaper had been stopped at once, and the straw removed, the long row of bad cutting would have been avoided ; but then there would have been "a stop- page," and in going only a single round a machine loses all its credit with the public if seen to pull up with " something the matter." To succeed in a scamper of this sort, you want the most careful and cute handling of your machine, or else uncommonly good luck, or a little of both. • Mr. Cranston followed with Wood's machine, which delivers sheaf-bunches at the side by a rotary rake ; and this, being a left-handed reaper, took the company by surprise by going round " the other way." On two sides of the field, it made good work, with a 5 feet cut ; but tlie sheaves were considerably scattered, and ingenious as the automatic rake undoubtedly is, the motion was not smooth enough to please the eye, and there appeared to be a little awkwardness in seating the driver, so that he rides in some fear of his machine ; and no wonder, when the rake once during the trial knocked his billycock ofi". Number seven was Samuelson's " windmill" — as some people called it ; in which four revolving arms on an upright axis operate, two as reel-boards laying the com on the table, and two as rakes sweeping off the cut 240 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. coruia sLeaf-bunches at the side. The workmauhcre is placed out of danger by being mounted upon the back of one of the horses — a position from which lie can see little of what the machine is doing. The breadth of cut is 5 feet, but though the action of the rakes is smooth and regular, the sheaves on two sides of the field were certainly veiy rough — spread out too fan-like in form, some of them 7 feet across. On the other two sides of the iield the work was very much better. Here, again, is another consideration telling against short trials, in which all the machines, no matter what may be their peculiarities of construction, or what position of the crop may suit them best, must go through the same unvarying ordeal. Different machines cut best on different sides of a crop, and in practical harvest-work perhaps none of the machines tried on Monday would have beeu made to cut all round, but only where they could perform most perfectly. Another " seK-delivery" reaper was on the ground ; but as it deposits sheaf-bunches behind, the makers thought it would stand no chance against side-delivery machines, and therefore did not enter for the cup. The pubhc were to have had the privilege of seeing it in ope- ration, but the inclement weather forbade, so we can only report what was said of it by persons who had seen it work. Bm-gess and Key's back self-sheaf-delivery reaper has their new gear-work and a four-bladed reel, one of the blades being a rake simply carried by the arms like a reel-board, without any mechanical action whatever. The platform is a plain board supported in a sloping position, as in Hornsby's, and the Beverley Company's swathing machines ; but when the rake comes round after passing its lowest point, the platfonu is dropped like the ordinary tipping-platform of a manual-delivery reaper, only it is tilted by the machine instead of by a man's foot. To effect this, nothing more is needed than a cam on the axis of the reel, a bcll-erank lever, and a connecting-rod. The action is the simplest aud easiest possible ; and the bunches are declared to us to be delivered with pei'fectly square ends and parallel straws, without the slightest littering of loose corn. What a wonder it seems that this was never thought of before ! The second cup, given by Messrs. Amies and Barford, the Peterborough implement-manufacturers, was for " the best manual-delivery reaping-machine." The first tried was Hornsby's semi-manual reaper, delivering in sheaf-bunches at the side. The full cut, 5 feet, was taken only on the lay-over side of the field ; but the sheaf-bunches were thoroughly well laid — in fact, by far the best that had been made during the trials. Every- . body seemed to appreciate the combination of advantages in this machine, in whichwe have the rake-mau, so indispensa- ble in the heaviest crops, the discretionaiy power as to size of sheaves, easy delivery (leaving the rake-man nothing to do but gather the laid and twisted grain upon his plat- form), and side-delivery of the well-formed bunches, so that corn can be . left untied for any time ; while in dis- tricts where the hands are not yet accustomed to work in large gangs, the cut field can be "put out" iu plots for separate parties to tie. Unquestionably the best work of the day was accom- plished by Cuthbert, with his one-horse mnchine, taking its full cut of five feet, the rake-meu delivering at the side off a quadrant platform. Cuthbert is justly renowned as " the cleverest fellow in England with the rake" ; and it is astonishing how, by whipping up a laid bit here and separating another there, and by a quick dip of the rake after each delivery preventing any scatter, he contrives to excel in performance. But the machine itself (an improved Hussey) is particulai-ly strong in those parts which long experience iu the Iield has shown to be most fragile ; and though the platform is a fixture, with no mechanical facility for easing the delivery, it is probably the very best adapted for bulky crops, in which the rake-man has enough to do with his hands, without balancing himself to raise a foot at every two or three seconds of time. The horse had rather hard pulling ; but then the machine was kept to its full width of cut. Bamlett's one-horse machine did well, taking a 4i-feet cut, aud delivering excellent sheaves. Next came Cuthbert's one-horse back- delivery reaper, taking 4^ feet breadth, delivering perfectly-laid bunches. In this machine a new arrangement of gearing has been adopted, and the platform covered with sheet zinc, both being improvements upon the parts of the old machine. Samuelson's one-horse reaper made very good work, excepting that the sheaf-bunches were rather too roughly laid on that side of the field where the ci'op overhung the platfonn. The cut is 4| feet, the delivery effected by a tipping slat platform. The peculiarity of this natty little tool is in its single motion — that is, one wheel aud one pinion only — for di'iving the crank ; and as this necessi- tates a slow rate of revolution, sufficient cutting action is obtained by doubling the length of stroke (that is, dis- tance of vibration) of the knives, which instead of oscil- lating between two adjacent fingers, pass over two of these intervals, each cutter passing clean through a finger mid- way of the stroke. The draught appears particularly easy for the horse. The one-horse reaper of Picksley and Sims, with tipping slat-platform and rather light iron gearvvork, also having a "hollow knife-bar" for securing lightness of draught, did its cutting well ; but the rake-man, not quite up to the art of handling the rake, allowed the slats of his platform, when suddenly rising, to comb out some of the top straws of the deposited sheaf-bunches, and so trail and litter them on the ground. Hornsby's one-horse machine, with five-feet cut tipping slat-platform, and globular bearing for the crank and eon- nectiug-rod, which lessens friction and di-aught, was next put through its performance. The stubble was cut close and even, and the delivery so skilfully managed that the sheaf-bunches lay neat and square ended, in the very best form for binding. By a knowing touch of the rake on the few straws that the platform slats will catch when rising after depositing a bunch, these straws are carried instead of being littered, and so form part of the next sheaf. This dexterous use of rake and platform — working hand and foot in exact time, and so on — is evidently practicable where you have a light or medium crop to deal with ; but in tackling a bulky straw, and having to send oft' a big sheaf-bunch at every two seconds (as in the case of most of the Fen crops), we doubt whether the moveable platform, depressed and lifted by the man's foot, can equal the fixed platform, which leaves the rakeman planted firmly on his feet, free to work his rakes to best advantage in gathering the uncut corn together, and separating the cut sheaf for delivery. Last of the series of manual reapers came Wood's one- horse machine. This cut well ; but the tipping slat- platform (of which Wood is the original iuveutoi') did not come uj) to Horns'oy's in performance, the man de- positing fair sheaves, but scattering a little here and there upon the ground. Still, as we have already said, what is one short round for a reaping trial, any more than for a Macc-and-Goss fight ? And things do come fine on these occasions ; for we heard one competitor apologize for his sheaf-bunches bciug inferior to those of another man, by remarking that "fewer people had fol- lowed him round, and so had not kept so much wind olf hiin as off the other !" After luncheon came the trial of the "selected" machines in the Self-delivery class. There were Hornsby's blue swathei-, the Beverley three -horse-power, Burgess THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 241 and Key's " Young Screw" (if that is not a contradiction in terms), and Samuelson's " Windmill." Acre plots had been set out in a field of lightish wheat, lodged only ia a few spots, without ridge and furrow, but having a ground-surface rough from want of rolling in spring ; soft too, and wet from the recent Aquarian weather ; and all the pieces of work had been " opened" in beautiful style by the handy Beverley machine. All four com- petitors started together at 3.38, and all making a quick run of it. Burgess and Key were first up at 4.10, fol- lowed by Hornsby at 4.11, and Samuelson at 4.11^ ; while the Beverley people, wonderfully unlucky, brought up their last strip at 4.16. One acre in 50 minutes is not bad cutting. How was it, then, that the S feet wide reaper did not finish 15 or 20 minutes earlier than the others ? Well, it met with some nasty heaps of soil in the crop ; and in turning at one end, the driver, in too great a hurry, unhooked one horse too soon, dropping the trace-chain upon the spur-wheels of the machine so that it got fast jammed between two cog-teeth, and the wheels had to be removed from the bearings be- fore the chain could be released. But a narrow plot was unfavourable to showing off' the expedition of this imple- ment ; seeing that its last breadth, out of ouly six or seven, was a mere strip, varying from a foot or two to nothing, but which the whole 8 feet-wide machine had to make a separate journey to cut. Also, the time lost in turning round at the ends, by unhooking a chain, leading off one horse at right angles to the others, and then plac- ing horse and chain agaiu in position, tells badly in a race up and down a short plot. We noticed that aU four machines cut well, excepting when laid places came in their way, the eai's lying forward in the direction of the machine's advance. In these cases they all alike left long straw, and scattered a few of the short-cut heads on the ground. We observed, too, that while occasional straws were tossed in the air by Burgess and Key's reaper (having four reel-boards and a slow revolution of the reel), more were thrown up by Hornsby's (having six reel-boards, at about the same speed of rota- tion of the reel), and more still were sent up fiying by the Beverley machine (having six reel-boards and a more rapid speed of the reel). The swathes were well laid by all three swathing machines. Samuelson's sheaf-raker machine delivered bunches rather untidy, and too much spread. Rain began to pour, and only a very short further test- ing was accomplished, upon a piece of good barley. The final results were that Burgess and Key's new screw- delivery swathing reaper won the Society's ten-pound silver cup, and Hornsby's semi-manual side-delivery sheafing-machine gained the other cup ctt'ered by Messrs. ^bnies and Barford. This latter was a "walk over the course," all the other competing machines having wUh- (lra.v,-n on andins: that a. " semi-manual" was allowed to stand in the same class with " manual" reapers. Here is a very pretty puzzle for the debating-clubs. Hornsby's machine cannot deliver sheaves without the man, there- fore it is a "manual-delivery" machine ; or, on the other hand, the man canuot deliver sheaves without the endless chains driven by the machine, therefore it is not a " manual-delivery" machine. Which is it to be ? What did Messrs. Amies and Barford mean when they framed the conditions of their offer ? The Peterborough Society can adduce in defence the precedent of " the Royal," which at Plymouth admitted and honoured Hornsby's reaper as "a manual delivery." But in future, Societies wiU have to alter the terms of the prize-sheets, and classify the machines as "automatic" or otherwise ; though it would be a question even then in which class the Beverley reaper ought to go, seeing that it requires a man to steer and level it. And what is to be said of " manual " machines that deliver with the aid of rollers, webs, or tilting platforms huug on balance-levers or springs? "Deliveiy," too, important as it is, is not evei'ything ; and if prize-sheets name only this part of the mechanical operation to be performed, great misappre- hensions are sure to arise as to what we really require iu perfect reaping machines, TRIAL OF REAPERS AND RAKES AT THE YORKSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. This part of the York Meeting was made — and we may at once say unnecessarily — a supplementary matter. What we mean by unnecessarily is, the corn cut on Tuesday and Wed- nesday might all have been experimented upon without injury in the week previous, and the oats would have been better if cut ten days previously. There is no doubt that witli the prepara- tions for the Royal visit to the show, and arranging for the large sporting element in the shape of hounds and horses for galloping up to them, the secretary and the stewards of the yard had quite enough on their hands to do elliciently, and about which duty we saw no defect nor heard any complaint. But this postponement of the trials was a serious loss of time to many exhibitors, and would-have-been competitors, as well as a great additional expense to those who displayed tenacity of purpose and enterprise enough to stop over the Sunday and Mon- day, or in returning agaiu to try their luck. Most of the men who did compete were at York on Saturday the 4tli, in expec- tation that the trials would come off early the following week ; and many of them were unable to leave the town or neigh- bourhood until mail-trains on Wednesday the 15th or Thurs- day the 16th. About all this there was of course fair room for grumbling, and when it is considered that, in consequence of the show proper being followed up on Saturday with a re- view of upwards of 20,000 Volunteers, the ordinary price of beds was multiplied by fives and tens, and other necessaries for sustaining the wear-and-tear of the body were considerably enhanced in price • it does not want further information to in- (^cate that hotel bills wpre imdidy heavy, apd servant^' expenses were correspondingly increased. If the Yorkshire Society would have the support of the implement makers, in this parti- cular way especially, in years to come, the authorities must de- termme to adhere a little more closely to the proper objects indicated by the name of the institution ; and if any curtailing be necessary, it must be in those features which are not strictly agricultural. Partly from the above reasons, and partly because the ques- tion as to what is a manual-delivery machine and what is a self-acting one has not been .suflicieutly defined and deter- mined, there was not the interest once looked forward to dis- played in regard to these trials. Although all the principal makers had entered for competition and exhibited their respec- tive machines in the yard at Knavesmire, Burgess and Key, Wood, Hornsby, and Samuelson declined to appear on the trial-field. This result, as a matter of course, would detract very much from the excitement of the event, whether or not any loss has been suffered from snudl patches of corn not having been cut down by these machines taking up the work of others as their lot migt have been cast. But these matters were so fidly treated last week in the Peterborough report that we need ouly say every point therein impressed was fully confirmed at York. It seems to us that in these exhibitions of this kind of macliinery the more instructive plan would be to let so many small fields or parts of large fields be set apart for each competitor, and let him go in and begin to cut it and finish it off just as he pleases. If premiums be offered, time and quality of work can be noted, 8 242 .THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and the judges' decisions come to accordingly. If this be not | done, tlien it would be far better to let the money offered be appropriated to some other purpose, and the public display left to the abundance of enterprise possessed by the leading agri- cultural engineers. As it was, however, when any one had an opinion in favour of any machine, it could not be by this exlii- Intion altered in the smallest degree ; and where no clear idea was possessed by any anxious agriculturist, who wanted a ma- chine to do the work of the men who_have skedaddled from his neighbourhood, the impression could not have been otherwise than confusion worse confounded. The Beverley Iron and Waggon Company were of course there, as York may be said to be part of their own ground, and the performance of their three-horse self-deliverer cer- tainly astonished the few stray farmers wlio were present ; while to the uninitiated and unsophisticated spectators, the dashing style of the machine itself and the independent man- ner in which it created a stream of corn, right or left, as required, begot in them something akin to a new sensation. But this work was done under almost every disadvantage, for it was mere pottering up and down or around patches with only about 80 or 100 yard slices ; while no due preparation had |been made for such a machine as this, as deep stetch furrows were formed where they were not required, and deeper water-furrows were made where they ouglit not to have been, as no water would collect on tliis soil if it were properly culti- vated, and holes and troughs were not made for it to run into. Nevertlieless, what was done by this machine was, under the circumstances, very effective, and the judges awarded its makers the 1st prize of £30. The 3nd prize was witlilield on the ground that the two-horse machine by the Beverley Com- pany was of tiie same pattern, and only smaller ; therefore tliere was virtually no competition. This may be expedient, but it is not logic ; for if the little machine did not compete with the big one, how was it the big one had a competitor ? The competition for the other prizes lay between Bamlet, Busby, Cuthbert, and Kearsley. This was for combined ma- chines, and one-horse reapers, suitable for small occupations. On the Wednesday, Bamlet, Cuthbert, and Kearsley were put through a final trial. The cutting part of these machines is not the most dillicult, as this operation in all of them is similar. But tlie variatiou of drop or tip and swatlie boards is worthy of a note. Bamlet's is a " tip" -board as it rides on an axle in the centre. This machine came in better form on Wednesday, as the greatest possible amendments had lieen effected in altering its screws. It seems, however, that this tip is hung un- necessarily high, for as the cut com is thrown off, the front edge rises nearly a foot up, forming a mouth into which corn may pass, and a projecting edge that may, under certain con- ditions of the standing crop, press the straws forward which the knives are just coming to, and thus cause some to be cut high, where this would not have happened with a drop-board, or if the axle of the tip had been less elevated. There is no ad- vantage in this high " tip," and we liave no doubt this objection will he rectified. The arrangement of this macliine for regu- lating the swathe is also open to improvement, for it is too much of the form of a deep ploughing mould-board to admit of the corn falling readily to the tip-board. A sharp edge for the corn to fall on is certainly better for it to get clean off than are the broad curves of this slieet-iron swathe-breast. Tlie cut- ting by this machine was excellent,as under the skilful raking by Mr. Bamlet's own hand, the corn was laid straight and regular ; and for this work he was awarded the first prize of £20. Kearsley took the secondj of ^10. The first trials of this macliine were with a tilting platform, and the second by a self-regulating arrangement that did not prove to be a suc- cess. The latter consisted in a " putting-ofi'-board," which may be described as a reversed swathe-board, fixed on the ma- chine side. The object of this pair of boards, set for working the corn towards each other, was to enable the horses and machine to follow on in new work by passing astride the last cut swathe. But this did not do at all, and it cannot be made to do, so there the experiment may end. The judges were taken aback by this machine, however, when they tested it witli the dynamometer. The draught of the three machines was as follows : " Units of power to cut a square foot" — Kears- ley's, Ii.3 ; Cuthbert's, 31.4 ; Bamlet's, 33.1. Thus, by this test the registry for Kearsley was less than half as against the other two. AVhcther the instrument ho perfectly accurate in its action or not, there is no mistakiug the easy action of jMr. Kearsley's machine ; and anyone who watches the horses at work can detect its much lighter draught. This is a new ma- chine brought out this year, and it is likely to cause some dis- cussion and consideration among mechanical amateurs and pro- fessors. These matters we leave iu their hands. , For the small-occupation prizes Kearsley was awarded 1st for his machine, and Cuthbert 2nd ; while Bamlet received a high commendation. The main ground on wliich the judges awarded this first prize was the continued lightness of draught of Kearsley's macliine. The cutting was a very poor performance, as the quantity for each machine was nn irregular patch both as regards size and form ; and as it lay flat iu places, and the machines were worked all round, no matter how the fall of the corn was, it was anything but a persuasive display in favour of the machines. This merely confirms the opinion we have given above. The horse-rake trials were not numerous. Page and Co., Bedford, were awarded 1st prize, and Allcock, of Ratclifte- on-Trent, Nottingham, the 2nd. The Reading Iron Com- pany had a well-made rake there, hut a misconstruction in the form of the teeth was fatal to its success. Its points ran too much on the ground, instead of being slightly up and for- ward, fromtliebearingof the teeth being taken by the bottom euryes. The men who made it were capital workmen ; but as it did not properly perform vthat it was required to do, there the trial of course ended, a real lesson having been imparted for instructing the makers in perfecting the next article. Turner and Bisliop brought a rake, which has some new ar- rangements, and wliich Mr. Turner thinks are great advan- tages ; but, as this rake was also tailed otf in consequence of its teeth standing in a scratching or scarifying form, the as- sumed advantages from the manner iu which the teeth are hung were not shown ; indeed they remained untried. We may say the construction of the teeth of a rake is the simplest thing in the world. If three or four common forks be taken into a meadow or field, and the prongs be run along the ground, the bottom " compass " or form of the tooth re((uired may he soon as- certained. The bottom having been determined on, then the bow aud the form of the top, and the method of hanging the teeth, may be settled according to taste, judgment, or any novel idea that one may have. [We have lieard that the chief reason of there not being more competition at York was from the same judges licing appointed as acted at Plymouth last year. It is, however, an unhealthy sign when exhibitors refuse to go to trial unless they can have everything just their own way. Mr. II. B. Caldwell wag absent, and Messrs. Colcciau aud Ivav in office. —Ed, F. M.'] THE ARTISTIC FEATURES OF THE ESSEX COTTAGES. At the annual meeting of the Essex Archaeological Society, held at Earl's Colne, tlie following paper was read liy the Rev. E. S. CoRRiE : " The Artistic Features of the Essex Cottages." This title is far too ambitious for the few remarks I shall be able to make ; in fact, I liave to apologise for obtruding on you at all, the crude and imperfect thoughts which alone, un- der the pressure of many engagements, I have been able to put ou pajier. I only consented to read at all on the repeated request of your secretary, and must crave your kind indulgence while I encteavour briefly to fulfil a promise too rashly maile. The title, indeed, is not only too ambitious, but not strictly accurate, as I shall embrace iu my remarks not cottages only, butfarm-honses, in fact any dwelling-house under the rank of the mansion of the squire or nobleman. 'J7/e,ie have iieen often well described and illustrated in works easily accessible to aU ; but the cottages and farm-houses left us liy our fjithers in past ages have not received the attention which, I think, they de- serve. I cannot but think that it would lie well worth llio while for some one really capable to undertake the suliject, and work it out; to illustrate the principles of design which llieso THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE, 24^ old houses exhibit ; to endeavour to classify them as to date ; and to publisli careful iUustrations of good examples. I have uot the knowledfje or skill for anything' of the sort, and only venture to skim the surface of tlie subject, and direct the atten- tion of some abler hand towards it. I do not aUude now in any way to the ground plan of these old homesteads — their arrangement of rooms — their appliances for tlie comfort and decency of their inhabitants at the time of their erection — or their capabilities for meeting the necessities ef our modern life — I speak simply of their external form and design. Nor is it impossible to deny that this is generally one fuU of beauty throughout the whole of our countiy. Our poets have sung the beauty and quiet of our English cottages. Travellers from other lands speak of them with unvarying atbniration. Painters love to represent their picturesque gables and shadowing eaves and latticed windows and broad chimneys. It is some few featni'es of this beauty we would wish to point out. And first, I would bid you remark how entirely they are designed to har- monise with their particular sites, and with the prevailing fea- tures of our quiet Enghsh landscape. This implies in their builders a perception of artistic propriety and fitness which is now little understood, and seldom attained by our modern architects even in great works. How often, in these days, do we see a building, placed in a city, crowded up in narrow streets, yet framed on a design requiring it to be seen Ironi a distance, and fitted for some commanding position in the country ! On the other hand, we have buildings like the facade of the new IMuseum of Oxford, fitted for a continuous line of street, standing isolated and alone. Now this fact of apportioning the character of a design, not only to the object of the building, but to the nature of its site, to make it thus appear to belong to the landscape around it, to grow out of it instead of being an extraneous thing, put down, as it \^ere, hap-hazard where it is — this, I say, is a mark of subtile and true artistic feeling. It was possessed in an eminent degree by the builders of old time ; it is seen in their (jreatest works. The house of the noble in the city was a dififerent type from that of his mansion in the country. Their churches varied according to the nature of the scenery around them and tlie materials to be used. Some liad spires, some towers — the towers themselves varying in form and size, and yet each so exactly suited to their several situations that, to a practised eye and cultivated taste, no small portion of efl'ect could be lost were any two dilTerent types interchanged in site. A I'em- hrokeshire church, with its severe and simple pyramidal tower, would be out of place in the wooded or cultivated plains of Essex. jVn elaborate tower like that under whose shadow we are sitting, or one of beautiful brick-work like that we shall see at Hedingham, would lose half its beauty among the wild hills and rugged valleys of the West. Now just this very principle which the old architects adopted in these their great works, they successfully imparted even to their smallest. AH that we have said of mansions and churches applies equally to their cottages and farms. To a medifcval builder nothing was too small for care. The same air of grace and fitness that marked the mansion of the squire or the noble was throv^Ti around the humbler dwelling of the farmer or the peasant. If one looked grand and noble, with its wide sweep of lawm and far-reaching avenues, the other equally became its knot of 6liado\ving elms, and its little garden by the village green. The one, as well as the other, was fitted for its special site, and seemed equally a part and parcel of the general landscape around. In Herefordshire, we have the homesteads formed with the black beams, showing oftentimes in beautiful and varied patterns through the white plaster between. In Glou- cestershire, the rich yellow stone, with stone mullions and quoins, and roof of slabs, give an air of solidity and comfort, fitting the rich gardens and orchaids in which they stand. In Wales, the grey cottages, low and nestling in some hollow of the hills, give an air of shelter from the wild winds of the mountains : all tliese, fit and beautiful in their several posi- tions, we feel would be out of place in Essex, where the long stretch of roof, varied by projecting gables, and covered with thatch or tile, the white walls, with their quaint varieties of pargetting, seem at once the natural outgrowth of our quiet, undulating country, and lend to it one of its greatest charms. I know, indeed, it may be said, all this is merely accidental — that this grace and fitness results simply of itself from the acci- dent of material, or what uot. But the objection is a shallow ppe, Tilings do not grow of themselves into forms of beauty, To make them do so requires knowledge and thought and skill. Nay, the objection itself only proves the more wiiat we are stating, for it is the very height of art to conceal itself, and appear wliat actually it is not — the mere natural outgrowth of utility, of necessity, or material. Take another aspect of these homesteads of our county, and observe the fitness with which their mere outward form expresses the kind of life for which they are constructed. There is thrown around them an air of quiet, calm repose — they seem to breathe an atmosphere of simplicity aud content, harmonising completely with tlie quiet, unambitious tenor of a country life. Those, indeed, who know the country best, know that this appearance is but too fal- lacious— that amid those quiet scenes breathe the same wild human passions : there are the same troubles, miseries, the same wayward errors and sins that beset life everywhere. Yet, as we look upon some country village, we feel the thought of all this runs counter to the outward show of things, and this very feeling of incongruity shows how deep a hold upon our minds have the ideas of peace aud repose that the old builders have impressed ujion their buildings. Yet a third matter to which I would call your attention in these old domestic build- ings is their infinite variety. Tlie type, indeed, is tlie same ; there is always tlie high-pitched roof, the wooden-framed or muUioned windows, the genial stack of brick chimneys, sug- gesting the warm ingle within. But at the same time there is an almost endless variety. Sometimes the roof is unbroken from end to end, sometimes a central gable breaks its line, sometimes there is a gable at one end of the front, sometimes at both. When several houses are placed in a row, under one roof, the windows are sometimes dormers, sometimes carried up in small gables from the wall, which group beautifully with the larger gables that in that case usually flank one end or the other ; sometimes the upper storey projects over the lower, throwing at once a dark mass of shadow that adds greatly to beauty. The walls, as I have already said, though often simply rough-cast, yet often present a great variety of patterns in pargetting, quaint and simple, and eminently constructive in design. All these and other matters we might mention, alone or in combination, produce an infinite change ami variety of form, and this alone is enough to claim for them a high artistic excellence. Sameness of type, w ith individual variety, is the law of nature's works ; it regulates the grow th of the trees of the forest, and the leaves of each individual tree ; it marks no less these old cottages and homesteads of our native county. Tliis, then, is a high artistic feature — it is more, it is a great moral infiuence. It tends to gather the affections of the in- dwellers of these houses around them, to separate them from others, to intensify the idea expressed by our sweet English word Hoiae. Contrast these ancient houses with those which we erect to-day. Take an ordinary modern cottage, 4- square brick walls, a door at one side and a w indow at the other, and two w indows above, a slate roof, low in pitch, with no eaves ; it is a dissight — a blot upon the landscape around it. It is impossible to love a base, mean thing like that. Or, take a modern row of cottages — each one exactly like the others — each a repetition of the type I have distressed you by describ- ing, without a single thing to distinguish it from its neigh- Imurs but the number of the door ; how can any aftectionate associations gather round sucii a dwelling as this ! It seems almost a profanation to apply to it the sacred name of "home." There is certainly notliing in it to attract, and everything to repel. But being constituted as we are, with body as well as spirit, susceptible as is our nature, and especially in its un- educated state, as to external influences, it is, to say the least, unwise to render our homes outwardly unlovely aud re- pelling. Our fathers acted wisely as well as tastefully when they sought to render a man's house itself attractive, to give it au individual peculiarity distinct from any other, and to make it outwardly a fitting type of those fair and gentle influ- ences which should dwell within. Such are a few of the artistic features of an old homestead : it is a poor and meagre outline ; but it may serve, I think, at least to call attention to them, and gain for them an interest which they well merit, and whieli they but seldom excite. The more you really look at them the more you will be struck with their picturesque lieauty. They are, moreover, very precious as memorials of the past of our people still existing ainougst us, and which if once lost could never be replaced. Aud it is a fact tliat they^are slowly in- deed, but surely, fading away from us. The luere process of inevitable decay must roll us of them in time, and of tlie oldest 2U THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. and often of the best first ; but besides this, every year, in every village, one and another of them is falling before the march of what is called improvement; either altogether pulled down to make room for some vuljjar, tasteless erection, de- ficient in every point in wiiich they excelled, or else mutilated or added to, and all their native beauty destroyed. Now surely it is to be lamented that these buildings should pass away without some record and memorial. If the things themselves must cease from amongst us, surely, at least, their forms may be preserved. Now this is the real object I have had in choos- ing the subject of this paper. I would venture to press upon you the importance and interest of securing some memorial of these old buildings. In every neighbourhood there is some one or other who has the power of making some sort of sketch, however rough. Will it not then be well to keep an eye upon these old buildings ? Whenever a house or cottage is to be pulled down, or improved, as the term is, let some one or other make it his busiiiess to take a sketch of it from one or two dif- ferent points of view ; a simple outline would be enough, just catching its leading features, the distribution of its masses, and the arrangement of its parts. Nay, more — there are many of you in these days who are photographers, I can conceive nothing more interesting than that some one who possesses this valuable art should go round his own particular neigh- bourhood and take photograplis of the best and most pic- turesque of these ancient liomesteads. A collection of such photographs would have an interest and value almost impos- sible to over-estimate. They would form at once interesting memorials of the past, and be precious guides to our architects for the buildings of the future. We are never likely to have a type of building so fitted for our climate aud our scenery as these, and it is surely possible to combine with the increased comforts and greater requirements of modern life these time- lionoured forms which add so much of beauty to the hills and plains of our native land. The CuAiRM.vK (Sir T. B. Western), in allusion to Mr. Corrie's suggestion that photographs sliould be taken of the labourers' cottages and farmers' dwellings aud homesteads, as well as the houses of the squires, said he had often regretted that their photographic young ladies, many of whom practised the art exceedingly well, did not go about and take photographs of the old buildings, of which he thought they might obtain an exceedittgly iuterestiqg coUectiou in Essex. ON THIN SOWING. Sin, — Alderman Mechi does good service to the agriculturist in publishing the results of his experiments ; aud though, as ])au O'Connell expressed it with regard to himself, the Alder- man is one of the best-abused men in England, he shows that he does not lose his English pluck in the face of his detractors. His letter in the Fu/mers M(iga:i/ic of the last month is another proof of the advantage of thin seeding, and the ab- surdity of sowing three and four bushels of wheat per acre. The results of his three-years' experiment in sowing of one peck per acre, on the small scale of half an acre, is only follow- ing up what Mr. Hallett has been practising on a large one on liis Brighton farm ; and his persevering in the system for so many years on those fields that can be sown early, and regu- lating the quantity of seed afterwards by the later period in the season, is a pretty good proof that he finds it pays him, for no one who knows him will suspect him of the folly of persevering in a practice that involves a loss. There is not a doubt that seed wheat put in at the rate of a peck per acre in August or September will cover the ground, and produce a larger crop than three bushels in October. Mr. llallett has reaped from such seeding five, six, and seven quarters of wheat per acre, while his neighbours with their three and four bushels of seed have not reaped more than from three to four, according to the season. Besides the injury the plant sustains from over- crowding, the excess of seed is no small loss to the farmer and the community, which is worth taking into consideration. Mr. Stephens, in his " Book of the Earm," by a few figures places the absurdity of thick seeding in an almost ludicrous light. The following is the calculation he gives of the prac- tice : — " Wheat of C31bs. per bushel gives 87 of its seeds to the drachm, or 1,403,130 to the bushel (avoirdu- pois weight). Now tliree bushels of seed are sown per acre, or 4,20i),40S grains of wheat. Suppose each grain produces a stem, and every stem an ear containing the common quan- tity of 32 grains, we have 134,701,056 grains, or 1,548,288 drachms, which divided again by the number of drachms (25C) to the pound, gives 6,048 pounds, or 96 bushels. But the hea- viest crop in Scotland seldom exceeds 64 bushels per acre ; so that 32 bushels to the acre or 33 per cent, of the seed is lost on the best crop, and 58 per cent, on an ordinary crop of 48 bushels. Mr. Stephens follows this up by another calculation: — "Wheat of 4,209,408 grains per acre gives 869 seeds per square yard." This is 96 grains to the square foot. Now, let any farmer plant a foot of ground in his garden with 96 grains of wheat, or one to every \\ square inch, and see what a hand they would make of pushing themselves forward. Fortu- nately some, aud they the weakest, die, and thus the survivors are relieved ; but they never recover that strength which we see in thin-sown wheat, nor do they mature the quantity or quahty of produce. Tfie psse is the swfte ^x\^ |)avley ftj^d ef,|s, eiycept; \t\\a,\, wjflj a larger seeding, there is more crowding. Thus : Barley, 4 bushels per acre — 4,377,600 grains, which gives 904 per yard ; oats, 6 bushels per acre — 9,673,728 grains, which gives 1,998 per yard. This allows 100 seeds of barley and 223 of oats per square foot, in which case from 53 to 62^ per cent, of the seed barley, and from three to six-sevenths of the seed oats are thrown away ; and worse — for the crowding injures the constitution of those that remain. I am aware that it is argued, " We must make an allow- ance for the rooks and other birds, which commit great de- predations on the seed corn." This argument would be a valid one if Messrs. Hook and Co. had the discernment and the goodwill to select just those grains that are superfluous and not wanted. But that is not their business. They are freebooters, and take their black-mail without regard to the farmer's interest, as the latter well knows to his cost, if he has neglected to look after them for a day or two. Then, again, they say, " Some will die off after they have come up." There is not a doubt of that ; and this is the very question in point. They kill each other with crowding, just as the poor fellows were killed in the Black Hole at Calcutta some eighty or ninety years ago. They have not only not room enough to breathe, for plants, you know, do breathe, but they rob each other of the nourishment they require, and the weakest " go by the wall " and die. Thin seeding is no new thing. Tull practised it a hundred and si.\ty years ago on a large scale for many years. Had modern science then been known, he would have succeeded better. As it was, he grew better crops on half the acre of ground than his neighbours did on the whole acre. Chatcauvieu, following in TuU's track, planted 200 acres annually, and ob- tained largec crops from one peck of seed per acre than he pre- viously did from three bushels. Miller, the author of the Gardeners' Diciloiiary, advocated it strongly, and says tlie best crop of wheat he ever saw was produced from a seeding of one peck per acre. He mentions another instance in which a seeding of one peck per acre produced a return of 307 for 1, or 9 qrs. 4 bush. 3 pecks per acre. Many farmers of the pre- sent day advocate the principle of thiu seeding, but the pre- judices of the majority prevent the general practice. I feel persuaded that if it were otherwise, the produce of wheat in the country would be at least one quarter per acre more than at present. It is certainly true, as Alderman Mechi states, that in the early spring a thinly-seeded field has frequently a miserable appearance, if the winter has been severe, the foliage being cut down to the ground ; but this is soon over, and an abundance of tillering makes ample amends for the rough usage of the frosts of winter. And in the summer, the well- covered surface and the abundance of ears, standing shoulder to shoulder, without any \inder-curii, tells of itself the advan- tages of the system, Yours, Stc, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 243 OUR FOREIGN SUPPLIES OF ANIMAL FOOD. If we have lately been drawing large supplies of live stock and fresh meat from the Coutineiit, we have at the same time been also iacreasiug our extraneous supplies of salted provisions, dairy products, eggs, and other animal substances used for food. To look into the actual figures of these supplies conveys a proximate estimate of the growing wants of our millions of hungry mouths, and startles one by the actual value of the sum thus paid to foreigners for food necessaries, principally brought into Liverpool, and to what the poet Bloomiield well terms — " Provisions' grave, thou ever-craving mart. Dependent, huge metropolis !" The importance of a mixed diet is well understood by all classes in this country, and there is no other where so large a quantity of annual food is proportionally consumed. We find in Europe that those nations who take the most animal food are the strongest, and, amongst ourselves, it is just in proportion as we give our labourers animal food, or wages to procure it, that they are stronger and better able to do their work. It is vain, says Dr. Lankester, to get through intellectual or physical labour without an abundant supply of the material of thought and physical power, and animal food is one of the readiest means of affording this supply. Our foreign supplies of animal food, imported under the Board of Trade aggregate heading of " Provisions," now exceeds the annual value of £9,000,000, and this is exclusive of live animals, fresh meat, poultry and game, fresh and cured fish, and sundry other products which amount in value to half as much more. A glance over the statistics of the leading articles of import and consumption shows considerable fluctuations in several. Thus the quantity of bacon and hams we have taken annually has been very variable. In 18G0 it was but 326,000 cwts., but runnimr up graduallv to 510,000 cwls. in 1801, 1,340,000 in 1862, and 1,878"000 in 1803. Then came a decline to about 1,000,000 in 1864, to 713,000 in 186.5, and a recovery in the first six months of the present year to 451,744 cwt. Taking salt pork next, we find similar extensive fluctua- tions in the quantities. In 1800, we received 173,000 cwt. ; the imports dropped the following year some 50,000 cwts., rose again in 1862 to 220,470 cwt., then fell to 169,000 cwt., recoveredin 1864 to 189,400 cwt. ; last year was about the same amount, and this year there has been a large comparative increase. In salt beef the import trade is more steady, averaging in the last six years 250,000 cwt., the quantitv only vary- ing about 20,000 or 30,000 cwt. a-year. Salt beef and pork, however, are not much used at home, and the de- mand depends more or less upon the activity of shipping and emigration, and the extent of the navy in commission, as they are chiefly used for ship's stores. Glancing next at dairy produce, although there has been an increased import in foreign butter of 200,000 cwt. in the five years since 1860, in the last four years the imports have kept pretty steady at about 50,000 tons. Cheese kas increased 50 per cent, in the last five or six years, and the imports it will be seen keep large. The imports of lard declined one-third between 1800 and 1865, but this year there has been a marked recovery, the receipts reaching 193,000 cwt. for the six months. In one article of import, eggs, the increased consump- tion is enormous, having risen steadily from 1672 mil- lions in 1800, to 304 millions last year, and in the first half of the present year the numbers received from abroad exceeded 249 millious. Now, although all these eggs are not fairly referable to food consumption, since a great many are used by photographers, tanners, and others, yet the supply for domestic use is already very considerable, and yearly increasing. What remarkable figures, however, would be brought out if the aggregate home-consumption of animal-food could be accurately ascertained, and added to these foreign supplies ! which form, after all, but a drop in the bucket of the quantity yearly raised on our own soil. The pro- duction and consumption of butter, for instance, in the United Kingdom, at the allowance of but lOlbs. a head per vear, for two-thirds of the population, would be (say for 20,000,000) about 150,000 tons ; which, at the average price all round of Is. per pound, would give a gross^'sum of nearly £17,000,000. The consumption of cheese, again, in the kingdom is based upon an estimate of half-an-ouuce per diem, or 121bs. per year, for the same number— equal to 100,000 tons per annum ; which, at the low average of 70s. per cwt., gives a gross sum of £7,000,000. We can say nothing definite of the home- production of milk, eggs, and poultry ; but with butchers' meat added, the yearly bill for our animal-food for the nation would reach a pretty considerable sum. The following summary will serve at least to show the pro- gress of imports in the leading articles of provisions for which we are indebted to foreign countries, and may prove useful for reference. The quantities are given in cwts. : 1850. 1800. 1865. Bacon and hams ... 352,462 320,106 713,346 Salt pork 210,948 173,009 183,155 Salt beef 123,002 201,259 228,296 Butter 330,579 840,112 1,083,717 Cheese 347,803 583,283 853,277 Lard — 198,030 130,898 Eggs (miilions) 105,089 167,695 364,013 That in the last item of import named — eggs — we should pay nearly a million a-year to foreigners for our supplies is a proof that there is ample room for our cottagers, in Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, to look to the increase of this simple but profitable item of industry. PIGS. — The number of pigs maintained on each 1,000 acres in each English county was computed in March, 18(10, as follows: Surrey (extra metropolitan), G3 ; Kent (extra me- tropolitan), OS ; Sussex, 40 ; Hampshire, 75 ; Berkshire, 91 ; Hertfordshire (extra metropolitan), 'JO ; Buckinghamsliire, 84; Oxfordshire, W) ; Northamptonshire, 61 ; Huntingdonshire, 110; Bedfordshire, 1C4 ; Cambridgesiiire, 111; Essex (extra metropolitan), 99 ; Suffolk, 141 ; Norfolk, 80 ; Wiltshire, 71 ; Dorsetshire, 61 ; Devonshire, 57 ; Cornwall, 73 ; Somerset- shire 7~ ; Gloucestershire 03 ; Herefordshire, 47 ; Sliropshire, 7'Z ; Staffordshire, 00 ; AVorcestershire, 78 ; Warwickshire, 65; Leicestershire, 45 ; Rutliindshire, 39; Lincolnshire, 52 ; Nottinghamshire, 55 ; Derbvshire, 48 ; Cheshire, 82 ; Lanca- shire, 41 ; the West Riding of Yorkslure, 42 ; the East Hiding of Yorkshire, G8 ; the North Riding of Yorkshire, 40 ; Dur- ham, 23 ; Northumberland, 2i) ; Cumberland, 41 ; and West- morchuKl, 15. SuH'ulk woidd tlius appear to be the English county which has the most relatively dense porcine population, while the thinnest proportion of pigs woidd seem to be found in Westmoreland. ^^6 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE'. A BOARD OF ACIRICULTURE. " Ju America tlic fanners liave a ilcpartmcnt in connec- tion with Government. 'I'hey have a meeting of that de- partment monthly ; and it is astonishing how easily and correctly they can obtain the agricnltural statistics of the whole of the I'nitcd States. In France they have a Minis- ter of Agriciiltnre. In other conutrics of Europe also agriculture has a standing in connection with Government. In this country we have only a Board of Trade. It ought to be called a Board of Trade and Ayricnlturey So said 3Ir. Holland, M.P., at a meeting held last week in Gloucester, when urging more systematic action on the part of the fanners in maintaining their own rights and interests. And so have we continued to say for some time past, although we should be prepared to go further than Mr. Holland, and ask for the establishment of an en- tirely distinct Board of Agriculture, in no way associated in its conduct with any other department. There is, moreover, no time like the present ; for, with the Country Party in power, such a feature might be reasonably ac- cepted as apart of the jNIinisterial programme, even without the incentive of any outside pressure. There is no doubt but that the claims of Agriculture require juorc attention than they are now receiving from the Government, where any question touching upon rural matters is too apt to be treated pretty much ripon the principle that " everybody's business is nobody's busi- ness." The heads of the Home Oflice or of the Board of Trade have really not the time to study such subjects, which are bandied about from one to another until they can be conveniently dropped or shelved to some more " fitting" oppoi'tunity. We should be coming, however, to a better understanding with onr riders, as there is some satisfactory evidence of this feeling already apparent. In a letter which ]Mr. Albert Pell, of Northampton, has just ])ublished, he states that he " turned to the Koyal Agri- cultural Society to lead, but found that the laws contained in their Charter, which cannot at any time be altci-ed or departed from, pi'ecluded the Society firom taking part iu any questions of a political tendency, or having refer- ence to measm-es pending, or to be brought before Par- liament." Mr. PeU wiU be rejoiced to learn that the laws of the Iloyal Agricultural Society can be altered, and that a Committee is sitting at this very time with the object of striking out from the conditions of the Charter those clauses which " preclude the society from taking part in any questions of a political tendency, or having reference to measures pending, or to be brought before Parliament." With, then, this objectionable pro- viso removed, as no doubt it will be, the Royal Agri- cidtural Society of England should be the agent through which, of all others, the formation of a Board of Agri- culture might be brought .about. And this is all the more probable when we bear in mind that the reconstruc- tion of the Council has also been determined upon. The mere di'ones and obstructives are to be removed, and at least a fair half of the members of the direc- tion to be . taken from the tenant-farmers of the country. Here, then, we repeat, with the working ma- chinery already supplied — with men of becoming posi- tion and influence identified with the Executive — the way from Hanover Square to Howning-strect should be easy enough to tind. It will remain very much with the far- mers themselves to determine whether or when such a com-se shall be taken. If they split up into little parties, if, in a word, they agree to divide their own strength, the old fable of the bundle of sticks will be the moral of their story. It has always, and naturally, been a matter of diliiculty to get agriculturists together ; but there are tried men who have for long sacrificed their time and their money to the interests of the cause, as with these we should infinitely prefer still leaving the lead. In a movement now going on in certain parts of the country, but the necessity for which we can scarcely re- cognize with the institutions already in force, some rather startling announcements have been made. In Shropshire, for instance, Mr. More, the new member, declared, so far as we remember his words, that the farmers had never as yet been permitted at their meetings to touch on Farmers' Politics ! Such a statement only serves to show how^ little the honourable member really knows of the topic he is talking to, or of the great body of those he has been elected to represent. Within the last fifteen years or so, there has not been a question bear- ing upon the politics of Agricultm-e but that has been dis- cussed over and over again at our leading Farmers' Clubs and similar societies ; whilst many of these matters have been brought under the attention of the Government through deputations to the chiefs of Departments, by committees appointed to take evidence, or by debates in the House, where the opinions of these outside assemblies have been quoted with the most marked effect. ^Ir Pell, again, in his letter, writes with ingenuous simplicity of the evils of the malt-tax, as if he had really struck out a new idea when he argues in this wise -. " The malt-tax presses with undue severity on the out-of-doors labourer, to whom good and cheap beer is as much a necessary as meat. The farmer has all the material at hand for producing this. Barley he grows ; hops are English produce ; water, fuel, cellarage, and space for the manufacture exist on most farms ; but he cannot turn these to the best advantage owing to a duty that is almost prohibitory. Home-brewed ale and clean small-beer belong, for the poor at least, to village tales and romances. The real thing is gigantic fortunes made on the banks of the Trent and Thames ; farmers sipping sherry and Gladstone-claret; and the labourers with their chins to the pump-spout by day, and their noses to the ' public' quart pot at night. With all this, to crown the mischief we are cursed with an abomin- able licensing system, that does more to demoralize the thoughtless and improvident than can be well conceived." This is all very well put, but there is not a reader of om* Paper but that knows it all by heart. The right of an Englishman to make the most of his produce, the claims of the labourer, and the abominations of the beer-shops have been discussed by the farmers and represented to the Government any time you please for the last twenty years or more. The grievance has indeed been worked and well worked through organs especially started for and confined to this object, and we are not sauguinc of seeing any more effective movement than that made here, there, and every- where by the Anti-Malt-tax Associations. Mr. Pell is equally startling in his onslaught against the evils arising from the over-preservation of game, where he taps a new lode after this fashion: "Then the destruction of human food, arising from the stocking cultivated laud with ground game, is a fair question for examination ; and if it can be shown that the preservation of hares aud rabbits is incompatible with good husbandry, representations to that effect might be urged with the view of removing thcni from the game list. Certainly the preservation of THE FARMEE'S MAGAZINE. ;247 thcra, out of the woodlands, for letting or selling, or for keepers' perquisites, is a practice productive of ill-will, poor crops, inferior tenant farmers, and poaching kbourers. To my mind recent legislation on this head has pointed in the wrong direction. The old laws prohihitiug the sale of game, and limiting the pm'suit of it to qualified persons only, placed the cultivator of the soil in a better position than he now finds himself in." As if the ground game had not been a fair question for examination for years past ! Indeed we had hoped to have gone far be- yond any such implied question of examination I As if it cannot, or rather as if it had not been shown that the curse of hares and rabbits is incompatible with good hus- bandry ! As if representations had not been made, and as if some reform had not followed ! As if treating the rabbits as (he perquisites of thekceper had ]iot been denounced over and over again, and the remedy of permitting the farmer to destroy them in any way he chose as strongly recom- mended 1 There is ample evidence, moreover, that such advice has not been without its results ; and only within the last week the following paragraph has been going the rounds of the papers : — " At the meeting of the Fcttcrcairn Farmers' Club, as held last week, the president, the Earl of Kintorc, made aa important communication in regard to the game ques- tion. His lordship dcprecaled auy further Parliamentary iutei-ferencc between landlord and tenant, and said that all that is required may be best arranged by mutual agree- ment between the parties themselves. Lord Kintore an- nounced his intention of issuing a circular to his own tenants, empowering them to shoot rabbits, ' the pest of the farmer and the pest of the landlord,' on their own farms. In addition to this, he said that he means to give his tenantry permission to shoot hares either by their own hands or by such deputies as he may approve of. His lordship added that he was quite sure that, in return for this concession, his tenants would preserve for him and his friends the feathered game on their land." This is a way of meeting the dilKouIty, the mutual ad- vantage of which we have maintained for many years past, and that we still believe has done, and will do more good than even Mr. Pell's proposed return to the old game laws. Still, we have thought it only right to give some expres- sion to this gentleman's sentiments, and all the more so as he appears by no means inclined to allow auy credit whatever to the efforts of those who have preceded him in the field, hut, with the most amusing self-satisfaction, reads the old story backwards, and boldly offers his old lamps for new 1 THE MO^ES, MAJNAGEMEiMT OF THE FLAX CROP. At a meeting of the Ballymahon Fanners' Cluhj on the ijtli of August, Captain lung Harraan in tlic cliair, tlic following paper, " On the Proper Manageraeut of the Flax Crop," was read : This subject has of late received much attention from agri- cultural societies and tlie Government of tlie country. Great praise is due to the Royal Agricultural Society for the manner iu which it has endeavoured to advance the growtii and cir- culate the knowledge necessary for the proper management of this crop. That the flax crop, when properly manipulated, is one of the most remunerative to the tanners has been clearly proved by experienced growers in Ulster, from reports of its success in many parts of the south and west, and also from the recent experience of some farmers in the neighbourhood of Moyvore. Now that the population of the country has been so much decreased by emigration — the labouring classes seek- ing higher wages and better treatment in other countries — the subject of suitable employment for women, girls, and boys, who have hitherto, in many parts of tlie country, had comparatively little employment, should occupy the attention of agricidtural societies, especially in the south and west of Ireland. Tlie culture of the tlax crop gives a large amourit of work to these classes, thus adding a strong inducement to their husbands and brothers to remain at home. We tiiink it worthy tlie attention of patriotic farmers, who wish to benefit the locality iu which they reside, to cultivate the crop, provided it will pay, that will give the greatest amount of employment to the labouring classes. We don't believe tliat the Great Supreme Being ever designed a noble country like our own merely to rear and fatten cattle, to the extermination of human beings ; and the system of large grass farms — a system which was at one time the tall of the Western Empire — may, ultimately, prove the ruin of Ireland. That system has been so extended throughout the coumtry of late, and the farmers generally so anxious to obtain large grass farms, that working men have no other alternative than leave the country to seek a home in other lands. AVe don't agree with the opinions recently propounded by some writers on the cultivation of the flax crop, that it would be a cure for Ireland's evils, whatever these may be ; but we affirm that the growtli of it would give much suitable employment to those who are generally the most destitute in society. To grow this crop with success, knowledge is necessary ; and as iu all agricultural pursuits, knowledge is not only power, but money, so in the production of this crop especially it is both power and money. The soil and climate of Ireland are peculiarly well adapted (o the growth of this crop ; and if it he managed mth knowledge and energy, it will not fail to remunerate the em- ployed and the employer. Every species of soil except bog will produce llax, and even bog with a good clay bottom ; but that which produces the heaviest crops is the deep loam or the heavy clay. The laud in cultivation best suited for it is the first crop after lea oats, wheat, or faUow ; but poor soils not previously growing it, where properly cleaned of weeds, may produce good crops. We do not by any means recommend lea ground in this country for flax, as the experunent has been tried and failed. It is too diflicult to close the grouud, and the drought penetrates, to the great injury of the crop. If the mouth of Slay was wet, or a dropping month, we have no doubt but lea would produce a good crop ; but we would not risk its uncertainty. There is an opinion prevalent amongst many that flax is a scourging crop ; but those who understand the nature of flax know from experience that such an opinion is erroneous. A member of this club in the neigh- bourhood of Bally more sowed, three years ago, an acre of poor fallow : lie had ninety-five stones to the acre, sowed it in grass and clover along with the flax, took two good crops of meadow, and this year has a capital crop of oats, all without manure. This fact speaks for itself. The land should be ploughed deep in the autumn, aud kept dry during the winter. If it be uot well drained, surface-drains should be made, that the top water may easily get away, and then cross-ploughed in the end of February or beginning of Marcli, so that weeds may get time to spring betbre sov^ang. When the time of sowing comes, the land should be well harrowed, and the surface made very fine, free of all weeds and large stones. The more har- rowing the better, to close the ground well, so as to keep the subsoil damp, aud lor this purpose the land should be harrowed and closed before the penetrating March winds. The reason for deep ploughing the first time is, because the flax root has been found to penetrate to a cousidcralde distance into the sub- soil ; and thus the deeper the tillage and the more moist the subsoil, provided it has beeu well drained, the bettor for the crop. The heaviest crops have beiai produced from lands that have been subsoiledfor the previous crop ; but for this crop we do not recommend subsoiling, as the land could not be brought to the proper tilth, aud as the newly tnrned-up earth had not been long enough exposed to the fertilizing influence of the' rain, sun, and atmosphere. The second ploughing should not be deeper than four or five inches, so that the winter surface mny be preserved for the seed. That surface, in consequence 248 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of the winter rains and atmospheric influence, has been ren- dered {leculiarly suited for the reception of the seed. If potato ground be sown in flax which lias been cultivated in ridges, the ground should be well levelled and freed of all weeds when the potatoes are being taken up, and the surface that is exposed to the winter fruits should receive the seed without any- ploughing at all. Harrow deeply and make the surface fine ; then sow the seed and roll with a heavy roller. Ridge potato ground is much better for this crop than drills, as it is much more difficult to get the manure evenly scattered in the latter than in the former. The proper time for sowing is the month of April, and as early as possible in that month, weather being favourable. It is not wise to sow in frosts, and such must be evaded, if possible, especially if the land be not very dry. If the seed can be sown immediately before rain it will ensure an even crop, which the farmer will find to be much to his advan- tage in thereturn he will have from tlic mill. An after-growth crop is always unprofitable, but that which makes regular pro- gress from the time that it appears above the ground is the one that always remunerates the grower. Early sowing, whilst it requires a little more seed, is ready to catch the early rains of spring, and as flax is fond of water, a greater crop, with a better fibre, may be expected. Great care should be taken in the selection of seed, and far- mers should always purchase from tlie best houses, and secure brands that have been well tested. Riga seed is better adapted to light and loamy soils, while Dutch may be sown with greater advantage on heavy clay soils. The best Riga brands are Schroder's and Jacob's, with many otliers of good reputation ; and the most popular Dutch brands are the M.B.M.'s, or C. and M. We would always recommend, although it may be a little higher, the extra-picked of the Riga, and the M.lJ.M.'s of the Dutch ; but growers will soon learn to know the best seed. That which is clear in the colour, plump, and full, is the best ; but whatever is dark or greenish in colour, without plumpness or fulness, is bad, and will disappoint the grower. English seed has been sown to a considerable extent in many parts of Ulster, and has been found to do well if obtained from the first crop after importation from Russia, but it is not so certain as the Riga; and Dutch home-saved seed has been found in many instances to grow well, but we would not re- commend farmers to try the experiment, unless a very superior .sample could be obtained — and such samples are rare, in cou- sequence of the difficulty of saving it with our humid climate; and wliilst it may grow as well as the imported seed, it will not give as good a fibre. The quantity of seed which is generally put to the Irish acre is one Riga barrel, or fourteen pecks ; and the same proportion of Dutch or English. The more slippery the seed in the hand the better, as it is a sign that it is fuU of oil ; and when the sower complains that he cannot hold it in his hand, the better prospect, the season being favourable, of a good crop. The seed, if sown too thin, will grow coarse, strong, and branchy, which is sure to be cut away in the mill in the brandling parts ; and if sown too thick, will grow short and fine, with a very delicate filjre. "When the flax crop appears above-ground it should be hoed, if any weeds arise ; and by the time that it is six or eight inches long it should be left perfectly clean. The boys and girls should weed with bare feet, and their faces turned towards the wind, that the trodden-down flax may be blown up as soon as possible again. As the crop takes about three months in the ground, care should be taken not to pull it too soon, as the fibre, although a little finer, will be delicate, more difliciilt to manage properly, so as to keep strength, and will go to waste in the mill ; while, on the contrary, if it is permitted to be too ripe, it will be coarse and husky, and will not give the price. The proper time for pulling is when the crop changes from a green to a yellow hue, when the stalks begin to strip of their leaves about half-way from the root, and the seed turts from a pulp to be firm and hard, with a tinge oil brown. If the crop be heavy and the weather wct^ it must be pulled greener, to save it from injury. Also, if it fires — ■wliich is a hard black rust on the stalks — or, as they say in some parts of Ulster, if it ticks, it must be pulled at once. We recommend, where such can be done, rippling ; and if that is properly managed, the flax will not sustain any in- jury. For feeding purposes the bolls are very valuable, either for pigs, young stock, or stall-feeding. Earmers accustomed to stall-feed appreciate very much the oilcake ; but bolls arc wucli more valuable for feeding purposes, as they contain all the oil which has been extracted from the oilcake. When the pullers begin to pull for rippling, they should leave the haud- fuls across each other. The ripple is tied in a cart ; and a small rut is made with the spade for the wheels to sink into, so as to bring the cart so low that the ripplers can stand with ease at their work. One man stands behind and another be- fore the cart, at the same ripple. These men take the hand- fuls of flax, spreading the top of it in the hands, draw it through the ripple with a sudden jerk, then turn the hand, giving it a second pull through the ripple ; and thus it is done. A little boy carries in the flax, and a woman or girl ties it up. In this way the ripplers proceed, always moving the cart, so as to keep near the pullers, and save the trouble of carrying the flax from a great distance. Care .should be taken, when pulling, to keep the root-ends of the sheaf as even as a brush ; for the more even it is kept, it will sell the better, as there wiU be little loss to the buyer in the hackling process. If the weather is dry and sunny, the bolls sliould be laid in an open place, and kept frequently turned, to prevent them from heat- ing. If there be a large quantity of them, a man should be kept always turning them ; and in the course of three or four days they will be fit to be removed to a loft, where as much air as possible should be admitted, with frequent turning. If the weather be wet, they should be taken at once to the kiln, and dried with a very slow fire, so that there may not be a stronger heat than a very hot sun. In this way the seed will get time to imbibe the juice out of the husk, and a good feed- ing material prepared for cattle, although not so good as if they had been dried in the sun. The flax, after being rippled, should be taken to the steep. It should not be permitted to stand longer in the field than the second day, at furthest ; and in no instance should it be pulled and stooked to prepare for rippling, as the fibre becomes too ripe and coarse, so that by no process of watering and grassing will it be brought to the same refinement. The best steeps are those with a good blue- clay bottom, made from eight to twelve feet wide, in an open place, that they may catch all the sun. The water should be soft, rain or river-water being the softest. The steep should be filled some three weeks before use, so as to expose the water in a stagnant state to the action of the atmosphere and the softening influence of the sun. The water in the steep should be three-and-a-half to four feet deep ; and when the flax is put into the pond, no fresh water should be admitted, lest fermentation be prevented. Elax should not be steeped in a bog, unless there be a good clay bottom ; but if there be such, it may be steeped with safety. The flax should be laid in with the tops up, in a slanting position, with the tops of one sheaf at the root-end of the other. It should not be laid too thick, as that would prevent it rising in the pond during fermentation ; and it is always well to see it rise during that process, when some additional weights should be placed on it, and afterwards removed, when fermentation ceases, lest the weight should sink the flax to the bottom. The pond should contain a good many dams, and each dam filled with flax at the same time, for convenience in bringing it out. When carefully placed in the pond, it should be covered with sods or round and flat stones ; but in no instance should sharp stones be thrown on it, as they cut the fibre ; neither should sods and stones be mixed, for where the stones are, the rays of the sun will penetrate more freely, and the flax will water more quickly than where the sods are. It should be all sods or all stones, but not a mixture. Some growers have adopted long poles attached to each end of the dam, and placed a little under the water. From eight to twenty days is generally the time taken in the steep, according to the softness of the water and the heat of the sun. If the water be soft and the weather hot, from eight to ten days is about the average time ; but if the weather be cold, the nights long, and the water hard, it will require from sixteen to twenty days to water it properly. Another advantage from early sow- ing is, that the nights are much shorter, and there is a greater length of up-sun upon the steeps than when the season is further advanced and the weather colder. The more speedy flax waters, the stronger and better the fibre. Elax should get a sufliciency of water, as it is this process in the clay steep with soft water that turns out the silky fibre, provided it has been pulled in the proper time. When fermentation ceases, the flax will sink in the pond, and too much watchfulness cannot be ex- ercised, lest it might be overdone, which would cause a great loss at tiie mill, and weaken the fibre. Whilst we advocate ^ THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 249 sulTiciency of water, care must be taken to keep the fil)re strong, as a delicate filjre would not stand the hackle. The flax is pro- perly watered when on a sheaf being taken from tlie middle of tlie pond, and a stalk extracted out of the heart of it — when broken about six inches apart — about the centre the woody part pulls out freely without any of the fibre adhering to it. lu trying it in this way the woody part should be pulled down- wards to the root end of it ; puU two inches, instead of six ; tlicn keep it another night in the water, and repeat the same process tbe next day until six inelies of the wood comes away freely ; then take it out of the pond at once. lu taking it up, forks and drags should not be used, for the fibre is then easily leaving the wood, and any sharp instrument used then wiU do it a serious injury. Moreover, when the flax is put in the carts to be drawn to the spread, and when the carts are being emptied, boys or men should not be allowed to leap up upon tlie flax, and stand upon it, with nails in their shoes, to tear the delicate fibre from the wood. The man emptying the cart should stand in front, immediately beliind tlie horse, and lift the sheaves, scattering them properly iu the field for spreading. If the flax should happen to be near watered on Saturday, then take it out and put it in a large heap, called the rot-heap, the one sheaf placed upon the top of tlie other ; let it remain iu this way until Monday, vi'hen it will be sufliciently done. If it be fully done on a Saturday, or on any other day when you cannot get the spreaders at it on the following day, take it out of the pond, setting the slieaves on their root ends, the one against the other : the wind will then pass freely through it, and thus it will be kept from injury until it is spread. Open, short pasture is the best place to spread on, with all the weeds removed from it. Newly-mown meadows will do well, but where the aftergrass is springing fast much injury will be done to the flax when it grows through it. The flax should be spread thin and even, with the tops northwards, and one row should slightly overlap another, to prevent the wind from scattering it. The winds at the season of the year generally blow from the south or west, and when spread as we have said they will blow over it without injury. We omitted in the proper place to give a reason for placing the tops of the flax up in the pond. It is more difiicult to water properly the top end of the flax than the root end, and the top is more delicate. As the heat of the sun is greater at the top of the pond than at tlie bottom, and as the surface- water is always the softer and tlie hotter, the top is put up, that it may catch the heat of the sun. From eight to ten days win be suflicient to keep the flax on the grass ; but if the wea- ther be wet, from six to eight days will be enough if properly watered, as flax grasses more quickly in wet or showery wea- ther than in dr>-. When it begins to strip and leave the woody part it is time to take it up, but care should be taken not to lift too soon, as the fibre will not be so well refined. Great loss in price and quantity has been sustained from imperfect watering and long grassing ; and the sooner that system is abandoned tlie better, because it always brings disappointment to the growers. When it is ready to be lifted, it should be taken up at once, without waiting for dry weather. If the weather is wet, it should be tied near the top, and placed on its end, with the roots widely separated, that the wind may blow freely through, and four or five bundles should be placed beside each other, and kept in this way until it is perfectly dry. When well dried, it should be immediately stacked, if not taken to the mill, in round thin stacks ; and in putting up these the heart slioidd always be kept well fdled, with the root ends of the flax inclining downwards, so as to turn ott' the rain. If let stand in stack for two or three months it improves much in quality. The stacks should be immediately tliatched, and if straw or whin rushes cannot be obtained, it may be thatched with itself without injury. We advise caution in the spreading, so as to have ouly one colour. Thick spreading wiU make different colours, which buyers do not hke. Some growers turn it on the grass ; but, since labour is so scarce and high, we do not consider that process necessary, if tliinly spread at first. Tiie first mills should be obtained, and growers in this country should not expose their flax to untrained hands, no matter how good the machinery be. Always, for some years to come, select that mill that is under the management of trained hands from Ulster, until the men in this country be- come well trained. A farmer may liave a good, well-managed crop, and yet, through unskilled labour in the dressing, have it torn to pieces and reduced to tow. The flax may be safely sold by sending it to any of the respectable commission houses in Bel- fast, and the cost of sending will not be more than 2d. per stone. THE PROFITABLE APPLICATION OF FARM- YARD MANURE. The annual meeting of tlie Galashiels Farmers' Club was held in the Commercial Hotel, on Tuesday, August 7th — Mr. Scott, Mossilce, in the Chair. Mr. Adam Thomson said : Not being a practical farmer, I must crave your indidgence, and hope that you will allow me considerable latitude. It may not be uninteresting to take a rapid retrospect of farming for the last thirty or forty years, and endeavour to discover if we have arrived at that point in agricultural perfection beyond which no improvements can be made. We are all too apt to rest satisfied with the past. We hold firmly to the practical realisation of theories wrought out, and their utility established ; but we are often too slow in adopting other theories that might as easily be practically de- veloped. All parties in the community partake of this caution, and farmers, like other men, are not free from its infiueuce. They prefer the good old ways — the ways of the past — fully as much as the ways of the present. Once into the rut, we are content to travel in it, or, like the waggoner, pray the gods to help us out, instead of helping ourselves. This old, antiquated system of clinging to the past has been particularly injurious to the agricultural interest. It was remarkably proniiueut forty or fifty years ago. Farmers then had little notion of progress. From the want of general information, they were spell-bound by the unbroken chain of tlie dull routine of the past. The education of a people does even more than the love of money for promoting or retarding the progress of agriculture. Although Adam Smith had produced " The Wealth of Nations," and J ames Watt had established the utility and power of the steam-engine more than fifty years before, yet scientific know- ledge of any kind was almost unknown in rural districts. Farm implements were few, and of the roughest and rudest descrip- tion. The country joiner could make a wooden plough, with very short stilts and a long beam, a cart, and a wheel-barrow; and a country blacksmith could shoe a horse, make and sharp the plough irons ; and there the scientific acquirements of both ended. The farmer then neither read nor studied scientific works. To the great majority of country people, science was only science (falsely so called), and the teaching received made men believe that the less they knew of it the better The pre- judices and superstitions of the people of Scotland then, as the prejudices of the people of Spain and Ireland now, did much to retard the progress of agriculture. Farmers then never thought of attributing anything to their own want of skill or want of improvement. If they had a good or a super- abundant crop, it was attributed to Divine Providence ; and if they, from want of manuring or proper cultivation, had a bad or stinted crop, it was attributed to the same cause. The light of science, however, has now broken in upon the farmer. Their minds are no longer warped by the prejudices and superstitions of the past. They read scientific books and study scientific subjects. They believe farming progress to be a thing of the future as well as a thing of the past. They know that to move on in the old rut is to move on the road to ruin : to strike boldly out in the path of progress is the path to happiness, wealth, and honour. The progress that has been made in agriculture during the last fifty years has been immense. Fifty ye.ars ago, progress was the exception, not the rule. Then nothing horrified the mind of the farmer sO much as the idea of breaking up new land. They boldly and resolutely set themselves against all innovations in the break- ing up and reclaiming line. They firmly maintained that it was impossible for sheep and cattle to live without old pasture, however bare and stinted it might be. Fifty years ago, if any one had proposed to plough the hill sides that are now under 250 THE FABMIJR'S MAGA2INE. cultivation, niiiety-uine farmers out of every luuulreJ would liave pronounced it a thing impossible, as they were so steep that slici'p could scarcely feed there. Talk, then, of reclaiming meadow land, however rich and vcrdaut, and you would have been told that it was so soft and wet that an ox could not browse there. Talk of reclaiming a barren moor, and you would have been told that ruin would have been the result, as it would not feed a sheep to the acre. But the ploughman, with bis team, has successfully scaled the hill side, the stone and tile drains have successfully dried the meadow, and a liberal application of hot lime has so pulverised the bar- ren moor, that upon one and all of them may be seen in the autumn crops of golden grain. Fifty years ago we had no uniform system of drainage, neither regarding depth of drains nor width apart. Drains then were dug in the most crooked and serpentine forms imaginable. No one thought of drying the subsoil by a uniform system of drainage running parallel with the rigs. Tile drains were then unknown, and drains, where stones could not readily be kad, were not unfrequently lilled with hard turf and branches of trees, which practically undid the work of the drainer. The sciences of geology and chemistry have thrown such a flood of light upon the path of tlic farmer that lie no longer needs grope his way in the dark. Geology will teach him the nature of the soil, the subsoil, and the foundation upon which these rest. Chemistry, that most useful of all the sciences, which reduces everything to its na- tural element, teaches the farmer the component parts of every plant he grows, thereby enabling him witli mathema- tical precision to apply those elements to tlie soils that tend to the greatest degree in bringing to maturity the cereal or vegetables desired. Earming, as far as the action of the farmer is concerned, may be conducted upon scientific prin- ciples as finely and timely as any other branch of indus- try in the country. Has chemistry, then, unlocked all its secrets, disclosed all its mysteries, unfolded all its treasures ? Has the knowledge of the past and present not, rather, to be expanded into a golden harvest of more enlightened ideas and more enlightened agricultural progress ? Arc we to rest satislied with the attainments of the past, in- stead of developing them into progress for the future ? Is our scientific progress so complete that we cannot make two blades of grass to grow where only one grows at present, or rear, feed, and bring to the market four sheep instead of three? Chemistry has done much ; but it has not done all. It has treated largely and well upon solid manures, both of the farm and artificial manures ; and if farmers are honestly treated by manure dealers, according to the analysis given, the inteUigeut farmer wlio sows his crops with these might calculate upon them coming up to his expectations. But I am firmly con- vinced that chemistry will yet do as much for the faxmer in treatfng of liquid manures as it has already done in treating of solids. I believe that the time will soon come when the chemist will prove to demonstration that every ton of liquid manure from a farmyard (and who can calculate the millions of tons thus lost per annum ?) without being applied to the soil, is a clear loss of so many cwts. of vcgetaijle produce to the country. The application of liquid manure to the soil is nothing new, but its application has never been general. It is too often the case that we pass by that which is inexpensive and within our reach, in search of something that is expensive, and, which is often worse, useless. There are but three great sources of wealth in the world — the sea, the soil, and the mine ; and, although the products of these may be wrought into a thousand forms, and made the channels of wealth, yet we cannot increase the source from wliicli they come. The treasure of the mine we are told, as far as coal is concerned, will soon be exhausted ; and it is of the last importance that we do not exhaust the productiveness of the soil. You cannot possibly put into the soil more than what comes out of it, or, at all events, no mineral manure can successfully replace vege- table. As the depots of our best guano fields get worn out, more care and more thought ought to be expended in preserv- ing and applying to the soil those vegetable and liquid manures that flow from all our large towns and cities, polluting our silver streams and pellucid rivers, making their Maters unfit for the use either of man or beast. The application of solid and litjuid manures to the soil is very different. Solid manures re- quire a considerable time and a combination of circumstances to develop them before they can become productive, and act fis food for plants. Solid manures lie where they are laid, and it is only by chance or accident that the roots of cereals find them. On the other hand, liquid manure, as soon as ap- ])lied, permeates the whole. It seeks the plant as readily as the plant seeks it. It is cereal food ready prepared, so that it can at once be taken into the system and be digested. It is diflicult to tell what amount of blood the plant receives from the atmosphere, what from rain, and what from the soil. Some plants feed largely from the leaves and stems, while otliers appear to be supplied mostly l)y the roots. Some people imagine that the strong roots of plants are capa- ble of imbibing solids ; and they conclude tluit the more dung or the more guano they apply, the more abundant will be their crop. The productiveness of a large application of either manure is entirely circumstantial. If the season is moist and humid, the crop will be large and productive; if very dry their efl^ect will scarcely be appreciable. As I have already said, plants cannot imbibe solids ; and, although you should sow your seeds or set your plants on a dunghill, or in a bag of guano, without water they would never come to perfection. The ar- rangements of nature are everywhere admirably adapted to the condition of plants. The strong roots are thrown out to give them a firm hold of the fibres called spongioles, which by ca- pillary action absorb liquids that come in contact with them, and thereby feed the plants. Prom the above, you may sup- pose that I think there is no benefit to be derived from solid ma- nures. Such is not the case ; but solid manures can only be- come available for feeding plants when their constituent parts liecome so liquefied that they can be easily imbibed by these small tissues, and converted into food for the plant. What gives dung from the cattle-shed a superiority over, and a greater money value than, dung from the stable yard ? Their consti- tuent elements are the same or nearly so. But there is evi- dently a dilference in the process of mastication and digestion. The one is light and porous, the other solid and heavy. The superiority of cattle-shed dung consists not only in its power of absorbing moisture, hut in its power of retaining it. It gives ofl' the liquid it contains slowly and gradually, so that the plant in contact with it is fed from day to day ; and, even in a very dry season, plants planted with the one kind wiil grow and come to maturity, while with the other they will languish and die, which in my estmiation proves to a demonstration that the nearer we can assimilate the food of plants to their hourly wants the more certain wiU vre be of an abundant crop. This is one of the problems that chemistry has yet to solve, how we can produce the greatest amount of human food with the smallest amount of manure, and how that manure can be ap- plied with the smallest amount of waste or loss to the farmer. Farmers and landlords are to a great extent responsible for the food of the people. The greater the amount of food produced in the country, the greater will be the amount of our prosperity ; and the greater our prosperity, the more iiappiness, and the more happiness, the greater will be the security of life and pro- perty. Therefore, whatever tends to diminish the people's food, tends to increase the farmer : hence the propriety of al- lowing no productive matter to run to waste ; and yet it is a melancholy fact, that while our farmers are paying hundreds of thousands of pounds per annum for guano and other artificial manures, they are allowing hundreds of thousands of pounds' worth of liquid manure to run waste. For topdressing, there is nothing equal to liquid ma- nure, and it may be applied with propriety, and certainly both to old and young grasses. The extreme price of cattle and sheep that has existed for some time past ought to induce the farmer to do all that lies in his power to increase the pro- ductiveness of the soil ; and, as liquid manuring is the best thing calculated to produce an early and abundant supply of young grass, it ought not to be neglected. Every market gar- dener and gentleman's gardener knows the value of liquid manures ; and if the application of liquid manures produce early vegetables for our markets, why uot produce early grass for our ewes and lambs ? Early grass is one of the great de- siderata in stock breeding, and I think that by a liberal appli- cation of liquid manure that desideratum will be supplied. One of the great, or perhaps the greatest, advantages of liquid manuring is, that you may apply dung any season of the year. From the beginning of October till the end of April there is a considerable amount of liquid manures about all farmyards ; and if there were large waterproof tanks erected in connection with these, a supply might be had for seven months in the year. Oa old pasture land, where there is often more fog THE FAEMBR'S MAGAZINE, 251 thau grass, it would be a great ailvaiitage to coiiiiueuce water- ing in tlic end of autumn, and repeat it as often as possible up till the beginning of spring. The action of the liquid would I believe tend to relieve the fog and produce a line early grass. But I am further convinced that it may be profitably applied to the sowing of turnips as well as top-dressing grass. By ap- plying it to tlie turnip land either during the winter or early in spring, I feci contident that the result will be equal to the best guano. In fact I think the results of guano more im- aginative than real. It is frequently applied to new laud, where no manure is required, and is no test of its capabilities for producing a crop. I am confirmed in this opinion from the expeiiments made by Mr. Haldane, Fairnilee, when there were only about 15 cwt. of turnips sown with the best guano over the same acreage sown with no guano at all, a dilFereuce in money-value of from 5s. to 7s. 6d. per acre. A square acre of land, allowing 3 feet apart from the drills and 6 inches apart for the plants, will produce somewhere about 43,500 turnips. Now, if we allow 5 cwt. of guano as a fair average to the acre, that gives about two-tliirds of a quarter of an ounce to the turnip — a quantity so infinitely small that no one can expect it to produce a crop, even admitting tluit it was all ]iroductive matter. But we must deduct at least half that amount for sand and otlier non-productive matter, which would re- duce the quantity to about one-third of a quarter of an ounce of guano to tlie turnip, a quantity less than an ordinary snuffer would take at a time, of a pinch of snuff ; and this is the quantity farmers imagine raises a crop of turnips. As far as my own experience goes, which is con- fined to pot-plants and garden culture, and as far as the exjie- ricnce of practical gardeners goes, I am convinced that liquid manure, undiluted from the cattle-shed, contains as much real productive matter, weight for weight, as most guanos, and in- fimtely more than many of the so-called artificial manures in the market. Perhaps, in a countiy like ours, where we have more acres than men, wc can aft'ord to be careless about pro- ductive nuitter ; but in some other countries — Cliina for in- stance, where they have a large population living on water as well as land to sujjport — they require to be more careful. In China travellers inform us that every drop of liquid manure is carefully preserved and applied to the soil. There, farmers vvlio have lands adjoining the highway are in the liabit of placing casks or jars at intervals along the roads, for the use of travellers, the contents of which are taken away and care- fully applied to the land. Farmers nowhere spend their labour uselessly, if they can help it ; and the fact of the Cliinese farmer being so carelid in preserving it, is the best proof that can be given of the utility of its application. Should you ask me for further proof of the profitable application of liquid ma- nure to the soil, I might point you to the Craigentinuy mea- dows at Edinburgh, tbe meadow-lands at Carlisle, and part of the Maplin Sands, as watered by the sewage of London. Of course, you may say there is no comparison between the capa- bilities of a farmyard and the sewage of a city. I admit it ; but it is the principle, not the quality, I am contending for. If the Craigentinuy meadows can be made to produce four crops in the year, bringing from £40 to £50 per acre, may not the lands on the banks of the Gala be made to produce two ? The superiority of liquid manure from the farmyard is so great over city sewage, where there is so much dilution with water, that I shoidd suppose that one ton of the former is equal to twenty tons of the latter. I have not time in this address to enter into the subject of collection and distribution ; but I am so impressed with the utility of the matter, and the profitable results that woidd accrue to the farmer, and the benefits it wotild confer upon society, that I think it were worth the ^erious consideration of both landlords and tenants. Mr. Wm. Riddle, Rink, though agreeing witli tlie views stated regarding the fertiUsing properties of liquid manure, doubted very much vvhether its distribution on the farms of this district would pay for expenses. Mr. Thomson's remarks in depreciation of guano were unfounded, the value of that manure resting on too wide an induction to be overturned by the statement that the r[uantity applied to each turnip was so small that it coidd not have any cllicacy. On one drill, this season, no guano had been put; and, though the turnips were only recently thinned, he saw that the return on that drill would be too small to pay the labour ; while all the other drills, done up with guano, were looking very well. Mr. Hal- dane's experiment was not a case in point. The field had been already manured to excess, and the guano had no chance of making its power seen. He had no doubt that the use of guano increased the turnip crops tenfold. Mr. GiiiSON (Windydoors) tliought there was no doubt that on the general principle of the fertility of liquid farm manure, Mr. Thompson was qiute right ; but the expense of its dis- triljution by the suggested plan would absorb its value, and leave nothing in the shape of profit. It had been tried very carefully in Ayrshire ; and it was found that horse labour em- ployed in its distribution cost more than could be taken from the products grown by it. It was imsuitable for grass meant for sheep or lambs, and would injure them. Mr. S5IAIL (Galashiels Mill) said if landlords would put up engines to throw the liquid manure to the elevated ground, so that it could be led by pipes to the fields, he had no doubt that would be the best means of utilizing the liquid manure ; but at present farmers had no profitable way of getting it to the soil. He had several times seen Mr. Harvey's farm, near Glasgow, where immense crops of grass were raised by pumping hquid manure to a high level, and then scattering by hose and pipes over fields. These fields were either for pasture or cut- ting, and the grass was eaten by dairy cows. lie understood that farm paid very well. Mr. Elliot (Hollybush) said: Wherever liquid manure could be applied by gravitation to grass, it would pay well ; but the quantity made on a farm was much less than many people thought. He had tried the experiment for one year of using a water-cart to throw it over young grass meant for the sheep and lambs, but it did not pay him. He found that the horses' feet and the wheels did more damage thau the nmnure did good, and the residt was that he had to cut the grass at last. On hill slopes it would be found totally impracticable to use water-carts without a great expenditure of horse-power. It would not do to apply it to the land during winter, he thought ; and that implied immense tanks to keep it until it was needed. The Edinburgh sewage went over the meadows in thousands of tons per acre — a very diftercnt thing from going out with a water-cart and sprinkling it over rough liills. He did not think it impracticable to utilize the lif|uid manure ou any of the farms in this district by throwing it on the dung- heaps, or making it into compost heaps. After some more remarks from Mr, Thomson, the following was declared to be the opinion of the club on the subject : " That while this club are satisfied of the fertilizing properties of liquid fiirmyard manure, when applied to the soil, they stiU think that when its application by gravitation is impracticable, it will not pay to employ any of the otlier modes of direct appHcation lutherto in use, all of which involve considerable expense." HINTS FOR THE DAIRY.— Care sliould be taken dur- ing the warm \veatlier that the cows shoidd be in pastures with convenient shade, or their (Constant uneasiness from the teasing of flies hinders their feeding, and their becoming so heated from running has a very injurious effect on the milk, which is less in quantity, very soon becomes sour after being taken from the cows, and does not yield nearly so much produce, and hence considerable loss arises. If tbe herd be brought into yards to be milked they should liave the shade of cool sheds, or the operation of milking is very tedious from the cows not standing, and often much milk is sjiilt from the awkward moving of the cows, and the whole is not taken from them, which it is some- times under these circumstances ahnost impossible to do. This on every account should be avoided, for the milk that comes last is the ricliest, and besides, if the cows are not clean milked, there wiU be a gradual diminution of the milk percepti- ble dady ; for these reasons the greatest care should be taken tluit the cows are clean milked. A sufficient number of milkers should be provided to allow the cows to remain only one hour in the yard ; eight is about the proper number for a good milker to do well witliin the hour. If a suflicient number are milked to employ a man to carry in the milk to the dairy, it has been found to save much trouble ; this man, with yoke and buckets, should go round to collect from each milker as his pail becomes nearly full, and so lighten each one's load to carry from ('ow to cow, and prevent their individual journeys from the yard during the mUking hour ; by this means the milk is taken to the tub or vat in a much more equal temperature than if longer exposed to the healed atmosphere in the pails; and 252 THE FAKMEE'S MAGAZINE. such a precniitiou has been found to act well on the cheese and butter produced from it. When the cows have to be pastured far from the homestead, it is sometimes desirable to milk them in the field, for a drive alon^ a hot road exposed to the sun does as great harm to their milk as racing about the fields when exposed to the sun. A vessel is then taken on wheels drawn by the milkers or a horse, according to convenience, and this should be left to stand in a cool spot, and be taken home steadily with as little shaking as may be. The cows should get a change of grass once a week, even if to no better pasture ; they are found to feed better and keep more settled than if left longer in one field. A good supply of fresh good water for them is indispensable for their doing well and yielding a quantity of milk. OUR COAL, FOOD, AND POPULATION IN 1966. Sir, — According to Mr. Jevons's estimates, our present consumption of coal (100 millions of tons annually) will be increased in 1966 to 3,000 millions of tons, or thirty-fold larger than at present. This calculation implies that the necessary human labour in connection with the getting, dis- tributing, and use of this enormously increased quantity shall be forthcoming when required. Will any of your readers kindly give me an estimate of how many of our population are now thus employed ? I am induced to ask this question, because, according to reliable statistics, our population in 1966 will bear no relative proportion to the increase of coal predicted by Mr. Jcvons, and it is singular that in the anxious Legislatorial debate on this important sub- iect no allusion was made to our probable pogulation in 196G. If I am right in my estimate, the population of the United Kingdom in 1966 will only have increased one time, or be- come doubled, while our coal is to be increased thirty times ! Can this be so? I think not. The consumption of coal annually in London is about five millions of tons. If our London population should be double in 1966, would the con- sumption exceed 10 to 15 millions of tons ? If it increased thirty times (Mr. Jevons's calculation), it would be 150 mil- lions of tons. What an enormous increase of railroads and their accompaniments is implied by this increase alone ! I am no believer in it, for it naturally implies that our ship- ping, railways, &c., should all likewise increase in due propor- tion. According to Mr. Jevons, the present rate of growth in the production of coal is 3^ per cent, per annum. This, judging from the past, is an increasing rate of increase ; not so with our population — that is a decreasing rate of increase. For instance, the annual rate of increase of population for Eng- land and Wales in the years ISil to 1851 was 1.221 per cent.; 1851 to 1861, 1.131 per cent. The estimated popu- lation of England and Wales for 1966 is 38,015,462, or only an increase of one time, while our coal increase is estimated at thirty times. Surely there must be some discrepancy here, probably some over-estimate of our future coal con- sumption, or some under-estimate of our increase of popu- lation, although the latter is calculated from a verj- reliable source. I hope this subject wiU be well ventilated in your columns. Great anxiety is expressed about our future supply of coal but none as to our food. "VVlicn I express my surprise at this I am told " Oh ! but we can always buy our food from foreigners." I reply, "and so you can coal." "But it won't answer our purpose to buy coal. We Want cheap coal. " Well, but don't you want cheap food? and cannot cheap food be produced in Great Britain ? I maintain that it can provided you take the same means to produce it, as you do to produce more cheap coal. That is by the investment of more capital and intelligence. j\"ot that I expect that this will be rapidly done. Agriculture is too ranch shackled and tram- melled by a variety of sentiments and circumstances to rank with trade, manufacture, and commerce, in material progress ; but it may be useful to point to its shortcomings, and to stimu- late to a more profitable state of things. I don't believe land- owners or farmers are at all agreed as to the most profitable acreable capital to be invested by each of those interests to secure a cheap and profitable result. Before Mr. Jevons's anticipation of an increased coal sup- ply can be realised, untold millions of new capital must be in- vested in mine-sLnking and machinery. So it ought to be with the production of our food ; that cannot be increased without a considerable addition of invested capital on the part of landowners and tenants. What greater proof do we need than that, because we do not produce enough, the foreigner steps in to fill up the deficiency ? If as much food were produced generally in this kingdom as on my poor farm, and many others that I could name, we could not consume one-half of it. This is no exaggeration ; but then in my case, and in many others, the capital era- ployed is three-and-a-half to four times as great as the general average of the kingdom, and I repeat that it is mainly by the investment of a great additional capital in agriculture that we can hope to be able to feed our population abundantly and cheaply. If this is true, then, remove all obstacles and make the road free and open, so that capital may be tempted and in- vited to come that way. But what a vast field is that of agricultural investment on the part of landlord and tenant ! The paltry increase of capital to the extent of il per acre woxdd amount to £60,000,000, while really there is scope for from ten to twenty times that amount. The whole animal capital of the kingdom is only equal to one sheep per acre. An additional sheep per acre would add about £120,000,000 to the fanners' capital. When dealing with 60 millions of acres, every investment presents a gigantic total. It is easy to talk about £5 an acre for drainage, £^3 per acre for a steam-plough, £1 per acre for guano, £5 to £6 per acre for covered-yards, and no end of money for many other improvements, to say nothing of a readjustment of the forms of our farms, with a view to a business-like and profitable result. The task is a herculean one, and much of the land must pass into other hands, or become subject to new conditions, ere the neces- sary funds for agricultural amendment should be forth- coming. How can the farmer with £i< an acre capital (the average of the kingdom) compete successfully with the Norfolk or Lincolnshire or other good farmers who invest £16 per acre capital ? The result of such competition is a silent absorp- tion of means, or an infliction of pinching poverty. The same commercial law of supjily and demand acts in corn as in cot- ton, or any other mercliandise. We do not produce enough food for our population. The foreigner steps in and fills up the deficiency. In a super* abundant harvest he sends us little ; in a defective one we get from him large supplies. It is because we do not produce enough that he supplies us. We could produce more than enough if we chose to invest in food production a more ample capital and intelligence. AVe have plenty of both at command. I reiterate that it is a gross national error to loan our enor mous profits to every poor foreign potenthte when capital is required at home for the production of our food and emplo\.i ment of our labour. How to bring it to bear, to tempt it and encourage it to flow to agriculture, is a question worthy the attention of all well-wishers to their country. It is certain that the more diflicult it is to transfer land, the less prospect there is of its changing hands or receiving the fertilising influence of capital and intelligence. I was very raucli struck with a statement made to rae by a most intelligent American, a member of their Parliament, who said : " We have merely to walk into our county register- otKce, and in less than an hour we kn jw all about the land wc wish to buy as to mortgages or incumbrances, the buyer and seller appear, make the proper transfer, kc, and the whole THE FAEMEH'S MAGAZINE. or,: thing is at once settled at an insignificant cost." So it is witli our own public funds, where comfortable book-keepers arrange the matter between buyer and seller in a few minutes. The stockbroker charges 2s. 6d. per £100 • in transferring laud we pay £2 10s. per IllOO, and in addition a delay often of jnauy months. I must leave it to our longheads to arrange how all this is to be altered, wliich it certainly must be ere capital will abound in agriculture for the production of cheap and abund- ant food. J, J. Mechi. Aui/ust Zrd. LEGAL DECISIONS ACTS OF HUSBANDRY BY AN OUT-GOING TENANT. At tlie late Warwick Assizes an action was brought by Mr. John Law, a farmer, against ilr. F. Morrall, also a farmer, to recover from defendant £-i3 14s., the value of certain acts of husbandry done by him on Brookfields farm, as out-going tenant, for the benefit and use of the defendant, as in-coming tenant, and also for the value of two ricks of straw, four bags of wheat, and one acre of seeds, sold by tlie plaintiff to the defendant. The plaintiff is an ordinary yearly tenant, and has no written or special terms with his landlord. After the com- mencement of the proceedings defendant paid £19 10s. into Court, in alleged satisfaction of the debt. From the evidence, it appears that plaintiff' received from his landlord notice to quit at Michaelmas last, and previous to that period he had ploughed and otherwise prepared a quantity of pea brush, in- tended for wheat and other spring crops, for the benefit of the landlord or in-coming tenant. At Michaelmas, defendant, who had taken the farm, specially instructed plaintilf to plough three acres of bean brush, which plaintiff at once did, and shortly afterwards he gave up possession of a portion of the premises to defendant's men and horses, who entered upon the farm, wliile he (plaintiff ), by virtne of his customary right, re- tained possession of tlie remaining portion of the premises until May last to consume a quantity of straw. Defendant pur- chased from plaintiff four bags of wheat and a rick of straw, containing five tons, at 2s. Cd. per cwt. Plaintiff' afterwards instructed Mr. W. Endall, an agricultural valuer and auctioneer at lleuley-in-Arden, to value the acts of husbandry and things on the farm usually paid for and taken to by an in-coming tenant ; and the defendant agreed to abide by Mr. Eudall's decision. Mr. Endall subsequently sent in his valuation to the plaintiff, who forwarded it to the defendant, and requested pay- ment of that and of the rick of straw and four bags of wheat, as also of a second rick of straw, which defendant had agreed to purchase at the same price as the first one, and which he had taken possession of by removing it off plaintiff' 's rickstaddle, and using some portion of it. Defendant, however, repudiated the valuation (although he had seen all the lauds on wliich the acts of Imsbandry were done), inasmuch as he had not in- structed the doing of such acts ; and he also refused to pay for the second rick of straw on the ground that plaintiff had not complied with the term of an alleged agreement to give up possession of the whole farm at Lady-day. Plaintiff denied the existence of any such terms, and commenced this action. In cross-examination, plaintiff and Mr. Endall swore tliat it was the custom of the country not to have any summer fallows on small farms where the land was kept clean and in good con- dition, and that it was usual and customary to break up ji^a brush immediately after the crops had been harvested ; and Brookfields farm being a stiff soil, and undrained, it was re- quisite tiiat this custom should be strictly observed, otherwise the occupier would have difticulty in cloing his acts of hus- bandry after wet weather had set in. Mr. Endall had positively sworn that defendant had told him that he was satisfied with his valuation, and was willing to abide by it, and also tliat by the custom of the country defendant, as in-coming tenant, was liable to pay for the acts of husbandry done by the plaintitt'. At this stage of the case tlie J udge put it to the learned counsel for the defendant whether, after this evidence, the defence could be successful, and suggested that the parties should endeavour to effect a compromise. The learned counsel and solicitors on both sides, with their respective clients, thereupon consulted together, and after a few minutes' deliberation defendant con- sented to a verdict being given lor the plaintiif for£21 (exclusive of the sum paid into Court) and costs, and the case concluded. WARRANTY OF CATTLE. At the Norfolk Nisi Prius Court, on Saturday, July 28, be- ^"prfc the IjQr4rphief ' Barpit fin^ a special jury, j^H actipft fpr breach of warranty — Core v. the Manchester, Sheflleld, and Lincolnshire Railway Company — was tried. Mr. O'Malley, Q.C., and Mr. Merewether were for the plaintiff; Mr. Keane, Q.C., and Mr. Metcalfe for the defendants. The plaintiff's case, as opened by Mr. O'Malley, was that on or about the 22nd of September in last year, by accident, a lot of cattle (109 in number) which had been consigned from Trowse in Norfolk to Liverpool came into the ownership of the defendants, and as they were thus thrown upon their hands tlieir object was to get rid of them as soon as they could ; with this view the cattle were carried on to Norwich market, where they arrived on the 23rd of September. At that time (so it was alleged) Norwich and its neighbourhood were sorely afHicted with the cattle-plague, which had not reached St. Ives and Peterborough — places that were then uninfected. The beasts stood in the market for some time, but a sale of three only was effected. In consequence of this another market was sought for the rest, which were taken to St. Ives. There, how- ever, none being sold they were again carried ou towards Peter- borough, and arrived at Warrington, a place about three miles from Peterborough, on the 29th, when they were taken to a field which was hired for the purpose by a cattle-salesman named Brophy. In that field they remained till the 2nd of October, when they were put up for sale by a Mr. Mann at Peter- borough fair, when, so it was stated, a warranty was given that they were sound and healthy ; and in answer to a question put by some one bidding at the sale, Mann, on instructions received from Brophy, said that they had not come from Norwich. The plaintiff bought 25 of the beasts and took them home with him. On the 6th of the month the disease made its appearance, and on the IGtli only two remained alive, two' other beasts be- longing to the plaintiff which were in the field with them dying from the disease also. At the close of the case for the plaintiff, Mr. Ke.^^ne submitted, first, that tJiere was no evidence that the beasts had taken the plague when they were sold ; secondly, that there was no evidence that the defendants knew tliat the cattle had come from Norwich ; and, tliircUy, that the damage should be confined to the ordinary damage, viz., loss of the beasts purchased. His Lordship ruled that, as to the two first objections there was evidence to go to the jury ; but that the defendants might have leave to move to enter the verdict for them on the second point, and that as to the damages he should direct the jury to find separately — first, for the actual damage from the loss of the cattle ; and, secondly, for the consequential damage. Mr. Keane then addressed the jury for the defendants, con- tending that Mr. Mann did not know that the beasts had been at Norwich, and that his answer was a guarded one, showing a desire to refer the inquiries to Mr. Brophy for information on that head ; and that as to the w arranty, what Mr. Mann said amounted only to a statement of his belief in the soundness of the animals, that the animals were examined at Norwich when they arrived and when they departed, and that they had not tlie disease in them then ; that they were well when they got to St. Ives, and that being exposed to contact with other animals at Peterborough fair, and wearied and heated with their previous journeys, they were in a condition to take a disease which they had not got till then. His LoKDSHiP, after a careful summing up, left to the jury three points — first, whether the beasts when put up for sale Mere warranted to be in a healthy condition ; secondly, whether Mann said the cattle had not been at Norwich ; and, thirdly, whether the defendants knew when the beasts were sold at Peterborough fair that they were att'ected with the disease. The jury found on all points for the plaintiff to the amount claimed, viz., £1,100, leave being reserved to the defendants to move — first, to reduce the damages ; and, secondly, to enter the verdict for them, THe case was not conclwded ^ill a late hou?. ia the day, 254 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE SHROPSHIRE SHEEP SALES. The Shropsluros, as the favourite sheep of tlie uorth-wcsteru counties are called, liave uiulergone a cousidcrable change siuee we first became intimately acquainted with. them. Great care lias been taken, and considerable skill displayed by lead- ing breeders to bring this breed to something like uniformity of"tj-])e, colour, and quality of wool. But while there is a fiur opportunity for saying this much, it must also be admitted there is ample room for much more to be done. Another promising sign seems to be tlie abandonment of the attempt to accomplish impossibilities as regards great size and form combined with fine quality and an aptitude to fatten. A breed of sheep of this character will be sure to produce as many liea\y sheep as will be required to supply whatever demand there may be for enormous legs and " noble" looking haunches and saddles of mutton. To aim, therefore, at bringing the whole breed up to something beyond an ordinary size and weight would be erroneous, both as regards the producers and the consumers ; for there is no doubt whatever that size goes iu at the mouth, and that the weiglit of an animal cannot come out of nothing, but is the result of its eating, digesting, and assimilating so many hundredweights of turnips and so many pounds of cake and corn. It cannot be any more profit- able, therefore, for a farmer to produce a ton of mutton in the form of fifteen or t\^•enty sheep thau it would be with twenty- five or thirty. This is sup])osing the fair-sized ones to be equally thrifty and predisposed to mature. And as regards consumers, lieyond the few exceptional purchasers of large joints for public dinners and special and large parties, it is much more convenient and agreeable to have a middling-sized joint, or two small ones, than a large one, or a leg or shoulder divided into two parts, both of which would be awkward to cook, and neither of them first-rate to eat. Another favour- able symptom was, tliere had been much less stuffing and cram- ming to produce a sensational eifect. This may have arisen perhaps from the absence of a Royal show this year, with wliich Society the "just-to-sce-what-can-be-done" notion has been either far too much encouraged or too little checked. It is to be hoped that when the Royal Society resumes its exlii- biting duties it \vill make imperative a due observance of dis- cretion in feeding, where liitherto the management has been a little too near-sighted, or, if not so, much too milk-aud- watery. Mr. Coxon's sale at Preeford, on July 30, may be characterised as the great Shropshire sale of the year. His average for sheep let and sold was £19 5s. This great result in favour of this flock may be attributed to its owner's spirited action in securing the first Royal prize shearling at Newcastle. This sheep was named Duke of Newcastle, and as he was un- doubtedly the most complete Shropshire sheep wc have ever seen, there need be but little said to prove that he has made a considerable mark on the issue of this flock. His produce are now shearlings, and therefore coming into use. Of his issue there were 23 males, which realised upwards of iiOO, or £23 7s. 6d. average — not a bad return for an investment of £80, the price said to have been given for the Duke of Newcastle. This sheep has now been let for £4)0 to Mr. Horley, of The Fosse, on condition that Mr. Coxon sends so many ewes to him, \yith some other private arrangements of a reciprocal kind. One sheep by The Duke, " Clipstone" by name, was let to Mr. Evans of Ulfington, who is a spirited improver of his flock, for -ia guineas ; " Conservative," another excellent sheep, was let to Sir. Wright, Stafi'ord, for 2G guineas ; Mr. Hutton took one for Lady Willoughby De Broke's flock, at 4rh gs. ; Mr. Allsopp, a member of the great brewing firm, who has taken to farming, secured one at 47 guineas, and another at 37 gs. Captain Oliver, of Towcester, obtained a good sheep, for which he gave 3S guineas. A few ewes were afterwards sold, the highest price given for which was 140s. each, and the general average veiy nearly 72s. Gd. The first of the Shrewsbury annual sales came off on July 31st in the Smithfield, when Mr. Preece, wlio is now so well known for his liberal application of adjectives to his descrip- tion of the Shropshires, officiated in his liest or most buoyant liumour, and, as we think, with a more judicious economy of time and words than we have had to observe on some previous occasions. As it was, it took six liours to sell the rams on the ground. But this time was systematically divided, ten minutes lieiiig alloweil for introductorv rcninrks nnd two iniu.iites for the disposal of each sheep. On this plan the catalogue was marked "11.0 — the time the sale began — Messrs. Crane's Rams;" " 11.53, the Rev. Mr. Peters' ;" and so on. Thus any owner of sheep or purchaser who wanted a particular animal, and only that one, could go elsewhere, and be sure of the time at which a particular lot would be sold. So long as six liours are occupied iu " knocking down" 200 sheep, this is a very neces- sary regulation ; and as Mr. Preece kept the time named to a minute, it was attended with unusual convenience ; and the example may be profitably followed elsewhere. The Jlessrs. Crane had 36 rams, and they were of the most uniform character and in the best condition that we have ever seen this flock. They have of late years been more celebrated for producing ew-es than rams, but a favourable turn seems to be taking place in respect to the production of tups by their flock. From being iu a less forced condition, the legs of these sheep were on this occasion neither warped, nor otherwise de- fective. The leading prices were 20 guineas to Mr. Keeling for a very neat sheep ; 21 guineas to Mr. Botteley, near Staf- ford, a young beginner, who is setting a flock under good judg- ment, from having had consideralile experience and the practical knowledge to be obtained by being for some years under the instruction of Mr. Keehng at the Yew Tree Farm. Lord Chcsham had a sheep bought for him at 29 guineas ; Mr. Pitt of PosenhiU bouglit one 28 guineas ; and Mr. Darling of Beau Desert, Rugeley, bought a good useful stock sheep at 14 guineas, wliich was the average. Mr. Ileury Smith, Sutton Maddock, adheres to his determination to make true form and fine quality the leading features of his flock ; as he also, in carrying this out, sticks to brown feces and less ranging frames and close coats of fine wool, his sheep are not so much sought after just now ; aud though they were amongst the most sym- metrical on the ground, for the foregoing and other reasons, the prices tliey made v\ere not high. Mr. Keary bought two for the Hon. Fi. Coke, Longtou, near Derby, at 12 aud 10 guineas respectively ; and one was sold for 10 guineas. The average was 12 guineas. Mr. H. J. Sheldon, Brailes House, Warwickshire, sent G rams, 5 of which were sold at 23, 14, 25, 13, and 21 guineas. These were very compact, close- coated, bro\TO-faced sheep, and their hardy appearances suffi- ciently indicated that they had weathered the wind and rain on what is looked upon as being the higliest ground in the centre of England. Mr. Thornton, of Pitchford, was the breeder of "Duke of Newcastle," mentioned above in connection with Mr. Coxon's flock and sale. The sire of this sheep let in 1864 at G5 guineas, last year at 20 guineas to Mr. Bird, and this year at 20 guineas to Mr. Minor. In 1SG4 Mr. Thornton's few sheep — 13, if we remember rightly — made the highest average yet recorded, viz., nearly 30 guineas each. This year he has not been so fortunate, but he cut a respectable figure, and there are signs and elements in the appearance of these sheep which foreshadow another " plum," if not a Royal first prize, at iio distant date. One was let for 20 guineas, another at 15 guineas, another at 31 guineas, while one was sold at 34 guineas. The remainder made store prices between 8^ and 13 guineas. Mr. Thomas Horton had fourteen strong and thick sheep on short and stift' legs. One was bought for Lord Sudley, of Gloucestershire, for 14 guineas ; another by Captain Bruton, of Cheshire, for 30 guineas ; another at 14 guineas, for Lord Stamford ; another made 31 guineas ; and the whole averaged about 13 guineas. Mr. ManseU had twelve very useful rams, one of whicli was a Plymoutli Royal prize sheep, and he was liired for Colonel Pennant, of Penrhyn Castle, at 30 guineas ; another was sold at 17 guineas, and the remainder made fair prices. The honour of the day fell on the flock of Lady WiUoughby de Broke, to the merits of whose sheep wc have so often spoken of late ; and the average of the twenty sheep sent reached above 17 guineas. The higher prices were 31, 30, 28, and several at 30 guineas each. These were strong, thick, fleshy sheep, much of a muchness with Mr. Uortoii's, from whose flock many of them descended in a direct line. These sheep carried a large quantity of wool ; but wool is likely to be beaten by the price of mutton, now cotton is again getting abundant, and importations of wool have so greatly increased. The other exhibitors were Mr. Pryce Bowen, Shrawardine, wliose flock seems to have taken one of those turns wiiicli no one nan account for, viz., not to have jir9duced a few sheep so THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 255 strikingly good, altliougli its reputation staiuk liigli, and this character is likely to be again conspicuously developed in future years under Mr. Bowen's spirited management ; the Kev. C. P. Peters ; Mr. Evans, Uffington ; Mr. Maddox, of Harley ; Mr. Metres, of Bennington ; A. H. Minor, Esq. The lion, and llev. Noel Hill and Mr. John Whitehurst also had sheep for sale, but which we have not space to say more of, than that they were useful for direct store breeding, and they made good prices according to their individual merits. On Tuesday, July 31, about 800 ewes were disposed of by Mr. Preece. These were from the same Hocks as the rams sold the day before, and the draft of store breeding flocks in the neighbourhood. Messrs. Cramer made gieat prices, two lots reaching 130s. each, another 140s., others 105s., 100s., 90s., and so on, the lowest price being SOs. each. One of the lots, at £6 10s., was bouglit for Lord Combermere, who is setting a flock in a way that cannot fail, under his lordship's weU- kuown ])ractical knowledge and good judgment in respect to all kinds of domestic animals, to arrive some day at consider- able distinction. Mr. Evans' ewes were a most excellent col- lection of eighty ; and one lot made 150s. each, which were also bought for Lord Combermere. In addition to draft ewes from the flocks of the other ram-breeders above-named, there were many other pens from Ijreeders who do not aim at anything like enviable distinction, some of which, however, were very good, while some were what may literally be termed the tag-rag and bobtail of store flocks, whose owners have evidently more desire to try their luck at a public sale than scruples about making a public exhibition of their cripples and the otherwise imperfect animals lliey have discarded from their flocks. SHEEP SALES. GuEAT CoTSwoLD Tup Sale. — Mr. Lane's sale at Broad- field, Northleach,on Thursday, July 26, drew together one of the largest companies ever seen on the hills. His sheep averaged £20 18s. 9d. each, one sheep being knocked down at 210 guineas. A gentleman from Herefordshire was a bidder for this sheep ; but the hammer fell to the bidding of Mr. John King Tombs. Mr. Fletcher bought a sheep at 123 guineas. It is now certain that Mr. It. Lane, of the Cottage Farm, and his brother Mr. "William Lane, have carried oif the jjahn for the highest averages for Cotswold sheep on record. J\Ir. R. Lane's sheep in ISGl averaged £34' 10s. Sd. each. EDiNBURon. — Several kinds of half-bred hoggs sold in lots from -IGs. up to 54s. ; smaller sorts and crosses sold from 38s. to 44s. ; Cheviot and black-faced ewes sold from 24s. up to 40s. The best class of lambs sold from SOs. up to 36s. ; middling sorts, 23s. up to 28s., and down to 14s. East Lothian. — The best class of hoggs sold from 52s. to 58s. 9d. : smaller sorts, from 40s. to 51s. 6d. Half-bred ewes brought from 42s. to 49s. 3d. ; Cheviot hoggs, from 50s. to 53s. 9d. ; Cheviot ewes, from 40s. to 4Ss. 6d. ; black-faced ewes, from 27s, to 3()s. Gd. ; half-bred lambs, from 25s. to 37s. 6d. ; Hampshire cross lambs, at 42s. 3d. ; grey-faced lambs, from 20s. to 30s. ; and a fat pig, at 103s. Hoggs realized from 2s. to 3s. in advance of last week's prices. Ewes were a shade duller. Melrose. — Dinmonts and gimmers ran from 43s. to 45s., 4.8s., 50s. Gd., 53s., 55s. 6d., and C7s. Gd. ; ewes, from 4Gs. to 48s., 50s., 55s., 5Ss., and GOs. Gd. ; Cheviot ditto, 34s. to 37s. 6d.,and 40s. 6d. ; fat lambs, 25s. to 28s., 30s., 3Gs., 40s. Gd., and 41s. 6d. Pigs, 12s. to 19s. Gd. Wether mutton, 7|d. to to S^d. and 9d. ; tups, ewes, &c., GJd. to 72<1- per Ih. The Yew Tree Farm Sale. — Mr. C. R. Keeling's annual sale was held on Friday, July 27, when, from the known high character of the flock, and the spirited purchases made by the owner, a large company assembled. Only one was let, which Mr. llandell took at twenty guineas, and the same gentleman also bought No. t, at forty-three guineas. Others followed at thirty, twenty-five, twenty-four, twenty-two, down to nine guineas — the whole number, thirty-one, reaching within a few pence of £16 per head. The ewes have been larger in size ; but they were neat, full of quality, and true in colour and character, and were eagerly sought after Ijy those to whom the merits of the flock are best known, the prices being from 72s. Cd. to 100s. each, tbe eighty averaging 82s. Gd. Mr. I'reece, of Shrewsbury, ofliciatcd as auctioneer. Me. Edmund Olding's Sai^e of Rams.— The annual sale took place on Wednesday, July 25, at llatfin Farm, near Amesbury . The stock consisted of 122 ram lambs and rams, of which 100 ram lambs and nine rams were to be sold, and ten lambs and three rams were for letting. No. 7 was let for 23 i- gs. ; but this sum was afterwards increased to £30, in consideration of an extension of the time of hiring. The sale of 100 ram lambs, singly and in pairs, then took place. A two-teeth realized £25 14s. Gd., and another two-teeth £17 6s. 6d. The average of the rams and ram lambs let and sold was £8 7s. Sd. Marhah HjVLL Farm. — The annual show and letting of long-woolled rams by Mr. T. Brown, of Marhara Hall Farm, took place on Thursday. The first ten lambs let for £82 5s., an average of £8 4s. 6d. ; Mr. II. Beck giving ten guineas for one lot, and Mr. Herring £9 10s. and £9 respectively for two lots. The first twenty" let for £138 10s., an average of £6 IGs. 6d. The fifteen lots of two lambs in each lot let for £191 10s., or £6 7s. 8d. each animal ; the fifty lambs thus let for £330, an average of very nearly £0 12s. each. The first ten shearlings let for £89 9s., an average of £8 18s. lOJd. each ; the first lot put up being the winner of a first prize at the SufTolk Agricultural Show at Bury St. Edmund's, and being hired by Mr. Bird, of Shouldham Abbey, at £11 .5s. ; the first twenty let at an average of £9 3s. Sd. each, Mr. Braekenbury giviui? £13 OS. for one lot. -The first thirty let at an average of £9 Os. lid. each, tlie first forty £8 19s. Id., the first fifty £8 15s. lid., the first sixty £8 14s. 7id., the first seventy £8 10s. 4J. ; the eighty at a total of £661 4s., being an average of £8 5s. 3|^d. The ten two-shear rams let at a total of £68 15s., being an average of £G 17s. 6d. KesgrjCve Sheep and Lamb Sale. — Messrs. Biddell and Blencowe held an important sheep and lamb sale at Kesgrave. Some 2,000 were offered. Half-bred lambs, 32s. to 44s., the average being 3Gs. Gd. ; Southdown lambs, 26s. 6d.to 36s. 6d., the average for the NewbouruHall flock being 32s. 3d. ; shear- ling Southdown ewes 4Ss. to 55s. ; two-shear grey-faced ewes, 59s. to G2s. ; crones, 35s. to 42s. ; cast ewes, 42s. to 54s. SHEEP SALE AT DUMBIER HOME FARIM.— The sale of Messrs. Downs and Awbery of the flock of pure-bred Hampshire Down ewes, ewe lambs, rams, and ram lambs be- longing to the Rev. Stephen Terry, of Dummer Home Farm, took place at the Home Farm, on July 27, and attracted unusual interest, and more than an ordinary attendance of the principal flockmasters, dealers, and practical agriculturists and connois- seurs of good breed in sheep fi'om Hants and the neighbour- ing counties. Two-teeth eijjes fetched from 71s. to 105s., the whole 112 averaging £4 5s. per head, less Is., on the whole. The 125 four-teeth ewes sold from 07s. to 87s. ; ave- rage £3 16s. 6d. per head. Ninty-five six-teeth ewes, from 69s. to - 78s. ; average £3 13s. Gd. per head. One hundred and fifty full-mouthed ewes realized from OGs. to 96s. ; average £3 16s. per head : making an average of £3 17s. 9d. per head for the whole ewes flock, and an aggregate of £1,866 15s. Gd. for 482 sheep. The 130 ewe lambs varied from 46s. to 105s. each, or an average £2 13s. 3d. per head. The 36 ram lambs from £5 5s. to £22 lis. 6d. each, or an average of £8 2s. each. SALE OF LONG-WOOLLED NORFOLK RAMS.— The sale of long-woolled shearling rams, bred by and the property of ]\lr. Charles Bradfield, one of the tenants of his Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, took place at Bablngly Hall farm on Friday, Jidy 27. Mr. F. Beck otl'ered for sale 80 long- woolled shearling rams. The prices realized were in advance of last year. The first ten averaged £8 19s. each, twenty £8 18s. 9d., thirty £8 ISs., forty £8 15s. 3d., fifty £8 14s., sixty £8 7s. lOd., seventy £8 2s. 9d., seventy-six £7 19s. 5d. ^ The total amount realized was £624, including three two- ' shear sheep. The bidding was very spirited, particularly for the best animals. A very fine sheep, which it apjieared had been brought up by hand by Miss llanuah Bradfield, was pur- chased by the Prince of Wales for £15. THE RAM SALKS AT IIEIIEFORD FAIR. — Mr. Henry Dowle sold a draft of five rams from the Cotswold flock of Mr. Smith of Bibury. The competition was keen, the highest price realized being 26 guineas and the average £17 6s. The next lot was a draft from the Cotswold flock of Mr. Theyer, of Walford Court ; the average for eleven was a little more than £8. IMr. Bradstock, of Cobrey Park, sent 16 of his shearling rams, and the average was (^h; guineas. Mr. Alfred Edwards sold 17 of the Credenliill shearling rnins at 256 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. an average of JE7 53. For Mr. Paramore, of Dinedor Court, Mr. Edwards sold three shearling rams at an average of 6 guineas. Mr. George Pye represented Mr. Davis, of Webton C ourt, and obtained an average of £8 lUs. for yearling and o^Jer rams. A draft of 30 stock ewes, from Webton Court, fetelied £3 17s. a-head. ■For Mr. Price, of Pennalt, Mr. Pye sold -20 long-woolled shearling rams ; the average was £8 5s. Messrs. Russell and Son were the representatives of Mr. J. B. Downing, of Holm Lacy. The lot comprised twenty yearling rams, displaying the characteristics of the llyeland breed. Twelve only were sold, the prices of which ranged from 5| to 11 guineas, the average being 7a guineas. Mr. Russell next sold six rams of white-faced breed, of Mr. Pinches, of Hard- wick, and a keen competition resulted in an average offilSs. Mr. Russell's last lot was a draft of 25 yearling Leicester rams from the flock of Sir Edward Cockburu. Eight only of the lot were sold, at an average 7i guineas. THE MARKSHALL RAM LETTING.— The annual let- ling of Mr. Thomas Allen's rams took place on Aug. 10, at Markshall, and was well attended by the sheep-breeders of East Norfolk. 47 shearling and 3 two-shear rams averaged £0 ys. 3d. eiich, the highest price obtained being £10. The two-shears were let at an average of £7. MR. SEXTON'S RAM-LETTING.— On Aug. 10, Mr. Sex- ton, of Wherstead, held his annual sale and letting of ram- lambs from his flock of Cotswolds. The lots of lambs were 100 in number, aud in spite of the unfavourable weather their quality was such as to command a spirited competition as soon as they were led into the ring. The upset price in all cases was 5 guineas, and at that price only a few animals were passed. The first fifty lots were two-shear and shearling rams, which were ofl'erc.d for sale. The first was knocked down to Mr. NichoUs, of Lawshall, near Bury, for £11 ; the next lot was sold to Mr. E. Green, M.P., for the same price ; after which the bids amounted to £7 to £8 10s., till the sixth lot, which was knocked down to Mr. Bring, of Clacton, for £15 10s. Afterthis the highest price reached was £11, and the lowest £6. In letting the competition was equally brisk, and the prices in some cases very high, the highest prices being £15 and £10, knocked down to Mr. Constable. Mr. Chapman also had one ram knocked down to him for £13 5s., and seve- ral others fetched £10 to £10s. 15s., and the lowest was £5 10s. The average price of the rams sold was £8 5s., and of those which were let £7 10s. 6d. THE YORKSHIRE RAM-LETTINGS.— Mr. Stamper, of Highfield House, North Riding, let his flock : the competition was brisk, only one Leicester shearling being returned unlet by the auctioneers. Shearling No. 2 went to the Knapton flock at £12 5s. No. 5 let for £19, to Mr. Hall, of Thirsk ; and at £13 Mr. AValker, of Goldsborough, took the own brother to one of the Plymouth sheep. The Hon. and Rev. J. W. Lascelles, of Goldsbrough, took No. 8 shearling at £11 15s., and Mr. Leek No. 12 at £10 5s. The aveiage price of the wliole was about £8 4s. The Leckoufield House flock showed the 60 shearlings to average over £8 per head. Mr. Matterson was equally successful with the Newbald flock, also averaging over £8 per liead. The annual sale of Lincolnshire rams took place at Bushby Hill on Thursday last, and the sixty-two shearlings were aU sold by Mr. C. Tateson at an average of £9 17s. each ; seven aged sheep, some of which had been used by Mr. Stephenson himself, fetching an average of £15 3s. 80 rams, the property of James Hall, Esq., of Scorbro', averaged for the shearlings £9 3s., aud the net average was was £8 17s. Gd. each. MR. WILLIAM DAY'S SHEEP SALE AT WOOD- YATES. — On Thursday Aug. 2, Messrs. Ewer and Winstanley sold by auction, at Woodyates, Dorset, the flock of about 1,100 stock ewes and chilver aud ram lambs, the property of Mr. William Day, who lias given up breeding, and intends in future to keep a dry flock on the remaining portion of his farm. The sale was admitted on all hands to be the best ever known in this part of England. The quality of the sheep was as good as could be desired, and the biddings were liberal and rapid. During the day the Duke of Hamilton, who has just purchased of Mr. Day the Alvediston estate, sent a telegram to Mr. George Rawlence to buy 200 of the best of the flock, and that gentleman was the purcliaser of a large number of animals. Woodyates Inn, the residence of Mr. William Day, as most of our readers arc aware, was formerly a well-known posting- |)ouse in the dft^s wheiitlie coacjies travellpd tlus road, whipli was part of the direct route from Salisbury to Exeter. The old inn is still retained, but Mr. Day has erected a large range of stabling for the accommodation of the race horses trained by him. The flock for sale consisted of 200 two-teeth ewes, 200 four-teeth ewes, 200 six-teetli ewes, and 200 full-mouthed ewes, 200 chilver lambs, CO ram lambs, and 8 rams. The sale commenced with the Hampshire Down ram lambs, which were sold singly and in pairs. The single lambs realised respectively 23gs., 20gs. 18gs., ICgs., 15gs., lligs., lO^gs., OJgs., 7igs., and 7g3. The pairs lealised prices varying from 25gs. down to 8gs. The 8 Hampshire Down rams realised as follows : — 17igs., 17gs., 16gs., llgs., 9igs., 8igs., 72gs., 74gs. The ram and lambs averaged £8 5s. per head. The do\vn chilver lambs were sold in lots of twenty and ten, and realised from G7s. to 42s. per head, the average being about £2 8s. 6d. each. The two-teeth ewes realised from 115s. to 57s., averaging about £3 17s. Cd. per head. The four-teeth ewes sold at from 120s. to 61s., and realised nearly 80s. per head. The six-teeth ewes sold from 110s. to 64s., and realised about £3 2s. 6d. per head. The total proceeds of the sale amounted to £3,975 18s. 6d. Among the buyers were the Duke of Hamilton, Messrs J. B. Starkey, Rose, James Rawlence, W.I Shittler, Perks, Josiali Read, Walter Read, John Read, James Jefl'ries, E. Benjafield, Collier, John Taunton, AVilliam Taunton, Charles Godwin, Morrice, Gilford, Davis, Hayter, Charles Parham, H. Fookes, Harvey, II. Marsh, H. Brine, R. Brine, T. Mayo, Mayo, John Rebbeck, Ruddle, Ferris J. D. Allen, and Rogers. THE FARMER.— At a recent meeting of the Swindon Fanners' Club, Captain Horsell said : The farmer is the great middle-man bctw een poverty and wealth, between labour and capital, Ijetween the many and the few. In the hour of distress the battle always falls back upon him. According to the constitution he is a responsible man. The landlord is comparatively unknown to the law — whether he lives abroad all his days and is never heard of, or resides in the heart of his property, he may be equally a nonentity. In respect of that property he has scarcely one legal obligation, lie is a sleeping partner in the concern, but of course no partner at all. The tenant is looked upon as the universal paymaster. In half-aii-hour's walk from almost every market-place in the kingdom you find yourself under the sway of these powerful and responsible potentates. • Once among green fields and hedgerows, and the tenant farmer is your immediate superior. The road you are riding upon, the ditch you leap over, and the bridge you cross, are maiutaiued by him. If you damage a fence it is his — the cattle are his — the labourers are in his pay. He greatly assists in keeping the carpenter's bench, the saw-pit, and the forge at work — the village shop and the village public-houses are chiefly supported by his servants aud labourers. If profits fail, he has to draw on his capital to keep things going ; if wages are reduced, he has to bear the odium ; if disaffection spreads, his ricks are burned ; when he can no longer pay wages, he must still pay rates. If there are widows, or orphans, or old men, or cripples, or sick, or vagrants, the tenant farmer must maintain them ; if they die without friends, he must bury them. I am not forgetting that land occupied for agricultural purposes is not more than half the real property of this island — in many respects land has an importance and responsibility beyoud its pecuniary estimate — from land is the first start of our prosperity, and in land is the last refuge of our social statistics. Who is so competent and rightful an authority, iu matters of domestic finance, as the tenant farmer ? and who is more entitled to he represented, as directly aud honesitly, and truly as can be ? And yet, lamentable as it really is, and must appear, in May 1866 we have no Minister of Agriculture, no department to whom we could appeal under special circumstances, and from whom the agri- culturist could at once receive attention. How many slaughtered animals would now be grazing on rich pastures, and producing food for man, that now lie buried iu the ground, under orders from the veterinary inspector ! If there had been an authority to act when the cattle plague first appeared in this country, how many animals would be living that are now dead, liow many homes would be now occupied with happy faces that are now desolate — how many rich pastures that remain unstocked would be seen with living animals ! how many families that would have been basking in sunshine, under the genial rays of a father's heart, are now scattered helpless over the la^d, and tlieir guide passed tP » lunatic psjlu?i) I THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 257 MR. AYLMER'S SHEEP SALE. Mr. Aylmer's sheep-farming is of an extraordinary character. His occupations amount to SUO acres, part of which he rents, the remainder being his own property. There are about ~50 acres of pastures, most of which are iu the higiiest possible condition to produce healthy food. This great fertility arises from the amount of root and cake and corn feeding on them, wiiich his great flock and ram-breeding at some seasons of the year require. In addition to the herd, the issue of 350 stock-ewes are kept and fed, excepting the rams when they are out on hiie. Mr. Aylraer now has iOOrams. These vary in age from lambs to two-shear and a few older sheep ; they are amongst the finest we ever saw. When we have been visiting Lincolnshire and large farms in other counties, we liave thought that a sliow of from 100 to 150 rams was a goodly muster ; but this view has been completely superseded, so far as numbers and weight of production go, by Mr. Aylmer's large exhibition. By this — it cannot fail to strike the reader —a Norfolk farmer, single-handed, doubles in number many of the sales of " grand," " superb," and " splendid" rams that may be collected together at a county town. In this Shrews- bury even is not to be excepted. We have seen what we term a finer quality of sheep than Mr. Aylmer's flock possesses, and we have seen flocks composed of Southdowus and Leicesters more of a family type and character. But this we may say, apart from the numbers referred to, we have never seen a more useful and valuable flock, looking at it from a money point of view, and considering the object for which its male issue are intended. The character of these sheep may be simply described as a judicious admixture of Cotswold, Lincoln, and Leicester. There are conspicuous traits of all these breeds, but not one of them is so excessive as to display the defects which are often shown iu the older and more original breeds. It is frequently held by farmers, that a flock cannot well be kept together more tlian 20 years, and it was predicted that Mr. Aylmer would share the fate of many other breeders, but he came into possession of the base of this flock 21 years ago, and he has had the management of it ever since, while from tlie remarks of neighbours yesterday, the individual sheep get bigger, and better covered with wool, as the produc- tion of them increases. This is no doubt the result of not being bigoted, or prejudiced iu favour of a particular style of sheep, and of not striving to bring the whole flock up, or per- haps down, to that particular fancy model. After all, the main question must be the value to the butcher. We have re- peatedly touched on the question of great size, rersi/s the same weight of meat in the shape of more animals ; but there must be unusual thrift in sheep that will attain the uniform weight of the West Dereham flock. And when w'e know the necessity for considerable length of leg, neck, and back in the sheep of the Norfolk and Sutfolk flocks, which have to walk miles a day from a fold in search of food, and back again to a fold at night, and also that short-wooUed sheep only can stand this work, then it is clear that these sheep, with their great thrift, heavy coats, and stifl'legs, are well adapted for giving size, sub- stance, and increased wool, with early maturity if required, to the working and breeding ewes of the heaths and blowing sands of the eastern counties. The number of rams Messrs. Salter, Simpson, and Bacon brought to the ring on Thursday, was 190, viz., 100 lambs, 80 shearlings, aud 10 two-shear sheep. This number of less than half the whole of the rams of the farm, and the compara- tive inconsistency in regard to their ages, arise from the fact that Mr. Aylmer has many distant customers to whom he lets privately, and to the wish that many neighbours have to again take tlie same sheep which served their purpose so well last year or the year before. The 100 lambs were certainly extraordinary for the length and weight of wool they carried. Among them were a few grey- faces, and these excited unusually spirited competition. Mr. Leeds, of Lexham, took No. 1 at £11 ; Mr. John Overman, of Burnham, No. 6 at £12 ; Mr. Mathews, No. S at £11 10s. ; Mr. Delf, No. 11 at £11 ; Mr. Cadden, No 13 at £13 ; Mr. Howard, No. 30 at £15; while the whole averaged £6 13s. 4d. each. The shearling rams averaged £9 10s. 6d. each. Mr. Leeds hired the first, at £13 ; Mr. Lane No. 17 at £17 and No. 20 at £30, the latter being run close by Mr. Mumford Sexton. Mr. R. Overman took No 31, at £13 : Mr. Carter, No. 31, at £12 ; and Jlr. Blyth, of Hingham, took Nos. 35 aud 36, at £20 each ; Nos. 45 and 48 going to Mr. Sewell, of Peckeuham, at £14 and £13 respectively. The ten two-shear sheep averaged £7 6s. The above figures are a considerable advance of last year's letting, notwithstanding the reduction of capital in the hands of farmers from the adverse times ; in fact, it is just the diffi- culties under which the bulk of farmers are now prosecuting their business that have caused the price of stock-sheep, and particularly long-wooUed rams, to rise in price. Sheep may be said to be the farmer's only redeeming production, and everyone is making what effort he can to possess himself of the class of production^viz., breeding sheep — to which a fair profit may be said to hang. DRIFFIELD AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. The thirteenth annual exhibition of this society was held on Aug. 3, under the presidency of Mr. W. H. Harrison Broadley, of Welton, on some fields in the occupation of Mr. 11. Kirby, of the Bell Hotel. Notwithstanding the threatening appearances of a wet and duU day, the town was thronged at an early hour with all classes of the people, the attractions of this great gathering having become the holiday occasion for immense numbers of the agricultural population for miles round. About £300 was offered iu prizes for stock, implements, and poultry. In addition to the usual ordinary prizes ofl'ered by the society were the following, viz., a silver cup of the value of £25, given by Mr. C. Sykes, M. P., for the best three-year-old hunting mare or gelding, open to all Tiorkshire ; another silver cup of the value of £25, given by the society, for the best hunting mare or gelding of all ages, open to all England ; £15 by the President for the best hunting mare not less than four aud not more than seven years old, possessing three crosses of blood, and to be mounted and ridden in the ring, open to Yorkshire and Lin- colnshire ; £10 by the President for the best coaching gelding not less than four years old, open to all England ; and a silver cup by the society for the best pen of shearling gimraers bred iu the East Riding. The entries for horses were 272, sheep 27, pigs 22, poultry 266, implements 83, pigeons 14, rabbits 8, making a total of 670. The great attraction of the show was the number and excellence of the horses. ' The pens of sheep, though less numerous than in former years, were e^cjual in ([uality and symmetry to any before exhibited. On the whole the show may be pronounced a very superior one. A cold coUatiou was provided in a pavilion on the ground, and the usual public dinner took place in the Assembly Rooms, Mr. W. H. Harrison Broadley, in the chair, when the customary loyal aud local toasts were given and responded to. The following were judges : Sheep and pigs — Messrs. George Mann, Scawsby ; Thomas Gibbs, Saundby ; William Torr, Aylsby Manor. Horses^Messrs. J. H. Skipworth, Howshiftn ; T. Wagstafl", Retford ; W. E. Hobson, Kettleby- thorpe ; J. Wressell, Adlingfleet ; J.Hall, Sedgefield ; and T. Neale, Scrooby. Implements— Messrs. G. Angas, Bedford ; E. Riley, South Dalton ; and A. Botterill, Garton. The special and other leading prizes were awarded as fol- lows : The President's prize of £15, for the best hunting mare, Mr. G. Simpson, of Kilnwick Percy. The President's prize of £10, for the best coaching gelding, Mr. G. Holmes, Bever- ley. Mr. C. Sykes's silver cup, value £25, for the best three- year-old hunting mare or gelding, Mr. G. Holmes, Beverley. The Society's silver cup, value £25, for the best hunting mare or gelding of all ages — Mr. Thomas Sutton's Yoyageur, which took the prize at Islington, Birmingham, and Bridlington. The Society's silver cup, for the best pen of five shearling gim- raers— Mr. W. Brown, Highgate Hall, near York. The best shearling ram, £10, Mr. J. Borton, Barton, near Malton ; best stallion for hunters, £7, Sir G. Cholmley ; ditto for coach- horses, £7, Mr. G. W. Clark, Tibthorpe ; ditto for roadsters, £7, Mr. H. R. Hart, Dunnington ; ditto for agricultural pur- poses, £7, Mr. W. Simpkin, Burton Agues. Best hunting mare and foal, £5, Mr. J. Smith, Marton Lodge, Bridlington ; ditto hunting gelding, two years old, £3, Sir G. Cholmley ; do. do. filly, £2, Lord Middleton. Best boar, large breed, £2, Mr. J, Dyson, Leeds ; best sow, do., £2, do. T 258 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINU, FOREIGN AGRICULTURAL GOSSIP. Pamphlets on what the French call the question ajricole abound in France. Every day almost witnesses the publica- tion of some new ones, among which we may first mention a treatise by M. de Lavergne entitled, " L'Agricultnre et I'En- quSte." M. de Lavergne has taken ar active part in securing the application of free trade to external commerce in agricultural products. No one has more eifectively pleaded the cause of freedom of outlets, no one has inflicted more terrible blows on the old sliding scale and on the customs' duties levied on the importation of foreign cattle ; and no one since the application of the laws referring to external commerce has attached himself with more perseverance and success to the defence of those laws against the attacks of which they have been the object. On aU grounds, then, M. de Lavergne is not a protectionist, but he is essentially a free-trader. We may even add that one of the finest services rendered by him in the matter of rural economy is his having established in the most peremptory manner the fact that French agriculture has never been protected against foreign competition, and that the protection of tariffs was only Ulusory. The only efficacious protection, tliat wliich best maintains quotations in a great producing country like France, is, according to M. de Lavergne, freedom of outlets. It is possible, he says, to protect this or that industry, tlie products of which are limited, by defending it by exaggerated tariffs against foreign competition. But we cannot do this, M. de Lavergne argues, with agriculture, in con- sequence of the immensity of its product. National competi- tion on a soil of 108,000,000 acres, which supports one of the least dense populations in Europe, produces the same effects and even greater effects than foreign competition. Moreover, when indigenous production runs short from any cause, the necessity of keeping up the public food-supply renders it im- peratively necessary to remove aU barrier and protection dis- appears just at the moment when it might be expected to become efficacious in regard to the sustaining of prices. As regards wheat, indeed, M. de Lavergne considers that the French law of 1861 is virtually more protective than the sliding scale ; and he affirms that the prices of a great nation like France are regulated by the state of the internal markets. M. de Lavergne has sought in his brochure to combat a very generally accepted opinion wliich, with regard to cereals and cattle, consists in opposing the cheap lands of America, Russia, and Hun- gary to the lands which French civilization has carried to a very high value. It seems to be believed in some quarters that by competition French land will decrease in value until it is brought on a level with the cheap land of importing coun- tries. But to this M. de Lavergne observes, that if such coun- tries tend to bring down the value of rural property, the effect will be more than compensated by the action of countries like England, Belgium, the Low Countries, and the greatest part of Germany, to which France exports her agricultural products, and where land is dearer than in France. These English, Bel- gian, and Dutch lands wiE, M. de Lavergne thinks, enhance the price of French lands, and if at the end of a series of years the cause of enhancement should be stronger tban tlie cause of depreciation, it appears certain that the soil of France will yield an increased rental. M. de Lavergne contends, in short, that commercial liberty, by raising France to the highest rank as an exporting country, will produce not only an advance in agricultural products, but still farther a rise in the price of land. — Other pamphlets on agricultural subjects liave also ap- peared of late in France. One from the pen of M. Salomon, the able director of the farm school of the Nievre, treats only incidentally of the enqtiete, but gives some circumstantial docu- ments on the production of wheat. M. Salomon believes in the cultivation of wheat being remunerative, provided that the return exceeds 7^ hectolitres per acre (a hectolitre is about 3 bushels English). The data given by M. Salomon in support of his conclusion are calculated to inspire confidence, and his statement is very instructive. — MM. Becquerel, father and son, have presented to the French Central Agricultural Society a jremarkable m4moire on the division of raiu in wooded and un- wooded places. In the study of questions of agricultural meteorology, M- Becquerel, sen., displays an ardour which age cannot slacken, but which might, perhaps, exceed his strength if he did not find in his son a most sure and devoted collahora- feiir. M. Becquerel has treated of the forest production of France, and on the consumption of wood in its relations with the increase of population and the progress of industry, as weU as on the influence of wooded lands on the regime of waters ; and he has now, as before stated, directed his attention to the division of rain in wooded and unwooded places. The question embraced by M. Becquerel is much more general, since it com- prises a study of the causes which influence the fall of rain in a determined district ; for the present, however, we confine ourselves to the sole point which he approached before the society. After having brought to bear all the works of ancient and modern writers, and having collected directly and per- sonally numerous observations, in order to render account of the action of forests on the regime of running waters, M. Bec- querel sought to ascertain what might be the influence of woods on pluvial waters, leaving on one side all preconceived theories and ideas on the causes which intervene in the fall of rain. It is to obser\'atiou and experience that he appeals as the sole means of solving this very complex question. The Academy of Sciences has seconded him in this course ; and with this aid he has been enabled to establish at different points of the ar- rondissement of Montargis five observatories, in each of which since July, 1865, daily observations have been made on the temperature of the air and soil, and the quantity of water falling under woods, at the borders, and at more or less remote distances in the plains. These observations are not yet suffi- ciently numerous to enable formal and definitive conclusions to be drawn from them ; but while waiting for facts to accu- mulate with years, it is not without interest to give a sketch of the first results which have been indicated. In discussing the observations collected in the period which elapsed between July, 1865, and April, 1866, and comparing them with obser- vations madeatParis, MM. Becquerel have observed the fact that in this interval of eight months rains have been more abundant in wooded places than in unwooded places, the difference being esti- mated at 2.5 per cent. Will it be the same in the long run ? Time alone can reply, as at present MM. Becquerel have only given us the results of their first observations. MM. Becquerel compared the quantities of water which fell in woods under oaks with the amount collected outside woods, in order to de- termine the portion of water retained by branches, according as they are furnished with or destitute of leaves ; and this comparison established the fact that the quantity of water re- tained by branches is all the more in proportion as ram is less heavy. "V^Tien branches had not lost their leaves the propor- tion of water which fell iinder trees was found to represent 47 per cent, of the quantity of water which fell outside planta- tions, while it was only about half when trees had lost tlieir leaves. What becomes of water retained by branches and leaves ? It is probable that the proportion which is not evapo- rated returns slowly through the medium of the branches and leaves, the trunks and roots of trees, into the soil and sub-soil, where it serves to feed the lower reservoirs. In the wooded places of the arrondissement of Montargis it was found that more water fell than in the naked localities ; and it may be remarked that the first observations of MM. Becquerel accord on this head with data collected in Denmark by the Agricultural Institute of Copenhagen. The form of questions intended to be proposed in connection with the official inquiry drawn up regarding the state of French agriculture has now been prepared. The division estabhshed for local inquiries by a decree of March 28, 1866, and according to which the territory of the empire was divided into only six groups, has been recognised as insufficient ; and the superior commission has come to the conclusion that it was convenient to subdivide the groups in such a manner that each district explored should comprise only a small number of departements. A fresh decree has just carried the number of ' circonscriptions ia connection with the official inquiry to THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 259 twenty-eight. The increase in the number of circonscriptions lias necessitated an augmentation in the number of members originally designated to form part of the superior commission of inquiry : the decree issued this month has provided for this augmentation. By the terms of this decree, and that of March 28, 1866, the superior commission comprises more or less distingiiished gentlemen, including M. de Behague, a landed proprietor, and member of the Imperial and Central Agricultural Society of France ; M. de Boureville, councillor of State, and secretary-general of the Ministry of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works ; M. Boussingault, member of the Institute, and member of the Imperial and Central Agri- cultural Society of France ; M. Adolplie Dailly, landed pro- prietor, and member of the Imperial and Central Agricultural Society of France, &c. Each circonscription has a local pre- sident appointed, who will be assisted either by an inspector- general of agriculture, or by another representative of the department of agriculture, designated by a special decree. Printed copies of the official form of questions wiU be sent to the consultative chambers of agriculture, agri- cultural societies, and agricultural committees, with an invitation to respond in writing to all questions on which they may deem themselves able to furnish useful information. The questionnaire comprises the following heads : — Laws relating to the transmission of property ; con- ditions of leases of propei ty ; capital and means of credit ; wages and labour ; manures and improvement of land ; other charges on cultivation ; processes of cultivation and croppings ; drainage, irrigation, and breaking up of land ; meadows and forage cultures ; animals ; cereals ; food cultures other than cereals properly so called ; industrial cultures ; indigenous sugars and alcohols ; vines ; culture of fruit trees ; silk production ; proportion of cultures and cultivated pro- ducts ; circulation and sale of agricultural products ; legislation and treaties of commerce ; and general ques- tions, which we may perhaps indicate more particularly on a future occasion. Si. Henri Doniol has issued an instructive report on the prize of honour for the departement of theVaucuse, in 1866. This high recompence has been awarded to M. Eugene Raspail de Gigondas in the Valley of the Ouveze. M. Raspail de Gigondas has, it should be added, improved liis property by capitalizing Itis profits and without having recourse to a loan. An important agricultural exhibition, organized by the live cantons of what the French term la Suisse Romande, but open to the animals and products of all Switzerland, and to the agricultural macliinery of all nations, vriU take place at Geneva, from August 31 to September 3. A sale by auction will take place Sept. 1 and Sept. 3, and wiU offer an occasion of procuring some fine specimens of the Berne and Schwitz breeds. A sale of reproducers of the Durham breed will also take place Sept. 7, at the working of the Marquis de Poncin's, at Tears, in the Loire. On the occasion of the great Napoleonic fete of August 15, the French Legion of Honour opened its ranks to a certain number of cul- tivators, public writers, and functionaries who had ren- dered services to agriculture. M. Bodin, director of the farm-school of the Three Crosses, at Rennes, has been pro- moted to the grade of an officer. In a brochure entitled "Where is Agriculture, and what does it wish for?" M. Teyssier des Farges has occupied himself with some of the questions of the approaching enquete, cultivation in general, agricultural credit, vintage and sugar-producing operations, ir- rigations, taxes, &c. The author has made a special study of financial questions in their relations with rural industry ; he is a great partizan of agricultural credit. Arguing that the cul- tivor cannot directly approach the Bank of France, M. Teys- sier des Farges shows that the assistance of intermediaries be- tween the Bank of France and the cultivator is now reflected by loans to cultivation which attain the enormous rate of 11 to 11 J per cent. The remedy for tliis, M. Teyssier des Farges considers, is the creation for agriculture of banking establish- ments similar to those existing for industry and commerce. This agricultural bank would carry out the afl^airs refused by the Bank of France, and which it is desirable to leave no longer iu a sufl'ering condition ; tliis plan M. Teyssier. des Farges would develope and carry out with all necessary pre- cautions. M. Teyssier des Farges also claims a better division of the land tax in France, as he contends that there are now rural properties whose value has been doubled by railways, but the taxes of which aie sijuply those ai estates which h^ve not acquired any plus value. Thus, such-and-such a house ia Paris pays a tax of £80 for a revenue of £800, while some rural property producing the same revenue pays £180 of taxation. M. Teyssier des Farges further asks for a reduction of the re- gistration duties levied on gifts, successions, sales, and ex- changes of property, a simplification of legal proceedings, and an equality of taxation between moveable and immoveable values. — The Flemish breed of cattle, excellent with reference to its nulking qualities, leaves something to be desired with reference to its aptitude for fattening. In order to or wrongly gives an important plus value to the cows of this breed. M. Vanbercolme, of Rexpoede, near Dunkerque (Nord), has not experienced these apprehensions. In 1855 he brought from England a buU and some Durham cows : he crossed the breed of the district with the English breed, and success responded to liis hopes. Some Durham-Flemish beasts fed on good pastures have attained on his farm at the age of thirty months a weight of 14; cwt., and the milking qualities of the cows have not deteriorated. — An agricultural show, a rare event for Spain, has just taken place at Pampeluna. Sheep, which sustain a very large part iu the animal wealth of Spain, were represented at the Pampeluna show by the princi- pal breeds which now occupy the province of ISTavarre. Me- rinoes, which are of small size and have a fine short wool, are more diffused over the other provinces of Spain than Navarre. The Churra breed, which has a thick wool of average length, is particularly esteemed for its meat ; it inhabits the centre and southern parts of the province ; it is the most widely dif- fused of the three breeds and the most productive. The Lacha breed, which has rather a long wool, inhabits the north of the province on the southern spur of the Pyrenees, where it lives constantly in the open air. We may have something more to say on a future occasion about this Pampeluna show ; it is something to observe some evidences of animation and vigour in the long-dormant agriculture of Spain. JVIAELBOROUGH AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. The following prizes in connexion with the Marlborough District Agricultural Association were awarded after the sheep fair at Marlborough, on Wednesday, August 32 : SHEEP. For the best pen of 100 sale ewes, good in tooth from a flock exceeding 300, or of 60 such ewes, from a flock not exceeding 300, 1st, a silver cup (the gift of Lord H. Thynne, M.P.), Mr. S. Waldron ; £1 to the shepherd. 2nd, £4, Mr. R. H. Keable; 15s. to the shepherd. 3rd, £2 10s., Mr. W. H. Gale ; 10s. to the shepherd. For the best pen of 100 wether lambs, from a flock of ewes exceeding 300, or of 60 wether lambs, from a flock not exceed- ing 300, 1st, a silver cup (the gift of Lord C. Bruce, M.P.), Mr. W. B. Waldron ; £1 to the shepherd. 2nd, £4, Mr. J. Shier ; 15s. to the shepherd. 3rd, £2 10s., Mr. W. H. Gale ; 10s. to the shepherd. For the best pen of 5 ram lambs, £5, Mr. J. W. Brown. For the best ram of any age, 1st, £3, Mr. C. ChUd ; 2nd, £3, Mr. S. King. For the best two-tooth ram, 1st, £3, Mr. S. King ; 2nd, £2, Mr. C, Child. HORSES. For the best cart stallion (bred by the exhibitor), a silver cup (the gift of Mr. R. P. Long, M.P.), Mr. W. H. Gale. For the best two-year-old cart stallion (bred by the exhi- bitor), a silver cup (offered by the Association), Mr. W. H. Gale. For the best cart stallion (open class), £4, Mr. W. H. Gale. For the best cart-mare and foal, 1st, £4, Mr. G. Wirdnam ; 2nd, £3, Mr. Thos. Brown ; 3rd, £2, Mr. W. Archer. For the best two-year-old cart filly, £3, Mr. W. H. Gale. PIGS. For the best Berkshire boar, £3, Marquis of AUesbury. For the best Berkshire sow, £3, Marquis of Ailesbury. For the best Berkshire sow and ofi'spring (not less than 7 in number, and under 3 months old), £3, Marquis of Ailes- bury. Two extra stock by Mr. Fall. The judges were Mr. J. H. Puckeridge, of Winterboume Bassett j Mr. T, Fuller, Comptgn j and Mr.G. Butler, Tttfton, ' T 2 260 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE. This month generally concludes the harvest. House the grain in barns, or build the crops in ricks ; have thatch always ready to cover the ricks from damage. Beans will be the latest crop ; tie the stems into sheaves, when cut by hand-sickle, with straw ropes, or with tarred twine, which may be preserved for years for the same purpose. Beans and peas require an immediate covering, as legu- minous plants imbibe and retain much moisture. Finish the dunging of clay fallows ; cart stones and tiles to drains ; scour ditches ; repair, widen, and strengthen brooks and rivulets, and mix the excavations with lime for earthy composts. Lay well-prepared composts on grass lands eaten bare or mown, and on lucern, the surface being first scarified, and then roll it. This preparation raises the first crop of spring. Sow winter vetches on good lands, and on infe- rior soils with fallowing and dung. Mix with beans or winter barley. Fallow the stubble lands for next year's green crops in the earliest-planted, as potatoes and beet- root : the preparation retains the moisture and very much expedites the works of spring, but only in diy warm lands under a benign climate. Seed-furrow clay fallows and sow wheat in the end of the month. Plough grass leys for the same purpose. ScuflBe peas and beans, and turn grat- tens ; collect, burn, or remove the weeds and stones, and lay on dung if required. Plough with one furrow, and sow wheat. Pick hops : the flowers are cut off with scissors, placed in bins, measured and paid by a fixed rate, then carried to the oast, and dried, mostly with coke, and with some sulphur to impart a yellow tinge. The haulm of the hop plants is used for litter. Set the poles erect into a tapering cone, and thatch to preserve for years. Keep all live stock in good condition, especially the work-horses on clay farms for wheat sowing. CALENDAR OF GARDENING. Kitchen Garden. Mushroom beds may now be prepared, for those produced naturally if the month be showery. Lettuces may be sown early for winter, and when fit to be transplanted ought to be pricked out into a roomy frame, in which to stand the winter. Some hardy sorts will endure the frosts, but in general the other sorts perish. Cabbage for Spring : Plant the main stock in an open situation, the soil rich with manures, un- less it be a new loam. All the brassicas thrive amazingly in fresh earths, far better than in old garden soil with manures in quantity or quality. Spinach : The plants from seed should be thinned out to regular distances of two or three inches, that the plants may become stocky, and thinned again : the plants so removed are used for the table. Turnips are thinned and hoed between the rows, being always sown in drills. Sow salads again, if required. Routine : Exterminate every weed, and bring each plot into that state of neatness and order that makes a garden appear a sober quiet picture during winter— more beautiful, perhaps, than of the ram- pant luxuriance of summer. Fruit Department. Finish the planting of strawberry beds and rows with well-rooted young plants, which seldom fail. Better to have young stock raised in pots, and now transplanted with entire balls of earth at- tached. Spread nets in front of fruit trees, to catch the falling fruits. Destroy wasps, by suspending bot- tles half filled with treacle-water among the branches. Flower Garden. Finish the clipping of box -edgings ; remove greenhouse plants to their winter quarters ; trans- plant pinks from pipings, and also some hardy herbaceous plants. Then rough-dig or fork all the vacant parts of borders. Weed and roll gravel walks when in a damp state after rains. CROP STATISTICS OF THE FLAX IN IRELAND. 1866. Total extent of flax grown in Ireland in each of the follow- ing years : — Acres. 1851 140,530 1852 137,008 1853 174,579 1854. 151,403 1855 97,075 1856 106,311 1857 97,721 1858 91,646 Acres. 1859 136,282 1860 128,595 1861 147,957 1862 150,070 1863 214,099 1864 301,693 1865 251,433 1866 263,419 This return, which exhibits an increase of 11,986 acres in the area under flax in 1866, compared with 1865, is published in anticipation of the general abstracts, which will give the acreage under tlie various crops, and also tlie number of live stock, by counties and provincies. They will, I trust, be ready for publication in the course of the ensuing month. I do not apprehend that any difference of importance will be found between the acreage under flax here given, and that which will appear in the tables of tlie general abstracts of the crops now in course of compilation. WiLLi.\M Donnelly, Regietrar-General. l^lhAngnst ]8C6. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 261 AGRICULTUUAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR AUGUST. The weather in most parts of England having been some- what favourable, although showers of rain have been rather frequent, considerable progress has been made in liarvest- work in the southern, western, eastern, and midland counties. In the north several large patches of land have been cleared of their wheats ; still the harvest is by no means forward, but the continuance of a dry atmosphere would enable our farmers to secure the whole of their crops in the forward districts within a fortuiglit from this time. As regards the productiveness of the wlieats, we may observe that the crop is nearly, or quite, equal to an average in quality and fair in quantity. On some of the heavy soils tlie produce is quite equal to the most favoured seasons. Notwith.standing that the Directors of the Bank of England have reduced their quotations for money from 10 to 7 per cent., and that there is every prospect of a further reduction in the price of capital, the wheat trade lias been in a most inactive state, and prices have given way 4s. to 6s. per quarter. This decline, how- ever, has been chiefly confined to new qualities, which have ap- peared in full average abundance. The barley crop is turning out very fine, indeed it is quite equal to last year ; but as yet very little of the crop has been thrashed out. The trade has been tolerably firm, at late curreu- cies,arising from the moderatenatureof tlie imports from abroad. Oats are likely to yield heavily. In all (juarters, although there is a deficiency of straw, they have come down remark- ably well. The immense importations of oats from the Conti- nent, as well as Canada and Trieste, liave had very little effect upon the value of the article, the decline being barely equal to Is. per quarter. The imports from Canada have been mostly disposed of at from 19s. to 20s. per quarter. With very few exceptions the cargoes have been reported in a heated condition. Both beans and peas wiU greatly exceed last season in quan- tity ; indeed tlie crop of the latter kind of produce is by far the largest grown for some years. Apparently, therefore, prices are likely to give way under the influence of a pressure of sup- ply. The stocks of old beans and peas have been exhausted for some time. Tlie advices from France state that, in the early part of the month, owing to the rumours afloat to the effect that the crops had turned out deficient, some exciteinent prevailed in the de- mand for wheat, and that orders had been forwarded to the various Black Sea ports for the purchase of 200,000 quarters of wheat. Since then, however, the trade has become heavy on easier terms. The heavy crops produced in America this year lead us to the conclusion that rather large quantities of wheat and flour will be shipped to Europe towards the end of the year, although there is still a wide difference between the value of produce here and at New York. Prom some accounts w« learn that the potato disease has made its appearance in various localities. We believe, how- ever, that the losses up to this time have been trifling. The turnip crop is looking well, and the growth of swedes, mangolds, kc, will be fully equal to last year. The growth of apples appears to he nearly an average, but of other kinds of fruit there is rather a serious deficiency. The reduction in the Bank rate for money has had a beneficial effect upon the wool trade. Privately, English wool has com- manded more attention, and fine fleeces have slightly advanced in value. The public sales of Colonial, at which 1.33,000 bales will be brought forward, are progressing steadily, at O^d. to Id. per lb. more money for clean and scoured wools. Greasy qualities, however, have sold heavily, and it is supposed that, owing to the absence of the usual number of foreign buyers from the sale rooms, about 20,000 hales will be left over for the next series. The first cut of hay has been secured in fair coudifion. The various markets have been steadily supplied, but the trade has been very inactive. New meadow hay has sold at from £3 8s, to M 5s. ; old do., M 10s. to £5 12s. ; new clover, M to £5 OS. ; old do., £5 to £6 6s. ; and straw, £2 to £2 10s. per load. Steady progress has been made in Ireland in securing the crops. The yield of most kinds of grain is represented as a fair average. Potatoes have shown very few signs of disease. In Scotland, the cutting of wheat, barley, and oats has made only moderate progress, but it is stated, in well-informed circles, that average crops have been produced. Potatoes are looking remarkably well. .— _ REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. Notwithstanding that the Metropolitan Market has been fairly supplied with beasts, and that most breeds have come to hand in improved condition, the transactions in them have been extensive. In the values of Scots, crosses, Devons, and Shorthorns, no quotable change has taken place ; but inferior stock, arising in a great measure from the large arrivals from the Continent, has given way in value from 2d. to 4d. per 81bs. Most of the French beasts have appeared in good saleable con- dition, and been disposed of at from 5s. to 5s. 2d. per 8 lbs. T'he supplies of sheep have been good, and most breeds have come up to average weights. The mutton trade has ruled steady, at very full prices. A few superior Downs and half- breds have realised as much as 6s. 4d. per 8 lbs. The general top figure, however, has been 6s. per 8 lbs. As the season is now over, there has been veiy little inquiry for lambs, the arrivals of which have been very moderate, and the latest prices were 5s. 8d. to 6s. 8d. per 8 lbs. At one period calves produced rather more money, but the advance was not maintained. The ruling prices have been 4s. 2d. to 5s. 4d. per 8 lb. In pigs only a limited business has been doing, nevertheless the quotations have been supported. The imports of foreign stock into London were as under : — Head. Beasts 14,937 Sheep 37,390 Lambs 7,176 Calves 2,969 Pics -hO^l Total 66,549 Comparison ov Imports. Aug. Beasts. Sheep. Lambs. Calves. Pigs. 1865 16,536 54,333 6,727 3,287 8,251 1864 11,475 .39,114 2,716 3,786 4,326 1863 9,502 34,937 4,125 4,327 4,108 1862 5,630 30,652 5,204 2,060 3,297 1861 6,581 32,210 3,170 1,874 3,718 1860 6,647 38,249 1,856 2,520 4,075 1859 6,502 29,175 3,308 3,254 1,805 1858 8,293 19,500 2,764 3,512 3,935 1857 4,692 21,215 1,760 2,661 2,323 1856 5,677 17,801 1,271 2,301 1,901 1855 5,341 22,605 984 2,484 3,476 The following return shows the aggregate number of stock exhibited in the great Metropolitan Market during the month :— Head. Beasts 26,840 Sheep and Lambs 153,720 Calves 2,620 Pigs 3,560 Comparison of Supplies. Aug. Beasts. Sheep and Lambs. Calves. Pigs. 1865 29,600 147,520 3,828 3,175 1864 29,420 154,300 3,426 3,046 1863 26,264 149,430 3,070 3,633 1863 24,073 154,920 2,354 3,013 1861 23,420 159,740 3,953 3,220 1860 32,290 151,500 3,346 2,070 1859 23,170 165,090 3,333 3,320 1858 26,915 151,530 3,137 3,510 1857 20,695 143,758 3,173 2,450 1856 . 31,271 147,350 3,354 3,875 1855 ".'.. 20,816 151,870 3,356 4,373 262 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The supplies of home stock thus compared with the two previous years : Aug. Aug. Aug. From— 1864, 1865. 1866. Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, and Northamptonshire 12,500 9,820 5,600 Other parts of England 3,700 3,000 2,000 Scotland 133 730 80 Ireland 297 520 163 The CoMPAMsoN OF Prices is as follows : — Aug., 1861. s. d. s. d. Beef from . 2 10 to 4 10 Mutton ... 3 2 to 5 4- Lamb 5 0 to 6 0 Veal 3 4 to 4 6 Pork 3 10 to 4 8 Aug., 1864. Aug., 1863. Aug., 1863, s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 3 4 to 4 10 3 8 to 5 4 5 0 to 6 4 4 0to5 0 3 4 to 4 10 3 6 to 5 2 5 0 to 6 8 3 4 to 4 8 3 8to4 10 3 6 to 4 6 Aug., 1865. Aug., 1866. s. d. s. d. 8. d. s. d. s. d. Beef from .3 4 to 5 0 Mutton ... 3 10 to 5 4 Lamb 5 8 to 6 3 Veal 4 Oto5 0 Pork 3 6 to 4 6 3 0 to 5 6 3 8 to 5 6 4 4 to 6 8 3 10 to 6 0 6 0 to 7 0 5 8 to 7 4 4 2 to 5 4 4 0 to 5 4 40 to 5 0 40 to 5 0 In most parts of England the pastures have been tolerably full of grass for the time of year. The stock, therefore, has fared well, and the outlay for artificial food has been very mo- derate. The supplies of meat on sale in Newgate and Leaden- haU markets have been very moderate. Prime beef and mut- ton have moved off steadily at full quotations. Otherwise the trade has been heavy on easier terms. Beef, from 3s. 6d. to 5s. ; mutton, 2s. 8d. to 5s. 8d. ; lamb, 5s. 8d. to 6s. 8d. ; veal, 4s. to 5s. 2d. ; pork, 4s. to os. per 8 lbs. by the carcase. LINCOLNSHIRE. Throughout tlie length and breadth of tliis county the agri- culturists and the public generally are anxiously looking for- ward to the next week or two with considerable attention ; indeed, that particular attention is directed to the harvest just now cannot be wondered at, on account of the past fortnight being so very wet, sunless, and gloomy. Farmers themselves were, as usual, complaining loudly about the state of things ; and this year they really have had good grounds for apprehen- sion of danger to their crops, wliich up to the end of Jidy were of the most promising description — indeed this county looked lovely. The farmers may well look forward to a good harvest with great anxiety, after the deficient one of 1865, and the crisis they have had to pass through with the cattle plague, which still appears lingering about. There is a change in the weather since Tuesday, with a prospect of a continuance of such ; and, from the writer's own knowledge, from north to south of this county, he asserts no real damage has to this time occurred to any description of grain beyond the usual one in wet seasons, i. e., that of carting it from the iield before it is ready, of which that class of farmers are too numerous ; but it is quite likely the quality of each sort of com may have suf- fered somewhat from rain, and, becoming lodged, much of it may have a larger amount of tail corn to the acre than would have been the case had tlie past three weeks been dry and fine. But on a close inspection of a large district around, the wTiter feels quite justified in asserting that the public or consumer of food need be under no alarm should we have ten days of real summer weather ; neither need they fear the soundness of the grain, for, with the exception of a discoloration, two of the most important sorts of grain, wheat and barley, remain (so far as grinding and germinating properties are concerned) quite perfect and uninjured, and are good, fair, average crops, exceeding their predecessors. Beans are good, with a large quantity of straw, without a corresponding amount of yield it is to be feared. Oats vary, and are somewhat generally below an average. Tares are plentiful, but sprouted. Peas are a great crop. Green crops of all sorts are looking beautiful, and promise well for winter food for sheep and cattle. Alto- gether, Lincolnshire never had a fairer and brighter aspect than in the summer of 1866. — Aug. 24 AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c. BODMIN PAIR. — There was a rather smaU supply of sheep and lambs. The prices were — Sheep 7d. to 7id. per lb., shorn lambs 8d., in the wool 9d. per lb. There were some horses, but no cattle. BOSTON SHEEP MARKET.— A very smaU show of sheep and lambs, prices about the same as last week. The pig market was tolerably well supplied, at dear prices. BRACKNELL PAIR.— Store tegs and lambs and stock ewes made very advanced prices. The horse show was small and trade dull, and there was an active business for pigs, which sold at high prices. BRIDGNORTH PAIR.- There was a good show of fat sheep and lambs, and the attendance of dealers was consider- able. Sheep sold readily at fully 9d. per lb., and fat lambs realised 28s. to 33s. each. Pigs were worth £3 to £3 3s. each ; and good porkers sold at from 30s. upwards. In the horse fair there was a poor show : best agricultural horses from £25 to £30. Hacks from £5 to £15 and dull sale. Wool was sold by several parties at Is. 9d. to Is. lOd. per lb. CARLISLE PAIR. — There were scarcely so many lambs shown as last year, the number being aloout 20,000. In quality they were quite equal to last year's show. The atten- dance of buyers was very meagre. The prices asked for Cheviots were from 16s. to 24s., an advance of Is. to 2s. upou last year. Por haK-breds also a liigher price was asked. The prices ranged from 28s. to 35s. — from 4s. to 5s. more than last year. The most marked difference in prices was in crosses, sellers demanding from 25s. to 30s. a head. Last year they sold at 19s. 6d. to 25s. a head. GREAT HAREWOOD HORSE PAIR.— Those offering were mostly strong agricultural horses and roadsters, which averaged in price from £14 to £30. There were a few good carriage horses, which sold at from £21 to £27. Ponies vrere a tolerable show, and some changed hands at £18 or £19. HUNTLY PAIR.— Sales were exceedingly stiff, and little business was done, the best lots aU leaving the market unsold. Annexed are a few sales : Mr. dessieman, Bowmanhill, sold a quey at £25 ; Mr. Bruce, Banks, a quey at £18 5s. ; Mr. Tar- bet, Wedderbum, three queys at £18 10s. each ; Mr. Ander- son, flesher, Dufftown, six queys at £18 each ; Mr. Cran, jun., Lesmurdie, three queys at £16 each ; Mr. Cooper, Tememny, a stot at £20 10s. ; Mr. Pettes, Howbog, five queys and four slots at £21 each. IRVINE HORSE PAIR.— The supply was a fair average. Very few of a first-class character met with a ready sale, some of which ranged as high as £40. The greater number, how- ever, were of a second-class description, prices ranging from £15 to £30. KINGUSSIE FAIR.— The market was dull, and prices ruled high. IMr. Stewart, BiaUid, sold shot lambs at 10s. 6d. ; Mr. Stewart, Lynchlaggan, sold a lot of blackfaced lambs at 13s. 6d. each ; Mr. M'Edward, Wester Inveruglas, sold his crock ewes at £23 per clad score ; Captain Menzies, Carr- Bridge, bought the Strone top wedder lambs at 14s. each ; Mr. Malcolm Clark, Achlean, sold a fine lot of wedder lambs at 16s. each ; Mr. Macpherson sold a mixed lot at 19s. 6d. ; Mr. Donald Macpherson sold a mixed lot at 15s. 6d. ; Mr. Grant, cattle- dealer, Carr-Bridge, sold a lot of top ewe lambs at £21 per clad score. KNIGHTON PAIR.— Of sheep there was a great number penned, which fetched high prices ; but not quite so dear as previous and neighbouring fairs. Good cart horses sold well; but there were not many of this class ia the market. Those which were offered easUy changed hands at good prices. Pigs were not so dear as they have been at recent fairs. LANARK LAMB FAIR.— The show was the largest that has been seen at Lanark Second Fair — the number on offer being estimated at about 25,000. The market was ex- tremely stiff for mostly all kinds, and many holders were re- luctantly forced to make considerable concessions on the prices originally asked by them before they could effect sales. For black-faced ewe lambs there was probably the best sale, there being a good demand for these for breeding purposes from the northern counties. Black-faced wether iambs were a perfect THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 263 drug, and dealers ia several cases lost from £1 10s. to £3 per score on the lots which they sold. LERVnCK FAIR.— There were no prime lots, and the few fed animals were held at exorbitant prices, generally at near 70s. per cwt. In ponies, a little more was done than in cattle, but there were nothing but mares shown, and these realised from £5 to £7 each. LINCOLN FAT STOCK MARKET.— A smaU show of sheep, and prices up, best qualities making fully S^d. per lb. LINCOLN LAMB FAIR.— Rather a smaU show, thought to be owing to a rumour that the fair had been prohibited. Lambs from 35s. to 43s. a head. Ewes were up to 53s. Trade slow. • LUDLOW FAIR. — The supply of sheep was greater than at almost any previous fair. There were more sheep shown than could be penned. Dealers were numerous, but business was slack. The ewes were mostly Shropshire Downs, but several pens of Dorset ewes and lambs excited a good deal of attention. The prices averaged from 50s. to 58s. Fat sheep were a trifle lower, as were also store pigs. There was a tolerable supply of horses, and good draught animals sold readily at fair prices, one animal of superior merit fetcliing £50. MARLBOROUGH LA]\IB FAIR.— The supply was un- usually large. Trade ruled very duU, and sales could only be effected where sellers were willing to submit to a considerable reduction, and prices may be quoted 3s. to -is. lower than at previous fairs. There was a tolerable show of horses, both for agricultural and general purposes, which met vidth a very duU trade. Good lambs made from 35s. to 41s., ewes 40s. to 52s., and we hear that Mr. Pierce Brown refused 65s. for one prime lot of ewes. MINTLAW MONTHLY MAHKET.— Lambs ranged from 29s to 32s MONZDE LAMB MARKET.— Prices for the best lots ranged from 5s. to Cs. per head below the rates of last year, and inferior lambs sold at from Is. to 2s. each cheaper. The stock consisted cliiefly of blackfaced lambs, and in regard to condition was of less value than at the corresponding fair last year. It was nearly mid-day before a single sale was efl'ected, owing to the high prices asked ; in fact, the market was dull and stiff throughout. The DaU lambs, Lochtayside, were sold to go to Damside, Kinross-shire, at £13 10s. per clad score, and were the best in the market. Mr. M'Call, Dunblane, bought the Glenartney blackfaced lambs (shotts) at £5 per clad score. Mr. Peter M'Craw, Connachap, sold his blackiaced wether lambs at 7s. 6d. per head. Mr. James Stewart, Glenquoich, sold a lot of blackfaced lambs at 9s. 6d. each, and a lot of shotts at 4s. 6d. Mr. John M'Callum, Hosh, sold his cross-bred lambs to Mr. Stirling, Panholes, Blackford, at 10s. per head, and a lot of blackfaced lambs to Mr. Gow, Cairns, Muthill,at 8s. 3d. each. Several lots of blackfaced lambs sold at rates var3'ing from 4s. to 7s. each. The best lots of cross-bred lambs were not sold ; and when the afternoou was well advanced, a large portion of the stock was driven off the stance. Some lots of Che\'iot hoggs, tor which £2 2s. each was asked, also did not find purchasers ; and, altogether, the market was the worst which has occurred for a long series of years. OLD RAYNE FAIR.— Good fat beasts met a ready sale at 70s. per cwt., second quality selling at from 60s. to 60s. In all other classes of stock very little business was done, lean beasts being abnost unsaleable. The number of sheep on the stance was larger than for several years past. Trade was dull, and prices considerably lower than they have been for some time back. Good mutton sold at from 7d. to 8d. per lb., lamb at 8d. to 9d. A considerable proportion of the sheep left unsold. SETTLE FAIR. — Owing to the cattle-plague regulations cattle were excluded, and the show therefore was confined to .sheep and lambs. Of the former there were but few, but lambs were much more numerous than usual, and the attendance of buyers also being large, a good market was the result. Half- bred lambs fetched from 22s. to 27s. each, whitefaced ditto 23s to 30*^ each. sklPTON HORSE FAIR.— Tliere has been but a thin show of good horses, but many buyers, so that all good sorts met a ready sale at extra prices. There was a moderate show of inferiors, and the demand very good, at good prices for any worth notice. An extra attendance of buyers. IRISH FAIRS.- Spajjcelhill : Tliree-year-old bullocks brought £13, yearlings from £3 to £6, and two-year-old heifers from £12 10s. to £14, The sheep fair Mas large. Lambs ranged from 25s. to 33s., those of a good wrt brought as much as 38s. ; fat sheep brought £3, and some few a little higher. The horses were of a very inferior character, being chiefly farm horses, the highest price obtained was £17. — Virginia: In the beef department there was a very moderate show, nor was the quality of the animals more than mediocre at best. Some coarse lots were left unsold. In the store cattle department the show was a full average, and the business of a very brisk nature ; three-year-old buUocks may be quoted from £ll to £13 each, two-year-olds from £7 to £8 10s., yearUngs from £4 to £6 each, three-year-old heifers rated from £10 to £13, two-year-olds from £7 to £9, yearlings from £3 to £5 10s. per head. Springers in fair supply and brisk demand ; prices from £11 to £18 each. Strippers in small supply, from £7 to £9 10s. each. Of sheep and lambs the exhibition was tolerable, and the demand good ; best mutton rated from 7d. to 8d., ewe 6d. to 7d. Nothing left unsold in this department. Lambs rated from 27s. 6d."to 34s. each. In the pig department bon- nives may be quoted from 12s. 6d. to ISs. each. The horse supply was good for the agricultural kind, at £12 to £20.— Ballyhean was well supplied. Milkers and springers in de- mand, fetcliing from £10 to £17 ; two-year-old heifers averaged from £7 7s. to £10 ; yearUngs, £4 to £8. The sheep fair was pretty well supplied ; yearling and two-year-old ewes of good quality from 40s. to 50s. ; lambs from 25s. to 35s. — Ardee : The best lots of fat cattle brought from £3 to £3 7s. 6d. per cwt,; second-class, from 56s. to 5Ss. ; and inferior from 47s. Cd- to 50s. per cwt. No lots of good beef were sent away unsold, and very few of a second-class character appeared without a purchaser. In the store cattle department there was a tolerable supply. Three-year-old bullocks from £12 to £14 10s. each; two-year-old do. from £8 to £10 per head ; year and a-half do. from £6 to £8 ; yearlings from £4 10s. to £6 per head. Three- year-old heifers from £11 to £14 each ; two-year-olds from £8 10s. to £10 10s. ; yearlings from £4 to £6 each. Good springers fetched from £15 to £18 10s. ; others from £11 to £13 per head. Of sheep the supply was ample ; the demand good. Good wethers on the foot brought fr'om 7d. to 8d. ; ewe and inferior mutton, 6^d. to 7d. Lambs ranged from 30s. to 40s. each. In the swine fair an average supply ; best heavy stores went at 3 gs. a-piece. Slip pigs or runners went from 30s. to 38s. Bonnives, 15s. to 25s., according to breed and size. LouGHEEA : The demand for stock of aU kinds was good. Three years old heifers brought £12 to £14 10s., bullocks say £1 under ; two jears old from £7 10s., and yearlings from £5 to £7. Sheep, ewes from £2 to £2 15s., wethers about the same, and lambs were from £1 to £1 15s. For horses there was a brisk demand at greatly improved prices, tkiUy double what could be obtained this time twelvemonths. — Movvoke : There was a very fine show of stock. Beef 56s. to 60s. per cwt. for best, 50s. to 55s. second-class. Milch and springer cows scarce and dear, supply not equalling demand ; £12 to £20 per head freely given. Store cattle sold very high ; three years old bullocks £15 10s. to £17, heifers £14 to £15 5s., two years old bullocks £14 to £15 5s. for best lots, heifers £11 10s. to £13 5s., yearlings £6 10s. to £9 for good buUocks. Young dry cows sold at from £9 to £14 each ; weanling calves sold from £3 10s. to £5 5s. each ; some of these cost from £3 10s. to £3 3s. each when imported. Sheep, wether mutton, 7id. to 8d. per lb., ewe 7d., lambs 32s. to 40s. each. No fat pigs ; stores 30s. to 50s., slips 14s. to 20s. each. — Kin'saxe : There was a good supply of all kinds of stock, but a manifest reluctance prevailed on the part of buyers to make any advances. The demand was in consequence very dull. Yearlings realized from £7 to £9, springers £10 to £12, and milchers £12 to £15 each. Fat cattle was scarce, and we are not able to state the quotations.— Droumagii : The show of fat and store cattle was fair, prices generally steady. The sheep and pig markets were largely attended. Mutton ranged from 'J^i- to 8d. per lb. ; pork from 52s. to 56s. per c\^1:. ; beef from £3 to £3 3s. per cwt. The demand was verj' brisk : one gentleman, Mr. Leslie O'Callaghan, of KUleenleagh, disposed of 16 downs at £2 12s. a piece, also 20 lambs at 35s. Mr. Thomas Conway, purchased 3 heifers for £49 10s., which shows an average of £16 10s. a head. Mr. Denis R. O'Callaghan sold a spring cow at £15 15s., which was one of the highest prices given. Yearlings ranged from £4 to £6 ; springers £8 to £16 ; milch cows from £9 to f 13. — Sligo: Of beef there was a good supply, and met with a ready sale at from 7os, to 80s. per cwt. for prime : three-year- H)i TRE i^ABMER'S MAGAZINE. Dblo. Gloucester.. ...74 78 Cheddar ...76 8t American ...66 74 HAMS: York ...90 100 ...90 TOO Irish ...90 100 BACON :— Wiltshire ...78 82 Irish, green ...70 74 old bullocks sold from £16 to £18; Sir RoLert Gore Booth M.P., refused £20 a liead for a lot of twenty threc-ypar-old bullocks; two-year-old brought from £13 to £14. Milch cows were in good demand, and ranged in prices irom £14 to £17. Springers were selUncj at £13 to £1G. Fat sheep sold at from 50s. to 60s., and from T^d. to Sd. per lb. ; lambs from 35s. to 40s. The horse fair was supplied better than for some time, verj' few changed owners for the high prices demanded. • — Navan : Beef of good quality was 6Ss. per cwt. ; second- class, 60s. ; coarse from 50s. upwards. Store Cattle — Three-year-old bullocks brought from £13 to £16 each ; two- year-olds, from £8 10s. to £11 ; yearlings in poor demand, ranging from £4 10s. to £6 each. Three-year-olds heifers rated from £12 to £14 10s. each, an odd one brought £15 10s. ; two-year-olds, from £9 to £10 ; year-and-a-half-olds, from £7 to £9 ; yearlings, from £4 to £7, according to merit. In springers and milk cows a good business was done for the English and Dublin markets, at prices ranging from £16 to £24 each ; inferior, from £11 10s. upwards. Of sheep the supply was extensive. Good wether mutton, Sid. per lb. ; ewe ditto, from 6i-d. to 7id. Little left unsold. Lambs ranged from £1 8s. to £2 each. In the swine fair there was little done, al- though the show of small pigs was extensive. Stores met an active demand at from £1 15s. to £2 10s. each. PRICES of BUTTER, CHEESE, HAMS, &c. BUTTER, p. cwt.— s. s. i CHEESE, per cwt.— s. s. Friesland 112 to 114 Cheshire 72 to 84 Jersey 90 104 Dorset 116 120 Carlow — — Waterford — — Cork — — Limerick — — Sligo — — Febsh, per doz., Us. Od. to 13s. 6d. I ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET. LONDON, Monday, August 27.— All the fresh Butter lias gone up Is. per dozen with us this morning. The general market is dull, and prices barely so good. Dorset, fine 118s. to 120s. per cwt. Devon 108s. to 112s. Fresh 12s. to 15s. perdozen lbs. CORK BLTTER EXCHANGE, (Saturday last.)— The supplies continue heavy, averaging 2,000 firkins daily, and the week ended to-day with a brisk demand, without much change in price. Since Monday firsts fell from 115s. to il3s., seconds from llOs. to 109s., and fourths from 96s. to 94s. Should the receipts fall off during the harvest week, as they did at the same time last year, higher prices are confidently expected. The supplies of mild cured butter average 80 firkins daily. It quotes to-day from 112s. to 119s. GLASGOW, (Wednesday last.)— The arrivals of cheese were large, with a fuU demand for prime, at full rates of last week. Second-class difficult to seU, and a considerable num- ber of parcels left over. About 40 tons passed the wcigh- liouse scales. Dunlop new 62s. to 66s., Cheddar-made new 66s. to 70s., skim-milk 27s. to 29s. per cwt. NEWGATE AND LEADENHALL POULTRY MAR- KETS.—Geese 6s. to 7s., goslings 6s. to 7s., ducks 2s. to 3s. 6d, tame rabbits Is. to Is. 8d., wild ditto lOd. to Is. 6d., pigeons 6d. to 8d., hares 2s. 6d. to 3s., grouse Is. 9d. to 2s. 3d. each : Surrey fowls 9s. to lis., ditto chickens 5s. to 8s., barn-door fowls 4s. to 6s. per couple. EngUsh eggs 9s. to 10s., French ditto 7s. to 86. per 100 ; fresh butter Is. to Is. 2d. per lb. ENGLISH WOOL MARKET. CITY, Monday, Aug. 27. — Since our last report, the trans- actions in home-grown Wool have been on the increase, and Tery fuU rates have lieen realized for all descriptions. The further reduction in the Bank rate for money has given greater confidence to buyers generally. The supply of Wool on sale is only moderate. CnBEENT Prices of English Wool. s. d. s. d. Fleeces— Southdown hoggets per lb. 1 7iJtol 8 Half-bred ditto „ 1 94 1 lOi Kent tleeces „ 18 19 Sonthdown ewes and wethers ,, 17 18 Leicester ditto „ 17 19 SOETS— Clotliing ,, 16 1 lOJ Combins „ 1 5| 2 0 BIRMINGHAM WOOL SALES.— The attendance was but moderate, and competition, except for choice parcels, was not brisk. Downs, Cheviots, and low fleeces still appear but little in request, and most lots of those descriptions were with- drawn. The following quotations of prices qre obtained from Messrs. Nossitcr's circular : Fleece wools — tegs 22f d. to 24^^. per It)., wethers 18Jd. to 21f d., mixed clips 20^d. to 2-4id., Downs 16d. to 18|d., Cots lS:^d. ; skin wools — combing 19d. to 21d., carding 12^d. to 15^-d., supers IS^d. to 19id., fine 16id. to 17id., broad head 9d. to llfd. BRADFORD WOOL MARKET, (Thursday last.)— The relief granted by the Bank of England last Thursday has not provoked much activity in the wool market. Comparatively little has changed hands during the week, and this morning's market opened with a decidedly quiet tone. The further re- duction in tiie rate of discount to 7 per cent, has given a rather more cheerful aspect to things, but even now there is no liuoyancy, and buyers are very temperate in all their trans- actions. The effect upon prices has been to give a little firmer tone, with more regularity. Cheap lots are not to be met with now, and holders are both better able and more dis- posed to keep their stocks till an improved demand shall arise. There is still a vast quantity of wool which has yet to reach this market, and growers' prices are not such as to tempt our staplers, with the present sluggish demand, to buy at all freely. A favourable harvest and cheaper money may improve the de- mand, but any advance in price will probably be gradual. — Bradford Oljserrer. LEEDS (Ekglisii and Foreign) WOOL MARKETS, Friday. — There is a firmer tone in the English wool market since the reduction in the Bank rate, but there is no material alteration in prices. After the experience of late years, buyers shrink from laying in heavy stocks at extrme rates. There is a moderate demand for colonial and other clothing wool, and for some sorts better prices may be obtained. LEICESTER WOOL TRADE.— No improvement has taken place since last week, although the reduction of the Bank rate to 7 per cent., and other favourable circumstances, were expected to produce some animation ; their only effect, however, has been a little more confidence, and preventing any further decline in prices. Fleeces worth 48s. to 50s. — Leicester Mercurij. YORK WOOL MARKET.— 'I'here were between 500 and 600 sheets of wool pitched. There were only few buyers in attendance, but, owing to the relaxation in the rate of dis- count, trade had a more favourable appearance than at the last market. Trices showed little or no variation, and it was not until after telegrams had been received from Bradford market that any brisk transactions took place, when about 200 sheets of first-class wool found purchasers. The next wool market will be held this day fortnight, on the same day as the fort- nightly sheep market. BRESLAU WOOL REPORT, August 23.— If traders would be as henlthy as trade, we might have enjojed a very happy period of business ; but, unfortunately, the reign of the cholera disease, tliough lately diminishing, has withheld a great number of foreign )nircliasers from visiting our place.. Nevertheless, a decided briskness has prevailed both in de- mand and prices, and greater transactions were only checked by insufficient choice or exaggerated demands on the part of owners. The whole amount of sales arose to about 3,000 cwts., consisting chiefly of the finer descriptions, at from SO to 95 thalers, which have been acquired for Netherland, Engf lish, and French account, at an advance of 15 to 20 per cent, above .Inne Fair quotations. Inferior qualities continued in equally good request, and realised at from 55 to 75 thalers, home manufacturers and commissioners being the buyers. Fresh imports during the same period about 4,000 c\i-ts. ; most part from Poland and Russia.— Gunsbueg Brothers. THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 265 REVIEW OE THE CORN TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. Auffust commenced very cold and rainy, with frequent stormy winds, which, though they partly laid the crops here and knocked them sadly about in Scotland, certainly helped the drying process, so that there was comparatively little injury by sprouting. The third week brought really fine summer weather, and every advantage was taken of it to get the wheat in the midland and southern counties into the stack or barn; while the northern district rejoiced in the hope that the long-delayed process of ripening had really arrived. Much new white wheat has already been brought to the Lon- don markets from Kent and Essex ; but it appeared not only to want colour and condition, but also strength ; and millers who took the first samples readily have become very reluctant buyers, and a fall of fully 5s. per qr. from the starting prices has taken place, while old samples have given way 2s. per qr. There are varying accounts of the yield, and we must wait to be more assured of the result ; but as yet neither weight, colour, nor produce seems up to the average of seasons, and some lots have been sent to market more like grains than merchantable corn. Politics have settled into calm, the rapid success of Prussia having left Aus- tria no alternative but peace on humbling terms, and there will therefore be no impediments to the course of industry and commerce. While English markets have been thus declining, those in France have been taking a contrary course, from a general belief that the yield in that country proves 25 per cent, below an average ; but Paris has lately felt the influence of fine weather and low prices here, and will probably come nearer to a level with Great Britain, as during the advance free purchases of foreign (chiefly Russian) were made in London for the northern ports. Belgium has hitherto fol- lowed France. Germany has had such rough weather that some of the new crop from the interior will not weigh over 54 to 60lb8. per bushel ; while a prohibition to the export of maize and barley in the Danubian Principalities shows no dependence is to be placed on that quarter, even for low-quality wheat. Russian prices have hardened under all these circumstances ; but America, with accounts as variable as were the necessitudes of the late war — first bad, then favourable, then bad again, with a rapid rise in prices at New York— at last leave the impression that the first reports were most cor- rect, and show that no dependence can be placed on imports thence. The farming interest in this country has indeed suflfered enough of late years to force growers into early sales ; but we think that those who gather their produce in fine condition will yet be better paid by waiting. The following prices were recently current at the several places named : Red wheat in Paris has been selling at 54s. to 57s. per qr., white o5s, to 59s. ; red Baltic at Antwerp 55s.; Liege quoted 55s. 6d., home produce at Louvain 548.; Mecklenburg, Saale, and Marks, red, at Hambro' 52s. ; fine high-mbted, extremely scarce, at Danzic 56s. to 57s. per qr. free on board ; red at Cologne 49s. to 50s., at Stettin 46s. ; white Spanish, afloat, 52s. ; Ghirka, also afloat, 45s. to 49s.; spring wheat in Montreal, 40s. per qr. ; at New York it was 45s. to 53s.; red win- ter 58s. to 66s., fine new white 55s. to 72s. per qr. of480lbs. The first Monday in Mark Lane commenced on moderate English and fair foreign supplies of wheat. The show of samples during the morning was about an average, and consisted almost exclusively of old qualities. Business was in calm, and though the previous week had been unsettled, there Jwas no improvement in prices. The business of' the day consisted chiefly of purchases of foreign, mil- lers having reduced their stocks by holding oflT, and full prices were made of favourite sorts. There was a fair demand for floating cargoes, atjquite former rates. The country trade was almost in suspense, from the variableness of the weather, but the tendency of values was generally upwards, and an advance of Is. per qr. was made at Ipswich, Rochester, Wolverhampton, Leighton Buzzard, Fakenham, Didcot, Devizes, and Derby; but Liverpool was no dearer. At Leith, also. Is. per qr. improvement was realized; while Glasgow only experienced a better trade. The broken weather seemed to have little effect in Ireland. More new corn was appearing at Dublin, but the price of old was no better. On the second Monday both the English and foreign supplies were less than in the previous week. The show from Kent and Essex was moderate, including some new samples of but in- ferior quality, though some fine white Kentish brought 58s. per qr. ; old sold at unaltered rates. The foreign trade was very firm, and in some cases there was rather more money paid, accounts being very unfavourable in France. Cargoes afloat were quite as dear as on the previous week. The wea- ther was again very showery this week, but not sufficiently so to raise prices generally, though several places were rather dearer, as Maidstone, Bury St. Edmunds, Birmingham, and a few other towns ; but Liverpool was only quiet all through the week. Both Edinburgh and Glasgow were firm, but not dearer. Dublin was well attended, and holders of foreign asked 6d. to Is. per qr. more money, but nothing was done at the advance. Rain fell at intervals through the week, and hurried far- mers in the carrying of their wheat ; so that many samples weregot-upin poor condition, and in a few instances there was some sprouting, but on the whole not enough to stir the trade, though at a few markets there was an advance of about Is. per qr. This was the case at Birmingham, Boston, Bury St. Edmunds, Bristol. Ipswich, Maidstone, 266 THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE. and a few other places, there being a general firm- ness in prices throughout, as was noted at Hull and Liverpool. Edinburgh and Glasgow were calm, and without change. At Dublin very little business was transacted, but holders of foreign were asking more money. The third Monday's return noted an increased English supply, with a large arrival from the Con- tinent. The show of samples from Kent and Essex was fair, including about 2,000 qrs. of the new crop, almost all white, and averaging about 62lb3. per bushel, though many lots were damp in hand. This may be called the first real day of business for new qualities, which at their first ap- pearance brought extra prizes, as they generally do at this period of the year ; and from these rates there was a decline of fully 2s. per qr., while old was Is. per qr. cheaper to sell. The foreign trade was qnite in suspense, and to have forced sales would have brought lower rates. Cargoes afloat were, however. Is. per qr. dearer for fine qualities. The weather proving fine this week, where new wheat was exhibited in quantity, it was generally cheaper; but many markets had no samples to show. At these the value of old was little affected, though trade was dull, and prices tending to de- cline. Wakefield noted a reduction in new samples of 2s. to 3s., and Is. on old. Liverpool was down 2d. per cental on Friday; and Hull had scarcely any business. Glasgow was in calm, and Edin- burgh Is, per qr. lower. DubUn, in the midst of splendid harvest weather, found sales extremely difficult, buyers waiting events, and apparently ex- pecting a decline. The fourth Monday commenced on the back of fair English supplies, with plenty of foreign wheat. The show of samples from Essex and Kent was good, a large proportion being new. There were but few fine and dry lots, the bulk having been hurried to market, from fear of the weather, and not having well ripened in the straw. Millers, therefore, till near the close of the market, held off, and then sales were made at a decline of 4s. to 5s. per qr., while old parcels sold but slowly, at a re- duction of Is. to 2s. per qr. The foreign trade was quite retail, at a decline of fully Is. per qr. ; but many holders were careless about selling, from a conviction that the weakness of the new wheat would soon create a large demand for mixing. Floating cargoes were dull, though not offered cheaper. The imports into London for four weeks were 21,417 qrs. English wheat, 73,611 qrs. foreign; 15,035 qrs. Enghsh, 74,807 qrs. foreign in 1865. Exports 1,604 qrs. wheat, 88 cwts. flour. The imports into the Kingdom for four weeks ending 18th August were 1,628,146 cwts. wheat, and 208,700 cwts. flour. The general averages commenced at 52s. 6d. per qr., and ended at 50s. 2d.; those of London began at 52s., and closed at 52s. per qr. The flour trade, through the entire month, has been extremely inactive, but with little variation in prices ; but the last Monday was fully Is. per sack cheaper. Some arrivals have appeared from America — indeed, more than was expected from the relative state of markets ; and the same may be said as respects French imports, the advance in France having lately been very rapid, though some reaction has appeared since the fine weather. To sell either immediately must lose money consider- ably : and to keep it in summer is dangerous. Norfolks were nominally 35s. per sack, and higher qualities in proportion. Town prices have conti- nued as they were, with 50s. as the top quotation. No fine American is here, nor is it likely to come, being dearer at home. The imports into London were 57,179 sacks country sorts, 4,659 sacks 7,988 barrels foreign ; against 53,905 sacks country- made, 2,174 sacks 19,105 barrels foreign, for the same time in 1865. The barley trade has been on a limited scale through the month ; but stocks and arrivals being very scanty, the tendency of prices has been up- ward, more especially for grinding foreign, which has now risen to 28s. per qr., and were it not for the free imports of maize, the advance must have been greater, but as that article hasbeen selling at 26s., and with Is. advance can still be bought at 27s. for useful purposes, there is no great pro- bability of a further rise, though exports from the Danubian Principalities have been prohibited, as well as of maize from the failure of the crops there. We shall soon be receiving enough of our own new crop to supply every demand. The new malt- ing seems of fair quality as yet, and worth about 40s. per qr. The imports into London for four weeks were 869 qrs. British, and 13,994 qrs. foreign, against 855 qrs. British, and 12,168 qrs. foreign for the same period in 1865. The malt trade all through the month has been slow, but prices have been without alteration. Though the supplies of oats from the United Kingdom have been extremely short, they have been more than made up by immense arrivals from America and Russia, inasmuch that there has been a constant reduction in such qualities of 6d. per qr. every market. Russian oats, weighing 38lbs. per bushel, have by this been reduced to 18s. per qr., and Canadians to about the same ; but fine Swedish oats not being plentiful have scarcely been reduced Is. per qr. through the month, those weigh- ing 42lbs. per bushel being worth 25s. per qr. The supplies have chiefly gone to granary ; and as old oats must be wanted, we should not be surprised at some reaction when the glut is taken off the market. The imports in London for four weeks have been 936 qrs. English, 163 qrs Scotch, 250 Irish, 467,657 qrs. foreign, against 1,594 qrs. En- glish, 1,652 qrs. Scotch, 455 qrs. Irish, 271,643 qrs. foreign in 1865. As the French were lately very badly off for oats, and prices were very high, there have been fair exports from France, say 4,658 qrs. Beans have been in very short supply through the month ; but as the consumption at this time of year is not large, business has been limited, though prices for hard qualities for splitting have been well maintained. Some new from Egypt are now ex- pected, and the Pacha may resume their cultivation as well as that of other grain, since cotton has fallen, and will not be required in such quantities. A fall in this pulse must be expected on good arri- vals of the new crop in quantity. The imports THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 267 into London for four weeks were 616 qrs. English, 5,325 qrs. foreign, against 1,93/ qrs. English and 5j691 qrs. foreign in 1865. The imports of foreign peas have been more liberal than of beans, Canadian having made good contributions; but as white old have been wanted for feeding, as a substitute for beans, prices have been about maintained, say to 388. per qr., with a proportionate increase for the best boilers. The new peas brought to market have been of fair qua- lity, and the whole crop is well spoken of. The imports for four weeks into London were 884 qrs. EngHsh and 10,360 qrs. foreign, against 1,076 qrs. English and 1,754 qrs. foreign in 1865. The supply of linseed has continued scanty, and not enough to replenish the almost exhausted stocks, and prices, therefore, have been very firm, with a fair sale for cake all through the month. There has been rather more doing in cloverseed of late at better prices, from an anticipated partial falure of the crop, both here and in France ; but very Httle is left on hand to operate with, and the change to finer weather may check the movement. Canaryseed has been without interest. Rapeseed has become more steady. New winter tares have appeared, rather small in size, but well filled, and seem likely to commence cheaply, say at 5s. to 6s. per bushel. Ditto, black 18 BEANS, Mazagan ...41 Harrow 43 PEAS, white, boilers. .38 CURRENT PRICES OF BRITISH GRAIN AND FLOUR IN MARK LANE. Shillings per Quarter. WHEAT, Essex and Kent, white... old 41 54.. .new 40to50 „ „ „ red „ 41 48... „ 40 47 Norfolk, Lincoln, and Yorkshire, red 40 47 BARLEY 30 to 34 Chevalier, new 38 42 GrincUng 29 31 Distilling 33 37 MALT, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk 59 68 Kingston, "Ware, and town-made 59 66 Brown 53 56 RYE 26 28 OATS, English, feed 20 to 25 Potato 24 30 Scotch, feed 20 26 Potato 25 30 Irish, feed, white 18 21 Fine 23 26 20 Potato 23 27 43 Ticks 40 43 46 Pigeon 45 49 41 Maple 39 to 41 Grey, new36 37 FLOUR, per'sack of 2801bs., Town, Households 47 60 Country, on shore 35 to 36 ,, 38 42 Norfolk and Suffolk, on shore 34 35 FOREIGN GRAIN. Shillings perQuarter. WHEAT, Dantzic, mixed 62 to 54 old, extra 57 to 60 Konigsberg 49 54 extra 55 56 Rostock 50 54 fine 55 56 Silesian, red 47 51 white.... 50 54 Pomera., Meckberg., and Uckermrk. ...red old... 50 62 Russian, hard, 42 to 46... St. Petersburg and Riga 45 46 Danish and Holstein, red 44 45 French, none Rhine and Belgium 50 52 American, white 00, red winter 50 to 55, spring 00 00 BARLEY, grinding 27 to 28 ....distilling and malting 35 39 OATS, Dutch, brewing and Polands 20 to 27 feed 17 23 Danish and Swedish, feed 19 to 34.... Stralsund... 20 24 Canada 18 to 19, Riga 18 to 24, Arch. 18 to 20, P'sbg. 19 25 TARES, Spring, per qr small 00 large ... 00 00 BEANS, Friesland and Holstein 37 42 Konigsberg 40 to 42... Egyptian, none 00 00 PEAS, feeding and maple... 36 38... fine boilers 36 39 INDIAN CORN, white 29 30.. .yellow 27 29 FLOUR, per sack, French..37 40.. .Spanish, p. sack 37 40 American, per brl 24 26...extraand d'ble. 28 30 COMPARATIVE AYERAGES. WHEAT. Years. Qrs. s. d. 1862... 33,844i... 57 4 1863... 48,673i ... 45 11 1864... 64,702i ... 43 6 1865... 45,752- ...43 1 1366,,, 63,6321,,, 50 i BARLEY. Qrs. s. d. l,045i ... 32 3 9251 ... 31 4 1,251J ... 28 1 932i ... 27 11 6911 .„ 34 9 OATS. Qrs. s. 2,142| ...25 3,191 ...23 2,691| ...22 2,307| ... 23 1,2334 ,,,26 d. 3 7 0 10 6 IMPERIAL AVERAGES For the week ended August 18, 1866. Wheat 63,5321 qrs. 503. Barley Oats. 5911 1,2334 AVERAGES Fob ihb lasi Six Weeks: July 14, 1866 July 21, 1866 July 28, 1866 , Aug. 4, 1866 Aug. 11, 1866 Aug. 18, 1866 , Aggregate Average Averages last year Wheat. Barley. s. d. s. d. 55 10 35 1 54 0 33 6 52 0 33 10 51 1 32 11 50 2 35 2 60 2 34 9 62 2 34 2 43 1 27 11 Oats, s. d. 27 26 27 25 26 26 26 6 23 10 FLUCTUATIONS in the AVERAGE PRICE of WHEAT. Pkice. July 14, 55s. lOd. 64s. Od. 53s. Od. 51s. Id. 50s. 2d. July 21. July 28. Aug. 4. Aug. 11. [Aug. 18. PRICES OF SEEDS. LONDON, Monday, Aug. 27. — The inquiry for red seed for the Continent continues, but the advanced rates required by holders here prevents transactions at present. New English trefoil, withUmited quantity offering, finds buyers at fully Is. advance. New Rapeseed is a slow sale. New winter tares are in good supply, and at mode rate rates. — Cutler and Barker, Seed-factors. BRITISH SEEDS. MusTAED, per bush. .white 8s,tol23. CAirAEY,per qr 45s. 52s. Cloveeseed, red OOs. OOs. CoBiANDEE, per cwt OOs. OOs. Taees, winter, new, per bushel 5s. 6d. 68. Od. Trefoil 18s. 20s. Ryegeass, per qr OOs. OOs. Linseed, per qr., sowing OOs. toOOs., crushing 60s. 683. Rapeseed, per qr 54s. 68s. Linseed Cakes, per ton £9 lOs. to £10 lOs. Rapb Cake, per ton £5 10s. to £6 Os. FOREIGN SEEDS. CoBiANDEB, per cwt 16s. to20s. Cloveeseed, red 42s. to 508., white 60s. 80s. Trefoil 18s. 23s. Ryegrass, per qr 25s. 26s. Hempseed, small — s. per qr., Dutch OOs. 40s. Linseed, per qr., Baltic 588. to 60s. ..Bombay 68s. OOs. Linseed Cakes, per ton £9 10s. to £11 Os. Rape Cake, per ton £5 Os. to £6 Os. Rapeseed, Dutch OOs. OOs. Careaway ,, OOs. OOs. POTATO MARKETS. BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS. LONDON, Monday, Aug. 2?.— The supplies of home- grown potatoes on sale are somewhat extensive. Generally speaking, the trade is steady as follows : Shaws 60s. to 80s. per ton. Regents 60s.toll0s. „ HOP MARKETS. BOROUGH, Monday, Aug. 27.— Our market remains firm, with a steady consumptive demand ; which, if continued bids fair to clear off tlie remainder of last year's growth by the time the new crop reaches us. Two pockets of the latter'have already been received, realizing the fancy prices of £16 16s. aud £12 12s. per cwt. Accounts from the plantations are more promising; the weather has continued extremely favourable throughout the whole of last week, and both burr and hop are coming forward well. The strong and healthy bines have made great progress, but in sections of Mid and East Kent, where mould aud lice abound, scarcely any improvement is perceptible; and the healthy bines, wliether from the wet winter or the heavy crop of last year, are certainly deficient of fruit. Should cougenial weather prevail, however, for the next fortnight, we may yet look for a fair yield, but nothing 268 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. like last year's. Aceouuts from Europe are more satisfactory. There are signs of improvement in Belgium and Bavaria, and the frontier districts are also making good progress. The coming crop is estimated at half to two-thirds of last year's. ?Cew York advices to the 14th inst. report the market as quiet and firm. Blight in the hop sections appears to he on the in- crease. Mid and East Kent... AVeald of Kent Farnhams & Country Sussex Bavarians Belgians Yearlings 105s., 140s., 180s. 100s., 120s., 140s. 100s., 125s., 160s. 'JOs., 110s., 140s. 130s., 147s., 170s. 100s., 113s., 125s. 95s., 110s., 130s. COVENT GARDEN MARKET. LONDON, Satuedat, August 25. Pears still continue to be imported from France. Oranges are becoming scarce, as are also AVest India pine-apples, the last cargo of which for this season is said to have arrived. Home-grown pine-apples and hot-house grapes are still plentiful, and prices for these, as well as for other kinds of indoor produce, continue about the same as those of last week. Greengages are now making their aijpearance; but these, as well as best samples of other plimis, are scarce, and are fetching high prices. Vegetables generally are sufficient for the demand. Flowers chiefly consist of orchids, asters, calceolarias, pelargoniums, fuchsias, balsams, cockscombs, stocks, mignonette, and roses. FRUIT. s. d. Cherries, V- doz. lbs. 0 0 to U 0 Currants, '^ sieve ... i ' Figs, '^ dozen 1 Gooseberries, '^ qrt. 0 Grapes. ■^ lb 2 Lemons, f» 100 8 Nuts, Cob, per lOOlbs. 0 0 s. d. (1 0 .■) 0 X 0 u B « (1 u () 0 0 s. d. Melons, each 3 0 Nectarines, "^doz. ... 4 0 Oranges, per 100 12 0 Peaclies, per dozen... 4 0 Pears, kitchen, 'js! doz 0 0 Pine Apbles, per lb. 3 0 Strawberries, per lb. 0 0 6 0 8 0 20 0 20 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 VEGETABLES. Artichokes, per dozen 2 0 to 4 0 Mushx-oonis, V pottle Asparagus, p. bundle. 0 0 Beans, Kid., "^ i sieve 2 0 Beet, per dozen 2 0 Broooli, per bundle ... 0 0 Cabbages, per dozen... 1 0 Carrots, per bunch ... 0 4 French, per bunch, 1 0 Cauliflowers, per doz. 2 0 Celery, per bundle ... 2 0 Cucumbers, each 0 3 Endive, per dozen 3 0 Garlic & Shallots, %i lb. 0 10 Herbs, per buncii 0 6 Horseradish,^ bundle 2 6 Leeks, per bunch 0 S Lettuces, per score ... 1 0 Mint, per bunch 0 3 0 0 Must. & Cress, t!punn. 0 2 3 C Onions, '0 doz. bun. ... 3 0 3 0 I Pickling, per quart 0 0 0 0 I Parsley, per V^ sieve... 2 0 2 0 I Parsnips, per dozen... 1 0 0 8 Peas, per quart 0 6 4 0 1 ,, per bushel 3 6 6 0 [Potatoes, York Re- 2 6) gents, per ton 80 0 0 9' Rooks, per ton 60 0 0 0 Flukes, per ton 105 0 0 0 Kidneys, per cwt 6 0 0 0 I Radishes, per 12 bund. 0 6 4 0 (Rhubarb, per bundle 0 0 0 0 jSavoys, per dozen 0 0 1 6 ! Spinach, per bushel... 2 0 0 4iTurnips, per bunch... 0 6 95 0 70 0 125 0 10 0 TIMBER. 85 0 SO 0 55 0 4G 0 40 0 BALTIC FIR TIMBER. Per load 50 cubic feet. s. d. s. d. Blga 65 0 to U7 0 Dantzic and Memel, Crown 75 0 Best middling 65 0 Good middling & second 55 0 Common middling 45 0 Small, short, and irregulai- 40 0 Stettin 45 0 Swedish 41 o SmaU 37 0 Swedish & Norway balks 35 0 40 0 AMERICAN PITCH PINE. United States 0 0 0 0 BALTIC OAK TIMBER. Memel, crown 110 0 130 0 Brack 80 0 100 0 Dantzic and Stettin, Crown 90 0 120 0 Brack &unsquar'd 50 0 WAIXSCOT. Per log 18 cubic feet. Riga, crown 95 0 Brack 70 0 Memel and Dantzic, 110 0 Crown 75 0 85 0 Brack 53 0 65 0 DEALS AND BATTENS. Per Petersburg standard hundred. £ s. £ s. Archangel & Onega 12 0 Seconds 9 0 14 0 10 10 Petersburg 10 0 ■Wyburg 9 0 Finland and hand- 12 0 9 10 sawn Swedish 7 0 8 ( Petersburg & Riga 9 10 Memel and Dantzic, Crown red deals... 12 0 13 e Brack 8 0 9 0 £ s. £ s. Christiana & Sanne- sund deals, white and yellow Second do Dram & Frederick- stadt battens, do. Dram eVi-inch do. ... Gothenl)'g,gd stocks Common Gefle and Swedish 14-feet deals Swedifh deals and battens, long mill- sawn Dantzic, cr'wn deck, per 40- feet 3- inch Brack 8 10 7 0 9 10 8 10 9 0 8 0 10 0 9 0 9 10 10 10 9 0 10 10 10 16 0 18 0 12 LATHWOOD. Per cubic fathom. Petersburg 7 0 Riga, Dant., Memel, and Swedish 5 0 FIREWOOD. Per cubic fathom. Swedish, red deal ends 3 15 Norway, red & white 8 0 6 10 boards 3 0 3 10 Rounds and slabs 2 15 3 5 OAK STAVES Per mille pipe. Memel, crown 150 0 205 0 First brack 130 0 ii;o 0 Dantzic, Stettin, & Hambro' full-siz'd crown 150 0 180 0 Canada, stand, pipe 80 0 85 0 Puncheon, "# 1,200 pieces 24 0 25 0 Bosnia, single brl.. •^ 1,200 pieces 25 0 2V 0 United States, pipe 30 0 i>5 0 Hogshead, heavy and extra 30 0 40 0 SliKht 32 0 26 0 LEADENHALL LEATHER MARKET. LONDON, Satubdat, August 25. The supplies of fresh leather on sale are moderate. On the whole the trade is steady at full ciu-rencies. Raw hides are steady in j)rice. CROP HIDES. HORSE HIDES. ENGLISH. lbs. lbs. d. d. lbs. lbs d. d. English 13 18 . . lltol2V6 28 to 35 iiVitoUVi „ without butts 9 14 . . 11 14Vi- 36 40 12 15M! Spanish, salted. 40 45 ...... 12Vfe 171* \vithout butts. B.d.a.d 46 .W 14 I8V2 per hide 6 9 . .10 0 15 0 .50 55 16 19 Do. do. do... 9 12 . .11 6 17 6 56 60 17 20 Do. do. do. inferior . DO. dry do... 6 8 . . 7 0 10 0 . 8 0 11 0 BUTTS. Do. do. do... 9 11 . .10 0 14 0 ENGLISH. Do. do. do. inferior . .60 80 44 50 llVfe 11V4 1114 12 I2V2 14VS 25 OFFAL. d. d. English Shoulders 12 15 Do. Cheeks and Faces. 7V2 10 Do. Bellies 9 12 Do. Middlesdo 11 13 Foreign Shoulders 10 12 Do. Necks 8 10 Do. Bellies 8 lOH Do. Middlesdo 10 12 Dressing Hide Shoulders. 10 12 Do. do. BeUies 8 10 Kip Shoulders 5 7 Do. Bellies 5 7 DRESSING HIDES. lbs. lbs. d. d. Common 20 to 24 ... 11 tol3 Do 25 28 ... 11 13 Do 30 34 ... IIV^ 13 Do 35 40 ... 12 15 Saddlers' 30 CALF SKINS. Av. weight, lbs. lbs. per dozen 20to30 ... Do. "" ~" Do. .35 40 ... 22 32 ..40 45 ... 22 32 .45 50 ... 21 31 Do. Do 60 Do 75 Do 95 Welsh, unrounded. Av. wght., p.doz.2D Do. 35 110 ... 15 21 17 KIPS. lbs. lbs. d. Petersburgh 4 Do 7 » ... 18 Do 9 10 ... 15 Do 11 13 ... 14 E.I. dry salted... 5 7 ... 20 Do. do. ... 7 9 ... 18 Do. seconds 16 Do. thirds 12 Do. Inferior 7 d. 16 21 15 12 Do. .36 50 , 15 Bulls 10 12 Shaved 14 16 ... 14 16 Do 17 19 ... 131/2 15V2 Do 20 23 ... 13 14Vi Do 24 28 ... I2V2 14 Scotch do 16 24 ... 13!6 16 Coach, per hide 23s. to 30s. HORSE BUTTS. SHAVED, d. d. d. d. English 11 13 ... 13 15 Spanish 11 121,1' 12 14 SHEEP SKINS. Basils, unstrained, per lb. 11 20 ^0. strained, per lb. ... 10 19 _o. facing, per doz 7s. 223. White Sheep & Lambs „ 4 10 Do. strained „ 10 22 Do. aprons „ 10 28 Tan Sheep and Lambs ,, 10 26 Sumach roans ,, 16 35 DO. skivers „ 10 30 Bark skivers „ 10 .30 SUNDRIES. E. B. Hog Skins, best each 8 to 16 Do. seconds „ 5 8 Seal Skins, split, per dozen 40 70 Do. for bindings „ 35 75 Cah Skins, Sumach- tanned ,, On Do. white , SO BO Horse Hides, white, each... 8 15 Hide Splits, per lb 7d. to lid. MANURES. PRICE CURRENT OF GUANO, &o. Peruvian Guano direct from the importers' stores, or ex ship (30 tons) £12 5s. to £12 lOs. per ton. Bones, £6 lOs. per ton. Animal Charcoal (70 per cent. Phosphate) £5 per ton. Coprolite, Cambridge, whole £2 5s. to £2 8s., ground £2 153. to £3 Suffolk, whole £1 18s. to £2, ground £2 lOg. to £2 12s. per ton. Muriate of Potash, £13 to .£14 per ton. Nitrate of Soda, .£15 to £15 lOa. per ton. Sulphate of Ammonia, £14 to £15 per ton. Gypsum, 30s. per ton. Superphosphate of Lime, £5 to £0 5s. per ton. Sulphuric Acid, concentrated 1'845 Id. per lb., brown 1712 O^d. Blood Manure, £6 5s. to £7 lOs. per ton. Dissolved Bones, £6 153. p. ton. Linseed Cakes, best American barrel £11 5b., ditto bag £10 10s. p. ton; English £11 to £11 10s. Rape Cake, £5 15s. to £6 per ton. E. PuHSEK, London Manm-e Company, 116, Fenchurch Street, E.G. Guano, Peruvian £12 7 6 to £0 0 0 Linseed Cake, per ton- Do. Upper do. 6 15 0 Maiden Island 0 0 0 Bone Ash 0 0 0 Brimstone, 2d&3rd 0 0 0 Saltpetre, Bengal, 2 per cent 0 0 0 Nitr. of Soda, p.ct.O 10 0 Cloverseed, N.Ani. red, new per cwt. 116 0 7 0 0 Americ.,thln,bgs. £9 15 Oto £0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 12 0 3 3 0 2 12 0 2 7 0 2 50 0 00 Do. inbrls 0 0 0 0 00 English 10 0 0 0 0 0 Cotsd.Cake.decort. 0 0 0 i Linsd.Bomby.p.qr. 3 10 0 0 0 0 Rapeseed, Guzerat 3 0 0 0 10 6 Niger 2 10 0 1 Tallow, 1st P.Y.C. 2 0 0 2 00 ,, super. Norths 2 4 0 SAMUEL DOWNBS and CO., General Brokers, Exchange Court, Liverpool. Agricultural Chemical Works, Stowmarket, Suffolk. Prentice's Cereal Manure for Corn Crops per ton £8 10 0 Mangold Manure i> f ,n n Prentice's Turnip Manure i S J! U Prentice's Superphosphate of Lime B 0 u Printed by Rogerson and Tusford, 246 Strand, London, W.C HAIL STORMS. THE ROYAL FARMERS' INSURANCE COMPANY, 3, NORFOLK STREET, STRAND, LONDON, W.C, INSURE WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, BEANS, PEAS, UYE, TURNIPS, CLOVER, &c., AGAINST LOSS BY HAIL STORMS AT MODERATE RATES. SGKJDS and OI URAL ARCHITECTURE : a SERIES JLXj of DESIGNS FOR RURAL AND OTHER DWELLINGS. The Ground Plans, Elevations, and Specifications by James Sanderson, Burgh Engineers' OflSce, Liverpool. THE AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTOR: or, YOUNG FARMER'S CLASS BOOK.— By Edmund Murpht, A.B. DOMESTIC fowl': THEIR NATURAL HISTORY, BREEDING, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT. HORSES: THEIR VARIETIES, BREED- ING, AND MANAGEMENT.— Edited by M. M. MiLBURN. D OGS: THEIR ORIGIN AND VA- RIETIES. HGS: THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIE- TIES. THE FLOWER GARDEN.— By George Glennt, F.L.S., Author of "Properties of Flowers," &c. COWS AND DAIRY HUSBANDRY.— By M. M. MiLBURN, Author of "The Sheep," &c. The Dairy Department Revised by T. HoRSPAll. SHEEP AND SHEPHERDING : embrac- ing the History, Varieties, Rearing, Feeding, and General Management of Sheep ; with Treatises on Austi'alian Sheep Fai-ming, the Spanish and Saxon Merinos, &c. By M. M. Milburn, Author of " The Cow," and various Agricultural Prize Essays. THE HIVE AND THE HONEY BEE. JESTS OF THE FARM. A New Edition. By M. M. MiLBURN, Author of " The Sheep,", &c. LAND DRAINAGE, EMBANKMENT, AND IRRIGATION.— By Jajies Donald, Civil Engineer, Derby. T SOILS AND MANURES, with INSTRUC- TIONS FOR THEIR IMPROVEMENT.— By John Donaldson, Government Land Drainage Sur- veyor. In the Press, in continuation of the same Series, HE IMPLEMENTS OF THE FARM. By E. Scott Burn, C.E. THE POTATO: ITS HISTORY, CUL- TURE, AND NATIONAL IMPORTANCE.— Bt S: Copland. London: Honlston & Wright, 65, Paternoster Row ; Rogerson & Tuxford, 246, Strand, W.C. Dublin : J. McGlashan, Upper Sackville Street. And all Booksellers. ROGERSON & TUXFORD,] [PRINTERS, 246, STRAND. No. 4, Vol. XXX.] OCTOBER, 1866. [Third Sbbibs. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE AND MONTHLY JOURNAL OP THE AaRICULTURAL INTEREST. IBebiratelr TO THE FARMERS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. LONDON : PUBLISHED BY BOGERSON AND TUXFORD, 246, STRAND. PBICE TWO SHILLINGS. ROGERSON AND TUXFORD,] [PBINTBES, 246, STUAND. H O W A RDS' CHAMPION PLOUGHS WON in 1865 and TWO PREVIOUS YEARS the Unprecedented Number of SIXTY. EIGHT ALL ENGLAND PRIZES, AND UPWARDS OF EIGHT HUNDRED LOCAL PRIZES, BY FAR THE lAEGEST ITTTMBER EVER GAIITED BY ANY MAKER. HOWARDS' CHAMPION PLOUGH Qained at the LAST TRIALS of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, at Newcastle, The FIRST and ONLY PRIZE for the BEST WHEEL PLOUGH FOE GENERAL PURPOSES. This is the most important Prize for Ploughs offered hy the Society, it being for the Plough best adapted for both light and heavy land, as wen as for the best work at various depths. Tor the LAST TEN YEARS J. & F. HOWARD have been the Winners of this Prize. HOWAK»i^~ciiAMPIO^~~]PI.OU6MI HAS RECEIVED FIFTEEN FIRST PRIZES FROM THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND, Being the Largest Number of Prizes awarded to any kind of Plough ever exhibited. MORE THAN SIXTY JHOUSAND ARE IN USE. The following Prizes have been awarded to J. «fe F. Howard by the Royal Agricultural Society of England : FORTY-FOUR FIRST PRIZBS rOR THE BEST PLOUGHS FOR LIGHT LAND, BEST PLOUGHS FOR HEAVY LAND, BEST PLOUGHS FOR GENERAL PURPOSES. BEST RIDGING PLOUGHS, BEST SUBSOIL PLOUGHS, BEST HARROWS, BEST HORSE RAKES, BEST HAYMAKERS, AND BEST HORSE HOES; ALSO THE GOLD MEDAL, AND OTHER PRIZES, FOR STEAM-CULTIVATING MACHINERY. FULL PARTICTTLAR8 MAY BE HAD OP THEIR AGENTS THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, OR WILL BE SENT FREE ON APPLICATION TO JAMES AND FREDERICK HOWARD, BRITANNIA IRON WORKS, BEDFORD, ENGLAND. LONDON OFFICE : 4, Cheapside-Three Doors from St. Paul's. THE ORWELL WORKS, IPSWICH. RANSOMES & SIMS, OEWELL WORKS, IPSWICH, ENGLAND, Are especially celebrated for the Agricultural Machinery described in the following Pages. RANSOMES & SIMS construct their Machines of the Best Materials, manufactured as far as possible by Machinery, and AA^ith the greatest attention to Simplicity, Durability, and Ease of Repair w^ithout the employment of skilled labour. They are sold at the Lowest Prices at w^hich sound Workmanship and good Material permit. Upwards of 1000 men are employed at the Orwell Works, and they are aided by the best modern Tools and appliances. lUustrated Catalogues u-'dl be forwarded Post Free on Application to RANSOMES & SIMS, ORWELL WORKS, IPSWICH. EANSOMES & SIMS' PEIZE PLOUGHS. Ransomes & Sims have been engaged in the manufacture of Ploughs for upwards of seventy years, during which time they have sold an immense number, and taken a great number of Prizes from the Royal and many other Agricultural Societies at home and abroad. These Ploughs have, during the last two years, obtained greater success than any others. They won Four First Prizes at the last great plough trial of the Royal Agricultural Society at Newcastle, July, 1864, being Four times as many Prizes as were awarded to any other Makers. They won more All England Champion Prizes in 1864, and more again in 1865, than any others, making altogether up to the present time the unprecedented number of 50 All England Champion Prizes in less than a Year and a Half, Together with a large number of Prizes in other classes, and Fifteen Silver Cups in hands of Farmers' Sons and others. These Ploughs are made in various sizes and to suit all purposes. Price of a good General Purpose Wheel Plough, R.N.E. £4 15 0 The whole of the Wearing Parts, especially Ransomes' Patent Chilled Plough Shares, are of the best possible description, and very economical. Special Catalogues and Full Particulars an Application. MISOIES & SIMS' STEAl PLOU&HIN& lACHIIERT, (FOWLER'S PATENT). ,-'<^ r^. "'^Mm IHustrated Circulars of the most improved Machinery for this purpose (Fowler's Patent) will be forwarded on application, and RANSOMES & SIMS will furnish, w^ith much pleasure, most satisfactory evidence of the profitable employment of Steanm Pow^er in Tillage. R^NSOMES in and unwieldy to handle ; in fact, the person w ho invented the corn-knot deserves the reprobation of posterity. Should hard necessity compel to shear when dampish, it should be tied into gaits. When well set, these soon dry, and the time spent in binding them up is not lost. I find that now people after the machine work for a rest, and that in consequence corn is often laid in and bacUy bound. This is the most unpardonable sin of the w hole. If your bands be slack, the stook cannot stand ; besides, a slack band is pretty sure to yield before it gets to the mill. The stooks are a great deal the better of being set north and south, so as to let each side get its share of the sun, and the corn-knot out- side. I think small stooks stand best — not more than ten sheaves ; and besides, they look better. Always use the horse- rake ; the hand-implement is clumsy, slow, and, in the hands of most jieople, useless. The horse-rake, in careful liands, can d.(» little daninge *o the bottomi It is adifficuH laatter to gCt THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 277 com right for leading ; even in the best of weather mistakes may he made, aud patience is the best rule, for corn should never he led till thoroughly won. After wet, the sheaves may be opened out, if there is any fear of sprouting ; and in all cases it is very advisable to lead corn from a dark or sheltered spot to some place where it can get sun and wind. It is also better, where tlie ground is thickly covered with young grass or dirt, to turn up the bottoms of the sheaves to the m ind half-an-hour or so before leading ; this, if carefully done, does not injure the binding. As to leading, or carting, it should be done as quickly as possible. Some people do not care to go more tiian the regular hours ; but I like to empioy every available moment, and get it in as fast as I can. There are various ways of putting it together. Some prefer to stack it in each field, or some imme- diately adjoining. Under certain circumstances, such as being at a distance from the steading, and the weather being threaten- ing, I should adopt this plan ; but, seeing that, generally, the roads are good, the days comparatively long, and no other work pressing, I should in ordinary cases try to get it to the stack-yard. Some may be induced to stack in the fields in consequence of the deplorable events which disgraced this part of the country last autumn ; but such a precaution would avail little, except in the face of the chance of accidental burning ; but this sort, I believe, is rare compared to the other. Eor the reasons I have given, I prefer to take it home, and there build it in stacks. They are better so than in sheds. The' risk of spontaneous combustion is less, and should it go wrong, the trouble of leading it out much less too. The stack-yard should be high and dry, exposed to the west wind, and near the barn door. Arrange the stacks in rows, lying to the cardinal points, and intersecting each other at right angles, as I think the air circulates better than when they are set quin- cunx fashion. They should not be too large — -16 ft. is plenty; large stacks are attended with more danger, and are less handy. Peojile that can find it in their hearts -had better build on arti- ficial bottoms ; we that cannot must just buUd on plenty of straw. We are often plagued by bad stacking. I like to see a tidy stack-yard, but beauty is immaterial if some essential points are attended to. The most important are, that the heads of the sheaves should slope upwards, and that the top be kept true and steep. It is horrible to see the ultimate con- dition of a stack iif which these have been neglected. Under any circumstances, I am an advocate for kibis (ventilators) in stacks ; they cannot but be the better for a current of air going through them. They also, I believe, strengthen a stack con- siderably. If possible, have the heading ready ; do not spare it. Have the stacks pointed — not round topped — and tie with small ropes ; thick ones are just sponges. Now, when the corn is in and headed — if all has gone on to your satisfaction, and you are properly thankful that it is so, the people should have a kirn. I say, do this, as they are hard wrought in leading time, aud a little extra fovour puts them into good spirits, and tends to keep up a proper feeling between master aud servant. Some prefer to give them the money, and let them make of it what tliey will, or make up to them in other ways ; but the best way is to give them a good kirn. I can see no oiijection to it ; it gives a great deal of pleasure, and does no harm whatever. A few words more, and I have done. What we require in all farm operations is a complete system of machinery — efficient to do all that we want, and elastic to do it when and how we want. No occupation is so destitute of this auxiliary to labour as agriculture. Though we may not see it, yet I am persuaded that succeeding generations will enjoy advantages that we can only possess in anticipation, just as we have lacilities that our forefathers 'never dreamed of. At some future period, the then sage of Tiptree will not have occasion to say, as he has just done, " We must, therefore, conclude that, as compared with the enterprise of trade, com- merce, and manufactures, agriculture is in a stagnant and non- progressive condition ; that it neither employs sufficient capital nor labour ; and that, in comparison with the others, it is poor, penurious, and humble." And, again, " Dear labour here will compel the farmer to adopt machinery far more ex- tensively than at present." A true bill ! a true prophecy ! How has the manufacturer distanced us so far ? Why do we, while exporting goods, import food ? How is it that the manu- facturer and the trader over-ride us in the legislature and the excliange ? Such is the case. The key to the reason and remedy lies in the words I have quoted — words which, when I saw them, I hailed as a Godsend, as elucidating the point whicli I could never have put clearly. And, gentlemen, when all that the ino.it sanguine can now anticipate has been acconi- phshed, people will stiU be looking forward — still progressing. The golden year will come to them no more than to us ; but, in the words of the Laureate— " Unto him that works, and feels he works. This same grand year is ever at the doors." The Chairman congratulated Mr. Douglas on his speech, and thought he was exceedingly correct iu his various state- ments. AUTUMN CLEANING OF STUBBLES, Too much cannot be said about the propriety or necessity of the autumn cleaning of stublde land ; nor can it be too frequently urged upon the notice of farmers, particularly those who wish to keep pace with the times, and abandon the slovenly habits that too generally mark the routine of agricultural operations. A little time spent at this season of the year, when the cereal crops are secured and removed, in cleaning stubble land, particularly such portions of it as may he. intended for root or flax crops, is well repaid when we come to get those crops sown in spring. After the summer's drought, sunsliine, and moderate rainfall, before the winter rains set in, the soil is in the best possible state for pulverizing and cleansing it. After being saturated witli the winter's rains, it is scarcely to be ex- pected that the land will be in a proper state, or that time will permit of the thorough cleansing of the soil, in the great bustle that must pervade to get iu tlie crops tiineously ; nor is it often that the weather will suit, so as to permit either harrow or grubber to act freely : and hence tiie generally foul state of the land in which farmers who neglect autumn cleaning are forced to sow tlie crops, which entails great expense in cleansing during the summer months, aud disappoint iiieul in tlieir ex- pectations. As a rule, without deep autumn ploughing, good root or flax crops cannot be expected, and if the land is not cleansed of root weeds, such as couch grass, dock, &c., before ploughing, the evil is increased by dividing those roots, distri- buting them more widely, and turning them down deeply, Whicli, if tinie and weatlief be pcrtuiUc'l, i'.i llSfc sprin;^ Vfi-^tl^ increases the labour and expense in extracting them, aud if not thoroughly done then, whieli in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred cannot be done, only increases the progeny to an in- credible extent. To save expense, and have tlie land in the best possible state for spring culture, it should be in every instance surface-cleansed before plougliing ; and though this may be objected to by some on the score of expense, the cost is amply repaid: first, in a large quantity of bedding in gathering and stacking the stubble, and also in the extra quan- tity of manure resulting from the stubble used for such pur- poses. In former times careful farmers went to the expense and trouble of chopping up the stubble with spades, and gathering it up with jiand rakes; and from Jethro Tuil down, many imple- ments have hern constructed to effect the same purpose and save manual labour ; but for years past the encouragement given to intelligent and scientific implement manufacturers has been productive of many excellent machines for eflectiug such purposes, in an incredibly short space of time, and in the most perfect manner, amongst which we don't know of any that is more eifective than Bentall's broadshare, which may be had of more than one size, to suit large and small occupations. This implement may be set to cut two, three, four, or more iuclies under the surface without turning it over or disturbing it, the efteet of which is tiiat after a couple of days in dry weal/her all weeds so cut are dried up, aud are taken out and lift Ui\ th$ surface by the action of the hfirrow, when they ar« 278 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, gathered in rows by tlie common liay horse-rake, or in small occupations by tlie man rake, and may at once be carted and stacked in a corner of the field or carried to the steading and stacked, after which the land should be left fallow for a short time, to allow the seeds of annual weeds to vegetate ; then be ploughed as deep as the nature of the soil will permit, and left rough aU winter. It will be ready much earlier for the action of the harrow, grubber, and roller, to ensure perfect pulverisa- tion, than if either ploughed in the ordinary way, or left, as is too often the case, unplouglied till spring. It wiU require no further ploughing, the action of the grubljer l)eii}g suillcient and the most perfect disintegrator. If it is desirable or necessary to apply lime, either pure or gas lime, marl or any otlier mineral, or putrescent manure, the best time to do so is after cleansing and before ploughing. Caustic lime or dry gas-lime, fresh from tlie works, applied at tills period, wiU have the best effects in destrojdng the eggs or larv;e of the numerous destructive insects that prey upon the several crops in the spring and summer, and the subsequent workings with the grubber and harrow in the spring will tho- roughly mix and incorporate them with the soil, besides having a meclianical effect in rendering the land more friable and porous, and giving plants an element in their necessary food, wliich of late years has been too much overlooked,— JmA Far. Gazette. THE ROYAL BUCKS AND CENTRAL BUCKS UNITED ASSOCIATION. MEETING AT AYLESBURY. With the cattle still excluded from competition, and the absence of the Chancellor of the Exchequer from the dinner, the anniversary meeting at Aylesbiuy on Thursday, Sept. 20, went off rather tamely. Mr. Disraeli's lead, how- ever, of last year was again taken up in the course of the evening, and there is little doubt, if the uses of the Eoyal Bucks Association were extended from the district to the county, but that a far more important demonstra- tion on the part of the farmers would be the result. Not that, considering the adv^erse cii-cumstances under which such meetings are just now held, the show at Aylesbury can be reported as on the decline, for iu one leading featm-e this was particularly good. The exhibition of sheep was indeed pretty generally excellent, and such as would have done credit to a gathering of greater pretensions than a merely local trial of strength. It is clear enough that within the last few years some considerable progress has been achieved iu the cultivation of the lioyal Bucks flocks ; and as we be- lieve, quite as striking an advance would be observable in the breeding herds of the neighbom'hood, the elements of success should be assured and the exhibitors emboldened to go farther afield. There are again some capital Berk- shire pigs reared hereabouts, and if the Vale of Ayles- bm-y be not as famous for horses as it is for ducks and geese, the incentive to improvement may be furnished in a little wholesome pressure from without. Certainly, when the Barons Rothchild put the services of a thorough- bred horse at the call of the tenants, and where a clever young one is tolerably sure to tind his market, a better stand might lie made in this way than v.'as noticeable on Thm'sday. We have often seen the Buckinghamshii'e farmers go well over their own country, but they do not seem to care about sending much of the material on to the show ground, though the Baron regularly offers a cu]) for the best yearling, and the gentlemen of the hunt contribute a immbcr of other premiums for both riding and cart horses. The latter section was by far the better represented of the two, with some great growing colts in the entry, and in many of these classes commendations were appended in the return to the award of first and second premiixms. Amongst the more successful exhibitors of horses for agri- cultural purposes were Mr. Curtis of Fulbrook, Mr. Mum- ford of Chilton, Mr. Cox of Denham, Mr. E. Bennett of Rowsham, i\Ir. Kingsley of Boarscraft, Mr. Rose of Eythrope, Mr. Osborne of Chilton, INIr. Richardson of Challcshire, and the Messrs. Denchfield. The mares and foals were about the weakest lot, though Mr. Kingsley's first is a nice level animal with a very good foal ; while Mr. Rose's mare in work is a really sweet one, and I>Ir. Richardson's chesnut filly also very smart and taking. Mr. Cox's two-year-old colt has plenty of size, but Mr. Ben- nett's second-best here is almost too neat for a cart horse, but backed by the very essential recommendation of light true action. A dozen of all ages showed iu the Hunters' Class, with four or five very fair nags amongst them, though with the winner Mr. T. White's Young ^'^enison horse far away the best. This is a great long- striding four-year-old, with plenty of bone and breeding, that should grow on into money, though we were sorry to hear a rumour as to his being objected to, on the gromid of not having been sufficiently long in the possession of the exhibitor. Such wrangles smack more of leather- plating than farming ; but if the protest should be sus- tained, the ten-guinea cup would go to Messrs. Dench- field's two-year-old North Lincoln fiUy, which was highly commended, another North Lincoln and a very nice one of Sir. Tliorpe's being commended, a compliment which was also earned by Mr. E. Bennett's entry. Only tlu'ce of the five yearlings named for the Baron M. A. de Rothschild's Cup came into competition, of wliich Mr. EUiot's King of Diamond's colt was declared to be the best ; but the sample was not a high one, whilst surely such another dozen of hackneys were never seen together! Every man who owned an indifferent animal would appear to have thought it a duty to exhibit this in the hackney class. Here is a thorough-bred cast-off vrith a bad broken knee ; there a cob that can neither walk nor trot; and for a thii'd, a boring brute, whose rider, of a necessity, holds on by the bridle. For any fm'ther variety, you may have a used-np child's pony, a raAv, un- broken thi'ce-ycar-old, or a butcher's beast that makes a deal of fuss over very little work. Mr. Harvey's piece of plate was accordingly withheld, much to the amazement of the lookers-on, who could scarcely be brought to under- stand that "nobody had got it." To the merits of the sheep show, we have already spoken ; but it would be unfair not to give a few further particulars. In the rams of any breed, Mr. Tread\vell, of Winchendon, ranked first with a gay sheep, good in hand, with wool of great weight, and iu really working con- dition ; whereas Mr. George Wallis's second was a deal too fat, and not a nice handler. Still this was, on the whole, a very good class ; but the ram-lambs, where Mr. Treadwell was first and second, were only a moderate lot. The fat ewes and fat wethers made up two very excel- lent classes, more particularly the wethers, some of which are pretty sm-e to be heard of again about Chi'istmas time. Mr. R. Fowler, of Broughton, was first for ewes with a pen of fine character, and Mr. J. P. Terry second ; while Mr. J. A. Mumford's prize wethers were admirable, barring only their being a little high on the lug, but the quality of Mr. Freem'an's second Avas certainly not so good, though these sheep had great size. Mr, Terry's best loug-wood ewes showed a deal of breed- THE PARMEE'S MAGAZINE. 279 ing ; but Mr. J. Osborne's second prize pen were only just useful, and the competition in this class altogether so moderate that any of the commendations, so plentifully bestowed elsewhere, were not proceeded with. In the Down or Cross-bred ewes we came to the Cup, or best pen of sheep in the show — Mr. T. W, Stilgoe's Oxford Downs, live very line sheep, but not matches, particularly about their heads, and it was not until the judges had them out one by one, that Mr. Terry's C'otswolds were discom- fited. Mr, Tredwell's second prize pen were hardly in show trim, though a very useful lot ; and Mr. Freeman's leggy theaves had little to beat, or they could have hardly finished first. With Mr. Allender well out of the way, Mr. Clarke, of Haddenham, and Mr. J. K. Fowler had all the best of the pig show, with some really good Berk- shires. Mr. Fowler's first prize sow in fact is as good a one as ever was shown here, being long and deep, with fine quality, as she should have from her pedigree, which com- bines Mr. Allender's and Mr, Bailey's (of Swindon) breeds. Mr. Clark's sow, in the open class, is also very good, with plenty of size, a capital coat, and deal of true Berkshire character. The other classes included the usual premiums for labourers and ploughing, where the Eansomes had it all to themselves in the Champion class — for butter, for root crops, and for pidlcd roots on the show-ground, which were not very remarkable for their excellence. The din- ner, which took place for the first time in the really beautiful ilarket-hall, was gj-aced by the presence of a few ladies, but the proceedings were of no public interest. The only noticeable point, in fact, beyond that which we have already referred to, was that when Mr. John Fowler mentioned the j\Ialt-tax, he was met with a cry of " 'Tis waste of time taUcing about that !" The following were the judges of the day : — Horses : Mr. H. Corbet, Farmers' Club, London ; Mr. T. Russell, HodneU IMauor, Southam. Sheep : Mr. Longland, Gren- don, Northampton ; Mr. C. Howard, Biddenham, Bed- ford. Pigs(and ploughing) : Mr. C. Hedges, Eaton Bray, Dunstable ; Mr, J, Godwin, Troy Farm, Bicester. WETHERBY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. The twenty-seventh annual exhibition of the above society was held on Friday, Sept. 17. Uorued cattle were absent. Tlie 127 horses included several very good animals, more especially in the agricultural, liackney, aud huuting classes, Tlie extra prize for entire horses for hunters was won by the Earl of Ilare- wood. Mr. Simpson, of Spofforth, exhibited some fine Leicester sheep, and took the principal prizes. The total number of entries in all the classes was 354<, and about £200 was given away in prizes. Judges. — Horses: Mr. Wm. Atkinson, Barrowby, Leeds ' I Mr. Tiiomas Ellerljy, Whitwell ; Mr. Jacob Smith, Humber- tou ; Mr. Charles Seeker, Knaresbro'. Sheep and Pigs : Mr, Woods, Osberton ; Mr. Dodds, Wakefield. PRIZES.— HOUSES. StaUion for agricultural purposes, S. Strickland, Tadcaster. Brood mare for hunters, M. Stables, Hall, Orchards ; second, J. Hawking, Cowtliorpe. Brood mare for coach liorses, R, Glover, Spofforth ; second, Captain Gunter, Wetlierby. Brood mare for roadsters, G. Robson, Easmgwold ; second, T. Coates, Hutton. Brood mare for agricultural purposes, J. Upton, Tadcaster ; second, T. Greenwood, Rodley. Three years old gelding for lumting, J. Harrison, York. Two years old gelding for Imnting, W. II. Park, Tadcaster ; second, Lord Londesborough, Grhnston. Yearling colt for hunting, J. Newman, Bickerton Grange. Three years old filly for hmitiug, J, Inman, Tadcaster ; se- cond, W. Wood, Tadcaster. Two-year-old iilly for hunting, W. H. Park ; second, B. B. Haigh, Bramham College. Yearling fdly for huuting, J. Cooper, Plompton. Three years old gelding for coaching, J. Harrison, York ; second, T. Dales, Kearby. Yearling gelding for coaching, B. B. Haigh; second, J. Beilby, Bramham. Three years old gelding for agriculture, J. Elison, Knares- borough. Two years old gelding for agriculture, R. Stephenson, Wing- hiU Grange: second, II. Barber, Dunkeswick. ■ Three years old fiUy for agriculture, J. Upton ; second, W, Hill, Wetherby. Two years old filly for agriculture, W. Parker, Oxton ; se- cond, J. Hawking. Yearling filly for agricidtnre, J. Upton. Horse or mare for agricultural purposes, not less than four years old, first and second, Q. Clark, Bilton. Hackney or riding horse, four years old and upwards,not less than 15 hands high, and qualiticd to carry 12 stones, R, Milward, Thurgartou Priory ; second, Captain G\inter. SHEEP. LEICESTEK OE, LONG-WOOL. Three-sliear or aged ram, J. Simpson, Spofforth Park ; se- cond, Grimstonc and Co., Wetherby. Two-shear ram, first and second, J. Simpson. One-shear ram, first and second, E. RUey, Beverley. Pen of five ewes, having had aud suckled lambs this year, J. Simpson ; second, J. Coates, Wetherby. Pen of five shearling wethers, W. Brown, Holrae-on- Spalding-Moor ; second, J. Norfolk, Tockwith. Pen of five shearling gimmers, W. Brown. PIGS. Boar (large breed), J. Dyson, Leeds. Sow, J. Lakeland, Retford ; second, M. Walton, Halifax. Boar of the 13ramham Moor or middle breed, C. W. Gra- ham, Leeds; second, II. Keyworth, Leeds. Sow, B. Calvert, Bingley ; second, H. Keyworth. Boar (small breed), B.Calvert; second, W. Hatton, Ad- dingham. Sow, Captain Gunter, Wetherby ; second, J. Bul- lock, Bradford. Store pig under fifteen months old, C. W. Graham ; second, W. Hill, Wetherby. Store pig (tlie property of an agricultural labourer or his widow), F. Lancaster, Micklethwaite ; second, T.Cumber- land, Wetherby, EXTRA STOCK. IIonSES : J. Thrakray, Ilessay, roadster gelding. Ponies : II. Milward, Southwell. SuEEP : G. L. Fox, Bramham, five shearling rams (Leicester) ; second. Captain Gunter, tlu-ee gimmer lambs, EXTRA PRIZES. Stallion for hunters : The Earl of Harewood. Hunter, from four to eight years old, warranted sound, and the property of a farmer or tradesman, liorse dealers excepted : (}. Robson, Easingwold ; second, J. Inman, Tadcaster. Prizes for leaping : W, Wood, Tadcaster ; second, Sykes and Sheard, Drighlington, Two-shear or aged ram, the property of a farmer residing within ten miles of Wetherby : First aud second, J, Simpson, Spofforth Park. Shearling ram, bred by, and the property of a farmer residing within ten miles of Wetherby : First and second, J. Simpson. Tup lamb, bred by, and the projjerty of a fanner residing within (eu miles of Wctherjjy : M. Oddy, Spofforth ; second, (irimston and Co., Chflbrd Mills. Pen of five ewes, having had and suckled lambs this year, bred by, and the property of a farmer residing within ten miles of Wetherby : J. Simpson ; second, J, Ilaima'm, Kirk Deighton. Pen of five gimmer lambs, Iired by, and the property of a farmer residing within ten miles of Wetherby : J. Simpson ; second, J. Haunam. 280 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. CLEVELAND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. MEETING AT STOCKTON. Ou AVeJue^aay aud Thursday.Sept.lOaud 30,at South Stock- ton-on-Tees, was held the Show for 18C6. Cleveland has long enjoyed the highest celebrity for its breed of horses, known throughout England and the continent as the " Cleveland Bays," Jiorses which are being constantly bought up by noble- men, gentlemen, and dealers, and taken to all parts, no district being without some animals of tliis breed. Tlie shows of the society, therefore, have a peculiar importance attached to them. The following gentlemen acted as Judges : For Hunters and Ko.vdsters — Mr. Jos. Atkinson, of Brandon, Alnwick ; Mr. F. Oldacre, of Upper Brook-street, Grosvenor-square, London ; and Jlr. John Hutchinson, of Manor House, Catterick. For Cleveland Bays and Coaching Horses. — Mr. Richard Hodgson, of Langton Grange, Northallerton ; Mr. Wm. Lancaster, of Morton Grange, Northallerton ; and Mr. John Johnson, of Brigham, Drillield. For Draught Horses and Ponies. — Mr. Thomas Scott, of Broom Close, Boroughbridge ; Mr. Jas. S. Dayrell, of West Ayton, Slierbourne Station ; and Mr. Wm. Bradshaw, of Ganthorpe, Castle Howard. For Implements — Mr. Richard Kay, of Forcett Valley, Darlington ; and Mr. Thomas Scott, of Broom Close, Bo- roughbridge. AWARD OF THE PRIZES. HORSES. Cleveland Bay brood mares, a silver cup value £10 10s., "W. Harrison, Hutton, Rudby ; second, £3, R.Watson, Maltby House, Stockton. Cleveland Bay colt foals, £-2, J. Porritt, Buckrush, Redcar ; second, £1, T. Dennis, Broughtou Grange, Stokesley. Cleveland Bay filly foals, £3, J.Dodswortb, Great Stainton, Stockton ; second, £1, W. Smith, Peytou Carr, Stokesley. Cleveland Bay yearling fillies, £3, J. Waller, High Liven, Yarm ; second, £1, W. Harrison, Hutton Rudby. Cleveland Bay two-year-old fillies, £3, W. Hutchinson, Seamer, Yarm ; second, £1, R. AVebster, Commondale, Stokesley. Cleveland bay three-year-old fiUies, f-t, J. Jackson, jun., CM House, Great Ayton ; second, £3, J. Porritt, Buckrush, E«dcar. Coaching brood mares, £7, W. and F. Coulson, Gaterley Farm, Castle Howard ; second, £3, G. Hohnes, Newbegin, Beverley. Coaching colt foals, £3, G. Holmes, Newbegin, Beverley ; second, £1, J. Bell, Middlesbro'. Coaching filly foals, £3, J. Jackson, jun.. Cliff House ; se- cond, £1, J. Donaldson, Great Ayton. Coaching yearling geldings, £3, Wm. Flintoff, Kirkleaving- ton ; second, £1, F. Field, Rosedale Abbey. Coaching two-year-old geldings, £3, J. Leng, Houghton- le-side, Heighiugton ; second, £1, J. W. Pease, M.P., Wood- lands, Darlington. Coacliing three-year-old geldings, £4, T. Webster, Stainsby, Stockton-on-Tees ; second, £3, B. Metcalfe, Ovington, Dar- lington. Coaching three-year- old fillies, £3, M. Young, Skelton, Redcar. Roadster brood mares, £7, J. Shepherd, Sadberge, Darling- ton ; second, £3, P. Sturdy, Ingleby, Greenhow. Roadster foals, colts or fillies, £3, R. Benton, Busby Grange, Stokesley ; second, £1, J. Carlton, Hilton, Yarm. Roadster yearling geldings or fillies, £3, W. Garbutt, Tunstall, Great Ayton. Roadster two-year-old geldings or fillies, £3, A. Perkins, Belle Vue Cottage, Darlington ; second, £1, J. Dixon, Cocker- ton, Darlington. Roadster three-year-old sjeldiugs or fillies. £5, H. R. W. Hart, Dunnington Lodge, York. Hunting brood mares, £10, J. B. Booth, KillerbyHaU; second, £5, J. W. Pease, M.P., AVoodlands, Darlington. Hunting colt foals, £2, T. Calender, Oxbridge House ; se- cond, £1, J. Bradley, Normanby, Middlesbrough. Hunting filly foals, £3, J. B. Booth, Killerby Hall ; second, £1, J. Buckton, Lazenby, Redcar. Hunting yearling geldings, £3, A. Robsou, Alnmouth, Bilton ; second, £1, J. Dixon, Cockerton. Hunting yearling fillies, £3, J. B. Booth, Killerby Hall ; second, £1, T. Blackburn, Black Horse, Broughtou. Hunting two-year-old geldings, £4, J. B. Booth, Killerby Hall ; second, £3, R. Emmerson, Over Diusdale, Darlington. Hunting two-year-old fiUies, £4, T. Hodgson, Great Brough- ton, Stokesley; second, £3, W. Vaughau, Middleton St. George, Darlington. Hunting three-year-old geldings, £6, &. Coates, Cleasby, Darlington ; second, £3, Rev. Charles Henry Ford, Bishop- ton Vicarage, Stockton-on-Tees. Hunting three-year-old fillies, £5, J. Goldsbrough, Huttou Rudby ; second, £3, J. Buck, Windle Beck, Ganton. Draught brood mares, £7, G. Linton, Low-street, near Bedale; second, £3, R. Watson, Maltby House, Stockton. Draught colt fual, £3, R. Hird, Brierton ; second, £1,1. Wilson, Nunthorpe Hall. Draught filly foal, £3, Mrs. Kitching aud Sons, Whorlton ; second, £1, G. Linton. Draught yearlings, geldings or filhes, £3, Mrs. Kitching aud Sons; second, £1, J. Donaldson, Great Ayton. Draught two-year-old geldings or fillies, £3, W. R. I. Hop- kins, Gray Towers, Nunthorpe ; second, £1, F. Potts, Oving- ton Hall Brewery, Northumberland. Draught three-year-old geldings or fillies, £4, F. Potts ; se- cond, £3, J. Donaldson. Pair of young draught horses, mares or geldings, either two or three years old (the gift of Captain Chaloner, R.N.), £G, Messrs. Hopkins and Donaldson, Nunthorpe ; second, £1, R. Watson, Maltby House, Stockton. PONIES. Horses or mares, under eight years of age, from 13 to 14 hands 3 inches high, £7, Lord De L'Isle aud Dudley, Ingleby Manor; second, £3, J. Casson, Burgh-by-Sands, Carlisle. Horses or mares, under eight years of age, not to exceed 13 hands high, £5, G. Mastermau, Middlesbro' ; second, £2, W. R. Innes Hopkins, Elton Hall. Extra Prize. — 10s. was awarded to Master F. L. Dodds, Stockton, for a brown pony. SPECIAL PRIZES. Pair of carriage horses, the bona fide property of the exhi- bitor, neither of which less than four, but under eight years of age, a silver cup, value £31, J. W. Pease, M.P., Woodlands, Darlington ; second, £10 10s., J. P. Skeene, Stockton. Six, seven, or eight years old hunting gelding or mare, by a thorough-bred horse, a silver cup, value £35 (given by the Hon. W. E. Duncombe, M.P., and Major Elvvon), T. Sutton, Alweiit, Darlington, for Voyageur ; second, £5, J. Waldy, St. Gregory's, Bedale, for Sam Weller. Five years old hunting gelding or mare, by a thorough-bred horse, a silver cup, value £15 (given by the president, W. K. I. Hopkins, Esq.), and £5 in money, H. Jewison, Raisthorpe, for The Moor ; second, £5, G. B. Peirson, Baldersby, lor Maroon. Four years old hunting gelding or mare, by a thorough-bred horse, a silver cup, value £15 (given by F. A. Milbank, Esq., M.P.), and £5 in money, G. Holmes, Newbegin, Beverley, for Buffoon ; second, £5, H. Jewison, Raisthorpe, for First Flight. Hunting gelding or mare of any age, by a thorough-bred horse, the property of a member of the Cleveland Hunt, and which has been hunted during the last season with the Cleve^ laud or Hurworth hounds, a silver cup, velue £12 13s. (given THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 281 by A. H. T. Newcomeil, Esq.), Major Elwon, Skiitterskelfe Hall, for Voluntepr. A further prize of £5 5s. was given in this class by W. Vaughan, Esq., after the award of the cup, for the best leapcr, to Panny, the property of J. W. Anderson, Middlesliro'. Roadsters, geldings, or mares, not more than 15 hands 3 inches high, and not less than four, but under eight years of age, ((ualified to carry 13 stones weight on the road, a silver cup, value £10 (given by J. W. Pease, Es(i., M.P.), J. W. Pease, M.P., Darlington, for Whitefoot ; second, £-3, AV. 11. Iiuies Hopkins, Elton Hall, Stockton-on-Tees, for Charley. -Mr. Pease, as he was the winner, liberally lianded the cup over to the second-prize animal. Ladies' hackneys, geldings, or mares, not to exceed 15 hands 3 inches high, not less than four, but under eight years of age, a silver cuji, value £10 10s. (given by J. Dodds, Esq.), G. i5rown, Darlington ; second, £3, J. Ventress, South Stockton- on-Tees. Horses, any age, sex, or breed, which leaped tlie artificial fences in the best style, £15, J. W. Anderson, IMiddlesbro' ; second, £5, 11. Bell, Layton Eields, Caldwell, Darhngtou ; third, .£1, J. Harrison, Sadberge, Darlington. IMPLEMENTS. Ord and Maddison, Implement AVorks, Darlington, £5, for a general collection. J. Weighill, Pickering, £ , tor a grind- ing mill. Penney and Co., Limited, City Iron and Wire Works, Lincoln, £3, for an improved patent adjustilde corn separator, lliehmond and Cliandler, Salfoid, .Manchester, £3, for a ehaft'-cutter, with simple arrangcnu'iit lor altering length of cut. Ruston, Proctor, and Co., Sheaf Iron Works, Lincoln, £3, for one combined thrashing, finishing, and dressing ma- chine, with drum, 4 feet wide. T. E. Colegrave, Bishopton Road, Stockton-on-Tees, and Newcastle-on-Tyne, £5, for a general assortment of implements. Hawkes and Spencer, Drill Manufactory, Tiverton, £3, for an improved 13-coulter patent chain corn drill, the princi])',il feature of which is the chain delivery for grain. Busby, Newton, near Bedale, £1 for a cart, and £1 for a digging plough. H. Kearsley, Ironworks, Ripon, £3, for a reaping machine for small occupations. E. Sherwood, Kirkbridge, Bedale, £3, for a reaping machine. J. Newis, 15, Allison street, Stockton, 10s., for an improved horse-rake. G. Dawson, Haugliton-le-Skerne, Darlington, £1, for a double cheese press. R. CuthbertandCo., Leeming, Bedale, £3, for a two-horse reaper. S. T. Stephenson, Jlid- dlesbro' and Stockton, £3, for a collection of wire fencing, &c. Richardson, Johnson, and Co., North Yorkshire Ironworks, Stockton-on-Tees, £3, for a brick and pipe-making machine. Bamlett, Thirsk, £3, for a reaping raacliiue. EAST CUMBERLAND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S SHOW. On Tuesday, Sept. IS, this society held its annual show, and in the early part of the day the weather was of a most cliecring and promising character ; but towards mid-day the deceptive sun- shine was followed by heavy showers of rain, whicii, coupled witii oilier causes, considerably interfered with the attendance of visitors, which was not so large as on previous occasions. LIST OF AWARDS. BLAMIRE PRIZE. £10, " Tlie Blamire Prize" for the year 1860, for the best- managed husbandry farm exceeding 300 acres in extent, situ- ated in East Cumberland — Thomas Gibbons, Burnfoot. SWINE. Boars under four years old, first 40s., John Waugh, War- wick Bridge; second 30s., George John Bell, Nook. Sows under four years old, to be in-pig or in-inilk, first 40s., A. AVanuop, Geltside ; commended, J. Waugh, Warwick Bridge. SHEEP. Eirst-shear Leicester tup, first 40s., second 30s., W. Lam- bert, Elrington Hall. Commended, Thomas Bell, Brampton Townfoot. Second-shear Leicester tup, first 40s., second 30s., Thomas Thompson, Castlecarrock. Commended, Thomas Bell, Bramp- ton T'ownfoot ; Josepli Bell, Scalehill. Third-shear Leicester tup, first 40s., W. Lambert, Elrington Hall ; second 30s., Joseph Bell, Scalehill. Best pen of three Leicester ewes, 40s., Robert Jeiferson, Preston Hows. Best pen of three Leicester giramers, first 40s., Thomas Thompson, Castlecarrack ; second 30s., Robert Jefferson, Preston Hows. HORSES. Brood coaching marc, with foal at foot— first 60s., R. and J. Little, Guards ; second 30s., T. J. Steel, Southerfield. Brood cart mare, witli toal at foot — first 00s., G. H. Head, Rickerby ; second 20s., John Hodgson, Midtown. Commended, C. and J. Armstrong, Carlisle. Brood coaching mare in-foal — first 00s., Thomas Gibbons, Burnfoot ; second 30s., George Smith, Papcastle. Commended, George Graham, Cubby Hill. Brood cart mare in-foal — first COs., G. H. Head, Rickerby ; second 30s., James Moffatt, Dorraanstead. Commended, AVm. Ellwood, Stainton. One-year-old harness colt — first 303., William Graham, Gap- shields ; second 10s., T. H. Hethcrjngton, Carltou. One-year-old saddle colt — first 20s., Thos, Gibbons, Burn- foot ; second 10s., T. H. Hetherington, Carlisle. One-year-old saddle or harness filly — first 30s., J. Boustead, Linstock ; scQond 10s., T. Milburn, Grinsdale. One-year-old cart fiUy — first 30s., Isaac Fawkcs, Smalms- town ; second 10s., Messrs. Bell, Rosebank. Tvvo-}-ears-old harness colt — first 40s., John Denuisou, Newby ; second 30s., John Pearson, Langrigg. Two-years-old saddle colt — first 40s., Thomas Milburne, Grinsdale ; second 30s., R. B. Eaulder, Tlmrsby, Two-years-old saddle or harness filly — first 40s., T. H. Parker, Warwick Hall; second 20s., Wm. Gibson, Thackwood Nook. Two-years-old cart colt — first 40s., John Benson, Grindon Hill ; second 30s., Thomas Wannop, Brunstock. Commended, Joseph Black, Longburgh. Two-years-old cart filly — first 40s., Isaac Fawkcs, Sraalras- town ; second 20s., AVm. and Archibald Skelton, Drumburgh. Three-years-old harness colt — first 40s., Thomas Mark, Durdar ; second 30s., T. T. Selby, Oughterside House. Three-years-old saddle colt — first 40s., John Newton, Chol- lerton ; second 20s., Ferguson Feddon, Evening Hill. Thrce-years-old saddle or harness filly — first 40s., Richard Waugh, Seat Hill ; second 20s , Thomas Gibbons, Burnfoot. Three-years-old cart colt — first 40s., R. Shadwick, Moor- house Hall ; second 20s., John Hodgson, HoUybush. Three-years-old cart filly — first 40s., Samuel Blaylock, AVormanby ; second 20s., R. and J. Little, Guards. Com- mended, Joseph Henderson, Moorhouse. One pound, added to a sweepstakes of 10s. each, for one- year-old entire colts — Joseph Stordy, Drawdykes Castle. HURDLE-LEAPING. " Fifteen pounds, added to a sweepstakes of 10s. each, for horses of all ages, suitable for hunting, and required to leap hurdles four feet high not less than three ti]ues. Four-years- old horses to carry 11 stone, five years old and upwards 13 stone. The rider to be mounted in proper hunting costume. A handsome silver-mounted whip will be presented to the rider who appears in the neatest and most appropriate costume." First, Thomas Sutton, Alwent ; secoiul, John Hyslop, Greens- bum. Commended, tlie Marquis of Queensbury. HACKNEY PRIZE. Three pounds, added to a sweepstakes of 10s. each, for the best hackney of any age, not to exceed 15 hands 1 inch, to be brought into the rjng moiui ted— first, Robert Bendle, Carhsle ; second, Joseph Casson, Burgli. Commended, Joseph Casson, 282 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. FOUR- YEARS-OLD HORSE PRIZE. Three pounds, for the best four-years-old saddle or liamess colt or filly — first, J. P. Foster, Kilhow ; second, Messrs. Bell, Rosebank. PONY PRIZE. Two pounds, added to a sweepstakes of lOa. each, will be given for the best pony of any age, height not to exceed 13^ hands — first, Joseph Robinson, Moorthwaitc ; second, Joseph Scott, Carlisle. SWEEPSTAKES. Sweepstakes of 10s. each, for the best saddle or harness yearling colts or fillies. Thomas Gibbons, Burufoot. Sweepstakes for tlirce-years-old saddle or harness colts or fillies. John Newton. Sweepstakes for saddle or harness foals — T. H. Parker, Warwick llall. Commended, J. T. Steel, Southerfield. Sweepstakes for two-years-old cart colts or fiUics — first and second, Joseph Black, Longburgh. Sweepstakes for cart foals — William Riley, Mossband Hall. DERBYSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. MEETING AT DERBY. The annual show was held on Wednesday, Sept. 19, in the Derby cattle market. Not tlie least element of success was the fine weather, ;ind several thousands of persous visited the ex- hibition during the day. The competition showed a consider- able increase over that of last year. The total number of horses entered was 170, and the show in this particular respect was one of the best that has been held in the Midlands for many years past. The first prize for stallions for hunting purposes was carried ofl^ by Mr. Henry Wardle's Cawood by The Cure, out of Brandysnap, by Muley Moloch. The trials for the hunter's prize, which took place about one o'clock, attracted a great deal of the at- tention of the public, but the ordeal developed only about six good jumpers. Many of the horses would not take the fences — in all probabiUty a fact that was due to the shouting of the people and the crowd which had gathered round, as there is no doubt the animals woidd do their work straight enough in the field. The horses for agricultural purposes were a good lot of strong and useful animals, and there were many com- mendable specimens among the hacks, cobs, and ponies. The number of entries of sheep was not quite so large as last year, but there was nevertheless some excellent mutton dis- played. Particularly noticeable were the shearling ewes, and many of the prize-winners were good useful old sheep, chiefly of the Leicester-and-Lincoln cross. The Down lambs were also highly commendable. The pigs comprised the Berkshire, Lincolnsliire, and York- shire breeds, and it was noteworthy that there was not an ab- solutely bad lot to be found in any of the pens ; wliile a litter of the unusually large number of 19 was exhibited. The show of poultry may be also said to have been good for the particular period of the year, when the young birds are hardly ripe, aud the old birds are too far gone for exhibition purposes. The ducks aud game-fowls were superior, but in the Dorkings there was a perceptible falling off. There was a large show of implements for agricultural pur- poses. The first prize for a " collection" was won by Messrs. J. G. Haywood, of Derby, whose specimens of machinery oc- cupied a large area, aud who had a tent in which they exhi- bited a variety of choice aud ornamental ironwares and other articles. Messrs. RatcKlfe, of Derby, took the second prize ; and medals were awarded by Henry Cainpion of Alderwasley, Mr. Fisher of Loughborough, and Mr. Woolley of AUestree. There were also classes for cheese, butter, and wool. The dinner took place at the Corn Exchange, at tliree o'clock, Lord Denman presiding. PRIZE LIST. JUDGES. AfiRicULTUR.VL HoRSES : Mr. Ladkin, Lutterworth ; Mr. Bland, Thorpe Lodge, Newark. 1Iu>'ters aud Hacks : Mr. J. Story, Lockington Hall ; Mr. T. Wright, Wanlpi, Leicester. SiiEEr (long wools) : Mr. Dixon, Barfl'-house, Beverley; Mr. Cresswell, Ravenstone. Short wools : Mr. May, Elford-park, Tamworth ; Mr. Byrd, Lees Farm, Stafford. Pigs : Mr. E. Lowe, Comberford-miU, Tamworth ; Mr. J. Whitworth, Meashani, Athnrstone. Poultry; ]Mr. E. Lowe, Comber- ford-mill, Tamworth; Mr. J. Wliitworth, Jleasham, Ather- stone. Ijii-LEiiENxs : Mr. J. Faulkner, Mr. Hall, Mr. Nuttall. Generm, Rejeree : Mr. C, W. Thacker, Elford- park, Tamworth, HORSES. Stallion for agticultural purposes, first £10, Mr. Cooper, Draycott Fields ; second £5, F. Nix, Alfreton. Stallion for hunting purposes, first £10, H. AVardle, Burton- on-Trent ; second £3, Wm. Barron, Barrowash. ' Brood Marc aud Foal for agricultural purposes, first £5, R. Gilman, Longford ; second, J . Vickers, WiUington ; 3rd, J. Bryer, Vicar Wood. Two-year-old Gelding or Filly for agricultural purposes, first £5, R. Marple, Aslitou-on-Trent, also cup for best cart- horse ; second £3, J. Beeston, Mackworth ; third £2, Anne Eley, Longford. One-year-old Gelding or Filly for agricultural purposes, first £5, J. Pl-iwksworth, Barton Blount ; second £3, J. Hawks- worth ; third £2, T. Winficld, Dale Abbey. Brood Mare and Foal best fitted for breeding hunters or hacks, first £5, J. Pegge, Littleover ; second £3, M. Audiu- wood, Wcston-on-Trent ; third £3, J. Bryer, Vicar Wood. Pair of Horses for agricultural purposes, first £5, J. Garton Thompson, ChilweU ; second £3, J, Porter, Weston-on-Trent ; third £3, M. Audinwood, Weston-on-Trent. GekUng or Filly, of the value of £50, not thorough-bred, above three and under four years of age, 186G, first £5, C. Palmer, Calke. Gelding or FiUy, not thorough-bred, above two and under three years of age, first £3, J. Hawksworth ; second £2, J. G. Mitchell, Newton Solney. Best Hunter, four years old and upwards, following Mr. Meynell Ingram's or Blr. Musters' hounds, first £10, T. L. Cart- lich, Derby; second £5, J. Haywood, jun., Derby ; third £3, G. M. Meynell, Langley. Cob, not exceeding 14.3 hands, for riding or harness pur- poses, first £3, T. Worthington, Derby ; second £2, S. Wade, Mickleover. Col) or Pony not exceeding 13 hands, first£3,T. Worthing- ton, Derby ; second, £3, Devas Horace, Alvaston. Colt or Filly, not thorough-bred, above one year and under two, first £3, J. Stevens, Dale Abbey ; second £3, M. Audin- wood. Hack or Roadster, above i years, first £3, G. J. Mitchell, Newton Solney ; second £3, G. Rossell, Sandiacre. SHEEP. Five Long-woolied Breeding Ewes, liaving had Lambs in 1866, and suckled them up to the 1st of June — first, £3, M. Scorer, Scarcliffc, also Cup for best Long-wools ; second, £3, J. ]\Iilnes, West Hallam ; third, £1, G. Bryer, Markeaton. Five Long-woolled Theaves — first, £3, M. Scorer ; second, £2, C. Bosworth, Dishley ; third, £1, G. Bryer. Five Long-woolled Ewe Lambs — first, £3, C. Bosworth; second, £1, J. Mihies. Long-wooUed Ram of any age above a Shearling — first, £3, E. Foster, Alkmonton ; second, £3, C. Mellow, Atlow ; third, £1, T. Tomlinson, Hall Fields. ShearUng Long-woolled Ram — first, £3, W. Dester, Seck- ington; second, £3, E. Foster ; third, £1, E. Foster. Five IjOUg-wooUed fat Wether Sheep, not exceeding twenty- two months old — first, £3, C. Bosworth ; second, £1, C. Bosworth. Five Breeding Ewes, having had Lambs in 1866, aud suck- led them up to the 1st of June— first, £3, J. Rose, Ash; THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 283 second, £3, F. Camp, Etwall ; third, £1, G. J. Mitchell, New- ton Solney. Five Shovt-wooUed Theaves — first, £3, J. Rose ; second, £3, H. Hall, Wilue ; third, £1, G. J. Mitchell. Five Short-wooUed Ewe Lambs — first, £3, J. Broadhurst, Fostou ; second, £1, F. Camp. Short-woolled Ham of any age ahovc a Shearling — first, £3, J. IronmonEfer, Measham ; second, £3, J. Ironmonger ; third, £1, 11. HaU. Shearling Short-woolled Ram — first, £3, [J. Ironmonger ; second, £3, J. Ironmonger. Five Short -wooUed fat wether Sheep, not exceeding twenty- two months old— first, £3, R. Hall ; second, £1, R. Hall. PIGS. Boar of any age — first, J. Hawksworth; second, J. T. Poyser, Burton-on-Trent, Sow of any age— first, W. T. Cox, M.P., Spondon ; highly commended, J. Hawksworth ; commended, R. Hall. Three Breeding Pigs of one litter, not exceeding seven months old — first, Jos. Bowmer, Burley ; second, J. Hawks- worth ; highly commended. Dr. Hitchman, Mickleover ; com- mended, W. Redshaw, Longford. Boars of any age — first, M. Walker, Stockley ; second, J. Faulkner, Bretby. Sow of any age — first and second, J. Faullincr. Three Breeding Pigs of one litter, not exceeding seven months old — first and second, J. Faulkner. Pigs the property of agricultural labourers whose personal earnings do not exceed 15s. per week — first, C. Hardy, Chad- dcsdcn ; second, S. HoUingworth, Cheddesdcn ; third, J. Morley, Thulstou ; commended, G, Marsh, Quorndon. ANOTHER THEORY AS TO EINGERAND-TOE, OR ANBURY. SiK, — In reference to the diseases of finger-and-toc and anbury (:i name, by-the-bye, of surely recent manufacture, or very seldom used) with wliich the turnip crop this year is so seriously affected, many opinions are given both publicly through the press, and privately in conversation. A week or two ago, I saw in your Journal the opinion of a correspondent expressed that the diseases arose from the want of saline matter in the soil. Wliat is more frequently assigned as the cause is the too frccpieut repetition of the same crop in the soO, in consequence of the five years' rotation system. I am not pre- pared to say that the disease is not aggravated by the absence of salt, and by the too frequent recurrence of the same crop ; Ijut I am inclined to tliink tliat the true cause lies much deeper than that, and is the result of atmospheric or meteorological influences. I can adduce one instance wliich militates very strongly against the " rotation" theory. I have this year under turnips a piece of ground, and very good gromul too, wliich has not borne a similar crop for at least twenty years, and perhaps many times twenty years before that. The braird came upjwell, and bulbing began beautifully ; but the fell disease soon made its appearance, and now fully one- tliird of the crop is badly affected, and perhaps not ahovc one- half of it entirely free from disease. The crop, to use the language of the agriculturist, was laid Aown with about thirty loads of farm-yard manure — the best means of applying to the roots of a plant aU that is necessary to its future development — ten bushels of bones, and a few hundred-weight of super- phosphate per acre. This application of manures, and the fine appearance of the crop as it grows up, are quite suflicient to satisfy mc that nothing of human application, at least, was awanting to pro- mote the health and growth of the plant. If a crop, no matter what it is, suifers from the want, or rather, I should say, from an insufficient supply of any substance chemically necessary to its composition, it will at no stage of its existence present a healthy appearance. I am thus satisfied that neither of the two theories is sufficient to explain the cause of tlie failure of my turnip crops. As 1 have said already, I believe it is purely atmospheric or meteorological. The piece of groimd in question slopes pretty abruptly to the south, hut has considerable depth of mould, and is quite dry. I have therefore come to the conclusion tliat its exposure has something to do with it, a conclusion which is being daily strengthened by the fact that, wherever I go, I sec that soutli-lying fields are much more atfected with disease than those exposed to the north. In a field not many hundred yards from my own, but which has a northern exposure, I made ft long and careful search, and failed to find even the slightest traces of disease. Such of your readers as have an elementary knowledge of chemistiy are aware that substances very different in their nature and effects can be formed from the same materials, but combined in difterent proportions, and that in many cases all that is required to effect this difference is a shght increase of heat by the experimenter. The soil is a huge natural laboratory, into which the various substances required to enter into the composition of any plant are placed, while heat, light, and moisture arc the agencies employed in convert- ing these materials into tlie substance of the plant. In respect of these three things, this season has been very peculiar. Although at first very dry, immediately after the turnip-sowing season it became very wet, and since that time, with slight intermissions, the ground has been in a condition bordering on saturation. The amount of direct siuishiue has, during the latter part of the season, been very small, and the temperature extremely variable, at one time oppressively high, and at another time very low. For some time after the hoeing season, the amount of heat and moisture was very great, the surface of the ground, in fact, was almost like a vapour bath, and a large amount of nourishment literally forced upon the plants, both through the roots and the extended leaves. With tlie fail of the temperature the super-abundant supply of nutriment ceased, and tlie roots, whose functions were before exerted to the utmost, being now comparatively unused, con- tracted the disease, wluch, when it assmnes the shape of excrescences on the bulb and enlargement of the roots, is called finger-and-toe, or anbury ; for both, I believe, spring from the same cause. From the fact of insects being found in the excrescences, some people tliink that they are the cause of the disease ; but if they would only reflect that in all instances of decay, whether animal or vegetable, insects of some sort or other effects a lodgment, they would soon come to believe that they are part of the effect, but have no share in the cause. Had the turnip plant been the only one affected in that man- ner tliis year, I should not perhaps have questioned the opinion of those whose experience in the rearing of turnips is much greater than mine ; but several other plants are similarly diseased. In the month of June I planted out some cauliflower and broccoli, which throve most amazingly for a while ; but soon after the atmosphere became dry, the leaves, not of one or two, but of all of them, fell helplessly to the ground. During a moist day, they aU stood erect again, only, however, to fall Hatter than before on the first outbreak of sunshine. On pulling some of them up, I found the roots more Like tubers than fibres, very much resembling, in fact, a partially grown stem of kidney potatoes. Another plant, whose ease, however, will not excite much sympathy in the farmer, is the common " Sinapis arvensis," or " Ilunch," as it is called in some districts, wliicli is very much liable to this form of disease ; and many more might, no doubt, be found, if we would only put ourselves to the trouble of looking for them.— Lex JMatukj;, in the Baiiffslure Journal. 284 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. FREE TRADE AND THE STEAM-PLOUGH, At the meeting of tlic Woodstock Agricultural Association, last Tuesday, the Duke of MMtLBOROUtiii said he would take this opportunity of saying a few words on the sulijeet of Eng- .ish agriculture. There could be no doubt that tlie system pursued for many years past in tliis country had been prac- tically of very great use. They were not assembled therefor the purpose of minutely disc\issing political questions, Init at the same time all must acknowledge tliat a great change liad come of late years over the minds of the people, and tiiat it had been deemed necessary to relax many of those protective duties which were formerly a part of tiie commercial system of the country. Now, altiiough the Conservatives opposed the change in the iirst instance, thinking that it was frauglit with danger and premature, yet he was not prepared to say that the experiment had altogether faUed. It had, he believed, been attended by great benefits, having increased our commercial prosperity and cheapened the prime necessaries of life. Eut, at the same time, we ought to take care not to run into tlie opposite extreme by altogether neglecting the agricultural im- portance of the country while encouraging its manufacturing prosperity. It liad been said, " If you increase the commercial ])rosperity of the country and give facilities to manufactures, you will find food llowing into the country from every jiart of the world ; money will be abundant ; and you need not trouble yourselves about tiie production of food." 13ut we ouglit to observe some of the signs of the times. The effect of the free- trade principle has been to discourage to some extent the growth of cereal crops in this country, and we were now rather ]Uore dependent upon our neighbours and less dependent upon ourselves than used formerly to be the case. The time, ho\\- cver, might he arriving when our supplies of corn might be cut short, owing to European complications and bad harvests, or other complications in the western hemisphere, to which we Jiad been accustomed to look for large supplies. Therefore, he thought the state of the world at the present time ought to be a warning to us. When the price of wheat was rising, and might continue to rise to an extent altogether unprecedented of late years, it was, in his judgment, of great importance to look to the cultivation and production of corn in our own country. And although it was impossible to say that the duties formerly levied upon corn which \^■as imported into this country would" ever he reimposed, yet, seeing what was passing around us, we ought to take warning, bearing in mind the fact that English "agriculture was the backbone of English prosperity, and that it was to the great meat-producing and corn-producing districts of this country that we must primarily look for the maintenance of our national prosperity. JMr. Henley said, he believed tliat fifty years had passed away since he first used to come down to Woodstock to attend agricultural meetings. He was not, however, now referring to tlie gatherings of this particular association, Imt to an old county society, the meetings of which were held at A\'oodstock in alternate years. On those occasions they used to dine at three o'clock^ in a barn on the top of the hill at Old AVood- stock, after which they took tea at some of the hospitable houses in the town, and then rode home, as gentlemen ought to do. He was sorry to say that, on looking round, he saw but few — indeed, lie might say that he did not see one — of the faces which used formerly to be familiar to him on these occa- sions. His Grace the Duke of Marlborough was the fourth holder of the title whom he remembered ; and lie had also l)een acquainted with three generations of his friend the chairman's family. These things told him how old a man he was. He thanked God that he was able to be there upon the present occasion. He was glad to hear that one part of tlie business of the meeting, viz., tlie ploughing, had given satis- faction. He was told tliat it had been very good indeed. I'er- haps he mignt be permitted to refer to a matter which was of the greatest importance to all agriculturists, and, consequently, to the whole of the community. He regretted very much that the possessors of the steam-ploughs did not bring them to meetings like the present. It would be of the greatest ad-» vantage to all agriculturists to be able to see on these occa- sions what would be the result of the application of the motive- power of steam to ploughing, when it came fairly into com- petition with twenty or tliirty good ploughmen of the neigh- bourhood, and whether it did actually make a better, a worse, or the same kind of seed-l)ed as the old plough did. If they could observe for two or three years the manner in which the steam-plough did its work, great advantages might accrue, because it seemed to him that the invention had now come up to a certain point and there stood still, going neither back- wards nor forvv'ards. This was an invention in which the agricultural community were greatly interested ; and it ought therefore to be thoroughly tried and tested in every way. Every man ought to see these ploughs at work, in order that he might come to a sound conclusion as to whether they would be a gain to him or not. This was a matter of greater consequence, because they must all feel deeply that it would be highly advantageous not only to themselves as agriculturists, but also to the country generally, that the produce of the country should he as large as possible. I\ow, the best se- curity for an increased produce was that the ground should lie well tilled, and nothing therefore could be of greater import- ance than for them to see these different apparatuses at work year by year in honourable contest with the old ])lough, upon ground sometimes wet and sometimes dry, and in all its differ- ent conditions. In that way, he believed, they would be able to form a sound judgment on this important subject. He had so recently, at another place in the county, touched upon one or two matters of interest in what was crdled the political «-orld, and what he said had been so fully rejiorted in T/ie Times, that he would not refer to them again, for he did not like giving them a second dose of the same physic. That was always a disagreeable matter to those who administered the dose, but" it was ten thousand times more disagreeable to those who had to swallow it. Various matters of stirring interest were springing up day by day, and even men who were as old as he was felt the necessity of moving with the times. Scarcely any man could say that in the present day he stood still for a minute. Something which he thought fresh and new yesterday was superseded to-day by something which in its turn would be also superseded. Persons in every rank of life could not fail to perceive the rapid changes which were taking place. The great difficulty was to be able to exercise one's judgment and detect real faults, because a great deal of what appeared at first sight to he plausible, turned out, when one grasped it, to be nothing more than a bag of wind. With regard to all the great questions which now awaited settle- ment, he hoped care would be taken to weigh the interests of all the parties concerned. Thus the great agricultural in'-erest oertainly ought not to be overlooked, because it should be re- membered that in numbers, in property, and in the amount of labour employed the agricultural interest was second to none. Indeed, he believed he might with justice say that it stood first of all. And therefore he hoped that they who were not apt to be so noisy and to make so much uproar as some other interests, would not be forgotten by those who guided the destinies of the country. The agricultural interest might, as his Grace had remarked, be fairly called the backbone of the country. It always had been so, and he believed it would always continue to be so, because he ielt quite sure that the qualities it possessed rendered it deserving of that position. His opinion of his countrymen was such that he believed they would always look carefully to see what was right and good, and that, having found it, they would not suff'er it to be un- justly trampled on by any interest, however strong that inte- rest might be. He could not hope to attend the Woodstock meeting many years longer ; but he should never forget the kindness he had experienced in that part of the county, •nliiclj lay at a distance from his own hom<,'. THE FAEMER'S MAaAZINE, aB^i CHIPS. FACTS AND IIGUEES CONNECTED WITH MANURES. (a) Princijdes of Manuring. — Plants are formed of two distinct parts, organic and mineral. The organic is made up of all the constituents which are capable of being con- sumed, and their chemical parts are composed of what are called the four elements — carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. Of the organic elements carbon and nitrogen are the chief, and are obtained principally from carbonic acid and ammonia. Of these, carbonic acid gas is found in immense quantities in what may be called the " labo- ratory of nature." When we breathe we form it ; when we consume om- fuel we add to it ; and each heap of de- caying vegetable or animal matter swells the volume of supply. Ammouia is combined of two gases, hydi'ogen and nitrogen, in the proportion of 14 parts of the former to 3 of the latter. Of these gases hydrogen is oi:e of the two constituents of water, oxygen the other ; lib. of the former to 81bs. of the latter forming 91bs. of water. From this wiU be seen the affinity which water possesses for ammonia — a wise arrangement, as by its aid we can draw upon the stores of nitrogen existent in the atmosphere. Ammonia may be and is formed artificially, and possesses a high value as a manm'ial agent. Our chief natural supply is from the excreta of the animals of the farm and of man. Hence, in allowing these to go to waste, as we do nationally, we may be said to throw away vast supplies of manure. Ammonia is also found wherever decomposition of matter goes on : it is present also largely in rain-water, and snow is popularly believed to be peculiarly rich in it. Hence the term by which snow is known in some dis- tricts as the " poor man's manure." The inorganic con- stituents of manure are also called the ash, or mineral constituents : they are made up chiefly of sulphur, phos- phorus, iron, lime, magnesia, potash, and soda ; but to these may be added, as minor constituents, silica, alumina, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, and chlorine. The ele- ments of the ash of plants exist only in the soil, and no portion is derivable from the atmosphere, as in the case of the organic portion.' They exist in the soil in the form of salts ; these being formed by the combination of an acid, as carbonic, with an alkali, as lime, the resulting combination in this case forming what is termed a car- bonate of lime. From the elements of the organic and the inorganic matters which exist around us plants are formed, both being absolutely necessary to this formation, the absence of either being inimical to growth. Hence may be seen that the division of plants into two parts, as above-named, organic and inorganic, has no actual exis- tence, but has been adopted by scientific men for scientific purposes. The som'ces of plant-food being, as we have seen, in the atmosphere and in the soil, the question has arisen, IVom which is the principal amoimt supplied? and this is one of the vexed — the great questions of agricul- tural science, and which has been discussed with, shall we say, more of the warmth than the courtesy of argu- ment ? The advocates of the opinion which maintains that the plant-food is obtained chiefly from the atmosphere range themselves under the banner, so to say, of the great continental chemist Liebig, the able originator and ex- ponent of the theory. Those who, on the contrary, maintain that the chief elements of plant-food are supplied by or from the soil range themselves under the banners of the celebrated English chemists, Lawes and Gilbert, the no less able exponents of that theory. This is not the place to glance, even in briefest fashion, at the discussion which has arisen on these two theories. Suffice it here to say, that Liebig and his followers, believing that the chief organic elements of plants, ammonia and carbonic acid gas, are supplied in boundless quantities from the air, it is the farmer's, or should be the farmer's, great aim to supply the soil with the mineral or ash constituents ; for, according to his theory, the " crops on a field diminish or increase in exact proportion to the diminution or increase of the mineral substances conveyed to it in the manure." From this it may be deduced that the fear is that the mi- neral elements naturally present in the soil are scanty, and may in time be exhausted; which is simply another way of stating Liebig's celebrated belief, that if his theory of manm-ing is not attended to, the soil of England will ultimately become exhausted of its mineral constituents. The opposite theory of Lawes and Gilbert is, that the mi- neral supply of food is not the one likely to become de- ficient— that the nitrogen or organic element is the one which is likely to become so. Hence also may be deduced the opinion that the mineral supplies of plants exist in the soil in a practically inexhaustible condition. From this brief statement of the opposing or opposite theories of Lawes and Liebig, it will be seen that the opinion held by some is not correct, that the difference between those great chemists is, that the one (Liebig) maintains that the organic elements of plants are not necessary to their full growth, and that the other (Lawes) maintains that the mineral constituents are not so; the fact being that both Lawes and Liebig are at one in the belief that both the or- ganic and the ash elements are absolutely and essentially ne- cessary, the diflerence between them being that Lawes maintains that the ash constituents are naturally abun- dant in the soil, and do not require specially to be sup- plied in it, Liebig holding precisely the reverse. As in all other controversies so in this, much can be, as has been, said on both sides, and if space permitted it would be undoubtedly interesting, as it would be valuable, to give here a resume of it ; but we must simply here content our- selves with the statement that the controversy has been practically decided by the farmers of Great Britain in favour of Lawes as against Liebig, and that their belief or creed in agricultural chemistry may be stated thus, " Ni- trogen is the principal characteristic of a manure for corn, and phosphorus in one for turnips;" in other words, am- mouia for corn and phosphates for turnips. Some very curious and very suggestive considerations on this point of belief have been offered in a recent paper in an agricidtural journal, and to this effect — that the supply of ammonia in the manure is not so essential in the sum- mer time, as experiments go to prove that ammonia exists in the atmosphere in much greater abundance then than at other seasons, and that the leaves of plants have greater power to draw ammonia from the air at this period. From this will be seen the scientific reason for a well-known farming fact, that it is best to apply ammo- niacal manures in early spring, phosphatic manures in summer, the latter having mure power in the summer than at other seasons. The same authority points out what is very suggestive, that annuals draw least from the atmosphere, perennials most ; the converse holding, that annuals draw most from the soil, perennials the least. Hence is declucible the scientific reason for another well- 286 THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE. known farming fact, that perennials (as grass) nourish the soil, annuals (as tui'nips), impoverish it, {b). Kinds or Classification of Manures. — The classification we follow here is that of Stockhardt, the principle of which is arranging them according to their action and composition, the most powerful being named first, the weakest last. Some of the cou- stituents are found under more than oue head, indi- cating that they act iu more than one way ; as for in- stance, guano is a uitrogenized aud at the same time a phosphatic manure. Class first : Nitrogenized ov forcing manures, the sub-classes of which are — {a) Substances containingammonia; quickly-acting manures; asammonia- cal salts, Peruvian guano, soot, blood, flesh, wool, liquid re- fuse of gas-works, putrid liquid manm-e, urine, short or rotten dung. {I) Nitrogenized substances easily putrefy- ing, and tolerably quick in their action; as bone-shavings, glue, bones, oil-cakes, fresh urine, ditto liquid mauure. (p) Nitrogenized substances decomposing with difficulty, aud slow in their forcing action ; as woollen rags, half-inch bones, fresh or long farm-yai'd manure, id) Substances containing nitric acid, quick in forcing action; as saltpetre, nitrate of soda. The second class is carbo- naceous manures ; as common farm-yard manure with much straw, leaves, &c., sawdust, green crops turned into the soil as manures, peat, and vegetable detritus. The third class is made up of substances con- taining much potash, which are strong in their forcing action — as potash, nitre, malt-dust, urine, wood-ashes, leaves, grass manures, road-detritus, compost, burnt clay, and some kinds of juarl. The fourth class is made up of substances containing soda chiefly, which are less effective in action than those already named, as common salt, nitrate of soda, urine, several minerals, and the refuse of soap-factories. The fifth class is the important one of phosphatic manures, which are eftective in forcing grain or seed-growing plants, and is made up of substances as follows : Biu'ut bones, animal-black or charcoal, sugar- making refuse, phosphate, apatite, coprolites, fi'esh bones, bonedust, various kinds of guano, animal refuse, oilcakes, malt-seeds, human excreta, farmyard manure, urine, wood-ashes, straw, leaves. The sixth class is made up of substances containing sulphuric acid, which may be used partly to fix ammonia in other substances, and partly as manures themselves; as gypsum, sulphuric acid, green vitriol, coal and peat-ashes. The seventh class is made up of calcareous substances ; as burnt lime, chalk, marl, gy|5Simi, coal and peat-ashes, road-scrapings, gas-lime. The eighth class is siliceous manures ; as coal aud peat- ashes, farmyard manure, sand, straw, &c. The above, it will be seen, is a somewhat arbitrary arrangement ; in- deed, any classification of manures is sm-e, of necessity, to be so, fi'om the reason already stated. Some, un- doabtedly, are very special in their action, while others combine the manurial agents of a variety of substances. Of this class is farmyard dung or manure, which has, in- deed, been called a "universal manure," as containing all the substances requisite to promote plant-life. Of the mineral, inorganic, or ash constituents we find all existent in fannyard manure, not one being absent ; and of organic constituents some which are readily soluble in water, con- taining a large per-centage of nitrogen, and others which contain substances not soluble in water, and having a low per-centage of nitrogen. JVoni the first of thes3 am- monia is obtained, the second assisting iu the formation of humic acids and other organic substances which make up the mass of brown, soft vegetable substance called formerly, aud by some chemists still called, humus. It is a fine instance of the adaptability of one department of farming economy to another, the ' fact that the manurial constituents of farm-refuse arc present in that state of combination which is exactly required iu the production of farm-produce. And this combination is so exquisitely arranged that, in the words of one of our most distin- guished agi'icultural chemists, it is " difficult, if not im- possible, to imitate it by art ;" and this is precisely one of the reasons, if not the only reason, ' ' which renders farmyard manure a perfect as well as a universal manure." The fer- tUilisiug substances of farmyard maum'care met within such varying proportions and combinations, that it is not easy to find an analysis which perfecth' represents what farmyard manure is. As a fair instance of the composition of farm- yard dung, we give here Professor Voelcker's analysis of }nixed dung (cow, pig, aud horse), well rotted : Water 75.43 Soluble organic matter ... 3.71 Coutaiuiug nitrogen .'.'.' .297 Equal to ammonia ... .360 Soluble inorganic matter 1.47 Insoluble inorganic matter 12.83 Containing uiCrogen .".'." .309 Equal to ammonia ... .375 Insoluble organic matter 5.58 99.00 In this sample the total amount of nitrogen was .606, equal to ammonia .735. The following is an analysis of a sample of fresh farmyard manure, fourteen days old, made up of horse, pig, and cow-dung : Water 66.77 Soluble organic matter ... ... ... ... 2.48 Containing of nifiogen 149 Equal to ammonia ... ... ... .181 Soluble inorganic matter (ash), containing of — Soluble silica 237 Phosphate of lime 299 Lime 066 Magnesia ... ... ... ... -Oil Potash 573}- Soda 051 Choride of sodium 030 Sulphuric acid 055 Carbonic acid, with loss ... ... .21S_, lusoluUe organic matter... ... ... ... 35.76 Containing of nitrogen ... ... .494 Equal fo ammonia 599 Insoluble inorganic matter (ash), containing of— 4.05 100.00 The proportion of ammonia in a free state contained in this sample being .034 ; in the form of salts .088. In connexion with this analysis of farm-yard manure, it wiU be extremely interesting and suggestive to glance at some of the facts connected with the exhaustion of the soil of the different fertilizing manures by our various crops; and first let us glance at the proportions of those materials contained in good loam of an average quality. There are — of water 2.47, organic matter 9.11, phosphoric acid 0.27, sulphuric acid 0.14, potash 2.73, soda 1.39, lime 2.27, mnsinesia 1.05, aluminum 17.09, silica 58.14, chloride 0..54, oxide of iron 4.20. The following cxo^^— the pro- duce of an imperial acre — draw from the soil, in propor- tions as stated, of the above substances : — Soluble silica ... ... ... '.. .907^ Insoluble silica .561 Oxide of iron, alumina, mth pliosphates .596 Containing phosphoric acid (.178) Equal to boue earth (.386) Lime ... 1.120 - Magnesia .143 Potash .099 Soda ... .019 Sulphuric acid .861 Carbonic acid and loss .484 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, td H Hi S" o CO JO "(O D9 to 1—1 to OS 00 1—1 01 00 ^1 cn t— 1 00 Si CO to CO tJ^ to ^ o QO en ^1 HJ JO O o CO to ►f' l-i cn CO CO 1— 1 O Oi to CO CI M o o CO CO cn --5 It* o lo i2 cn to to »-5 to ^5 C5 cn to Co !_, a C2 -^1 to CO O B -s O 1 of Grain. ■73 S3 • CO CO o CO § o cn to Total weight in lbs. of produce per acre. 05 )— 1 CO to 1— 1 1— 1 oo Weight ia lbs. of fe g; CO 00 § mineral matters. -5 E CO o Potasli. C5 ^1 g CO 1— ' 1— < 05 Oi 1— 1 #- Soda. cn o I: g OS 13 t-1 cn o» CO Lime. CO 00 05 O ^ ~3 CO cn bo cn --1 o OS Magnesia. ~5 cn to Cliloridc. o o io 1 03 cn t— ' CO Sulphuric acid. 00 CO h- 1 00 CO oo -^ CO CO to to CO Pliosphoric acid. CO CO to 12 OS oo o GO <-5 cn to •-1 CO Silica. Nitrogen, CO 00 C5 o CO OS From the above it will be seen that the various crops draw from the soil varying amounts of certain constitu- ents : this has given rise to a classification of them, ac- cording to the constituents which they chiefly draw. Thus wlieat, barley, oats, and rye are called silica plants, the amount of silica drawn from the soil by them being larger than of other important constituents, such as the salts of lime and magnesia, and of potash, and of soda. The pea, bean, and clover crops are again caUed lime plants, these drawing more of the salts of lime and magnesia from the soil than of silica or of the salts of potash and soda. Turnips, beet, and potatoes are called potash plants, the proportion of salts of potash and soda which they draw being greater than of silica or of the salts of lime and magnesia. The silica plants draw more than 50 per cent, of their ash of silica from the soil, the maximum being (rye) ()3'89, the minimum (barley) 55'03. The lime plants draw more than 50 per cent, of lime, the maximum being (peas) C3'74, the minimum (beans) 54"51. The potash plants draw from 70 to 80 per cent, of their ash of potash from the soil, the maximum (beet) being 8S'50, the minimum (turnips) 81 "60. The crops of a six-course rotation — as turnips, wheat, hay, oats, and potatoes and wheat — draw from the soil per imperial acre the following substances in pounds weight : Potash 319'4, soda 66'6, lime lOO'OO, magnesia 39'9, chlorine 589, sul- phuric acid 78'7, phosphoric acid 122'3, silica 364'j., nitrogen 274'0. These figures naturally bring us to the manm'B and the quantity required of it to restore those constituents withdrawn from it by the crops. '' This," as an able authority remarks, " is not so easily decided on, not only from the difficulty there is of estimating the quantity ordinarily applied to the crops, but also fi'om the imperfect knowledge we yet possess of the average com- position. The following, however, may be taken as a fair average estimate of the quantities of fertilizing matter in applications of 12, 16, and 20 tons per acre- Potash 201, 268, 335 lbs.; soda 67, 89, 111 lbs.; lime 837, 449, 561 lbs. ; magnesia 35, 47, 59 lbs. ; chlorine 13, 16, 20 lbs. ; sulphm'ie acid 84, 112, 140 lbs. ; phosphoric acid 108, 144, 180 lbs.; silica (soluble) 269, 358, 447 lbs. ; nitrogen 165, 230, 275 lbs. Let ns now glance at the value of farmyard manure as shown by analysis and calculation, as compared with its commercial or market value ; and here the researches of Professor Tanner will aid us in making the matter clear to our I'caders. In a ton of fresh manure this authority estimates that there are 55^ lbs. of soluble organic mat- ter, valued at 2s. ; of insoluble organic matter 577 lbs., valued at 6s. 9d. Here we observe that the value of the total organic matter, as per analysis, is much greater by at least from 2s. to 8s. per ton than can be and is actually realised in practice — not taking into account the value of the inorganic or ash constituents which come to 4s. lOJd., the total value of soluble matter in a ton of fresh manirre being 7s. lid., of insoluble matter 5s. SJd. The difl'er- ence in price between a ton of fresh and a ton of rotten manure is nearly one shilling, the fresh manure being theoretically the dearest. This valuation, as our readers weU know, is precisely the reverse in the practice and opinion of some authoi-ities, who prefer the rotten to the fresh. In a ton of manure there is, according to our au- thority, no fewer than l,482i lbs. of water, which is set down as valueless ; so that there is from 13 to 15 cwt. of water, besides some 4 to 5 cwt. of otherwise valueless matter, in a ton, to carried along with it to the place where it is to be used. This large amount of so-caUed worth- less matter, carrying with it only 48 lbs. of absolute fer- tilizing material, is that which adds to the bulk of farm- yard manure, and consequently to the cost of its trans- port from one place to another. Against this, however, is to be set the advantage that the manure possesses as a mechanical agent in lightening up soils, and attract- ing air to their particles ; for as Professor Tanner remarks, " plants, like animals, need not only food, but room to breathe, and to perform other functions of life ; in fact, the one is useless without the other." What we have here given shows how unsafe it is to rely upon the analytical values of manures : so many circumstances come into existence in practice as to modify very materially the indications of theory. There are other considerations which flow out from this remark, some of which will be noticed before we conclude our paper. One circumstance which renders analytical valuations of farmyard manure unsafe in practice is the fact, pregnant with meaning, that chemists are quite divided in opinion as to what part or parts of the manure give to it its value. We have two schools on tliis matter — that of Liebig, who maintains (and from what we have already given as to his theory of the prin- ciples of manuring, is likely to maintain) that the value depends " most undoubtedly upon the amount of the in- combustible ash constituents of plants in it, and is deter- mined by tlicse ;" the other is that of the celebrated Prench chemist Boussinganlt, who maintains that farm- yard manure is "more valuable in proportion as the quan- tity of ;///;-o^6'«o«* organic matter is greater than the noi/.- iiifrof/cnoK.^ organic matter." Here, again, as in the case (if the general theory of manm-ing, British practice has decided against the theory of Liebig. Mr. Lawes has fur- nished the agricultural world with some information on the value of nitrogenous organic matter in manures, distin- guished, as is usual in all his statements, by a high prac- tical value. In supposing the cjise of a 4'OO.acre farm, X 2 288 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cultivated on the four-course system, he reckons half of the roots and 100 tons of hay to be consumed on it, and the whole of the straw of the barley and of the wheat — 2,5001bs. of the former and 3,000Ibs. of the latter — to be kept and used for litter and forage. 43,S001bs. of oats are to be consumed by the horses, and 20 tons of oilcakes by the feeding stock. From all this, 835 tons of fresh dung will be obtained, in which there will be 67.2 lbs. of dry matter, 02 lbs. of manm-ial matter, 11.1 lbs. of phos- phoric acid, reckoned as phosphate of lime, 12 lbs. of potash, 14.31bs. of nitrogen, and 17.31bs. of nitrogen cal- culated in ammonia. But this amount of fertilizing mate- rial wiU have to be very considerably reduced in practice, as so many modifying circumstances corne into play, such as the loss arisiug from decomposition, the increase in the quantity of water, and the decrease of fertilizing mate- rials, arising from the neglectful and wasteful manner in which the farmyard dungheaps are generally managed, or rather mismanaged. Mr. Lawes points out what Wolff made veiy clear, but what was previously unknown amongst a large class of farmers^that the value of farm- yard manure is influenced materially by the quality of tbe food upon which the animals feed which produce it. Thus, for instance, estimating the value of dung produced by animals fed upon Swedish turnips at 4s. per ton, that pro- duced by them if fed upon linseed oilcake will be as high as i4 12s. Some authorities allow a very high percentage of the food consumed to remain in the manure — as high, in the case of oilcake, as 33 per cent., or one-third. Wolff, the chemist above alluded to, estimated, as the result of his experiments, that when sheep were fed upon rapecake no less an amount than live-sixths of the whole nitrogen of the food was left in the dung ; and in the case of cattle, seven-eighths. With reference to this point of farm prac- tice, Mr. Lawes says " that it is quite immaterial to the growth of the crops whether the additional amount of nitrogen be purchased in the form of oilcake, and so sup- plied to the land in the farmyard manure, or whether it be purchased and applied in the form of artificial manure, pro- vided only that the requisite mineral constituents are sup- plied in the form of the excrements of animals, or of artificial manures. The question," he says, " is entirely one of economy, depending chiefly on the relative prices of meat and corn and of cattle foods and artificial manures." It is right, however, to point out here the danger which may arise of estimating too highly the percentage of food left in the manure, and by consequence its manurial value. Dr. Anderson, the chemist to the Highland and Agricultural Society, throws out a word or two of sea- sonable warning on this subject. " I must confess," he says, "1 have always been of opinion that there is no way in which a farmer is more likely to deceive himself — the proportion of the food which is thus to be referred to the manure heap being mere guess-work, unsubstantiated by experiment, and generally overrated ; as, for instance, when we hear of one-third of the price of oilcake being debited to the manure. It would be much wiser," he continues, " to ascertain the expenses of feeding, irre- spective of the manure heap ; and then of course, if there is a profit upon it, the manure is got without cost, and nothing but the experience of application is to be es- timated. If, on the other hand, there is a loss, that loss is the cost of the production of the manure-, and it must be the object of the farmer to see that it does not ex- ceed the price at which the farmyard or artificial manures can be purchased." Prom several hints thrown out in the course of this paper, it will have been observed that very much of the value of farmyard manure depends upon the way in which it is treated — that is, saved and applied to the laud. In this, as in other departments, there are two ways of doing this — a right way and a v.rong one. What is the right way, we have endeavoured to point out and describe in a previous " chip," and to which there- fore we refer. What remains therefore of this paper we purpose to devote to a few important considerations con- nected with the use of artificial manures as supplementary to the farmyard manure, which has always been and still is the mainstay of the farmer. We say supplementary ; for no ojiinion is more erroneous, as none has been more productive of mischief in practice, than that which main- tains that by the use of artificial manures farmyard dung can be dispensed with. They are, as Dr. Yoelcker points out, " valuable supplements to fannyard manure," enabling the " intelligent agriculturist to make one ton go twice as far as it would, without the simultaneous use of artificial manures." These artificial manures exercise in no degree a mechanical effect, or, if so, only to a very limited extent, which, as we have seen, is one of the valuable properties of farmyard dung. Their chief, if not their only purpose, is a chemical one, yielding directly, and more or less immediately, the food required by the plants, and which is given only to a limited extent and in a way more or less tardy by farmyard dung. A good deal of skill is requisite to use artificial manures with economical effect ; for it should be remembered that they owe much of their fertilizing value to the peculiarities of the soil in which they are used, each soil having its own particular capability to take advantage of the manurial constituents in the manure ; the peculiarities of the crop, moreover, the climate, and the period of appli- cation, all demand the care of the farmer. The condition or state in which the artificial manure used is in should also be attended to, the best condition being a finely p\d- verized one. The nature of the manure will also have an influence upon the period of its application — those in which the constituents require time to be taken up by the soil, such as wool manure, bone-dust, and the like, being sown at autumn, so as to be as long in the ground as pos- sible ; those which are the most easily assimilated or taken up, such as nitrate of soda and the like, being applied pretty late on in the spring, and even in the early summer; while those manures occupying the middle position between the two classes stated — guano and super- phosphate— should be applied early in the spring. The facts to which we have already drawn attention, as to the difference which the time of the year has upon the manurial influence of nitrogenous and phosphatic manures should not be overlooked. The period of appli- cation of the manure will also be influenced in some instances by the condition of the plants to which it is applied ; and as regards the condition of the atmosphere, &c., it should be damp ; and if the application should be followed by a gentle rain, so much the better. This holds especially true where top-dressing has been resorted to. Mr. Jacob Wilson, of Morpeth, has done the farmer good service by drawing up an excellent series of remarks and rules for their guidance in the use of artificial manures. A few of the points to which he draws attention— in relation to those noticed above — will here be useful. If grain has been sown in drill, the best time to apply the manure will be just previous to the horse-hoeing, which operation will serve two ends — weeding and effectually mixing the manure with the stirred soil. But if applied at seed time, the manure should be harrowed in at once ; for in the case of Peruvian guano a much better effect is obtained by thus managing it, than by afterwards top- dressing the crop. In the case of root crops the manure is best applied at seed-time. If the land has received a winter manuring of dung, the manure may be sown broad- cast and harrowed in, and drilled up ready for sowing ; but if the land has not received a winter manuring of dung, and if this be applied at seed-time, it may be then sown broadcast on the top of the drills on the larm-yard THE FARMER'^ MaGAZINI). 289 dung, and the two manures then covered in. Mr. Wilson, while stating that bone-dust and superphosphate may be drilled-in with the machine, is an emphatic advocate for the broadcasting of all nitrogenous and alkaline manures, and well mixing them with the soil, inasmuch as nitrogenous manures exercise a bad influence on the young plant and the delicate seed, and should therefore never be applied near them. THE STEAM-ENGINE ON THE FARM, The astonishing progress of steam power, as applied to agriculture, is manifest to every one. It has been adopted and extensively used everywhere. Almost every farmer makes use of the power, and nearly every farmer whose occupation is somewhat large possesses an engine. The speed and excellence of the work done by the aid of steam povver are becoming more appreciated daily. In thrashing and dressing corn it has economised labour fully one-half. In steam cultivation it is doing, and will do more if the excellence of work, the economy of time, the order of culture, and rotation of cropping it will permit are taken into account. Its adoption is now general, and the num- ber of engines possessed by farmers throughout the king- dom is amazingly great, and forms no small item of their employed capital. It is to the care and management of these engines that I desire in this paper to call attention, not only to promote their satisfactory working, but also their economy and safety in work — I say safety in work. This has become a very important part of the subject, and one upon which I wish more particularly to speak. It is well known that the class of engineers, if I may so designate the managers of farm steam-engines, is of the humblest kind — chiefly it will be found to be amongst the more intelligent of the farm-labourers. They have probably been frequently employed with others in " thrashing by steam," and may have so noticed " the man setting down the engine," "filling the boiler," " getting up the steam," " oiling the parts," "tmming on the steam," "shutting off the steam," "opening the safety-valve," and so on; for they are very particular about these terms. They may also have noticed how the water is pumped into the boiler, the gauge to ascertain the power employed, and the glass tube to tell the depth of water in the boiler, and the careful way "the man" watches the pace, and strives to keep regularity in "driving." If the labourer has done all this pretty well, he is considered eligible to take the occasional charge, and by-and-by is promoted to the full management of the engine. Now this cannot be a sufficient education for an engineer, for such he really is expected to be, but the majority of our farm engines are managed by such men ; and not only thus far, but these men very soon begin to think themselves fully competent to alter, adjust, and repair the various parts of the engine and thrashing-machine, probably call- ing now and then to their aid the village blacksmith in some special difficulty ; and as the general class of farmers know very little more about engines and machinery than their men, and are desirous of saving money in repairs, this order of things everywhere obtains favour. Such a practice is no doubt false economy, in the aggregate. Something is done wrong — something is omitted or ne- glected or missed in the overhauling the engine and ma- chine; hence an accident; and who can wonder at it? It would not be of great moment if the farmer's property was merely lost by it, but it is often attended with loss of life or limb. We are continually hearing of bursting boilers, destruction of farmsteads, and loss of life from these ac- cidents— if accidents they can be called. Should these not the rather be classed in most cases as mismanagement ? It is quite a common thing in the manufacturing dis- tricts to have the engines inspected quarterly by com^ petent men. The manufacturers belong to or are members of some of the many Boiler Insurance Companies, or are insured by them. These Insurance Societies send their agents quarterly to examine every engine insured. They examine them thoroughly ; they test all the parts, and give proper directions for management, so that comparative safety is really insured, and great economy in woi-king often results from their instructions. Farmers have none of these salutary visitations to aid them, and much is it to be regretted. I believe the periodical inspection of every farmer's engine would be of considerable use and value to him, if made by a competent engineer — one not only fully versed in all mechanical details, but equally able to give the best iustructions and advice as to the best mode of working the various engines he inspects ; for I take it that one code of laws will not apply to every engine. The unit of power or pressure must depend upon the condition and strength of the boiler and working parts of the engine, boilers being made of such various strength and thickness of sheet- iron. None ought to be of less than five-sixteeuths of an inch in thickness, the stronger the better in accordance with good judgment ; if otherwise, the pressure of steam upon every square inch must be regulated accordingly, and the periodical advice of a competent engineer upon this point could not, I repeat, fail to be valuable. The engines owned by farmers have, for the most part, hitherto been employed exclusively for thrashing purposes : now gi-eat numbers are engaged in steam-cultivation ; these are generally worked up to unity of high-pressure, frequently exceeding 651bs. to the square inch. It will often occur that the engine must do its utmost, or some portions of the work in cultivation cannot be effectual : some hard or stift' place must be torn up, and it takes all the power of the engine to do it. This overstraining will at some period show itself, and possibly with fatal results. Now, from all these risks, both in the thrashing and cultivating departments, the public ought, if possible, to be protected ; hence Government inspection is re- quired. Government Inspection. — This is a subject of no little importance, and requires a careful examination. Very few farmers would like their engines to be under the surveil- lance of Government officers ; there is something pecu- liarly unpleasant and annoying to a sturdy farmer to find a mau periodically upon his farm demanding a sight of his steam-engine, but it is not singular in other depart- ments of business. Manufacturers of all kinds are open to Government inspection : brewers, maltsters, and many other trades are open to it. Why should the farmer be altogether exempt, and more parti(nilarly if it can be shown that the safety of the public demands it, and it will at the same time tend to his own advantage ? Now, this, I think, can readily be done : It cannot be denied that considerable loss of life and great destruction of farm property have occurred, and are continually occurring, from the bursting of farmers' boilers. If these were carefully inspected quarterly or half-yearly by a good prac- tical mechanic, and such repairs and alterations made and management attended to as he might deem it his duty to 290 I^HE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. susgest, mucli injury and damage might be prevented, lie could also, and it sbould be a part of his duty, ex- amine the engineer or manager as to his competeucy, and give him such instructions and advice as seemed requisite or desirable. In this way the farmers may be benefited : suggestions for saving coal, oil, extra power in work, the supply of water, the regulation of the steam to the work, the size of coal as applied to the furnace, the general working of the whole machinery, aud the various and many valuable hints he might and would give, would be ample compensation for any annoyance fi'om a stranger. Besides this, there are many engines made which are not calculated for heavy work, and some not fit for working. These and all others ought to be placed under inspection, and not to beallowcdiuusetill certificated by the inspector. I was ajudge of steam thrashing-machines at oneofom* great meetings, when the consulting engineer thought it right to and did forbid the working of several portable engines, owing to defects which he considered might prove hazard- ous to the sight-seeing public. If engines shown for public inspection are so dangerously constructed, what may not be anticipated of those sent in for private use ? Depend upon it, the time has come for the appointment of Government inspectors of farmers' engines, for public safety demands this, in consequence of the rapidly increas- ing number of such engines employed, and public utility demands it, because every one of these skilled inspectors might and ought to act as instructors in all matters con- nected with steam machineiy. Government supervisioa will tend much to prevent imposition in the manufacture of engines, and also promote a careful management of them by their owners and workmen. The country must be divided into districts : inspectors might be appointed as now in the factory districts ; while their reports should be made to the district justices, who could summon all parties who might by neglect endanger the public safety. itORSE-BitEEDING AND SELLING BY FARMERS. BY A PRACTICAL PARMER. 'Nag Horses. — This part of the fafmer's business is one of the most difiicult and uncertain in which he can em- bark. There are a few highly -respectable farmers that take up this part of their business as semi-horse-dealers, and who make it answer remarkably well. This class of farmers is constantly on the lookout, either at markets, fairs, or on public highways, no matter where, for horses likely to come up useful animals. These they purchase as they can, and proceed to bring them into a profitable state, according to their age and condition. Young horses are turned out to graze for the summer. The four and " five-year-olds" are well kept, and are practised in riding, or breaking for carriage-work. -Much of the farmer's profit depends upon the perfection to which they can be brought in these separate depart- ments. Farmers who are good riders or good drivers, and have much patience, and possess good judgment, often bring out animals of surpassing merit. To teach a horse his paces truly, to give him " mouth," to render him docile, " gentle to ride or drive," is no ordinary achieve- ment ; and men who can accomplish this deserve a good profit, and very often get it. It is pleasing as well as arduous work. The farmer is ever at it. He rides over his farm daily, lie drives to markets, or wherever he may require to go ; and, although the railway is ever so convenient, he must take a horse : they must have prac- tice— they must be in constant I'iding or driving, or some little defect in paces occur. Another class of farmers takes higher ground : they will prepare young horses for hunting i This is a very uncertain, as generally a very expensive department of business. It requires a peculiar talent, or, more properly, pecidiar talents. The man must know a good horse, and how to ride him. He must possess a good seat, unmoved temper, great nerve, and no Dttle courage, to train raw colts for hunting. He must have a thorough knowledge of the management of hunting-horses, both in work and out of work ; how to prepare them for the huntiug-field, and their treatment after a hard day. He must know the habit and temper of every horse he has to train, and act toward him and manage him accordingly — the feed, the grooming, the exercise, the stable. It is not a little thing to properly manage and train young horses for hunting ! Then there is a connexion to seek. The farmer must hunt, or his horses are not sufficiently before his customers. He must be daring, and take a lead to show his horse — a leap ex- traordinary, to show him as "a jumper." He ought also to be personally acceptable to " the field," by his straight- foi'ward manly bearing ; and perhaps a little cvUtivation of etiquette might be serviceable in his business. Depend upon it, no novice can succeed in this department of dealing. There are a few, and but a veiy few, farmers, who pay especial attention to breeding race-horses. This is a more speculative business than breeding horses for hunt- ing. It may answer pretty well to procm'e a good entire blood horse, and travel him, or let him stand as a stud- horse ; but to breed horses for racing-purposes requires a great knowledge of the turf, and a great expenditure of money in brood mares and covering-fees and management. To make way as a racehorse-breeder the stock must be of first-class blood, and these are very costly ; as, should the produce fail to be of use, or become unpopulai", they generally tvum out to be of little value, owing to want of power as working animals. For the farmer to engage in racing-speculations on his own account is a most danger- ous course. If he can breed respectable animals, by all means sell them to " racing men." All gambling should be avoided. Farmers have no valid ground to rest upon in such a course. I should always fear inevitable ruin. Another class of farmers breed horses especially,/!;;" sale. They graze and use a niunber of brood mares, select ap- propriate sires, and bring their produce up for sale as early as appears desirable ; but generally they are sold off at four or five years old. In the meantime they are made useful on the farm, as riding or carriage-horses, and oc- casionally in doing light farm-work ; much depending upon the progress and value which the animal indicates as he grows up. No farmer would endanger a valuable animal before a plough or harrow, or in any hazardous employment. There are plenty of mishaps and injuries which accidentally fall to the lot of farmers' young horses, without endangering them recldessly ; indeed, it is a very speculative business, at the best. It is immaterial if any of the cattle become blemished, or lose an eye ; but a blemished horse is surprisingly depreciated in value, al- though he may be just as capable of fulfilling every kind of work he is put to as before his accident. • The fact is that no gentleman of position would purchase a blemished horse, and it must be an especial favourite if he uses an THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 291 old servant after being perceptibly injured. The blemished horse, then, becomes at once a second-rate animal, and his destination most probably is for home-use, or for a cab for a tradesman's service, or other ordinary uses. The majority of farmers, however, are not professed breeders of horses ; but almost every one occupying a farm of moderate size will keep one or more nag mares or light cart mares, from which he will endeavour to breed a colt or two for sale. He will generally use a blood horse to the cart mares and a good roadster to his nag mares, and the produce is often a good useful carriage or useful riding horse. In this way he may occasionally have a horse or two for sale, which constitutes his yearly dealing, and which he often finds one of the most difficult parts of his business. The usual course is to prepare the horse for the neighbouring fair, or it may be the popular fair of the county or district. If the horse is a iirst-class animal, well got up, and shows excellent paces, he is readily sold. The manner of exhibition and sale differs from that of other animals. He is taken to the fair several days before the actual fair day, and placed in the best stable that can be obtained. Dealers take their walks around to the different stables, and select for their examination such horses as attract their more especial attention ; or they are invited by the owners to look at their horses. It is considered infra dig. to take out, and ride a first-class horse in the fair without being desired by a purchaser to do so. It is thought to be detrimental to his sale, and it is quite unnecessary, as every first-class dealer is too ready to buy such a horse. The dealer enters the stable ; he selects a horse ; he is brought out ; he undergoes a careful examination ; his eyes, teeth, legs, and feet, are closely scrutinized. This done, he is led along a short distance to try his paces gently : first a walk ; then a trot ; then he must be ridden in his different paces, including a canter or gallop, and occasionally a leap. The bargain and sale then take place, or he is politely declined. In selling second-class horses the owners are not so scrupulous or nice : they have often anxiously to solicit the attention of customers, and at certain times of the day they are ridden out, and all their paces and qualities are openly exhibited. Dealers and others are attracted by one quality or another, and sales are thus effected. The horses of inferior or ordinary character are often sold with very great difficulty. Unfortunately the bulk, or chief business in horse-dealing, consists of this class of horses. They are horses chiefly in use by the middle-classes of society, and prices vary according to the usefulness and description of horse to be sold. For this class of horses an open fair day is fixed. The fair is held in a field or other con- venient place. The horses are either led or are ridden out, and they are for hours ridden up and down the fair, and their paces shown in every way likely to attract the attention of customers. The led horses are generally placed in rows for ready inspection and apart from the ridden ones. It is in these open fairs that much noise and hurly-burly arises, and causes them to be held in low repute. Ilowever, much business is frequently done ; often very unsatisfactory to the seller, owing to the un- certain value of such kind of horses. The farmer knows to a trifle what he can make of his cattle, sheep, and pigs ; but when he has a horse to sell he is bewildered : he knows not what price to ask, or what to take. The animal he so much prized at home is criticised in so many ways in the fair, till at length he begins to think he must have been mistaken, and that he must either yield in price or take him home again. He yields, and makes a sale which he subsequently finds is at his fair value. This is the case with hundreds of our average farmers, and as they have only one day's horse-dealing in the year it is not to be wondered at. Then comes the warranty. He must guarcintee his horse to be sound "in wiud and limb," _ and put his signature to that statement. Then he has to find or pay for a halter and rug, and most probably a fee to the dealer's man, and the transaction is completed by the horse being delivered over to the dealer or customer. Thus ends many a farmer's horse-dealing or selling for the year.* Cart-Horses. — The breeding of cart-horses for sale, or the purchase of cart-colts for grazing and sale, is a more profitable business than the same department connected with nag-horses. There is much less risk, and a quicker re- turn of capital. A good first-class cart-colt or cart-filly will realize from thirty to forty-five pounds at two years old ; whilst the inferior or doubtful ones are well adapted for farm work, to which they are put, if they are not likely to make a good price ; besides, a slight blemish in a cart-horse is of no great detriment. It is the colts that are chiefly designed for sale. The fillies should be and are generally retained for work and breeding purposes. In this way very many horses are bred. Almost every far- mer is a breeder of cart-horses. The smaller farmers make it an important part of their business. They work mares only, as distinguished from horses. They select good entire horses to serve these mares, and the foals are so nursed and cared for that they come up admirably, and are generally sold to the larger farmers, who winter them for grazing purposes. Many smaU fanners who only keep two or three mares will make, upon the average of years, from twenty-five to forty pounds of their foals at four or five months old. The larger farmers seldom sell their foals, but retain them for sale at two years old, or keep them for further ser\n[ce. It is highly important to breed cart-horses as large in size as possible. A good dray- horse is a very valuable animal. Frequently good dray- horses are sold, at prices varying from sixty to a hundred and forty or fifty pounds. Good draught-horses are valuable, but do not realize the price made by their larger fellows. A noble dray-horse, or rather a grandly beauti- ful entire horse calculated to get di-ay-horses, is one of the finest animals in creation. The beauty, sym- metry, fire, and activity of the racer, the hunter, or the roadster, often excite om- highest admiration ; but there is not that majestic colossal, powerful, and beautiful development which as an animal strikes us in the noblest of cart-horses, and as being the perfection of his tribe. His gigantic proportions, his noble appearance, his majestic walk and carriage, his beautiful head and rainbow neck, embellished with the finest flowing mane, command rather than excite our wondering admiration. First-class horses of this kind will frequently realize from one hundred to three or four hundred pounds. First-class mares of this powerful breed likewise make very high prices ; and far- mers are very reluctant to part with a good brood-mare. In speaking of cart-horses, I take them as one class of horses, although of several different breeds. Every farmer will be ready to breed a cart-horse, but every far- mer would not attempt to breed race-horses, or hunters, or even nags. It would perhaps be invidious to point to any particular breed of cart-hoi'ses which may be sup- posed to possess most merit, or make the most money. The Suftblk horse (not now the old Suffolk Punch) is so greatly improved as to become generally popidar, and the propor- tions they have attained to are scarcely exceeded. They arc bred chiefly in the eastern counties. The old English cart-horse, which is bred in considerable numbers in the midland counties, is also much improved, and in size and proportions, perhaps, exceeds all others. The majority of our dray-horses emanate fi'om this breed, and often attain * Surely it cannot be considered a " general" rule for the farmer to put his cart-mares to a blood horse, and his riding mares to a roadster ? If so, there is a deal more to be said on the breeding of " nags,"— Ediioe, 292 THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. to wouderful proportions. Some of our London brewers' teams are truly interesting exhibitions of themselves, and the loads they will master is surprising. The Clydesdale horse is a capital animal, of great power and beauty, and exceedingly well worth breeding. For activity and farm service he is quite equal to the above breeds, but as yet he has not achieved their improved proportions. The Cleveland horse is a highly useful animal, but he by no means attains the gigantic size and substance of .any of the above breeds. For hilly or mountainous districts he would surpass them in general usefulness. The Welsh horse is also a light cart-horse, and smaller than the Cleveland.* He is well adapted for the Principality, or any similar country. ' He is very hardy, active, and capable of much light work, but not so valuable as any of the other breeds named. These are the principal breeds of cart-horses which are bred in the kingdom ; and much depends upon the locality in which the fanner resides as to which kind he will adopt and breed. He has to consider which is best for his own farm-service as well as for breeding purposes. It would be great folly to attempt to breed dray-horses amongst the Welsh mountains. The breeds have already, in reality, theii- own especial districts, in which it is rea- sonable to suppose they are most valuable. It would ap- pear to be the best policy to continue thus to breed them, with such especial exceptions as from time to time will arise, or any immediate locality may tempt a devia- tion. A valley of strong land, in a mouutainous district, would be better cultivated by a more powerful breed of horses than the Welsh or Cleveland breeds ; and, vice versa, a light-land tract, often found in a strong country, would be more cheaply worked by lighter horses. I have thus noticed our breeds of cart-hoi'ses chiefly to show that the largest and linest animals are far the best worth breeding, and ought to be adopted where practicable. The sale of a farmer's horses is always an uncertain and somewhat difficult business with him. He makes no trouble of a fsample of corn or a stall of cattle ; but his horses give him much anxiety. He must put them iuto tlie best trim : their looks must be improved and their paces must be perfected before exhibition. Then there is the fear that somelhiug may go wrong, and he may lose his sale — an accidental kick, an overreach, a strain. Then there are curbs, spavins, quitters, sand-cracks, to be avoided, or his sale is a bad one. A defect in eye or lung is fatal. Well, he takes his horse to " the fair." If he is a valuable animal, he is honoured with a stall, and cus- tomers are invited to view him at his stable. He is shown out, generally, in a well-littered yard. His paces are tried, and he undergoes a thorough, searching exami- nation. If he proves quite up to the mark, as a first- class horse, well adapted for a London dray, he is soon sold, no matter at what price. There is always a demand for such horses, and a dealer wiU rarely pass him ; but if he turns out to be but a little below the recognised standard, there is considerable difficulty in making a good sale, much depending upon the views of the various dealers who may examine him. The sale of ordinary horses is generally made by an open exhibition in the fair. The farmer takes his stand, with his horses, in some convenient place ; and the buyers, in their walks to and fro through the fair, look them over. If any one of them attracts attention, he is brought forward, to undergo such examination and tests as the buyer suggests, while at the same time the process of bargaining is going on. This effected, the horse is returned to his stand, to suit the convenience of the purchaser to receive him. Upon " delivery," the dealer or purchaser takes a warranty of soundness, in some simple form, signed by the farmer ; the money is paid, and the dealing, or sale, is completed. This is the common way of farmers dealing and sale of horses, in thousands of instances. If he has only a single horse, he must go through the same course. Farmers do not always give a warranty of soundness. Many prefer taking a less price rather than " have any further trouble." This is unwise, with a sound, good horse. No purchaser can readily give trouble with such a horse ; but if auy doubt about ultimate soundness is felt, then the com-se is right ; and seller and purchaser may bargain accordingly. A word or two as to the best time of selling horses. It is the practice with many farmers to breed or buy young horses, work them carefully till they are five or six years old, and then sell them. They assert that they get their farm-work done, and still get a handsome profit upon their horses. If so, this must be good practice ; but it must depend much upon careful management, and what is commonly called " good luck." It is a hazardous course with good horses ; but with common farm-horses of no great value it may do well. The safest and the most profitable business would appear to be in parting with the young cotts at two or fhre(; years old at furthest. They then show pretty well what will be their future develop- ment ; and the price is realised according to these appear- ances. A promising young entire colt will often reach a fabulous price, and good cart-geldings are always in de- mand, at satisfactory prices. THE HOESE. Mr. Jacou Smith, of Hamburton, at the tjuartcrly meeting of the Boroughbridge Agricultural Association, read the foUowiug paper : — In opening tlie tliscussion, I must say that 1 am sorry the subject has not been placed in abler bauds, as I feel that it is a question of great importance. Unless we exert ourselves more tlian we have done of late, Yorkshire will lose that celebrity for good horses it has hitherto enjoyeil, and of which every Yorkshireman is justly proud. Though we liave the great difficulty to contend with that our good mares are eagerly sought after to go abroad, still I feel convinced that if farmers would only pay the same attention and judgment to the breeding of horses as is displayed in the breeding of cattle and sheep, Yorkshire would still stand pre-eminent as a horse-breeding county. Tliere is no doubt that for a long time this has required much more care than has been bestowed " The Cleveland is a carriage not a cart-horse. — Editor. upon it. Even so long ago as 1831, 1 find one of our most distinguished veterinarians saying, " There must be something radically wrong in our breeding system. If we proceed to the great marts, we find a remarkable scarcity of anything in the shape of a good nag. It matters not for what purpose he is intended — whether for hunting, carriage, hack, or heavy draught, the difficulty of making a good selection for either of these purposes is the same. There may he thousands in the market, but liow few in the eyes of a judge wiU be even pass^ able for any purpose ! Good horses have been becoming scarce in our fairs for th(! last twenty years, and we find that many of what were considered our most useful sorts have now entirely disappeared. The breed is quite extinct." We might think this was from a writer of the present day, instead of having been written 35 years ago. And Jiow have we been going on since? I am afraid, if the writer of the extract just referred to were to visit one of our fairs now, he would be THE FARMER'S MAGAZESTE. 293 disgusted, as there are certainly many, as he says, not passable for any purpose ; hut I am not one to believe that the English horse has so much deteriorated as some suppose. I believe there are far more bad horses bred than there were ; hut I believe there are some quite as good or better, and, as far as our race-horses are concerned, I should say they are improved. Look at such a stud as Lord Glasgow's, where a gentleman of 1-i stones weight could find horses fit to carry him to hounds, and still able to hold their own on a racecourse. But, it may be asked, is the breeding of horses profitable ? I should say, decidedly so to a certain extent, provided the iarra be at all adapted to that purpose, more especially now when the grazing of cattle is so much more hazardous, and good horses arc of so much greater value than they were a few years ago. Indeed, I may say they liave nearly doubled tlieir value in the last twenty years. On the card for to-day's lecture, it merely specifies " The Horse." I have great scope given to me ; but, as I am aware that the subjects here dis- cussed are intended to be solely agricultural, I shall confine myself to a few remarks on the breeding of such horses as are generally bred by the farmer. I therefore begin with the draught horse, a horse some of us must breed, whether profit- able or not. In the breeding of drauglit horses I would strongly recommend breeding only from large, stout, powerful mares, selecting an entire horse of the same kind, but taking care to have them active also, and for this reason : then you will produce a horse which if you do not like to keep for your own use, you can always sell for a good price to go to work in the towns. I think every farmer ought to contrive to luive a young horse or two, according to the size of his farm, coming into work every year, and so be able to dispose of his horses before they grow old. By so doin^, if the animals be tolerable hacks, he will be able to keep up his team without any outlay, and often have a nice balance in hand. To those persons who farm light soils, and do not like to work strong horses, I say do not breed draught horses at all, as I feel quite sure you cannot breed light farm horses with profit, this kind of horses being always far cheaper bought than bred. Instead of breeding sucli horses it would be advisable to breed coach horses. That may be done with advantage ; in fact, it is very questionable whether any kind of half-bred horse pays so well for herding as a coach horse. They are ready for sale at an early age, being generally sold at from three to four years old to the London dealers and job-masters, who buy them un- broken, and break them in when they want them. In breeding coach horses, care must be taken, as the coach horse now is of a very different class to what it was before the times of railways. Then were in fashion large lumbering carriages, and there were bad roads and long stages. The Cleveland horse was tlien in favour. Now, with light carriages and short stages, a good clean-legged half-bred mare is required, with good action, to put to the thorough-bred horse, in order to produce the quick-stepping, blood-looking valuable carriage horse of the present day. But you may say. It is very good talking about the good mares, but how are we to get them ? I might reply to many. Do you ever try ? I am sure if you did, you might very easily get better brood mares than you have now. On the contrary, the custom with many is to sell the good mares to the foreigner, and perhaps keep one that no one wiU buy to breed horn themselves — penny wise and pound foolish. I am afraid it would take some one far more persuasive than I am to induce some people to keep their best mares, though I am happy to say in many instances there is more inclination to do so tlian there was. In breeding hunters there is even more difficulty in finding suitable mares than for breeding coach horses, for, with the improvements in agriculture, the fields being made larger, hounds are bred for more speed, and of course hunters have to follow suit, so that now, in order to breed a valuable hunter, you require a mare with two or three crosses of blood. This, combined with strength, is difficult to meet with, therefore it makes the breeding of hunters much more hazardous. But whatever kind of horse you wish to breed, there are a few points that should not I5C lost sight of, viz., good action, good legs, feet, and freedom from all natural unsoundness, for, without these, however good-looking the horse may be, he is comparatively worthless. Before imtting a mare to the horse, every man should first ask himself what kind of a horse can I reasonably expect to breed from such parents. If, on consideration, you cannot justly look for a good animal of any class, say either draught horse, harness horse, or hunter, by all means give up the idea, or it can only end in disappointment and loss. How often do you see a man that has just a moderate half-bred mare put her to a mongrel bred horse, whose sole recommendation is perhaps that he comes to the place and his fee is small (and I am sorry to say there are such horses kept for stallions) I What can he expect to breed but something of little use to himself, and of little value to sell ? whereas, had he put the same mare to a good thorough-bred horse, he would not have bred a worse, and in all probability a much better animal. Since, then, it is evident that we now require a thorough-bred horse in order to pro- duce hunters and carriage horses, and I might also say really good hacks, the selection of a blood stallion is of great im- portance, and this is not so much under the control of the farmer as in the case of mares, as he is really obliged to select his stallion from such as are in his immediate locality. Can this Society, or the members of it, do anything to ensure for the district such a desirable accommodation ? for though, through the enterprise of some individuals, to whom our thanks are due, we perhaps have been as well accommodated, or better than other parts of the country, still we have no guarantee for the future ; and, besides this, the present system has a great disadvantage, and this is, that as the risk and expense of travelling a horse through a large district arc very great, he is obliged to ser^'e a great number of marcs in order to make it profitable. The consequence is, there are generally many barren mares, a source of great annoyance to the breeder ; and who can wonder, when for a horse to make a successful season he ought to have not less than his 100 mares, and in many cases they ought to have far more ? Only this week I asked tlie owner of a stallion what kind of a season he had made ? He replied, very good : his horse had served ISO mares! Now, when our fashionable racing stallions are restricted to thirty or forty mares, it is only surprising there are not more barren mares than there are. This evil might be checked by charging a larger fee ; but I don't think this has been found to work well in a country district. Can, then, a few members and friends join together and purchase a couple of horses— a thorough-bred and draught stallion — and keep them in a central place, and also entrust them to a certain number of mares ? This has been tliought of by some of us before, but was not carried out. I am aware there are diffi- culties in the way, yet none wliich I think might not be easily overcome. I introduce the subject here because I think it is a favourable opportunity of hearing the opinions of many parties interested. I have said nothing as to tlie rearing, management, and breaking of young horses, as to go fully into the subject would, I am afraid, take up too much of your time. I would only advise every one to keep their young horses well, more particularly their foals, as by so doing they certainly save a year, and if they won't pay for good keeping, I am quite satisfied they will not for hungering. In conclusion, I beg of you all who breed horses to breed only from the best animals you can get, remembering that you must expect " like to pro- duce like," and that a good horse costs no more keeping than a moderate one, and, when ready for sale, is worth three times the money. Mr. GAU^'T said that he had been at Malton the other day, with the intention of procuring a thorough-bred horse, but lie had not succeeded in obtaining the description of animal which he wanted. He was determined to look out for a short-legged thorough-bred horse, too slow for racing purposes, and when he had obtained an animal of this class he should not keep him as an entire horse to travel about tlie country, but have him for the use of the farmers around, and they could send their mares to him and be charged a reasonable price. The Cleve- land carriage mare was not exactly the kind of animal for breeding carriage horses, unless by putting it to the entire thorough-bred horse of tlie kind he had been speaking ; and be was of opinion that by using a horse and mare of these kinds they would succeed in procuring the exact sort of animal they wished as a carriage horse for the present day. A thorough-bred horse was the best to breed from for the hackney class, as that class generally required improving in l)reed. They were inferior animals and short of blood, and when ridden twenty miles on the road, or less than that dis- tance, they were quite exhausted. Mr. Apple YARD agreed witji the sentiments generally ex- pressed by Mr. Smith in his jjaper, and also with the remarks made by Mr. Gamit, but he should like to know how the 294 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. breeding of the horses spoken of by Blr. Gaunt could be made to p(?;•. 8 ,, Organic matter 14.00 ,, 0 10s.,, 0 0 1.57 0 0 0.76 Total £0 1 8.92 Grand total 0 14 6.92 With respect to the amount of sewage annually produced in Dublin, I have made the following calculation : — The pre- sent supply of pipe water is about 9,500,000 gallons per day ; the average daily rainfall over the sewered districts is about 5,700,000 gallons. The amount of sewage, therefore, which passes daily into the sewers is 15,200,000 gallons, or 07,857 tons 2 cwts. 3 qrs. 12 lb., which, at the rate of 14s. 5.92d. per 100 tons, would have a money value of £481 14s. 9|d. From these data it will be found that the sewage annually pro- duced in Dublin amounts to 24,767,857 tons 3 cwt. 2 qrs. 121b., the money value of which is £179,484 7s. 4.8d. I am aware that many persons will consider this estimate of the money value of the sewage of Dublin to be excessive, but I have simply placed the same value upon its various ingredients as I would if they entered into the composition of guano or of otlier artificial manures. The value of the sewage of a town may be ascertained by other means than the analysis of the article. By determining the actual value of the egesta of an average unit of the popula- tion of a town, and by ascertaining the number of its in- habitants, a pretty close estimate of the value of its sewage (provided, of course, that all the waste matters pass into 306 ^HE FAEMER'S MAaAZINE. drains) may be formed. Unfortunately, however, there are considerable differences of opinion as to the manurial value of the excrements of an individual, averaging all ages and both sexes. Dr. Hoffman and Mr. Witt estimate them at 10s. lOd. per annum, while Professor Anderson sets them down at 6s. "\Vliilst agreeing with Professor Anderson as to the amounts of potash, phosphoric acid, and ammonia yielded by a unit of the population, I differ from him as to the prices \\liich should be placed on some of these ingredients. Dr. Anderson states that an adult male excretes daily the following quantities of valu- able matters : — „ In Urine. In Fgeces. Nitrogen 214 grains ... 21 grains Equal to ammonia ... 260 „ ... 29 Phosphoric acid 50 „ ..♦25 ' Potash 45 „ ... 5 ^' This gives for the total annual production — Ammonia 15 ib. Phosphoric acid 3.3,,' Potash 3 J On these substances the value of the whole depends ; for though there are other constituents, their quantity is so small and their manurial importance so trifling, that they may be left out of consideration. If the valuable matters be taken at the price at which they are sold in guano, then the annual value will be — 15 lb. of ammonia, at 6d £0 7 6 3.31b. of phosphoric acid, at l^d 0 .0 5 3 lb. of potash, at 2^d 0 0 7| Total. £0 8 6J This estimate, it will be noticed, applies to the excretions Of the adult healthy male. Those of the female are less valu- able by a fifth ; and of children tlie amount and consequent value depends upon their age. In fact, the quantity goes on gradually increasing to the period of maturity, and then again dimniishes when the bodily functions become less active to- wards the close of life. When the proper, allowance is made for these (for which a rather elaborate calculation is required, into the details of which it is imnecessary to enter), it appears that the average value of the substances contained in the solid and hquid refuse for the whole population of both sexes and all ages is almost exactly two-thirds of that above given, or, in round numbers, 6s. per head. From the above it will be seen that Dr. Anderson values ammonia at £56 per ton, and phosphoric acid at £18 per ton. I, however, value ammonia at £70 per ton, and the soluble phosphoric acid in sewage at £40 per ton. The soluble phos- phoric acid in superphosphate of lime and other artificial ma- nures is valued by chemists at a higher rate than this. I also place a value upon the soda salts and the organic matters. Affixing, therefore, a higher value to some of the ingredients of excrements than Dr. Anderson does, I consider the amount annually produced by each individual to be worth 8s. In 1861 the population of Dublin within the municipal boundaries amounted to 2.54',808. A great number of persons residing in the suburbs, but employed during the day in the city, are not included in the census. There are sewers from a few suburban places which empty themselves iuto the Liffey. We may assume, then, that the sewage of Dulilin which flows into the Liffey contains the mixed excrements of 260,000 persona, worth, at 8s. per head, £104-,000. This sum is, however, far short of the amount which I have already stated I considered the sewage of Dublin to be worth, but the difference may •partly bo accounted for as follows : — In 1862 there were within the municipal boundaries 7,365 horses, 78 mules, 572 asses, 762 heads of horned cattle (including 602 milch cows), 773 sheep, 7,558 pigs, and 1,589 goats : total, 18,097 animals. The census of these animals was taken in summer, when the greater numbers of the homed stock belonging to the dairies were pastured in the rural districts. In winter the milch cows are more numerous in the city, and their liquid excrement no doubt improves the sewage as a manure. The quantity of liquid excrement formed by a cow is at least seven times greater than that voided by a man ; and it is almost needless to remark that the egesta of a horse is much more valuable than that from a man. I am under the mark when I put down the average value of the manure produced from each of the ammak above mentioned at Ml per annum, or a total of £18,697, which, added to the value of the human effete mat- ter, makes up the sum of £125,697. The soap-suds, refuse parts of food, slops of all kinds from private dwellings, the excrements of thousands of dogs, cats, and birds, and the waste matters from manufactories, which find their way into the sewers, must be worth a large sum as manure. We must also take iuto account the ammonia and nitric acid which are car- ried down from the atmosphere into the soil, and are found in the sewage. Even the saUne and organic matters contained in the pipe and drainage water, inconsiderable as their amount is vt'lieu compared with the quantity of pure fluid, come to have no small value when millions of tons cf water are dealt with. I venture to say that the potash, soda, and other fer- tilizing matters contained in 24,000,000 tons of river water, undefiled with sewage, would, if valued at the same rate aa if they were constituents of artificial manures, be worth a largo sum. I have endeavoured to show that the estimate which I have made of the value of the sewage of Dublin, as deduced from the results of my analysis of that fluid, is not very much higher than the estimate based upon the assumed value of the egesta of the population, and other effete n .after produced iu towns. Any difl'erence that may exist must be attributed to the difficulty of obtaining an average sample of the sewage, rather than to the value of the excrements being tmderstated. PROB^UBILITY OF THE UTILIZATION OF THE SEWAGE OF LONDON AND DUBLIN. That the pulilic are at length awakened to the fact that they have it at their very doors sources of manure rivaUing in extent the guano islands of Peru, is evident from the eagerness which capitalists have evinced to secure possession of the sew- age of London. Dublin is somewhat more favourably situated with respect to the economic disposal of its sewage than London. It is nearer the coast, where the land best adapted for sewage ope- rations is alone obtainable. I am opposed to the proposal so frequently made to lay down a system of pipes for the purpose of seUing the sewage to farmers. The price obtained for the sewage, if indeed farmers could be persuaded to purchase the article, would not pay for the cost of its distribution. In fact, the use of sewage can only yield very satisfactory returns when it is one of the means made use of in the formation of slob lands. At Lough Swilly several thousand acres have been reclaimed from the sea within a very recent period, and the operations have, wherever they were fully completed, realised a good profit. The rent of this slob land varies from 18s. to £2 per acre, but some of it very poor, owing to the want of manure. This is the kind of land which would drink up enormous quantities of sewage, and produce correspondingly large crops. I understand that the Company who propose to apply the sewage of London intend to effect the reclamation of about 2,-100 acres of sandy wastes, lying between the North BuU Wall and Sutton, and to convert them into dairy farms. I beheve this project contains aU the elements of success. The reclamation of this slob land would be a profitable operation per sc ; but when every acre could, by the application of sew- age, be rendered equal in productiveness to 10 acres of ordi- nary land, the operations must, in a pecuniary point of view, prove very remunerative. The only advantages which Edin- burgh possesses over this city is, that its sewage flows over the irrigated lands by the force of gravity alone. However, the cost of pumping the sewage of this city up to a height suffi- cient to give it a fall towards the North Bull would not be very great. The trials made with twenty-five Cornish steam pumping engines in 1851 showed that on the average the com- bustion of 1 cwt. of coal would, by means of one ctf Jhose mechanisms, raise 1,000,000 gallons of water a foot high. With these data I calculate that the whole of the Dublin sew- age, amounting annually to 24,767,857 tons, could be raised to the height of 15 feet by the combustion of 2,580 tons 12^ cwt. of coal, which, at 15s. per ton, would cost £1,935 9s. 4*jd. This would be only 10 per cent, of the value of the sevtage, and would not add £1 to the cost of the dressing of each acre ; but here 1 would remark that the quantity of sewage annually produced in Dublin is sufficient to heavily manure at least 8,000 acres. — From a work on the " Chemical Composition and Fertilizing Value of the Seioage of DiiUin" hy Professor C. A. Cameron. THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 307 COMPOST-HEAPS. Farmyard dung may be preserved from loss by the action of the suu and air, and made to go a great deal further, by com- jiostiugit; that is, by mixing it witha variety of substances that will absorb liquid manure and combine with that which is solid. Or, if it is preferred to keep the stable manure by itself, an additional source of supply may be provided by the compost-heap, into which every description of vegetable refuse should be gathered. Most Canadian farms have some low place upon them where black swamp muck is tb be found. Many farms have acres of swamp upon them where. this material can be liad. Tliese parts of a farm are generally looked upon as worthless, or nearly so, but they are in reality storehouses of wealth. There is nothing better for mixing with staljle manure, or any matter capable of decomposing, than this black muck. Indeed so great is the value of this material that a farm is hardly complete without a bit of swamp or a muck-hole from whence it can be gathered. Mud from the bottom of lakes, ponds, or pools is useful for the same purpose, and the longer it has been lying the richer it is in fertilizing matter. Many animal and vegetable substances will have collected and been decomposed in it. The scouriugs and washing of hill-sides and roads, which find their way into bodies of still water, form rich de- posits, which it will pay to cart out, if the water 'can be let off so as to scrape the bottom. A compost-lieap is a sort of omnium-gatherum, into which aU manner of substances capable of rotting are collected, and from time'to time intimately mixed, until they form one fertiliz- ing mass. Vegetable refuse, weeds, leaves, turnip-tops, road- scrapings, old mortar, turf, sods, kitchen waste, and the like, aU find their appropriate place in the compost-heap, and should be systematically conveyed there. Weeds, when cut up with the hoe or mown by the scythe, are usually left to decay on the ground. This is very wasteful : they should be com- posted. Couch-grass and thistles, two very bad weeds, are rich in fertilizing matters, which ought not to be lost. In making a compost-heap, the earthly and vegetable material of which it is composed should be in about equal proportions by bulk. If swamp muck, or the like, is not to be readily had, good loam will answer the purpose. Loam is capable of absorbing a large amount of rich fertilizing substance. The vegetable and earthly material having been mixed, the heap should be well watered with liquid-manure. The urine from the horse and cow stables may be saved for this purpose. Chamber-lye should also be turned to the same useful account. After being well-mixed, it is well to make the compost into long heaps about three feet high and four feet wide. They should be moistened from time to time with liquid-manure of some kind. Of course, to preserve the heap as rich as possible, it is best to keep it under a roof; but if this is not done, the outside of it must be protected with loam three or four inches in thickness. A good compost for any common crop may be made in the proportions of one load of barn-yard manure with two or three of muck, swamp-mud or loam, and ashes or potash. The foUowiug mixture has been used to advantage by a careful practical farmer: Farmyard manure twenty -five bushels, an equal quantity of muck or mud, and six bushels of leached ashes (or instead of the ashes, one bushel of- lime slaked with salt-water). Thirty bushels of swamp-muck and one bushel of guano, thoroughly mixed, have been found to make an excel- lent compost. The same quantity of muck, with two bushels of bones, also form a valuable compost. Another mode is as follows : Dig peat or swamp mud in the fall of the year. Next spring, mix 8 bushels of ashes with every cord ; or with every cord, 20 pounds of soda ash, or 30 of potash, dissolved and poured carefully on the piles. Those wlio have an ashery within easy distance should by all means avail themselves of the opportunity thus aiforded of enriching their land. Leached ashes used alone, or mixed with swamp muck, or used in the compost-heap, are of more value and utility than most people imagine. Many instances have been reported of the beneficial effect of leached ashes applied by themselves ; and, mixed with muck and other fertilizers, their influence is often far more beneficial. Yet huge unsightly piles of this valuable material disfigure the country, when it would be a relief to the ashery owners, and a source of incalculable profit to farmers, were they spread on the land. The accumulations of the privy should also be carefully saved. Dry loam thrown from time to time into the receptacle acts both as an absorbent and a deodorizer. Not only will dry earth prevent unpleasant odours arising from tliis material, but plaster of Paris, copperas, Glauber's salt, sulphuric acid, Epsom salts, chloride of mauga- nise, sulphate and chloride of zinc, and chloride of lime — aU cheap substances and easily procured — will have the same effect. Thus the chief objection to disturbing and using this richest of all fertilizers is removed. The Japanese depend almost wholly upon the human animal for their supplies of manure, and there are no people under the sun who succeed in raising such crops as they do from small patches of land. Their little holdings are worked up to the highest pitch of productive- ness, mainly if not wholly by the use of a substance whicli more enlightened nations let go to waste, and allow to poUute the streams. This material, well mixed with loam or plaster, is an important addition to the compost-heap. Considerations of health as well as economy should induce the farmer carefully to scrape up all the decaying matter upon his premises, and turn it into mamire. The gases that furnish food to plants are injurious and even fatal to man. Sulphur- etted hydrogen and carbonic acid gas, for example, are very noxious. They are generated in drains and sink-holes, in heaps of dirt, in damp neglected cellars, in ditches, muddy puddles, swamps, and all undrained places were stagnant water collects. Their presence is indicated by the foulness of the air. What ever is offensive to the sense of smell is more or less injurious to health ; and where bad odours prevail, there is liability to disease. Hence the farmer who looks everywhere for manure, and collects it carefully from all places where filth is apt to ac- cumulate, is not only enriching his field, but taking measures to protect his health and that of his family. The sweepings of rooms, scrapings of cellars, dirt that has been lying for a long time under barns and the buildings, the contents of drains, cess-pools, ditches, bogs, dirty ponds, and swamps are all suitable and valuable materials for the compost-heap. Col- lected together, commingled, and covered wdth a coating of loam or clay, they not only become harmless but useful. A farmer's premises cannot be too carefully kept clean, especially in tlie vicinity of the well whence the family obtain their drinking water. The compost-heap should always be made at a distance from the well, and it is a good plan to liave under and around every such heap abundance of clay or loam, to absorb aU the drainage, and prevent its sinking into the earth. — Canada Farmer. STATISTICS CONNECTED WITH AGRICULTURE.— The importation of provisions into the United Kingdom during the first six months of the present year exhibits a very considerable augmentation on the four following items : Bacon and hams 4-8,295 cwts,, salt pork 27,619 cwts., lard 117,293 cwts., and eggs (owing, in a great measure, to the advanced price of meat) 54,072,120 in number more than in the corre- sponding half of 1864. On salt beef the increase is 150 cwts., and on butter 8,893 cwts. The only item of which there is a deficient supply is cheese, to the extent of 50,094 cwts. lu the first six months of this year the payments made for foreign wheat amounted to £11,508,676, as compared with £7,462,268 in the corresponding ])criod of 1866, and £10,047,102 in the corresponding period of 1864. Of the £11,508,676 paid for foreign wheat to June 30 of this year, £3,649,398 went to Russia, £1,663,193 to Prussia, and £2,683,389 to France. On the otiier hand, the payments made in the first six months of this year for wheat from the United States amounted to only £315,160; while in the first half of 1864 the corre- sponding total was £3,879,304, although it sunk to £313,901 in the first half of 1865, oOS The faemee's magazine. AGEICULTUEAL GEOLOGY, PLASTIC CLAY. Plastic clay is the lowest marine formation of the tertiary system, and immediately overlies the clialk, which is the up- permost regularly stratified deposit that covers the globe. It is most generally allowed that a tumultuous marine agency liad continued to disturb the face of the globe after the deposi- tion of the chalk, and after making many extensive alterations, and forming new depositions, had given place to inundations of fresh water, which had produced the uppermost formations that are generally called alluvid. The formations that lie next to tlie chalk show marks of sea agency in shells and re- mains of tishes, and are hence called tlie marine formations of tlie tertiary system, which comprehends all the deposits above the chalk. The designation of " plastic" was conferred by Cuvier and Brogniart on the clay next to the chalk, consisting of an in- definite number of sand, clay, and pebble beds, irregularly alternating, of which an analogous deposit has been found overlying the chalk in the neighbourhood of Paris. It con- sists of two beds separated by a bed of sand, the lowest bed being the plastic clay. It is unctuous, tenacious, contains siliceous, but not calcareous matter, and is very refractory in the fire. In England the sands of the deposit are of an almost infinite variety of colours, and sometimes pass into sandstone. The clays also are of various colours and degrees of purity, and are sometimes laminated, passing into fine clay. An ar- gillaceous rock appears as one of the beds on the coast of Sussex. The mineral contents do not appear as veins, but are generally intermixed with the clays and sands of which the for- mation consists. Coal is, however, uniformly found in jjarallel beds or layers above and below the sands and clays. The coal is very imperfect, and recently vegetable pyrites, green earth, and nodules of a dark-coloured limestone, selenite, and fibrous gypsum, and also mica, and tubular ironstone, are found in the alternating plastic beds. The organic remains show the teeth of fisli and fossO, bones and tlie branches and leaves of plants, and also more or less of the woody fibre in the vege- table coal. The occurrence of organic remains is as irregular as the alternation of the strata, being found more frequently in the clay than in the sand, and often wanting in tliem all. The Siuue barrenness is found in the analogous plastic clays of Prance. The plastic and London clays are very much allied in their nature and composition, the localities are analogous, and the beds conformable. A just inference may be deduced, that the formations are indentical, and have proceeded from a succession of tlie same agents, whicli have been subjected to modified ac- tions that have produced the varied depositions that are ob- served. The organic remains of the plastic clay are the most strictly marine. The Loudon deposit shows a mixture that con- tains an advance to the present animal and vegetable forms of life ; while in the overlying formation of Bagshot Sands the evidences are fewer and much more faint, and exhibit the ex- piring efforts of the general agent. The plastic or undermost clay may have proceeded from a turbulent and disturbed state of operations. The London clay has been deposited by a more quiet and orderly movement of action, as is very evident from tbi; massive deposition ; while the lighter sands have floated uppermost, and contain the smallest evidence of the general nature. The deposit of plastic clay is visible overlying the concave area of the chalk which forms the Lo ndon basin, and for the most part skirts the whole district occupied by the London clay, beneath which the formation lies. Thin beds of it cover the chalk hills of Surrey at Addington and Croydon, Banstead Downs and Epsom, Ashstead and Lcatherhcad. Both on the north and south sides of the North Downs it dips under the London clay, which to the south is bounded liy the rocky escarpment of the iron sandstone. In Sussex the plastic clay is the foimdation of the flat maritime district south of the Downs, which extends from near Worthing to Bracklesham Bay, and thence into Hampshire, f jrming part of the Isle of Wight basin. It is seen from Arundel to the western extremity of Brighton ; at which place it terminates, except an out- lying portion of it occupying the summit of the chalk cliff on each side of Newhavcn harbour. Passing to the south of Salisbury, it runs into Hampshire, and thence into Dorsetshire. In the former county it underlies the London clay, on which Portsmouth and Lymiugton are built, and whicli occupies a large area surrounding them. It skirts the London or blue clay in the basin of the Isle of Wight, except near Kingsclere ; where, for a short distance, the chalk marl and green sand crop out from beneath the chalk. The country west of the Avon, and a belt varying from three to seven miles south of the chalk, are occupied by the plastic clay. In Dorsetshire the eastern parts of the county are occupied by the plastic clay as far as Cranboume, Chalbury, Wimbourne Minster, and the Trough of Poole. At the latter place potter's clay, in beds of various thickness, alternates with loose sand, in the plastic for- mation. It is sent to Staffordshire, and used for pottery. Beiieatli lies a friable brown coal, which crumbles in water, and emits a weak flame. Pipe-clay skirts the declivity of the chill k Do^^Tis, and the plastic clay caps one or two hills on the south-west of Dorchester. In Wiltshire a few out-lying masses of plastic clay run south of a line from Hungerford to Marlborough. The formation occupies the district between the estuary of the Thames and the range of chalk hiUs of Kent ; it skirts the base of the chalk hiUs by Farnborough and Chatham, and thence by Milton and Ospringe ; where divid- ing, the branches skirt the London clay to Whitstable on the coast, and to Canterbury, which stands upon it ; and to the coast of the Reculver, and by the south-west to Sandwich, which is built upon it ; and ends a little to the south of Deal. The plastic and London clays are much mixed in the county of Essex ; the latter prevails, and the former skirts the district of the London clay in the north-west of the county, terminating at Iladleigh, which is the most northerly point of the forma- tion. Halsted and Coggeshall, with the intervening tracts, are both on the plastic clay. Enfield Chace, in Middlesex, is oc- cupied by it, with a strip along the western boundary by Plare- field and Uxbridge. In Hertfordshire the clay of this designa- tion extends from the Essex border at Sawbridgeworth and Bishop Stortford, to the north of Ware, Hertford, and Hat- field, to St. Albans ; and from thence along the valley of the Collie, it skirts the London clay to Uxbridge. On the north of this place it takes a westerly direction, to a, little on the north of Bcaconsfield, in Buckinghamshire ; and thence about south, to the banks of the Thames. It is seen again at Head- ing, in Berkshire ; and extends thence, though not in a straight line, to a few miles beyond Hungerford ; which may be said to be its extreme point to the Avest, except at Marlborough, in Wiltshire, as before-mentioned. The formation of plastic clay that has now been traced in its extent is confined to the south-eastern part of the chalk dis- trict of South Britain, and is very much modified in quality when it approaches the oolite formation, and the alluvial depo- sitions of Essex. The extent is not great, as the largest breadth between Houghton Hill and Dorchester averages about eight miles, and there is a considerable tract on the West of Poole Harbour termed the Trough of Poole. The general ap- pearances are narrow, being outcrops from beneath the London clay, and between it and the closely adjoining overlying strata of sands and loams. The surface of the formation is most generally flat, on the north-east of London remarkably so ; but it is more elevated on the north and noith-west as on tlie sonth-west of Hertford. Gentle eminences are seen near Dept- ford, in Kent. In Sussex the country occupied by it is flat and even low, but towards Dorchester the surface is more undulat- ing ; and at Salisbury and at Ringwood there are ranges of considerable eminence. The depth of the bed is not great — in Hertfordshire from 100 to 12U feet, in Jtiddlesex 100 to 200 feet, round Woolwich and near London 104 feet. The vertical cliffs of plastic clay at Alum Bay, in the Isle of Wi^Iit, are not less than 1,100 feet thick; but considerable expansion may have proceeded by pressure from the vertical position, which. THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 309 Considering the loose state of tlie sandy beds, can hardly have failed to be the ease. The dip of the beds is conformable with thatofthechalkonwhich they lie — undulating gently to the west near Ncwhaven, in Sussex. Horizontal is the general direction. The deposit of plastic clay in the irregularly alternating beds of sands and pebbles with the chief ingredient shows a very tumultuary disturbance of the materials of the globe, and a most disorderly location, which may have succeeded the quiet arrangement and the tranquil deposit of the stratified chalk, on which the tertiary formation rests. The eddying reflux of the waters of the sea, in retiring to the prescribed limits over the face of the globe, may have found an abu.ndaut variety of materials, which have been carried about and located by con- flicting causes that have operated the irregularities, according as the different actions found the opportunity of development. The beds are not thick nor widely spread; the marine clays and superincumbent sands are wholly confined to the chalk forma- tion, and more particularly to the eastern ranges of that de- posit in Britain. The immediate proximity of tlie chalk on the last stratified marine-deposit understands the clay to have long floated in the ocean, from wliicli it has acquired the very extreme viscous tenacity of te,\ture, which in the ascending series of aluminous bodies becomes gradually more lenient, till it wholly disappears in the fresh-water formations. There is no appearance of decomposing shale in the plastic formation of clay. It is a tertiary deposit, from which rocks have mostly disappeared ; and being the first formation, the materials had less time to become aggregated, and were puddled in a very minute reduction. The sliales had accompanied the secondary deposits, but do not ascend above the chalk, where a tumult- uous agency of waters had not allowed the regularity of strati- fied subsidence. Hence the varied confusion of the deposits above the chalk, and the very much increased uncertainty of approximating causes. The plastic clay presents a surface-ground for cultivation that is by far the most obstinate and intractable tlmt is found in Britain. The viscous tenacity is extreme, and binds the wliolc mass into large lumps, which defy the power of most implements either to pierce or reduce them. The first ploughing in break- ing up from grass or stubble requires the power of four horses, and also at any time of the year, except in the earthing-up furrows for seed in October. At that time two horses with a swing plough are suflicient, as the very adhesive soil has crumlded into mould from the eftects of the autumnal rains after tlic summer's baking in the sun. All light ploughs, whether swing oi provided with wheels, are wholly inadequate to the purpose of ploughing these lands : the weight is insulH- cient to pierce the soil ; the strength is unequal to the resist- ances that are offered ; the wing of the share cannot force a way among the viscous ingredients ; the waxy soil adheres to the metal mould-boards, and is pushed before the concave breast of that provision, and falls off in lumps. The well- known turn-wrest plough has been very properly devised to suit the peculiarities of the soil. The weight and strength of the implement are able to overcome the resistances that are offered ; the length of the body ensures a steady motion ; tlie rounded and ~ narrow-pointed share finds or forces a passage through the tough and waxy soil, while the timber mould-boad throws off the furrow, as the soil does not adhere so much to wood as to the cast-iron plate of the common ploughs. The dr.aught-chain of the turn-wrest ploughs is bendedupwards to the middle of the beam, by which curvature a part of the drawing power is exerted in pulling and keeping the plough in the ground, which forms the most essential point in the operation in ploughing the plastic clays. This strong and heavy implement is required during the whole process of summer-fallowing, and the strength of four horses is absolutely necessary. The roll or harrows of any weight produce little or no efl'ect on the hardened masses of plastic clay till the change of the season into shorter days and longer nights introduces a cooler influence, and the autumnal rains assist in mouldering the baked lumps of the aluminous earth. At that time the harrows are employed in tearing asunder the pieces of soil, which are very surprisingly softened during the season of autumn. A very minute reduction of the soil is never done or attempted, and is not wished, as a cloddy surface holds and shelters the plants of wheat during winter much more beneficially than a pulverized mouldy top of soil. The clods arc dissolved during winter, and cover the wheat plants, and in the spring afford a fine earth to be harrowed with the grass seeds, and acts as a top-dressing. The last ploughing of the plastic clay land, the ridging-up furrow, or the seed fur- row, is done by two horses with a swing-plough, and best with a wooden mould-board, to which the soil does not so much adhere as to metal. In wet seasons, when the land becomes heavy, three or four horses are required in the swing-plough, in the last operation of the seed-furrow. The proximity of the plastic c'ay to the chalk formation has in several places introduced a large mixture of flints into the waxy mass of clay, which, being firmly imbedded in the stubborn soil, render the ploughing more difficult, and increase the necessity of having a narrow-pointed share without a wing, in order to pierce the very firmly-cemented mass of soil. The movdd-board is also re- quired to be ulaced high from the ground, as in tlie turn-wrest plough, so that it does not come in contact with the furrow till it is raised by the boring of the share ; the low position of the metal mould-board of the common plough encounters an over- whelming opposition to its progress, even if tlie winged share did succeed in piercing the soil and raising a furrow, which it never can accomplish. Not only is the turn-wrest plough ab- solutely necessary to cultivate the plastic clays, but a heavy kind of the same implement is required for the most obdurate clays, wliile a lighter plough of the same kind is used on lands of a milder formation of plastic clays, and where the flints are less abundant, and not so firmly imbedded in the wa.\y tetture of the land. Pour earths, including the winter furrow, are generally sufli- cient for summer fallowing the plastic-clay lands, and the seed furrow before mentioned covers the dung, when the seed is immediately sown by hand, or by drill, in sowing early on these precarious soils. Or the farm-yard dung may be applied in the early autumn, on the last complete ploughing and harrowing of the land; or the ridges gathered up by a swing-plough, when the seed-furrow m October will form the fifth earth, or movement of the land by cultivation. This is the general and most approved process. The tough waxy tex- ture and repulsive nature of the soil debar the action of any manure except that of farm-yard dung in a half-rotted state, which should be used in tlie quantity of twelve to twenty cart- loads of two horses' draught. In the spring months, top- dressings, as soot, guano, sugar scum, nitrate of soda, or any pulverulent bodies that act only for one year, are very useful to the wheat crop, and also on the succeeding clover crop ; but no light or auxiliary manures receive admission into any incorporation with the stubborn soil itself. The solid matters of farm-yard dung remain in the ground, are dissolved gra- dually, and add to the bulk of the earthy staple, which is natu- rally very small or none. The rotations of cropping that can he used on the plastic clays are few, and of the most simple description. Root crops of any kind are wholly and entirely beyond tlie question. The leguminous plants are not much to be commended, though they may be sown, and the returns are not to be refused. The cul- tivation reverts to a dead fUlow, as the basis of any use of the land, and followed by wheat, as the most valuable of the grain crops. Barley is wholly forbidden, and oats cannot much thrive upon the waxy clay. The course of cropping is used thus : — 1st year, summer fallow, dunged and limed ; 2nd, wheat ; 3rd, clover ; 4th, oats. This rotation is too short for any lands that are remote from the sources of extraneous ma- nure; but there is a great dilncuUy in extending it on the plastic clays. Peas are completely set aside as a crop ; and the land not allowing any spring preparation for beans, that plant must be sown in broadcast, and then it is no better than a culmiferous crop. In the early growth the crop of beans may be hand-hoed in broadcast, and the weeds checked, but the benefit that is derived is very trivial. Even t!ie next alter- native in sowing beans is denied, by severely and deeply har- rowing the winter-ploughed surface, and then ribbing it info ruts by small ploughs, or in drilling tlie crop by machines for the purpose. In tliese ways the work is done across the win- ter-jiloughing. Except on the drier modifications of the l)lastic clays, these operations cannot be done. On the most obdurate plastic clays, and more especially where the flints are abundantly mixed with the soil, any preparation of the land is inqiossible, except by the operation of summer fallowing for the crop of wheat, and the beans must be cultivated in broad- cast, and hand-hoed in the early growth. The bean crop may appear m two ways— 1st year, fallow, with dun? and lime in iW bushels an acre ; 2nd, wheat ; 3rd, clover ^ -ith, beans • 310 THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE. 5tli, oats. Or, 1st year, fallow ; 3iid, wheat ; 3rd, beans ; 4tli, oats or wheat ; 5th, clover ; 6th, oats. Ou the most favour- able quality of plastic-clay lands a crop of winter or spring vetches is admitted, and much benefit is derived from its use. Being consumed on the ground by sheep, the land is pre- pared for a crop of wheat ; the winter crop, by tlie early con- sumption, allowing a partial fallowing of the land, and the summer crop giving 1 ime for one ploughing of the land in Oc- tober for the seed furrow. Then the course of cropping wiU be altered thus : 1st year, fallow, dung, and lime ; 2nd, wheat ; 3rd, vetches; -Ith, oats or wheat; oth, clover; 6th, beans ; 7th, wheat. And 1st year, fallow ; 2nd, wheat ; 3rd, clover ; 4th, oats ; 5th, beans ; 6th, wheat. The course of five years may be well used ou any description of laud of the plastic clays, having two years ou grass where tlie land is duly pre- pared, and the proper seeds are sown. The laud being drained in the proper frequency, will no way endanger the sheep by wetness inducing the rot. The rotation will be : 1st year, fallow, dung, and lime in 200 bushels an acre ; 2nd, wheat ; 3rd, hay ; 4th, pasture ; 5th oats ; and may be extended — 6th, beans; 7th, wheat. Tliis course very much benefits the laud, by producing the vegetable sward for the growth of the oats, and is well ascertained to be superior to any manure that is yet known. The grass sown may be, per acre : red clover 61bs., white clover 21b3., cocksfoot 5 bush., ray grass g bush., dog's- tail 41bs., meadow fescue 41bs., catstail 41bs. The very clammy and adhesive texture of plastic clays re- quires thorough draining to be very closely done, and in the distances of four or five yards between the drains. After a very extensive and varied experience in draining the wettest clay lands, we do not hesitate to state our candid opinion that a wider distance will not make the lands dry, and the depth of 2J feet is amply sufficient, with a foot of earth laid over the stones or tiles which form the cavity of the drains. And we also recommend that the drains be placed longitudinally in the furrows, and the ridges being yearly and permanently gathered up by the plough in the form and width, a convexity of the land is produced, which throws the M'uter to the furrow, whence it passes into the drain through a thin stratum of 'soil left by the plough, of the thickness not to allow the disturb- ance of the materials of the drain. There is no better mode yet known of draining the very wettest clay lauds. The plastic clays that lie north of the Thames are very much modified and reduced from the viscous tenacity which is found in the pure quahties of the marine deposit on the southern slope of the north Chalk Downs, which form the south boimdary of the London basin. In these situations the flints are very thickly imbedded, and the soil is seen very often in a dry red clay marl, and on the top of the chalk hills, and in a most waxy black stratum towards the lower parts of the declivities. Both conditions form a soil for cul- tivation that is most perplexing, and of but little value ; but being generally joined with other lands in the very varied stratification of these localities, the single value of the plastic clay is seldom estimated — it cannot exceed 12s. or 14s. an acre. The laud is much best used in grass ; but much ma- nure is required, in ample doses and very frequent repetitions, to destroy the mosses and preserve the useful grasses. The situations of the plastic clays do not favour this use of the land, as being beyond the reach of extraneous supply of the dung of animals and vegetables, which alone can impart any benefit to the waxy texture of the plastic composition. But when a good fresh sward of grass is produced by cultivated relaying, the usual top-dressings wiU operate with effect. LONDON CLAY. London clay occupies the valley of the Thames, commonly called the London basin, extending from the mouth of the river to above Hungerford in Berkshire. It lies deep in the Loudon comcavity over the chalk, the borings varying from 4-00 to 700 feet. This great argillaceous formation is ren- dered highly interestiug by the variety of the organic remains both auuual and vegetable, and by the inferences deducible from them. The number of species is small wliieh can be completely identified with recent analogies, and points the comparatively low antiquity ; and the vertical position in the Isle of Wight evinces the taking place of convulsions previ- ously to the depositions of the upper horizontal Ijeds, and that a sufficient interval had elapsed to give a very considerable degree of consistcEcy to the clay, therefore these aewer strata were accumulated upon it. The name is derived from it3 forming the general substratum of London and the vicinity, occurring immediately below the vegetable soil, except where occasional deposits of alluvial or diluvial gravel, sand, and fresh water soils intervene. This formation consists chiefly, and sometimes wholly, of bluish or blackish clay, which is very tough. The variations are inconsiderable, either partial or local, of the chemical and external character. Some of the strata are marly, and effer- vesce with au acid, and sometimes strongly. In the Isle of Wight, it contains much green earth. Occasionally it includes beds of sandstone. Limestone and sihceous rocks are found embedded in the cliffs of this clay, and inclose the same fos- sils : the cliffs near Harwich, in Essex, contain beds of stra- tified limestone. The lead-grey or blue colour changes into dull brown and red, perhaps most usually in the lower part. Green grains and sandy layers occur, which last are often in- durated into a considerable rock. Septaria abound in it, or ironstone minerals of a round compressed form; and internally divided by septer, or thin partitions of lime, spar, or pyrites ; and some imperfect laminte of marly limestone have been noticed. Sulphate and phosphate of iron and selenite are interspersed t!.s rough the London clay, and hence the water of the ^luminous stratum is unfit for domestic purposes. It is also suspected to contain some sulphate of magnesia, Amber and fossil resin are found in the gravel about London and Ilighgate, and at Holderness in the south of Yorkshire. Tlie number, beauty, and variety of the organic remains render the London clay very interesting, and there are rich repositories of these relics in the cliffs at Harwich, Sheppy Isle, HordweU, Stubbington, and other places. Shells of the most delicate and fragile form are perfectly uninjured in this clay, except in the rare case of its being laminated. The cro- codile and turtle are found in the London clay among the amphibious class of the higher orders of animals, of wliich the eggs may have been deposited on some dry land that was accessible to the presence of water. Several beautiful species occur of vertebral fish, and the crustaceous division shows the lobster and crab. There are very few genera of recent shells which have not some representation imbedded in this forma- tion ; but the specific character is usually different. On the other hand, but few of the extinct genera, so common in the older formations, occur in this ; so that it seems to hold a middle character in this respect between the earlier and more recent beds. Shells of the chalk are very rare in this forma- tion, and also on the contemporaneous strata of France. Zoo- phytes are also extremely rare. Testaceous fossils are uncom- monly numerous. Clays and argilUtes harden by contraction, and shells fouud in clays are mostly compressed and flatted ; but those fouud in Umestoue retain the primitive shape, as that rock hardens chiefly by infiltration. It frequently contains small portions and even masses of wood, more or less retaining the woody fibre, but more fre- quently having the appearance of being charred, and is of a black colour. They sometimes exhibit the perforations, aud even contain the casts of au animal which is considered to be analogous to the " hover," which yet infests the seas of the West India islands. The wood is often surrounded by masses of argillaceous limestone, mostly in the form of septaria, which are characteristic of the London clay — they often con- tain shells still exliibiting the pearly lustre. The vegetable remains are uncommonly numerous, and the fossils are abun- dantly found wherever the sea has laid opeu natural sections, or artificial excavations have been carried on to any great extent. Wherever this clay is visible in the form of a cliff, or has been perforated in sinking wells, it has uniformly been found to contain nearly horizontal layers of ovate or flatfish masses of argillaceous limestone, which are mostly traversed, or have been traversed, by cracks wholly or partially filled with calca- reous spar, or sulphate of barytes, which have obtained the name of " septaria." These masses abound so greatly that they have been considered as being characteristic of the Lon- don clay, but it is not the only one of the English beds that contains them. This formation is uniformly marked as consisting of a vast argiUaceous deposit, containing subordinate beds of calcareous concretions, sometimes passing into sohd rock, or exhibiting some local variations, from the occasional mixture of sand or calcareous matter in the mass of clay. These local changes, ^HE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 311 however, never prevail to such a degree as to interfere mate- rially with tlie general identity of character. The London clay possesses all the appearances of a very quiet and conti- nuous deposit, perhaps in deep water, yet not far from sliore, since a few considerable remains of land and littoral produc- tions occur in it, as wood, turtles, and crocodiles, hut no pebbles nor coarse sauds. The temporary turbulence of the plastic clay period had wholly passed away, and only finer sediment in greater quantities found its way to tlie sea. Having been much exposed to watery action, which it could ill resist, it is often left in insulated hills upon the substrata of sand and clays. Mineral springs, so common to blue clays, rise in con- siderable number near the metropohs. The most remarkable are tliose of Epsom (so famous for their sulphate of magnesia), Bagnigge Wells, and Acton. The dense nature of tlie clay stratuin throws upwards in pumps the water of the alluvium, which is limpid aud comparatively soft for common use. The water of the London clay is impure and hard, from containing salts, aud from the decomposition of the pyrites whicli abound in the formation. The water drawn from the deeper-lying plastic clay is very limpid and free from salts, and large streams of water rush up when, as circumstances may require, the perforations are extended to the chalk which underlies the whole basin of London, from the chalk of Surrey on one side and that of Hertfordshire on the other. The range and extent of the London clay as a surface ground is very considerably larger than the plastic formation. It oc- cupies tlie entire concavity of the area of the chalk, from the hiUs of Croydon on the south to the northern boundary of tlie chalk range of Hertfordshire, supporting the metropohs, the upper marine formation of tlie sands of Hornsey, Highgate, aud Hampstead, and the alluvial deposits of gravels, sands, and loams on both sides of the Thames. The county of Middlesex is chielly occupied by the London clay, and nearly the whole of the county of Essex. In Suffolk it extends from Orford to Harwich, and to tlie north of Ipswich, aud hence to Boydou in Essex. It occupies the south-eastern corner of Hertford- shire at Cheshunt, and also the south-western part by Nortli Minims, Ridgehall, Aldenham, and Busliey, to Hatfield in Middlesex. Berksliire contains much London clay in the val- leys over the chalk, and in the bed of the Thames from Read- ing down the course of the river ; and only a small portion of London clay is found in Buckinghamshire, in the neighbour- hood of Staiues. In Kent the clay appears on the northern side of the Medway, constitutes the Isle of Slieppy, lies from Whitstable to Canterbury, and thence to Boughton Hill. A small patch of it is visible on the south-west of Ramsgate, in Pegwell Bay. Shooter's Hill, near Woolwicli, is an insulated mass of London clay, and rises to the height of ■i4G feet. The hills of Sheppy are 300 feet high. In Surrey, the low part of the county, from near Croydon to the Thames, aud from the Kentish border to Hampshire, is occupied by the London clay, covered in many places by the fresh-water alluvium. Some valleys contain London clay between the north clialk range and the iron sand rocks that bound the Wealden lormation. The London clay constitutes the flat maritime district of the south-west part of the county of Sussex, and in some localities includes beds of grey limestone and sandstone, aud the hme- stone composes groups of rocks on the coast. The London clay, with the Bagshot sand, are found only in the north-east of Hampshire, and are much exceeded by the plastic clay. A part of the New Forest is occupied by it, with the country round Southampton Water ; and the whole hue of the coast eastward from the Avon, and including Portsea and Hayling islands. The few clays of Wiltshire are ascribed to the plastic formation and Tetsworth bed. In the chalk basin of the Isle of Wight the Loudon clay is very extensive, forming the whole coast from Worthing in Sussex to Christcluirch in Hampshire, and extending from the latter place inland by Ringvvood, Rom- sey, Eareham, and passing south of Chichester to Worthing. It fonns the whole of this tract from the abovenamed places to the coast, except where it is covered by alluvium, or by a sandy tract analogous to the Bagshot sands, constituting Beaulieu Forest and a part of the New Forest. In the Isle of Wight it extends in a vertical position along the island, from Alum Bay on the west to Whitclift' Bay on the east, between the nearly horizontal fresh water and upper marine beds on the north, and the nearly vertical beds of the plastic clay for- mation on the south of it. Bognor rocks consist of it, and the clay forms the bottom of the chaiinel termed the Solent, which is between the Isle of Wight and the coast of Hamp- shire. The sinking of wells and the cutting of roads have sufficiently proved tlie occupation of the above-mentioned tracks by the London clay, as it has been described in treating of the chemical and external characters of this stratum ; and the numerous and extensive chflFs which it forms have been mentioned as being particularly favourable to the collection of organic remains which it encloses. The country formed by this stratum of clay is generally low, aud may for the most part be considered as flat, or, at the most, as consisting of very gentle undulations. Here and there, however, it rises. The highest point of 759 feet above the level of the sea is in Essex. Shooter's-hill in Kent is 446 feet, and Riphmond-hiU and St. Ann's-hill in Surrey are less elevated. Cliffs of London clay are 90 feet high in the Isle of Sheppy, which extend four miles in length, and decline gradually towards the east and west. These cliifs have been formed by the action of the sea, of which whole acres sometimes fall at once. The Isle of Thanet shows cliffs 70 feet in height, and Hordwell cUff in Hampshire is 150 feet high. The beds of this clay are so nearly horizontal that no per- ceptible difference from that position has been observed in the chalk basin ot London aud the Isle of Wigiit, except in the Isle itself, where the bed is nearly vertical. This extraordinary de- viation in regard to position is always treated along with the numerous accompanying beds of sand and clay belonging to the underlying plastic formation ; and of the chalk, of which the position is nearly the same. The central chalk ridge is highly inclined, and the plastic and London clay are to the north of it, and are respectively 1,131 feet and 250 feet thick. On the north and south, the more recent formations are hori- zontal, or nearly so, being deposited unconformedly on the broken edges of the vertical strata. The distributing force that occasioned the vertical position acted along a line that can be traced as far as Abbotsbury in Dorsetshire, in 60 miles east and west from the eastern end of the island. A highly incUned saddle of the substrata may be traced in the continuation of the same line. The geology of Britain cannot present a more extraordinary appearance than the nearly vertical position of the chalk and the two underlying clays, placed in a narrow con- finement between the adjacent undisturbed strata. The vertical position is much concealed by grassy slopes ; but the cliff's, beiug constantly worn down by the action of the sea, expose the high inchnation to the view of wonder and admiration. The London clay presents a surface ground for cultivation that is less waxy and slippery than the plastic deposit, but fully as obdurate and intractable in the management. The wet con- dition of the clay is not slippery ; but the soil adheres to the feet. In dry weather the firm land opens into chinks that are both wide and deep, and endanger the traversing of the ground on horseback. In an arable condition, the soil, when the least damp, is pushed before the breast of the plough, and falls from it in large lumps ; and, in dry weather, the hardened masses of soil most obdurately resist the action of any implements of me- chanical power. The ploughing of the land requires the strength of four horses, with the strong turn-wrest plough, that has been mentioned ; aud also during the whole summer, till the seed-furrow in October is done by the swing plough of two horses, in ridging up the ground into the proper form. In the dry months of summer, the harrows and roll are not able to produce any impressions on the hardened clods of the fahowed ground, till the approach of autumn introduces a cooling in- fluence and a crumbhng effect, when the land falls into a Ijlack mould, which is produced by the relaxation of the baked condi- tion of the soil by the heat of the sun. On this pulverization in the end of August, or early in September, the hme, if any, and farm-yard dung are spread, and ploughed under by the swing-plough. The ridges are formed by the land being gathered, and another similar process in October receives the seed, which is covered by harrowing, and the furrows are opened. The modifications of the London clay are more numerous than of the plastic formation, and the course of crops on the land admits more variation. The texture is somewhat softer, and the general quality is better. Still the management does not differ very much, but may be something more extended, and will prove more useful. The general course, as given below, is too short. First year, fallow, dunged, aud hme in 200 bushels an acre; second yeai-j wheat; third year, clover; 312 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. fourth year, oats. Extended : fifth year, heans ; sixth year, wheat. The beans are drilled across the land on the deeply- harrowed surface of the winter ploughing, and the wheat is sown on the bean-grattan with one ploughing of the land. Ko soil of the Loudon clay permits any movement of the land iu the spring for preparing the ground for beans ; and the next alternative is used, of sowing the crop on the harrowed surface. Even this preparation is not allowed by the larger part of the London clay soils, and the seed is placed in broadcast, when it ranks as a grain crop. Eut in several places this harrowing can be done. I'eas are not introduced in cropping the London-clay lands ; but tares are, to a considerable extent, very useful. The winter variety produces an early food, and coutiuues through the sum- mer, wlien the land, after being manured with the excrements of the sheep, and the weeds being killed by the smothering herbage of the vetch, will be found in a mellowed condition for receiving the seeds of wheat, for which one ploughing is ne- cessary. The spring vetch may be used iu a similar manner, and a partial fallowing is often given the land after the herbage is consumed ; but the former mode may be preferable. The rotations are as under : Eirst year, fallow, dung and lime ; se- cond year, wheat ; third year, clover ; fourth, oats ; fifth, tares ; sixth, wheat : or, first year, fallow, dung and lime ; second, wheat ; third year, beans ; fourth year, wheat ; fifth year, tares ; sixth year, wheat. This course may show too many crops of wheat, and oats may be substituted, thus : Eirst year, fallow, dung and lime ; second year, wheat ; third year, clover; fourth year, beans ; fifth year, wheat ; sixth year tares; seventh year, oats. The course of five years, with two years in grass, may be very advantageously used on the clays of tlie present description, thus : Eirst year, fallow, dung and lime ; second year, wheat ; third year, clover ; fourth year, pasture ; fifth year, oats. Extended : sixth year, beans or tares ; seventh year, wheat. The grasses to be grown for pasture are as under, per acre : ray-grass, ^ bushel ; cocksfoot, 1-^ bushel ; catstail, 41bs. ; meadow fescue, ilbs. ; dogstail, 41bs. ; red clover, Gibs. ; white clover, 41bs. The seed of the grasses, well mixed, are sown by the broadcast machine, and the surface of the land is well pul- verized by harrowings before the seeds are sown, and also after that operation, iu order to cover the seeds, when a heavy roll- ing finishes the process. Earmyard dung is the only manure that can be used on the clay lands now mentioned, except the usual substances for top- dressings, on the grain and clovers after spring. The adhesive soil does not admit the action of any fine substances, nor any reciprocal affinity of mixed ingredients. The draining of tliese lands must be frequent — the distance between the drains jiot exceeding five yards, and are best placed in the furrows, as has been mentioned. The ridges being kept in one form, and being gathered into a rounded convexity by the ploughings, the water is thrown into tlie furrows, where it passes into the drains vrith very little hindrance. The depth of 30 inches will allow ~l inches for cavity and 9 inches for the furrow, and, which being about 6 inches, leaves 3 inches of percolating stratum, which is quite sufficient to protect the drain from being disturbed ; for, in all purely clay soils, the drains can- not be too near the surface, provided they are not disturbed. Tlie dryness of the land depends on the ready access of the water to the drains from a distance and from the top. ]3oth the London and plastic formations of clay are much best used in grass ; but the contiguity is understood of a plentiful supply of rough manures for top-dressings, such as Loudon and .similar large towns can alTord. The applications must 1)6 very liberal, and frequently used. By these means the fields of grass round the metropolis have been converted into a rich hot-bed of production : an earthy stratum has been formed (in which the roots of the grasses are fixed) that lias little connection with the clay below, and which has been produced by the decay of the earthy matters of the dung and the roots of the herbage. Even in inland situations, a large use can be made of this clay-ground in permanent grass, especially where land of some more easily arable formation is joined with it in the same farm. This arrangement should be mucli studied in the pitching of farms ; and, the clays be- ing always interpolated among other deposits, the extents of ground are not required to be large in order to include a variety of soils, whicli, inducing a mixed cultivation, very much increases the relative value of the different descriptions of land. A farm is truly a heartless concern that is wholly composed of such clays as the plastic and London deposits ; but being joined with loams, sands, and chalks, as they generally are, the cultivation is not so irksome, nor the occu- pation so disagreeable. The London clay is most generally accompanied with the plastic formation, and both depend upon the clialk a;ul also upon the peculiar deposit of that stratifica- tion, and are chiefly confined to the basin of London. A small part is lodged in the basin of the Isle of Wight, and the quautity beyond the north boundary of the London con- cavity is considerable. It extends from Eeading, in Berk- shire, down the valley of the Thames, to the mouth of the river. Both formations are much alike, differing not much in the materials, but in the quantity and variety of the ingredients, and something in the time and extent of the de- position by agencies of a turbulent and quiet operation. The Loudon clay is poor in quality as cultivated land, and it re- quires much manuring to raise upon it any crops of the ordinary amount and quality. The individual value would not exceed l~s. to 16s. per acre, and the best qualities of the ground wiU be required to reach even that amount. The inferior soils of that denomination scarcely rise in value beyond the cost of seed and labour. The quantity of lime that is used on the plastic and Lou- don clays must be very liberal in amount, and the surface of the land must he very finely pulverized, that the powdered lime may be ultimately mixed with the earthy alluvium. Clay is a very bad conductor of heat, and a large quantity of lime, or the element of caloric, is required to impart a warmth to its aluminous mass The quantity of 200 bushels is a medium allowance, and must be repeated in at least every tliird return of the fiUowing of the land. Distant applica- tions of lime arc lost in effect between long intervals. GAULT CLAY. Gault, golt, or gebingsart (German) imports, with strict meaning, an earth of the hills or mountains, as it lies between the layers of the upper sandstone, which is covered by the chalk. It is therefore a marine formation, being included in the secondary strata, which everywhere exhibit the most evi- dent marks of an aqueous agency in tlie deposition. It is the argillaceous member of the green-sand group, which is very intimately connected with the cretaceous system ; and the two beds comprehend all the Layers, from the lower, or iron-sand, to the upper chalk, which is included. The complete system here contained is found in many parts of England ; but, not unfrequently, deficiencies occur, the upper sand being largely developed and often wanting, and the intervening gault and the lower sand being much con- tracted, and the latter body almost wholly disappears. The proper position of the gaults is the dividing stratum between the upper and lower green sands, that are commonly called the green and iron sands. The average thickness is about one hundred feet ; and no remarkable peculiarity of mineralogical aspect or chemical composition distinguishes the gault, except a general tendency to admit green grains into its more sandy portions. It yields a most rich supply of molluscous remains — many of them minute, and of the greatest beauty — and presents a varied treat to the conchologist. Small, irre- gular ironstone nodules are found in it ; and the varied abun- dance of organic remains serve admirably to complete the catalogue of fossils of the cretaceous system. The colour of the gault clay is dark blue, and often light grey. The gault must be considered as the " shale " or the clayey accompaniment of the upper deposit of sandstone, which is immediately covered by the chalk ; consequently, it deserves a place among the clays from the shale. The organic fossils point to an epoch anterior to the present zoological period ; and being placed below the chalk, the kinds of life are now extinct that are imbedded in the argillacous deposit. It forms universally a characteristic narrow valley under the chalk formation ; and as it lies below that huge deposit of the upper sandstone, a very deep working denudation must have operated on the exposure of the gault m the comparatively few placds where it occurs. This vast power may have carried the chalk from the whole Wealden formation of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex, and laid bare the gault clay and iron sands, the valleys being afterwards filled with the fresh water-clay of the Weald of these counties. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 313 The gault clay is seen near Godstoue, in Surrey, in tlie south valley, at the foot of the North Downs, and called " black laud," and is largely accoiupauied with the sands of the same deposit. In Sussex and in Kent it is seen in several places covering the iron sands, and cropping out from beneath the green sand. In the Isles of Wight and Purbeck it sepa- rates the iron and green sands, and follows with the same relations the range of the green iron sand in the surrounding chalky districts. In Buckinghamshire it forms the Tetsworth clay above the chalk-marl ; and the ferruginous sandstone is interstratified between them. All these formations are much covered and coucealed by the deOris of the chalk hilh, which, being mixed with the clay on the so-called gault, forms the rich vale of Aylesbury. In Berkshire the appearances of gault are very small, and when in conjunction with the sands, the mixtures almost wholly destroy the character. In Bed- fordshire the blue gault is much mixed with the chalk-marl, tlie former being reckoned identical with the I'olkstone clay. In Cambridgshire the chalk rests upon a blue clay, called in the county " gault," which is considered a variety of the chalk-marl formation that crops out from beneath the north- western boundary of the chalk. Tlie surface extent is large, and the thickness variable — from t^o hundred to two hundred and twenty feet. In Wiltshire the gault, or Tetsworth clay, occupies a narrow tract surrounding the superior formations, and runs by Swindon and Devizes into Somersetshire. In some places it is covered by the green sand ; and in the vale of Wendover it is seen to skirt the upper sand. In York- shire the Speeton clay underlies the chalk, but does not graduate into it. The organic remains are numerous, dif- ferent from those in the chalk, and also different from those in the strata below. They appear to have analogies to the gault of the Soutli of England, and also to the Kimmeridge clay, but the former prevail. This clay is mentioned as being the gault ; but the necessary sand deposits are wanting. The gault appears in tlie pure condition in Surrey, where the denudation has been complete, by the removal of the su- perincumbent sandstone and clialk. The next-best specimen is the Tetsworth clay of Oxford and Buckinghamshire, which has not been so much denuded, but is largely intermixed with the waste of the chalk-hills, which has very much modified the character. In the counties of Huntingdon and Cam- bridge, tlie large quantity of chalk-marl wholly alters the for- mation of the underlying clay, which overlies the iron-sand. The diluvial deiris of the neighbouring chalk covers deeply all the surrounding contiguities of formation. The gault is very much or almost wholly altered by the absence of the upper sand, and being graduated into by the superincumbent chalk, which passes into a marl, and commingles witli the argilla- ceous deposit. The cultivable character of the true gault of Surrey is very similar to the most obdurate plastic clay. The stubbornness of the soil is not quite so very tenacious, and the viscous qua- lity is somewhat more tender. But the general quality com- pels a course of cultivation that is applicable -to the very stififest clays ; and any diiference that can be adopted is not equal to a separation of the name. Green crops are wholly inadmissible ; and no preparation can be given to the laud in the spring for a crop of beans. The bare-fallowing of the land for wheat is necessarily adopted ; and the beans are sown- in broadcast, as on the stiffest plastic clays. It is ditlicult to advance improvements on lands of this description. Where no auxiliary cultivation can be admitted to the process of summer-fallowing, the course of cropping must be short, in order to have the process repeated, as no ameliorations can be done between the operations. Consequently, the crops are all of the scourging nature ; and the lands being naturally poor in quality, one natural and the other adventitious, concur in rendering the cultivation both heartless and profitless to the husbandman. A crop of beans is generally understood as a half-cleansing crop ; and when circumstances deny that pro- perty, tlie use of the plant becomes little eligible, if not wholly objeciiouablc. The excretory roots of the bean may confer some little benefit to the soil ; but, as no cultivation is given to the land either in the spring or during the summer, and no manure being applied, the crop is no better than a grain crop, and the surface is always more encumbered with weeds after an imperfect crop of legumes than when a eulmiferous crop lias succeeded. The four-years' course is : First year, fallow (dung and lime, in 300 bushels an acre) ; second year, wheat ; third year, clover ; fourth year, oats. The shortness of this course raises the great objection to its use ; but, for the reason before given — that no intermediate assistance can be given to the land between the fallowings — the repetition of that process becomes the more necessary, to put the land into tlie best con- dition for being cropped. Wheat is the most valuable crop that can be got, even in the small quantity that is grown on the gault clays. Oats thrive very poorly on the waxy clays, from want of the loamy adhesiveness ; and clover is placed under the same predicament. It is not eligible — in fact, it is objectionable — to have two crops of the same plant in one course of rotation ; yet when beans are introduced, there seems a necessity for the admission. Thus : Eirst year, fallow (dung and lime) ; second year, wheat ; third year, clover ; fourth year, beans ; fifth year, wheat. Oats may be sown in the fifth year ; but experience show s that wheat is in all cases the most pro- fitable adoption. A longer course would stand thus: First year, fallow (dung and lime) ; second year, wheat ; third year, clover ; fourth year, oats ; fifth year, beans ; sixth year, wlieat. This rotation is much tlie best-adjusted, if the bean crop could be so fashioned as to impart some benefit to the land, by ma- nuring and working, in order to sustain the following crop of wheat. But if the most stubborn gault clays do not allow any preparation, not even deep harrowing, of the ploughed sur- face, on which to drill the beans, the crop is therefore put in broadcast ; and during the early growth the weeds are checked by hand-hoeing. Consequently, the cropping of the land for six years, till the fallowing returns, is too severe a process of usage, and is scarcely admissible on the clays now described. Vetches thrive very poorly on the gault clay ; but a crop is ofteii useful occasionally in winter, tares being consumed on tlie ground by sheep during summer, when the land will be found in a mellow condition for being sown with wheat, with one ploughing, manured by the excrements of the sheep, and the weeds killed by the smothering herbage of the vetch. This arrangement beneficially defers the fallowing process, but never supplies its place. The course of cropping on all plastic clay soils is much more advantageously prolonged by having grass for two or three years, and depastured by sheep and cattle. The land is rested, and acquires a grassy surface, on which in the decomposition the oats are nourished. A crop of oats is whoUy owing to this vegetable decomposition, and the freshnesswhich the soil obtains contributes the food and support of future crops. The rota- tion would be — First year, fallow (dung and lime) ; second year, wheat ; third year, clover ; fourth year, pasture ; fifth year, oats or pasture ; sixth year, oats. The grasses to be sown are — Ray-grass, half bushel ; cocks- foot, quarter bushel ; meadow fescue, four pounds ; catstail, four pounds ; dogstail, four pounds ; red clover, six pounds ; white clover, four pounds. Our own experience in the ma- nagement of clay lands has been very long, and extensively varied, and most fully justifies the recommendation of the course of cropping last stated, as the most useful and beneficial on all lauds that deny the use of green Aops. Tlie land being thoroughly drained, and the herbage being young and fresh, sheep are very safely grazed upon the surface, and the pastur- age is more valuable than any one of the scanty crops that are obtained by the constant cropping. The course may be length- ened to eight years, thus — I'irst year, fallow (dung and lime in 200 bushels) second year, wheat; third year, clover; fourth and fifth years, pasture ; sixth year, oats ; seventh year, beans ; eighth year, wlieat. This rotation comprehends the use of pasturage and beans, which prepares the land for oats and wheat in the most superior manner. 'I'he true gault clay requires the strong turnwrest plough of Kent for the purposes of cultivation, and the entire manage- ment difi"ers nothing from the most viscous clays, though the waxy adhesiveness is somewhat less, though still clinging to the implements, and requiring to throw it off the timber mould- boards of the Kent plough. Harrowing and rolling are not much required during the summer fallowing, as the land falls during autumn into a very fine and soft powder on the surface, in which the wlieat plants have a slender hold, and are often thrown out before tlie second growth of the spring obtains the firm consistency ; consequently it is preferable to have surface in a cloddy condition of roughness, between which the roots of the wheat plants get a hold of the firm ground underneath, and the falling into pieces of the clods during winter and spring covers the plants and protects the roots. Farm-yard dung is the only 314 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. manure that can be used, and is applied on the fallows for •wheat. The usual top-dressings are applied to the youug crops in the spring. The draining of the gault clay must be fre- quent in the cavities, being five yards apart, and filled in the usual way. The value of the gault land by itself will not ex- ceed 12s. or 14s. per acre. The modified gault in the Tetsworth clay presents a soil that is very considerably relaxed in the viscous adhesion, and in which tlie obdurate quality is very much diminished. The eomminghng has been very large with the chalky detritions, and the character partakes of the mixtures with the argilla- ceous deposit. The aluminous quality is still obstinate, and the land must be cultivated by the summer-fallo^-ing process, which can in no case be omitted. But the land can be ploughed with a strong swing plough drawn by four horses in the winter furrow, and by two horses during the summer operations. The usual harrowings and rollings can be used in the cultivation of this clay land, but which at some seasons gets into a peculiar character of baffling management. As in all clay lands, all operations must be done in dry weather, as a small degree of wetness glazes the soil, and cements the particles. The tex- ture of the soil hardly allows any preparation in the spring for beans, and deep harrowing becomes necessary, on which the seed can be sown by drill machine, or in ruts that are made by small ploughs ; and both modes are done across the wiuter furrows. If no manure is applied, the move- ment of the soil by the hoeing is very beneficial to the land. The course of cropping will be — Pirst year, fallow (dung, and lime in 200 bushels an acre) ; second year, wheat ; third year, clover ; fourth year, oats ; fifth year, beans ; sixth year, wheat. And with pasture : fourth year pasture ; fifth year, beans ; sixth year, oats — or fifth year, pasture ; sixth year, oats. The grasses to be sown are : Ryegrass | bushel, cocksfoot j; bushel, meadow fescue 4 lbs., catstail 2 lbs., dogstail 2 lbs., red clover 6 lbs., white clover 2 lbs. In every case of sowing grass seeds the surface of the ground must be finely pulverized by harrow- ings before the seeds are sown, and repeated after sowing. The heavy roll finishes the process. Farmyard dung is the only manure which the Tetsworth clay will receive, except in top-dressing the spring crops on the young braird. The draining may be done in the distance of five or six yards between the drains, and fiUed as usual. The value of the land is about IGs. per acre, producing three to four quarters of wheat. The quality of the land is inferior to the best sorts, but superior to the most viscous clays in the plastic and gault. The so-called ga\xlt of Huntingdon and Cambridge is still further removed from the true type than the clay of Tetsworth. The land is stLU tough in the texture, and partially viscous, and reqmres the process of the summer fallowing to prepare the ground, as green crops are denied. But the swing-ploughs are sufficient, with four horses for the winter furrow, and two during summer. Draining is not universally required, as the clay is much dried by tlie chalk in mixture. The mode of draining, the systems of cropping, manures, and grass seeds are the same as for Tetsworth clay. Tlie quality of the land is superior, and fetches a higher value, being much mixed with turnip-soils of the chalk formation. The gault clay is confined to the chalk districts, and to the south-western portion of that range of fonnation. Except in Surrey, the true type is not found. The clay is often almost wholly lost in the upper sand ; and when the sand is absent the chalk descends into the gault, and very much alters the constitutional character. The name is preserved, and applied to the clays that are seen associated with the sands below the chalk, though the true deposit is seldom exposed, and conse- quently not much known. The gault is seen in the perfection of a cliif of 120 feet thick at Folkstone, and resting distinctly on the lower greeu sand, the section being well exposed, and the stratum exceedingly fossiliferous. FISH AS FOOD. The great importance of fish as an article of food may be clearly shown by a comparison of the total supply of fish and heef to London in the course of a single year. Neither in the case of fish nor of beef is it possible to give accurate statistics; but it has been roughly estimated that London consumes 300,000 fat cattle annually, which, at an average weight of C cwt. eacli, would amount to 90,000 tons of beef. At this moment there are between 800 and 900 trawl vessels engaged in supplying the London market with fish, and assuming the average annual take for each to be 90 tons, this would give a total of some 80,000 tons of trawled fish : this, irrespective of the vast quantities of herrings, sprats, shell-fish, and of other descriptions of fish which are supplied by other modes of fishing. The weight 8f beef and of fish annually consumed in London is thus in no great disproportion. But the price is very different. The fisherman receives, on an average, little over £7 a ton for his fish, prime and ott'al together — the farmer is readily paid for his beef not less than £00 a ton. But this disparity of price becomes the more remarkable when tested by the practical experience, not of the producer, but of the consumer. The buyer of fish in the West-end of London finds that, on the average, his fish costs him more per pound than his beef or mutton ; and when inquiry is made, the salesman at Billingsgate readily admits that the retail dealer gets an enormous profit on the small quantity of fish he disposes of. It might be thought that the competition of trade woiUd rectify any demand for excessive profit ; but, in this case, it does not seem to have that effect. While the fishermen receive 3d. to 4d. a pound at Billingsgate for prime fish, the buyer is charged Is., Is. 3d., and Is. 6d. a pound by the retailer. Some check might probably be put upon this extravagant rate of profit by a daily return inserted in the newspapers, and signed by the clerk of the market, of the wholesale prices of the various kinds of fish sold in Billingsgate. The evidence we have taken, coupled with the increasing scarcity and high price of butchers' meat, leaves no doubt in our minds that a great field for profit- able enterprise is open for the application of increased capital and skill to the sea fisheries of the United Kingdom. Witliin the last two years a single London company have increased • their fishing fleet by ten sailing and two steam vessels, and are now building two more steamers. The same course is being followed by others ; and though, by such means, the supply of fish to Billingsgate is constantly increasing, it fails to keep pace with the demand. The well-known fishing-grounds in the North Sea are, even yet, only partially fished. The Dogger Bank, wiiich has an area of several hundred square miles, and is most prolific of fish, is to a great extent unworked by the trawlers, and new grounds are stiU being discovered wiiere fish are found in great abundance. Between England and the con- tinent the average depth of the German Ocean is 90 feet. Oua-fifth of it is occupied by banks, which are always being added to by the muddy deposits of the rivers of both countries. In extent they are equal to the superficial area of Ireland. To these banks .the animals of the ocean chiefly resort, and this great and prolific field is free to the industry of ail. The pro- duce of the sea around our coasts bears a far higher proportion to that of the land than is generally imagined. The most frequent fishing-grounds are much more prolific of food than the same extent of the richest land. Once in the year an acre of good land, carefully tilled, produced a ton of corn, or 2 or 3 cvit. of meat or cheese. The same area at the bottom of the sea on the best fishing-grounds yields a greater weight of food to the persevering fishermen every week of the year. Five vessels belonging to the same owuer, in a single niglit's fishing, brought in 17 tons weight of fisli, an amount of wholesome food equal in weight to that of 50 cattle or 300 sheep. The ground wiiich these vessels covered during the night's fishing could not have exceeded an area of 50 acres. When we con- sider the amount of care that has been bestowed on the im- provement of agriculture, the national societies which are established for promoting it, and the scientific knowledge and engineering skill which have been enlisted in its aid, it seems strange that the sea fisheries have hitherto attracted so little of the public attention There are few means of enterprise that present better chances of profit than our sea fisheries, and no object of greater utility could be named than the develop- ment of enterprise, skill, and mechanical ingenuity, which might be ehcited by the periodical exhibitions and publications of an influential society specially devoted to the British fisheries, — S^^ort of the Sea Fisheries Comtnission, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. S15 DEATH OF ME, J. HALL MAXWELL, Late Secketary of the Highland ajmd Agricultural Society of Scotland. It is with sincere regret that we have to announce the death of Mr. Hall Maxwell, of Dargavel, which took place on Satur- day, August 25th, at Torr Hall, Bridge of Weir, Renfrewshire. The intimation will be received with sorrowful interest hy all classes of tlie community, and especially by those engaged in agricultural pursuits, with whom he was brought so mucli in contact as Secretary of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. From that office, which he iilled for twenty years with great zeal and vigour, and proportionate success, Mr. Maxwell had just retired, amidst the thanks and plaudits of the whole agricultural community. He had withdrawn into private life to enjoy, it was hoped, long years of well-earned leisure, broken only by the duties he was still invited to dis- charge as one of the Extraordinary Directors of that Society which, in a more active capacity, he had so faithfully served. It lias pleased Providence to close his life almost simulta- neously with his public career, and to call him to a deeper repose than his friends had contemplated for liim. The first show which he coiulucted was at Inverness in the autumn of 1846 ; and it was at Inverness, in 1865, that he eventually laid down the office wliich he had filled during a long series of highly-successful shows. Shortly afterwards, a successor was appointed to him in the person of Mr. Macduff, of Bonhard ; hut it will l)e remembered that no sooner had that gentleman accepted the position than he was stricken down by a malady from which he never recovered, and which resulted in his death in March last. During Mr. Macdiiffs illness, Mr. Maxwell continued to discharge the duties of secretary ; and it was not till the appointment of Mr. Fletcher Menzies, in May last, that he was eventually released. Mr. HaU Max- well's last attendance was on the 9tli of May, and he never returned to tlie office of the society. At the time when he uiulertook tiie secretaryship the number of members was 2,630, and the funds of the society amounted to £34,000. When he left, tlie roll of members had increased to 4,200, and the finances to £50,000. We had for some years continual opportunity of obsening Mr. Maxwell's administrative ability, while we may give here our own sketch of his career as asso- ciated with Jiis portrait, which appeared in the Farmers' Magazine for September, 1858 :— " Jolin Hall Maxwell, of Dargavel, comes of an old Scotch family, that, we gatlier from the Statistical History of Scotland, has been settled in the county of Renfrew for nearly six hundred years. Mr. Maxwell was liimself born there in 1813, and having adopted the law as a profession, was called to the Scottish bar in 1835. The characteristic energy of the man never allowed him to occupy the ranks of the lu'iefless. He enjoyed, in- deed, at one time a considerable practice, more particularly in such business from Scotland as came before Commit- tees of the House of Commons. In the year 1845, however, Sir Charles Gordon, the then Secretary to the Highland So- ciety, died ; and Mr. Maxwell being a member of the Board of Direction, as well as with a predilection for agricultural pur- suits, became a candidate for tlie appointment. He was elected to it in the January of the following year ; and at once abandoning all further employment at the bar, he has since devoted himself entirely to the interests of the Society. It is not too much to say that he has done so with the most signal success. Mr. JIaxwell gives a high reading to the office of Secretary, and liis influence and example are something re- markable. The best patrons of the association at once put themselves under his direction, and it is amusing at times to see how dutifully a noble duke or a lofty chieftain receives his orders as to where he is to be at such an hour ' to-morrow morning.' They all, proverbially, work well together, and none more zealously than their Secretary himself. The effect of this has so far been most significant and encouraging. During the last ten or twelve years the Highland Society has progressed and prospered exceedingly. The funds have accu- midated, its power has extended, and its constituency greatly increased. The association now numbers nearly three thou- f5and five hundred members, having added much new blood to that original support it traces back to. Still the Highland Society has been in active operation for the best part of a centui-y, while it has embraced within its legitimate sphere of action many features which the common run of agricultural associations have carefully kept clear of. So far, for instance, from interfering witli any question before Parliament, it has promoted and been the chief agent in the adoption of many measures. One of the more recent and marked of its proceed- ings has been the recognition by the Society of the Collection of Agricultural Statistics — a question that has brought Mr. Hall IMaxwell prominently Ijcfore the general public. Nothing, perhaps, could speak better to the appreciation in which the institution and its chief officer were held by the farmers of Scotland, than the readiness with which they answered to the call made upon them, and the good will with which they assisted in carrying out the experiment. The machinery, organized and worked by Mr. Maxwell, consisted of a volun- teer committee of somewhere about twelve hundred practical men, representing every parish in Scotland. The result of their combined exertions was, that, almost fi'om the first year, very complete returns continued to be made, and at an expense far below what was expected l)y the Government. The annual cost was originally estimated at six thousand pounds, and such a Hmit allowed Mr. Maxwell to deal with. For the four years he had the conduct of the inquiry, the information was ob- tained at something about three thousand five hundred a-year. We have already said this was of the highest and most satis- factory description. All the good men in Scotland were more or less directly engaged in rendering it perfect, and certainly no 'innovation' was ever introduced or familiarized to a people under more encouraging auspices. It was just such a precedent and an example as a Minister would wish for. It is, however, an old story by this, how Routine stepped in, and insisted on Mr. Maxwell explaining why he spent tliree thou- sand a-year when it was calculated he would require twice that sum. But something more than an explanation was needed. Indeed, the vouchers and receipts regularly furnished were sucli as to amply satisfy the most scrupulous. In fact, as a man of honour, Mr. Maxwell himself would be content with nothing less. There was, however, an attempt at petty inter- ference and minute dictation that, equally as a man respecting himself and those associated with him, the Secretary of the Highland Society could not submit to. He had no other course but to rcHnquish his charge. 'Wlien, moreover, Mr. Maxwell withdrew from the collection, the whole of his staff resigned with him, and the Agricultural Statistics of Scotland were again all mystery and mere guess work. It is even still very noticeable that whenever the subject is now introduced, either in or out of Parliament, some of the first men connected wA\\ Scotland are certam to speak to tlie integrity and useful- ness of Mr. Hall Maxwell. Mr. Maxwell is a landed pro- prietor in, as well as a magistrate and deputy-lieutenant for, the county of Renfrew. In 1856 he was created a Civil Companion of the Bath ; and in the same year he received a decoration — in lieu of the cross of the legion of honour — from the Emperor of the French, in consideration for his services in connexion with the Great International Agricultural Exhi- bition. These are high distinctions ; but we question if Mr. Maxwell would not rank as his best rcM-ard the appreciation in which he is held by the members of the Highland Society." On retiring from the office of Secretary, Mr. Hall Maxwell was presented with a testimouial, for which the contributions amounted to £1,050. The presentation was made on the 17th of January last by the Duke of Buccleucli, in the form of a massive piece of plate and a purse of 1,000 sovereigns. In addition to this tribute from individual members of the Society, Mr. Hall Maxwell received a more official recognition of his services, in being requested by the directors to sit for his por- trait to be hung up in the Society's hall. The execution of the portrait was entrusted to Mr. Gourlay Steell, to whom Mr, Maxwell gave sittings for the purpose. 316 THE FAKMER'S MAaAZINE. RISE AND PROGRESS OF STEAM CULTIVATION. WESTONING, BEDFORDSHIRE. Tlie property of Westoning, consisting of about one thousand acres, was purchased twenty-five years ago, by the present pro- prietor, the Rev. J. W. A. Campion, for a sum proportionate to its condition. At the time Mr. Campion entered into pos- session, the whole of the hmds were in a very impoverished state ; they were unenclosed, there being neither boundary nor divisional fences. The soils are various in character — sandy, gravelly, peaty, and the remainder useful strong land, resting upon a stiff clay. A large tract of peat land which was unreclaimed is now thoroughly drained with files of nine and six inches diameter, and bears excellent root and corn crops. The four previous tenants, holding under the system of tenancy-at-wiU, showed no disposition to improve, and the lands were gradually dete- riorated. They followed tiie most primitive methods of manage- ment. The rotation practised was— 1, plain summer fallow ; 2, wheat ; 3, beans ; the seed of the bean crop being dibbled in rows, admitting of the hand-hoe being used — which was not always done — to clear the crop of the weeds which covered the ground. Tlie stock kept consisted of about thirty farm horses, a few cows for the dairy, and pigs kept for the use of the farmers' families. Labourers were only occasionally employed, as the farmers and the members of their families performed most of the farm work. The number of labourers seldom exceeded twelve ; and there being little employment in the parish of Westoning, or in neighbouring parishes, the rate of wages paid the farm labourers was from 8s. to 10s. per week ; while the poor-rates amounted to 17s. or 18s. in the £. The improvements regularly carried out by Mr. Campion speedily reduced the amount of the rate. During the last fifteen years it has varied flora 2s. to 3s. in the pound. The ordinary wage of farm labourers for the last three years has been from 10s. to 12s. per week. The railways have been the principal cause of a rise in the wage. The average tithe-rent of the parish of Westoning is 7s. per acre, amounting to one-third of the rent in former days. The parisli school of Westoning is well supported, and from 60 to 90 children are daily taught. The churcli — a building of fine proportions — has been thoroughly restored by voluntary contributions, with a small rate raised from the parish. At an early age the children become independent of their parents by means of strawplaiting and other employment ; this, in a great measure, counteracts the beneficial influence of the school. Straw^jlaiting also proves a very lucrative kind of labour for women. An expert plaiter will sometimes earn 15s. per week ; consequently, the young woman who as a plaiter can obtain such a sum for her expertness is sought in wedlock, and the wife often becomes the person who brings in the money to keep the house — the money wage of the husband being partly expended in beer and tobacco. It is stated that straw- plaiting was introduced into tlie district chiefly by Mary Queen of Scots. During her expedition through the province of Lor- raine she engaged a number of Lorraine plaiters to return with her to Scotland. The Napier family, who held the Luton Hoe Estates in Bedfordshire, brought some of the plaiters from Scotland to their estates. In the autumn of 1857, a steam engine with cultivating tackle was hired for the first time from Mr. Hawks. This was hired for four years, the hire being 21s. per day, and the men's wages paid by the hirer of the engine. Mr. Campion being satisfied with the work performed, he resolved to purchase an engine, with tackle. A second-hand set was obtained from Messrs. J. and F. Howard. A 10-horse portable engine, manu- factured by Messrs. Clayton, Shuttlewortli, and Co., was pur- chased for £315. A windlass made by Messrs. Howard, ropes, and other parts, cost £75. These were brought to the farm in the autumn of 1861. Since that time the engine and tackle have been at work when they could be used on the farm, and from GOO to 700 acres have been stirred, a considerable part of which has been gone over twice with the cultivator. The expenses connected with the stirring are considerable ; the soils are naturally stiff, reiiuiring the expenditure of great power to move the implements. Coals cost 15s. per ton at the station, whicli is distant from about 7 miles. The following is the estimated expense of one day's work — Wages: driver 2s. Cd. ; ploughman, 2s. 4d. ; windlass man, 2s. 4d. ; two anchor men, 4s. ; two boys as rope-porters, 2s. ; coals, 15s. ; oil and tallow, 3s. ; wear and tear, 10s. — say two guineas daily as the cost of cultivating, which, if seven acres are done, ren- ders the cost about six shillings an acre. The lands are being gradually brought under an improved system of management ; the essential requisites — draining, cleaning, deep stirring, and manuring — being so executed as to ensure the best results under the circumstances, and the some- what peculiar conditions of soil and climate. The first por- tions drained by the insertion of parallel drains deep and wide apart did not prove efl"ective. The drains were cut straight without reference to the crooked, broad, and high raised ridges with deep furrows. The consequence was the land was not rendered dry, since by continual ridging the undercrust of the soil had forced like the roof of a house, and shot the water into the furrows — these being more saturated with moisture than the ridges, the clay upon which the tiles rest had a ten- dency to subsidence, and to their displacement. The rotation followed on the heavy lands is — Manure for turnips ; barley ; seeds, two years ; wheat ; beans or oats without manure. This rotation is found to be well adapted for such soils. There is no land under a plain summer fallow : mangolds and turnips being taken as fallow crops. The weight of bulbs has seldom been a fuU average. Chevalier liarley proves the most suitable variety. The seed is usually drilled in ; the produce has been from 6 to 7 quarters per acre. Clovers : About 100 acres seeded with Bibs, white, 2 lbs. tre- foil (yellow clover), and 1 peck of Pace's ryegrass per acre. Red Clover : Common red is sometimes grown for the saving of the seed for sale. The soil and climate appear to be well suited for the saving of clover seeds. The extent under wheat after green crops or seeds is annually about 200 acres. From 1^ to 2 bushels of wheat prove sufficient for an acre — the seed being put in by a drill machine. The average produce varies from 40 to 46 bushels per acre. A mixture of red and white wheats is preferred ; the mixture produces heavier crops. White wheat, grown alone, is liable to become blighted, while if grown as a mixture with red the white escapes. Tlie farm is so managed as to keep the largest possible num- ber of cattle, sheep, and pigs. The number of farm horses kept is sixteen, these being required to perform the various opera- tions of the farm, supplementing the steam engines. The number of cows kept is twenty-five, the milk being used in part for the rearing of calves, of which sixty are annually reared. The calves are fed, in the first instance, when taken from the cow, upon boiled milk and linseed, and are induced to take pulped roots and chaflT, mixed ^vith a little meal, as soon as possible. The cows are good shorthorn crosses, the shorthorn being the prevailing breed in the dis- trict. A Hereford bull is kept at Westoning, and the calves got by this bull are bought from the owners of cows not on the property. The price paid is from 35s. to 40s. The heifer calves are spayed, except those intended for taking the place of cows in the dairy. There are usually 200 head of cattle on the farm. Te cattle reared are fattened at the age of two years and two and a-half years. The average price obtained has been from £20 to £25. The cross-bred beasts between the Hereford bull and the ordinary cows kept in the district fatten readily at the age of two years. The cross is not generally so large in size as those of the same age got by a shorthorn bull, but the Hereford cross is preferred from their supposed aptitude to fatten upon comparatively inferior pastures and bulbous crops. The house-feeding consists of cut or pulped turnips, or mangold mixed with cut fodder — cake and meal being given during spring. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 517 The cattle at the time of our visit were all in good health. To prevent deaths i'roni (]uarter-ill a seton is inserted in the dewlap of the calves. Owing to the occurrence of cases of the cattle plague iu the county during the autumn, considerable apprehension was felt for the safety of the cattle kept at Wes- toning. There are two ilocks of sheep kept ; one, originally Leicester, has been crossed for years by the improved Lincoln rams ; the other, a Down flock, is crossed by rams bred from the above. Wool of the clip of 18G5 was sold at 60s. per tod of 38 lbs., between two ind three fleeces weighing the tod. As wool is lower in price this year, though the clip is heavier and superior to the last, it cannot be expected to realise the same amount. Last autumn the hoggets were receiving one pint of a mixture of broken barley and split beans per sheep — this given in troughs, arranged in the pasture fields, so that the whole of the sheep should liave access at the same time to the troughs. Tlie sheep penned on turnip land are arranged in lots of one hun- dred in a pen — the cut turnips being placed in the troughs, as the cutting by a hand machine proceeds — the shepherd, assisted by one or two boys, attending nearly the whole of the day upon the sheep. A very large number of pigs are fattened for the London market. Tliey are a cross between the Berkshire and the Bedfordshire white pig ; some are fattened until they weigh about twenty stones, and are then sold to the butchers. The average number of pigs annually reared by each sow is about ten. The pigs are fattened on a mixture of pea and barley meal. During winter cooked turnips and other feeding substances are largely used. Economy is studied when grain is purchased — the cheapest being selected. The pigs arc slaugbtered at the age of three, four, and six months — the shepherd performing the whole work of slaughtering and packing the carcases in baskets, which are sent by train to arrive in London during the night or morning. The barn machinery is particularly good. It consists of a 10-horse engine and boiler, by Messrs. M'Cartney & Drummond, Cumnock, Ayrshire ; thrashing machine, erected on a stage, and delivering the straw into a cart, the corn being dressed for market in the barn underneath. A chaff-cutter, by Messrs. Richmond and Chandler ; a cake breaker, bean crusker, a pulper, and two pairs of millstones are worked by the steam ' engine. Some of the articles were purchased second-hand. The whole cost, exclusive of fixing, was £250. There is a saw- rack likewise attached to the machinery, and water is pumped into tanks by the engine to supply the cattle with water during the winter. A farm consisting of 150 acres, leased from Caius College, Cambridge, was taken in hand about two years ago, being closely connected with the other property. It was then, and had been for many years, in a bad state of cultivation, and is now worked by the same horse and steam power as before described. The alteration in its appearance and productive- ness so speedily eftected prove the almost magical influence of steam cultivation, combined with thorough drainage and scien- tific treatment. The steam harrow has proved to be a most useful implement, and, following the cultivator, completes the preparation of the soU for the reception of the seeds of root crops. As to repairs, Mr. Campion says : — " The cost of repairing our cultivating tackle has been heavier than if the machinery had been new, which from experience I should recommend everyone to purchase who wishes to enter upon steam cultiva- tion, being careful to secure duplicates of those portions of the machinery which are most liable to breakage." Bamlett's reaper and Burgess and Key's mower have been used upon the estate with great satisfaction to the proprietor. The advantages of steam over horse power in the cultivation of the farm of Wcstoning are stated to be several, and these important. The steam cultivating implements are only used. Tlie depth at wliich the soil is stirred being from 8 to 10 inches, it is rendered more productive. Owing to the land being pre- pared for seeding at the proper tine the crops are more certain and uniformly good ; drought does not aifect the growing crops so soon as where horse-power has been used. The saving of the keep of the horses is considerable ; they now, in stirring the soil, perform only the lighter work ; the autumn stirring of the stubble lands being executed by steam-power in a manner that horses could not efl'ect without partially compressing the soil and subsoil. The drains now act more efficiently since steam-power was used in stirring the soil by the grubber or cultivator, the plough rendering the subsoil retatative of water. Total extent of land annually stirred by the use of steam- power : — First year, 157 acres ; second year, 429 acres ; third year, 537 acres. — North British Agriculturist. THE APPLICATION OF MACHINERY TO THE FARM. A paper on this subject was read by 5Ir. Finlayson, Pend- reich, at the last meeting of the Logic and Lecropt farmers' Club, Sir J. E. Alexander in the chair. Mr. FiNLAYSON said : It is needless to say, I crave your indulgence for anything I may bring forward to-night on the subject of discussion, viz., " The most Profitable Application of Macliiuery to Agriculture." In regard to the thrashing machines, whether plain beater, spike or hotting drum, revolving or clank shaker, or whatever plan, smaU. pinions and bevel wheels should be avoided as much as possible. Pitch chains are a very easy method of driving the roUers and shakers, but the first and most im- portant thing to he looked at] is a good large horse- shed. First give the horses a good lever power, and the rest becomes easy. Make the horses strong, and you gain the additional advantage of a large outer wheel and pinion, large spur wheel and pinion, large second power and drum piuion, and you thus make four horses do the work of six, with every- tliing the other way. It may be laid down as a general rule that small pinions are Ul to turn, and a great drawback to thrashing macliiues ; but the only way to remedy this evil in many cases, and keep up the required speed, is to begin at the beginning and give the horses a good leverage. Not a few of our mill sheds are just as they were when the flail was first hung over the couples as a thing of no use, and was succeeded by the thrashing mUl, and it is no wonder they should he a little antiquated. Some of them in the district, where there is a good deal of thrashing to do, are not 23 feet within walls, whereas there should be no shed less than 33 feet. I have had a long trial of both, and the large one, in my experience, ha? all the advantage's I ascribe to it- There is room for improvement, too, I apprehend, in the way and manner of cleaning our grain. Not a few of our fanners in the district, with little alterations in detail, are the same as when this " terrible deil's wind" was first found out. The prevailing principle of the old fanners is long blades, about 3 feet, some of them more. The invention of fanners was no doubt a great affair, however light we may think of it now — a great improvement on the old plan of cleaning the grain between two barn doors, or going up to the top of a hill, to catch the passing breeze, and perhaps catch the passing shower instead. But we could not expect these men, geniuses though they must have been, to jump to the best construction of fanners iit once, and I find, as any one else may find by standing behind them, that in these long- bladed fanners every blade has its own blast. There is a lull and a pas' as every blade comes round, and they are of necessity heavy to drive. The most modern fanners, again, which we see taking prizes at shows, are not so long iu the blades — • somewhere aboat 2 feet, and not very heavy to drive ; but in their haste to attain perfection, as I suppose, in cleaning the graiii, they have filled the whole inside with riddles, so tliat the wind has next to no chance at all iu doing its duty, as it has no way of acting upon the grain but through and among these riddles, which is far from right. Grain, you are aware, can only be discriminately cleaned when it is falling, not when it is striking against or resting on anything ; and hence the absurdity of blocking up the whole interior of fanners with riddles. Riddles I would have, and riddles I wonder we have not had in all our mills and hand fanners long ago. But then they should be so placed as not to interfere on any account witli the winnowing of the grain, There should only bo a % 318 THE FAEMER'S JsIAGAZINE. slight part of the blast allo'sred to piny npon them, and a foot or°more clear below, for the wind to act on the grain as it ftdls from the riddles. I find that wire riddles are apt to get cloo-'^ed up with corn coats hanging about them, and that pierced iron or zinc is preferable. But to approach perfection in the winnowing of our grain, I would recommend that our fanners he short in the blades and double blasted — that is, that they should have two pair of blades or fans, the one going out when the other is coming in, or working half- stroke to each other, to prevent the lulling and puffing that are in aU fanners, and to make a regular and constant blow. Three riddles, when properly applied, may he said to add notliing to the weight of driving, and such a form of fanners would give plenty of room below for the wind to act on the grain ; when it is resting on anything, as is too often done, is Uke striking a man when he is down ; it gives liim no chance of his life. The strong man is weak then, and so is the strong grain. It is an expensive affair riddling grain by hand, and not every one ef our best men can do it. But there is no use for it when it can be dene other- wise, for I hold that we are much more able to riddle our grain by machinery than the miller is to sift liis meal ; and how perfectly he does it, though the one is a much nicer operation than the other ! We ought to leave nothing to manual labour that can be done by machinery. I am only speaking in reference to our own district, for many may be, and many are, I know, far in advance of us in this point. Wherever iron can be introduced into our farm implements, it should take the place of wood ; iron can be used with advantage in harrows on the great pro- portion of land. On some light soils, perhaps, and hiUy farms, they can scarcely be made light enough to stand the obstacles they have to meet with. The old Scotch wooden plough is still in use in some parts of the district ; liut wooden ploughs, in whatever form, are never thrifty. The " Scotch llational" can be made in its native form, and as light and strong in iron as in wood. It would then neither cling with summer's drought, nor swell and rot with winter's wet — would last generations, in place of a few seasons. But two sets of ploughs are ex- pensive and unnecessary, as one improved iron plough, with a plain broad level sock and a straight coulter, wUl do winter- plougliiug equally as well, if not better, than the other, and be as easily drami. Very short, convex, sharp-turned, hollow- breasted mould-hoards are better for scooping loose land than ploughing it ; while a medium length and twist will do fair work on all soils, and prove more generally useful. Wheels, when rightly attached, make a plough very easy to guide ; and though a good man at a ploughiug-match may make better work without them, a very inferior ploughman will, with a day or two's practice, make superior work with them : and it would be a great saving of our ploughmen's Ijones were wheels more used than they are. What we call grub harrows, when well made, have been found exceedingly useful in tearing-up and loosening land that has to be often rolled in the breaking- dowii, and, where land is foul, for taking weeds to the surface. The grubber was thought at one time to take the place of the plough, but now it will have enough to do to keep its own place. A turn of the grubber may sometimes be better than a ploughmg — better for keeping in the moisture, for the sake of a braird in dry weather. But there is danger in going too far, as nothing but the plough can turn the SOU over thoroughly to the intluences of the atmosphere, which influences, although we have them for nothing, are often more enriching to the soil than the best and most costly manures we can apply. Water-power may be said to be the cheapest of all known powers, when conveniently got ; but unfortunately, where most grain is grown, and most needed, it is most difficult to get.- And it appears to me questionable whether it would be profit- able to keep a steam engine for thrashing alone, for these rea- sons among many — that we often can't get on our land for weeks together, and in such seasons it is an advantage for our horses to have thrashing to do ; and with a good-going machine much of our thrashing can be overtaken in sucli sea- sons. Besides, we have Mr. Eaines' portable engine and thrashing machine to apply to in a strait, which does all the departments of the work well, and is not long in making a slap in the barn-yard. True it is, that in the Lothians, and many other districts, you will see few farm steadiness without the engine stack towering above aU around, But in many places the straw is sold and dung is bought, so that when the horses are not on the land they are on the road. Other places, from their proximity to coals, or the dry texture of their land, that can be wrought on at any time, may account for the difference; but in the vales of Monteith and Stirling the straw is generally made into dung on the farm, coals are expensive, and the land is stiff — so tenacious much of it is, that one day's work on it when not in trim would tell on it for a rotation. Steam-power has done much for the world, but comparatively little as yet in cultivation of the soil. Till recently we used to see cotton factories and mills of all sorts in out-of-the-way places — beside burns, and streams, and rivers ; but taking advantage of steam- power, we now see the manufacturer birring at his mill, with- out any such restraint, anywhere and everywhere — in the midst of large cities, on the quays and banks of navigable rivers, where goods can be imported and exported to and from all parts of the world — and we farmers can only say we wish we could get on that way. We hope we will yet get the same ad- vantage of this giant power. The difficulty of applying steam to agriculture is too manifest, from the time it has taken to introduce it. Could it have been done as easily and with the same advantage as in the other case, the steam engine would have been snorting on every farm. There has been no such indefatigable energy or in- genuity, and I should say philanthropy, shown in introducing steam to factories as to farms, for the fact is it was not needed. The manufacturer, as I have hinted, has only to erect his work, set down his engine in the place and position required, and away it goes, saying to itself, we may suppose, " This is the place for me." It is no doubt difficult to estimate the benefit manufacturers and mechanics have derived from the perfection to which they have brought their machinery; but no one thing in our day, I am persuaded, has done more to advance their interests than steam-power. It is like the root from which other improvements have sprang — the trunk on which they grow and flourish ; and we, as landlords and tenants, whose interests are so linked together, ought to strain every nerve to have this wUd young horse broken into our service. Most people like a young horse to be bold and forward a little in the breaking-in : they say there is something in him. If tliis holds true, then you may depend there is something in steam, and we ought not to be frightened for any pranks and cantrips that may take place at first, and we should be encouraged to persevere from the advance already made in our own, and from the success that has attended the steps of this bold horse — this noble power — in every department of industry. It has not yet been established, it is true, that cultivation by steam is cheaper than by horse-power, but such a comparison is pre- mature. It is certainly not reasonable that a power that came into existence yesterday should already cope with another that has been in existence suice the time when Adam was a young man, or soon after. It is not so long since we got quit of thfe gadman for cleaning the plough and guiding the horses ; some here may have used him in their younger days. So give this youtliful power time — I would not say four or five thousand years, but four > or five years — and we will get the gadman paid, off here too, and many other seeming mountains that stand in the way of progress. There have been great improvements made since this young wild horse was yoked in our district, which should he noticed, Ijut I must pass on. It may be ob- served here that this fiery horse eats coal, not corn, and eats and drinks only when he is working, decent fellow that he is ; while our other horses eat and drink, and must be attended to, work or no work, lazy fello^^■s that they are — are they not ? No doubt the present extensive form of application of steam-power is beyond the reach of the great body of farmers, and may have frightened some and grieved others ; but it was the larger and wealthier farmers and the more spirited landlords that took the lead in the movement, and it was such forms they required, and no one need be concerned, as it can be brought down to any size or form. I only wish I saw it brought out in a form suitable to a farm of 100 acres or so ; all then would be able to judge of its capabilities and cost of application in their own case. But I must say that I don't like the idea of tlie engine toiling so far from its work, shorn of half its power ; for recollect that an engine of 13-horse power, so far as I have seen, only drags two or three ploughs, the work of four to six horses. It is of course easier far to find fault than find a remedy. But allow me to ask, for tlie siike of argument, Would it not do to have the engine, instead of THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE. 319 sfanding at the eud expending half its power doing nothing, traversing our fields, short-angled corners, and fields of all forms, with a cultivator somewhat on the principle of a clod- crusher or Norwegian harrow to travel on, in place of the hind wheels ? The four wheels for guiding the engine would be the only compressing weight on the soil, and would do less damage than the pokering and dabbling of the horses' feet. Supposing there were three cultivators, the one going deeper than the other as they came back. The depth could be regulated by wheels. It would he like tooth and pinion for taking the engine over a height ; the wheels would not skip round and leave the engine standing helpless, and those who had knoUs on their farms would not need to consider themselves excluded from a share of the advantages of their more favoured brethren in the plains. But without joking, if a principle somewhat like that described would do, then the gadman — viz., the wire abpe, porters, anchor, attendants, the laying and lifting of this gear — would be dispensed with, and this magnificent power brought within tlie reach of everyone. I see many difliculties to the plan, but a great many advantages if it would do. At all events, it is by stating our views and discussing such topics that we can endeavour to help on improvements that so much interest ourselves and community. Some of the other members wiU give us the advantages of their experience of the reaping machines, as your patience must he already over-taxed. Allow me to observe, however, that though the reaper has much to contend with in our variable climate, it is gratifying to see the headway it has made against obstacles seemingly uusurmountable, since it came into use. Those only who began wdth it can estimate the advances that have Ijeen made. The real improvements, or labour of effecting them, cannot be appreciated by a casual observer. Many thought at one time, that when we got the length of a " manual back delivery," we could get no farther. Some machines at first, when the knife got the least blunt, would come to a dead lock for want of power, although driv- ing nothing but the knife ; but now, from the knife being made lighter, of better stuff, kept sharper, and other parts made more perfect, we find there is power not only to drive the knife, but a large side-delivery reel to the bargain. Heavy cumbrous machines cannot be expected to be handy or profit- able in average circumstances, as, from the laid state of our crops generaUy, they can only be cut one way, and such ma- cliines are about as difiicult to take hack empty as others are to bring forward full. I am not aware whether our last year's exhibition has brought out any new machine, but if it were the means of perfecting those already out, and bringing them into notice, wliich no doubt it has, from the number of self side-deliveries ordered in the district, oar labour has not been altogether thrown away. The perfecting of the reaper is be- coming more and more important for the efficient and profit- table harvesting of our crops, and calls for more attention than it receives from farmers' clubs. It is not like an imple- ment that is used all the year round, that can he repaired or improved at any leisure time. It woidd reqiure to come into the field like a warrior armed to the teeth — without a weak point or flaw in its equipment. The soldier may find out the defects of his armour in the battle-field, but that is neither the time nor place for repairing his loss. So is it with the reaping macliine. The harvest field, and throng of harvest, is neither the time nor place for inefficient machines, or for repairing their defects. Stoppages are a great loss^and annoyance, but this evil is lessened, you will observe, by the side-deUvery, as it can be wrought any distance ahead of the binders, which the back-delivery cannot. Neither is there any time lost by the binders going backwards or forwards, as each has his own row to bind from end to end, consequently more work can be done. But the advantages of the side-delivery come most prominently out in the bean-field, where the lifters are dis- pensed with altogether. Self side-delivery is the great point of perfection we liave long striven to attain, and it is most gratifying to see it brought out so completely in so many different ways, each throwing a lustre on man's powers of in- genuity and perseverance. SCOTCH VEB8U8 ENGLISH DRAUGHT HORSES. A- correspondent of the Dumfries and Galloivay Courier writes as follows on the above subject : — It appears to me that there is no branch of agriculture more interesting, or of which a more extensive and thorough knowledge would do more for the benefit of the farmer and agriculturist than that part of it which belongs to the breeding and improving of that important animal, the draught-horse. Nevertheless, it is amazing to hear and see the great amount of ignorance that prevails about the origin and national cha- racter of the different kinds of breeds of these most useful animals by farmers — those who should have the greatest in- terest in the subject. The first kind of breed that we shall notice is the much- esteemed Clydesdale. Perhaps it may not be generally known that this celebrated breed of horses have for their progenitors the Flemish horse, which was brought over here from Flanders by one of the Dukes of Hamilton, and on his estates in Clydesdale, serving the then small native marcs. Thus we have the foundation for the superiority of Clydesdale stock, produced by the crossing of these different breeds, which stock soon became coimnon to the whole district, and gave to this breed the celebrated name of Clydesdale, thus showing that this breed is not indigenous to the vale of Clydesdale. And to all who observe passing events with attention, it would not be too much to say that the present breed they have in Clydes- dale would be again much regenerated by some other new, or more of the Flemish, blood being brought into the district, as thei'e has been far too much breeding within too close degrees of consanguinity, or, as it is technically termed, breeding in- and-in, amongst them in that district. This mode of pro- ceeding on the part of tlie breeders is decidedly pernicious, and has had a great tendency to create and increase hereditary disease among the animals, which is by far too much the case with them. Of this so-called Clydesdale breed, power more than beauty is the prevailing characteristic. They have often Urge heads, ill-defiucd jaws, and round, sour-looking muzzles, They are somewhat flat in their sides, and plain and low in their quarters. The neck is long, and so are the legs, and flat in their feet ; but the barrel is light. The temper is tractable and docile, and they are useful animals for the plough and tlie cart ; but they eat a large amount of food, and are not by any means the cheapest kind of horses for the farmer ; and the most of our Scottish farmers who have paid attention to this subject confess that the expense of their horse-keep ■ exceeds that of their brethren in England, unwilling as they are to admit of any superiority over them in matters of this kind. Tiie next breed that comes under our notice is the EngMsh draught-horse, said to be first imported into that country by the Saxons, and subsequently gradually improved in size and power by crossing with the Flemish horses introduced by the followers of William of Normandy. It is recorded of King John that he imported one hundred choice stallions from Flanders, which at that time must have been an important step in the way of improvement, and eminently calculated to raise the agricultural liorses to a standard of power and vigour for field-labour and for draught then before unknown. Ed- ward II. in his reign gave a commission for twenty war-horses and twelve draught-stallions to be purchased in Lombardy, requiring all his loving subjects to assist in carrying the com- mission into cll'cct, which bears strong testimony tor his zeal for their improvement. Henry VIII. enacted a law that every brood-mare should be at least fourteen hands high, and pro- hibited all parties from breeding with inferior descriptions of horses, or with diseased and infected ones, which raised the general character of the horses in the country, and brought ia a race of large and serviceable animals. Other Acts of Par- liament were passed by the English Government — all with an evident view to the attainment of a large and powerful breed. For example, every archbishop and duke was obliged, under heavy penalties, to keep seven entire horses, each above three years old, and not less than fourteen hands high. The plain reason for enjoining entire horses to be so kept was for the 520 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. promotion of breeding and improving the stock of liorses ; and with a consideration that was worthy of a king, the rich and noble were alone compelled to keep stallions, because of their keep being so much more expensive, while the other classes might keep such mares and geldings as they thought proper. No man who has the improvement of that noble animal the horse at heart can doubt but that these prohibitions and regulations are as sound as they are politic. The English cart-horse, as bred chiefly in the midland counties, Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, and Northamptonshire, is a powerful animal. The whole form is so constructed as to pos- sess great power ; and the gentle, willing, obedient nature of tlie animal renders him one of the most valuable slaves of man. His head is finely formed ; his neck a little arched ; the shoulder thick ; the breast very deep, broad, and capacious ; shoulders but slightly slanting ; the legs, especially the fore ones, very muscular ; broad hocks ; broad short back, with great rotundity of form and well-ribbed home ; short fetlocks and round hoofs complete the picture of one of the most noble and massive animals, combining with amazing strength the gentleness and docility of a pet. One of these fine animals bred in Northamptonshire, appropriately styled the Mammoth horse, was twenty hands (six feet eight inches) at tlie withers ; his weight, 25 cwt. (a ton and a quarter). Tliis horse was not clumsy, but on the contrary he was a grand, graceful, and noble-looking creature, (|uite free from vice and as playful as a lamb. He is said to have been produced by a cross between the English and Flanders stock. Of these two breeds we derive this fact from their history, that the origin of the Clydesdale and the Englisli cart-horse is substantiidly from the same root on the male side, viz., tlie Flemish stallion, with this dilfcrence, that the present breed of English draught-horse has had far more attention paid to his improvement by the frequent introduction of new and fresh blood from different sources, and that greater care has been taken to guard against the introduction and spread of all dis- eases that have a liereditary tendency ; and it surely will not he disputed by any one acquainted with the subject that the original native English mare was equal, if not superior, to the original small breed in the valo of Clyde previous to the intro- duction of the Flemish stallion into that district. I may be allowed a few words on the points and qualifica- tions of a good horse for breeding. A sound constitution stands at the head of the list. He should possess this quality not only himself, but all his progenitors ; and likewise the wide chest as a first desideratum, and as being the most strictly indicative of this peculiarity — not only wide in the front, however, but con- tinuing the width behind the forearms, further indicated by fulness behind the elbows. A masculine appearance is also another of the indications of constitutional power. Large well-developed muscles are also an indispensable quality. He must have muscular forearms, strong tlat legs, broad hocks, elbows not too close to the chest, deep and broad chest, straight short back, round ribs and ribbed home, with a round body and broad loins, long quarters, full and muscular, the neck rather thick and a little arched, and the tail set on iu a line with the back, head not too acute, with good broad hoofs. And as polygamy is the rule that is followed in the breeding of horses, the stallion has by far the greatest influence on the horses of a country ; therefore it is within the power of breeders, by a judicious selection, to ensure a good ofl'spring with few ex- ceptions. Few things are more certain than horse breeding, for the rule " like produces like" in most cases holds good from, generation to generation ; and nothing is so unsatisfactory, or so unlikely to turn out an unprofitable speculation, as breeding with a stallion affected with hereditary disease, such as roaring, spavin in all its multifarious forms, boggyhocks, with their dis- tressing and weakening efi'ect on that important part, thorough- pin, ring bone, side bone, splents, sluvering or diseased nerves, with their deteriorating consequences, and many others which the horse is peculiarly liable to ; and there is scarcely a malady to which the horse is subject that is not hereditary, and in- creases with every new generation, slowly, but surely, in their virulence, until the progeny becomes utterly useless. Therefore the first symptom of any kind of disease of that nature should be enough to condemn the stallion as a breeding-horse, with all who wish to maintain and improve the breed of our much- prized horses. Having endeavoured to draw an outline of the rise and pro- gress of the Scotch and Englisli draught-horse, I leave the reader to draw from what has been written his own con- clusions. 13ut there is another very important argument in favour of the great benefit which arises to the farmer from crossing his breeding mares with a stallion of pure blood, which the following facts go far to establish : that at all the shows of horses that have taken place around Glasgow this year — at Kilbride, which is open to all Scotland ; at Bishopbriggs, and at Kirkintilloch, where in these districts the very cream of the Clydesdale is said to be bred — that at every one of these shows the first prize year-old is the foal of a real English stallion- horse direct from Cambridgeshire ; and in several instances one hundred pounds sterling has been offered for year-old colts and fillies of his stock bred in the famed district of Clydesdale, and been refused by their owners, which speaks volumes in favour of the English breed for crossing with ; and I am not aware of it, if such be on record, that any of the Glasgow Clydesdale prize stallions have produced stock of the same age for which any such sums of money were offered. INQUIRY INTO THE UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE Li a former paper we drew attention, in a few desultory observations, to the manurial loss sustained in the conveyance of sewage in sewers on the principle of gravitation as now proposed in the Great Main-drainage plan of the metropolis. This loss of manurial elements was illustrated by the familiar example of water flowing on a hard bottom or gravelly channel, which soon purifies itself of all filth thrown into it — the dirty muddy stream becoming in a short distance as clear as it was prior to the filth being thrown into it. When a river runs in a clayey or chalky channel, so that the water becomes muddy ■with clay in suspension, and also contains lime and other sub- stances in solution ; and when sewage or other filth is poured into such a stream, the afiiuity of tlie animal and vegetable matter for the oxygen of the atmosphere is reduced — or rather the aflinity which exists between the clayey and chalky or limy matters for the animal and vegetable substances is greater than that for the oxygen of the atmosphere, and ac- cordingly much of the manurial elements is precipitated to the bottom ; hence the rich alluvial soils formed at the deltas or confluences of such rivers with the ocean, compared with what is formed by the clear crystal stream that flows in its pebbly channel. It was also shown that this manurial loss was of a magnitude and general interest such as to justify a Parliamentary grant from the public purse, and Die appoint- ment of a cliemical and engineering commission to prosecute the inquiry as to its details. In short, iu our last we glanced at the chemical view of this inquiry : in our present paper we propose reviewing the engineering investigation of the question. The engineering problem de novo is manifestly to send the sewage to the country, and to apply it to the land with the least possible manurial loss of fertilizing matter. This is not only the alpha but also the omer/a of the sewage question, when examined in the light of applied science, so that it includes both the chemical and mechanical problems. The engineering work thus divides itself into three separate subsidiary branches or parts — the first, the collecting of the sewage from water- closets, sinks, public urinals, and manufactories, to pumping stations ; second, the forcing of sewage in pipes to the country by means of steam-power ; and, third, the manu- facture and application of the sewage to the land. But before these three propositions can be practically examined, it is first absolutely necessary to know how far the engineer can convey the sewage before it sustains any material loss ? and how many times this distance it will flow in a common sewer before it is so wasted as not to pay for its application to laud P When fsecas of a temperature of 100 degrees is dropped into water of 50 degrees in the water-closet the incipient decom- position that previously e.Nisted will be arrested, and a period THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 321 of time intervenes before solution and a somewhat dilTereut kind of decomposition again commences ? To what distance can the engineer remove the sewage during this intervening period of time ? And what is tlie rate of manurial waste tliat after- ward takes place for every equal period of time and distance to which the sewage may be conveyed in the ordinary sewers already used in the removal of sewage from towns ? And what is the amount of gaseous matter noxious to health that is thrown into the atmosphere — this amount being the equivalent of the manurial loss ? If this loss can be obviated, will it cover the expense of, sending the sewage some ten, twenty, or thirty miles into the country, as the case may be, to land of a c[uality the best adapted for its profitable utilization ? And what is the rate of waste under different velocities, times, and distances ? It is the practical answers to these latter questions that we have to investigate in this paper. On entering upon an experimental inquiry of this kind, it is evident the work must be isolated, and, consequently, excep- tional in many respects; the grand object being to obtain fundamental principles, or practical data, for guidance in the general work of sewage-utilization for agricultural purposes. A single sewer, for example, will have to be constructed, or set apart, for the experiment ; and, at the upper end of this sewer, the sewage from a single water-closet will have to be removed, in the ordinary way, so as to ascertain the first intervening period of time, and the subsequent rate of waste as it flows towards the opposite end of the sewer : throughout the whole length of the sewer no fresh sewage being allowed to flow into that under investigation. Having obtained the first measure of the whole distance — that next the water-closet, during which the fresh sewage flows, before any material loss is sus- tained, and the subsequent rate of loss for any given time and distance — the engineer will experience no difficulty in applying the data thus obtained to the sewage-drainage of any particular town, as tlie metropolis. But, on the contrary, until such data are obtained, any sewage-utilization project of the kind appears to us little better than groping in the dark, especially in the case of large towns, while the inhabitants of such places are liable to be taxed, and, indeed, are already being taxed, some of them to an enormous extent,for huge, antiquated, unpromising speculations of the mo^ extravagant kind, no more regard being paid to the health of the people than to their wealth ! No doubt the large main-sewers of the metropolis, and the common sewers generally of the principal towns in the kingdom, may be profitably used in the land-drainage or removal of storm- water ; as such, under any economical system of utilizing sewage, should be kept separate from it ; for when it rains in town it also rains in the country, so that the latter, under such circumstances, requires concentrated sewage, and not diluted, often, too, in very wet weather, to such a degree as would destroy land, even the most dry and porous soils, as it would, to use a common expression, " wash tlie good out of them." It is during the warm dry weather of summer that the country requires diluted sewage, and during this period the engineer also requires a little extra water, to increase velocity and the momentum or force of the current, so as to hurry on all matter held in suspension to its final destination — the land — before decomposition takes place, as during the high temperature of this (the summer) season the affinity of animal and vegetable matter for the oxygen of the atmosphere is greatly increased, and chemical change in a corresponding manner, more rapidly induced than during the cold weather of winter. In a work of experimental inquiry like that under considera- tion, a knowledge of the manurial loss at present sustained is nearly as necessary as the practical engineering and chemical data required to avoid this loss, and eficct the greatest mauurial economy of the sewage. In other words, wi; have to examine things as they are, and also as they should be. Thus, the en- gineer has first to construct a sewer on the most improved plan he can devise, so as to remove the sewage from the water-closet the greatest possible distance in the shortest period of time, in order to enable the chemist to ascertain by analyses the points where the more active decomposition of the sewage com- mences— that point which furnishes the data for determining the greatest distance the pumping station should be placed from the water-closet ; and then he has to ascertain the loss at present sustained under the antiquated and unscientific system of sewerage now in operation, in order to remove opposition, and enlist the co-operation of the inhabitants in the execution ot the work on sound principles : the former being ascertained, the latter will be the diU'ercuce between it and the preseul system. To prevent the solid excreta from the water-closet stag- nating in the waste-water pipe that leads to the common street sewer, and in the sewei itself, there should be a suificiMicy of water in the former to carry everything quickly to the latter from the water-closets and sinks ; while in the latter — the common sewer — there ought to be a continuous flow of water, not only to prevent stagnation, but also to sweep along the sewer the solid and liquid matter from the water-closet before comparatively perfect solution and mechanical sulnlivision of insoluble matters take place : as the moment this is efl'ected, and the materials that are thus held in solution and suspension begin to rise to the surface of the flowing sewage, oxygen is abstracted from the atmosphere, when the work of decom- position and the liberation of gaseous and volatile matter will rapidly take place. To effect this, the house waste-water pipe should be either of lead or zinc, in one piece if possible, so as to avoid all roughness and consequent obstruction at joints, or of one enamelled east metal or iron pipe. It should also have as much declivity as possible, and be in one straight line from the water-closet to the sewer, or of such a course horizontally as would not interfere with the removal of solid excreta ; and it should enter the common or street-sewer at an angle not less than 45 degs. In form, the pipe should be elliptical, or egg-shaped, with the longer axis vertical, as such would carry off the solid excreta, paper, &c., &c., better than when it is of the ordinary circular shape. Similar experiments might be made with the ordinary glazed earthenware pipes laid in the usual manner. None of the above kinds of piping exceed in point of merit the glazed stone ware, provided the joints could be so made as to present as smooth and even a surface to the flowing sewage as the in- tervening body of each pipe. Sufficient attention is not being paid to this at present, owing to the erroneous notion, already noticed, so generally entertained, that if stagnation is pre- vented, no loss is sustained ; consequently the joints often resemble the steps of a stair, agitating the sewage similar to the agitation of water flowing over the ledge of a rock. Now, nothing can be more ruinous to the manurial preserva- tion of the sewage, and its profitable application to land, than the agitation and churning process to which it is thus sub- jected at these joints ; for, instead of preventing the speedy solution and subdivision of the excreta, and consequent rapid decomposition that follows, as required to prevent chemical action and change, it effects the very opposite, and consequently the greatest waste of the manurial elements of the sewage is experienced. We believe, however, that it is possible to pro- duce smooth joints, so that the whole of the interior surface shall be uniform throughout, and also the flow of sewage, and that tills would be effected were the loss now sustained once known, so as to stimulate improvement in the manufacture and laying of pipes. We repeat our conviction that if once the loss of manurial elements now sustained were ascertained by the commission suggested, and made known to the public who sustains this loss, no effort would be spared to secure smooth-bored pipes, and a uniform, even flow of the sewage ; for it must ever be borne in mind that when the sewage is found to be wasted and worthless for agricultural purposes, by having been made to flow upon the rough agitating surface of the sewer, and not only rough but rotten, being full of decom- posing matter, thus inducing, by inoculation and catalytic action, rapid chemical change, such a state of things is the sure evidence of a polluted atmosphere ; while, on the con- trary, a polluted atmosphere is tangible evidence of worthless sewage. The street or common sewer should be of a similarly ellip- tical or egg-shaped form, the longer axis being vertical, while the interior surface should be smooth, and as even and uniform in declivity as possible. It should also have a con- tinuous flow of water, sufficiently strong to carry forward all sorts of solid matter that may flnd their way into it from sinks, water-closets, stables, cow-houses, manufactories, &c., kc, thus effect ually preventing stagnation of any kind. This is essentially iiccossary in any experimental inquiry relative to the most economical plan for the application of town sewage to land ; for to allow stagnation to take place anywhere, and then to wash out the common-sewer every uow-and-then by 322 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. lieavy " flushings," is about as effective a mode of wasting the manurial value of the sewage as cau well be imagined. Uaving once tested the efficacy of the best construction of sewers in preserving the manurial value of the sewage, then other experiments might be made with sewers of an inferior description, and even the present sewers, in order to ascertain the difference, and the saving of ammonia and other fertilising matter that would be effected by the adoption of the former, and what profit this saving would yield, after covering the extra outlay of capital incurred. As in all similar cases, the distance the sewage can be con- veyed during the first interval of time, or before solution, sub- division, and decomposition commence, will be directly as the velocity of the flowing sewage, and the velocity as the decli- vity, or fall, of the sewer. In some places a natural fall could easily be got of a greater length than the distance in question, for trying an experiment ; but in the vast majority of our large towns there are low-lying, comparatively level districts, where such cannot be got : consequently, the engineer must have recourse to an artificial fall. In other words, to procure a fall, or declivity, of some twenty feet for the short distance in question that sewage will flow as above (and the fall should never be less than tliis), the sewer must be twenty feet deeper at the lower end than it is at the upper, where it receives the waste-water pipe from the water-closet. Novi^ such a declivity can only be got by subdividing large towns into districts, and placing in each of these pumjjing apparatus for sending the sewage to the country ; and by thus subdividing large towns, as the Metropolis, a faU of from twenty to tliirty feet can be easUy got, without any additional expense of steam-power, as the sewage can be raised this height to the pumps by the pressure of the atmosphere. In any experimental inquiry, therefore, advantage should be taken of desiderata of this kind, as there cannot be a doubt but the ultimatum of the solution of the sewage problem is the forcing of the sewage to the country from pumping-stations of this description, in metal pipes, so as to effect the greatest manurial economy of the sewage. When 30 much land is being laid out for 1)uilding purposes about this great Metropolis and other large towns, we see no difficulty in laying out experimental sewers, so that they could afterwards be adopted as the sewers of the districts through which they pass. This, from a pecuniary point of view, is a matter of no second-rate consideration ; for Parliament could easily hand over such a sewer to the proprietors of the re- spective districts, on terms that would be highly advantageous to aU parties, while such terms would reimburse to some ex- tent the draught upon the pubhc purse. It would even have a higher advantage than this ; for, the sewer being constructed on the most improved principles, it would not only be bene- ficial so far as its own drainage-work extended, but the good effects which it would thus produce would also stimulate other proprietors of household property to adopt the most economical system of the day for the husbanding of their sewage, as, under proper management, it will cover all ex- penses, and something more. SEWAGE-FARMING, IN THE LIGHT OF THE PRESENT AGE. The only difference that ought to exist between sewage- farming and the liquid-manure systems of modern times arises from locality and the market-demand for the produce of the land. In many places on the continent of Europe, and in most parts of the Celestial Emjjire (China), where the sewage of houses, both in town and country, is husbanded on something approaching to economical principles, there is no difference be- tween the two systems— or rather, perhaps, it would be more correct to say that two systems of manuring and cropping land do not exist. There, much of the solid manure of the farm, as also that procured from towns, is liquefied, and applied to the land in a semi-fluid state ; and what cannot thus be applied is put upon the land in small quantities aloug with the liquid manure, or else ploughed, drilled, or dug-in for special crops. The farmer who would settle down on any farm, determined to follow out the exclusive application of sewage-manuring where he could adopt the mixed system, would be considered beside himself, let the locality of his farm be what it may. Here, on the contrary, with all our golden opportunities and a much higher degree of professional knowledge in cultivation, ma- nuring, machinery, railway conveyance, market demand for our produce, and so forth, our manufacturing and commercial communities are proposing to apply their sewage to the land as our forefathers did in the days of yore, when they exported their com, and even their butter and cheese, to a foreign mar- ket, and when steam had not yet ventured, to do aught save bubble in the caldron, and occasionally kick up a row when a little water was, by thrifty house-dames, hastily put into the frying-pan. Such being the facts of the case, they form a timely subject for examination ; let us, therefore, look at them in the light of the present day. Wlien the British capital and her suburban towns and villages, as Croydon, are proposing to apply, and even are already applying, their sewage to laud on the old plan of gravitation, it does not say that they have attained to a much higher level in agricultural science than the most plodding of the old-school farmers in the provinces. AYhen we think of the obloquy which the former, in their every-day conversation on rural affairs, cast upon the latter, as being the most obtuse sticklers to antiquated routine and obsolete practices, no apology is required for saying in this place that the inhabitants of the metropolis, and town's-people generally, would do well at the present time if they would cast the beam out of their ovra eye, before proceeding to take the mote so frequently out of the farmer's ; for unquestionably the former are now falling fast behind the latter in the race of progress, as to the applica- tion of science to useful purposes, such as the utilization of their sewage, or, indeed, any other branch of productive in- dustry for the general welfare of the community. Improvement in the manuring of land with tovra sewage is, like all other improvements of the kind, a work of degrees ; so that the first step is the discovery of the short-comings of the gravitation system, in order to mend them. Of these the fol- lowing are the most deserving of special notice : 1. The first objection is the waste of manurial element before the sewage leaves town. This we have pointed out in two previous papers on "Experimental Inquiry relative to the Utilization of Town Sewage," and we shall only now refer the reader to what was then said as to the enormous loss at pre- sent sustained by towns — enormous because double or twofold — the ammonia and other fertilizing elements of the sewage being wasted on the one hand, and the atmosphere being pol- luted by the manurial properties thus lost on the other. There is something remarkable in this, for the latter appears to be inflicted, as it were, by the retributive hand of justice for the prodigal mismanagement of the former. The questions of health and wealth, it must ever be borne in mind, are insepar- ably connected in all branches of the great work of utilizing the sewage of towns ; for where the manurial value of the sewage of any town is sacrificed, the health of the inhabitants of that town is also sacrificed ; and where the manurial value is converted into the most money or wealth, there the sanitary welfare of the people is improved in the highest degree. This, we repeat, merits special attention. 2. The second shortcoming of the old gravitation system is the waste of the sewage experienced after it reaches the land, supposing the land situated in the most favourable position for application, viz., contiguous or close to the town, so that there is no intervening sewer or open-channel conveyance, and con- sequently no loss sustained thereby. But when it reaches the land and is distributed over the meadow in open channels, the loss from surface-contact with the atmosphere is very great, as was formerly explained under the familiar illustration of the rapidity with which flowing water in shallow channels purifies itself. No doubt we shall be told of the golden rule of ex- pediency. Granted, for the sake of the argument it advances. But how often does this involve a " penny wise and pound foolish" economy ? On the present occasion it is all bubbles together, if we may so speak ; for a more effective plan of wasting the fertilizing elements of the sewage oould scarcely THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 323 be designed and carried into execution ! Indeed, so prodigal is the waste that the practice may well be termed, by way of reproach, fhe successful solution of the problem how most to waste the already masted sewage of the town, and pollute the atmosphere of the district in which it is applied to land ? 3. The third source of loss has reference to drowniug the land with diluted sewage when it is already saturated to the fiiU, and even overflowing, vrith rain-water or melting snow ; and applying concentrated sewage in dry weather, when the laud is thirsty, and requiring an extra supply of water in the form of diluted sewage. In botli seasons there is somethiug so abnormal to the wants of the grasses grown as to call for practical censure ; for, what could be more diametrically op- posed to the economy of manurial values or the production of wholesome herbage as food for milch cows or any other kind of live stock to which such objectionable feeding material may be given, than the system of husbandry thus pursued ? In long tracts of rainy weather in wet seasons, either the sewage must be allowed to flow over the laud already saturated to such a degree as completely to destroy its aiiratiou aud hence the health of the grasses, which become red and badly coloured, indicating a sickly abnormal state of health, or else it must be shut-off and allowed to flow into the nearest ditch or river. If the latter, the sewage is wholly lost ; if the former, the up- shot is something worse, the atmosphere in soft and warm wea- ther becoming greatly polluted, and often highly pestilential, giving rise to agues and much malaric sickness amongst the inhabitants. How can it possibly be otherwise under such a system ? lu warm, dry seasons, again, when the sewage is concentrated in the greatest degree, and is reduced to the lowest manurial value before it reaches the laud, all the pro- fessional skill of the irrigator is taxed to the utmost in order to get it distributed over the meadows as rapidly and as evenly as possible, which iu practical language means wasting the manurial elements of the sewage as fast and as much practica- ble. Hence the stench that arises, and which may be felt in such seasons at a distance, thus becoming the source of many a grievous complaint to those that live in the neighbour- hood. Questions to the contrary may no doubt be raised by minds prejudiced in favour of their own doings, however anti- quated aud out of date ; but the bubbles amongst the grass when the water stagnates, the smell of the gases being thus evolved, and the colour, smeU, and taste of the coarse rank herbage, speak to practical men in language that cannot be misunderstood. 4. The unwholesome herbage just referred to is of itself a valid objection to the old sewage system, that cannot be con- troverted. From time immemorial the fact has been familiar to the agriculturist and flockmaster that the herbage of water- meadows is highly prejudicial to the health of sheep and even black cattle, producing a very inferior quality of beef and mut- ton for the shambles, and giving rise to hereditary disease in breeding stock. Given to milch cows, less liarm constitution- ally is produced ; because, as is well known, cows and other animals giving milk are able to work off in this secretion nox- ious matter, and thus avoid disease to which they would in- evitably be subject were the crude and imperfectly elaborated matter in the juice of the etiolated aud forced herbage taken farther into the circulation. But theu arises the question of the soundness and wholesome character of the milk of milch cows wlien fed on such deleterious food, for people have actually been poisoned by drinking goat's-milk when the aui- mal had eaten poisonous plants. Again, ever since the days of Hippocrates, the father of medicine, milch cows have been purposely ^ti. on various medicinal plants, and people in bad health well physicked by drinking the milk of such animals ; but when we come to the more practical question of physicking the inhabitants of the Metropolis and other large towns whole- sale with the milk of cows fed on the unwholesome herbage of the old objectionable system of sewage farming, we come to an hiatus in the pharmaceutical branch of the subject, that cannot perhaps be so readily filled up to the satisfaction of some rather nervous citizens of the British capital and other places. No doubt we shall be told by dairymen, as we often have been told in Edinburgh and other places, that " milcli cows are re- markably fond of sewage grasses," that they eat voraciously, and give a corresponding abundant flow of milk. But the philosophy of this is so plain and simple to tliose wlio under- stand professionally the science and practice of the matter, that he who runs may read ; for the diseased state of organism to which such food gives rise is a species of obesity in the out- set, aud it is a well established fact that this disease is attended with a craving voracious appetite, especially wheu obese ani- mals are fed on food that is deficient of much of the natural stimuli required by the various organs of the body. First, to inhale poison from an atmosphere polluted by the manurial elements of the sewage, and then to drink the unwholesome milk of cows from antiquated sewage systems — thus poisoning oneself a second time — evinces a degree of aberration that hardly has its parallel in the darkest corner of the country, pitch-dark as no doubt some corners are to this very day. 5. The fifth and last objection our space will permit us to notice on the present occasion, is the waste of the sewage during snowstorms, long periods of frosty weather, when it cannot be profitably applied to grass lands. No argument is required to show the want of economy which the old sewage system exemplifies in this 'respect. Sunday and Saturday, night and day, are alike to any gravitation system of distri- buting the sewage equally over the laud. Either it must be applied on the Lord's-day or one-seventh part of the whole sewage is sacrificed. Again, for several weeks, and even months, duruig the winter season, the sewage is lost. When drawbacks of this kind are added together, the sum is sufficient to turn the pecuniary balance against the profitable investment of capital iu any sewage-utilization project ; for the enterprize must be sometliing more than ordinarily profitable that would cover such an extravagant waste of its productive resources. It will thus be seen that there is no lack of head-room in the march of iiuprovement as regards a more profitable appli- cation of town sewage to land. If the medical maxim, " To find out the seat of the disease is to effect half the cure," be applicable, then the sewage malady is on a fair way of recovery ; for we have seen that from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot the old gravitation system is in an abnormal state, there beius? no soundness at all in any of its members. Like the soldier's gun, it requires " a new stock, a new lock, and a new barrel," to be fit for active service. Even granting that the sewage were sent to the country where it can be profitably applied to land, without having sustained any previous loss, comparatively speaking, either iu the coUectiou to pumping stations or in being forced through iron pipes a distance of some twenty niQes, we have then to entertain the very pro- blematical question. Is it fit for being distributed over the land in its normal condition/' or are we to view it only as forming raw materials of a very crude kind, that have to undergo various manufacturmg processes, during which they would have to receive many manurial additions before the manure thus made could be economically used in the growth of whole- some food for cattle ? Since different kinds of crops must be grown iu order to provide natui-al and wholesome food for cattle, and since these require dift'erent kinds or qualities of manure, is it not therefore manifest that sewage wiU require to be treated on principles corresponding to the manurial function it has thus to perform — principles iu some measure resembling those which a long experience has taught the Chinese and farmers of the continent to pursue ? From the foregoing data it is evident that town sewage can only be viewed by the professional agriculturists of the present day as consisting of certain animal, vegetable, and mineral substances, and that the normal combination which these form is subject to many manurial improvements corresponding to the progressive advances of modern husbandry, and that con- sequently suitable provision in any sewage-utilization project should be made for the manufacture of sewage into proper liquid or solid, or semi-solid manure, for whatever system of husbandry those who farm the sewage may find it most pro- fitable to pursue. In au age of progressive science like the present it would be highly premature to expend large capitals in carrying out plans already antiquated, as it were, or expen- sive plans that made no provision tor any subsequent improve- ment that might be discovered. Several things may safely be taken for granted by the capitalist. Thus, the sewage may safely be sent to the country, there to be manufactured, and to undergo whatever subsequent improvement may be discovered in processes of this kind. It may also be taken for granted that the greater proportion of it (the sewage) wiU be applied in a liquefied form, and that distribution to a certain extent will consequently be performed by hydrants, if not by the hose also. But l.'pyond this we shall not speculate at present, far- ther than observe that guano, bones, and other manures may, according to existing circumstauces, be often profitably added to sewage. 324 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. FACTS AND FIGURES FROM THE UNITED STATES. At a period when the columns of our newspapers are handed over to the achievements of war, it may be agree- able to obtain a little relief from the painful recitals of battles by a glimpse at the achievements of peace. The future of England and America are intimately bound up together. Some forecasters of the horoscope of nations suppose that as England must decrease, America must increase. It is not usual, they say, for the parent and the child to flourish together. The fulfibnent of this prophecy may, or it may not, become the history of the next century ; but it cannot be denied that the progress of the one state exerts a veiy powerful influence upon that of the other. This being so, we do well to acquaint ourselves with what is going on in the Western States, which are now passing through the doubtful and hazard- ous process of reconstruction. Not long ago a party of enterprising men visited the States of America to form their own opinion of the re- sources of that country, and particularly to ascertain to what extent these resources had been diminished, endan- gered, or their development retarded by the exhausting war which had engaged the country since 1860. Of this party was Sir Samuel Morton Peto. This gentle- man, falling-in with a variety of information relative to the present condition of the States not made public in this country, arranged it for publication on his return, and presented it to his countrymen. Erom this and other sources I intend to draw facts that will not answer to the description of some other facts mentioned by O'Connell : "Those that are new are not true ; those that are true are not new " — but facts that are both new and true. It seems to me not a little pai-adoxical to speak of a false fact. A fact which is untrue loses its character of fact. America — I speak, of course, of the Eederal States — has, in consequence of the recent war, to prosecute all its operations under a heavy pressure of debt, like Great Britain. AVe have been in the habit of regarding the debt, which upon our own shoulders we consider light, as intolerably oppressive and crushing on the young shoulders of America. The statistics to which I have referred pre- sent us with a picture that represents this young athlete as fully competent to bear the pressure, and to pursue her way under it with comparative ease. Nay, she outstrips us in the matter ; for, while we regard it as a meritorious and superhuman efi'ort to make arrangements for ridding ourselves of a portion of om* indebtedness during the next fifty years, the cry of the whole population of the States is to the effect that the debt " mzist he j'o.id" in a period not exceeding thirty years. The debt entailed by the war of 1812 was discharged from the ordinary source of re- venue, in a period of nineteen years, at a time when capital and population were both less equal to such an effort than they are at present. This debt is £600,000,000, and involves an annual interest of £25,000,000 : the an- nual interest payable on our own being £26,000,000. Since 1830, the population of the United States has increased nineteen millions, whilst that of our king- dom has increased less than six millions. This startling difference is due to immigration — a cause which does not appertain to any of the older European nations. Had it not been for this, the free white and coloured population of the United States would, at the present time, have numbered only 10,463,000, or one-third of the whole present population. Great Britain and Ireland have con- tributed most largely to this immigration. Our own emi- gration official returns show that within the years 1814 and 1800 no less than 4,244,727 persons emigrated to the United States and Canada. Of these, the United States officials claim to have received directly 2,759,874, or with those who came through Canada, about 3,250,000. Not only has America gained the advantage of this influx of population from us, as it might be supposed to our detriment, but it is observable that we have parted with these men and women just at a period of life when their labour would have been likely to teU in our favour as balanced against the expenses the nation had been at to sustain and train them up to the age of fifteen and twenty years. The records show that upwards of thirty per cent, of the whole were between fifteen and thirty years of age. Only ten per cent, were above forty, and only about eight per cent, uuder 5. France (208,063), Prussia (60,432), China (41,443), West Indies (40,487), Switzerland (37,733), Holland (21,579), next to the United Kingdom, contributed in the greatest degree from the people to popidate these flourishing States. Not only did the emigrants carry with them their muscle and skill and knowledge, but money and goods to the value (as it is estimated on the other side of the Atlantic) of from £13 sterling to £40 each ; so that, beyond the j'hysical and intellectual gifts, America is the better by some £80,000,000 for this adult flesh-and- blood importation. Of these immigrants, by far the greatest part are classed as labourers, farmers, mechanics, and merchants. It will not be matter of surprise to learn that the Northern States have received 8 to 1 of the people so imported. From the Report of the Commissioners of the Land Office (1860), I find that of the 3,250,000 square miles which constitute the territory of the United States, the public lands embrace an area of 2,265,625 square miles. Nearly one-third of this land has been surveyed (441,000,000 acres), and about 395,000,000 acres dis- posed of by sales and grants. " The lands are surveyed by the Government ; divided into townships of six square miles ; subdivided into sections, and these into quarter- sections of 160 acres each, which are set apart for home- steads. The system of ' squai-es,' by which every section and quarter-section is divided, by line running due north and south, east and west, precludes aU disputes as to boundary and title. As the old siuveys are filled up, new ones are made." The term " homestead law " may be familiar to many readers who may not know its exact provisions. It is clearly the policy of the Government to put forth induce- ments to settlement. This law is in the nature of such an inducement. If the settler is the head of a fainily, or twenty-one years old, and intends to settle and become a citizen, he can receive substantially as a free gift a "homestead," consisting of a quarter -section of a square, or 160 acres of land. Each of his children reaching the age of 21 yeai's receives the like gift. It is no small advantage to the settler that he can acce])t this gift of the nation to its citizens in a locality chiefly settled by his own countrymen. This and other privileges, such as freedom from taxation, and from all coercion in matters of religious worship, &c., account for the rapid rise of such States as Minnesota, Wisconsin, Indiana, &c. It is also to this fact — that every man has something to defend, and that there is no such large class THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. of paupers as \vc imfoi'tuualely possess hanging ou tlie neck and arms of industry — that must he attrihutcd the wonderful strength and elasticity that has hceu exhibited by the States duriug their four years' coullict. To the same fact, too, we must attribute the sudden termination put to the same war. On scrutinizing the census returns of 1860, it is clear that the country is essentially agricultural. At that date more than one-third, or 3,000,000, were occupied in the tillage of the soil. Of these, 2,423,895 eutered them- selves as "farmers;" 795,679 as "farm-labourers." There were also 85,561 entered as planters. The mer- chants and clerks of the States number 300,000. jMorc than 6,000,000 of the 8,200,000 heads of families can be so accounted for under the classification farmers, farm labourers, labourers, servants, carpenters, clerks, shoe- makers, merchants, miners, blacksmiths, teachers, and tailors, as to show a very clear preponderance of agricul- tural over other employments in the States. Sir Mortou estimates that fully seven-eighths of the entire population is engaged in agricultural pursuits, or in the various pro- fessions and trades materially dependent thereon. He makes use of this fact to show the impolicy of levying high rates of import duties for the protection of native manufactures, respecting the importance and ex- tent of which the people appear to entertain a strange mistake. He criticises the composition of the amount registered as the annual product of manufacturing in- dustry in 1860. It seems that of this sum (£400,000,000) no less than £44,800,000 are directly chargeable to " flour and meal," which is not only accounted a product of national manufactures, but, after being reckoned as grain, is a second time valued in the form of flour and meal — not the cost of the additional process only, but the cost of the raw material superadded to the miller's charges. This is not an exceptional case it would seem ; for Sir Morton shows that it is the same with wood, eu- tered in the products as timber and " lumber," or sawn timber. The country is credited with wool, woollen goods, and clothing — the first or prime cost being re- peated three times. The same with leather, spirits, beer, and fisheries. By this species of computation, the American is drawn into the belief that the manufactures of the United States are much vaster than they really are. The Protectionist points to the magnificent total (2,000 million dollars per annum) under the head of manu- factured products, and asks triumphantly whether inte- rests of such importance are not worth favour and pro- tection ? The manufactures of the States consist chiefly of agri- cultural implements and sewing machines ; of cotton and woollen goods ; of furniture, clocks, jewellery, and musical instruments ; and clothing, and boots and shoes — all of which are increasing. The hands thus engaged number 205,826. Those engaged in mining number 147,750. Notwithstanding that America has thus taken to furnish herself with many things she formerly obtained from us, our exports have increased from £5,283,020 in 1840 to £22,907,681 in 1860. America is wonderful in her rapid growth. Nothing is more remarkable than the rise of some of the great Western cities. Mmnesota is one of the youngest States; but though she only entered the Union in 1858, and has since then had to meet an invasion by Indian savages of the Sioux tribe, she sent 15,000 men to the war, and her principal town, St. Paul, increased from 10,000 people in 1860, to 17,000 in 1865. Wisconsin had a population of 5,318 in 1830, in 1860 it had risen to 775,881; while the town of Milwaukie, on Lake Michigan, has within a few years risen from nothing to be a city of 45,000 people, and " does the second largest corn and flour shipping trade of any city in America." Indiana has a town. Fort Wayne, almost unknown to fame. " Under my own eye," says Secretary M'CuUoch, " as it were it became a city of nearly 20,000 people — a city fiJl of vigour and enterprise — the second city of our State. Sir Morton Peto informs us that in Indiana, a fi-ee State, settled within 40 years — there are upwards of 1,000 cities, towns, and villages, of which more than 600 have a population exceeding 1,000 each. Cincinnati, which owes her prosperity mainly to her immense pro- vision trade, stands on what within the memory of living man was a forest, but has now 250,000 people. Of the extraordinary advance of Chicago enough has already been said. But perhaps this rapid growth does not show the wonderful resources and elastic power of America more than the slightness of the eifects observable from the late four-years war. To this fact Sir Morton alludes in the following terms : " Although the civil war in the republic extended over so great a breadth of territory, and al- though more than a million of men were withdrawn from the producing classes for employment in military service, yet the yield of the great staples of agriculture continued to increase, and never were greater than in the last year of the war." I find this sentence at the heading of a chapter relating to agricultural development, which is full of interesting materials. The statement is fully sup- ported by figures, which show that the cash value of the farms under actual cultivation in the United States in 1850 was £65,435,000, and £1,329,009,000 in 1860, being an increase of about 103 per cent, in ten years. Within the same period the price of land rose consider- ably. Some allusion was made in a former communication to the desire on the part of the Americans that their country should be esteemed for its manufacturing powers, and it was shown that although these are undeniably great, they bear no comparison with the agricultural interests, and are not by many degrees so important as their figures would make us believe. It seems to be no figure of speech when we say that America is the granary of Eui-ope. In consulting the census returns of 1860 I discover that the area of the country is thus described : Improved land in farms 163,110,720 acres. Unimproved land enclosed in farms ... 244,101,818 „ Uncultivated territory, fertile and waste 1,466,996,863 „ Here we perceive the explanation of the elastic hope that pervades tht people. It may be true that agriculture as a science or an art (which you please to term it) is inferior to that practised here ; it may also be granted that labour is much dearer ; but then not only does the climate enable the New England or the Southern farmer to grow wheat at much less per bushel than the farmer of England, " even," as Sir Morton adds, " if lie paid no rent," the absence of tithes and poor rates, and some other burdens, makes a vast difi^eience in favour of our cousins. Not only is there no pauperism, but pauperism is a long way off. There is room and inducement for every able- bodied man to work productively. The farms in size are for the most part small. They vary from 20 to 100 acres chiefly. Not more than one- fifth of the whole number exceed 500 acres. The largest properties are held in the slave States. Between 1850 to 1860 the rapidity with which laud came into cultivation was surprising. Illinois is a notable instance of this fact. Pennsylvania stood at the head of the wheat-producing States in 1850, her produce being 15,000,000, whilst Illinois produced 9,500,000 bushels. In 1860 Illinois produced 23,000,000, or more than the States of Penn- sylvania and New York put together. The progress of the Western States in wheat production 326 THE FAEMBR'S MAGAZINE. is seen in the following table, the amounts being in bushels : 1850. 1860. niinois 9,414,575 23,837,023 Indiana 6,214,458 16,848,267 Wisconsin 4,286,131 15,657,458 Iowa 1,530,581 8,449,403 Michigan 4,925,889 8,336,368 California 17,228 5,928,470 Minnesota 1,401 2,186,993 Altbongh within this decade the population of the Western States increased fifty per cent., the increase in the production of wheat was at a higher ratio. So great was this growth that the facilities of transport could not keep pace with it. The Western farmer has been making high prices dui'iug the war. His receipts have been much better than they were previously, when he had to depend upon the defi- ciencies of the European harvests. Now he is more de- pendent upon the eastern and middle States, whose popu- lation ceases to be occupied in corn-growing. In some degree, this will recompense him for the loss of war prices, but not so much so as to render him iudifferent to the prohibitive tariff now about to be levied upon foreign manufactm'e, for the benefit of a few manufacturers and traders, &c. No circumstance, probably, will make him more recusant than this ; and if free-trade do not ensue, separation of the West from the East will ; on the same ground that would have justified our manufactm'ing and artizan population in revolting against the laws which consigned them to starvation, for the special enrichment of the landed interest. The spirit of protection is not confined to the landowners and occupiers — each branch of trade and commerce would have a monopoly. The very vendor of cats'-meat would oblige the Legislature to restrict the number of barrows to supply his district ; and if they could, the hairdressers would obtain penal enact- ments against all who had the temerity to wear their own hair, so that their gain might be the greater fi'om the mannfactm-e of wigs. There appears to be some difference of opinion between Sir Morton Peto and the superintendent of the census of 1860 with respect to the powei's of production pos- sessed by the Western States. The latter authority, in his able papers upon the agriculture of the country, while discussing the question " Whether the Western States are capable of supplying the increased demand and growing deficiency of the New England and middle States, besides supplying the rapidly-increasing home demand, and have a surplus to export to foreign countries?" concludes that they cannot. Sir Morton, exercising his judgment upon the evidences brought before him, describes himself as being forced to take quite a different view. He regards the wheat-supply of the Western States as absolutely un- limited. Of course, this depends, in a great degree, upon whether it can be grown to a profit, which, after all, may resolve itself into the question of freight. If this only can be kept down by the increased facilities afforded. Sir Morton may be right, siuce the power of production is intimately related to the stimulus communicated, or the profit derivable from wheat-cultm-e. The shipment of wheat to Great Britain amounted, in 1859, to 295,248 bushels ; in 1860, it rose to nearly 12,000,000 bushels ; and in 1861 and 1862, to 20,061,000 bushels and 29,798,000 bushels respectively, falling, in 1863, to 16,000,000 bushels. This shows a supply of wheat amounting to 37i per cent, of our whole import. At the same time, the imports of flour into Great Britain fi-om the United States were 58.3 per cent. We have no conception of the enormous resources of this country. The following official table shows the ratio of increase in the value of the grain exported from the United States for a period of forty years : — Aggregate value of Percentage of Years. Exports of grain. Increase. Dollars. 1823 to 1833 67,842,211 ... — 1833 to 1843 73,303,440 ... 8.0 1843 to 1853 198,594,871 ... 170.9 1853 to 1863 512,380,514 ... 158.0 From this is to be seen what a stimulus this trade received from the repeal of the corn laws. Single years since 1846 show a greater aggregate trade than whole decades previously. Britain produces about two-thirds the total amount of her consumption, and of this deficiency of one-third the United States supply her with about half. This increase may be shown to be due to another cause likewise, which, though inaugurated in 1825, has taken some time to mature. Previous to that date the Missis- sippi was the only outlet to the ocean from the north- west. But in that year, the opening of a canal which placed the Hudson river in communication with Lake Erie brought the shores of the great lakes into communi- cation with the Atlantic. " This grand avenue developed a new world to the pioneer, the agriculturist, and the merchant." Another large field of cultivation was opened in 1848, by the construction of the Illinois and JNIichigan canal, and the formation of these canals were succeeded by ways of ii'ou, which have completed the present facilities for the development of the country. In the former part it was stated that the eight food pro- ducing States west of the Lakes embraced an area of 262,549,000 acres, of which only 52,000,000 acres were under cultivation in 1860, so that Sir Morton was fuUy justified in considering that ample scope remains for in- creased production. The only difficulty he sees exists is the possession of sufficient facilities of transport to meet the demand. The foUowiug table illustrates the fact that the entire export of grain from the United States at the present time does not equal the total product of any single State in the Union. Year. Wheat Produced. Wheat Exported 1850.... 100,485,944 7,535,901 I860.... 173,104,924 17,213,133 Ind. Corn Produced. Ind. Corn Exported. 1850 592,071,104 6,595,092 1860 838,792,740 15,448,507 In the Exhibition of 1862, the principal prizes were taken off by Australian and American wheats. The fine- ness of quality was not the result of culture, but of sun- shine, and in England the highest farming will not com- pensate for the absence of these favourable climatic con- ditions. The remark is true enough, but no legs true, that this variation of capabilities is designed by Providence to bring nations into harmonious co-operation by means of their dependence upon one another. F. R. S. BUTTER. — The public pay more for foreign butter than perhaps many persons iinagine — In 1854, the value o the butter imported into the United Kingdom was £2,171,194 ; in 1855, £2,049,523; m 1856, £2,635,182; in 1857, £3,061,280; in 1858, £1,842,855; in 1859, £2,080,143; in 1860, £4,078,017 ; in 1861, £4,902,394 ; in 1862, £4,923,100 ; in 1863, £4,537,157 ; in 1864, £5,652,704 ; and in 1865, £5,945,884. The English thus do not quarrel with their bread and butter, but take very kindly to it indeed. THE FAEMBR'S MAGAZINE. 327 OUR COAL, FOOD, AND POPULATION IN 1966. " While other countries mostly subsist upon the annual and ceaseless uicome of the harvest, we are drawing more and more upon a capital which yields no annual interest, but once turned to Ught and heat and force, is gone for ever into BpSLCe."—J'evons, p. 332. _ " A farm, however far pushed, will under proper cultiva- tion continue to yield for ever a constant crop. But in a mine there is no reproduction, and the produce, once pushed to the utmost, wdl soon begin to fail and sink towards zero. " So far then as our wealth and progi-ess depend upon the superior command of coal, wc muat not only stop, we must go back." — Jevon$, p. 178. Sir, — Since writing my last paper (" On our Coal, Food, and Population in 1966") I have been reading attentively Mr. Jevons' admirable book, which contains such a valuable, con- cise, but comprehensive summary of statistical facts bearing upon and arising out of our social and industrial condition, that I commend it for general perusal. From that clear-headed writer I quote the paragraph that heads this paper. The more one reflects on the general con- dition of British agriculture as compared with our other in- dustrial occupations, the more one is struck with the un- favourable contrast that it presents, and the public indiiference regarding it. Year by year we become more and more de- pendent upon foreign imports of food ; wliile, in an exactly opposite ratio, we are saturating the whole world with our other productions and manufactures. Tlie causes of this un- fortunate discrepancy are clear and obvious. In one case we employ an enormous increase of labour and capital, in the other a decrease of both ; for 1 believe that very much capital is annually lost by our ineificient, and therefore unprofitable mode of farming and land holding. In our agricultural counties population has almost stood stLU, and in some counties actually decreased during the last 10 years ; whereas in the manufacturing counties the increase of population is for the same period 20 to 23 per cent., and in manufacturing towns 26 per cent. Our manufacturing population has more than quadrupled itself in 60 years ; it has multiplied at a rate equivalent to doubling in 28 years. Now, it is quite clear that a proportionate investment of capital and enterprise must have also taken place, and that poor and inert agriculture has made little comparative pro- gress. I admit that the introduction of machinery in agri- culture may have displaced some portion of human labour, but that is but a small matter. In my own case, at Tiptree, with abvmdant machinery and steam power, the increase of labour has been 100 per cent., or from 22s. to 44's. per acre. If to this be added the extra labour used in the original im- provements, such as removal of fences, drainage, improved roads, new buildings, digging tanks, burning earth, &c., the population, in connection with agriculture, must have con- currently and greatly increased, and it has done so hereabout. The general, social, moral, and physical condition of the labourer has amended; our new village church and new dis- senting chapel are filled by well dressed and orderly congrega- tions: new cottages are erected, and the evidences of increased comfort as well as of increased population are various and un- mistakable. The new village school is well attended by the juvenile labouring population. Can any body, then, deny the benefits thus resulting to the country at large from such invest- ments of new capital in agriculture P What has taken place in this respect of labour in my neigh- bourhood has likewise occurred in all other similar cases of agricultural improvements. One great drawback to landowners is the difiiculty of find- ing tenants who believe that a capital of £14 per acre will bring them a larger per-centage of profit on their capital than an acreable investment of half or one-third of that amount. The general farm capital of the United Kingdom being only £4 per acre, it follows that our amount of food production must be miserably insufficient. The population of England and "Wales was in 1570, 4,160,321 ; 1670, 5,773,646 ; 1701 to 1750, about 6,000,000 ; 1801,9,192,810; 1831,14,070,681; 1861,20,281,587. As we have about 60 milHons of acres (landlords' measure) in the United Kingdom available for agriculture, importations of food were formerly unnecessary, and we were exporters of com; but now all this is changed. Our acres do not multiply, so that our popidation, owing to thejuiseraUy low production from those acres, require and consume the produce of probably some 30,000,000 of foreign acres. In other words, three acres (landlords' measure) are required for each man, woman, and child in the United Kingdom. With high farming, where abimdant capital and labour are employed, one acre per head of population would sufiice. The average acreable produce of the kingdom may be taken at £3 12s. On some lands of aver- age quality the produce is three times that amount — resulting from improvements effected by the landlord and tenants con- jointly. We must therefore conclude, that as compared with the enterprise of trade, commerce, and manufactures, agriculture is in a stagnant and non-progressive condition ; that it neither employs sufUcient capital or labour, and that consequently, in comparison with the other industrial occupations of the coun- try, it is poor, penurious, and humble. All this can only be remedied by a concentration of the present capitsil of landowners and farmers on a more limited area, and by much land passing into the hands of rich and enterprising purchasers and holders. The present landowners' capital I estimate at £1,500,000,000 (how much of this is on mortgage ?) ; the farmers' capital, about £240,000,000. Both those amounts must be doubled or tripled ere we can satisfy abundantly and cheaply with our own produce John Bull's gastronomic requirements. But where is the money to come from ? I have not been able yet to ascertain the amount of our loans to foreign and needy potentates ; but I fancy that the enormous total would go far towards accomphshing the objects I have indicated, to say nothing of our annual profits and accumulations, to the extent of probably near 100 millions. I do hope that our agricultural friends will give up their prejudices in regard to statistics, and then we shall have no longer to guess at the probable acreage and agricultural position of the country. Farmers must prepare themselves for a rise in the price consequent upon the scarcity in the supply of labour. Labourers not only migrate to America and our colonies, but are attracted to our mines and manu- factories by higher wages and a facility of communication and transit. Persons employed in agriculture are decreasing an- nually. In 1861, they only numbered 1,924,110; while in other occupations they liave vastly increased. The extensive use of agricultural machinery in the United States of Ame- rica is owing to the fact that the agricultural labourers always earned 4s. 2d. to 5s. per day, which, considering the low price of food there, was equal to 6s. or 7s. a-day in this country. Dear labour here will compel farmers to adopt machinery far more extensively than at present, and they will come to my conclusion, viz. : " Never to use a man where a horse wiU do, and never use a horse where you can substitute steam- power." Tiptree, J. J. MjEcai. 328 THE FxiRMER'S MAGAZINE. THE EWE AND LAMB AT WEANING-TIME BY A PRACTICAL FARMER. The weaniug-time is always one of particular interest to every sheep -breeder, as both ewe and lamb have to be pro\ided for, so that neither shall suffer damage. The ewe is liable to injury and loss of condition, in the first instance, if not carefully attended to, and proper keeping supplied to her. Tlie worrit and restlessness upon the immediate loss of her lamb are very great — running here and there, bleating loudly and lamentably, and often re- fusing food. It is very desii'able that the first separation should be a final one — i. e., the ewe and lamb sliould be removed so far apart, if possible, as not to hear each other's bleating. If not, this restlessness is continued for a considerable time, and loss of condition in both is the result ; but, if separated to the requisite distance, they will readily accommodate themselves to their mutual loss, and the lambs will soon commence a kindly grazing on their own account. The ewe is also liable to damage from her udder. The lamb ceasing to suck it, it will frequently become fuU, and require drawing, or it will soon be hard and inflamed, and often much suppuration takes 2)lace. These are matters for the shepherd's watchfulness. The time for weaning will, in every flock, depend upon previous management, and the preparation or suitable provision that the farm will afl'ord. It generally takes place in the month of July in most parts of the country. The grazing pasturage becomes old, and is too heavily stocked, owing to the growtli of the lambs. The clovers and meadows have been mown sufliciently long to permit the eddishes to make head. It is then the flockmaster deems it right to provide better keeping for his lambs ; and this leads to his weaning-time. Another cause for such a decision is the stoppage in the progress or well- doing of the lamb. Immediately after the ewe is shorn of her fleece, she improves in condition, and yields more and better milk. The lamb, of course, reaps the advan- tage ; and, as he grows, he is continually teasing his dam and abstracting every drop of milk. This, again, tells upon the ewe. She begins to shrink, so that the bi'ceder is fully satisfied that the time of separation, or weaning- time, has come. There is more care and judgment required in weaning lambs than is generally given to it. It will not accord with good management to take the lambs from the ewes, and place them upon a luxuriant and quick or strong- growing pasturage, nor upon a young and fruitful eddish. Both will prove too purgative for them ; and in wet sea- sons many will succumb to colic or diarrhma. Neither will it do to put them upon strong bullock-pastures : here they will be liable to inflammatory attacks, from over- feeding or doing too well. The change from suckling to providing for themselves must not be a violent or very direct change ; but they must be brought to it as gra- dually as possible. For this purpose it is very desirable to thin the stock upon the suckling-pastures previous to weaning, so that the grass or seeds can make a little ad- vance ; and when weaning-time arrives, I believe the best practice is to take the ewes away from the lambs, and leave them in the fields they have been accustomed to. The pasture will, in the absence of the ewes, soon im- prove ; and as they have been habituated to the field and their wonted haunts therein, they rest more kindly, and the risk from a direct change of food is avoided. In these fields they should remain some three or four weeks, until the clover or grass-eddishes, or aftermaths, are suf- ficiently grown to receive them. Neither the grass-fields nor eddishes should at any time be in a too-luxuriant state. The clover-eddishes should be old enough to pro- duce flowers before stocking, unless the season is very hot and dry ; and the grass-eddishes should be three or four weeks old, otherwise looseness of body and scouring will atfect the weak lambs, and the stronger ones will sufifer such damage as to prevent satisfactory progress when put to winter-keeping. The gi-eat thing is to keep them thriving. Por this purpose rich, young, and succulent food must be avoided, and sound, well-grown herbage must be provided. If this cannot be done, resort may be had to that salutary artificial food in such cases, " cotton-cake. " This cake, if good and ge- nuine, is found to be a good corrective, or rather altei'ative, in scouring animals. If the lambs are slow to eat it, let corn-meal of any kind be mixed with it, or oats or barley in limited quantity. As the season advances linseed cake may be more advanta- geously given : even such a small allowance as two ounces daily will promote their well doing, and as they grow it should be increased gradually to from four to six ounces, which will suflice for the winter. These are general re- marks for the whole flock, but they will not apply for the weak and sickly lambs : they must be nicely nursed upon weaning, or great loss will result in the winter. A place suited to their low condition must be selected for them, and any nutritious keeping that can be found must be judiciously given them, and that in great variety — grass, tares, seeds, cabbage, corn, meal, and cake, but not in a wasteful way ; they must be nursed well. If the lambs as a flock arc well summered no great danger will arise from weaning, and they will soon be strong enough for their winter keeping, to which they should be put immediately the eddishes begin to fail, and not later than Old Michaelmas on any account. If they are not habitua- ted to their winter keeping, i. e., turnips or coleseed before the rime fi-osts set in, there is much danger, and even cold rainy weather at that season is very injurious ; indeed, the change alone from grass, and aftermath or eddishes, is always attended with danger. The ewes will at weaning-time also require attention and care. They should be placed for a few days on the poorest pasture the farm will afl'ord, and if without water for a day all the better ; the object being to dry up their milk as soon as possible, in order that they may be prepared for better keeping. This is important, because if they ai'e draughted on to good pasturage the milk is flushed, and many weeks will not suflice to dry it up. Very little artificial means are resorted to for this purpose ; in obstinate cases of milk flushing, it may be right to bleed and give a dose or two of Epsom or Glaubers salts, or other alterative medicine, and the udder should be rubbed with some ab- sorbent. It will frequently require drawing ; and if it becomes hard, some soft emollient, i. e., soft-soap, or hog's lard, may be well rubbed in. When the milk has subsided, the sooner they are put upon the best keeping that can be provided for them the better. It must be remembered that the time for putting them to the ram will soon arrive; and if they have not recovered their con- dition, and the animal secretions have not assumed their THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 329 functions, a light fall of lambs may be confidently antici- pated. They cannot be too well kept immediately prior to being put to the ram, if the food is Jiatural, i. e., grass, seeds, clovers, and the like, or early cabbage or coleseed : these are very conducive to effective gestation. The better they thrive at this season the gi'eater success may be expected, their safety as breeders will be secured, and more and finer lambs will be the result. It is great folly for breeders to permit their ewe flock to ramble about in stubble fields, or any over-eaten eddish or pasture at this time : rather let every provision be made for their safe progress, even to the cultivation of late artificial grasses, or especial crops of green food for this purpose, i. e., plots of late-sown tares, or of early cabbage, or coleseed, for additional aids on their pastures. The great mistake made by many breeders is the supposition that the ewe flock will for the most part take care of itself ; that it may forage about wherever a stray blade of grass may be found ; that, in fact, it must shift for itself, providing room is found for it upon the farm. If any animals suffer, it must be " the old ewes." This is wrong ; I commend, therefore, my imperfect re- marks upon this point to the careful consideration of breeders, confidently assuring them that the better the care taken of the ewe flock, the better will every breeder be repaid. THE EWE AND LAMB AT WEANING- TIME. TO THE EDITOR OP THE MARK L.USE EXPRESS. Sir, — In looking over the columns of your valuable paper of tliis week, the owner of a flock would very naturally rest liis eye on the article written by a " Practical farmer " on the j_ ewe and lamb at weaning-tirae. Such was ray case ; and, wliilst admitting the many and valuable suggestions made therein for the welfare of the flock at this critical period of the year, yet I take very strong objection to one part of it, as I am convinced, as far as practical experience goes, it is directly opposed to good and safe management. I allude to that part where the writer says, " The change from suckling to pro- viding for themselves must not be a violent or very direct change, hut they must be brought to it as gradually as pos- sible : for this purpose it is very desirable to thin the stock upon the suckling pastures previous to weaning, so that the grass or seeds can make a little advance, and when weaning- time arrives, I believ e the best practice is to take the ewes away from the lambs and leave them in the fields they have been accustomed to. The pasture wiU, in the absence of the ewes, soon improve, and as they have been habituated to the field, and their wonted haunts therein, they rest most kindly, and a risk from a direct change of food is avoided. In the fields they should remain some three or four weeks," &c. Now, I hold that a lamb, after weaning, should never be suffered to graze on over-eaten seeds or grass — not even for a few hours — as most certainly, if it does (in the majority of sea- sons, as instance last year, when many in this district lost the greater number of their lambs), you have that most fearful and most deadly disease called " scour in lambs." This I alluded to in my letter of March 26, 1862, as given in your columns, and afterwards in the " Farmer's Magazine" for May in the same year. This was, however, afterwards more fully brought out in Dr. Crisp's very valuable paper on the " Lamb disease, as given in the "Journal" of the Bath and "West of England Society, vol. xi. part 1. If you permit me I will make a few suggestions as to the management of the lamb flock after wean- ing. Let them go on to clover or grass eddishes, young tares, or even on grass where bullocks have been grazed, and no sheep. And it is a capital plan to have a few early cabbages to throw amongst them ; this will generally keep them on till you have stubble-fields clear, young clovers to run over, if only sparingly — all these will be quite safe ; letting them have as frequent chancje as possible, a good lump of rock-salt to run to, good vi^itr, pure linseed-cake. If it is sought to push them on forfiU hoggs in the following spring, or even for stores, O^lb. of cake will be an advantage, but it is not altogether necessary. 15y the time stubbles are run over, and eddishes lost bloom, the fanner will generally have tm'uips ready to stock, and then the risk as to the parasite disease is over. I know you will pardon my taking up this matter, it being most important to us now, sheep being the most paying kind of stock we have, and I believe, taking the period of a farmer's life, would be found so. Whether our " early maturity" system, both for sheep and beast, is best, I leave with others, having my own ideas on the subject ; but I fancy, if we kept our stock to be full-mouthed, as I believe was ordained, we should hear less complaint about " worn-out pastures." — ^Believe me to be, sir, yours very faith- fully, WlLLUJaHAM EOWLER. Manloi), near Vp2nngliam. PEAT AS A MANURE- HUMUS. -VALUE OF The following paper on the " Presence and Source of Nitro- gen in Peat, with lleference to its Use as Manure," was read at the recent Botanical Congress at Loudon, by Professor Schulz Schulzenstein, Berlin : — " Ingcnhauss, Saussure, Boussingault, and others, have all one and the same theory as far as regards the nutrition of plants, viz., that the carbon and nitrogen originate from the air, and not from the soil, and that therefore the vegetable and animal ingredients of tlie soil are not to be considered the food of plants, but that the mould of the soil is derived from the plants themselves, and cannot serve them hereafter as food. But notwithstanding this theory, experiments in horti- culture and agriculture have shown that one can never do with- out carbonaceous manure, taken either from the vegetable or animal kingdom ; and experience proves that carbon plays the principal part in earthy manures ; that without mould, there is no plant-growing, as far as all artificial mixtures of the soil are based upon earthy substances ; and that mineral manure without mould is a chimera. Orchid-growers know now very well that, deprived of mould (hiunus), their plants will not succeed for any length of time. " We have it in our power to change, to improve, or to de- teriorate the different kinds of fruit — nay, the products of the vegetable kingdom altogether, in manuring the soil with dif- ferent humus-substances, without the air interfering in the slightest degree, simply because the different fertility depends upon the soil and locality. The air appears to be the same everywhere , and we could not speak of a local difference in the vegetation if the air furnished the food for plants. Prac- tical experience contradicts the theory of lugenhauss, Saus- sure, Liebig, ice. All cultivation amounts practically to this — to avail ourselves of the humus-substances of the soil, or to improve them. And in this way we prepare peat as manure. The easier peat decomposes, tlie better it acts on the vegetation ; and those cheap kinds which are very light and spongy, and are not fit for burning, are especially to be recommended for manuring the soil, which is rendered more absorbent of the humidity of the air, and by-and-bye the whole mass of the turf is decomposed by putrefaction. The lighter and more spongy the turf is, the quicker will be the results. All turf is more or less ammoniacal or nitrogenous ; and the stronger it smells in burning the richer it is in nitrogen, and the more fit, there- fore, is it to be used as manure for corn or garden plants. Owing to the quantity of nitrogen that the peat contains, ani- mal manure is rendered more or less needless ; and we ought, therefore, to use it always in the cultivation of those plants for which any animal substances are unsuitable. " But what is the source of nitrogen in turf? The general opinion is that carburetted hydrogen gas is formed, of which the hydrogen unites itself with the nitrogen of the air so as to form ammonia. This, however is contradicted by the nitro- gen not being present in the turf itself in the form of ammonia, which is only formed by the dry distillation of the turf, just in the same way as it originates through the dry distillation of animal substances. This shows that the nitrogen in the turf must be in the same condition as it is in animal substances, as for instance in horn, bones, alliunien, and meat. In fact, it can be proved that the nitrogen of the turf really originates from animal bodies which live or have lived therein, and of 330 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. which traces are to be found in the turf. The classes of infu- soria, polypes, worms, moUusca, Crustacea and insects are best represented, which through their bulky development produce the nitrogen in turf-pits and turf itself. " Turf manure does not act so quickly as stable manure, because it decomposes more slowly, but it thereby becomes more eificacious. " Liebig affirms that turf can only be considered as a manure for plants if phosphate of lime be mixed up with it. But as turf contains iu itself a sufficient quantity of this substance, I need hardly say that Liebig's opinion cannot be upheld in practice. My experiments in adding bonedust to the turf have not given any better results than by using turf alone. " Manuring with humus in general, and manuring with turf and decayed vegetable substances in particular, show irrefutably that the food of plants forms a simple substance, which is re- presented in the gases of humus — carbon, hydrogen, and nitro- gen— and that the plant does not need to procure the carbon and nitrogen from different sources, and to compose only the food out of the elementary substances." GREEN MANURING— CLOVER HAY. Green manuring, or the growing of some vegetable crop and ploughing it down while in a green state, is by some thought to be the most economical way of manuring or improving the soU : that it will benefit a succeeding crop every one who has properly tried it will testify in the affirmative. This practice of ploughing down green crops is of ancient origin, it having been practised by the ancient Romans, if not by other nations even in earlier days. Since, it has been practised by all en- lightened agricultural nations to a greater or less extent. By means of ploughing-under such green crops as clover, corn, rye, buckwheat, &c., the poorest soil where seed can be induced to sprout and grow may be gradually converted into a most fer- tile one. Of aU the crops grown for the purpose of improving the soil, perhaps there is none equal to red clover. The rank spreading foliage effectually shades the ground, and draws a large portion of its pabulum from the air ; the long heavy roots reach well into the ground, loosening and dividing a close soil, permitting the action of the air and elements still farther to reduce the sterility. An advantage of clover over other green crops is in the fact that a crop may be saved for feed by cutting in June or early in July, and the aftermath, with the roots turned under to decay, are found equal to the effect pro- duced by ploughing down the first crop ; thus we have the very best of hay for feeding purposes and making manure, as well as all the advantage to be derived from the other course. The non-success of a large class of farmers in properly curing and saving clover hay, has given it the disrepute with which it is held in the estimation of that class, as well as others. Wlien cut at the proper time, which is when the heads begin to turn brown, and properly cured and stored, without losing the leaves, it furnishes the best kind of hay for stock, and the richest manure with which to supply future crops with the necessary elements to a vigorous growth. I cannot refrain here from further digressing, to give my mode and ideas of how clover hay should be made. Mow as soon in the morning as dry from dew, and here I prefer the old scythe and swathe, as there is less handling to waste the leaves. Let it lie two or three hours, and turn the swathes bottom up. About 4 or 5 o'clock pitch the clover into small loose cocks ; let them remain till between 11 and 12 o'clock the next day, when they are divided, loosened, and turned bot- tom up vidthout shaking. About 4 p.m. haul to the barn and place on a scaffold. If the quantity be large, it would be best to have two mows to receive the same. We thus dry out the watery portion, leaving the juices in the proper state diffused throughout the hay. Clover put up in this way, without being wet, wiU come out bright, sweet, and witliout smoke. Cows will eat it and gain largely in milk : other stock will fatten upon it faster than with common hay accompanied with meal. Wlieat or corn grown to follow clover turned under is generally more free from disease, worms, &c., and yields larger and better crops than when an ordinary application of animal manure is made for such crops. Very little labour is required in getting in a crop of clover ; no farther care, and will last two years, and, with proper management, often much longer. There is no crop grown which is so greatly improved by the application of gypsum as clover. A small appUcation wiU in- crease the growth, giving a heavy coat of green material to turn luider. It js therefore economy to make an application of a bushel or so per acre to a crop designed for manurial purposes. It is not my design in this article to go minutely into the management or preparation for and growing crops designed especially for ploughing down, but to make some general ob- servations on the subject of green manuring, benefits to be derived therefrom, &c. The benefits derivable are numerous and great. In the first place it restores all the mineral or other ingredients drawn or absorbed from the soil in the growth of such plants back to the soil ; it also restores to the soil all the fertilizing gases that those plants have absorbed or derived from the atmosphere. It is an established fact that plants by their leaves absorb from the air oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, car- bonic acid, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, chlorine, &c. ; while through the roots or spongioles they suck up from the soil lime, alumina, magnesia, potash, soda, sulphur, oxides, &c. ; these are all, or nearly all, returned to the soil in ploughing them down at the proper time — that time, che- mistry would teach us, is when the plant has arrived at the proper stage, containing all those elements in the greatest abundance, before having arrived at perfect maturity, as, in such case, the land is robbed of a portion of the nutriment with which it is designed to supply it. The most proper time for ploughing, without doubt, is as soon as the crop is in blossom, as then it is supposed to have attained to the greatest perfection all the elements of its growth. The ground should lie a week or two previous to the crop following being put in, to give time for the escape of some of the gases generated in the decomposition. Warm weather is essential when the work is performed, that the fermentation may go forward to the early rotting of the crop. Warm and moist weather will forward the decomposition, provided there is a suitable mass to decompose rapidly. In seeding for green manurial purposes, the quantity 6i seed should be liberal, or the object sought for is not obtained; the crop therefore should be dense and close, and a foot or more high, when ploughed under. AVhen ready for the plough, it should l)e rolled, while the dew is on, with a heavy roUer in the direction the furrows are to run ; tliis mass should be thorouglily covered. As my ideas of good plough- ing were expressed in a former communication, no farther directions are necessary, except to say that to obtain the greatest immediate advantage from a green crop ploughed down, it should be covered only three or four inches deep — just deep enough to prevent wastage, and, at the same time, near enough the surface to be acted upon by the air and solar heat. A deeper covering will not give the following crop timely and regular nourishment ; the effects are only obtained after further ploughing. Very much might be said further why green manuring is beneficial, and how it is so ; but the limits of this article for- bid going into the subject further. I might adduce what is mentioned upon this subject by agricultural writers, both of Europe as well as of America ; but will close this somewhat rambling article by referring to the names of such writers as Chaptal of France, Sir H. Davy, Professor Johnston and Way of England, Judge Buel, R. L. Allen, Dr. Daniel Lee, with a host of other writers, of the United States. — Wn. H. Whitk in American Conninj Gentleman. THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE. 331 ON PLOUGHING AND POTATOES One of the most striking of those contrasts which arrest the attention of an intelligent agricultural observer, between the tillage of English fields and those of New England, as well as of America generally, is in the matter of ploughing. In England bad plougliing is rare ; in New England good plough- ing is even rarer. Something is to be allowed, of course, for the irregular and rocky surface of new lands ; but even upon the best meadow-bottoms along our river-courses, a clean straight furrow, well turned, so as to oifer the largest possible amount of friable mould for a seed-bed, is a sight so unusual that in a month of spring travel we might count the number on our fingers. I go stiU further, and say — though doubtless offending the patriotic susceptibilities of a great many — tliat not one American farmer in twenty knows what really good ploughing is. Over and over the wiseacres at the county fairs give their first premiums to the man who by a little deft handling of the plough can turn a flat furrow, and who wins honours by his capacity to hide every vestige of the stubble and to leave an utterly level surface. But a flat furrow, with ordinary implements, involves a broad cut, and a conse- quent diminution of depth. The perfection of ploughing upon sward-land implies, on the contrary, little pyramidal ridgelets of mould, running, like an arrow's flight, the full length of the field ; all which a good cross-harrowing wUl break down into fine and even tUth, like a garden-bed. Yet again and again I have seen such ploughing, by Scotch adepts, con- demned by the county wise mr-n for its unevenness. The flat furrow is not indeed withuuL its uses under certain conditions of the land, and with special objects in view — as, for instance, where, by a fall ploughing, one wishes a partial disintegration of the turf, in view of a " turning uuder" of the whole surface upon the succeeding spring for a crop of roots. This is prac- 1» tised upon the island of Jersey (so famous for its dairy stock) with great success. The sod is " skimmed" (such is their term) in the month of November or December ; and with the opening of spring all is turned under by a plough, which, so far as I have observed, is peculiar to that island, and which works ten inches in depth and requires a team of four horses for its efl^ective use. I must have a word or two to say here in regard to Ame- rieau ploughs, which, from the fact that they have received occasional commendatory prizes from foreign committees, have been counted by the sanguine superior to all other implements of the name ; and gushing orators have lavished brilliant periods upon our superiority to the world in this branch of agricultural mechanism. Nothing surely can exceed the best American ploughs in their adaptation to present American needs. They are light, compact, strong, and, in rough lands, are by half more manageable than the best English imple- ments. But supposing a great reach of well-tilled and per- fectly cleared field, and the improved iron Scotch plough will lay a far more true and even furrow with one-half the ex- penditure of manual force. Under such circumstances, the great weight of the Scotch implement, added to its carefully- adjusted poise, counts in its favour. We shall gain nothing by denying this, aud by exaggerating the value of our wooden framework, which has lieeu suggested at once by the chea))- ness of timber material and by the exigencies of a rough country. Nor have I any matter of doubt that as our culture ripens into seizure of all economic methods, our implement- makers will adapt themselves to the new demands with that shrewdness which has thus far been so characteristic of their efforts. Another noticeable feature in European field managemeiit, which contrasts it strongly with much of our helter-skelter planting, is the almost universal adoption of the drill system iu the culture of all hoed crops, by virtue of which fertilizing material is applied directly to the plants, and the same dis- tributed— by a transverse ploughing the succeeding season^ for the benefit of the cereal which comes next in rotation. It may be questionable if our corn crop (maize) will not succeed best under so-called " hiU " culture, and with a broadcast ap- plication of manure, since it is a gross and wide feeder, and demands full flow of sun and air; but in respect to most other hoed crops, there can be no doubt of the superior economy, as well as the more orderly appearance of the drill system. Take, for instance, our ordinary crop of potatoes (and I think the details of its management were never before a subject of discussion in a popular magazine), four out of ten patches of this worthy esculent are, in New England soil, put down in wavy lines of hiUs — irregular in distance, slatternly in culture, and yet involving per bushel a far larger expense for tillage and harvesting, than if dressed, planted, cleaned, and earthed up according to some system which would demand trim lines, even distances, and a complete shading of the whole ground iu the season of their most rampant growth. Perhaps I shall not be counted too intolerably practical, if I indicate the actual method of procedure which has been sometimes followed under my own observation, We will suppose that a good surface of sward-land (requiring a lift by reason ofits weediness) is turned over lightly (and flatly, if you please,) in the month of October. Nothing offers better pabulum for potatoes, or indeed almost any crop, than decaying turf. In April the raw surface is levelled with a Scotch harrow, and thereupon all is turned un- der seven inches by the best plough at command vnth three horses abreast (two will weary of the work). After this the harrow is put on again, up and down and across. There is no fear of harrowing too much. This being accomplished, and the manure disposed (since March) in huge heaps at either end of the field, three deep furrows are opened at, say, two or three rods apart, by a ploughman who can drive his furrow across as straight as the flight of an arrow. Immediately up- on the opening of the flrst, the cart follows, and tivo men strew the opened furrow with the half-rotted manure. An- other hand follows with a sprinkling of guano and plaster ; and still another follows to drop the seed. Upon this the ploughman laps a furrow in way of cover ; two furrows follow as in ordinary plougliing, and every fourth one is treated as we have described with ample dressing and seed. Three series of furrows being opened at the start, permit the plougliman to go his rounds without interfering with the planting and dressing. When the whole field is gone over after this system it has simply the appearance of a thoroughly ploughed surface. Nothing more is done until the young shoots begin to appear ; at this time the Scotch harrow is put on, and the land com- pletely weeded and levelled, little or no harm being done by this procedure to the starting crop. The whole field has thus the evenness aud the cleanness of a garden. Three weeks later, especially if the season be favourable to weed growth, it may be necessary to go between the rows — now most distinctly and luxuriantly marked with tufts of green — with the cultivator ; and no further culture is needed until the " earthing-up" process is accomiilished with a double-mouldboard plough. This done, the crop takes care of itself imtil harvesting time, no hand hoe or further culture being essential. I venture to say that the cost per bushel is twenty per cent, less than that by the or- dinary, hap-hazard, hand tillage. In addition to this there is the delight to the eye of trim rows of luxuriant foliage, inter- lacing by degrees, and covering the whole surface with a rich mat of green. If the experts in the growth of this old esculent — whether in Maine or on the Bergen flats — have any fault to find with the method, we will be patient listeners. — Mr. Mitchell in Hours al Home. 332 THE FAPvMER'S MAGAZINE. CAMBRIDGESHIRE AND ISLE OF ELY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. MEETING AT CAMBRIDGE. Friday.Sept. 7, was fixed for the holdingofthe exhibition, and in the early portion of the day, although rain did not actually fall, it looked very threatening. The show took place iu a large and suitable field lent by Mr. T. Sayle, situated on the Hill's-road, and within a few minutes' walk of the railway station. On the whole the horse department formed the principal feature of the show ; but this section is not remark- able for any extraordinary excellence. The sheep were a very meagre supply, owing to the new Orders of Privy Council, dated 8th August, preventing the farmers in Huntingdon- shire bringing their animals for exhibition ; while the quality of the animals did not come up to what might have been expected. There was a small supply of pigs, among which there were some first-rate boars, and one immense sow. There was a large show of implements of all kinds, Messrs. E. Headly and Son, of Cambridge, having the largest collec- tion. The next largest number was displayed by Mr. Swann Hurrell (the Mayor of Cambridge). Other exhibitors were Messrs. H. and J. Cutlock, Ely ; E. and H. T. Turner, Ipswich ; Woods and Cocksedge, Stowmarket ; W. P. Wilkins, Ipswich ; Chas. Burrell, Thetford; J. W. Brandford, March; G. Cheavin, Boston ; J. Armitage, Chatteris ; R. Maynard, Whittlesford ; J. Pigott, Cambridge ; A. and W. Eddington, Chelmsford ; J. and S. Rawlins, Melbourn ; T. P. Hitchcock, Bury St. Edmunds ; and E. Page and Co., Bedford. The judges were: of Cart Horses, Messrs. J. Plowright, and G. Bed- ford ; of Nag Horses, Messrs. H. Boulton and T. Percival ; of Sheep, Messrs. W. Looker and W. Ladds ; of Shortwool and Cross-bred Sheep, Messrs. H. Woods and H. W. Bea- ford; of Swi^vE, Mr. W. Looker and Mr. W. Ladds; of Poultry, Mr. J. Mousey. PRIZES. Horses for Agricultural Purposes. For the best staUion, having served not less than 20 mares in any part of the county or isle during the last season. — First prize £10, Mr. E. J. Clayden, Linton ; second £5, Mr. F. W. LUley, Grantchester. For the best entire two-year-old colt. — First prize £6; Messrs. T. and S. Fyson, Warboys ; second £3, Mr. James BaUey, Wilburton. For the best cart mare, not under four years old. — First prize £5, Mr. T. Gunnell, Milton ; second £3, Mr. W. Baker, Stapleford. For the best mare, with her foal. — First prize £6 and second £3, Mr. J. Warth, Sutton. Highly commended, Mr. G. Vipan, Stretham. For the best three-year-old filly. — Second prize £3, Mr. S. Clayden, Little Linton. For the best two-year-old filly. — First prize £4, Mr. John Triplow, Chatteris ; second £2, Mr. John BeU, Whaddon. For the best plough team. — First prize £4, Mr. John Linton, Westwick Hall. For the best pair of dray horses. — Prize £4, Mr. J. Warth, Sutton. For the best mare or gelding of any age, open to all Eng- land.—Prize £5, Mr. J. Warth, Sutton. For the best three-year-old cart gelding, open to all England. — Prize £5, Mr. C. Mainprice, Ely. For the best van horse, mare, or gelding, not exceeding seven years old, open to all England. — Prize £5, Mr. W. Baker. Stapleford. For the best dray horse, open to all England. — Prize £5, Mr. J. Warth, Sutton. For the best Sufi'olk cart staUion, the ovraer undertaking to travel him in the Cambridfce district next season, open to all England. — Prize £5, Mr. E. J. Clayden, Barham Hall, Linton. For the best entire horse for agricultural purposes, open to all England, the proprietor being a member, or paying an en- trance fee of one guinea.— Cap value £20, Messrs, T. and S. Fyson, Warboys. Riding and Coaching Horses. For the best thoroughbred stallion. — Prize withheld. For the best hackney stallion. — Prize £10, Mr. R. Joselyn, Ely. For the best mare calculated to breed weight-carrying hunters. — First prize £5, Mr. U. Hurrell, Newton ; second £3, Mr. H. Thurnall, Royston. For the best mare or gelding, under five years old, adapted for hunting purposes. — ^I'irst prize £5, Mr. W. Sismau, Buck- worth ; second £3, Mr. H. Jones, Littleport. For the best hackney mare. — Prize £4, Mr. J. Warth, Sut- ton. Commended : Mr. J. Warth. For the best three-year-old colt or filly, not under 14 hands. — Prize £4, Mr. D. Adams, Cambridge. For the best hunter of any age, open to all England. — Prize £5, Mr. D. Adams, Cambridge. For the best roadster of any age, open to all England. — Prize £5, Mr. John Warth, Sutton. For the best hackney mare, with foal at foot, mare not under 15 hands, open to all England, prize £5, Mr. J. Warth, Sutton. For the best cob mare or gelding, not exceeding 14 hands, open to all England. — Prize £5, Mr. R. Pate, Haddenham. For the best pony mare or gelding, not exceeding 13 hands, open to all England. — Prize £3, Right Hon. Lord George Manners, M.P., Cheveley Park. Commended : Mr. R. Pratt, sen., Cambridge. For the best charger, open to all England. — ^Prize £5, Mr. D. Adams, Cambridge. For the best hunter of any age, the property of a subscriber. — Prize £5, Mr. D. Adams, Cambridge. For the best hackney mare or gelding under six years old. — Prize £5, Mr. W. Sisman, Buckworth. Sheep. For the best shearling Southdown ram. — First prize £6, and second £3, Lord Braybrooke, Audley End, Essex. For the best shearling short-wooUed ram, not Southdown. — First prize £6, and second £3, Mr. J. Giblin, Little Bard- field. For the best pen of five shearling Southdown ewes. — First prize £6, Lord Braybrooke. For the best pen of five shearling short-wooUed ewes, not Southdown. — First prize £6, Mr. C. Bottom, Newmarket ; se- cond £3, General Hall, Weston Colville. For the best pen of five Southdown ewe lambs. — First prize £4, and second, £2, Mr. J. Clayden, Littlebury. Commended : Lord Braybrooke. For the best pen of five short-woolled ewe lambs, not South- down.— First prize £4, Mr. P. Portway, Great Sarapford, Essex ; second £2, General Hall, Weston Colville, and General Hall commended. For the best pen of five Southdown ram lambs. — First prize £4, Mr. J. Clayden, Littlebury ; second £2, Lord Braybrooke. For the best shearling Leicester or Lincoln ram. — First prize £6, and second £3, Mr. C. Hales, Bassingboum. For the best shearUng long-woolled ram, not Leicester or Lincoln. — First prize £6, and second £3, Mr. J. Giblin, Little Bardfield. For the best pen of five shearling Leicester or Lincoln ewes. —First prize £6, Mr. T. Gunnell, Milton ; second £3, Cap- tain Catlin, Elm, For the best pen of five shearling long-woollcd ewes, not Leicester or Lincoln. — First prize £6, Mr. J. Giblin, Little Bardfield. For ths best pen of five Leicester or Lincoln ewe lambs. — First prize Mr. T. Gunnell, Milton ; second £2, Mr. E. Ford- ham, Odsey, Royston. For the best pen of five loug-woolled ewe lambs, not Leices- ter or Lincoln.— First prize £4, Mr. F. W. LUley, Grantches- ter ; Bccoud £3, Mr. W. Hurrell, Newton. J THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 333 For the best pen of five Leicester or Liacolu ram lambs. — First prize £4f, Mr. 11. Holbeu, Barton ; second £'2, 3Ir. E. ForJham, Odsey, Royston. For the best pen of five long-woolled ram lambs, not Lei- cester or Lincoln. — First prize £i, Mr. W. Hurrell, Newton. For the best pen of three shearling short-wooUed fat wethers. — First prize £S, and second £3, Lord Braybrooke , commended, Mr. F. Street, Harrowden House, Bedford. For the best pen of three shearling loug-wooUed fat wethers. — First prize £3, Mr. F. Street, Harrowden House, Bedford ; second Mr. T. Gunnell, Milton. For the best pen of three shearling cross-bred fat wethers. — First prize £3, Mr. F. Street. For the best long-woolled ram, open to all England. — Prize £5, Mr. T. Brown, Marham Hall, Downham ; Mr. J. Giblin, commended ; Captain Catlin, Elm, highly commended. For the best short-wooUed ram, open to aU England. — Prize £5, Lord Braybrooke. To the exhibitor, residing in the county or isle, of the best pen of ten ewe lambs, of any breed. — A cup, value £5 os., Mr. T. Gunnell, Milton. Pigs. For the best boar, large breed. — First prize £3, Mr. S. Wal- lis, Grantchester ; second £1 10s., Mr. W. Hurrell, Newton. For the^best boar, small breed. — First prize £3, Mr. J. Clayden, Littlebury ; second £1 10s., Mr. S. Jonas, ChrishaU Grange. For the best sow in-pig, large breed. — First prize £3, Cap- tain Catlin, Elm ; second £1 lOs., Mr. J. F. Fetch, Cambridge. For the best sow in-pig, small breed. — First prize £3, Mr. 11. ThurnaU, Royston ; second £1 10s., Mr. S. Jonas, ChrishaU Grange. For the best pen of three sow pigs, not 6 months old, large breed. — First prize £3, Mr. J. F. Fetch, Cambridge ; second £1 10s., Mr. S. Peed, Cambridge. For the best sow and pigs, large breed, open to all England. Prize £3 IDs., Mr. W. Hurrell, Ne«ton. Extra Stock. Riding and coach-horses. — Mr. G. S. Hall, highly com- ? mended. THE DINNER Took place in the large room at the Guildhall, at four o'clock) the Earl of Hardwicke in the chair. The E\RL of H.uiDWiCKE, in proposing the toast of the evening, " Success to the Society," said they had met that day under what he would venture to term adverse cir- cumstances. The managers of that Society had — very wisely, he had no doubt they would think with him — determined to hold that meeting, despite the state of agricultural affairs, to prevent any link in that chain of their proceedings that was pursued from year to year from being broken, without any hope that they should have a magnificent show or a very large attendance. L'nder all the circumstances he thought they liad every reason to be satisfied. It was true they had to regret the absence of many gentlemen of the county, and they had to re- gret also the total absence of any members of the University, as the latter body were large landowners. The corporate bodies of the University possessed a large proportion of the area of the county of Cambridge — they were great landowners — so he should be happy to see them associated with the Society, as their interests were identical. One reason tor the non- attendance of members of the University and others was that it was the season when parties changed their habitations, and those who had passed the greatest part of the year on their lands and in their houses sought a little cbange of climate at the seaside to recruit their health. So, though Septeikber was a very good time for the Society to hold its meeting ii one re- spect, it was not the time when they migiit expect a very large attendance of the general public. He would admitit was ne- cessary to hold the show when the climate would adnLit of an out-door exhibition. The chief affliction which had fallen on tlie Society was that terrible disease tliat had deprived them of an exhibition of horned stock, which would otherwise doubt- less have been a most satisfactory one. It would be advisable to state their position with regard to it now. In Great Britain — he said Great Britain, for Ireland had happily been exempt — in Great Britain the total number that had been attacked was 253,311 ; and the disease was so fatal, that of these 12'i,2S8 died, 84,630 were killed, a.nd 33,314 recovered ; so that they were not left without hope that medical experience and prac- tice might tend to prove that the disease is not incurable. The statement he had ijiven left ten thousand unaccounted for. That was for the United Kingdom. They would doubtless like to know the state of affairs for the county of Cambridge. Tiie total attacked in Cambridgeshire has been 7,874, of which 4,533 died, and 3,CS5 were killed, leaving only 1G3 unac- counted for. They would think their prospect was a pleasunt one when he told them, in addition, the state of the disease in the county of Cambridge last week. The number at- tacked was one, and in the column where any might be added the return was " none." Thus, as their President he was able to announce to them for the time being the exter- mination of this terrible disease, and of holding out to them great hopes that in coming years that society would exhibit great vitality, and would be the means of materially im- proving the condition of the county. There were no matters more interesting to discuss than those appertaining to such a society as that ; but to do them justice required more intelli- gence and understanding, combined with more knowledge of the subject than lie possessed, to enlighten their minds and to illustrate the facts. Those societies met from year to year, and little tliat was new was brought before the public. F>om year to year they followed in the same path. From time to time there was an alteration or improvement in machinery, in cereal or root crops ; but as they appeared to come in regular course they were not so much thought of as they ought to be. There was no other class of society that had such important objects as they were met for — to devise the means of raising for man the largest amount of good food. It was customary to extol our manufactures ; and there were, doubtless, among manufacturers many who were princes in position ; but he doubted much if their avocation tended nearly as much to pro- mote the social welfare of man as that the members of that society were engaged in. How much they might learn by in- tercourse with one another at these societies was not always considered, nor was it reflected that it was only by rubbing to- gether— man against man, intelligence against intelligence — that general improvement could be produced, or instruction given ; for, after all, books ouly reproduced the thoughts that were broached at such societies. That was particularly the case with agriculture, whose writers were stimulated by such meetings as that. If the advantages of those societies were looked for, they would be found in the condition of agriculture now, and then, looking back at agricultural meetings and pro- ceedings for the last hundred years, they would find that it was principally through those societies that such vast improve- ments had taken place. Let them look at the breed of cattle. Though he was willing to admit that a hundred years ago England possessed good cattle, yet they were only to be found in tlie hands of the wealthy. Let them look at their home- steads now, and he would ask if communication together had not tended to raise tlieir breed of cattle to a pitch of which they were ouly made alive to the value by the last dreadful visitation? It had been said tliat they should give up growing corn, and grow only cattle ; that corn did not, and that cattle were their only product that fetched the proper price. But the smiting hand of Providence had shown them how futile it was to think that they could only produce one sort, and that they were not to produce on the soil all that God Almighty had rendered it fit to bear. The showground was the place where they would re- ceive the most instruction, and the dinner table the most amusement ; and these societies held out an opportunity of meeting in social intercourse, which was rendered important from the union and good fellowship prevailing, and showing \ that one of the strongest pillars of the constitution was upheld by the farmer. They might go to the showground for a lesson : they might, for instance, ask with regard to the valuable roots exhibited, their course of culture and the manure used. It was not in dining together that the real value of tlie society con- sisted : it was in the showyard where they could see and talk over how to turn to the best advantage the culture of our land, lie might enter into details, if he was not surrounded by men lietter able to enlighten than he the farmer on the culture and improvement of his land. But there were some few things that the farmer did not always perhaps think of, and of which, if he did, he took a wrong view. They might con- sult the naturalist with advantage on a subject which seemed to have made a deep impression on the minds of some farmers, A A 334 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and certainly had upon his. He had heard it said, " Oh, look at those sparrows destroying that barley crop !" and that had led him, and others mi^rht be led witli advantage, to consult the naturalist as to bird destruction, and to get a list of the birds that lived peculiarly on insects. There was no avoca- tion that more tended to turn tlie mind of man toward the works of his Creator than farming, if it was taken up in a serious and scientific way. Some of those little birds they were so anxious to destroy did not touch a grain of their com, and were their best guardians against innumerable insects who would destroy every atom of grain. There was another thing not much thought of, but of a totally different kind. He did not speak to eminent farmers, but what he might venture to call tlie hard-working and slaving fanner, who had no time to cultivate the science or chemistry of his profession, but who worked on practically. He had observed very much the thoughtless manner in which straw was consumed. He was sure they would agree that there was no article they possessed so valuable to land as straw ; for that was the part vehich God had ordained should go back to the land to fit it to render future crops. Near towns, it was true, it was beautifully drawn out and sold ; but elsewhere it was considered of little or no value, and the farmer thought nothing of destroying the very article that should go back to the laud to enable it to again bring forth its increase. There was one more subject of great im- portance, and he would state at the outset that this was not a farmers' but a landlords' question. There was no subject more worthy the consideration of those societies than the condition of the cottages of the labourer. He relieved the tenant-farmer whoUy of any responsibility on that score. It was a subject entirely for o^Tters, but it wa,s of such iinjiortance that it must he pressed upon public opinion, and, through that, upon indi- viduals. It might be said that in one way it did not affect the farmer, but in another it affected him beyond measure. It was said, and said consistently with truth, that building cottages was no good investment of capital, as the rent did not make a return equivalent to the money expended. If they looked for a return for the money paid down he would admit it, but there was a return got from lodging a labourer in a healthy house with a foundation of concrete, and airy bedrooms, so that he might live dry and inhale a healthy atmosphere. What the farmer wanted was a man who could do a good day's work — strong men — who could do their work with good temper ; and how was that to be if they did not live dry and have fresh aii ? If they did not, they would dwindle down to the pigmy-looking creatures they saw in manufacturing towns, and become almost as useless on a farm as if they were not present there. So societies such as that should press upon public opinion the ne- cessity of having good cottages for the labourer. They might institute some prize, small in intrinsic value, perhaps, but which might be bestowed as a mark of honour on, and would be so esteemed by, those proprietors whose cottages were in the best condition, with some encouragement to the occupants to keep them so. The late Duke of Northumberland had re- ceived the blue ribbon of the Garter from Her Majesty for his exertions in the maintenance of the efliciency of the fleet of England ; but he was not more worthy of it on that account than for his exertions with regard to the cottages on his estate. Tlie fleet could only be recruited from the sturdy sons of the soil, and these could not be produced except in healthy dwell- ings. His lordship, after some allusions of a local character, resumed his seat amid loud cheers. MR. HENLEY AT THAME.—THE LABOURER'S COTAGE. At the Thame Agricultural Society's meeting Mr. Henley said he could hardly help touching upon a matter to which reference had been made, viz., the dwellings of our agri- cultural labourers. Now he did not believe they were the class that were the worst housed. He was one of those who had paid some attention to the subject, and he believed that the death-rate proved where the greatest grievance was. Those who knew what the death-rate was in towns ought to look at home before they laid too much blame on the rural districts. The average rural death-rate, if his memory served him right, was about 16 in a thousand per annum, while in towns it very often approached 30 per thousand. This was a fearful difl'er- ence, and though he had no doubt there was abundant room for improvement everywhere, he could not admit that the need for it was so great in the agricultural districts as in the towns. Those who were as old as';he was could not but remember what a very great improvement had already taken place. It was im- possible to shut one's eyes to this. Humble as many cottages in the country were, it was very rare to find one tliat had not two rooms ; whereas those who knew anything|of town popula- tions were aware how many lived in one room. Moreover, it was very rare in the country to see a bed in the downstairs room. He was often surprised at this, considering the crowded condition of many dwellings, and the largeness of the families that occupied them ; but he had rarely seen a bed on the ground floor. The downstairs room, too, in many of the country cottages, was as large as those where a whole family lived and slept altogether in towns. He could not help no- ticing those things, because he thought too much blame was laid on the condition of agricultural cottages. He should be very glad to see them improved ; but there was evidently greater necessity for improvement elsewhere. There was another matter which he might be allowed to touch upon, as it was of some local importance. His colleagues and himself, aud another gentleman whom he saw present, went yesterday to London in order to have an interview with the President of the Council, with reference to the restrictions that had been lately placed on the removal of sheep. It was true, indeed, that the terms of the Orders in Council did not actually pro- hibit the sending of sheep to market; but tliough a licence might enable a man to get sheep into a market, there was no human power of getting them out again ; so that in point of fact the markets were closed. They were accompanied by the mayors of Oxford and Banbury, and some of the aldermen of those places, and they made such representations as they could to the Duke of Buckmghamof the inconvenience that was suf- fered by the towns where the markets were held, and by the public at large, expressing a hope that if it was thought necessary to continue the restrictions something might at least be done to palliate the inconvenience. They were received, as might have been expected, with great courtesy, aud were listened to very attentively. It was not, of course, for his grace personally to decide or help them, but they came away with the hope that some good result might follow the interview. He trusted that the misfortunes which his own part of the county had expe- rienced through the miserable cattle-plague had now come to an end, and that, owing to the measures which had been taken by the Government, and through the kindness of Providence, the disorder would soon disappear. The decrease in the number of cases had been regular and steady, and the disease might now be ahnost said to have ceased. The last visitation, how- ever, was of twelve years' duration, so that at present we could only hope and pray that there might not be a recurrence of the disease. If they were thus fortunate they would indeed have good reason to be thankful, especially when they considered the inconvenience which had been inflicted on all classes of society by the measures that had been rendered necessary. The closing of the markets had been a serious inconvenience, not only to agriculturists, but to tradesmen and every other class of the community. When they remembered that a curse of this sort lasted upon a previous occasion for twelve years, they must all bear with patience the restrictions which were deemed necessary in order more quickly to put an end to the ravages of the rinderpest. It was only by mutual forbearance that they could hope to attain this result, and he trusted there- fore that whatever inconvenience might be suffered they would yield a cheerful obedience to all restrictive measures as long as they were considered necessary. Colonel North remarked that they would all be heartily rejoiced to see the labouring classes better housed than was THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. S35 MOW generally the ease ; but, unfortunately, the whole question was euciunbered with obstacles. The great difficulty which lie had himself experienced as a landlord had been in limiting the occupants of liis cottages to the number for whicli they were adapted, for in spite of everything the cottagers would get a lodger if they possibly could. The hon. and gallant gentleman went on to say that if lie found a young man who had married and had a large family, he took the earliest oppor- tunity of putting him into a more spacious cottage. It was, however, impossible to limit the ladies to a particular number of children, Whouever lie covUd he enlarge4 the cott^a-es which were too small ; but it often happened that the land in front or at back could not be obtained for this purpose, and in other ways difficulties frequently presented themselves. He agreed with his friend Mr. Henley, that on the whole the agri- cultural labourers were infinitely better " put up" than the industrial classes in such towns as Liverpool and Jlanchester. He had visited some of the labourers' dwellings in those places, and anything more painful and disgraceful he never beheld, Tliey aU owed much to agricultural labourers, and were consequently (iesirous to provide them with comfortable cottages, THE HUGHENDEN HOLIDAY.-^MR. DISRAELI AT HOME. The farmers of the parish of Ilughenden, in tlie county of Buckingham, have held a harvest festival, which was attended by a number of their own body as well as of their friends and labourers, and whicli was also honoured by the presence of the Chancellor of the Exchequer and of Mrs. Disraeli. The Chancellor oi? the Exchequer, in returning thanks for his health being given, said : I am very much gratified by the manner in which you have received my health, which has been so kindly proposed by my excellent and much-esteemed friend, tlie rural dean. I can assure you that, although he has referred in such flattering terms to my position in other respects, what I most value in this world is the regard of my neiglibours ; and there is no place that interests me more than my home, the parish of Hughenden. We have met to-day upon a most interesting occasion — we have met to celebrate the most important event of the year— an event more important than the existence or the formation of a ministry ; and that is, the in-gathering of the harvest. I am glad to be able to con- gratulate you on the fact that the harvest in this district has on the whole been a prosperous one. We have had abundant crops, and although the season has not been altogether so favourable as we might have wished, I beheve I may say with- out exaggeration that tlie dwellers in this district have availed themselves of all the opportunities which the state of the wea- ther afforded, and have on the whole harvested their plenteous crops in good condition. Our harvest is not altogether finished, but I hope that this auspicious day wiU lead to its complete and satisfactory conclusion. But although we may have been fortunate in this respect, we must not forget at this critical moment the condition of many portions of our fellow- subjects. Let us hope that our friends in the north of England may now be favoured with a stiU and sunny fortnight that wLU aUow them also to bring to a happy termination the anxious labours of the year. Let us particularly hope that that may be tlie lot of our fellow-subjects in Ireland. That island has been favoured tjiis year with crops as plenteous as those of England, and it depends very much upon the state of the wea- ther whether their in-gathering will be as satisfactory as we must all desire. If that result should be attained, we shall soon see, I liope, in that country, the commencement of a prosperity and contentment which have for a long time been wanting. It is at moments like this that our minds are pecu- liarly drawn to the feelings and position of tliose classes to whom we are mainly indebted for the great results of the year ; and among those classes there is none wliicli more deserves our notice tlian the formers of England themselves. When we remember the hopes, the fears, the long anxiety, the vigilance, the care, tlie skill, which are necessary to bring about and con- summate the in-gathering of the crops, and whicli must attend their various and varying fate throughout the year, we must feci that there is no class of our fellow-subjects who have a greater claim on our sympathy and good feeling than the far- mers of this country. And although great changes have taken place in the social condition of England during the last quarter of a century, the farmers still remain the most important class in the community, and for this single and simple reason, that no other class even novv are so great employers of labour. In consequence of that position there devolves upon them a responsibility equal to their influence. Upon them depends in a great measure the prosperous condition of the labourers of the soil, and it is by their patience and vigilance and skiU to a great extent that the general prosperity of the country is secured. Therefore at a moment like the present — the only day in the year in which it may be said that anxiety and labour cease iu the agricultural districts — when there is no toil — when the object of the exertions of the preceding twelve months is accomplished and consummated — when we pause for a moment in a spirit of exultation and gratitude before we recommence the unceasing labours of the year that awaits us — let us re- member the farmers of England, and let us congratulate them upon the present, and wish them well for the future. I think it right to associate the toast which I am now about to pro- pose— tlie toast of " The Farmers of England" — with the names of two distinguished friends iu this parish who now iill the hon. office of churchwardens. The one is Mr. Coates, of the Manor Farm, and the other is Mr. Hussey, of the Green. After Mr, Coates and Mr. Hussey had briefly returned thanks — The Chancellor of the Exchequer again rose and said : I am now going to propose a toast in which we must all feel a great interest, and which is to me one of special importance. This is a harvest-home ; and although we are much indebted to the capital, the skill, and the energy of the class to whom I have before referred — tlie farmers ; although without them we should none of us be in the position we now occupy, we must remember that the results of the harvest are mainly due to the industry, the vigour, and the goodwill of the children of the soil — the labourers of this country. One of the cha- racteristics of the age in which we live is a just appreciation of the position of the labouring classes ; and I believe that we all here present feel a peculiar interest in the welfare of those who labour on the soil of Old England. To elevate their con- dition, to render their lives more easy and more comfortable, is now the object of every intelligent man who finds himself placed in a responsible position ; and I am always glad to know that in that part of England which we inhabit, and more especially in this district, labour has become so valuable that it is scarce, and that the consequence is that the condition of those who work iu our fields — our associates in that great system of husbandry on which the prosperity of the country mainly depends — is upon the whole satisfactory. In con- sequence of the great demand for labour, wages are, in general good ; and with respect to another point of great importance, namely, the residences of our labourers, I can truly say that, as for as I could exercise any influence in this parish, I have done all that I could without ostentation, without interferine; A A 2 ^.-^6 THE t^ARMER'S MAGAZINE. with their liabits, without takinjf a course which they would nnd troublesome — I have done all that I could to improve their residences aud to make their homes comfortable. I believe I may also say with truth that, geuerally speaking, the labourers in this parisli are as good-hearted and worthy individuals in their vocation as could easily be found in this kingdom of England. It must be to them a momeut of great interest when, after all their labours, they find the great result is attained, and the harvest is reaped. We have met them to-day, we have all attended the same place of worship, we have dined together in the same spirit of equality and perfect friendship, and in the same spirit I now propose that we should drink their healths with all the honours : " The Labourers of the Parish of Hughenden." Mr. Tii.BY, a labourer, who had been for forty years in the employment of Mr. Coates, returned thanks in the name of the farm-labourers of the parish. The health of tlie Rev. Mr. Clubbe, the vicar of Hughen- den, was next proposed, in very complimentary terms, by the Chairman. Mr. Clubbe, after having aekaowledged the compUraciit, proposed " The Health of Mrs. Disraeli." Tiie CitANCELLOR of the Exchequer responded to the toast as follows : My wife says that in order to justify the flattering character which our excellent vicar has given her, and in order to substantiate her claim to the reputation ot being the most active of human beings — in which I entirely concur — she tliinks that tlie sooner you adjourn from this tent to the park and commence to dance the better. She also informs me that she has given directions f hat the turf should be shaveu in order to assist you in tripping on the " light fantastic toe." I hope yon will, in honour of the toast, comply with this request ; and 1 have little doubt but you will do ?o most willingly. But before we adjourn there is one further toast I am anxious to propose : " The Health of the Visitors to our rural feast to-day." . The compliment was acknowledged by the Rev. Mr. Graves ; and the company afterwards adjourned to the park, and spent the remainder of the afternoon iu a variety of i?iral amusements. EASING WOLD AGRICULTURAL SHOW. The sixth annual exhibition of the Easingwold District Agricultural Society took place in September. The unpro- pitious weather had, of course, a considerable effect on the attendance. Notwithstanding the absence of cattle, the en- tries of stock were nearly as large as on any previous occasion. The place of honour was occupied by the horses, few larger or finer displays having been witnessed in Yorkshire. There was a good show of sheep and poultry, but the pigs were not quite up to the mark. JuKCiES. — Hunters and roadsters: Messrs. C. N. Nainby, Barnoldby-le-Beck, Lincolnshire ; T. Sutton, Alwent, Darling- ton ; and W. Lancaster, IMorton Grange, Is'orthallerton. — Coach and agriodtural horses: Messrs. J. Bowman, Bank House, L'vington ; aud R. T. Graves, Manor House, Harton. Sheep and p'ujs : Jlessrs. G. Deaton, Osgoldby ; R. Eoxton, Welburn ; and C. Sergeant, Hunsingore, near Wetherhy. The following is the list of prizes : HORSES. Mare and foal for hunting, W. and B. Muzeen, South Holme; second, J. Roberts, Terrington. Hunter, any age (mare or gelding) to be ridden over hurdles, G. Robson, Shires ; second, T. Harrison, Acaster Hill. Four-year-old hunter (mare or gelding), to be ridden over hurdles, first and second, J. Robson, Wiudle Beck. Eencer of any age, to be ridden by farmers, farmers' sons, or tradesmen, "VV. and B. Sluzeen ; second, T. Marley, Ter- rington. Three years old hunting gelding, R. H. Gilbert, Thorton-le- street ; second, R. Batty, Tollerton. Three years old hunting filly, J. Robson ; second, J, Mason, Rooker-hill. Two years old hunting gelding, T. Marley; second, A. Jef- ferson, Kilburn Park. Two years old hunting filly, R. Batty, Tollerton ; second, T. J\lanfield. Yearling gelding for hunting, T. Pliunmer, Birdforth ; sec- ond, W. and B. Muzeen. Yearling hunting filly, T. Manfield ; second, J. Welburn, The Lund. Mare and foal for coaching, W. and B. Muzeen ; second, T. Manfield, Thirkleby. Carriage horse, four or five years old, not exceeding 16 bauds, T. aud J. Coates, Peep-o'-Day ; second, R. Batty, Tol- lerton. Three years old coaching gelding, above 15 hands, action and pace to be consideied by the judges, J. Harrison, Wilstrop ILall ; second, W. Robiuson, Thormaubv. Three years old coaching lilly, T. Ireland, Slingsby ; second, G. Burton, Huby. Two years old coaching gelding, II. R. W. Hart, Dunning- Du Lodge ; second, T. Manfield, Thirklebv. Two years old coaching filly, R. Myers, Harum Mill. Yearling coaching gelding, W. Robiuson, Thormanby ; .sec- ond, T. Plummer, Birdforth. Yearling coaching fiUy, IV. Robinson ; second, J. Gilliard, Crayke. IMare and foal for roadsters, Lady Payan Gallwey, Thirkleby Park ; second, T. Pearson, ilanderby Hall. Three years old roadster gelding, H. R. \Y. Hart ; second, J. Thackray, Hessay. Three years old loadster gelding, W. Buttery, Helperby ; second, T. Ward, Bohemia. Two years old roadster gelding, J. Smithson, Hessay ; sec- ond, AV. and B. Muzeen. Two years old roadster filly, H. R. W. Hart ; second, J. Clark, Rainton. Yearling roadster filly, A. Grainger , second, R. Batty. Hackney mare or gelding, any age, T. Johnson, Northaller- ton ; second, S. Pranks, Brandsby. four years old hackney (mare or gelding), W. and B. Muzeen ; second, R. W. Bowman, Ripou. Mare and foal for agricultural purposes, R.Pearson, Crayke; secoiul, J. Knowles, Crayke. Tlirce years old agricultural gelding or filly. Sir G. 0. Wombwell, Bart., New burgh Park. Two years old agricultural gelding or filly, M. A. Jefferson, Kilburn Park ; second, M. Dixon, Crake. Yearling agricultural geldinsr or filly, J. Jackson, Close House ; second, R. Pearson, Crake. Pair of agricultural horses of either sex having been regularly worked during the season. Sir G. 0. Wombwell, Bart. Agricultural mare or gelding which has been regularly worked during the season, W. Sleightholme, Marton ; second, G. W. Appleyard, Angram Hall. Pony not exceeding W\ hands, H. Danby, East Lilling ; second, W. F. Barwick, Lund Head. Pony not exceeding 13 hands, W. Robinson, Thormanby Hill ; second, Rev. J. Higginson, Thormanby. LEICESTER AND LONG-WOOLLEI) SHEEP. Ram of any age, pure Leicester, J. Simpson, SpofForth Park ; second, S. Wiley, Brandsby. Shearling ram, pure Leicester, E. Riley, Kipling Cotes ; second, T. and J. Coates, Peep o' Day. Ram of any age, not qualified to compete as a Leicester, J. Simpson ; second, R. Allen, Crankley. Shearling ram, not qualified to compete as a Leicester, first and second, E. Riley. Pen of five ewes, having suckled lambs to July 1, 18G6, J. Simpson ; second, W. Rownthwaite, East Lilling. Pen of five shearling gimmers, S. Wilev ; second J. Jlaaon, Rooker Hill. THE FARMER'S MAGAZIND. I'eti of ftve shearling wethers, J. Mason. Pen of five gimraer lamhs, J. Simpson ; second, R. Plum- mer, Carlton, llusthwaite. Pen of five wether lambs, R. Plummer. Tup Limb, R. Allen ; second, J. Simpson. Sheep, R. Alien. EXTRA. STOCK. Boar, large or middle breed, upwards of 12 months old, G. Pcttinger, Rose Cottage. Sow, large or middle breed, upwards of IG months, AY. Holmes, York ; second, W. P. Barwick, Lund Head. Boar, large or middle breed, under 12 months, H. Leaf, Na- buru ; second, J. Stanhope, Ampleforth. Sow, large or middle breed, under l(j months, H. Leaf; second, R. Winsor, Ampleforth. Boar, small breed, upwards of 12 months, W. D. Hawking, Linton-on-Ouse ; second, R. Sedgwick, Woolpots. Sow, small breed, upwards of 10 months. Sir G. 0. Womb- } well. Baronet, Newburgh Park; second, G. Earle, High Roans. Boar, small breed, under 12 months, T. Boyes, Harum. Sow, small breed, under 16 montlis, first and second. Sir G. O. Wombwell, Bart. Three store pigs of the same litter, second, G. Pettingcr. Store pig, the property of a tradesman, first and second, II. Martin, Easingwold. Pig, the property of a cottager who does not keep a cow, ! first and second, E. Addison, Easingwold. WHITBY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. This association ranks amongst tlie earliest, having been established no less than thirty-three years. The Committee on Wednesday, Aug. 29, in holding the thirty-third exhibition of stock and implements, in the commodious field belonging to Mr. Simpson, at Bagdale, in the immediate outskirts of the town, had the mortification of seeing the showyard very thin of company, owing to tiie bad weather. Tiie show of horses wns of a first-rate character, and ex- ceeded expectation, both in the is/ici/s e.rjKctat dnni dejluat amiiis" no longer appUes to the oldest of the old school now in the field, without less or more priming, for all are experimenting without an exception. Who, for example, in modern times doubts the potent efficacy of guano, the advantage of drainage, or the benefits arising from improved implements and live stock ? Where is the farmer who is not experimenting in each of these divisions of farm practice ? and how few are there who are not striving to make advances in them all ? Thus far everything is liighly satisfactory, generally speak- ing. So long as the eye takes in the whole survey, all appear in bustling animation in the race of progress. It is only when we advance to the front of the battle, that the lines are seen to be broken — some in their haste to go-a-head having diverged tangentially to the right or left ; others having made a stand on elevated ground mistaken for the top of old Parnassus, and so on. But for all this, the coach is neverthe- less slowly progressing onwards in the march of improvement. The scene at the present time is an interesting one, from whatever point of the compass it may be viewed. It may truly be compared to a military campaign, in which the native army is retreating reluctantly before a more powerful invad- ing force of arms — the former, representing the difiiculties that lie lurking in the way of the pioneers of the latter, often making them retrace their incautious footsteps backwards somewhat hastily in a retrograde direction ; and, although this skirmishing is bloodless, it is nevertheless carried on at a heavy sacrifice of men and money. All this is so manifest that we may leave our readers to work out the details at their leisure. But proceeding a step further, it is very problematical if farmers generally are sufficiently thankful for the sacrifices annually made by the pioneers of progress. Indeed, naked thanks, however profuse, are of themselves insufficient to keep the wheels in grease ; hence the scheming on the part of the pioneers by putting an extra price upon novelty, so as to raise the needful at the expense of those who gain the benefits of their labours — i. e., the agricultural body generally — and the shyness with which so many of this body accordingly shun the front of the battle-ground. Much of this delay to purchase new things arises more from the pseudo-opinions with which they are introduced than from the extra money put upon tliem to cover the extra expense in bringing them out. There is also a certain degree of imperfection in all new things, inseparately connected with the effects tliey produce, that stands in the way of their inmiediate adoption. New implements, for example, have always certain short- comings, so have new artificial manures and improved breeds of cattle ; but by a severe course of training in performing experiments with these new implements, manures, and im- proved breeds of cattle, their owners are enabled to cover their respective short-comings, if not wholly, to a very great extent, and thus get rid of them for more money than they otherwise would do were all their faults, and the pseudo-practices with which they are covered plainly pointed out to purchasers. It is, according to the very nature of things, humanly speaking, so to do, and therefore the inventor and seller cannot be blamed very strongly for it. But, nevertheless, it stands greatly in the way of the general adoption of new things ; for although a few are ever ready to catch at novelty, for reasons best known to themselves, the great body of intelligent farmers — those who in reality control the march of improvement, see the short-comings on both sides, more especially the pseudo- practice in showing them off to advantage, and thus delay purchasing until their true merits are exemplified in trust- worthy hands, and what is ofter worse for the introduction of these new things is when they fall into hands who at first do not do them justice. We have here two extremes, and it were difficidt to say which were the most objectionable in the estimation of those not wholly competent to judge for themselves as to the merits of the novelty in question apart from actual experiment. This is more especially the case in revolutionary changes, as at the first introduction of thrashing machines, reaping machines, steam ploughs, artificial manures, feeding materials for live stock, improved breeds of cattle, and kinds of plants, either as food for man or beast, or for manufacturing and commercial purposes. The reason of this is obvious ; for in these, farmers have no experience ; consequently they have to serve an apprenticeship in learning how to use them successfully. And this too is not all, for unless the fariner himself is a thoroughly practical man and serves the apprenticeship himself, he is much at the mercy of his servants, as no little of the success, or it may be failure, will depend upon their skill. We have had hands, for example, who could never learn to feed and take the control of a thrashing machine. On the contrary, we have had hands who made good work when the machine from fair tear-and-wear was not in proper working-order It follows that had the thrasliing-machine when first introduced fallen into the hands of the former, it woxdd have been a bad machine, but in those of the latter a good one, not according to its own intrinsic merits, but according to the skUl and talents of the workmen. If the macliine is a good one, but falls into bad hands at this peculiar work, it will nevertheless be pronounced a failure. At every other species of work upon the farm the hands may excel, and yet be blockheads at thrashing ; and as neither they nor their em- ployers have any experience in the matter, their unfitness for the peculiar employment requires time and a change of hands to make the discovery. On the other hand, if the machine is a bad one, but the hands have a talent for the peculiar mani- pulation in working it, they may after a lesson or two make good work, when the bad machine wUl be pronounced a good one. Reaping machines, steam-plonghs, and all other new implements involving an entire change of manipulation are similarly situated when first introduced. Again, in the case of manures, it is a well-known fact to all practical farmers of any THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 343 experience, tliat if two sets of hands are employed, the one good and the other bad, harvest results will he very different from the same quality of manure. It is an equally well uuthenti- coted fact, tliat a diversity of soil, season, climate, and the like, alfects the productive results of manures as much if not more than a diversity of workmanship in their application. In tlie case of stock management, two cattle-men, the one a good hand and the other a bad, may go to the same turnip-bin and haystack and give equal quantities daily, and yet it is a well-established fact that the results are invariably very differ- ent, being always in favour of the good hand. Indeed, it often happens that cattle in the charge of a good cattle-man do better on inferior keep than do others under a bad cattle- man on superior keep, and the reason is too self-evident to re- quire exposition. Such being the facts of the case, is it surprising that intelli- gent practical farmers should look upon high-llying experi- ments, if we may use the phrase, with anything else than a cautious eye ? Tlic contrary would be something more than wonderful in their estimation. At the same time, neither they nor those who introduce new things have any other alternative than an appeal to experiment for a practical decision as to their merits. And what is more, the latter are in duty bound to make tlie most of their novelties which they possi1)ly can, before they are able to ascertain practically what they are really worth, and how they may be improved so as to obviate existing shortcomings. With aU this both parties are familiar, and as both have their eyes open to their respective interests, it would rather be uncharitable to designate the best and most cleverly performed practice with the rather opprobious epithet of pseudo-experimentalism ; for this designation obviously be- longs to those wlio imagine they have got to the top of Par- nassus, i. e., the height of perfection, and who consequently conclude that their experiments should prove or unprove, as the case may be, those of everbody else, but whose experiments are nevertheless faulty to a proverb in the estimation of all wlio are qualified to determine the facts of the case in accord- ance with the estabUshcd laws of physical science. Between the pioneer of progress and such an experimentalist there is hardly a legitimate comparison to he drawn ; for the former W is in duty bound to do his best, simply because the like was never done before to the best of his knowledge whereas the latter lies under uo such obligation, whether his conclusions are in favour or against the novelty. In other words, if liis experiment is unfavourable, the facts of the case are likely to prove that he has a lesson to learn of the pioneer before he gets up alongside of him in the march of improve- ment ; but if tlie contrary, then the pioneer may learn a lesson of him, for it is an established law in physical science that every experiment must stand upon its own feet, and therefore that one experiment can never overthrow or refute another. If the pioneer gives a false report of his experiment, then so far as is false may be refuted, but the experiment itself remains exactly as it was performed ; for the facts of the case, or physical truths, cannot be overthrown. If the pioneer or in- ventor, say of a steam-plough, for example, has got a superior hand, whose equal has not, up to the date of the experiment, been found, that is as much a physical fact as any mechanical peculiarity in the construction of his steam-plough upon which its intrinsic merits may depend ; and so, on the other hand, if the pseudo-experimentahst has got an inferior or superior hand, the fiict has its own exposition, as the case may be ; but it does not interfere with or in the slightest degree affect the facts of the case on the other side, or in any other experiment. In point of fact, pseudo-experimentalism is the misrepresenta- tion of facts or physical truth, either on the one side or the other, or both. If, therefore, the inventor of the thrashing- machine, reaping-machine, steam-plough, or artificial manure, attributes to his invention what partly or wholly belongs to his man, he is doubtless guilty, but at the bar of charity he is in some measure excusable. That, however, does not in the smallest degree lessen the caution with wliich the practical farmer requires to determine for himself the facts of the case on both sides, so as to arrive at a satisfactory and safe con- clusion. There is another class of experimentalists who have an in- terest in keeping tliemselves continually in the eyes of farmers and before the general pubUc ; in other words, crack-farming lias ))ecome of late a very successful method of advertising manures, papier mache, patent implements, &c. We were once offered £500 a-year to undertake an affair of this kind, and the offer was evidently so framed that if we had asked twice the money, the agreement would have been closed, and the work entered upon with every promise of success; but for- tunately, or imfortuately, we have never been able even to countenance this method of advertising, or any method of Ijlowing chaff in the eyes of the farmer, even although there was an almndance of clean corn into the bargain for his money. At the same time, the crack-farming to which we re- fer has doue, and is still doing, an immense amount of good, and therefore we wish it every success, so far as progress in agriculture is concerned ; and as farmers generally make lee- way in chemistry, physiology, and mechanics, they will become better able to distinguish between chaff and clean corn, and what they should actually get for their money. Indeed, under a retrospective view of the matter, we might instance some intelligent successful practical men who acknowledge having visited several of these crack farms to their advantage, having gained information on many minor points of detail. Accord- ing to the poet — " Losses and crosses Are blessings in disguise ;" so, in like manner, experimental failures often read an in- structive, useful lesson to successful practical men. There may be a difficulty at times in determining to which of two sources a failure is to be traced ; but when this is clear, then the conclusion from failures and successes put together is manifest ; for, to show the former and adopt the latter be- comes the practical rule for future guidance. And besides direct and indirect information of this kind, this same crack- farming visitations and controversy in the columns of the agri- cultural press kindle a spirit of discussion and inquiry, tliat never fails to awaken many more than drowsy people, and thus lead to farther progress. It is not, therefore, from the experiments themselves that opposition to the progress of improvement arises, but from fallaciously attributing to one physical cause what belongs to another : in other words, the detailed reports of these experi- ments, given in lectures, in books, &c., do not give a faithful exposition of aU the facts of tlie case ; and this method of reporting prevails at the present time to a very reprehensible extent. This arises from conclusions being based upon opinion instead of upon fact — a method not only unpardonable when examined in its own lights, but that is whoUy excluded, as in- compatible with physical science and the experimental philo- sophy of the present age. It is neither more nor less than a futile attempt to re-introduce the discarded, objectionable, opiuiative phQosopliy of the old school, w^hen teachers knew everything, and the taught, nothing — when aU blanks in pliysical science were, as a matter of course, fiUed up with opinions. It cannot fail, however, to prove a very futile at- tempt. No doubt, there is a large umnber of landowners and tenants who are still allowing themselves to be guided by the opinions of those who have acquired a leading position, as their forefathers did in the olden time ; but the more intelli- gent begin to snap their iingers in the face of this false and rejected philosophy, with a significance that cannot be mis- taken ; for, when they come to the blanks, the wanting facts or links required to complete the chain must be discovered, and individually brought to light, before they can allow them- selves to proceed farther. In this, they have a well-founded, practical reason, for they both see and feel that this pseudo- opiniative method of teaching is diametrically opposed to experimental inquiry in accordance with the established laws of physical science. This antiquated opinionative philosophy is more prevalent in agricultural chemistry and physiology, animal and vegetable, than in agricultural mechanics. At the same time, it is by no means an exception in the latter ; for what is justly due to workmen — to bad hands as well as to good hands — is very largely being attributed to macliines. It is, however, in the former — animal and vegetable chemistry and pliysiology — that most harm is being done by this pseudo- experimentahsm in the laboratory, and opinionative teaching in the class-room and elsewhere ; and the obstruction which it is giving to analytical inquiry in search of the innumerable proximate principles, animal and vegetable, not yet discovered is incredible. And this is not the worst view of the case ; for, were the harm done of a negative character only, it would not be a great stretcli of charity to consider it pardonable. But when our pseudo-teachers know that their experiments are in. Ui THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. complete, their conduct in reporting the contrary is Tcry dif- ferent. And so long as we do not know what the proximate principles not yet discovered are, how can we tell the functions wliich they perform in the animal and vegetable kingdom ? The oft-quoted motto of the Royal Agricultural Society, " Practice with science," imperatively demands that the proxi- mate principles themselves sliall be discovered, before an opinion is expressed as to what their function is either in animal or vegetable physiology. QUEEN'S COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S ANNUAL SHOW. The Queen's County Agricultural Society held their annual show at Maryborough. It was the best county show we have yet attended, with the exception of Cork, particularly in slieep. In tlie section of yearling short-horned bulls there were eight entries, seven of which came forward, when I\Ir. Talbot, Grennan House, Castle Durrow, bore away tlie prize with liis beautiful bull British,bred by the Earl of Jlayo, by British Flag. His second was Mr. Cosby's white bull Reveller, bred by him- self, by the celebrated Dr. M'Hale,out of Iva by Tncle Tom. In the two years old, Colonel Fisher had a walk over with his very serviceable lloseberry (~2,757), from the Westland herd, by The Druid, out a Doctor M'Hale dam. In the class for aged bulls there vere two entries, Mr. Cos- by's Ravenswood, from Mr. Crosbie's herd at Ardfert Abbey ; the otjier was Sir Charles H. Coote's Duke of Bedford, bred by Mr. Barton, of Straffau ; by Hayman, out of Moonsliadc. But Ravenswood not ouly led off, but took the Cosby Cup as the best-bred prize bull in the yard, and consequently the R.A.S. medal. In yearling heifers there were six entries, Colonel Fisher taking both first and second prizes for Rhoda Sth and Balm respectively, both by Koh-i-Noor (30,001), the former out of Rhoda by Gainford 4th (11,501), the latter out of Lavender by Sir Harvey (13,733). Mr. W. Roe, Kewpark, was com- mended for Picotee. In two years old heifers there were three entries, Colonel Fisher again taking the lead with Rhoda 7th, a full sister of the yearling prize heifer, Mr. M. H. FVanks occupying the second place with Starch 13th, a half-sister of the first prize, by Koh-i-Noor out of Starch 8th. In cows or heifers in calf, or having had a calf within six months. Colonel Fisher bore away both first and second honours with Golden Ray and Golden Arch respectively, from the herd of JMr. Torr, Aylesby Manor, both out of the same dam, Golden Halo ; the first by Booth Royal, and the second by The Druid. He also got a H. C. for his very fine cow Pine Apple, from the herd of Mr. Strattou ; Mr. W. Roe being commended for a fine cow, Birthday, bred by Colonel Fisher. In weanling bull calves — six entries — Col. Fisher was first with Raspberry; Mr. J. Riddell, Gurteenahilla, second with Prince Teck ; Mr. L. H. Bland got a H. C. for Comte de Lo- thian, and a commendation for Fitzharbinger. In weanling heifer calves — four entries — Colonel Fisher took first and second prizes with Golden Drop, out of Golden Halo, and Golden Gem, out of Golden Ray respectively ; Mr. Bland getting a commendation for Countess de Oifally. The show of sheep was most excellent, and in many instances far superior to other shows held in this country, and in numbers far over them. 'Ihere were rams and ewe-lambs shown by IMr. Seymour Mow- bray and Colonel Fisher, of the pure Leicester type, that were Worthy of a prize at any show. Messrs. M'CuUoch and MacLachlau have spared neither trouble nor expense in producing first-class Border Leicesters ; and this remark equally applies to Lord de Vesci, Mr. Franks, and Mr. Bland, the latter gentleman having obtained 35 gs. for a hogget-ram ; and although not his prize-taker, to our mind, was fuUy equal to him. The pen of hogget-wethers, crossed by Border Leicesters on the Irish ewe, were really fine, and brought to great per- fection. They were exhibited by Messrs. M'CuUoch and MachLachlan, and were awarded the challenge-cup. The show of pigs was good, but not so large as could be wislied. Horses were a good show in point of numbers, but their (juality was scarcely beyond mediocrity. — Abridged from the Irish Far- mers^ Gaietle. THE GAME QUESTIOI^f, At the meeting of the Strathbogie Farmers' Club, the Duke of Richmond, upon his health being given, said : There is one question which I shall ofl"er a very few words upon, and that is the subject of the game laws. There is no doubt, I think, that the game laws is a subject which has been made a handle on many occasions, and made to bear an odium which it does not deserve. I look upon the game laws very much in the same light as the " cat in the house." When anything is broken it is nobody that has done it ; it is always laid at the door of the cat. I am not for a moment going to deny that, on pro- perties where game, such as hares, rabbits, &c., are allowed to exist in any very great quantity, injury will not accrue from them ; but I Ijelieve that, frequently, both in this country and in the south, they have been made the means, by unscrupulous agitators, of attempting to breed schism between the landlord and tenant. Tliese men, who care no more for the farmers themselves than for the hares or rabbits which they see upon properties, yet nevertheless try to make the subject a ve- hicle for setting at variance the landlord and tenant. Many schemes liave been propounded in various quarters for meeting the ditlicultics, some of them, I think, with some degiee of fairness ; to others I have the greatest objection. The one which crosses my mind at the present moment was one which appeared to me to be of a most preposterous character, viz., that no agreement made between a landlord and his tenant on the subject of game should be a legal one. That appeared to me to be an interference with the liberty of tiie subject, and the discretion both of landlord and tenant, wliich has rarely been equalled, and certainly never surpassed ; and to my mind it simply meant one thing, viz., that the tenant was a fool, and the landlord was a rogue, because, if not, surely a landlord and his tenant may be allowed to make any agreement they please in the matter. I am of opinion that these matters are better left to tlie discretion of both parties, and that, if there is a !?ood feeling, such a feeling as ought to exist between landlord and tenant, no very great harm can accrue in the great ma- jority of instances. I do not mean to say that there may not be property on which the game may do a great deal of mischief, but, in tlie great majority of cases, I believe this is not the ( case, and I certainly hope and believe it is not so on the Gor- don property. All 1 can say is, that, if it is so, it is not with my wish ; and 1 may add that, during the periodical rides wiiich I take in the various parts of my property, up to this time at all events, no complaints have been made to me on tliat head. When I mention the rides which I take through the country, I think it of the utmost importance for the land- lord to do so, because it enables him to see tlie various im- provements which have been made since his last visit, and to become acquainted with the faces of his tenantry, and with the faces of tlicir families. It enables him to take a more peculiar interest in all that belongs to them than he can pos- sibly do if he sits at home and never looks near anyone of their houses. It also has the effect of inducing tenants, if they tliink that their landlord is coming round, to give the place a brush-up, and everything is put up, for a time at least, into apple-pie order. It fosters that good feeling which ought to exist between landlord and tenant, and whicli, in my case, I venture to think always has existed. In these days, when it is the fashion too much to set class against class, it is an ex- cellent plan for the landlord to take regular rides througli amongst his tenantry, to make all their affairs his affairs, to be bound up with them in all that conduces to their welfare, and to fee! that everything which may affect tliem injuriously, also through them "afi'ects him. I think it forms a very strong link in that very large chain of society in getting all classes to come together, and in making the landlord and the tenantry believe that they have all a common interest, and are members of the same body. That is the manner in which I have en- deavoured to associate with my tenantry up to this time, be- cause I have felt it was ouly my duty, as it has always been . my pleasure, to foUow in the footsteps of my father, and to carry out in all matters those things which he would liimself have done if spared. Sir Wiij.i.vm Fokues, at the Leochel-Cushnie Society's meeting, said : I do not know if there is much trouble from hares and ralibits here. Tlie folks sometimes say tlicy Iia\c' "a curn" of them ; and one man told lue he had the whole ot !iis crop cateu down witli them ; but when I came to look at it, it THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 345 Wfis not brairded even. He possibly meant that it would ho. eaten down thereafter, and that is "highh probable. Well, I would wish clearly to express my opinion — I cannot say for tliis year, because I am not staying in this country, and can- not look after things so well as if I were ; but next year I may say, so far as the tenantry of Craigievar are concerned, that permission to protect themselves from ground game will be all'orded. Few people seem to understand that, by the pro- per reading of the law, such a thing is accorded. It has al- ways Ijeen left as a matter of mutual agreement between laud- lord and tenant. However, next year when I come down and talk of that there will be no difficulty in arranging that little affiiir, for a little affair 1 consider to be in this quarter. "We in this corner do not go in for the last corner of the bag ; for, sportsman as I am, and fond of shooting as I am, I would not have one of ray tenants to suffer in that way for anything. As for rabbits, I will not say that rabbit-shooting is not good sport ; it is the very best of sport in its way, and requires a good shot to have success at it. But the one thing above all others that I do like is a shot at a partridge. It was one of the peculiarities of my father that he gave little boys rewards for looking after and protecting " pairtrick's" nests. "We may do so again ; but, however tliat may be, the game question is one that need not cause the slightest uneasiness to any tenant ou the estate of Craigievar. BISCATHORPE RAM LETTING. This annual meeting again passed off on August 30th with the great success for which it has long been celebrated. In consequence of the uncertain state of the weather and the anxiety which is felt about the harvest, there were not so many present who would have come to accept Mr. Kirkham's invitation merely for the purpose of enjoying the social plea- sures of such a day, but all the long-woolled ram-breeders of any note from far and near were there, aud every one who meant business of a less distinguished, but not less important kind, turned up as usual. Knives and forks for -50 were laid ^ in an outbuilding, which was fitted u]), and decorated with flowers, evergreens, flags, and 'appropriate mottoes, for the re- ception of visitors to the luncheon ; but 6U more of the com- pany had to adjourn to the house to obtain refreshment. Mr. Kirkham v.as supported by a number of clergymen aud gentle- men of the neighbourhood, and the speechifying was generally of the spirited character which we have been in the habit of hearing on this " fleld day" at Biscathorpe. Towards the end, however, of this agreeable hour, and when the health of the trustees of the estate was proposed, it was publicly announced that it was anticipated aud feared that this would be the last similar meeting at this widely-renowued place in cimnection with long-woolled ram breeding. This naturally caused a cousiderable amount of depression among the com- pany, as but few persons were previously acquainted with this possible, not to say probable, result. The Biscathorpe pro- perty is undergoing the process of being handed over by its past trustees to its rightful heir, who is now about the speci- fied age for it to pass iuto his full possession. After the lun- cheon, however, we heard it repeatedly given as an opinion that the young gentleman who is the fortunate heir to this farm, made so celebrated by Mr. Kirkham's taste, skill, and judgment, would never dispossess so good a tenant merely for the sake of the house and its situation and beauties, as developed by Mr. Kirkham and his family, but that, as his tastes and tiaining are not of an agricul- tural character, he would adapt his own residence close by to wliatever desires and wishes he may have. We. certainly hope this opinion will be realized, as it would be a source of general regret if the character of the Biscathorpe management were to be sacrificed, and the farm fall into an off-hand business, or be left to the mere common-place manage- ment of a bailift". The wish is frequently father to the thought ; and here we must admit there is a strong iucentive to a con- clusion without stopping to inquire into the grounds ou which it is based ; aud from what we have seen of Biscathorpe, and heard of the esteem in which its present tenant is held, and of the admiration which is generally accorded to it from an agri • cultur.al point of view, we must confess we are incliued to ho])e with confidence that the great good feeling expressed by tin; senior trustee towards their tenant, in response to the above toast, will be practically respected. This much we may say with certainty ; nothing would tend more to popularise the gentleman who will now have the right to decide the fate of Biscathorpe as an agricultural business, than for him to show his appreciation of modern agricuhure by renewing, as his first business-act, Mr. Thomas Kirkham's tenure of occupation. The letting on Thursday was of a most satisfactory charac- tev. The 80 shearlings let for £1,337, or at an average of £10 Us. 3d. each. The 20 two-shear sheep let for £370, or about £14 IDs. each, and the 44 three-shear and upwards let for £1,283, or at an average of £29 3s. odd each. The aggregate amount for the 150 rams was £2,020, or a general average of £17 9s. 4d. each. The whole of the sheep came to the ring with that active, buoyant style of moving, and blooming appearance of wool, which J\lr. Kirkham always has excelled in when we have at- tended his public lettings. These appearances other long- woolled breeders have endeavoured to produce, and many of them have attained to a fair measure of success, but by no one else have they as yet been equalled. It is to these re- sults, in addition to the great size and substance, with good form, of the majority of the Biscathorpe rams, that we must account for the above great prices for so many sheep from one flock. The leadinghirersof sheep, with the individual prices made, were, to take them as they come, Mr. Richardson, who took No. 0, at £31 10s. ; Mr. Caldwell, No. 8, at £90; Mr. Laugdale, No. 9, at £40 ; Mr. lies. No. 20, at £28 , Mr. R. C. Howard, No. 27, at £30 ; Mr. Sowerby, No. 39, at £25 ; Mr. Briee, No. 44, at £44 ; Mr. E. Paddison, No. 49, at £40 ; Mr. Richardson took another. No. 70, at £20 ; and Mr. Salter, of Attleborough Hall, took four of these shearlings at the fol- lowing respective prices : £20, £24, £21, aud £22. Here we may remark the critical notes we made last year from Temple Bruer have met with considerable attention, and we had the satisfaction of seeing that form and weight of flesh are beginning already to be looked upon with that respect, and as of that importance, which we then said were their due. The more we see the more we are assured that the views we urged are correct in principle, aud, therefore, must be practised sooner or later more closely tliau they have liecn since the rise in the price of mutton, aiul particularly of wool. To attempt to bring the whole flock up to the size of a few large sheep, which may be termed oflshoots, is a vain struggle after notoriety and a sensational profit: it is an endeavour that must break down. To get at a full and fair estimate of the progress and promise of the particular breed of sheep of a district or country, the rams which are brought before the public must not alone be examined and reckoned up. We have gone through the ewes of farms, watched them walking in the fields, aud along the roads to or from markets and fairs, and the loose slouching walk is becoming far more prevalent than it ought to be. Young sheep even don't lift their hind feet off the ground. Their legs stand, or haug, inclining back- wards ; and as they move, their toes drag on the ground after them, till they are ground off to a blunt irregular flat that will admit of the term (at least for the aged ones) of " old square-toes." We have some more observations to note on this subject, but our space compels us to defer them till next week, when we hope to have some further remarks to make from Owersby, Aylesby, Temple Bruer, and elsewhere. The two-shear sheep here do not, from some cause, make prices proportionate to the younger and older sheep. The highest price in this class was taken by Mr. Grime at £26 ; Mr. Norfolk took one at £18 ; Mr. Needham one at £20 • Mr. Ripoii another at £20 ; and Jlr. Gilliat and Mr. Georo-e Nelson one each at £22. ° The older sheep were certainly the finest lot of animals we ever saw together, and they fully merited the close inspection and admiration w liich they received at the hands of all the leading long-woolled breeders who were present. The first one offered. No. 107, was taken at 100 gs. by Mr. Aveling, a nephew of Captain Cattlin, for the flock of the latter. Cap- tain Cattlin hired this sheep, as a shearling, at £100 ; last year he was let at £135: thus this sheep has already realized £390, witli the prospect of again returning to Mr. Kirkham, for re-letting. No. 108 was taken by Mr. Joseph Kirkham at £50 ; No. 109, by Mr. Davy, of Owersby, at £70 ; No. 110, by Mr. Muinford, of Credcnhill, Herefordshire, at £35; Mr. Isles, near Great Grimsby, took No. 119, at £50, for his excel- 346 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ent ram-breeding flock ; Mr. Williams, of Carlton-Ie-Moorlantl, took No. IL'3, at £30 ; Mr. Chatterton, of Southside, took an old favourite of seven years of age for the second time, and now at £53 10s. ! This sheep has earned a great deal of money, hut we Iiave not the items ; and lie is now in such good " fettle" tliat Mr. Cliatterton is confident of his doing duty this season for a lumdred ewes. MESSRS. SALTER'S RAM SALE. The Messrs. Salter continue their ilock of Improved Lincolns in the drier climate of Norfolk. At present there does not seem to be any degeneration in tlie character of either mutton or wool : indeed, considering tlmt tliis flock has been devoted, up to this time, to exclusively breeding male sheep for getting stores, and therefore that so much consideration iu selection or discarding plainer lambs and sheep has not been practised, the better points of the character of the Lincolns as tliey appear on their own ground have here been well pre- eservcd. Five years ago this iiock was begun witli 50 ewes, from Mr. Kirkham's and otlier renowned flocks. Now these number a flock of 300 ewes, whicli is a rapidity of increase that is well calculated to test the adaptability of the long- wools for situations beyond the Lincolnshire Wolds. Of course there is a coustant introduction of fresh l)lood. For example : last year jMr. Salter hired two rams froin Biscathorpe, and on Thursday last he hired four for use this year. About the success attending the issue of the rams from this flock and breed, when they are used for crossing on the dark- faced Norfolk ewes, there is now no question, for the speckled- faced lambs shown at Norfolk markets and fairs combine the modern requirements of increased size and heavier fleeces, with tlie capacity of maturing early, if tliis latter advantage be re- quired, or the yield of food should make it practicable and con- venient. The practice of folding roots on stubbles, and growing man- golds, swedes, and spring turnips afterwards on one furrow, as described in the Mark Lane Express in the spring of last year, is still pursued by the Messrs. Salter. This system we spoke of as a great saving of labour in hauling, besides being one whicli is advantageous in the droppings of the animals consum- ing the green food of the farm falling on the soil at once. By this a chemical action is produced, whicli is highly beneficial, promoting that disintegration of the soil, without which any amount of mechanical action on the soil is comparatively valueless. The present crop of roots amply testify to the correctness in principle of this system. Mangold, swedes, and turnips are in admirable trim. All this, however, is plain sailing that any farmer can understand. But there is in one field an instructive result which occurred without de- sign. A field was intended partly for mangold and partly tor swedes. The side for mangold was ploughed first, but the day's work extended beyond the limit set down for that crop. The remainder of the field was not ploughed for three weeks, consequently when the field was sown there was a small piece of stale ploughed land, and the remainder, the bulk of it, was iiresh ploughed. On the piece of old ploughing the swedes have grown well throughout, but on the newly-ploughed part the roots have not thriven equally well. This shows that deep ploughing should always be done some time before it is in- tended to sow a crop. For wheat, it may be remarked at this season, a deep furrow should never be turned, and for root crops even it should be done well beforehand. When forest soil is turned up and exposed to the atmos- phere, a large amount of mineral matters is reduced to a soluble form. If plants be sown subsequently, the food they imbibe is so largely charged with mineral mat- ters that they become purged, as it may be termed, and either die ofl" at once, or make but little progress. In the case of wheat this effect is wrongly attrilnited to want of solidity ; but the real cause is an excess of mineral over carbonaceous or decomposing vegetable food. In regard to the business of August 30th, a large company gathered around the Messrs. Salter's tables, and subsequently entered into spirited competition around the ring. The first thirty sheep averaged £12 10s. Mr. Lock bought one at £20 10s. ; Mr. Turner another for the Marquis of Bris- tol at £18; Mr. Jury, of Westley, Cambridgeshire, a tliird at £18 10s. ; and Mr. Webb, Ijrother to the late breeder at Babraham, three for store-breeding at £8 10s., £9, and lOgs. These sheep, as they become known, are becoming great favourites for this purpose in Mr. Webb's part of Cambridge- shire. The weight of Mr. Lock's purchase, which was in store condition only, was a little over 20 stone of 141bs. live weight. The lambs were let at prices ranging from £3 10s. to £7 5s. We omitted to mention that the Messrs. Salter's crop of beans and rape are again worth consideration. This crop is taken in the place of clover on land that is clover-sick, instead of a crop of pulse for harvesting. It is not required to be strong, therefore no manure is applied. Two bushels per acre of beans were so\^'n twenty-four inches apart the latter part of March or beginning of AprU, and after the last horse-hoeing, a month or so ago, a row of rape was drilled between each row of beans. These are now in good order to begin : the beans are just beginning to turn, and the rape is getting from 6 to 13 inches high. The value for feeding put on this crop is £5 or £6 per acre, and the advantage that is derived from it, by the way it puts the ewe in condition for the winter, and from the excellent manner in which the land is thus prepared for wheat at no outlay, induce the Messrs. Salter to put a high value on this practice. From what we saw of the condition of the sheep last year on the autumn grass, and of the wheat this year, which followed the folding off of a similar crop, we are certainly greatly inclined to indorse their favourable opinion of this practice. THURLSBT GRANGE SALE. Mr. Kemp lias been in the habit of sending 40 or 50 rams to Lincoln September Fair. This year, however, the late order compelled him to call a sale at home. The result made clearly manifest the difficulty which the breeders of these small lots now have to encounter. Most of these sheep have hitherto been bought by ones and twos to go to distant parts of the country. The buyers of these generally prefer to have one or two from several flocks ; where therefore there was a general meeting on a fixed day at a central town, the compe- tition was more iu accordance with the numbers offered. In the present situation of the harvest, too, Norfolk, Cambridge, and other eastern counties men cannot afford to waste a day and a-half or two days to go to a small sale, on the chance of finding one or two suitable sheep out of the eight or ten they may want. One good sheep made £30, another made £30, another £18, but most of the remainder sold made little more than the upset price of £5 ; while a large number were passed through the ring without a bid, notwithstanding that Mr. Mason, jun., displayed great energy in attempting to excite the spirits of the few buyers present. SHEEP AND STOCK SALES SEPTEMBER. IN WOLD NEWTON RAM SALE. Messrs. Unson and Sou offered 61 shearlings for Messrs. W. and R. J. P. lies on the Cth September, and they were sold for the sum of £550 5s. ; No. 7 made £15 10s. ; No. 8, £14< ; No. 9, £15 10s. ; No. 10 was purchased by Mr. Waddingham, of South Ferriby, near Barton-on-Humber, for £27 ; No. 13, by Mr. Bygott, of the Glebe Farm, Barton-on-llumber, for £17 10s. ; No. 33, by Mr. Richardson, of Limber, for £31; and another, by Mr. Taylor, Farley Farm, Luton, i5eds, for £15 10s. The reputation of this flock, and the spirit and judgment which the Messrs. lies have recently displayed, and particularly this year, iu securing sheep of fine form and qua- lity, augur well for the sheep they are endeavouring to produce. THE LAUGHTON RAM SALE. We were somewhat taken by surprise by the show of 100 sheep here on ^Monday, September 10, we have spoken in their praise when we have seen the 50 or 60 specimens which have Idtlierto been taken to Peterborough fair. Previous to the last four years Mr. J. R. CassweU had an annual meeting at home ; but it was then thought to be more advantageous to take the sheep to a central meeting instead of inviting friends to come to a farm which, iu these days, is considered to be an out-of- the-way place across counti-y, as it is 8 miles from Bourne and THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 347 ] 1 miles from Sleaford, tlie two more couvenient railway sta- tions. The result of Monday's sale, however, placed Mr. Cass- well ia a position for being thankful to the Lords of the Privy Council, through their Orders compelling liLin to advertise his sale at home. As a thorouglily useful lot of sheep, this flock certainly stands well. There may not have heen so many ram-breeders' sheep among those offered as have been pre- sented from some other flocks ; but for form, su!)stance, and quality of mutton, as well as for quantity and fineness of wool, these sheep are very good. From the number of customers from distant counties it is clear these sheep have made an impression at Peterborough, as well as on the flocks of the practical men who there bought one or more of tliem. From Yorkshire tiiere were Messrs. Copeman, Staveley, Gordon, Gibbs, and Trotter ; the latter being agent to Lord Zetland. From Essex there were Messrs. Scraggs and King ; from Worcestershire, Messrs. Harris and Casswell ; from Herefordshire, Messrs. Eastland, Downing, and Morris ; from Huntmgdonsliire, Northampton, and Rutland, Messrs. Waggstaff, Bowyer, Hill, Cliff", Moore, Attenborn, Brown, Thompson, Smith, and Brown. Tlie Lincolnshire men also mustered strongly, among whom were Mr. J. C. Lawrence, who presided at the luncheon ; the Rev. G. Carter and Mr. Henry Smith, who officiated in signing orders for the removal of the sheep ; and Messrs. Roljert Parr, Ormond, Thomas Casswell, C. Clarke (Ashby), W. Parke (Stragglethorpe), C. Tonge, J, Olive, S. Smith, G. Willows, and T. Sneath. The average of the fifty sheep, which would have gone to Peterborough fair had not the holding of the fair been doubtful, was £17 each, the total being £850. As, however, tlie sale was necessarily called for Langton, all the sheep that could be shown to make up the hundred were brought out, and one of these was seven years old. The whole of them were disposed of; and there would have been customers for many more if they had been present. The total made of the whole was tlie good one of £3,163 10s., or within a penny of 13 guineas each. No. 14 was bought by ?.lv. Game, of Willoughby, at £27 ; and No. 17, by Mr. Tom Casswell, of Pointon, at ^ £-i7. The 100-guinea sheep, for which Mr. Clarke bid a hundred pounds, was greatly admired by the large company of practical men on the ground. THE AUDLEBY SALE. Mr. Kirkham met with a decided success in showing his rams for the first time on his own ground near Caistor. The rams from this flock have hitherto gone to Peterborough fair ; but Mr. Kirkham accepted the Government orders cheerfully, and determined to begin an annual meeting at Audleby, that he might have the opportunity of inviting his friends and se- curing their attendance in a collective form once a year. The company on Wednesday was not so numerous as we have seen at some other meetings, but there were only 43 sheep shown ; and, as these were generally of a finer character than ordinary store-breeders purchase, there was not the attraction for this class of buyers, which a larger number of sheep usually affords. The party, however, was select ; for it was composed of the principal ram -breeders in the county, and some of the larger farmers and best flockmasters of Nortli Lincolnshire. Tite remarkable freshness aud blooming appearance which gene- rally, indeed we may say always, belong to the Kirkham shee]) were here well preserved. There were 34 shearlings and 9 older sheep sold ; and the average of the former was the good one of £16 8s. and some odd pence, and of the latter £13 16s. 3d. Among the leading buyers, Mr. Brice, of Risby, Market Rasen, bought No. 4 at £23. This is one of the cheapest sheep we liave seen this year ; for his form was sufficiently heavy, while it was compact and otherwise correct, his fleece was ample, and his quality generally good enough for anyone. No. 6 was also a capital sheep, and, as he turned out, if price be a test, the favourite of tlie day. He was houglit at £50 for Sir Montague Cholmondley, of Easton Hall, near Stamford. No. 8 made £21, to Mr. Erankish, of Norraauby-le-Wold ; No. 13 made £30, and was bought to go to Cadeby, for Mr. John W. Kirkham, whose first private gathering for the sale of a few sheep takes place next week. No. 14 was also bouglit by Mr. Erankish at £38 ; Mr. Hes, breeder, of ■ Wold-Newton, near Great Grimsby, bought No. 15 at £42 ; and Mr. Coats- worth, of Riby, bought No. 17 at £21. Aiullcby is two miles north of the ancient town of Caistor, and tlie farm (of about 1,000 acres) stretches from the top of the North Wold plateau, down the side of the somewhat abrupt slope at this spot, into the valley which expands thence towards Brigg and Gainsborough. This farm a few years since was in a poor condition, aud much of it was covered with goss and ling ; but under Mr. Kirkham's cultivation, and the high feeding which he has practised with his pedigree shorthorns and improved Lincolnshire sheep, that which was wild rabbit cover has become useful land, as well as a picturesque specimen of British agriculture. MRS. BAIvER'S SHROPSHIRES, AT GRENDON.— The four-shear ram, Nuneaton, which has beaten several Royal winners, was let for the season at fifteen guineas, aud whilst seventeen guineas was the highest price obtained, the demand was good throughout, and the thirty-one averaged £11 2s. each, four being let, and one of tliose for a very short time only. The ewes were eagerly sought after at figures ranging from 60s. to 85s., the average for 100 being 73s. MR. S. BYRD'S SHROPSHIRES, AT LEESE FARM. — The ram lambs were a good-looking lot, and altiiough very low in condition, went off at fair prices, viz., from five to nine- and-a-half guineas each, the average being £7 Is. 6d. The rams commenced with Lord Weston, and this was let for the season at thirty guineas. The second ram was Model Patentee, retained last year for use at home for a portion of the season, aud this was let to Mr. AUen, of Knightley, at forty-three guineas. One yearling was let to Mr. Wright at thirteen- and-a-half guineas, and the thirty-five others sold made from six-and-a-half to eighteen guineas each, averaging £13 5s. 6d. each. MR. R. H. MASFEN'S SHROPSHIRES. — At the thirteenth sale of rams and ewes, Mr. Preece, of Shrewsbury, disposed of nearly fifty rams, and upwards of 100 ewes. Three of the rams were let for the season, realising seven, sixteen, and twenty-two guineas, and the remaining forty-four were sold at prices ranging from forty guineas (given by Mr. Wil- liams, of Shropshire, for Exile) down to eight guineas, the average being £14 lis. 8d. The ewes made good prices, the highest figure being 90s., the lowest 60s., and the general average 71s. 6d. THE SHREWSBURY AUTUMN SALE.— About 260 Shropshire rams, tlie property of various breeders of emi- nence, were brought to the hammer at Shrewsbury, by Mr. W. G. Preece. Five very useful rams, in store order, from Mr. AVilliams, of Albrightlee, sold readily at £11 each. A three-shear ram, bred by Mrs. Wadlow, though low in condition, brought thirty-five guineas. The Rev. C. P. Peter's rams made but ten guineas each. Mr. Evans's lot commenced with a two-shear, which had been let to the Smith Barry Trustees, at Cork, last year, and returned very late in spring, low in condition, was let for fourteen guineas. A good shearling followed at twenty-five, and others at eleven down to six-and-a-half guineas, the thirteen averaging £10 6s. Mr. Pryce Bowen bad a fair sale at about ten guineas each ; a level two-shear, bred by Mr. Minor, was sold at twenty-one guineas; Mr. Thornton's lot made £10 10s. each. Messrs. Crane's Colossus was purchased at twenty-five guineas, others of tliis lot making twenty-eight, twenty-five, and twenty-one guineas, and average- ing £16 16s. Mr. II. Smith's were disposed of at £10 16s. per head. A two-shear in Mr. Horton's lot, by Duke of Kent, after keen competition, made fifty-one guineas for the season, to Mr. Dennis. A good yearling in this lot let at twenty-six guineas to Lady Willoughby de Broke, and the twelve averaged £16 14s. Mr. Meire's small lot made £9 16s. each, and Mr. Sheldon's £10 10s. exactly, one of the latter, letting at twenty- one guineas. Mr. Horley had two useful shearlings, one letting at seventeen guineas to Mr. Hudson, the other selling at six- teen to Mr. H. Smith. The ewes, numbering upwards of 2000, were sold on Wednesday, and fetched good prices, ranging from £3 to 8 guineas each. LEICESTER RAMS AT MILL OF BOYNDIE.— The sale of rams the property of Henry A. Rannie, Esq., of Greenlaw, and tenant of Mill of Boyndie, was held at the latter place. Thirty-seven Leicester shearling tups were sold at an average of £5 5s. Sixty gimmers, three-parts Leicesters, fetched £106 15s., averaging £1 15s. 6d. SALE AT GORDON CASTLE.— The annual sale of pure- bred Shorthorn cattle, Leicester tups, &c., the property of the Duke of Richmond, was lield at the fai'm steading, Gordon S48 THE FAEMER'S MAaAZINE. Castle. The Leicester and Southdo\\ii ewes and gimmcrs brought very fair jirices. They were put up in lots of ten and five. Tlie average price given for tliese migiit be struck at £2 10s. The bidding was very spirited for Leicester rams, and they were very speedily disposed of, some of them at very high prices. The average price per head for the tups was £4. The highest price given was £9 15s., while the lowest price was £3 10s. No animal was taken in unsold. Eleven short- liorned bulls and bull-calves average twenty-nine guineas ; ten cows and heifers averaged twentv-two guineas. SALE OF LEICESTER SHEEP AT LITTLE KIL- DRI'MMIE. — The demand for tups was not great, and several very fine animals were sold at somewhat low prices. Sis shear- ling tups were struck out at an average of £5 each ; and four two-year-olds averaged £4 4s. Six pure-bred gimmers aver- aged £2 15s. each. Eight two-year-old ewes averaged £3 lis., and eleven three-year-olds averaged £3 14s. There were also a few cross cast ewes sold for about 30s. each. PETERBOROUGH RAM FAIR.— Tliere were 281 rams penned by eleven breeders. Mr. \Ym. Mann sold 30 rams for Mr. Cartwright, of Dimston Pillar, at an average of ten guineas per ram. Mr. James Warwick sold 30 for Mr. Top- ham, the highest prices realised being £30 for an animal sold to Mr. Mackinder, £19 for one sold to Mr. Croft, and £15 for one sold to Lord Sherard ; the average of this lot was £11. Mr. Garner, of Willoughby Heath, showed 10 rams, which were sold by Mr. E. Law, the highest prices being 21 guineas for one sold to Mr. Webster, of Glinton, and 15 guineas for one sold to Mr. Marsh ; average £10 15s. Mr. Hack showed nine, which were sold by Mr. Shouler, Mr. Sleatli being the highest purchaser at £15 10s. ; average £9. Mr. W. Kirkhuni's rams were sold by Mr. J. Eox ; there were 40 of them, and the highest prices realised were £25 to Mr. Uffendale, £22 to Mr. Garner, and £21 to Mr. Howe ; average £10. Mr. S. Kingston sold 17 for Mr. Lamming, the highest price being £11 15s. to Mr. Lovell. Mr. Pisher sold his rams by private contract, the highest price being £20. RAM SALE IN DUBLIN.— Messrs. Ganly,^ Sons, and Parker held their fifth annual ram sale, in King's-tjridge Park, when 450 highly-bred rams passed through tlie ring. The attendance from all parts of Ireland was nu- merous, and the biddings brisk and spirited. Border Leices- ters were in the ascendant, and, as a class, brought the highest prices, with the exception of Mr. Flynn's loug-wooUed rams. Lord De Vesci, Mr. Franks, Mr. Bland, Messrs. M'Lachlan and M'CuUoch, Mr. RiddeU, and Mr. Young brought out their sheep in first-rate style. Mr. Mowbray's pure Leicesters, of the English type, did not bringt lie prices they comparatively deserved, averaging but nearly 9 guineas ; but this breed, with a little more size, will come into vogue again : we cannot do without them to cross with other breeds, amongst which, for years gone by, they have effected immense improvement. jMr. Elvers' Lincolns did pretty fairly, averag- ing nearly 9 guineas for 22; but Mr. C. Going fairly distanced him, his lO Lincolns averaging over 15 guineas a piece, and the lot sold was Init the third in order of merit of this breeder's flock, he having sold the first and second pick previously. Cotswolds were noishere, and we were delighted to see the eight Roscommon rams of Mr. Flyun, of Tulsk, bring such high prices, averaging over 20^^ guineas, which bears out our opinion, that it is scarcely possible to beat the Roscommon sheep in shape, size, hardiness, bone, thrift, or wool, when carefully selected and bred, as the Roscommon men know well liow to do. — Abridged from the Irish Fanners' Gazeite. SALE OF SHROPSHIRE SHEEP IN IRELAND.— Mr. C. W. Hamilton's annual sale at Hamwood, near Dunboyne, was conducted by Mr. W. G. Preece, of Slirewsbury. A great company assembled, and high prices were realized. Fifty rams averaged £15 9s;, and 150 ewes upwards of £3 each. Tlie Marquis of Downshire purchased rams Nos. 5 and 10 at 2S gs. each. Mr. P. W. Bowen, of Shrawardine Castle, Salop, bought the noted old stock ram " Lord Warden" (bred by himself, and for which Mr. Hamilton paid Mr. Bowen 53 guineas), at 20 guineas, and Mr. Preece secured No. 25, a grand animal, for the Messrs. Crane, of Shrawardine, Salop, at 30 guineas. THE ASPS RAM SALE.— Mr. Henry Mann has held his annual ram sale, which was well attended. The pro- prietor, however, on this occasion did not confine himself to the sale pf rams, but also offered a larse number of young stock ewes. The rams were superior in size, quality, and form to any previous occasion, and the ewes also were equal, if not better than any that have been offered for sale in the neighbourhood during the past season. The rams, which were in prime working order, comprised 10 for letting, 24 for sale, besides 80 young stock ewes for sale. The sale was con- ducted Mr. Margetts. The rams that were let made from 5 guineas to IS, and those sold made from 5 guineas to 10^ gs. each. The stock ewes realised from 55s. to 73s. 6d. per head. The following were among those present : Captain NichoUs Messrs. Layne, G. Stanley, Heath, J. Weston, Cattle, J. Ark, Wright, C. L. ^VliaLley, R. Righton, Rigg, Johnson, Bulling, Holyoake, Hawkes, T. Bradlev, E. Mann, J. Glover, Walton, J. liynde, J. Iladdon, Selby, W. Gaggard, C. Shaw, Frank- lins, Home, Burberry, Fornby, E. Bate, Austin, T. Somers, Over, W. Mann, T. Mann, W. Gaydon, Robbins, W. Stone, Badger, Powell, S:c., &c. SALE OF RAMS AT BLEASBY.— Mr. Marriott has held his annual ram sale, when (iO very superior long- wool sheep were offered for sale by auction, by Mi. J. H. Bradwell. The bidding was for some time very spirited, and 20 rams quickly disposed of at an average of £l3 15s. The two best sheep realised £25 and £23 10s. respectively. The total average of the sale, which was highly satisfactory, was £91 4s. per head. SALE AT BRANCHES PARK.— 192 pure-bred Lincoln sheep, comprising 161 ewes and ewe lambs, 31 shearling rams and ram lambs, and 4 Shropshire Down rams, also 20 pigs and 19 pure Shorthorns, the property of Lady Pigot, were brought" to the hammer at the Home Farm, Cowlinge, by Mr. J. Carter Jonas. The first lot, a one-shear Lincoln ram, bred from tiife- flocks of Mr. Kirkham, of Bisca- thorpe, and Mr Greatham, sold for £4 8s. Twenty-six other similar lots were disposed of at sums ranging from £2 IGs. to £3 1.2s. Gd. The Shropshire rams then came to the hammer, with the following resiilts : One-shear Down ram, sire bred by Mr. Sheldon, and brother to his prize sheep, dam from the stock of Lady Willoughby and Lord Aylesford, £4 4s. One- shear Down ram (same sire, dam by one of Old Patentee's sons, a Royal first-prize sheep), £3 15s. ; ditto £3, ditto £3 3s. Of the pigs, the boar known as the Duke of Wetherby ^ was knocked down for £5, and the next lot, a boar pig, boru September 4th, 1SC5 (by Duke of Wetherby, dam Lady Ann, bred by the Countess of Chesterfield), for £3 10s. Two similar lots fetched each £3 12s. Cd., and two sow pigs of the same litter £3 and 3 guineas each. The next five lots were sold as follows : Boar pig, born September 1865 (by Duke of Wetherby, lot 54, dam Linda, by a boar bred by His Royal Highness the late Prince Consort), £3 7s. 6d., ditto £3 Cs. Sow pigs of the same litter fetched £5 5s., £4 10s., and £4 respectively. Four sow pigs were also sold at from 77s. to 66s. The highest prices fetched by the cows were — 21J guineas, Joan of Arc, roan (calved December, 1854, by Mr. Booth's Vanguard, 10,994) ; 35 guineas. Red Ringlet, red (bred by Mr. Booth, calved December, 1855) ; 37 guineas. Rosebud, red and white (calved December, 1855) ; 30 guineas, Annette, roan (calved April, 1859, by Prince George, 16,735) ; 20 guineas, Adele, red roan (calved December 27th, 1865) ; 24 guineas, the Pi- rate's Daughter, red (calved November, 1863, by Ravenspur, 20,628) ; 20 guineas, Emma, roan (bred by Mr. J. Booth, calved January, 1864, by Trojan AVarrior, 20,992) ; and 31 guineas, Anna, roan (bred by Mr. J. Booth, calved April, 1864, by Trojan Warrior, 20,992, April 2nd, by Ravenspur, 22,681). SALE OF SHORTHORNS.— A sale of pedigree Short- horn cattle took place at Aliddle Farm, Cumberland, when thirty-four cows and heifers, and fourteen bulls, the property 'of Mr. Hetherington of that place, were brought to the hammer by Mr. Strafford. The Nell Gwynne family gave eight females to the herd, which sold as fol- lows : — Polly Gwynne, calved November 25, 1853, by Fly- ing Dutchman, twenty-seven guineas ; Rose Gwynne 2ud, by General Jackson, calved January 11,1862, twenty-six guineas; Duchess Gwynne, by Duke of Wetherby, calved December 15, 1862, sixty guineas ; Christmas Gwynne, by Wild Duke, calved December' 25, 1865, seventeen guineas ; Poll G\v7nne 2nd, by Wild Duke, calved April 12, 1865, twenty-six guineas; Christ- mas Gwj'nne 3nd, by Duke of Cumberland, calved Februaiy 1866, forty guineas; Polly Gwynne 3rd, by Duke of Cumber- land, calved Majr 13, 1866, thirty guineas; Rose Gwynne 4th, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 349 by Duke of Cumberlaacl, calved June 23,lS6(),f\velve-au(l-a-lialf guineas; Willi Ej'es Slst, thirty guineas; Wild Eyes 23nd, thirty-one guineas; Wild Eyes 3-ith, fifteen guineas. Mr. Foster, of Killhow, paid thirty-two guineas for Second Duchess of Oxford, calved August 1859 ; Mr. Brockbank, of Burgh, thirty -six guineas for Third Duchess of Oxford, calved June 1863 ; Mr. Higson, of Pendleton, Manchester, bought Rose- bud 3rd, calved Octolier 1863 for twenty-three guineas; Rose- bud -ith, calved May 10, 1860, for thirteen guineas; and Western Belle, calved May 1803, for twenty-two guineas. The prices of the other females of the herd ranged from twenty to thirty guineas, Of tlie bulls, Mr. Meaking bought Duke of Cumberland, calved June 1850, for forty guineas ; the Earl of Ayle.sford paid sixty guineas for Second Duke of Cumberland, calved October 1865 ; Mr. Wilson, of Abbey, paid thirty-six guineas for Wild Eves, calved April 186-1. SALE OF LORD RADNOR'S SHORTHORNS AT COLESHILL. — Mr. Strafford, of Euston Square, Loudon, offered for sale by auction, at Coleshill, the seat of Earl Radnor, a draft from the herd of 47 Shorthorn cows and heifers, and 9 bulls. The cows and heifers averaged £31 10s. 9d., and the bulls averaged £23 5s. lid. The prices generally were not so high as might have been expected, being influenced, no doubt, by the existence of the cattle plague and the restrictions con- nected therewith. SALE OF THE LUDDINGTON HEREFORDS.— The sale of a large draft of the Luddington herd of Herefords, tlie property of Mr. John Baldwin, was conducted by Russell and Son. The company was very numerous. The catalogue extended to forty-nine liead ; but the prices realized yielded a very moderate average, without any high ligures, though several of the older animals were prize-takers. The foUo\ving are amongst the best prices for cows : Dora (calved 1859) 29 guineas, Countess of Shrewsbury the Tliird (1856) 30 guineas, Salopia (1863) 33 guineas. Fairy the Se- cond (1862) 28 guineas, Dora the Second (1862) 28 guineas, Venus the Sixth (lb60) 51 guineas, Polly (1850, the winner of several prizes) 31 guineas, Creuiorne (1864) 28 guineas. Some of tlie bulls were passed over without any biddings V wliatever ; but Battersea vvas repurchased by his breeder, Mr. Vevers, for only 55 guineas. Royal Oak, calved in May, 1864, by Battersea, from Selina, the winner of the first prize in her class at the Battersea Meeting of the R.A.S.E., was purchased for the Duke of Bedford at 60 guineas. A. lot of two-year-old bullocks averaged £23 each, and the yearlings about £9 a head. Mr. Vevers, in repurchasing liis Battersea, was re- warded with " three times three" cheers ! but surely there could not be much cause for making any particular demon- stration over such a price for such an animal. The young stock from this herd, as we stated in our report of the Strat- ford sliow last year, appeared to be of but very moderate pro- mise, and hence possibly the prices realised. SALE OP MR. GEORGE GRAHAM'S SHORTHORNS. AT YARDLEY, BIRMINGHAM. On Wednesday, Sept. 19, the entire herd of Shorthorn cattle belonging to Mr. George Graliam, of Yardley, wlio is leaving his residence, was brought to the hammer by Mr. Strafford. This herd, almost unique in itself, was formed only a few years ago by its owner, taking for its basis the renowned strain of Faws- ley, and engrafting on it, with great judgment, the best of the Bates type. AU the animals were excellent, some superior to any tiling we have seen for years, with firm yet elastic flesh, plenty of hair, great symmetry, apparently good milking qualities, and for colour, either rich roans or good reds, with one or tvfo white, probably following the distin- guished lineage of 7th Duke of York, who is a grand wliite bull. There was a large company, nearly all the chief admirers of the Bates and Fawsley blood being present. Some of the animals had a cross of Bootii ; and altliough the bull was of the best posssible character — Sir James (16980) by Sir Samuel (15302) — yet unmistakably the cross was prejudicial to them, in a pecuniary point of view ; although, we must ad- mit, their personal qualities were admirable. The bull Touch- stone (20980), a pure Fawsley, had done great service in the herd, evidently imparting fine flesh and a profusion of rich liair ; and the grand style of the Bates blood in 7th Duke of York, 2nd Duke of Bolton, and Grand Duke (10284), was the admiration of every one. The prices reahzed were far m excess of what v^as expected, as will be seen in detail. cows AND IIEIFEES. Countess, 80 gs.— Mr. F. Leney (Kent). LvBY OF THE Luce, 81gs.--Mr. Beautbrt (Beds.). Columbine, 51 gs. — Mr. Marsh. Cornelian, 70gs.— Mr. Lyon (Burton). Christine, 41 gs. — Mr. Walker. Grafin Foggatiiorpe, 64 gs. — Mr. Lyon. Bracelet 2nd, 82 gs.— Mr. Beaufort. Fantail, 52 gs. — Mr. Foster. Camilla, 40 gs. — Mr. Kirtling. Britisu Belle, 70 gs.— Mr. J. Claydeu (Essex). Graein FoGGATiiORPE 2iVD, 70 gs. — Mr. Eaton. Bracelet 3rd, 80 gs. — Mr. Beaufort. Co.sETTE, 18 months old, lOOgs.— Mr. J. Claydeu. Grafin Foggathorpe 3rd, 16 mouths, 43 gs.— Mr. Kirtling. Catalani, 18 months, 100 gs.— Mr. Adcock (Fandish). Ladi Wild Eyes 2nd, 18 months, 115 gs.— Mr. Beaufort. Florence, 18 months, 43 gs. — Captain Oliver. Fantail. 2nd, IS months, 50 gs.— Mr. J. K. Fowler (Aylesbury). Countess 4tii, 12 months, 120 gs. — Mr. Lyon. Lorelei, 6 months, 51 gs. — Mr. Lyon. Grafin Foggatiiorpe 4Tif, 6 months, 32 gs. — Mr. Fletcher. Clotilde, 4 months, 70 gs. — Mr. Finlay Dunn. Fantail 3rd, 6 months, 35 gs. — Mr. Foster. Beauty, 5 months, 40 gs. — Mr. Foster. Total of cows and heifers £1,630 12s., or nearly £68 each. BULLS AND BULL-CALVES. Touchstone, 5 years old, 36 gs.— Mr. Wymall (Hereford). Knightley, 2^ years, 100 gs. — Mr. Leney. Cesar, 6 months, 60 gs. — Mr. Sheldon. Blair Athol, 18 months, 47 gs. — Mr. Burdett. BoDENBACH, 6 moutlis, 50 gs. — Mr. Barnes (Herts). The Baronet, one month, 35gs.— Mr. Marshall (Surrey). Total of bulls £344 8s., or nea y £58 each ; the graud total being £1,975 for the 30 animals. The relative value of the several strains may be tliu^ distinguished: — Mr. Adkius' Charmers, of which there were seven niemhers, averaged £82 13s., three of them making each 100 gs. The five Fillets, from Sir C. Knightley's made £66 7s. 2d. each ; Conntess, ten years old, of this family, fetched 80 gs., and her daughter Countess 4th realized 120 gs., the highest price of the day. Seven Foggatliorpes averaged £61 10s. ; five Bracelets, £62 15s. 9d. ; and four Fantails, £46 19s. 9l ; while Lady Wild Eyes 2nd, an odd heifer of the Kirklevington strain, sold for 115 gs. This must cheer the hearts of all Shorthorn breeders, as it shows a revival of old prices, and what can be achieved by patience and perseverance, with judgment, as evinced by Mr. George Graham, of Yardley. SALE OF SHORT-HORNS. On Thursday, Sept. 20, Messrs. Wetherell sold by Auction, at Kirkbank, near Richmond, Yorkshire, the entire herd of Short- horns, the property of Mr. Alfred Stables. The following are the prices obtained : COWS AND heifers. Red Rose, calved 1853 — Mr. Linton, 17 gs. Susan, roan, calved May 31, 1857 — D. Neasham, 18 gs. Clara, red and white, calved July 20, 1857 — Mr. Hawking, 20 gs. Lady, roan, calved Dec. 1, 1858 — C. Cradock, 26| gs. Sultana, roan, calved in 1858 — Earl of Zetland, 29 gs. Red Rose 3nd, red, calved March 4, 1859 — C. Cradock, 36 gs. Gratitude, roan, calved Feb. 30, 1859 — Mr. Roecliffe 26i gs. Lady Annette, red and white, calved June 11, 1861 — S. Johnson, 40 gs Buttercup, roan, calved April 20, 1861 — Major Cochrane, J 37i gs. P B 360 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Lily, wliite, calved Marcli 30, 1863— Mr. Buruley, 261 gs. Amy, wHte, calved April 6, 1863— Lady Pigot, 30| gs. Claret, roan, calved April 17, 1863 — Mr. PickersgiU, 30 gs. Susa:vnah, white, calved May 24, 1863 — Mr. Cochrane, S7gs. Alexa:vdea, roan, calved Feb. 23, 1863 — Mr. Thornton, 21J gs. Lady Alice, roan, calved Sept. 2fl, 1863— Mr. Walker, 35 gs. Polly 2ud, red and wMte, calved Oct. 19, 1863— Mr. Brown, 12^ gs. Geatitude 2nd, red, calved Sept. 10, 1863 — Mr. Neasham, 15 gs. Eed Eoajm 3nd, calved April 7, 1864— Mr. Hutchinson, 25^ gs. Red Violet, calved March 8, 1864— Mr. Cradock, 20 gs. White Violet, calved March 8, 1864 — Mr. Neasham, 17 gs. Claret 2nd, red, calved April 18, 1864 — Mr. PickersgiU, 20| gs. Amy 2nd, wliite, calved May 10, 1864 — Mr.Ellersliaw, 18 gs. Lady 2ud, red and white, calved March 17, 1864 — Mr. Cochrane, 17 gs. Lily Grey, roan, calved June 12, 1864 — Mr. Cradock, 31 gs. Susannah 2nd, roan, calved Oct. 5, 1864 — Mr. Pierse, 15j gs. Buttercup 2nd, roan, calved Dec. 26, 1864 — Mr. Pierse, 13| gs. Gratitude 3rd, roan, calved Feb. 12, 1865 — Mr. Cradock, 12 gs. Mistake, roan, calved July 12, 1865 — Mr. Russell, 15 gs. Red Roan 3rd, calved Peb. 10, 1866— Mr. Thornton, 11^ gs. Young Alex^vnder, red and white, calved March 38, 1866 — Mr. Brown, 9^ gs. Gratitude 4th, white, calved April 30, 1866 — Mr. EUer- shaw, 7t gs. White Silk, white, calved May 24, 1866 — D. Neasham, Roan Lily, roan, calved June 24, 1866 — Mr. Johnson, SOigs. Lady Arnet, roan, calved Aug. 13, 1866 — Mr. Johnson, 10| gs. BULLS. TowNELEY Warlaby, roan, calved March 21, 1865— Jas. Cooke, 21 gs. Double Magnus, roan, calved May 5, 1865 — Major Coch- rane, 23 gs. P.ED Windsor, red, calved Feb. 7, 1866 — Mr. Johnson, 15 gs. Royal Windsor, roan, calved March 3, 1866 — Mr. Horn, 9 gs. Clown of Windsor, roao, calved March 13, 1866 — Capt. Bradley, 8^ gs. Towneley Windsor, red and white, calved April 36, 1866— Mr. Roecliffe, 25^ gs. Scottish Windsor,' roan, calved April 26, 1866 — Mr. Hawking, 6 gs. Raines Wikdsor, roan, calved April 26, 1866 — Mr. Walker, 11 gs. Bull Cale from Amy, 9 gs. SOUTHDOWN SHEEP: MR. RIGDEN'S SALE.— The very high position held by Mr. Rigden, of Hove, as a breeder of Southdown sheep, gives to his annual sale a degree of in- terest extending far beyond the Umits of Sussex. Tlie pens of ewes sold Tuesday, Aug. 27, from the prices they fetclied, show how much value is attached to the Webb blood. The rams, too, many of which were by tlie late Mr. Webb's finest prize slieep, fully shared in the admiration generally exjiressed by the large company present. The ewes realized £350, or an average of nearly £18 10s. per pen of five. The rams for letting ran as high as forty guineas, and altogether the sale must have been most satisfactory, both to Mr. Rigden and to Mr. Busbby, of Rustington, by whom it was conducted. Mr. E. Stenning, of Godstone, bought the first lot of sheep at three and a-balf guineas. The second, third, and fourth, after a good deal of competition, particularly for the second, fell to Capt. Tlmrlow (Baynard*), at five guineas, three and a-half guineas, and five guineas. No. 5 was bought by Mr. Hallett, Manor Farm, at £3 17s. Cd. Lots 6 and 7 fell to Capt. Tlmrlow, at £3 12s. 6d. and £3 2s. 6d. Mr. E. Stenning bought lots 8 and 9, at £4 2s. 6d. and £3 7s. 6d. Lot 10 feU to Mr. Cooke for £3, and lot 11 to Capt. Tlmrlow, at £3 2s. 6d., andlotslS, 13 and 14 to Mr. Hallett, for £3 each. Lot 15 was carried off by Mr. Stafford O'Brien for £2 17s. 6d. This closed the sale of full-mouthed ewes. The rams for letting went as follows t Two years old, by the gold Gs. medal Battersea sheep Earl of Radnor 30 Two ditto, by Webb's No. 21, a pure-bred Webb sheep ... Duke of Richmond 40 Two ditto, by Webb's 39, ditto Mr. Hallett 21 Two cbtto, by ditto Capt. Apthorpe 18 One year old, by second prize ram at Battersea Mr. Smith 23 One ditto, by ditto Rev, — Parkes 12 One ditto, by Webb's 39 Mr. Gorringe 26 One ditto, by ditto Mr. Woodliouse 14-2- One ditto, by ditto Mr. Majoribanks ;•. 20 One ditto, by ditto Rev. J. Goring 12^ One ditto, by ditto Mr. Selby 13 One ditto, by ditto Mr. S. A. Leigh 10^ One ditto, by ditto, pure-bred Webb Mr. Hallett_ 10 One ditto, by ditto Rev. J. Goring H RAMS for S.ALE. Three years old, by a son of G s Windsor Castle.... Mr. Heasman 10| ' One year old, by Webb's 39 . . . Mr. O'Brien 1 0^ Ditto, by ditto Mr. Lawrence llj Ditto, by ditto Mr. Smith 141 Ditto, by ditto Mr. Newland 10 Ditto, by 3nd prize Battersea. Mr. S. A Leigh 10 Ditto, by Webb's 39 Mr. Agate 13 Ditto, by 3nd prize Battersea . Mr. Lawrenoo 10^ Ditto, by ditto Mr. Selby 10^ HOW TO GET RID OF THISTLES.— Mr. Preston, Burythorpe House, writing to the Leeds Mercury, offers the following suggestions : — " As I observe an unusually large number of tliistles this year, I would wi.sh to give a liint to my brother-agriculturists how to get rid of them. My farm, a few years ago, was dreadfully infested with them. I effected their destruction by the following plan : — I had them mown at this season of the year, i. taiued for fat and store sheep were therefore below previous quotations. The former realised on an average about 8d. per lb., and store ewes were sold at from 40s. to 70s. per head. Pigs were lower than at the last fair. Small stores were sold at 15s. and upwards, and strong bacon pigs realized as much as i.6. There was a good show of horses numerically, chiefly for agricultural purposes ; but first-class aiiimals were scarce, aiul very few of eitjier kind changed hands. For the better class of cart-horses £10 was asked, and one or two good stitf cobs were offered at from £12 to £20. LUTTERWORTH FAIR was. weU supplied with sheep, which were sold at rather lower prices. Store ewes 45s. to 5os., fat ditto 50s. to 65s., lambs 35s. to 45s., shearling wethers 50s. to 60s. per head. Mr. Topham, of AVelford, and Mr. WiUiams, of Carlton-le-Moorland, exhibited Lincoln rams for sale by private contract, and disposed of a few at prices ranging from £8 to £12. Mr. H. Bond's improved Lincoln rams were sold by auction, and 20 averaged £6 10s. 3d. each. The horse fair was small and thinly .itteuded. MOFFAT FAIR.— The bulk o£ the Cheviots was of very ordinary quality. There was a iair demand for good rams, but inferior and ordinary were in little request. The market, on the whole, was one of the dullest that lias occurred for many years, the drenching rain causing matters to be worse. Prices ranged for one-year-old Cheviot rams from £2 to £8, two-year- old rams £3 to £10, aged sheep £3 to £8, and in rare cases up to £20, blackfaced tups £3 to £5 for oue-year-olds, and £3 to £S for two-year-old sheep, long-woolled rams £5 to £6 10s. NEWTON-STEWART MONTHLY MARKET. — The number of cattle exhibited was 380 of all ages. Owing to the high prices sought by holders, the market was extremely dull, and several lots left unsold. Two-year-olds ranged from £7 to £12 each, and stirks from £4 to £7 10s. P(^RTNEY FAIR. — The horse and foal fair was a mere shadow of what it had formerly been. A few foals were ex- hibited, and good animals sold well. PENRITH FORTNlGiri'LY FAIR.— Sheep brought from 7id.to 8,Vd.,and lambs from 8d. to Ud. ])cr lb. READING i'AlR. — There were no liorncd cattle, and the Jior^ics were rather few in number, and of an inferior descrip- tion. 150 hoi'srs wcie, however, offered at Tompkins's Re- pository, and animals described with warranties met with a ready sale, but inferior animals were a dull trade. Prices ranged as follows : Good London cart-horses from 45 to 65 gs., horses for agricultural purposes from 18 to 35 gs., cart-colts from 17 to 25 gs., luinters from 45 to 150 gs., carriage-horses from 50 to 90 gs., harness horses from IS to 35 gs., cobs and pairs from 12 to 25 gs. WALTHAM FAIR.— Unbroken cart colts and fiUies found purchasers in the southern dealers, commanding remunerative prices to breeders for sound useful animals. Good aiul sea- sonable cart-horses were also in request for the Loudon brewers aud teamsters. Useful hackneys and carriage horses were also in request, whilst for inferior descriptions iudiffcrent prices were obtainable. WORCESTER F'AIR. — There was not a head of horned stock, owing to the cattle-plague restrictions ; but a capital supply of sheep aud rams, which fetched high prices. Mr. J. Viilar sold some Cotswold rams at prices varying from 8 to 15 guineas, aud Mr. Hemmings sold some rams at from 4 to 13 guineas. IRISH FAIRS.— TiiOMASTOWN : Fat cows £16, two-and- a-half year old heifers £13 to £15, strippers £9 to £14, two-and- a-half year old buUoeks £9 to £12, one-aud-a-half year old bul- lock £5 5s. to £7, one-and-a-half year old heifers £5 5s. to £8, fat sheep 55s. to 63s., store sheep 35s. to 50s., lambs 27s, to 36s., store pigs 36s. to 60s., bonnives 18s. to 40s., fat pigs (on the day before the fair) 54s. per cwt. — Nava:?(: Best specimens of beef were sold at 7d. per lb., and few lots sent away unsold ; second quality rated from aid. to 6d., and inferior from 4^d. to upwards. One lot of prime bullocks brought £24 10s. each. j\ir. Rorke sold a lot of prime heifers at £21 10s. (the best in the fair) . A splendid lot of heifer beef sold at £22 lOs. each — the highest figure in the fair. Three-year-old store heifers fetched from £13 to £14 10s., two-year-olds from £8 10s. to £11 lOs., yearlings from £4 to £6 10s. each. Two-year-old bullocks sold from £10 to £13 10s., and yearlings worth notice from £5 to £8 per head. In the springer department Mr. Bishop paid from £18 to £24 for good ones. There were few inferior springers iu the fair, and tlie lowest prices were ft-oiu £11 to £13 10s. The supply of siieep was large. Good wethers rated from 60s. to 65s., or 8d. to 9d. per lb. Ewe mutton realized from 7d. to 75d. Lambs from 30s. to 36s, each, except iu some instances, where Liverpool dealers picked up some prime ones from 40s. to fully 44s., a-piece. There was a, good supply of pigs of every classt and increased demand. Best bacon rated from £2 10s. to fully £2 17s. Gd. per cwt., sinking the offal. Pork was also in good supply, and lated at about GAd. per lb. on the foot. Store pigs sold from 4os. to GOs. each, the latter figure being given for strong ones. Slips from 28s. to 3Gs. Bonnives fi-om I8s. to 25s., being an advance of 2s. to 3s. per head on late rates. The horse fair was only indifferent as regards quality. The liighest prices were £40 to £60 for a few fine young nags for hunting purposes. — Caklow : Three-year-olcl bullocks and heifers were from £13 to £16 ; two-year-olds, £9 to £10 and £11 ; there were not many fat beasts on sale, price 59s. to 64s. per cwt. ; inferior quality, 50s. to 55s. Springers and milcli cows were bought up at from £15 to £20. Best mutton was from 8d. to S^d. ; second quality, 72d. There was a brisk demand for pigs at 56s. per cwt. ; forward stores, 56s. to 61s. ; houhams, 12s. to 18s. — Dukdaxk : The fall on yearling cattle was considerable, few of them bringing more than £2 5s. each ; but for tvvoyear-olds and upwards there was a good demand, ranging fi-om £7 and upwards to £10. Milch cows in good demand, some selling as high as £15. Sheep, on an average, brought 8d. per lb., and lambs 9d. There was very little well- fed beef, which was rapidly bought up at 72d. to 8|d. per lb. Bacon pigs scarce and dear, but suckers were very plentiful and very cheap, considering former prices ; they averaged 14s. each. Castlebak : Sheep and lambs were looked after ; ewes of good breed averaged from 40s. to 4Ss., lambs from 22s. Gd. to 32s. Gd. — KiLUARE : Ewes were in pretty fair demand, and sold from £2 to £2 12s. Gd. ; very fine wethers sold at 56s. ; and excellent well-bred ewes, not in very good condition, £2 2s. Gd. On the whole, the sheep fair was very dull; and in mauy cases flocks were driven home sooner than sell at what was considered a sacrifice. The cattle fair was well attended, and business very brisk ; the following prices may be quoted : Fat cows £15 to £18, strippers £9 to £15 10s., two and a-half 358 THE FARMEE'S MAGAZINE, year old IjuUocks £9 to £13, ditto heifers £12 to £13. Pigs were iu good demand, and fat ones fetched fully 55s. per evvt., sinking offal : bonhams, runners, &c., were also dear. Tliis being a noted horse fair, there was a large ninnber in, prin- cipally three and a-half year olds untrained, and in most cases of a superior class : large figures were ol'tamed for this class, and there was as much as 55 guineas paid for a splendid bay colt. — Banaguer : The supply of sheep M'as very large, and in a condition fair : buyers were timid iu commencing, and sellers Aid not wish to submit to decreased prices without a struggle ; those, however, who sold earliest sold to the best advantage. Ewes were not in the demand expected, and were 4s. to 5s. under last year's prices ; wethers experienced a de- cline of 5s. to 7s., but many lots were disposed of. Good supply of fat sheep, and demand moderate. Mutton fetched G|u. to 7id. Compared \rith last year, the sales were very small indeed. The cattle fair was by far the largest ever remembered in Ba- nagher. Good cattle, and anything, whether heifers or b\iUocks, in condition, sold well, particularly the latter, and beef rated at from £3 to £3 5s. Three years old heifers brought from £13 to £17 10s., two years old ditto from £12 to £14., one- and-a-half ditto from £7 to £8, yearlings from £5 to £0. The horse fair was badly represented. Colts were in abmidance, and were to be had from £G and up to £25, £30, £35, and even £40. Some very nice ones could be had at £25 and £30 ; choice animals of that class could be had for £40. Three years old brought from £13 and £1G to £40. The demand for two years old was very poor, and realised little more than £16 or £17. The supply of first-class horses was very defi- cient. AVeight-carrying hunters in request. The average was 60 guineas, and one or two were disposed of at upwards of 100 guineas. — Cav.sjn : Springers were very dear, particularly those near the dropping, averaging from £8 to £10, and some as high as £1G 10s. each. As to sheep, there was a fair sup- ply, averaging at from £2 ,2s. to £3 10s. each. There were very few bacon pigs, which realised from 50s. to 60s. on the foot, sinking offal. — KiLKE?Jr«Y: Three years old and four years old bullocks £11 to £10 per head, two years old £7 5s. to £9 10s., and yearlings £5 5s. to £7 each ; two years old heifers £10 to £14 10s., yearlings £6 to £8 5s. ; new milch cows and springers £13 to £16 10s. for first-class ; ewes and wethers 55s. to 62s. per head, hoggets 43s. to 48s., and lambs 30s. to 37s. Gd. each. Store pigs rather slack ; strong slips 42s. 6d. to 50s. each, runners 28s. to 33s. ; and suckers 15s. to 27s. 6d. per pair. — Ba^'try : There was a fair show of cat- tle, and a very good number of pigs. The cattle, principally small animals of the Kerry breed, found ready buyers at pretty liigh prices. Pigs were very slack, with the exception of prime bacon pigs, and this description found ready buyers at an average of 52s. per cwt. Weanling bonhams were disposed of at about from 16s. to 20s. a-piece, of which there was a very large number, about 20 cart loads, on sale. The sheep fair was very hrisk : the greater part of the business vv-as done in store sheep, which were picked up at about an average of 6d: per lb. on foot. PRICES of BUTTER, CHEESE, HA]\IS, &c. BUTTER, p. cwt.— s. Frieslancl 12i to 126 Jersey 94 110 Dorset 126 130 Carlow — — Waterford — — Cork — — Limerick — — Sligo — — Feesh, per doz., lis. Od. to 15a. Od. ]CHEESE, per cwt.— s. s. Cheshire 72 to 84 Dble. Gloucester 74 78 Cheddar 76 81 American 66 74 HAMS: York 90 10 Cumberland 90 100 Irish 90 100 BACON :— Wiltshire 74 80 Irish, green 66 72 ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET. LONDON, MoKDAY, Sept. 24.— Fine goods are dearer. Dorset Butter 128s. to 130s. per cwt. Devon 114s. to 116s. „ Eresh 13s. to 16s. per dozen lbs. CAIII\IAE.THEN BUTTER MARKET, (Saturday last.) — There was agaiu a great paucity of supply in Butters to this market for the last fortnight, and from the commencement of the season to the present time we have not recived half the usual average. It is difficult to account for this : there must be a deficiency in the make tliis season, or the farmers are holding on speculation, Mhich some of the large farmers are apt to do, and often to their ultimate loss. In consequence of scarcity the market was cleared of every cask early in the day at 116s. per cwt. for first-class quality. BLANDFORD CHEESE FAIR.— Cheese «ras scarce, there being only about seven tons brought in, most of which, was disposed of at current prices. CHIPl'ENllAM GREAT MONTHLY MARKET.— There was a splendid show, between 200 and 300 tons being pitched, which quite filled the market. The whole was sold at the following prices : Cheese, broad doubles GOs. to 76s. per cwt., uew prime Cheddar 74s. to 84s., loaves 64s. to 78s., ditto thin 60s. to 6Gs. GLASGOW, (Wednesday last.) — The supply of cheese comes in freely, and a fair business doing at late rates. There were 45 tons passed the weigh-house, and several lots left unsold. New Dunlop GOs. to 66s., new Cheddar-made 66s. to 70s., skim-milk 26s. to 29s. per cwt. GLOUCESTER CHEESE IMARKET.— There was a good supply, the quantity weighed amounting to about 55 tons, and the demand was fair. Best singles fetched from 61s. to 64s., seconds from 54s. to 58s. per cwt. NORTHAIMPTON CHEESE FAIR.— Little cheese was shown, and this was all by dealers, and not by the producers. The price of good Leicester ranged from 9d. to lid., and the average price was lOd. A few Stiltons were on sale, but a slow trade was done ; skim-milk cheeses were scarce, and the usual " Wliitleather " cheese factors were very limited in number. READING CliEESE FAIR.— A quantity of cheese was pitched in the market-place, but the principal show was at the grocers' establishments, where trade was brisk for good and fine qualities, but middling were dull of sale. Prices were as follows : Fine pale Cheddar SSs. to 96s., good ditto 70s. to 89s., fine double 70s. to 7Ss., good ditto 60s. to 68s., common 54s. to 58s. WORCESTER CHEESE FAIR.— The following prices are being asked : Skims from 25s. to 36s. per cwt., two-meal from 42s. to 52s., and best from GOs. to 70s. NEWGATE AND LEADENHALL POULTRY jVIAR- KETS. — Geese 6s. to 7s., goslings 6s. to 7s., ducks 2s. 3d. to 3s., ducklings 2s. to 3s., tame rabbits Is. 3d. to Is. 9d., wild ditto Is. to Is. 3d., pigeons 6d. to 8d., partridges Is. 3d. to Is. 9d., hares 2s. 6d. to 4s., leverets 2s. 6d. to 4s., grouse 2s. 3d. to 2s. 9d. each ; Surrey fowls 8s. to 10s., ditto chickens Gs. to 8s., barn-door fowls 4s. to 6s. per couple. English eggs 10s., French ditto 7s. 6d. to 8s. per 100 ; fresh butter Is. to Is. 3d. per lb. BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS. LONDON, Monday, Sept. 24. — The accounts respecting the disease are unfavourable. The market is fairly supplied with Potatoes, the transactions in which have been to a fair extent at about late rates. There were no foreign arrivals. Regents 60s. to 100s. per ton. Rocks 50s. to 70s. „ COUNTRY POTATO MARKETS.— Doncaster, (Satur- day last) : The supply of Potatoes was large, but in conse- quence of the rapid spread of the disease amongst them — mauy of those on offer being much affected — sales were only made for immediate consumption, prices ranging from Gs. 6d. to Ss. per load of 18 stones. Majvciiest£r, (Saturday last) : Potatoes 6s. 6d. to 12s. per 2521bs. York, (Satuiday last) : This market was better supplied than it has been for some weeks past, and the prices remain at 6s. per tub of 2801bs., and Gd. per peck retail. The disease among Potatoes is re- ported to be spreading. FLAX. — The value of flax imported year by year is very considerable. In 1854, this value was £3,384,216 ; in 1855, £3,317,122 ; in 1856, £3,633,194 ; in 1857, £3,524,767 ; in 1858, £3,020,879 ; in 1859, £3,769,058 ; in ISGO, £3,836,770 ; in 18G1, £3,423,137; in 1862, £5,205,993; in 1863, £4,271,059; in 1864, £5,323,053 ; and iu 1805, £5,369,719. These totals embrace, it should be added, both dressed and un- dressed flax. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 359 REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. September began very favourably, after the heavy rains of August ; but it scarcely lasted thus a week before the weather resumed its turbulence and storms, and, though we have occasionally had a few days of interval, rain has continued in the ascendant. The consequence has been most dis- astrous to all the backward districts, as we do not expect so much as three-fourths of the harvest was secured. Nearly everywhere it has been alike, throughput the United Kingdom and Europe ; and many farmers will suffer severely, if not already overtaken with ruin. The wheat has been sadly deteriorated, and bad condition, with sprouting, has ensued ; while the barley, which was lately so favourably estimated, has been discoloured, sprouted, and in some instances well-nigh de- stroyed. Beans bear rough weather better ; but, unless October be very fine, the gatherings will be soft, and unfit for use till after Christmas. The hints we dropped to farmers on last month's se- rious decline, if acted on, have saved 5s. per qr. to holders, as wheat has recovered to fully this extent ; and though some reaction may ensue, if it should I now take up fine, the inability of France and Ame- rica to make up any English deficiency becomes plainer as time works on, and we should not be in the least surprised at a further rise of 10s. before next harvest. Though esculents generally have profited by the heavy downfall, it is the reverse with potatoes ; and the complaints this year seem universal, both as regards the United Kingdom and the Continent, perhaps with the exception of Scotland. The French markets have all along been rising, till their rates have exceeded our own. Belgium and Holland, as well as all Germany, have felt the stimulus of foreign advices, till there is not a port in Europe which seems to leave any margin for business with this country. Such a state of things cannot last ; and when the present period of excitement is over, we shall be able to take a calmer view of future prospects. Let us be thank- ful, in the meantime, that so much has been ga- thered ; that the cattle-plague and cholera are sub- siding ; and that there is this year a crop of maize, both in America and Europe, which greatly exceeds the average, if it be but safely housed. The fol- lowing prices were recently quoted at the several places named : The best red wheat at Paris was 60s., and white 63s. per qr. ; red at Antwerp was 64s., at Liege the same, at Louvain 63s., at Cour- trai 61s. per qr. Weak Zealand wheat at Rotter- dam was quoted 57s. 6d., red at Hamburgh 56s., new high-mixed at Danzic 56s. to 57s., red at Stettin 50s. 6d. per qr. At Odessa the qualties varied from 36s. to 41s. for red. Quotations at New York for spring Milwaukie wheat were 56s,, for amber 65s., for winter red 69s., and for new white Michigan to 74s., all per qr. of 480lbs. free on board. It was expected that stocks at the close of the season would be unusually low. The first Monday in Mark-lane commenced on the back of fair English and foreign arrivals of wheat. The show of samples from Essex and Kent during the morning was short, and much of it in poor condition. Though on the previous day there had been heavy rain, and the weather through the week was broken, there was but a moderate attendance of millers, who refused to pay any advance on the former rates ; and eventually these were accepted by factors. Holders of foreign in- sisting on higher terms, business was checked, and almost nothing done. Floating cargoes, however, sold freely, at fully as much money. With a con- tinuance of very rough weather through the week, which did much local damage where the gather- ings were late, many markets noted an improve- ment of 2s. to 3s. per qr.; and all had a very unsettled appearance, with a tendency upwards. Liverpool was '2d. to 3d. dearer per cental on Tuesday, with the same further increase on Friday. New qualities at Birmingham rose 4s., and old 2s. per qr. ; but Hull was only Is. to 2s. per qr. dearer. Leith noted an advance of 2s. per qr., and Aberdeen of Is. to 2s. ; but Glasgow was only Is. per qr. dearer. Wheat was firm at DubUn and Cork. On the second Monday there was less English wheat, and but a short supply from abroad. The persistence of bad weather, and the advance in the country, told this morning on the short arrival from Kent and Essex ; and factors were able to make sales at fully 3s. to 4s. per qr. advance, there being much damage by floods in low situations. Foreign qualities having been relatively dear, from a knowledge of the defective quality of the new samples, factors could not generally establish a rise of more than 2s. per qr. The same advance had been freely paid on floating cargoes through the week, and was well supported to-day, with an extensive business. Though the rain was not so heavy this week, its continuance more or less forced prices further up, through the country, the rise varying from 2s. to 5s. per qr. Boston and Newark obtained the extreme advance. Hull was 3s. per qr. dearer, as well as Leeds : and very many places were 3s. to 4s. per qr. higher. Livei"- pool, for the week, was 4d. to 6d. per cental higher. Aberdeen was Is. to 2s. per qr. higher, Leith 3s. per qr., and Glasgow improved Is. per boll, or Is. per qr. At Waterford the rise was 6d., and at Limerick Is, per barrel: Dublin being Is. to 2s. higher per barrel on native, and Is. on foreign sorts. On the third Monday the returns of English wheat were very small, but those of foreign liberal. The show this morning on the Kentish stands was 360 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. very scanty, and only small on those of the Essex factors, and a further advance of 28. per qr. was generally demanded at the openinof of the market; but the rise having been considerable, millers seemed determined not to follow it up, and only bought slowly, at an an advance on English samples of Is. per qr. In the foreign trade Rus- sian qualities, which constituted the chief arrivals, were nodearer; butdry Baltic red wasfully Is.perqr. higher, and extra qualities of Dantzic were several shillings per qr. dearer. Cargoes afloat were up Is. per qr., with a lively inquiry. The weather this week became improved and of a winterly tem- perature, but wore worse at the close. The rise was not much followed up ; but Ipswich, Hull, and Rochester were 2s. per qr. dearer for dry par- cels. At Boston some decline was noted in new, and several markets were dull, in consequence of the inferior condition of samples, with some ap- pearance of sprout, though the chief injury was done to barley. In Scotland the advance did not exceed Is., which was but slowly paid at Glasgow and Edinburgh. In Ireland there was no stimulus to prices ; but the Dublin market was firm both for native and foreign qualities, though flour was heavy. The fourth Monday commenced on moderate supplies, both English and foreign. There were very few fresh samples in the course of the morn- ing from Kent, and only a moderate quantity on the Essex stands, much of the new being in such poor condition that millers passed it by. But all dry samples were fully Is. per qr. deai'er, though business was far from brisk. With a large attend- ance from the country, it was exjjected a consider- able trade would be done in foreign at advanced rates. This expectation, however, was not realised, and in very few instances more money was ob- tained. Floating cargoes had previously been in active demand, at full rates. The imports into London for four weeks were 21,721 qrs. English, 59,3-'j5 qrs. foreign, against 22,182 qrs. English, 103,990 qrs. foreign in 1S05. The general averages commenced at 50s. lOd., and finished at 47s. Those of London began at 52s. 3d,, and closed at ols. lid., and therefore do not show the fluctuations of the market. The imports into the kingdom for four weeks ending September 15 were 1,3/1,901 cwt. wheat, 123,670 cwt. flour. The exports from London were only 50 qrs. wheat, 280 cwt. flour. In the flour trade the country supplies have been more abundant, and a fair trade has been trans- acted at 2s. to 3s. per sack advance on last month's closing prices. American barrels have been in more demand, and rather dearer, from the scarcity of stock, though previously high. French and Spanish sacks have gained in value about 2s. per sack, and the quotations in France make exporta- tions profitless, as the quotations in Paris fsay 45s. per sack) are more than the same qualities would fetch in London. The imports into London for four weeks were 78,108 sacks country-made, 8,363 sacks 5,343 barrels foreign, against 70,103 sacks English, 1,085 sacks 9,668 barrels foreign in 1865. Much of the barley crop being caught by the long-continued rough weather, and great injury resulting therefrom, the price of malting sorts has materially risen, fair quality having become worth 46s. per or. The great falling oil' too of foreign imports, and the prohibition of exports from the Danubian Principalities, have equally stimulated the inferior sorts, till what not long ago was only worth 25s. or 26s. has become worth 33s. to 34s. per qr. ; and, had it not been for the comparative cheapness of Indian corn, still higher rates would have been paid. We cannot, however, expect this state of things to last, as shipments of new from the Continent are already on their way, and far- mers will not fail to avail themselves of such a fine opportunity of selling to advantage. The im- ports into London for four weeks were 3,036 qrs. British, 9,981 qrs. foreign, against 4,365 qrs. English, 20,131 qrs. foreign in 1865. The state of the barley trade, and small stocks of old malt, have caused a rise iri its value of about 2s. per (jr. Though good supphes of oats continued up to the fourth Monday, this grain has gradually been improving in value, the rise for the month being Is. 6d. to 2s. per qr., more especially on fine qualities, which were never abundant, even in the times of heaviest exports. 361bs. Russian are now worth 19s., and other qualities in proportion; while sweet old Swedish feed weighing 43lbs. would bring 27s. per qr, or more. Russian im- ports will now be falling otF, and we may see some further enhancement of values; as, notwithstand- ing the late improvement, the stocks in granary cannot yet obtain cost price. The imports into London for the four weeks were 6,1 10 qrs. English, 162 qrs. Scotch, 265 qrs. Irish, 190,573 qrs. foreign, against 8,360 qrs. English, 396 qrs. Scotch, 3,086 qrs. Irish, 134,946 qrs. foreign in 1865. Beans, which were rapidly declining, with the ap- pearance of fine weather have partially recovered ; but the advance has scarcely exceeded Is. per qr., rates still ruling high, and more foreign coming on. Though the present wet weather is much against them, the damage is not estimated to be great, and with drying winds for a few days they may be hardened enough for stacking, and im- prove subsequently. The imports into London for the four weeks were 563 qrs. English, 11,339 qrs. foreign, against 773 qrs. English 2,261 qrs. foreign in 1865. As regards peas, there has been very little altera- tion of value, excepting in old foreign white, which have been in demand for horse feed, and conse- quently have risen about 2s. per qr. The new crop has not appeared yet in quantity, but the samples sent have been of fair quality. We anticipate no great change as regards this grain. The imports into London for four weeks were 2,604 qrs. English and 4,586 qrs. foreign, against 1,405 qrs. English and 1,251 qrs. foreign in 1865. The supplies of linseed have kept lessening, and prices, both of seed and cake, have consequently been fully supported, notwithstanding the high range of the former. The long prevalence of wet has cut off the ex- pectation of a crop of cloverseed, and the small stocks of foreign which were overleft last season have consequently been held at advanced rates. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 361 Holders have been further encouraged to this course by the continual rise in France, as the north- ern provinces have suffered, and the southern are not reported to yield well. Mustard-seed has under- gone great fluctuations, 20s. per bush, having been paid. Many samples, both old and new, have at last appeared, and altered the aspect of this trade. For canary-seed also higher prices have been de- manded ; but winter tares have been neglected all through, and can still be had in plenty, at 5s. per bushel. FLUCTUATIONS in the AVERAGE PRICE of WHEAT. Price. Aug. 11. 'Aug. 18. Aug. 25. Sept. 1. Sept. 8. Sept. 15. Ditto, black 18 BEANS, Mazagau ...40 Harrow 42 PEAS, white, boilers.. 39 CURRENT PRICES OP BRITISH GRAIN AND FLOUR IN MARK LANE. Shillings per Quarter. WHEAT, Essex and Kent, white... old 47 62...new 43to57 ,, ,, ,, red ,, 45 55... ,, 42 54 Norfolk, Lincoln, and Yorkshire, red 42 54 BARLEY 35 to 40 ChevaUer, new 42 46 Urinding 33 36 Distilling 38 42 MALT, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk GO 70 Kingston, Ware, and town-made 60 70 Bro^vii 54 63 RYE 29 32 OATS, English, feed 20 to 26 Potato 25 31 Scotch, feed 21 27 Potato 26 31 Irish, feed, white 19 22 Pine 23 27 21 Potato 24 2S 42 Ticks 40 42 46 Pijfireon 45 49 42 Maple 39 to 42 Grey, new36 38 FLOUR, per sack of 2801bs., Town, Households 47 50 Country, on shore 36 to 38 ,, 40 44 Norfolk and Sutlblk, on shore 3G 37 FOREIGN GRAIN. Shillings per Quarter. WHEAT, Dantzic, mixed 54 to 57 old, extra 59 to 64 Konigsberg 51 57 extra 58 59 Rostock 52 58 fine 58 60 Sile.sian, red 49 54 white.... 52 58 Pomera., Meckborg., and Uckernxrk. ...red old... 52 56 Russian, hard, 44 to 47... St. Petersburg and Riga 47 50 Danish and Holstein, red 46 50 French, none Rhine and Belgium 52 56 American, white 00, red winter 00 to 00, spring 00 00 BARLEY, grinding 31 to 33 ....distilling and malting 40 42 OATS, Dutch, brewing and Polands 20 to 29 feed 18 24 Danish and Swedish, feed 21 to 26.... Stralsund... 21 27 Canada 19 to 21, Riga 21 to 25, Arch. 19 to 20, P'sbg. 20 27 TARES, Spring, per qr small 00 large ... 00 00 BEANS, Priesland and Holstein 38 43 Komg.sberg 40 to 43. ..Egyptian, none 00 00 PEAS, feeding and maple... 36 38... fine boilers 38 41 INDIAN CORN, white 31 33...yeUow 30 32 FLOUR, per sack, French..38 42.. .Spanish, p. sack 38 42 American, per brl 24 27...extra and d'ble. 28 30 IMPERIAL AVERAGES For the week ended Sept. 15, 1866. Wheat 60,328|qrs. 47s. Od. Barley 6,439i ,, 37s. Id. Oats 2,150i ,, 243. 8d. COMPARATIVE AVERAGES. AVHEAT. BARLEY. OATS. Years. Qrs. s. d. Qrs. s. d. Qrs. s. d. 1862.. . 58,9691 ... 55 10 2,3261 ... 36 7 7,276J ... 24 7 1863.. . 78,909i- ... 44 1 9, 287 J- ... 34 7 6,355i ... 21 8 1864.. . 65,613 ... 42 4 5,316i ... 32 1 5,4754 ...21 9 1865.. . 62.141i ... 44 7 6,179 ... 30 10 5,329i ... 20 11 1866.. . C0,328| ... 47 0 6,439 J ... 37 1 2,150| ... 24 8 AVE RAGE S Fob the last Six Weeks: Aug. 11, 1866 Aug. 18, 1866 Aug. 25, 1866 Sept. 1, 1866 Sept. 8, 1866 Sept. 15, 1866 Aggi'egate Average Averages last year Wheat, 1 s. d. 50 2 50 2 50 10 49 7 47 3 47 0 49 2 44 7 Bar ley. Oats. 8. d. 8. d. 35 2 26 6 34 9 26 6 33 8 26 6 35 1 25 3 36 1 25 a 37 1 24 9 35 4 25 10 30 10 LONDON AVERAGES. Wlieat 1883 qrs. 518. lid. Barley 396 ,, lis. Id. Oats 40 „ 233. lOd. 50s. lOd. 50s. 2d. ' 49s. 7d. 47s. 3d. 47s. Od. -.-J" ... I PRICES OF SEEDS. LONDON, Monday, Sept. 24.— The inquiry for red seed continues brisk, and holders require higher rates ; at present buyers will not give fm-ther advances. The trade remains linn at lust week's rates. In white seed there is nothing passing. Sellers of Trefoil ask higher values. Cutler aud Barker, Seed-factors. BRITISH SEEDS. MusTAHB, per bush. .white 8s.tol2s. Canaby, i)er qr 458. 52s, CLOVEBSEED,red OOs. OOs, CoBiANDEB, per cwt OOs. OOs. Tabes, winter, new, per bushel 5s. Od.- 5s. 6d, Trefoil 18s. 20s. Ryegbass, per qr OOs. OOs. Linseed, per qr., sowing OOs. toOOs., crushing 60s. 68s. Rapeseed, per qr 54s. 588, Liuseed Cakes, per ton £9 10s. to £10 lOy, Rape Cake, per ton £5 10s. to £6 Os. FOREIGN SEEDS. CoBiANDER, per cwt 16s. to20s. Cloveeseed, red 40s. to54s., white 60s. 80s, Tkefoil 188. 23s, Rtegeass, per qr 25s. 263, Hempseed, small ^s. per qr., Dutch OOs. 40s. Linseed, per qr., Baltic 58s. to 60s.. .Bombay 68s. OOs. Linseed Cakes, perton £9 10s. to £11 Os. Rape Cake, per ton £5 Os. to £6 Os. HOP MARKETS. BOROUGH, Monday, Sept. 24.— Our market is not brisk at present, and prices have declined, although the reports from the plantatious have been so unfavourable during the past week, the yield in every instance falling short of the estimates formed by tlie best judges, in some cases to the extent of one- fourth and in others oue-tliird of the anticipated produce ; the result of which will be to reduce our crop to below half of last year's. Mould and lice have increased in Mid aud East Kent, aud the quahty of the hops coming fi'onx tliese districts must be exceedingly poor. Our present currency is as follows : Mid and East Kent ... 135s. to 231s, Weald of Kent loos, to lG8s. Sussex 120s. to 175s. Yearlings 90s. to 140s. Earnham aud Country 160s. to 235s. Accoimts from Belgium are not so good as last week. New York advices to the 7th inst. confirm previous reports of the extraordinary increase of mould and lice in the various hop sections, ANNUAL REPORT OF THE WORCESTER HOP MARKET. — In addressing you at this period of the year we wish we could have given a more cheering account of our prospects for the coming season. The plantatious throughout the whole of Worcestershire and Hereford were attacked with the aphis blight with such severity in Juue, that it was then felt the crop would be a small one : a succession of rain, how- ever, partiaUy cleansed the blue, and upon well-farmed lands there is a tolerable crop, and every planter will j)ick some- thing, so that the present calculation is about a fourth of last year, or equal to £7,000 or £8,000 of old duty, much depend- ing upon the weather during picking, which is now in fidl operation. The quality and colour of our hops will be line, and there wiU be some growths of unusual excelleuce. At our great annual fair on the 19th, ouly 24 pockets passed the public scale, some of which not being properly dried, were sold for immediate use at £8 10s., but £10 was paid for only middling quality, and as much as £12 demanded for nice flavoured, well-managed, and nosy samples. We hope that these prices will form no criterion as to future values when the supply is better ; still, considering the active competition for good Keuts and Earnhams at the prices daily paid for them, we are of opinion that all our good growths will be readily taken, and prove the best value of anything sold,— John KiTCUi;^ &^x> Co. 362 THE FAUMER'S ]\IAGAZINE. COVENT GARDEN MAKivLT. LONDON, Saiueday, Sept. 22. Supplies axe still well kept up, but owing to the duliiess of trade prices are receding, except in the case of sound samples of potatoes, which are dearer than they were last week. Pears consist of Louise Bonne of Jersey, Gratioli, and "WiUiam's Bon Chretien. Kent cob nuts are now arriving very plentifully. Apples, too, are sufficient for the demand. Pine-apples and hot-house gi'apes are also plentiful. Vege- tables continue abundant. Flowers chiefly consist of orchids, asters, calceolarias, pelargoniums, fiichsias, balsams, cockscombs, mignonette, and roses. FRUIT. s. d. s. d Apples, '?S bushel 6 0 to 8 0 Currants, ^ sieve ... 0 0 Pigs, %i dozen 1 0 Gooseberries, '^ qrt. 0 0 Gr.apes, ^Ib 2 0 lemons, "^ 100 8 o Nuts, Cob, per lOOlbs. 35 0 n n 2 0 0 0 t! 0 14 0 40 0 s. d. Nectarines,^ doz. ... 2 0 Melons, each 3 0 Oranges, per 100 0 0 Peaches, per dozen... 2 0 Pears, "iP dozen 2 0 Pine Apples, per lb. S 0 Strawberries, per lb. 0 0 E. d. VEGETABLES. Artichokes, per dozen 2 0 to 4 0 .Mushrooms, '^ pottle 1 6 to ! Asparagus, p. bundle. 0 0 Beans, Kid., 13 4 sieve 2 0 Beet, per dozen 2 0 Brocoli, per bundle ... 0 0 Cabbages, per dozen... 1 0 Carrots, per bunch ... 0 4 French, per bunch, 0 0 Cauliflowers, per doz. 2 0 Celery, per bundle ... 0 it Cucumbers, each 0 3 Endive, per dozen 1 U Garlic& Shallots, '^Ib. 0 10 Herbs, per bunch 0 6 Horseradish,'^ bundle 2 6 Leeks, per buuoh 0 3 Lettuces, per score ... 1 0 Mint, per bunch 0 3 0 0 OlMust.S Cress; '#punu. 0 2 0 0 3 6 ,Onions, "iffdoz. bun. ... 3 0 GO 3 0 Pickling, per quart 0 0 0 0 0 0 Parsley, perl*) sieve... 16 2 0 2 0 Parsnips, per dozen... On o o 0 6 Peas, per quart 0 (i 10 0 0,, per bushel 3 0 5 0 6 0 Potatoes, York Re- 1 6 gents,perton 70 0 B3 0 0 9 Rocks, per ton BO 0 70 0 3 0 Flukes, per ton 105 0 125 0 0 4 Kidneys, per owt 6 Radishes, per 12 bund. 0 G Rhubarb, per bundle 0 (I Savoys, per dozen 0 0 Spinach, per bushel... 2 0 Turnips, per bunch... 0 3 10 0 1 0 TIMBER BALTIC riR TIMBER. Per load 50 cubic feet. s. d. s. d. Riga 65 0 to 67 0 Dantzic and Memel, Crown 75 0 85 0 Best middling 65 0 73 0 Good middling & second 55 0 65 0 Common middling 45 0 50 0 Small, short, and irregular 40 0 50 0 Stettin 45 0 55 0 Swedi-sh 38 0 43 0 Small 33 0 37 0 Swedish & Norway balks 30 35 0 AMERICAN PITCH PINE. United States 0 0 0 0 BALTIC OAK TIMBER. Blemel, crown 110 0 130 0 Brack 80 0 100 0 Dantzic and Stettin, Crown 90 0 120 0 Brack &unsquar'd 50 0 70 0 WAINSCOT. Per log 18 cubic feet. Eiga, crown 95 0 105 0 Brack 70 0 80 0 Memel and Dantzic, Crown 75 0 85 0 Brack 53 0 65 0 DEALS AND BATTENS. Per Petersburg standard hundred £ s. Archangel & Onega 12 0 Seconds 9 0 Petersburg 10 0 Wyburg 9 0 Finland and hand- sawn Swedish 7 0 Petersburg & Riga white deals 8 10 Memel and Dantzic, Crown red deals... 12 0 Brack 8 0 £ s. 14 0 10 10 12 0 9 10 Christiana & Sanne- sund deals, white and yellow 12 9 0 8 10 Second do.. Dram & Frederiok- stadt battens, do. Dramoy2-inch do. ... 7 0 Gothenb'g,gd stocks 9 10 Common 8 10 Gefle and Swedish 14-feet deals 9 10 Swedish deals and battens, long mill- sawn 9 0 Dantzic, cr* wn deck, per 40-feet 3-inch 1 0 Brack 0 12 LATHWOOD. Per cubic fathom. Petersburg 7 0 Riga, Daut., Memel, and Swedish 5 0 FIREWOOD. Per cubic fathom. Swedish, red deal ends 3 15 Norway, red & white boards 3 0 Rounds and slabs 2 15 OAK STAVES Per raille pipe. Memel, crov/n 150 0 First brack 130 0 Dantzic, Stettin, & Hambro' fuU-siz'd crown 150 0 Canada, stand, pipe 80 0 Puncheon, '■& 1,200 pieces 24 0 Bosnia, single brl., "^ 1,200 pieces 25 0 United States, pipe 30 0 Hogshead, heavy and extra 30 0 Slight 22 0 9 0 8 0 10 0 9 0 10 10 25 0 27 0 FLAX, HEMP, COIR, &c. £ s. X s. £ a. Hemp, Petersburgh clean, per ton 31 Oto 0 0 Outshot 30 0 ~ " Half-clean 29 0 Riga, Rhine 35 0 Manilla 45 0 East Indian, Sunn 15 0 Jute 7 5 Coiryarn 35 0 Junk 26 0 0 0 1 Fibre 24 0 0 0 Flax, Riga 0 0 0 0 St. Petersburgh, 12 r,5 0 I head 44 0 21 0 9 head 35 0 24 Ql Egyptian 0 0 HIDE AND SKIN MARKETS. MARKET HIDES : 50 to 641bs 0 64 to 721bs 0 72 to 801bs 0 80 to 881bs 0 88 to 961bs 0 86 to 104\bs Q 0 3 0 3V4 0 KVo 0 4 0 4V« u i% 8. d. Horse hides, each ... 9 0 to Calf skins, light 2 6 Full 7 0 Polled sheep 0 0 Hah-breds 0 0 Downs 0 0 Shearlings 4 6 Lambs „. 3 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 s. d. s. d. n tol 8 9* 1 lOi 8 1 9 7 1 8 7 1 9 6 1 m 5i 2 0 CHICORY. LONDON, Saturday, Sept. 22. About an average business is doing in chicoi-y, at last week'd cun'ency. Delivebable fbom Whaep in Babs, exclusivb of DniT. Harlingen £8 Oto£10 10 I Antwerp £8 10 to £11 0 Bruges 0 0 0 0 | Hamburgh ... 0 0 0 0 ENGLISH WOOL MARKET. CITY, Monday, Sept. 24. — Since our last report only a limited business has been transacted in liome-growu Wool. On the whole, however, prices have been well ouppoited. The demand for export is trifling, although the stocks held on the Continent are limited. CuEEENT Prices of English Wool.. Fleeces — Southdown hoggets per lb. Half-bred ditto .'... ,, Kent fleeces ,, Southdown ewes and wethers ,, Leicester ditto ,, SoETS — Clothing , CoinbiuK , BRADFORD WOOL MARKET.— The partial improve- meut in the vieather, and the livelier aspect of the cotton market, have at least prevented any further depression in our market. The business of the day is very limited, but still there is more inquiry than there has been of late, and a little more has changed hands during the week. The consumption keeps up, and spinners, though very chary of their purchases, are stiU to some extent forced by their reepiirements into the market. There have too been instances of speculative buying. The tendency of prices to grow weaker has been checked, and the value of wool is unclianged since last Thursday. Holders generally are quite \rilling to sell at current rates, and fine weather only is wanted to bring an improved demand. — Brad- ford Observer. LEEDS (English and ronEiGN) WOOL MARKETS, Friday. — There is a fair consumptive demand for English wool and prices are unaltered. The price is so much above an average that there is little inducement to hold large stocks, and there must be still a good deal of wool in the hands of tlie farmers and collectors. Colonial wool is \rithout alteration. Prices have lieen well sustained during the sales, and some sorts have become rather dearer. GLASGOW WOOL JIAB.KET, (Saturday last.)— There is no improvement to note in the wool trade during the past week. There has lieen an almost total absence of business. Prices are, so far, unaltered, but few or no transactions have taken place. If we liad a short period of fine vieather so that harvest operations might be successfully carried out, we would probably see a considerable improvement. — F. H. McLeod. MANURES. PRICE CURRENT OF GUANO, &c. Peruvian Guano direct from the importers' stores, or ex ship (SO tons) £12 5s. to £12 10s. per ton. Bones, £6 10s. per ton. Animal Charcoal (70 per cent. Phosphate) £5 per ton. Coprolite, Cambridge, whole £2 5s. to £2 8s., ground £2 15a. to £3 Suffolk, whole £1 18s. to £2, ground £2 10s. to£2 12s.perton. Muriate of Potash, £13 to £14 per ton. Nitrate of Soda, £15 to £15 10s. per ton. Sulphate of Ammonia, £14 to £13 perton. Gypsum, 30s. perton. Superphosphate of Lime, £3 to £6 5s. per to;^ Sulphuric Acid, concentrated 1'845 Id. per lb., brown 1712 0%i. Blood Manure, £G 5s. to £7 10s. per ton. Dissolved Bones, £6 15s. p. ton. Linseed Cakes, best American barrel £11 5s., ditto bag £10 10s. p. ton; English £11 to £11 10s. Rape Cake, £3 13s. to £6 per ton.. E. PuESEE, London Manure Company, 116, Fenchurch Street, E.G. to £0 0 0 Linseed Cake, per ton — 7 0 0 Americ.,thln,bgs.£10 0 0 to £0 0 0 0 0 0 Do. Inbrls 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 01 English 10 10 0 10 15 0 0 0 0 Cotsd.Cake.decort. 0 0 0 0 00 Linsd.Bomby.p.qr. 3 10 0 3 11 0 0 0 0 Rapeseed, Guzerat 2 18 0 3 0 0 0 11 0 Niger 0 0 0 0 00 I TaUow, 1st P.y.C. 2 G G 3 7 0 2 lOo' ,, super. Norths 2 5 6 2 SO NBS AND CO., General Brokers, Exchange Court, Liverpool. " Guano, Peruvian £12 7 6 Do. Upper do. G 13 0 Maiden Island 0 0 0 Bone Ash 0 0 0 Brimstone, 2d&3rd 0 0 0 Saltpetre, Bengal, 2 per cent 0 0 (1 Nitr. of Soda. p. ct.O 10 !) Cloverseed, N.Am, red, new per cwt. 2 5 0 SAMUEL DOW Agricultural Chemical Works, Stowmarkct, Suffolk. Prentice's Cereal Manure for Corn Crops per ton £8 10 0 Mangold Manure „ 8 0 0 Prentice's Turnjp Manure „ '■ 10 o Prentice's Superphosphate of Lime 0 0 0 Printed by Rogerson and Tuxford, 346 Strand, London, W.C. ROGERSON AND TUXFORD'S AGRICULTURAL WORKS. PRICE ONE SHILLING EACH. Neatly printed in foolscap 8vo., each Volume containing from 130 to 190 pages of Letterpress, witli numerous illustrative Engravings Ilirlarhutfs liiral NEW EDITIONS, REVISED AND ENLARGED. WHEAT : its History and Cultivation. By the Old Norfolk Farmer. THE AGRICULTURIST'S WEATHER GUIDE AND MANUAL OF METEOROLOGY. By Henry C. Cres- wick, Assistant Observer in the Magnetical and Meteoro- logical Department of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, Author of several Papers on Meteorology, FLAX ; its Cultivation and Preparation, and best mode of Con- version. By James Ward, Author of "The World and its Workshops," &c. RURAL ARCHITECTURE; a Series of Designs for Rural and other Dwellings. The Ground Plans, Elevations, and Spe- cifications by James Sanderson, Borough Engineer's Office, Liverpool. THE AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTOR ; or Young Farmer's Class Book. By Edmund Murphy, A.B. DOMESTIC FOWL ; their Natural History, Breeding, and General Management. THE FLOWER GARDEN. By George Glenny, F.L.S., Author of " Properties of Flowers," &c, HORSES: their Varieties, Breeding, and Management. Edited by M. M. Milburn. COWS : and Dairy Husbandry. By M. M. Milburn, Author of "The Sheep," &c. (The Dairy Department revised by T. Horsfall). SHEEP AND SHEPHERDING; embracins the History, Va- rieties. Rearing, Feeding, and General Manaaement of Sheep; with Treatises on Australian Shfep Farming, the Spanish and Saxon Merinos, &c.^By M. M. Milburn, Author of "The Covr," and of various Agricultural Prize Essays. DOGS : their Origin and Varieties. PIGS: their Origin and Varieties. THE HIVE AND THE HONEY BEE. PESTS OF THE FARM. A New Edition. By M. M. Milburn, Author of " The Sheep," &c. LAND-DRAINAGE, EMBANKMENT, AND IRRIGATION. By James Donald, Civil Engineer, Derby. SOILS AND MANURES with Instructions for their Improve- ment. By John Donaldson, Government Land Drainage Surveyor. Shorthi n-ill appear, in continuation of the same series, THE IMPLEiMENTSOF THE FARM. Bv E.Scott Burn, C.E. THE POTATO; its History Culture, and National Importance. Uy S. Copland. London: Houl.ston &i Wright, 65, Paternoster Row; Rogerson & Tuxford, 246, Strand. Dublin : J. McGlashan, Upper Sackville Street. And all Bookseller^. THE ROYAL FARMERS' INSURANCE COMPANY, 3, NORFOLK STREET, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. PERSONS Insured by this Company have the security of an extensive and wealthy Proprietary, as well as of an ample capital, always applicable to the payment of claims. First Class Not Hazardous Is. 6d. per cent. Second Class Hazardous 2s. 6d. ,, Third Class Doubly Hazardous 4g. 6d. ,, BUIIiDIWC^ AWI> MEIlCAWTIIiE PKOPEMTY of every description in Public or Private Warehouses — Distilleries, Steam Engines, Goods in Boats or Canals, Ships in Port or Harbour, &c., &c., are insured in this Office at moderate rates. SPECIA.li It. f ^K.S — At such rates as may be considered reasonable. EAKMI^'Cr STOCK.— 5s. per cent. ; and Portable Steam Thrashing Maehines allowed to be used, without extra charge. Nearly Five Millions insured in this OfiBce on this description of property alone. IjOSSES paid immediately after the amounts have been ascertained. lilEE.— Life Insurances on moderate terms by Policies payable to the registered holders. BO^MUS. — Insurers of the participating class are eutitled to four-fifths of the profits. At the last declaration of Bonus, in May, 1864, £6 5s. was added to every £100 insured by Policies of five years' standing, being at the rate of ^1 5s. per cent, per annum, and proportionate amounts to all othei- insu- rances on which two or more annual payments had been made, being in some cases about 60 per cent, on the premiums received. Additional Agents wanted. Application to JOHN REDDISH, Esa., Secretary and Actuary. PICKSLEY, SIMS, AND CO. (LIMITED), BEDFORD FOUNDRY, LEIGH, LANCASHIRE, MANUFACTUEEES of CHAFF CUTTEES, COEN GEINDINGand CEUSHING MILLS, TURNIP CUTTERS, PULPERS, CAKE BREAKERS, Etc., Etc. In addition to the ordinary sizes of Chaff Cutters, P., S., and Co. liave introduced a new Maclime, specially adapted for the London Market, fitted with a large Fly Wheel and wide Mouthpiece, at a low cost. P., S., and Co. also make a new Combined Machine for Slicing Turnips and for Pulping and Cutting Finger Pieces for Sheep. This Machine is entu-ely new, of treble action, and requires little power to work it. P., S., and Co., manufacturers of STEAM ENGINES, BONE-GRINDING and RASPING MILLS, REAPING and MOWING MACHINES, HYDRAULIC and SCREW PRESSES and PUMPS of every description, COTTON GINS, etc., etc. ILLUSTR.VTED CATALOGrES FREE PER POST ON APPLICATION. THE EAllMEH'S MAGAZINE. OCTOBER, 1866. CONTENTS. Plate I. — CRAFTY : a Hackney Mare, the winner of Fifty-five Premiums, Plate II.-B ERKSHIRE PIGS. ON AT Aylesbury E Plagu E WAS T Descriptions of Plates ..... Supply of Good Water to Towns. — By Cuthbert W. Johnson, F.R.S. Filtration for Cattle Troughs Harvesting Corn .... Harvesting Corn Crops Autumn Cleaning of Stubbles The Royal Bucks and Central Bucks United Assogiat Wetherby Agricultural Society Cleveland Agricultural Society at Stockton East Cumberland Agricultural Society's Show Derbyshire Agricultural Society Another Theory as to Finger-and-Toe, or Anbury Free Trade and the Steam Plough Chips: Facts and Figures connected with Manures The Steam-Engine on the Farm Horse-breeding and Selling by Farmers The Horse ..... Mills and Milling .... Economic Science and Statistics The Science of making Hay . Prevalence of Tapeworm in Cattle . Mr. Hugh Aylmer's Shorthorn Herd: How the Cattl Fertilizing Properties of Sewage • Compost-Heaps .... Agricultural Geology Fish as Food ..... Death of Mr. J. Hall Maxwell Rise and Progress in Steam Cultivation The Application of Machinery' to the Farm . Scotch v. English Draught Horses Inquiry into the Utilization of Sewage Sewage-Farming, in the Light of the Present Age Facts and Figures from the United States Our Coal, Food, and Population in 1966 The Ewe and Lamb at Weaning-time . Peat as a Manure — Value of Humus . Green Manuring — Clover Hay On Ploughing and Potatoes . Cambridgeshire Agricultural Society Mr. Henley at Thame. — The Labourer's Cottage The Hughenden Holiday. — Mr. Disraeli at Home Easingwold Agricultural Show Whitby Agricultural Society Market Drayton Agricultural Society Wheat-Growing in Kentucky . The Labourer's Home. The Hop Crop and the Importations . Opinions v. Experiments Queen's County Agricultural Society's Annual Show The Game Question .... Lettings and Sales of Rams and Ewes Calendars of Agriculture and Gardening ToREiGN Agricultural Gossip . General Agricultural Report for September. Review of the Cattle Trade for September . Agricultural Intelligence, Fairs, &c. Market Currencies, &c. Review of the Corn Trade during the past Month page 269,270 . 271 . 274 . 275 . 276 . 277 . 278 . 279 . 280 . 281 . 282 . 283 . 284 . 285 . 289 . 290 . 292 . 294 . 297 . 299 • 300 D . 302 . 304 . 307 . 308 . 314 . 315 . 316 . 317 . 319 . 320 . 322 . 324 . 327 . 328 . 329 . 330 . 331 . 332 . 334 . 335 . 336 . 337 . 338 . 339 . 340 . 341 . 342 . 344 . 344 345-350 . 351 . 352 . 354 . 354 . 355 . 358 . 359 Just Published, Price in Cloth, EIGHTEENPENCE ; Post-free, Is. M., THE SUPPLEMENT TO EUFF'S GUIDE TO THE TURF; OR, POCKET RACING COMPANION FOR 1866. ROGERSON& TUXFORD, "SPORTING REVIEW" OFFICE, 246, STRAND; by all Booksellers; and at the various Railway Stations.— Price Eighteenpenee in Cloth. THOMAS BIGG, Agricultural and Veterinary Chemist, by Appointment to His late Royal Highness The Prince Consort, K.G., Leicester House, Great Dover-street, Borough, London, begs to call the attention of Farmers and Graziers to his valuable SHEEP and LAMB DIPPING COM- POSITION, which requires ao Boiling, and may be used with Warm or Cold Water, for efTectually destroying the Tick, Lice, and all other insects injurious to the Flock, preventing the alarming attacks of Fly and Shab, and cleansing and purifying the Skin, thereby greatly improving the Wool, both in quantity and quality, and highly contributing to the general health of the animal. Prepared only by Thomas Bigg, Chemist, &c,, at his Manufac- tory as above, and sold as follows, although any other quantity may be had, if required : — 4 lb. for 20 sheep, price, jar included £0 2 0 6 1b. 30 „ „ „ 0 3 0 8 lb. 40 „ „ „ ...... 0 4 0 10 1b. 50 „ „ „ 0 5 0 30 lb. 100 „ „ (cask and measure 0 10 0 SO lb. 150 „ „ included) 0 15 0 40 1b. 200 „ „ „ 1 0 0 60 lb. 250 „ „ „ 13 6 60 1b. 800 „ „ „ 1 7 6 80 lb. 400 „ „ „ 1 17 6 100 1b. 500 „ „ „ 2 5 0 Should any Flockmaster prefer boiling theComposition, it will be equally effective. MOST IMPORTANT CERTIFICATE. From Ma. Herapath, tke celebrated Analytical Chemist: — Bristol Laboratory, Old Park, January 18th, 1861. Sir, — I have submitted your Sheep -Dipping Composition to analysis, and And that the ingredients are well blended, and the mixt ire neutral. If ii is used according to the directions given, 1 feel satisfied, that while it efleclually destroys vermin, it will not injure the hair roots (or " yolk ") in the skin, the fleece, or the carcase. I think it deserves the numerous testimonials pub- lished. I am, Sir, yours respectfully, William Herapath, Sen., F.C.8., &c., &c., To Mr. Thomas Bigs, Professor of Chemistry. Leicester House. Great Dovei 'Street. Borough, London, He would also especially call attention to his SPECIFIC, or LOTION, for the SCAB, or SHAB, which will be found a certain remedy for eradicating that loathsome and ruinous disorder in Sheep, and which may be safi'ly used in all climates, and at all seasons of the year, and to all descriptions of sheep, even ewes in lamb. Price FIVE SHILLINGS per gallon— sufficient on an average for thirty Sheep (according to the virulence of the disease); also in wine quart bottles. Is. 3d. each. IMPORTANT TESTIMONIAL. "Scoulton, near Hingham, Norfolk, April Ifith, 1855. " Dear Sir, — In answer to yours of the 4th inst, which would have been replied to before tliis had I been at home, I have much pleasure in bearing testimony to the efficacy of your in- valuable 'Specific for the cure of Scab in Sheep.' The 600 sheep were all dressed in August last witn 84 gallons oi the ' Non- Poisonous Specific,' that was so highly recommended at the Lincoln Show, and by their own dresser, the best attention being paid to the flock by ray shepherd after dressing according to instructions left; but notwithstanding the Scab continued getting worse. Being determined to have the Scib cured if possible, I wrote to you for a supply of your Specific, which I received the following day; and although the weather was most severe in February during the dressing, your Specific proved itself an invaluable reme dy, for in tliree weeks the Sheep were quite cured; and I am happy to say the young Iambs are doing remarkably well at present. In conclusion, I believe it to be the safest and best remedy now in use. " I remain, clear Sir, your obedient servant, " For JOHN TI^GL;Y, Esq., " To Mr. Thomas Bigg." " R. RENNEY. 1^" Flockmasters would do well to beware of such prepara- tions as " Non-poisonous Compositions :" it is only necessary to appeal to their good common sense and judgment to be tho- roughly convinced, that no " Non-poisonous" article can poison or destroy insect vermin, particularly such as the Ti( k. Lice, and Scab Parasites — creatures ^so tenicious of life. Such advertised preparations must be wholly usoless, or they are not what they are represented to be. Dipping Apparatus :, ,...£14, £b, £4,& £S. NEW WORK BY THE AUTHOR OF "MANHOOD." Just out, 18mo Pocket Edition, Post Free, 12 stamps ; Sealed Ends, 16 stamps, DE. CURTIS'S MEDICAL GUIDE TO MARRIAGE: a Practical Treatise on its Physical and Personal Obligations. With instructions to the Married and Unmarried of both Sexes, for removing the special disqualifications and impediments which destroy the happiness of wedded life. — By Dr. J. L. Curtis, 15, Albemarle Street, Piccadilly, London, W. This work contains plain directions by which forfeited privileges can be restored, and essential functions strengthened and preserved. Also, by the same Author, a New and Revised Edition of MANHOOD : A MEDICAL ESSAY on the Causes and Cure of Premature Decline in Man ; the Treatment of Nervous Debility, Spermatorrhoea, Impotence, and those peculiar infirmities which result from youthful abuses, adult excesses, tropical climates and other causes j with Instructions lor the Cure of Infection without Mercury, and its Prevention by the Author's Prescription (his infallible Lotion).— By Dr. J. L. CURTIS, 15, Albemarle Street, Piccadilly, London, W. REVIEWS OF THE WORK. ** Manhood. — This is truly a valuable work, and should be in the hands of young and old." — Sunday Times, 23rd March, 1858. "We feel no hesitation in saying that there is no member of society by whom the book will not be found use- ful, whether such person hold the relation of a Parent, Preceptor, or Clergyman" — Sun, Evening Paper, " Dr. Curtis has conferred a great boon by publishing this little work, in which is described the source of those diseases which produce decline in youth, or more frequently, premature old age." — Daily Telegraph, March 27, 1856. London: Published by Allen, 20, Warwick Lane, Paternoster-row; and Mann, 39, Cornhill, London. *;^* Either of the above scientific and useful Works sent Post free by the Author ov Publishers for 12 Postage stamps ; or in sealed envelopes, 16 and 20 stamps. Consultations from 10 to 3,. and 6 to 8. ©nter ti)e patronage of ^A^^S^^ ^^^ Mm^t^ ** €t^ C^I^OSSY. In the g:rowth of the BEARD, WHISKERS, and MUSTACHIOS, it is unfailing in its stimulative operation. For CHILDREN it is especially recommended as forming the basis of a BEAUTIFUL HEAD OF HAIR; while its introduction into the Nursery of Royalty, and the numerous Testimonials constantly received of its efficacy, afford the best and surest proofs of its merits. TfOlVOEKFUIi RECOTER'S' OF HAIR. " A striking instance of the power of scientific art to remedy the defects of nature has lately occurred in the case of a Mr. P. Balls, a gentleman residing at Wortham, in Norfollc, who, some years since, on returning from Harleston Market to Weybred, where he then resided, sustained so severe a fall from his horse, as to bring on an illness of several months' duration, during which period his hair continued to come off, till he became, to use his own terms, ' as perfectly bald as if his head had been shaved;' and the Rev. J. E. Daniel, then clergyman of the parish, offered him a wig as a substitute for his lost hair. Under these circum- stances he was lately induced to try the effect of Rowlawds' Macassab Oil, and it is gratifying to add with the most happy results. As soon as part of a bottle was used the growth commenced, and he has now to boast of a very thick and luxuriant head of hair, which presents this peculiarity, that though prior to losing his hair it evinced no tendency to curl, the new growth is curly and strong. The fact speaks too strongly for itself to require observation." — Bell't Hessenger. Price 3s. 6d., 7a. Family Bottles (equal to four small), lOs. 6d. ; and double that size, 2l8. ROW LANDS' KALY DOR, AW ORIEWTAIi BOTAlVICAlii PREPARATIOIT, This Royally-patronized and Ladies'-esteemed Specific exerts the most soothing, cooling, and purifying action on the Skin, eradicates Freckles, Tan, Pimples, Spots, Discoloration, and other Ciitaneous Visitations, and render* TME ^Kljy SOFT, €1.E:AII, A1V]> BI^OOHIIXC^. During the heat and dust of Summer, the frost and bleak winds of Winter, and in cases of sunburn, stings of insects, or incidental inflammation, its virtues are universally acknowledged — Price 4s. 6d. and 8s. 6d. per bottle. ■ - IVHITE AND SOUND TEETH Are indispensable to PERSONAL ATTRACTION, and to health and longevity by the proper mastication of food. ROWLANDS' ODONTO, OR PEARL DENTIFRI CE, Compounded of ORIENTAL INGREDIENTS is of inestimable value in PRESERVING AND BEAUTIFYING THE TEETH, (»XR£M€}Tfl:£9riI¥0 TBLE OUMIi, and in piiving a PliEASIlMO FRAORAIVCS TO THK BRKATM. it eradicates Tartar from the Teeth, removes spots of incipient decay, and polishes and preserves the enamel, to which it imparts a PdARIi-I^IKE VTHITEWESS. As the most efficient and fragrant aromatic purifier of the Breath, Teeth, and Gums ever known, ROW- LANDS' ODONTO has, for a long series of years, occupied a distinguished place at the Toilets of the Sove- reigns and the Nobility throughout Europe ; while the general demand for it at once announces the favour in which it is universally held. Price 28. 9d. per Box. TO PREVENT These are small Articles as they their IMPOSITION. Copies of the appear in Wrappers. Sold by A. ROWLAND &. SONS, 20, Batton Garden, London, and by Chemists and Perfumers* * Ask for •• ROlff ]:. J > f c London : Published by Allen, 20, Warwick Lane, Paternoster-row; and Mann, 39, Cornhill, London. *** Either of the above scientific and useful Works cent Post free by the Author ov Publishers for 12 Postage stamps ; or in sealed envelopes, 16 and 20 stamps. Consultations from 10 to 3, and 6 to 8. THE MARK LANE EXPRESS AND IS THE LARGEST AND THE LEADING FARMERS' AND GRAZIERS' NEWSPAPER. PUBLISHED EVERY MONEAY EVENING IN TIME FOR POST. The object of the Proprietors of t}ic MARK LAXE FXPRES?* hi)t< e\er lieen, to rentier it in every way the most efficient orgun o( the Aericiijtural ClafS, lo direct and ditiure practic:!l and scientific information ot al! K'nds relating to rural ail'airs, to be a luedium for giving firrnlaiion to the Procerdings of the Royal Agrieu'itural Society of Ensland, he Kiahland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, the Koyal Agricu tural Improvement Societj of Ireiand, and of every ^.gricultural Society and Fanners' Club in the Kingdom. All poliiisal ai.d party discussions are care- fully avoided, except such as are purely Agricultural since its establishment, twenty-sixyears since, this coursehasbeen steadily fdliered lo, and the result has been, the accession of a numerous and rapidly-increasing list of Suljecribers, comprising the most influetitial Agriculturists Inthe kinsdom. In limes when the position of the I enant Farmers has been one of great difficulty, the MARK LANK EXPRESS has ever been directed to the advocacy and support of the rights of the Tbhamt Farmp.KS. In stating this, it is not intended to lose sight of tliat noble principle which the great Lord Leicester so successfully followed; \'\7.., that lil/cral conduct towards the Tcnniil nill ever be found to be the most beneficial to the Landlord . THE MALT TAX— This is the only Farmer's Paper in London which advocates the Repeal of the Ma-lt Tax. In authenticitv and extent of Market information, the MARK LANE E.XPRESSstai.ds unrivalled. A REVIKW OFTHECORN' TRADE (British and Foreign; fully explains the Causes which occasion the Rise or Fall in Prices, thus affording the Growers and Speculator some grounds for anticipating the stability or future tendency of Prices. The Latest Reports of the Corn, Cattle, Provision, Wool, Seed, Hop, Malt, and Commercial Markets, appear with the leaJin; Country Fairs and Agricultural Meetings. Authentic Weekly Advices are received from all the Important Mnrkets in the king- dom, our Colonial Possessions, as well as all parts of Europe and America. ROGERSON & TUXFORD, 246, STRAND, LONDON. May be had of all Booksellers and Newsmen throughout the Kingdom, price Sevonpcnce, or £\ 10s. 4d. per annum. CHEAP SUNDAY AND WEEK-DAY READING FOR THE PE0PL1<:. Now Putlisliing, A VERY CHEAP RELIGIOUS PERIODICAL, Containing original contributions by several of the Bishops and Intending subscribers are requested to send their orders without many other distineuished Divinss; Narratives; Sketches of Ka- delay, as the back volumes and jiarls are now becoming VEnt tural History ; liiograi'hy. Missionary P/oceediuiis, Juvenile scarce. Reading, Poetry, &c., with a Register of Ecclesiastical Intelli- gence; the whole combining amusement with instruction, in a As the Magazine enjoys a circulation far exceeding that of any style suited for all classes of readers. other church periodical, and is read by all classes of society, it A series of Parish Churches, witu Illustrations of a superior [ will be found a very oiigible tnedium for Advertisements, which kind is in course of publication. This series which will be of a | are conspicuously printed, and inserted at the most reasonable very extended character, will be found of particular interest. i rate. Vol. LIV., Imperisl 8to., Embossed Clolh, 480 pages, with highly-finished Illustrations of Parish Churches, price 58. 6d. London : Published in weekly numbers, price l^d., and in monthly piirts, price 9d., by S. D. BWINS & SON, 9, Ave Maria Lane. ROGERSON & TUXFORD, 246, Strand, W.C. \ and sold by all Bookgellers, THE LEADING SPORTING PERIODICAL. ^ %^) m A MONTHLY JOURNAL OF THE TUP.F, THE CHASE, AND RUSAL SPOP.TS, IN ALL THEIR VARIETIES. Twenty-eight years ago this work was started for the purpose of adding to the National Sports of this country an organ worthy of its importance and popularity. It took tlie field wiih a corps of contributors— veterans of experience and skill in the depart- ments to which they attached themselves. For the first time the annalsof the chase were treated of by piasters of houn'^s; members of tne Jockey Club wrote ahout the Turf; the most eminent of our amateur sailors discussed yachting ; the leash— the ttisger— and our rural pastimes were dealt with by men of ackiiowltdjed superiority. Under such au'pices its apprenticeship was passed ; and thf public voice has bestowed on it the character of a " good and laiihfui servant." In that capacity it discharges the grateful duty of offering its acknowledgements fur favours heretofore received; and ventures to liope for a continuance of that success which it will be its earnest effort to endeavour to deserve. No periodical in any branch of literature is more characteristically represented by those who contribute to its pages ; no journal is more heautifully emtellished— none more carefully constituted with reference to the treatmentof popular and seasonable subjects In the course it has so long run, its race will be continued. It will keep a steady pace— ever make play when fltt ins opportunity occurs. On the first of every month it will be found at the post, as its trainer brought it out from the commencement of its career, sightly to look at, with plenty of good stutf about it— sound wind aud 1 mb — and eager to strain every sinew for the prize of public approbation. N.B.— Vol. LV., with 13 Steel Engravings^ is just out, price 16s. Gd., handsomely bound in cloth, and may be had ol every liookseiler in the Kingdom. Published monthly, price Kalf-a-Crojvn, by ROGERSON & T'JXPnKD, at the " Sporting Review" Office, ii46. Strand, Loufjon, W C. ; where all communications for the Editor, and Works for Review, should be addressed. Now Ready, Cloth, in two Volumes, 782 pp., with four steel Portraits, Price I6s. uniform •with "SCOTT AND SEBRIGHT," "SILK AND SCARLET," &c., HELD AND EERN, OR SCOTTISH FLOCKS AND HERDS. BY H. H. DIXON. With Steel Engravings of Mr. Hugh Watson, Professor Dick, Mr. Nightingale, and the late Duke of Richmonrl, &c. The Volumes, "North" and "South" (of the Frith of Forth) may be had separately— Price EIGHT SHILLINGS each. Copies will be sent by Post on application to the Author. PUBLISHED BY EOGERSON AND TUXFORD, 216, STRAND. Price in Cloth, EIGHTEENPENCE ; Post-free, Is. M., THE RHFrS 6U UPPLEMENT TO TO THE THEF; OR, POCKET RACING COMPANION FOR 1866. (Kcntents : A Calendar of the Races and Steeple Chases in Great Britain and Ireland in 1866 — The Horses Indexed, with their Pedigrees — Nominations for the Goodwood Meeting — Nominations for the St. Leger, I8G6, and Derby and Oaks, 1867 — Racing on the Continent in 1866 — Races to Come, &c., &c. ROGERSON & TDXFORD, "SPORTING REVIEW" OFFICE, 246, STRAND; by all Booksellers; and at the various Railway Stations. — Price Eighteenpenee in Cloth, SCOTT AND SEBRIGHT, T Price FIVE SHILLINGS, bound in crimson Cloth. Uniform with "Post and Paddock," nnd "Silk and Scarlet." PUBLISHED BY ROGERSON AND TUXFORD, -240, STHA.XD ,^: ^ ■^ \ ■^ \. >,, "^ 1"^ 1 1 1:1 1 ^ f ^ S: N^i na ' - ^ N>> ^ If. 1 1 I I ^ > V v: i' -' ^x§ Nj! \^ -<1 ;^ <* n; >; V > ^ ^ s 1 % o^. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. NOVEMBER, 1866. PLATE I. A SHORTHORN HEIFER. THE PROPERTY OP THE EARL OF RADNOR, OP COLESHILL, WILTS. Octavia, a roan heifer, bred by Lord Radnor, and calved on August I7th, 1862, was by Wolfsbane (15516), out of Octave, by Jack Tar (11603), her dam Olympia (bred by Mr. Beazley) by Roman (2561), — Zephyr, by Beaufort (1696). Wolfsbane, bred by Sir Ctiarles Knightley, was a son of Friar's Cowl, out of Maiden's Blush ; and the student of the Herd Book will gather from this pedigree that the Smithfield Club heifer had some of tlje best blood in her veins from the Wiseton and Fawsley crosses, while the O family has been very famous at Coleshill for a happy union of milking properties, fine character, and good quality. At the Smithfield Club Show in December, 1865, Octavia took the first prize of her class, £25, as the best shorthorn heifer, and also the silver cup of £40, as the best heifer or cow in any of the classes. Lord Radnor, who was in great force, also won another silver cup of £20 for the best pen of pigs, whose portraits have already appeared in The Far- mers' Magazine, PLATE II. THE MOUNTAIN DEW. ENGRAVED BY E. HACKER, FROM A PAINTING BY C. B. SPALDING. The rage for grouse-shooting, at present so great, is not likely to change, like many other fashions. The fine air, the freedom of scenery, and all the other agremens accompanying this amusement, must always make it the most fascinating kind of sport, in the way of shooting, which the British Isles, or indeed almost any country, can afford. The bird, too, in beauty and game-like appearance, is not to be equalled. In fact, as long as grouse and heather exist, and the nature of man is imbued with the same love for sport and manly exercise as it now is, grouse-shooting will be one of our favour- ite relaxations from the graver cares of life. Al- though, like others, I am excessively fond of this sport, yet I care little for numbers of slain, and, where following it independently and alone, am not occupied solely by the anxiety of bagging so many brace. My usual plan when I set out is to fix on some burn, some cool and grassy spring, or some bill summit which commands a fine view, as the Old Ssries.] extremity of my day's excursion. To this point then I walk, kiUing what birds come in my way ; and after resting myself and dogs, I return by some other route. Undoubtedly the way to kill the greatest number of grouse is to travel one cer- tain tract of ground closely and determinedly, searching every spot as if you were looking for a lost needle, and not leaving a yard of heather untried. This is the most killing system, as every practised grouse-shooter knows ; but to me it is far less attractive than a good stretch across a range of valley and mountain, though attended with fewer shots. I am also far more pleased by seeing a brace of good dogs do their work well, and exhibiting all their fine instinct and skill, than in toiling after twice the number when hunted by a keeper, whose only plan of breaking the poor animals in, is to thrash tliem until they are actually afraid to use half the wonderful intellect which Nature has given them. — Field Notes, by St, John. Q C [Vol. LX.— No. 5, 364 THE FABMEB'S MAGAZINE. WHEAT SOWING, BY CUTHBEET W. JOHNSOX, P.K.S. Tlie improved cullivation of vilieat can hardly be con- sidered at a more opportune season than the present. It is needless to urge the importance of the inquiry. By taking a retrospective view of what has been in bygone years accomplished, we may be well cheered on in so valuable a pursuit. Let us ever remember that we are certainly growing, upon an average, double the quantity of wheat on a given space that our forefathers did in the days of the Plantagenets. There are no symptoms as yet of this onward march being stayed. We must not, however, at the onset forget that in all these great re- searches we are surrounded by mysteries and ditBculties, and can only — as in all cases where vegetable life is con- cerned— attain any degree of useful knowledge by patient and laborious observation. Three great branches of the inquiry may on the present occasion usefully engage our attention : First, the soil on which the wheat is grown; second, the choice of seed; and, third, ihe manure to be employed. As regards the soil, it is a fact well known to the reader that on most soils wheat is very commonly grown with success after red clover. And as it has been found that on many soils clover now ceases to grow profitably, it promises useful results to endeavour to account for this failure, and to search for its cure. Now, on this very important subject two of our philosophers have recently published the result of their labours. In the last num- ber of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, Professors Buckman and Voelcker have furnished two valuable reports. These include entirely different branches of the inquiry. Professor Buckman (vol. ii. p. 446) having devoted his attention to the choice of the seed and mode of cultivation, and Professor Voelcker {ibid.]). 473) to the best dressings for the clover plant. Professor Buckman, after having carefully examined the ten varieties of clover which are cultivated in our island, and whose seeds, as supplied to the farmer, are commonly mixed together, thus sums ixp his observations on the clover sickness : " For some years we have heard a great deal of land being incapable of growing clover, or, as it is usually ex- , pressed, being ' clover sick,' and it must be confessed that in some districts there is an increased difficulty in growing clover. I am disposed to attribute this diificulty to the fact that much of our seed is derived from warmer climates, and perhaps from richer soil, but principally to the mode of cultivation commonly adopted ; the barley, sown at the same time, forcing it in the tirst year into a weak and spindled young plant. The effect is much the same as that pointed out by our Dorsetshire Burns as the result of allowing no playground for children : ' The children will soon liave noo pleiiee Vor to play in, an' if they do grow. They will have a thin musliroom feiice, Wi' their bodies so sumple as dough. But a man is a meiide of a child, An' his limbs do grow worksorae by play, An' if the young child's little body's a spiled, Why the man's wull the sooner decay.' " Now, if this be so where so many years follow as a corrective to the cramping system, can it be wondered that the second half of the history of the clover plant should be affected by the smothering and di-awing up of the first haU'? " The mischief is augmented in the second year by the growth of weeds, not only in those native to the soil, but those too often sown with the seed. " Some years since I instituted a series of inquiries into this matter, and then found that samples of clover- , seed as received from different seedsmen were shamefully dirty. Like other inspectors of nuisances, I received no small amount of ill-will for my pains; but I have suffi- cient reward in the fact that for the last five years I have not met with such dirty samples as I then exposed, although within this year I have examined as many as fifty specimens, obtained from both 'large and small' seedsmen, and have ethers in hand. " For some years at Cirencester we kept up plots of diffei-ent clovers, and found that when di-illed and kept clear from weeds the annual red clover would keep a good plant for three or four years, and that by digging and sowing again, a good crop could be got, and once we could point to beds of perennial clover, that had been kept up for as much as seven years in good condition. Indeed, I consider the common to be as nearly perennial as almost any perennial plants. But if it be attacked by weeds and parasites, it will with difficulty be grown at aU. " But the soil and mode of cultivation is a common cause of the so-called clover sickness. On the oolites of the Cotheswolds, on which we have perhaps 4 inches of soil and then the solid rock, we constantly hear of this complaint ; indeed, on the College farm of oolitic sand, all the land was said to be clover sick, and so long as the plough was not allowed to go deeper than 4 inches, it un- doubtedly was so. But when the impression gained ground that these 4 inches had been worked out, it was determined to use the steam plough for om- roots, to the depth of 12 inches ; then followed the barley, to be suc- ceeded by clover ; and the crop obtained 2^ tons of hay to the acre was attributed to this method of cultiva- tion. I have now the same promise in another field with the same treatment, and begin to think that deep cultiva- tion for roots is a present cure for clover sickness, and therefore, so far from waiting the prescribed eight years for another crop of clover, I have pursued my own course, independently of my predecessor, in each instance eliciting the remark, ' Who would have thought it ?' " I look then upon the subject of clover sickness as one dependent upon the following precautions : "1st. A judicious change and choice of seed. " We inquire as to the soil whence we get our seed- barley and wheat, but whoever asks this with regard to clover ? " 2nd. The rejection, as a rule, of foreign seed, more especially if fi'om a warmer country. '"' 3rd. Clovers should be self-sown to be perfect, but if sown with grain we should at all events take care to sow clean seeds in clean land ; weeds, added to the hindrance by corn, will be too much for any plant grown in the same way, so that we might call land sick of any crop if similarly treated. "4th. Deeper cultivation, if only to the extent of three or four inches ; for if we go deeper, we have fresh capital to draw upon. Indeed, deep cultivation may be regarded as the renovator of the soil for the present generation." The experiments of Professor Voelcker, with several THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE, B65 artificial dressing for clover, were carried on upon various soils, and in different counties. The substances employed were : 1. Nitrate of soda. 2. Sulphate of ammonia. 8. Soluble phosphate in the shape of dissolved hone-ash pr Blinerai superphosphate. 4. Common salt. B. Muriate of potash. '6. Sulphate of potash, 7. Sulphate of lime. 8. Mineral superphosphate and nitrate of soda, mixed to- •getlier in equal proportions. 9. Mineral superphosphate and muriate of potash, TOised together in equal proportions. The result of the employment of the salts of potash was not such as to enable the Professor to confidently re- commend their use generally, even when it is intended to grow plants which are known to require much potash for coming to perfection. And in bis concluding remarks he tells us that, "where good farmyard manure can be ob- tained at a reasonable price, I have no hesitation in say- ing I believe it will be found the most efficacious and economical manure both for seeds and permanent pasture. Even at 12s. 6d. or 15s. per ton, I am inclined to think that first-rate dung will be found a cheaper manure than any mixture of artiticials, however skilfully prepared it may be. But as in some places it is not possible to ob- tain a sufficient amount of ordinai-y dung at any price, and as it may be wished to give the seeds a dressing, I would suggest for the trial the following mixtures, the components of which may be purchased at an outlay of £2 per acre ; rOR OLOVEU SEEDS ON LIGHT LAKD PER ACRE. 3 cwts. of superphosphate costing £0 13 0 1^ cwt. of Peruvian guano 1 0 0 J cwt. of muriate of potash, or instead 3 cwts. of crude German potash salts cost- ing .. 8s. to 0 10 0 Total cost £3 to £3 3 0 FOE SEEDS OJI HEAVT LAND. 3 cwt, of superphosphate £0 13 0 3 cwt. of nitrate soda 18 0 Totalcost £3 0 0 " If the land is in a poor condition, one-half more, or even double the quantity, of the preceding materials should be used ; for on exhausted pastures it appears to be better to give at once a good dose of manure, whether natural or artificial, than to fritter away money in the purchase of smaU and altogether inadequate supplies. " Before sowing, the artificial manuring mixtures shoidd be diluted with as large a bulk of ashes as possible. With every bushel of the artificials at least three bushels of red ashes or burnt clay should be incorporated. If wood-ashes can be obtained at a reasonable price, they wiU form an excellent addition to a clover-manure. Coal- ashes are but a poor substitute for wood-ashes or burnt clay ; however, in the absence of a better material, they may be used for diluting the artificials. In conclusion, I would recommend the dressings to be applied not later than the middle of February." In carrying on any trials upon wheat, we must not for- get how many circumstances must be taken into consider- ation before we can arrive at any reliable fact. Varying soils, seasons, and previous cultivation of the land must be carefully regarded ; and there are, moreover, other in- fluences most probably exerted upon our crops, which at present are little known to us. The results of the Kothamsted experiments which Mr. J. B. Lawes has recently published in the Times seems to support these ponclusions. These researches it will be remembered have been continued upon the growth of wheat, on the sa7ne plots, for a long series of years. Their author tells us that " the following are the results obtained this year (1866) on some of the most important plots of the ex f perimental field. The selection is the same as in formej? years, and this is the twenty-third wheat crop in succes- sion on the same land. For comparison there is also given the produce of the three preceding years, as well as the average over the last fourteen years, during the whole of which period (and in some cases longer) the same de, seription and quantity of manure haye been applied year after year on the same plot : — PusHELs OF Dressed Cob:< ter Acke, How manured each year. Harvests. Average of 14 years. 1853-1865 1863. 1864. 1865, 1866. 17i 44 53| 55f 551 16 40 45f 49| 51i 13^ 371 40i 43| 44 12| 39| 33| 33i- ^^ Farm-yard manure Artificial manure... Ditto Ditto 35f 37i 39J- 36J Weight per Bushel or Dressed Corn, lb. Un manured Farm-yard manure Artificial manure. . . Ditto Ditto 62-7 63,1 63-6 63-3 63-1 63-0 62-5 63-1 63-5 63-6 60-1 61-6 61-0 61-1 61.5 61-3 61-7 61-0 60-1 60-6 57-3 59-8 59-0 58-5 57-8 "Thus the crop of 1866 is, under each of the very different conditions as to manuring, considerably less than that of either of the tlu'ce preceding years, and also less than that of the average of the fourteen preceding years. The produce without manure, and that by farm-yard manure, are between three and four bushels, and that by each description of artificial manure is more still below the average of the fourteen years. Indeed, so far as the quantity of grain is concerned, the past season has been particularly unfavourable for the action of the artificial mauures, and in this respect it presents a striking contrast to the three preceding years ; but more especially to 1863, when -exactly the same descriptions and amounts of artificial manure gave about 23 bushels more grain per acre than in the season just past. From the progressive decline in the produce from year to year since 1863, it will, perhaps, be supposed that the result is in great measure connected with a gradually declining condition of the land, and thei'efore not mainly the efiect and the indi- cation of variation in the productive character of the seasons. That the results are not due to the changing condition of the land, but to the changing character of the seasons, is, however, evident from the fact that several times during the last fourteen years the crops on these same plots have been as bad as, or worse than, in the pre- sent season. Thus, in 1852 they were worse, in 1853 much worse, and in 1860 very nearly equal, as the follow- ing figui'cs will show. The respective plots gave ; — Bushels per Acre, 1853. 1853. 1860. 1866. Uumanured Farm-yard manure. Artificial manure . Ditto 131 371 26^ 37i 19i 33f 33i 27| 3H 13i 33| 39| 33i " The A'ariation in amount of produce from year to year may therefore safely be taken as almost wholly referable to season. " The quali'ty of the grain, as shown by the weight per bushel, is seen to be considerably above the average of the last fourteen years. " Turning from these experimental results to those ob- C G § 366 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. tained on my farm under ordinary management, I may mention that three separate lields gave this year 40, 42, and 46 bushels per acre respectively, against 38, 48, 48, and 51 bushels obtained in four last year, thus indicating a considerable decline in amount of produce. On the other hand, the weight per bushel is somewhat higher in each of the three cases this year than in either of the four- last year. " Upon the whole, I conclude that the' wheat crop of ISGG will prove to be decidedly below an average, and, judging from the produce of both my experimental and ordinary crops, and the relation which has been observed between them and the crops of the country generally for many years past, I should estimate the deficiency at not less than 10 or 12 per cent," The (juestion of the most profitable kind of wheat is another important branch of our inquiry, which has long engaged the attention of the Royal Agricultural Society of England and the Highland Society of Scotland. Our great northern society has lately awarded three prizes for experiments on different varieties of wheat. These trials were made by ]\Ir. Richardson, of Drylawhill ; Mr. Thomson, of Kilmarnock ; and Mr. P.' Turnbull, of Pinkerton, in East Lothian. The trials were carried on during two seasons — 1864 aud 1S65 — and upon different varieties of wheat. The amount of the grain produced per acre will be found in the following table : Richardson. Thomson. Turnbull. Bush. Lbs. Bush. Bush. Hunter's old Scotch white wheat, 1804 34 GO 33 30^ Ditto, 1865 37 I'J 59 43 The Hopetoun, 1864 34 61 33 32^ Ditto, 1865 35 34 60 37 The Fenton, 1864 36 Gl 35^ 39 Ditto, 1865 39 3G 66^ 40 The soil of Mr. Richardson is a heavy loam, that of Mr. Thomson a dark-brown clay loam, that of Mr. Turn- bull a gravelly loam. Some time since, Professor Buckmau contributed a very valuable prize essay to the Royal Agricultural So- ciety's " Journal," upon the roots of the wheat-plant (vol. xvii., p. 172). The effect of sowing the seed at difi'erent depths in the soil did not escape his attention. He fairly concluded that the nearer to one or two inches, in ordinary soils, seems to be the best. Petri sowed equal portions of seed at various depths. He found that — ^ inch came up in 11 days grew | 1 „ „ 12 days grew all 2 „ „ 18 days grew J 3 „ „ 20 days grew f 4 „ „ 21 days grew | 5 „ „ 22 days grew j[ 6 „ „ 23 days grew ^ As to the time of sowing, a curious trial was made by Mr. Buckman. He drilled red Lammas wheat, on the same land, on the 14th day of each month, from June, 1851, to May, 1852. His reported results were : Height. Length of ft. in. Head. June, 1851 3 5 3 in. Clean straw. July, „ 2 10 3 Ditto. Aug., „ 4 1 4 Ditto. Sept., „ 3 11 4 Ditto. Oct., „ 3 10 4 Rather blighted. iS'ov., „ 3 9 4 Ditto. Bee, „ 3 10 3i Much ditto. Jan., 1852 3 10 31^ Ditto. 'I'eb., „ 3 6 4^ Ditto. March, „ — _ ") t, -, j , , ^m\\ . fi ailed, but some j[ay ' " _^ C ears ripened. The observations of the Professor upon the effect of climate upon the wheat-plant (and the same remark, in fact, applies to the whole of his elaborate essay) are worthy of the reader's careful study. He remarks that, " although wheat is adapted in its varieties to almost every degree of temperature, succeed- ing better in temperate than in tropical heat, it is yet derived from a wild grass whose natural habitat may be said to be that of a warm climate. Hence, then, the wheat-plant has great powers of adapting itself to cir- cumstances ; and this is not only so as regards the world at large, but we shall see, on inquiry, that even the slight inflexions of difference presented in our own island — nay, even iu the uplands and lowlands of a single county — have a decided influence on the growth of the wheat- plant. " If we review the geography of a central county of England — for example, Gloucestershire — we shall see that it is divided into two districts, hill and vale : the flat valley of the Severn, extending from south to north for about thirty miles in length, and nearly twenty broad, has a range of hills on the eastern side, rising from the vale with a steep escarpment, thus forming the Cottes- wold district, which presents variations in height to as much as 1,200 feet above the level of the sea. Now on these hills the prevailing sorts of wheat will be the har- dier red varieties, whilst iu the vale the liner white kinds are those planted on good, well-drained laud ; but in the stift', unmitigated lias clays the heavy, wooUy-eared winter wheat is much cultivated, on account of its enor- mous yield. " In choosing wheat for seed, attention should always be paid to the circumstances of climate and soil. I have many times tried to grow the spelt wheats from India, but have not succeeded in ripening it, though at first it grows away freely, and gives great promise. " Seed-wheat should always be chosen from a poor soil for growth on a richer one, and from a cold climate for cultivation in a warmer. Acting contrary to this rule often induces disease and a shortness iu the yield. In Gloucestershire the hill-farmer chooses seed from the exposed chalk wolds of Wilts, whilst the vale-farmer gets his seed from the hills. But in the same manner as spring-wheat may he cultivated into a winter va- riety, so may any sort of wheat become acclimatised by careful cultivation. This, however, sometimes entails a slight change of form ; and hence have arisen taU and dwarf varieties, and early and late forms." Such are the valuable results obtained by some of those who have so ably directed their attention to the wheat-plant. To them our gratitude is justly due for their labours. The harvest ihey have obtained should cheer us on to further efforts, and to the obtaining of still more valuable results. These experiments, we all know, are surrounded with difficulties, encircled by mys- terious influences ; but then we should remember the poor dwarf native wild wheat-plant of the East, and reflect upon the changes it has been lonij undergoing by the skill of the agriculturist. Such facts may fairly lead us to the encouraging couclusiou that our wheat- harvests are yet to be profitably increased. HELPING THE SOIL.— The good farmer does this. Nature does not always make a perfect soil — indeed but seldom. Then the farmer's aid comes in excelleutly. He is supposed to be a man of understanding ; if not, he had better be employed in something that he lias capacity for. The means to help a soil are not scant. What grcmnd generally lacks is manure. Manure is the best one ingredient that can be applied, as it con- tains the principles of many others. It moistens soil ; it mellows it ; it drains it ; it guards against frost and su,n. It is for this T^HB FARMER'S MAGA^INIJ. t^Ql f'eason that so niucli manure is used, and, comparatively little else. People will do without a sub-soil plough, without ditching, without a mowing machine, without even a horse rake ; but they use manure, more or less. It is well for the laud that this is so. Nature has made some soils too wet for farming pur- poses— though to meet her end they were properly made. The farmer need not be told tliat, to help this soil, he must drain it. He then gets the undeveloped richness. Pulverizing it and stirring it deeply, so that the heat and air can get down, is another great thing. These are the main things — simple, yet how little done !■ Nature gives you the soil ; you help her, and she helps you in return — helps you while you are doing it. She keeps your ground moist when you mellow it ; and she lets the air pass into it with its fertility, which she took from negligent barn-yards ; and this fertility she leaves with the soil, so that the farmer and Nature are helping each other. Thus our farms are improved. How are they deteriorated ? By just the oppo- site course — by neglect. The more we do for our farms, the more Nature will aid us ; and thus the better will be our land. The truth is, we arc only helping Nature at the best, and she pays us for what we do for her : the land is still hers : she for- ever holds the title-deed. — Colmaifs Rural World. THE LABOUR QUESTION. Every practical farmer is at the present time paying more attention to this important subject than any other connected with his business. The whole question is to him a mystery. Here we have been improving in our management, in accordance with the principles and prac- tice of modern agriculture, for the past half-centiiry, and still our labour-account is continually advancing. We adopt and use extensively every mechanical aid for econo- mising labour, and yet our annual account for labour is on the increase. We thrash and dress by steam power ; we cultivate by steam power ; we reap by machinery ; we steam and pulp, and cut our roots by the best mechanical inventions ; we cut our chaff, bruise our grain, break our cake by the best and simplest mechanical contrivances ; we horse-hoe our corn and roots ; we work our lands" with the best of modern implements — and notwithstanding all, our labour-account is heavier and heavier every year. How is this? One would naturally think that with all our modern improvements manual labour would in a great degree be supplanted ; but the reverse is the undoubted fact. Manual labour — and particularly skilled labour — has been gradually advancing collaterally with an advanc- ing agriculture. The managers of our steam-engines, our steam-cultivators, our thrashing-machines, our reaping- machines, &c., are entitled to a higher rate of wages than the mere workman. There is skill, and thought, and extra care necessitated in such managers, to say nothing of responsibility. No enlightened farmer will grudge this additional payment to them. But then every agricultural labourer partakes of a like benefit in a measure. Why is this ? The foundation and root of all is, unquestionably, in a greatly improved and extended agriculture. It is simply a question of supply and demand. iModcru agri- culture very properly entails a much more liberal expen- diture in labour and artificial management to achieve suc- cess than formerly ; and it achieves it. I need not stay to point out the almost innuurerable means and appliances brought into requisition in the management and feeding of stock, or in the culture and growth of our grain and root crops. They are more or less patent to every far- mer. It is in carrying out these modern principles, which are so conducive to a nation's wealth, that has caused the advance in value of agricultural labour — the advance in the labour market. Nor is it an evil : on the contrary, it is one of the best of blessings. The modern farmer has only to adopt the best modern practice in all his management to be a contented partaker of this happy state of things. The truism is, that if he has more to pay, he must make more money from his farm to pay therewith. Nor need he hesitate. There are thousands of successful examples before him. Look at the profuse expenditure in artificial foods for stock and artificial aids for crops made by many of our intelligent farmers, and who get rich by the outlay. I could name several who consume their ton of cake per day, and the like, or nearly so, of artificial manures for their crops. ]My next neigh- bour has this year expended in manures alone (including fold-yard manure) upwards of £5 per acre for his mangold crop, and he has obtained one, which is now standing, of almost unequalled bulk. No one can limit a judicious expenditure in these aids. .The parsimonious expenditure in such aids is far more to be deprecated than a profuse outlay. Well, all these matters combined, and being carried out with a laudable and business-like spirit, is the great cause of the rise in the labour market. In my own im- mediate district the wages of able-bodied labourers ave- rage 2s. 3d. per day of eleven hours, including one hour for dinner. The wages of the women average Is. 3d. per day of nine hours, including one hour for dinner ; and so much are they in demand that some of our farmers are compelled to give Is. 4d. and Ih, pints of beer daily. Their employment is chiefly in " picking potatoes." We rejoice notwithstanding at this order of things. It is a proof that the potato crop is a good one and valuable, or this rate of wages would not be given. And what a bright prospect it gives for the coming winter ! verily, there ought to "be no complaining in our streets." Moreover, we shall have a lower poor's-rate to pay. We earnestly wish that every district was in like pleasing cir- cumstance. But says some one, " This is all very well for a particular district, but it does not materially touch the general question of labour." Well, take the county of Norfolk. Who has not read the account of the interesting meeting held at Norwich the other day, for the pm-pose of forming a Chamber of Agriculture for the county ? The subject was there taken up ; and the chief things littered were lamentations as to the scarcity of labour — not of the price. The price was said to be ten shillings per week. Now, " it stands to common sense " that but few labourers will stay in a district for wages at ten shillings, when by migrating, by rail or otherwise, a comparatively short distance, they can obtain thirteen shillings and sixpence per week. Who can w-onder at a scarcity ? And who would regret it ? Ten shillings per week, with bread and meat and potatoes and brer (save the mark) all at high and unusual prices ! How do poor labourers' families subsist on such wages, and pay their way ? The labouring population of England are fully entitled to good homely substantial food, in sufficient, but not wasteful, quantity. We are not of those who would contentedly supply them with " oatmcal-parritch," or " union-house skilly." No. They are entitled to, and arc well worthy, a far better course of rations ; and, what is better, they will and must have them. The time is gone by for " barley-bread," and " onion-gruel " too. The food of the agricultural labourer will henceforward be of a better and more sub- stantial kind ; and his wages will be proportionately high, according to the price of provisions, to enable him to get it. For this order of things, the agriculturists may lay their account. The fiat (if I may say so) is gone forth ; ^SE FAEiyiEE'S MAGAZINE. Mgher wages must be paid, or the l)esi and niosl able- bodied will migrate elsewhere, and whicli they have every facility of doing. Xor need they do this on speculation. The demand for labour is almost unbounded in many dis- tricts and for many public works. The progress of the kingdom is illimitable ; and the first motive-power is manual-labour in some form or other. This must be forthcoming in abundance, or many of the country's gigantic works proceed tardily, to the great loss of the projectors or promoters. Labour, therefore, they will have at some price ; and hence the demand which opens out a way for the agricultural labourer to improve his circumstances, and which he is not slow to take up. But how is the farmer — the practical agriculturist — to fill up the gap, i.e. to procure a supply of labour consonant to his requirements ? This is the question ; and it cannot be readily or easily answered. There is no truly direct way, unless by open competition with the promoters of the gigantic works of the kingdom he outbids them in the labour market. This, in the present condition of agricul- ture, is out of the question : it would be ruinous. What is he, then, to do ? His course must depend upon his judgment and means. No single idea or plan will suffice : it must be by a combination and condensation of all his plans and com-se of business. He must bring to his aid every economical appliance in implements and machinery likely to save laboiu-. He must put in his crops so that horse-hoeing may supplant hand-hoeing. He must reap by machinery, thrash by machinery, cultivate by machinery, fulfil many minor departments of his business by ma- chinery ; in fact, all his arrangements and conduct of business must ultimately have especial reference to econo- mising labour, or adapting it to the efficiency of the labour he can command, i.e., the labourer, his wife, his children, &c. ; for it will be found that much women and children's labour wUl be in demand in the labour market ; and there are many minor employments, even in winter, that they can profitably accomplish — cleaning roots for the cutter, attending to the steaming of roots, aiding in the thrashing and dressing, &c., &c. In the summer, there is a great variety of labour in which they can efli- ciently be employed. The farmer must also bear in mind that i-aikoads are making their way in every locality. He has no longer to travel his teams from ten to twenty miles to deliver his farm-produce, or fetch home his cake and artificial food and manures. These are wonderful acqui- sitions to him. All these matters will, as time rolls on, right themselves ; but the farmer must be wide-awake, and fully up to the times, or he fails. P. l\ TflE LABOL^EER'S COTTAGE AND EDUCATION. At the Coljton ploughing match. Sir L. Palk Said: I have been passing the last few weeks in the Korth of England, and although I have not been present at many large assembUes which have been addressed by Mr. Bright, Mr. Beales, and others, yet I did happen to pass through Manchester upon the day of the great meeting re- cently held there. I saw a great number of the operative classes from all parts of the country hastening to hear what was to be told them. Well, gentlemen, we have all read tlie speech made iipon such occasions as that. You have per- ceived that Mr. Bright, Mr. Beales, and others have seen the world entirely through the medium of the Lancashire and Yorkshire operatives : in their eyes the men who work m the mills of those great counties are the symbol of England's pros- perity— the means by which the country has attained her great wealth ; and they forget altogether tliat vast, enlightened, and industrial class of the population, viz., the agriculturists of England. I am very happy to have this opportunity of seemg so many of that intelHgent class here : I am glad to have this opportunity also of addressing them upon matters whicli are of some importance to the agricidtural interest. Now it seems, by a careful analysis made by those who have the means of making it, that the average of the wages in England is as much as 26s. per week. We all know that this amoimt can- not be given in the agricultural districts ; the earnings of those in the North of England employed in trade and manufacture must always be in j?reat excess of the earnings of those engaged in agricultural and rural pursuits. Well, tlien, can you be sur ■ prised that from year to year complaints of all connected with agriculture are increasing on tlie score of the want of labourers to get in the harvest and till the land ? And can you be surprised, when the wages of the North of England are so much in excess of those given in this part of the country, that a great proportion of your popidation is from year to year being drained from you — becoming alienated from you and no longer of use in the cuHure of the land ? Now this is really a very serious question, and one wliicli I wish to bring before you — the absolute necessity there is for the landed proprietors and agriculturists of this coimtiy to study how tliey may better, alleviate, and improve the lot of the agricuhural labourers. What is it tliat will induce the farm labourers to remain on your land? First of all it is no doubt the wages that lie earns, and next the knowledge of the occupation which he follows. But there is something stiO turther that he requires— he requires a warm and comfortable habitation. That, I have no hesitation saying, it is the first duty of the landlord to provide. You will recollect that many years ago I had the honour of bringing this question before Parliament and succeeded in getting a Bill passed through the House of Commons, but I Was not fortunate enough to get the Bill passed through the House of Lords — the effect of which was to enable the owners of entailed estates to charge their land for the improvement and buUding of cottages for the labourers upon their estates. The next thing you are bound to give the agricultural labourers is the same education that the manufacturing and artizan classes receive. You are all aware that the question of education is one that has been very much debated for many years past — first of all by Lord John Russell, and afterwards by Sir John Pakington, at whose instance a Royal Commission was appointed. The Commissioners deli- berated and received evidence upon the subject for many years, and upon their recommendation the minutes of Council were framed and tlie certificated pupil teachers were created. Well, that answered extremely well for populous districts, especially for manufacturing cities. Because where there were rich commu- nities who had a large population, there existed the means of providing certificated masters, and they received the capitation grant and funds for the erection of schools. This pressed and presses now very heavily upon the rural and agricultural dis- tricts, for in many villages, especially in this county, the number of children in daily attendance probably wiU not average more than SO to 90 — which is a small number to pay for certificated masters. Therefore, because you are so poor, because you have not the means of providing yourselves with certificated masters, the law says you shall receive no support from Government, no assistance from the grant of Education, although one and all severally contribute towards it. That was a question brought forward last session of Parliament both by Mr. Walter, the member for Berkshire — a man of vast talent and great knowledge on this subject — and Sir John Pakington, and I ventured to address some remarks myself. At the in- stance of Sir John Pakington, a committee of the House of Commons was appointed, of which my right hon. friend was chairman. All who know anything of Sir John Pakington must be aware that there is no man more diligent, more earnest, and more determined to sift a question if he once takes it up. That committee, which has served now for two years, has taken the opinion of a great number of witnesses, and it has obtained the practical opinions of men deeply interested in the promotion of education amongst the labouring classes of the country. The other day Sir John Pakington addressing a meeting at Dudley of the United THE FAEMEE'S MAaAZINE. 369 Association of the Sclioolmasters of South Staffordshire stated very much the same that I liave just stated to you. He said he had for a long time taken up this question ; that he had worked as hard as possihle upon the committee ; hut owing to the great amount of matter they had obtained, and to the fact that the Government was changed in the middle of last ses- sion, they were not able to agree to that report which he had drawn up, and not able to make those suggestions which he had hoped they would have done. Therefore, the only result that this committee has produced is Sir John Pakington's own opinion, which I shall presently give you. Before this com- mittee gentlemen of all opinions were invited to attend. Mr. Gover (the Rev. principal of the Saltley Training College) stated that the restrictions of the Council were most unwise, and one of the main causes of preventing the extension of education in England. Dr. Temple, another witness of great and just celebrity, was quite as strong on the other side. The Rev. Mr. Lee, of Droitwich, agreed with Mr. Gover's opin- ion, and Mr. Bellairs was vehement on the other side. So the testimony was contradictory, and difficult to obtain any re- sult from. Sir John Pakington says: "On the whole your committee are too much impressed with the importance of ensuring a supply of good teachers, and maintaining the im- proved tone of our national schools, to allow them to recommend that the certificate condition shall be altogether given up, and results of examination be adopted as a sole test. But your committee are deeply impressed with the necessity of aiding neglected districts, and they think the views of those who advocate the abandonment of the certificate as a condition may well be met by some modification of existing rules, with the ■view of facilitating the employment of certificated teachers. Several suggestions have been made ; one is that special in- spectors might, on demand, either from managers or from local boards, visit particular schools desirous to come into the sys- tem of national grants, although not having certificated teachers ; and that such schools should stand on the same footing as schools with certificated teachers. Another is that in schools having no certificated teacher the payment for re- sults might be given, but the payment on attendance be with- held. These suggestions seem well worthy of consideration." This is no doubt a very nice question, but I venture to think that, so far as our own, viz., the agricultural interest is con- cerned, I can see a way out of it. If the system of having certificated masters is good in large and populous districts, by all means let us retain it ; but we have proved and ascertained that the system is restrictive of education in the agricultural districts. Therefore I ask that, as far as the agricultural dis- tricts are concerned, those regulations may be relaxed. The expenses of the committee of education, the expenses of visiting officers, examining masters, certificated teachers, and others are very great ; but it has been resolved that all the education that the State is bound to give is the elemen- tary education of reading, writing, and arithmetic. Now we know that the position of the labouring popnlationinthe agricul- tural districts will not permit them to remain at school beyond a certain time, and if by our exertions we teach them reading, \vriting, and arithmetic, we give them the key of knowledge, the means of acquiring hereafter — if they are so disposed, or cir- cumstances permit them — knov.ledge of a far higlier character. Therefore I say I do not think it fair to the agricultural in- terest to say that they shall only be taught by this certificated master or that certificated master. I ask, as a right to the agricultural interest, that the education of their children should be paid for by results— that those who bring the children of their schools to the necessary efficiency in reading, writing, and arithemetic, shall receive a capitation grant, just the same as if they had been taught by certificated masters. The fact of the matter is that knowledge has been making such rapid strides, that even the agricultural interest have found it absolutely necessary to employ machinery to a far greater extent than they had hitherto done. It is of great importance to raise the agricultural labourer from the loutish state of ignorance he was once in, within my remembrance, and assimi- late him more to the well-educated artisans. I am glad to have the opportunity of congratulating you upon escaping that terrible scourge, the cattle-plague, whicli has so awfully aftiicted the North of England, and also the very bad harvest that they had in that part of the country. I suppose that for many years such a bad harvest lias not been known in the North. In agricultural pursuits there is no distrust of each other; we are a united body, with one common employment — united to do t!ie best we can for our labourers and tenants. And further, there is not that heart-burning, that jealousy and rivalry for weaUh which in manufacturing districts seem to separate the artisan from those who employ him. I hope that will long continue, and I hope I shall again have the oppor- tunity of thanking you for drinking my health as one of the members for the County of Devon. Mr. Kekewich, the other member, said: I fully agree with Sir Lawrence Palk that our rural schools are not sufficiently provided for at present. Taxpayers in the country contribute no less than one million a year towards education, but there are very few rural schools that get any portion of it. I think that is a very hard case. A man in his time plays many parts, and you would hardly think that at one time I was an inspector of rural schools. I examined a a great number of schools in this county, and found them very badly supported. Perhaps a small subscription was doled out by some absent landlord, by some landlord who lived amongst them, but who could not subscribe much ; but they were chiefly supported by — and I say it to their honour — the clergy, who were often very ill able to contribute the amount they did. Therefore I say it is hard that these schools receive no part of the Government grant. I have always, during the time I have been in Parliament, voted for every proposition which would give a small grant — however small it might be — towards the support of these small rural schools. AMATEUR FARMlNa. At the Bakewell Farmers' Club dinner, Mr. Jackson, one of the members for North Derbyshire, said : He had always maintained that unless the land was prosperous, there was no prosperity for the mining, manufacturing, or commercial interests. A strong feeling in favour of the land was born in every Englishman. If a workman can only get a snug cottage, with a bit of garden attached to it, he will never leave it unless he is compelled ; and if a man makes a bit of money, the first thing he does is to build a house, and get a piece of garden ground. Then if he succeeds in making a little more money, he will turn agriculturist, and en- deavour to beat his neiglibours in breeding cows and other farm animals. That was the case with himself. In 181'3 he left off commercial pursuits, having been told that if he wished to live he must cease from the anxieties of business ; so he bought an estate and turned farmer. A portion of the land which he purchased had ruined two farmers, who had been tenants of it just before he became the purchaser. He bought the land at 12s. 6d. an acre, and after three years, having spent £20 an acre in improving it, he let the land at £1 17s. 6d. an acre on a seven years' lease. Now, his commercial knowledge and his capital were brought to bear on the land, and the return was beneficial to the land, beneficial to himself, and beneficial to the neighbourhood. When he first commenced farming, he was considered an innovator and an encroacher upon other men's privileges, and he was laughed and sneered at ; but when he produced 40 tons of carrots to the acre ; when he gathered 42 tons of swedes an acre ; and when he reaped 50 bushels of wheat an acre, he was laughed and sneered at no longer, but was asked to become chairman of an agricultural association. He had sold some rams at £15 a- piece, and bullocks at 50 guineas. After he had been farming about three years, his baiiiff came to him and said : " Mr. Jackson, we have got the foot-rot in the sheep." His reply was, " Well, T shall rot too if I go on farming much longer." As long as there was any excitement in farming — in draining, in rebuilding, in pulling down old hedges and making new ones, he liked it exceedingly well ; but when he found that wheat did not grow in a few hours, and that he had to be patient for several weeks together, lie found it nncoiumonly slow work, so he gave up farming on a grand scale, and put the bit in his moutli once more as a mercantile man. True, he was a fanner still, but then it was in a small way. 870 THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. t:he advantages of eaely ploughing. At the monthly meeting of the Ballymahon Farmers' Club, on Monday, Oct. 1st, Mr. JoiiN LuNEN, laud steward, read the followinjj: jiaper : — Tliis subject is of great importance to the farmer, when he sees the immense gain it is to himself, and to all the classes who are depending upon good farming. We might (as we liave had but little time for the preparation of this paper) do what we h ive heard of a reverend gentleman say he would do with his test — 1st, says he, I will discourse about it ; 2nd, I will dis- course above it ; 3rd, I will go below it ; 4th, I vvill go away from it ; 5th, I will come right up to it ; and lastly, I will go right through it. Now, without following the example of this gentleman, I will at ouce try to go right into ray subject. The common practice of the ordinary farmers of the country is to plough late — to plough when they should be sowing ; and if you ask them why they don't cultivate earlier, you get the an- swer that if the land were turned up it would be " too cowld" for the seed. These men do not see the pernicious consequences, else they would surely change their practice. It is well for aU tillers of the soil to have a wholesome conservatism of all good customs and habits which are really beneficial — a conservatism of such theories, whether they may be traditional or otherwise, which, when reduced to practice, work well, so as to put money into the pocket. But whilst it is well to be conserva- tive of everything that is good, farmers ought at the same time to be thoroughly radical, changing everything which im- proved farming says ought to he changed, and laying the axe to the root of every custom which is condemned by the improve- ments of agriculture. It is high time for men to lay aside their exploded theories, that will not stand the test of reason and of science, and adopt the improvements of the age. Every science is advancing, and men are availing themselves of all the advantages of the age. Why not in farming take advan- tage of all the recent improvements which have been found to work so well. Late ploughing produces bad crops of every kind, unless they are forced by the strength of the land. It pauperizes the tenant, or has a tendency to do so; therefore we say it ought to be given up at once, and the early ploughing adopted with all its advantages, which we will try to point out. " Wherefore come on, O young husbandman, Learn the culture proper to its kind." Before pointing out some of the advantages of early plough- ing, it may not be out of place to notice the sort of ploughing we approve of. All soils should not be ploughed equally deep; and whilst we are strong advocates for deep ploughing gene- rally, yet we say that it ought to be according to the nature of the subsoil. If there be a good subsoil on such lands as strong clays, loams, rich gravels, or deep sands, the ploughing ought to be as deep as possible, so that a considerable quantity of it may be brought up in the rotation at green cropping; but if the subsoil is bad, as on thin claj's and barren sands, we would let it remain, and not bring much to the surface. The autumn after the crops have been saved is the proper time to plough. The land then is generally dry, and cultiva- tors cannot be too particular in getting a dry tillage. Plough- ing the land wet is most injurious to the succeeding crop, and encourages the growth of weeds. The soil when wet consoli- dates; and instead of having the pores tiioroughly opened for the reception of the gases of both atmosphere and the rain, they are closed. The ancient Romans, who excelled in agriculture, were exceedingly particular in having their land ploughed dry ; and just in proportion as we advance ni agricultural science, and approximate to these sage people, so will we be attentive to the state of the land in ploughing. It is the good ploughing at the right time — other things being equal — that ensures the good crop. Pliny, the celebrated Roman writer, assigns good ploughing as the cause of the corn being so plenty in Rome in ancient times. " What," says he, " was the cause of this fruitfulness ? Was it because in those times the lands were cultivated by the hands even of generals — the earth, as it is natural to suppose, delighting to be ploughed with a share adorned with laurels, and by a ploughman who had been honoured with triumphs? Or was it because these men ploughed their fields with the same diligence that they pitched their camps ; and secured their corn with the same care that they formed their armies for battle ?" No matter how well ploughing is done with skilful hands and good horses ; no matter how straight and well-shouldered the furrows ; no matter that the plough is according to the most approved plan ; yet, if the land is wet the whole is bad work, as it will not pay. In farming, as in everything else, we should ask the question. Will it pay ? and endeavour by our practice to answer in the affirmative ; but wet ploughing we say emphatically wiU not pay. Early ploughing most generally ensures the land to be dry, and therefore the advantage. We have seen many a field of rich earth lost to the occupier in con- sequence of wet ploughing; poverty comes to him as an armed man, but the cause is patent that aU his work is done in the same style. But autumn ploughing banishes weeds, which is an- other great advantage to the farmer. The greatest foes to agriculture are weeds. They not only choke the crop, but they absorb the nutriment designed for its production, and no matter w^iat species of crop it may be, its greatest foe is that which grows beside it as weeds. In all our cultivation we should aim at the destruction of weeds, and whatever tends to their extirpation is good husbandry. As we said before, far- mers ought to be radicals as well as conservatives, and tear up Ijy the root everything that mars the growth of the crop. We have seen the farmer who considered himself perfection let all the weeds grow in his oats until the harvest, and then separate them. The weeds had not only exhausted the soil more than the crop, but they had sown their multitudinous seeds, to produce a hundredfold the following season. Au- tumn ploughing turns up the roots of the weeds to be exposed to the frost, rains, and thaws of winter, and thus to perish them. And although it is very difficult to banish them, so much so that a good Scotchman, who was a better man than a farmer, once said, " Sin and the Deil ye may overcome, but weeds ye canna." We affirm, however, that the best antidote against these enemies of the husbandman is autumn ploughing. Fields filled with root weeds, many of which we see in the country, must be in a state of greater exhaustion than if they produced a heavy crop of oats. The productive quality of the earth must, of necessity, decrease in proportion to the quanti'^y of the weeds grown; and early dry ploughing is one of the best methods I know, except fal- lowing, for expelling these unproductive plants, and preparing the laud for the reception of beneficial ones. It is a pity to see so many crops destroyed by these enemies of agriculture, and to know that they are leaving the occupant of the soil penniless. Therefore we would entreat farmers to study their own benefit and cultivate early. I can give the experience of sixty years, twenty of my own and forty of my fathers, and, without an exception, we never found the autumn ploughing to fail in the desired results. Another advantage accruing to the tenant from early culture is bringing the land to the proper tilth. The experienced agriculturist in spring knows the good of having the laud in such a state that it can be properly pul- verized. The exposure of the clay to the winter frosts and rains reduces it to such a consistency that you may easily pre- pare it for the most delicate crop. We have seen many far- mers in the spring, when dry weather sets in, turning a strong force to the fields to break the clods, that neither harrow nor roller would break ; whereas if the same land had been early tilled, the frosts and atmosphere, with the heavy rains, would have been the best clod-breakers, and have done the work effectually. We have read of the fable of the Lemon and Soda. " I could soon destroy you," says the Lemon to the Soda. " I could soon take the juice out of you," says the Soda. " Let us have at it," says the Lemon. Fiz, fiz, goes the Lemon, and Fiz, fiz, goes the Soda ; and the result is, nothing is left behind but, apparently, a little dirty, soft material. So with tlie frosts and rain ; fiz, fiz, goes the frost and the rain, and so carry on their battle upon the newly upturned earth, and the result is proper pulverization. How could the land be brought to such a state were it not early ploughed? It would be impossible for the hand of man to leave it in as THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZIITE. m good a tilth as the elements ; and, therefore, if we are vtsc for ourselves, wise for those, whom we are necessarily training by our example, and wise for the dependants upon good farm- ing, we will adopt the system of early culrure. No matter what the crop may be which you are to sow in the following spring, the great advantage is to have the land brought to a good tilth for it , and therefore you are not afraid of it, as far as human precaution goes, being a failure. Plougli early ; and money will be saved in the otherwise ex- pensive preparation of the land, and a conscientious satisfac- tion will cheer you amidst the gloom of your neighbours, that, if Heaven has designed a bad crop, it will not be for the pu- uishraent of your neglect. Another advantage is, that the land is ready for the early seed. I have often grieved, for their own sake, to see fanners send out the plough to make a beginning of their work at the very time they should be sow- ing, as seed-time is promised ; but many farmers are not ready to avail themselves of it when it comes, and you hear nothing but the wail of complaints, and see their frowning counten- ances falling at the weather, whereas it is themselves they ought to blame. But to fault oneself is not a common or a pleasant practice. The laws of Nature work most ord(!rly and harmoniously ; and when men come into collision with them they are sure to be injured. The farmer should see that he does not come into collision with these laws, else misery and loss will be the consequence. We have seen sucli men, by not being ready to do t'lieir work in the seed-time, lose much of their crop. In a well-regulated farm, all the work is done in the proper time and place ; and as we know there is a time for everything, so sliould everything be done in its time. It is an old proverb, and a true one, that " the early bird catches the early worm ;" and the early ploughing enables the farmer to catch the proper season for everything. You. will always know, when there is late ploughing, late sowing, and late crops, that the farmer is both lazy and indolent. Correct farming, in its details, is like a cliain, one link depending upon another, thus making a beautiful whole. It' ploughing, for example, is done in February and March, w'hen the seed should be sown ; if potatoes are sown in the month of May, and an early disease comes on, they are not worth taking out ^ of thesoil ; if turnips be sown in July, thinned and weeded about harvest ; if the turf-cutting occupies the month of June, or a part of July, when they should be ready to be drawn home ; if there is not time, from a collision of things, to embrace the early good weather for hay-making, the result will be calamitous. Ploughing takes the place of sowing ; potato-planting takes the place of turnips ; turf-cutting takes the place of hay- making and turnip-hoeing ; and hay-making takes the place of harvest, the oats being often left so long uncut that the straw is scarcely worth reaping, and the crop materially iujured. Whence arises this collision of things? We answer, from late ploughing. Let there be autumn-ploughing ; and tlie farmer, beginning at the proper place, wiU be able to do all things early, and will also be in a position to avail himself of good weather, when it comes, for the saving of his hay and grain crops. In a machine, one break may cause many in the com- plicated machinery ; so in farming. One break from the proper order may make many, and thus cause complete confu- sion during the entire season, with heavy loss. But a machine must be so nicely constructed that there will be little friction : if there be much friction, arising from a bad mathematical ad- justment, it will lead to the breaking down of the whole ma- chinery. So we say all things ought to be done in farming so that there wLU be as little friction of one work pressing upon another as possible, lest disorganization be the result. Early ploughing will be the first and most important step in the year's farming — will obviate and prevent all the confusion and loss to which We have referred: hence its advantage. Another most important advantage arising from it is the amount of manure received from the ammonia of the atmosphere and the rain. It is a well-known fact that the plants which the farmer cultivates receive their nutriment from three sources — the soil, the atmosphere, and the rain. The opinion that the at- mosphere contained only the two gases, oxigcn and nitrogen, is superseded, and agricultural chemists have found that it con- tains a slight portion of ammonia and carbonic acid. The ammonia, containing nitrogen and hydrogen, is of the greatest importance, and may be regarded as pre-eminently required for the nourishment of plants. The early ploughing leaves the Jaud in a fit state to freely imbibe the gases of the atmosphere ; and as ammonia readily dissolves in water, the rain dissolves this gas, and the soil retains it for the nutriment of the following crop. Liebig, the celebrated chemist, made an experiment upon rain-water, and found it to contain a small portion of ammonia ; and he estimated that, if one pound of rain-water contained one-fourth of a grain of ammonia, a field of 26,910 square feet would receive annually upwards of SOlbs. of tliis gas, so tjiat a statute acre would each year re- ceive in the rain that falls upon its surface about 1391bs. of ammonia. When such has been proved by this eminent che- mist to be the probable amount of this pre-eminently nutri- tious element imparted to an acre-surface from rain-water, is it not of the greatest importance that land designed for cropping shotild be as early as possible turned up, that it may easily iral)ibe and retain that which is to be the great support and life of the future plant ? The Supreme Being has made a provision in the atmosphere for manuring our fields ; and thus, in the silent night as well as the busy day, it is carrying on its fertilising intluence. But many prevent it from doing this work to a greater advantage, by their late ploughing. Who tliat has ever fallowed his land has not found the immense advantage to it ? and what has produced that change from comparative barrenness to srreat fertility ? Does it arise from the frequent ploughing, or the destruction of the weeds ? Partly, but chiefly from being turned up the whole year, to receive the ammonia of the atmosphere. Therefore the advantage of early ploughing, which admits of early cross- ploughing, so that the soil may catch the greatest amount of this most beneficial gas. ^ The system of early tillage ensures a greater return from the crops, whether they may be oats, barley, flax, potatoes, turnips, or any other green crop. 'J'his has been the experience of the best farmers, and will be the experience of all who try the experiment. Much praise is due to the excellent editor of the Iris/i Far- mers^ Gaze/fe for the manner in which he has laboured to change the habits and customs of Irish farmers; and although many have read, and do read, that periodical, yet they continue their old practice. When you reason with some men upon this subject, they wiU tell you, more honestly than politely, that they know better than either yon or the editor of the Irisk Farmers'' Gazefte. They are proof against all teaching and all improvements ; and when you endeavour to bcnelitthem by trying to make a change, they will tell you, as a reward for your trouble, that " it's aU. nonsense," even before they have tried the experiment. Truly, as regards such men, one is in- clined to say, "As it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be, live without change. Amen." I have often wondered why men will so tenaciously cling to what is ruinous to them, and reject the experience of those who wish to benefit them. Is it early training cr prejudice that keeps them from adopting necessary improvements ? I can only account for it iii the way that one nigger accounted to another for a fish that could not be taken by his bait. A poor black man once sat down at the side of a stream to take some refreshment, which consisted of bread and whiskey. Some crumbs of the bread fell into the w'ater, and the fish took them up. The man dipped the bread into the whiskey, and let it fall into the water : in a short time the fish were all floating lifeless, as it were, on the stream, and the blackie caught them easily. But there was one large fish that he could not influence, althougii it took the crumbs of the bread as freely as the others. Being determined to catch it, he went to a friend and borrowed a net, aud having succeeded in his object, he showed it- to his friend, who re- plied by saying, " Sambo, I unarstand dat fish ; dat fish is de mullet-head ; dat fish has no brains ;" and, therefore, as whis- key influences the brain, the lisli was not caught. AVe are afraid that many who are proof against all improvements are like Sambo's mullet-head. However, the plan is to work away until society has been leavened by wholesome improve- ments, and the farmers led to be benefited by scientific changes as produced in agriculture. Larger and earlier crops will be the result of early ploughing ; the good harvest, when early, wiU be embraced, and the dilferent works on the farm not re- tarded. If the farmers of the country want good green crops, if they want large returns of oats and other such crops, if they want to l)e comfortable upon their farms, then let them take the first step to such comforts, and to the obtaining of such crops — namely, plough early. Much has been said and written upon the proper management of the turnip crop, and many have endeavoured to find an antidote to the destnictive little animal 372 THE FARMEH'S MAGAZINE. that eats up the turnip, known as the turnip-fly. We give a preventive which during the course of a long experience, both of my father and myself, we never found to fail — plough early ; and in so doing the land will be in such a state by the ferti- lizing influences of the atmosphere, and the pulverizing power of tlie frosts and thaws of winter, that it can be reduced to the finest state of tillage, which is the safest and best antidote against the ravages of this insect. The laud intended for turnips cannot be too well tilled, and the precursor to that is early ploughing. It lies at the foundation of the farmer's suc- cess, as we have shown of green crops, which, wlien largely and carefully grown on the farm, makes the healthful young stock. Better uot rear young stock if they are not properly fed and cared. On the farm where green crops are not produced, unless there be very rich pasture, you will see poor, and con- sequently uuremunerative stock. A number of very excellent papers have been read since the beginning of this clnb, but tlie success as the first step in carry- ing out their recommendations and arriving at some degree of excellence depends upon early ploughing. As we have endea- voured to show, it is the origin of the good green crop, which was the subject of the society's first paper, and wliatever makes green crops plentiful affords much feeding to all of the farming stock ; it is the best preventive to the destruction of the turnip-fly, the true friend to agriculture, the extirpator of its enemies the weeds ; it is the remote and secondary cause of the luxuriant flax-crop, the guarantee of other things favourable — of the fields waving with early and yellow grain ; it enables the tenant to pay his rent, and fills the landlord's pockets at May and November with his just due ; it imparts happiness to the farmer looking at liis summer and autumn crops. Our minds are so constituted that much of our hap- piness arises from our senses, especially from the sense of sight ; and on looking at good clean crops of every kind, there cannot but be awakened in our minds, from beholding such, the sensation of pleasure. As the sight of something unplea- sant produces the seusation of pain, so must the sight of bad, M'eedy crops produce unpleasant sensations both in the mind of the traveller and the good agriculturist. We might, had not this paper exceeded the proper bounds, have contrasted the advantages of autumn ploughing with the disadvantages of late ploughing ; but we will leave the farmer to do that for liimself, and we would strongly recommend those who are fond of late tillage to a little mental exercise upon such a contrast, and they will surely be convinced of the loss sustained by late ploughing. It is a trite poetic proverb that — " Early to bed, and early to rise. Makes a mau healthy, wealthy, and wise ;" which might be applied with aU its force to early ploughing. Finally, we say, in the words of the poet, in his agricultural stanza — Early to plough is early to reap, Makes the land fertile, and the oats cheap ; Destroys the bad weeds, and the turnip-fly kills ; Produces large green crops, and tlie granary fills ; Causes the stall-feds to moan and to sigh. Because their big bellies are raised far too high ; Brings the fine young stock to leap and to jump. As by much good feeding they are fat at the rump ; Strengthens the. ewe in her delicate state With turnips as good as ever were ate. The ducks, hens, and geese are aU brought together, To eat up the oats that were saved in good weather. The farmer looks on, and is happy to see That all in the yard are in such a high glee ; He thinks of the rent, that has come by less trouble. And says, ' Early ploughing has made me reap double.' " THE lEISH LAND QUESTION. Mr. J. LowRY Whittle read, at the meeting of the Social Science Congress, a paper, of wliich the following is an ab- stract : Speaking of the present condition of the land question in Ireland, he said the question had begun to attract attention as early as 1835 ; and, though so many changes had occurred since then in the circumstances of the country, this question was still one requiring legislative settlement. The conditiou of Ireland when the question first arose was very different from its present condition. The country then suffered from evils which were the direct result of the old system of leasing, viz., an excessive population, minute subdivision of holdings, and very inferior husbandry. Another great evil was tlie embar- rassed condition of the landlords. The last evil had, however, been remedied by the Incumbered Estates Act. Emigration had drained off a large portion of the superabundant popula- tion. A great extent of country has been restored to pasture, which had been the chief mode of emploj'ing the land up to the middle of the last century. Tenants at will had been substi- tuted for the old leaseholders. But the old habit of the land- lord leaving the tenant to make the improvements continued, and to a great extent continues still. The smaUness of the holding made it impossible for the landlord to make the im- provements in a demonstrative way. If the tenant continued to occupy, aU went well ; but, if he M'as evicted before the im- provements were exhausted, he had no means of obtaining com- pensation from his landlord. This state of things discouraged improvements. The principle of compensation was recognized by Mr. Cardwell's Act in 1860 ; but the machinery was too expensive, and the compensation allowed too small. Four bills •were introduced last session. Three of them proposed to remedy the evil by encouraging leases. Tlie fourth, that of the late Government, proposed to give all tenants at wiU a lump sum if they were evicted within 31 years after the making of the improvements. The bill did not require the consent o"f the landlord, nor even any notice to him. Such a bill would have directly encouraged eviction. All recent evidence on the state of Ireland proves that the country has been slowly and Steadily increasing in wealth since 1853. It further appears that the landlords are in many places adopting the English plan of making the improvements themselves. Any measure tliat would give security to an improving tenant, witliout cur- tailing the rights of property, would be very beneficial, and the altered circumstances of the country would give such a mea- sure a good chance of success. Extract from a paper read on Tuesday, the 9th Oct., by RiCHAKD W. Gamble, Esq., Barrister-at-law, on " Compen- sation to Tenants in Ireland :" After some preliminary re- marks, Mr. Gamble said: Improvements should be divided into three classes, to be dealt with and provided for dif- ferently. Improvements of the first class, which are in the nature of good husbancby, will be found far more im- portant to the present state of Ireland than any others. No direct legislation has been hitherto proposed, except in the biU of Lord Derby's Government in 1852. In proposing compensation to tenants for improvement of their farms under this first class — that is by means of high cultiva- tion, high manuring, and for grass-seeds sown — we do not pro- pose any new mode of legislation in this matter, but only the adaptation of the old principles of legislation to the new and altered rights of the landlord aud tenant respectively, arising out of the discoveries and improvements in the mode of cul- tivating land— the old principle that " he who sowed should reap." There are, in all, 559,180 tenants in Ireland holding over one acre of land each, and of these there are no fewer than 401,136, or 70 per cent., whose holdings are between one acre and thirty acres statute. I propose to induce the tenants themselves to change their system of agriculture, and carry out improvements of the first class — to invest their labour and capital in bringing the land to a high state of cultivation. If they do make such investment, it is entirely in accordance with the principles of the law and custom of England that they shoiild be entitled to reap somewhat of the things which they have thus sown, as the English tenants are now entitled to do, under the custom of away-going crop. The question then arises with regard to the 15^ million acres of arable and pasture-land, and one-half miUion acres of reclaimable waste THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 2,11 m Irelaiid, wliat is the mode of improvement to be applied ? There are no statistics by whicb to ascertain liow much of them would be improved by drainage. Perhaps a very full allowance would be one-eighth, or 2,000,000 acres ; whereas at least one-half, or 8,000,000, are capable of a vastly im- proved mode of cultivation, and could thereby be rendered nearly doubly as productive as at present. The quantity of land in 1863 held in farms of over one and imder 30 statute acres each was 7,13J<,299 acres, and the quantity held in farms above 30 and under 50 acres each was 2,176,936 acres. From these two classes alone it wiU be admitted that it would be easy to find nearly 8,000,000 acres requiring improved cul- tivation. Here, then, is really the field for the legislator, the political economist, and the philanthropist to discover and apply the means of stimulating the industry and enterprize, and calling forth the energy and the capital of the landlords and tenants of these eight mUlions of acres, that aU might be applied in improving the mode of their cultivation, so as to in- crease their productive powers, and scatter plenty through a smUing land. Drainage and improved cultivation, then, are the means to be adopted ; the former as applied to two mil- lions of acres, the latter to eight millions of acres. As to drainage, let us inquire first how far it is possible or necessary to effect anything by means of legislation. With regard to land improvable by drainage upon the Iioldings under 30, or perhaps under 50 acres, legislation can effect but little. The entire number of occupiers of land holding over an acre, whether as proprietors or tenants, is 551,180 ; and of these the number of tenants holding over one acre, or under 30 acres, was 401,136, and the number holding between 30 acres and 50 acres was 72,050, making together 4'73,186, or nearly 85 per cent, of the entire occupiers, whether proprietors or tenants. It is plain, therefore, that any plan of improvement which is not applicable to, and capable of being taken advantage of, by these 473,186 tenants, Mill be almost useless, and that any plan wliich deals only with the building, drainage, and irrigation, is beyond their reach. Nine-tenths of these 473,186 farms are in the most wretched state of cultivation, not producing more than one-half what they ought to produce. The remedy which I propose is to give the Irish tenant, by law, the same right to away-going crop to which the English tenant is entitled by custom — a custom which not only includes a share of the growing crop, but compensation for everything which he has done on the land within three years in the way of cultivation, and for which lie has not been recouped. Small as this matter may appear to be, its influence on the present state of Ireland would be much more powerful than that which would hold out greater hopes, and promise much more largely, with regard to improvements which are beyond the reach of the great bulk of the small farmers. The second class of improvements consists of drainage, irrigation, subsoiling, and reclaiming waste. They are of an expensive nature, and the tenant should not be con- sidered to have been repaid his outlay by retaining possession, nor the value of the improvements to have been exhausted be- fore, say, at least fourteen years. In order to be effective, they should aU, except the subsoihng, be done upon a pre- viously settled plan, consistent not only with the requirements of the particular farm, but of the entire estate ; therefore, if the tenant requires them done, the landlord or agent should be consulted as to the mode of doing tliem, and should have the option of carrying them out himself and charging the tenant an annual sum for tlie outlay ; but no premium should be held out to the landlord to take the work out of the hand of the tenant if he is willing to do it. The probable cost should be estimated beforehand, so as to ascertain whether the work would be remunerative ; and the condition and value of the laud improved, and the nature and extent of the work to be done should be ascertained, so as to lay the foundation for a future valuation. Notice of the intended improvement should be given to the landlord, for otherwise he would have no means at the end, perhaps, of thirteen years, of ascertaining whether the works had been really done. One right should, perhaps, be reserved to the landlord, viz., if there be no lease, to resume possession within twelve months, and that no improvements of this class should be done against the landlord's wish within the twelve months. Within that time the tenant will decide whether he wiU continue to hold the land which he is not allowed to improve ; and the landlord will decide whether he will yield to the tenant's views or insist upon possession ; and there would be little doubt that the difference would in the meantime be settled by mutual agreement. As to the third class of improvements, namely, buUding, embankments, farm- roads, and fences, they differ from each of the other classes in a most material manner. They do not increase the productive power of the soil, and may be of no use whatever to landlord or succeeding tenant. No improvements of this class should be allowed without the consent of the landlord. I believe no greater boon could be conferred on Ireland at this moment than a termination of the agitation upon this question. Dr. Pakkhuiist said the subject was involved in historical considerations, and in the tenure of land. People in England had made one great and fundamental mistake in viewing this Irish question, by applying to the relation of landlord and tenant in Ireland the same rule, principles, and maxims which governed that relation in England, whereas there reaUy existed an essential difference between the two cases. The Irish ten- ant had always had a greater and more permanent interest in the soil which he cultivated than the Enghsh tenant, the con- sequence having'been that he had applied his industry and capital more systematically to the improvement of the land ; and there ought to be no real objection to the Irish tenant being recouped to the extent of his industry and outlay. He considered that the tenant had a right to expect this, and that then it became a mere matter of arrangement as to whether the tenant should receive a compensation in the shape of an extended lease or in the shape of money payment. He ap- proved of the great experiment that had been carried out in Ireland by the adoption of the incumbered Estates Act, and said we ought to thank Ireland very much for it, if only upon the ground of the great influence it had had in the introduc- tion of the colonial system of the registration of estates. Mr. F. Hill said that he considered the question was of deep importance. It would be a wise action of the law to have the matter settled once for all ; and he recommended a solution of the question that where the landlord and tenant made a bargain or covenant between themselves, that bargain should be carried out ; but in the absence of any sucli bargain, the equitable principle should be carried out, by which the tenant, on giving up possession of a farm, should be compelled to pay compensation for any deterioration of value which the farm had sustained, while, on the other hand, he should re- ceive compensation from the landlord for any augmentation of value which he had occasioned. Dr. Hancock supported the view of Mr. HUl. He said the principle involved in that view was one of universal apph- cation, and it was one by which the tenant would be Ukcly to introduce a higher class of improvements, and improvements of a more extensive character upon the estate which he farmed. The Chairman, in a few words, closed the discussion. The question, he said, was deeply important, and there was a strong feeling that there should be special legislation upon it. He touched upon several of the details which would have to form part of any amendment of the existing law, and concluded by ex- pressing a hope that some legal solution of the question would be speedily arrived at. THE BAIvEWELL SHEEP, Of all the various breeds of sheep, That butchers kiU or graziers keep, From which do we most comfort reap ? The Bakewcll. 'Wliat sheep produce the richest meat, And in appearance look most neat, And pay best for the food they eat ? The BakeweU. Which most of all the landscape grace, Contain most bulk in smallest space, And when they feed adorn the place ? The BakeweU, Wliich best our craving wants supply. To feed and keep us warm and dry; And make both cold and hunger fly ? The BakeweU. Wliich are most tractable and tame^ And vriU so long as sheep remain, Immortalize great Bakewell's name ? American Farmer, Baltimore. The BakeweU, S74 "the faemeb'S Magazine. THE MANAGEMENT OF FENCES At the quarterly meeting of the T\'eulock Farmers'' Club, Mr. Keary read the following paper on the Planting, Rear- ing, and Management of Fences' — Gentlemen, Before 1 en- ter upon the consideration of the planting, rearing, and ma- nagement of fences in the order laid by your Society, it may not, 1 think, be unprofitable to notice generally the state of fences as they exist at present in this country. It is nniver- sally (and with great truth) admitted that the agriculture of Great Britain has been developed and extended in an extraor- dinary degree during the last 25 years. Our cereal crops are increased in quantity and quality, and roots are grown with success on land hitherto deemed incapable of producing any- thing but wheat and beans. Barren wastes fiave been success- fully and profitably enclosed, and the steam plough and the reaping machine are implements with which we are daily be- coming more familiar. In addition to all tliis, the energy which has been shown, and tlie success which has been attatned, in the breeding and rearing of live-stock during tlie above period, proves incontestably that the British farmer has not l)een asleep, and that he has, to some extent at least, kept pace with the industrious enterprise of his commer- cial neighbours. There is, however, I regret to say, a dark side to this picture. Great as have been the advances made in agriculture generally, I do not hesitate to express tlie opinion that our fences as a general rule throughout England and more particularly throughout the west mid- land counties, are in a most discreditable and neglected condition. In the first place I contend that nearly three- fourths of the existing fences upon arable land ought to be swept away altogether. For all practical purposes they are utterly useless ; large, irregular, and overgrov.-n, consuming on many farms nearly a tenth of the land, and growing moreover weeds of all sorts in the greatest abundance, they are productive of great annual loss and a continual source of expense. And what good reason can be given for their continuance ? They grow no corn, they produce no live- stock. Our forefathers probably planted them for shelter, and cut the ditches which frequently run parallel to them as the best method of drainage with which they were acquainted. But those days are gone • drainage and other causes have ameliorated our climate, and I am convinced that the demolition of a large proportion of our ancient hedgerows, however much such a plan might detract from the beauty of the landscape, would tend immensely to facilitate and cheapen our agricultural operations. The evils indeed of the present state of our fences must be so apparent to any reflecting mind, that it can hardly be necessary for me to do more than enumerate them very briefly. Fences are injurious — 1. Because they absorb a large (|uautity of valuable land, which, but for them, could be brought into cultivation, and tiius add largely to the resources of every farm. 2. Because they encourage tlie growth of all sorts of weeds, which, in too many cases, are allowed to mature their seeds, and disperse it in high winds all over the country. 3. Because they prevent a free circulation of air over our fields, and frequently cause mildew, blight, and rust. 4. Because they seriously increase the amount both of h9rse and manual labour, as, for instance, in the frequent turnings they occasion to the ploughman, and in the time expended in cultivating head lands, frequently difficult of access. Still further proof might easily be brought forward ; but I tliink I have stated enough to prove that the present system of hedges in England is radically wrong. Why then are they so long maintained in their entirety to the injnry of the tenant and to the loss of the com- munity at large. The fact is that the administration of the affairs of our landed property is somewhat conservative, and because the hedgerows were planted by our ancestors, they are treated with profound respect and allowed to remain. I will consider shortly whether they may not be easily dispensed with. In one of the best cultivated and most productive parts of the county of Kent, and in several other couties also, fences are almost unknown. The fields are divided into a regular rotation of crops, and when turnips or clover have to be eaten off by sheep, the simple expedient of hurdles or nets confine the animals within the proper limits. No inconvenience is experienced, and, as I believe, great evils are avoided. I do not, however, advocate the entire abolition of our fences in this district ; but miles of them might at once be grubbed up with great advantage, and the sizes of all the fields might be very much enlarged. Good strong, but not high fences, in our pasture fields are highly necessary and desirable, and I will en- deavour to show how they may be maintained within proper and reasonable limits. The preparation of the soil before planting is a most im- portant process, but one too generally entirely neglected in connection with hedge fencing. Wherever it is decided to plant a new fence, the greatest pains and care should be taken thoroughly to clean from couch and all weeds the seat of it. If this preliminary point is not carefully attended to, not only will the future growth of the young quick be seriously impeded, but great expense in weeding will be entailed. The construc- tion of the bed where the plants are placed is also of impor- tance, and must be regulated by the nature of the soil and local circumstances. If the soil is light and poor, and not deep in staple, I strongly advocate a low bank, formed as fol- lows : Allow four feet and a-lialf for the seat of the bank, and throw upon it as much of the top spit or surface soil on each side as will raise the bank about 2 feet high. Upon this table the quick sets should be laid in, witli the roots downwards, and 5 inches apart. Then place carefully over the plants 13 inches more soil, and gradually narrow in the bank until the top is finished about 9 inches wide. The accompanying sketch will explain better than any description I can give, the form and size of the quick table. It is a good plan, although not absolutely necessary, to prick in a small dead hedge on the top of the bank ; it protects the young shoots from the cold winds of winter, and prevents injury from hares and rabbits to some extent. If some good short muck could be afi^orded it should be spread upon the ground before the bank is raised, at the rate of about twenty loads per acre, and it then becomes tho- roughly incorporated with the soil. It is a bad plan to lay the quick in the muck, as it is apt to cause mildew the first year, which is very injurious. On good old pastures the turf should be thoroughly well chopped and placed in the middle of the bank ; the young quick will feed well on it, and manure is not so much required. There can be no doubt that the manure is of great advantage by giving the young quick a good and rapid growth at first. It is not always practicable to jilace a new fence so as to give the plants the best aspect, but where a choice can be exercised I think a west aspect is preferable, as the young quick" does not then get the north ^vi^d at the back or the east wind at the face. The best time for planting 'is the middle of autumn, after the fall of the leaf, or in the month of February. The age of the plants (white thorn of course) should be two years transplanted, and the oftener they have been transplanted in the nursery the better will be their roots. It is highly desirable to plant quicks with clean fibrous roots, and not old long and cankered ones, and although the cost of selected plants is somewhat greater in the first instance, it is cheapest in the end, and a good strong fence is much more quickly ob- tained. The advantage of the early spring planting is that the January frosts are avoided, and the bank has time to settle ])efore the drying winds of March set in. The tops should be cut off to within two inches of the ground-mark ; for, although some nurserymen advise that the plants should be set as they come from the lines, I cannot see the advantage of it ; and my own experience of many years is decidedly iu favour of cutting off before planting. I think the gales of winter have a great elfect on the long shoots of the uncut plants, and very seriously loosen their hold in the ground be- fore they become well-rooted ; and I am also of opinion that the young shoots are more vigorously sent forth in spring, when the tops are taken off at the time of planting. In strong and unkind soils, I advocate the same form of bank, with the addition of a ditch on one side, to carry off the water. On good deep loams the bank may be dispensed with ; but great THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 37S care must then be taken to open the twjiicli with a spade suffi- ciently large to hold all the roots without crowding. The plan of planting with the dibble is liighly objectionable, and should never be resorted to, as the roots are tiien crushed into too small a compass, and many of them are bruised and in- jured by the careless way in which they are frequently thrust into the ground. I once seriously injured several miles of fencing by allowing the dibble to be used, and so learned a lesson which I have never forgotten. The operation of plant- ing being finished by the end of November or middle of Feb- ruary, as the case may be, nothing further is rec(uired, unless it is necessary that the fences should be guarded by posts and rails ou one or both sides. In arable districts the guard-fence is quite unnecessary : hurdles or nets can be employed to keep off sheep, when the land is xmder roots or clover. When, how- ever, the fence is to be raised ou pasture-lands, posts and rails must be used to protect it. If larch is grown in the district, the thinnings of the plantations provide admirable fencing ma- terials, the lower or butt-ends being used for posts, eitlier whole or split, according to their size, and the tops serving for rails. Nothing less than four rails will keep out lambs ; and it is perhaps better to give the additional rail in the first in- stance. I have, however, raised many miles of fences with only three rails, interweaving the two lower ones with thorns or trouse ; and, by taking care to replace it when it becomes rotten, a very sutlicieut fence can be made against all kinds of stock. I decidedly prefer morticed posts, as the rails are less likely to be displaced, and are also more easily renewed when broken or decayed. The posts and rails should not be placed too near the hedge — say at least iive feet from it : if nearer, horses or colts can reach over and crop the young thorn- shoots, to their great injury. In early spring the young fence should receive careful atten- tion. All weeds should be eradicated, and, if necessary, the top of the bank should be carefully forked. It is very desirable that these operations should be performed before the young buds are made, as it is impossible to weed the quick sets with- out bruising, and knocking otf some of the buds, which is very prejudicial, and backwards the summer shoots. During summer any docks or thistles which may appear should be cut oil' below the crown before seeding, and the bank will not then lie dis- turbed or pulled down. Early in the autumn another careful weeding should take place, and throughout all the early stages of the growth of a young fence the greatest cleaulidess is most desirable. Weeds rob the soil of its nourishment, choke the young plants, and prevent the rain from penetrating to their roots. The pruning of the young fence should not take place too early, and then to no great e.\teut at first ; any very wild growing shoots may be cut oft', so as to level the top ; but the lateral branches should not be disturbed. If at the end of the third or fourth year the young fence looks stunted, and does not grow kindly, I recommend cutting otf to within three or four inches of the ground in eardy spring, before the sap has begun to flow. I have sometimes seen wonderful results produced by this operation, and a very accelerated growth has followed. It must, however, be performed carefully, with a very sharp tool. I come now to the management of the fence. It has long been a disputed point as to the best mode of treating a fence when the time has arrived for cutting or forming it into a hedge — say, tlie eighth year after planting ; and I may here remark that it is really quite lamentable to see how many pro- mising young fences are annually spoilt by the careless and improper mode of cutting. It may not be of very great im- portance whether the fence is pleached and laid, or whether it is simply cut down, preparatory to its being formed into the only true and serviceable fence, viz., the hog mane or wedge shaped, thick and strong at the bottom, and gradually tapering to a sharp top. I prefer the latter mode, as tending to produce the best future fence, altjiough for a year or two, the pleached fence will be the strongest and most serviceable. Considerable judgment is required, and the work should be performed by an experienced workman, provided with proper tools. The thick, strong pieces should be cut down to within G inches of the ground, and the rest, according to their size, at diiferent heights, but none longer than about twenty inches. Henceforward the trimming alone is required, which should be done annually, late in tiie autumn, after the sap has descended to the roots. I am convinced that no more injurious practice exists than the very usual one of cutting fences when iu full leaf. The labourers of course prefer cutting when the branches are soft and full of sap than when they are hard and dry in winter ; but it is wrong in principle, and should not be allowed. Very strong fences on very good land may not be much injured ; but, generally speaking, tlie early trimming of hedges materially impedes and weakens their growth. Ou arable land the height of three feet six inches or four feet is ample, and the cost of trimming such fences, provided proper tools are used, need not exceed twopence half- penny per chain. If all fences were therefore reduced to those dimensions, the annual cost, even upon a large farm, would not be great, and would amount to a far less sum than is now expended in pleaching large overgrown fences, and by stopping the numerous gaps which too generally exist. In pasture fields the height of the fences should be greater, say iive feet and a-half or six feet, but the same mode of cutting should still be adopted, and the same shape preserved. I have seen numerous fences of this sort which in time have become like a wall, perfectly impervious, and presenting an insurmountable barrier to all kinds of stock. The cost of trimming these larger pasture hedges wiU be threepence per chain, if cut, as they ought to be, during the autumn or winter months of each year. I wiU anticipate an objection which may possibly bo urged against trimmed fences, viz., that they are too often thiu at the bottom, weak in many places, and forming a very inade- quate fence against cattle and sheep. The cause of this is very obvious. Improper tools are used, and labourers totally unacquainted with the proper mode of trimming hedges are employed. How frequently we see on a wet morning in har- vest-time men and boys all slashing away at the roadside hedges, with all sorts of tools, reap-hooks, broad-hooks, anti- quated biU-hooks, and, in short, every sort of weapon but the proper one. I would ask, is it likely that the chance labourers upon a farm so provided will cut hedges with anything like skill or judgment ? On the contrary, is it not the fact that, in nine cases out of ten, good hedges are spoiled ? They are cut down instead of up, the bottom is cut away too much, and the top generally scarcely cut at all. No fence can long survive summer trimming and broad tops, the constant drip of which kills the roots. The lateral and lower twigs should not be cut too close, but the top should be cut away and trained into the same shape as the sketch which is before you. Even under the best system of trimming, I think it is desirable occasionally to allow the hedge to run wild for a year only ; and I found it answered very well to abstain from trimming next to the clover or grass seeds which were to be fed with sheep in the summer ; for, in the first place, the nuisance of the small pieces, which somehow or other are always left to annoy the sheep, is thus avoided, and, in the next place, there is no opportunity given to the lambs to browse upon the young shoots, which they are particularly fond of doing. Although I deprecate most strongly, for reasons already given, an unnecessary number of fences, I am convinced that true economy points to the main- tenance of good strong fences, and such as really will answer the purpose for which fences are made. And this will not be found to be a w^ork of any difficulty, if only a little attention and method are shown in their management. If possible, only one, or at most two, men should be employed to cut the hedges on a farm, and great care should be taken to furnish them with proper tools. A few lessons, and a little firmness at first, will be quite enougli to teach a handy labourer how to do his work, and I believe tliat the very fact of his having a particular branch of labour entrusted to him operates as a stimulus to do the work well. On very light land I have sometimes observed old trimmed fences become a little cankered on their lower steins. This, however, has been entirely remedied, and at a small cost, by throwing up the soil to ths roots on each side and indeed it is not a bad plan to treat one or two fences in this way every year. The soil is naturally washed away after a lapse of time, and I know nothing that renovates a weakly fence more. The system of pleaching fences is so generally adopted in this district, that it appears necessary to say a few words respecting it. The skill of the workman is quite as im- portant in this branch of hedge cutting, as is the one I have just considered. Great care should be taken to cut down all tlie large and thick pieces, and to lay or pleach only those that are likely to live under the operation. The pleachers should not be too long, and plenty of stakes should be used. On pastures I think it desirable to use binders on the top, other- wise the cattle are apt to disturb the pleachers with their horns, 376 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. and materially injure the fence iu its early growth after cutting. At the time of pleachmg, the ditch, if any, should be well cleared out, and all weeds well cleaned away from the roots of the thorns, fresh soil shoidd then be thrown up and \Aorked well into the fa:e of the bank ; the liack should also be reduced to its proper size, and left with a sufficient slope. ]\Iany old banks are much too large, and may be reduced with great ad- vantage ; but care and judgment are required even here ; for if a bank is cut down too steep and too close, the roots of the fence are exposed, and will gradually die away. On sandy soil also the turf will not take again, and a continual raw bank wiU remain a great eyesore and a constant nuisance. Great injury is often done to the young shoots of the fence during the first summer by cattle and sheep, especially the latter ; and wherever it is practicable 1 would recommend that all stock should be kept away from newly pleached hedges for the first year. Although gap stopping can hardly be said to come under any of the three heads which form the subject of this paper, I cannot conclude my remarks without saying a few- words on that branch of hedging, which I humbly think requires more attention and a better system than generally prevails. I fear it must be admitted that some gaps are inevitable, and as they must be stopped, it is desirable to ascertain the best mode of doing so. The very common, but very injurious plan of thrusting large masses of dead thorns or trouse into the gap is very objectionable. It not only entirely destroys all chance of any of the remaining live wood from shooting out and filling up the vacant place, but it frequently increases the size of the gap by killing all the live hedge on each side of it. I believe the best, and cer- tainly in the end the cheapest plan is to use what is called Scotch fencing. Stout larch, ash, or hazle stakes should be driven into the ground about eighteen inches, at intervals of six or eight inches, in a line with the growing fence, another piece of tlie same thickness being nailed upon the tops of the stakes to keep them in their places. If this work is properly done it wiU last many years, and long before the stakes are worn out the gap will be filled up, the natural tendency of a white thorn fence being to extend itself in all directions. This simple method thus answers two objects — that of stop- ping the gap, and at the same time allowing the fence to fill itself up of its own accord. AU other systems of gap stopping are merely temporary, and must be constantly renewed at con- siderable cost and trouble. I have now, gentlemen, to the best of my humble ability, given you the result of many years' experience in the planting, rearing, and management offences. I hope my remarks have been intelligible ; and if I have suc- ceeded in giving yon any useful information, I shall be amply repaid for the trouble. I trust that the discussion of this sub- ject to-night will, at all events, draw some attention to a branch of agriculture, which I am sure is deserving of more considera- tion alike from landlord, agent, and tenant, than it iisuaUy re- ceives. Mr. Evan Daties said they were iu a much better slate with regard to the sizes of fields and the state of their hedges than they were in many other ])arts of the country. The plan of setting quick that was generally adopted, was that of planting it vertically ; but Mr Keary's plan was for planting it at about an angle of 45, giving the roots plenty of room. Some of the best fences he had ever seen were planted almost horizon- tally. He spoke very highly of a white-thorn plan of fence, a model of which he produced. He wished to do away with those large hedges that occupied so much room, and acted as a kind of cover for partridges and other game. They wanted to grow more beef and mutton, and to do away with many use- less hedges. Mr. Keary said, he had hoped the reading of the paper would have given rise to some discussion, as he was not at all wedded to his owii opinion if any better could be shown. The Rev. K. More said for his own part he was very much in favour of continuous iron fencing, which could be put up at about 2s. per lineal yard. Mr. Keary said he was also much in favour of iron fenc- ing, because it was both economical in price and the space it occupied, and was also very durable. The strained wire fenc- ing was cheaper than the iron fencing referred to by the Rev. Mr. Jlore, and could be put up at about Is. 2d. a yard lineal. Ordinary posts and rails cannot be put up, and find the timber, under about 14d. or 15d. a yard, and they were not near so durable. Mr. R. Jasper More, M.P., wished to know from Mr. Keary how his plans would agree with the high country, such as the Glee Hills, where the temperature was so very severe, and where some farmers say greater protection is required for the flocks and herds by means of high hedges. In Shropshire it was considered a very large field if it was 30 acres in ex- tent, yet in Norfolk, they have some of 70 or 80 acres in ex- tent. It would be, of course, difficult to propose a general rule* to meet aU cases. Mr. Keary said he certainly had not studied in his paper the subject of " high latitudes," but he thought it was neces- sary that some steps should be taken to call public attention to the subject. He wished to speak against unnecessarily large fences, as he believed the wedge-shaped fences were the best — thick at the bottom and tapering upward. In those large fields in Norfolk these kind of fences are tlie best for sheep. As to the Glee Hills, he was not much acquainted with them, and his remarks were more adapted to those parts of the country in their own neighbourhood. Mr. Evan Davies said he thought good sheds may be run up at a moderate expense to protect sheep, &c., in high latitudes and in other places, which would be far more serviceable than high and large fences. Some further desultory conversation took place, when the proceedings terminated. THE VALUE OF OILCAKES. Dr. Voelcker makes the following remarks on the condition in which various cakes are offered in the market : — We often forget that animals have appetites as we have, and that they like food in a good condition better than food in a bad one. The composition of two samples of the same food may not vary much, yet the practical effect produced by them may vary exceedingly. Animals never do well on very "bid cakes. In examining, therefore, the different cakes, we ought to examine particularly their condition. I f^llnde especially to the examination of cotton-cake ; the colour affords an excel- lent criterion as to its freshness. The freshest cotton-cake is as yellow as mustard. As it gets old it gets brown ; but the interior is bright yellow — very different from the part that has been exposed to the air. The deeper the brown colour has penetrated, the older the cake, and the more it has suffered by bad keeping. If it is kept in a damp place its colour and con- dition are rapidly deteriorated. The best rape-cake is green German rape. I believe it is as good as linseed-cake for store pattle. The difference in their composition is very trifling. The proportion of oil is nearly the same. Some foreign cake, especially Indian cake, is often made of seed which is fuU of mustard. Several cases of poisoning have occurred from its use. It is a safeguard against mustard-seed in cake to steam it before use. Of the specimens whicli passed through the hands of Dr. Voelcker in 1860 he reported — At last three-quarters of all the linseed cakes examined by me during the past season were either grossly adulterated, or were cakes of quite inferior quality. The practice of recrush- ing oilcakes and mixing the powder with a certain amount of bran before replacing it into the presses appears to be gaining ground. Good decorticated cotton cake has become mucli dearer, and is bought up as soon as it arrives in this country, and is cousequently rather difficult to obtain of first-rate quality. One of the most useful oilcakes is green German rape cake. Several excellent samples were sent for analysis, and also some samples of common and of Indian rape cake. The examination of these cakes has strengthened ray conviction that whilst THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. 377 green German rape cake may be used with perfect safety, it is dangerous to give to cattle otlier kinds of rape cake, inasmuch as they freriuently contain mustard in injurious proportions. Recently attention has been directed to the probable impor- tation of Egyptian dates in years of plenty. Of the same kind is the locust or Carob pod, an importation from the Mediter- ranean, containing a good deal of sweetening matter, and use- ful as a fattening food. The advantage and the profit of these additions to the ordi- nary green food, straw and hay, of the farmer depend a good deal, first, on the quality of the home-grown food; and next, on tlie quality of the cattle bred or purchased to consume it. The turnip crop of some districts is a great deal more nutritious than it is as grown elsewhere. The experience of Scottish feeders and turnip-growers is thus never realised in England, Mr. M'Combie, of Tillyfour, in Aberdeenshire, says i — I fat from 300 to 400 beasts annually ; my average price for them in London this season has been £35 a-head ; I never exceed 41b. oilcake and 21b. bruised oats a beast per day; they have what turnips they can consume, and oat straw ad libitum. £12 per acre is my average profit in feeding on Aber- deen yellow and Swedish turnips. I sometimes realise less, often more. This cannot be paralleled in the south, where we often hear that feeding cattle are a necessary evil — necessary for the manure made during the feeding process, but an evil for the loss consequent upon it. Even on the most nutritions of home-grown food, however, and perhaps tiien more especially, it is profitable in the case of well-bred cattle to add from 41b. to 8 lb. of meal and cake to the daily ration of pulped roots and chaff. But on the quality of the cattle to which this food is given more than any other thing depends the profitableness of the process. The North British Agriedtnrist says : — A correspondent on this subject once called our attention to his mode of cattle feeding. He had a lot of small cattle (some of them sold fat at 42 stones each) fed on half a cwt. of pulped t turnips and 2 lb. of rape-cake, and 201b. of cut wheat straw daily. " They are always full, and seldom on their feet, except at feeding time." The account he gave indicated that they were doiug very well ; and he asked — " Do you think the cattle could assijftilate a greater portion of nourishment ? I have no wish to have ray food pass through them unappropriated by the system." Now this was a question whicli we were unable to answer, for the reason just referred to. The elements of the case were not before us. It was not sufficient to say that the food in question contains daily \\ lb. of nitrogen, 11 lb. of starcli, and fibs, of fat — that the proportion of the nitrogenous to the non- nitrogenous elements is as one to eight — nor even, taking the more practical aspect of the question, that the daily cost of the food is about 5d., while the animals which in January were in " a very lean state" were expected to be " fat by the end of May." The fitness of food depends, not on the general con- sideration of animal nutrition, but on the character of the ani- mals in question; and of that we had no sufficient account. WeU-bretl shorthorn cattle would make the full use of a much richer diet than the one here specified, while ill-bred mongrel starvelings would waste it. We had then before us an instance illustrative of this — a flock of mountain sheep from Lancashire had been intro- duced into one of the southern counties, where, on pastures richer than where they had been bred — on Swedish turnips, too, given to them there — it was expected that their progress would be proportionably faster. This, however, had not been the case. When fed on richer food they became liable to disease, and even vi'hen the quality of the feeding was reduced so as to suit their health, the rate of improvement was not so much the quicker as to pay for the greater cost of food beyond what they would have had in Lancashire. The grass and swedes and hay that they had would have made more mutton on the body of a Down or Leicester sheep, and have yielded a larger money return. The same holds true in other breeds and animals. The feed- ing whicli we hear of, as given to well-bred shorthorn steers in the feeding yards of Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, and Norfolk, may be profitable there, and wasteful under other circumstances. Shelter, warmth, and quiet are profitable everywhere, and nu- tritive food of course must make more mutton, beef, or pork than what is innutritions ; but here, as in every other branch of agriculture, general rules must be accommodated to circumstances. The degree of every particular style of treat- ment must be accommodated to the individual character of the animal and the general character of the breed to which it be- longs. The most profitable management of a well-bred animal involves outlay of shelter, food, and attendance that would be thro\\Ti away upon a Kyloe. QtJESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AT FARMERS' CLUBS. At the first meeting of the Barnstaple Farmers' Club, the President the Rev. Mr. Breketon, who delivered the opening address of the session, said : I do think that this Club possesses now in a remarkable degree the two great evidences of success : the one, the satisfaction of its old members ; the other, the readiness of other gentlemen not only to regard us with favour but to become members. We owe this state of things partly to our performances, though much also to our promises. With regard to our performances I do think that during the last year we have been able to obtain for the profession and occupation of farming in this neighbourhood such a pubhc recognition as it thoroughly deserves. When the farmers of this neighbour- hood formed themselves into a Club the importance of the step taken w;is recognized not only by all thoughtful men in the neighbourhood but by very distinguished men indeed ; yet I must acknowledge that our performances have not quite equalled our promises, and on one point I hope that during the coming year we shall be able to carry out more effectively an important part of our programme than during the past year — I mean our monthly meetings for discussion. I very much hope that the members wUl think it a matter of importance by their punctual attendance to encourage these meetings. We propose that they should be held on the last Eriday of every month at the hour of half-past three. Last year we drew up beforehand a programme of a series of subjects for discussion, but we think, after the experience we have had, and taking into consideration the many interruptions that may occur, it would be desirable merely to select from month to month the subject to be so discussed. I have had the opportunity of talking with some gentlemen of influence in the neighbourhood, who have expressed a desire and readiness to assist by coming to give lectures or to take part in discussions which may arise on subjects that seem of importance to the Club. Lord Eortescue wOl be glad at any time to come and help us in any way, and also Sir Stafford Northcote. I may mention also that Mr. Nicholas Whitley has kindly promised to give us a lecture. Of course, to a certain degree, we must consult the conve- nience of those gentlemen ; but I think we may, during the coming winter, have the advantage of listening to some gentle- men whom the agriculturists of this neighbourhood, and even in a wider circle, would be proud to listen to. Without, there- fore, on the present occasion selecting a definite programme, but leaving it to the committee, according to circumstances, to choose the subject for future discussions, I would still venture to remind you that all the subjects, numerous as they are, that are of interest to the farmer can really be classed under five simple heads. First of aU must be what concerns the land the fanner cultivates, including witli the land questions of soil and climate, which must be primary questions, since they more than any other determine the practical bias of a farmer's business. The next great class of subjects to be considered by agriculturists will be with reference to the plants the farmer shall grow on the lamd he occupies ; and it is necessary that he should have a know- ledge generally of plants, so as to form a selection, and, having formed a selection, that he should obtain an accurate know- ledge of the nature of the special plants which he chooses to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. grow. And I may mention hsre that it is not only questions of soil and climate that will decide that selection of plants, but, more, perhaps, than anything else, a question of market. I liave read, in an old account of Devonshire, that about the middle of the last century a great deal of the land in this neighbourhood, particularly that around Combmartin, was entirely devoted to the culture of hemp and flax. I think there is very little flax grown in North Devon at the present time, and the principal reason is the great difficulty in finding a market for the fibre. One of the gravest questions which we touched upon last year was as to whether it is better to grow corn or to grow grass, and of course, to a certain degree, it depends on the soil and climate, but prmcipally on the market. The point to decide is whether, even if you are very favourably situated for growing corn, the price you can obtain for it is a remunerative one. But the third great-class of subjects will have reference, not to plants, but to the animals which the farmer selects for the land he cultivates ; and here there is greater facility, perhaps, for change, because it is more easy to turn from keeping one class of animals to another — to change one peculiar kind of sheep or bullock to another than to change the course of cropping. But this facility of change, from the readiness with which the animals may be removed, is in itself a temptation which the farmer ought to avoid ; tliat is, he ought beforehand to be so well acquainted with the characteristics of the difl'ereut kinds of animals that if, owing to a change of market, a substitution is rendered desirable, he does not make it hastily or experi- mentally, but knowing the nature and qualities of the animal he is about to substitute for that previously reared. Here are three great classes of subjects, then, which farmers' clubs ought to consider — the land, the crops, and the animals. But besides these, there is another very large sphere for the far- mer's thoughts and consideration — the men with whom he deals ; and I think the subjects connected with this division ought to come under our consideration as a club. These are principally three. The farmer deals first with the owner of the land ; in the next place he buys of, and sells to, a very large number of different tradesmen and others ; and in the third place he hires labour. I have only to allude to these departments of a farmer's business to remind you how import- ant it is that the relations of landlord and tenant, of purchaser and dealer, of master and servant should be thoughtfully and carefully weighed by a body of men who in their daily life are constantly obliged to act upon considerations which may not only to themselves but to the whole neighbourhood prove to be of vital consequence. I have only just now, on turning over one of the papers lying on this table, seen my own name alluded to in an article in which the writer expresses a regret that when I was in the neighbourhood of Tiverton and an allusion was made to the question on which a controversy has sprung up between Canon Girdlestone and the farmers of that district, I had not thought it my duty as President of this Club to take a part in the discussion. In my opinion the relation between the em- ployer and employed is such a serious one that no one ought ofi'hand to hazard an opinion about it. However, as Presi- dent of this Club I should like to introduce this as one of the special subjects of discussion — " The relation between the em- ployer and the employed." I should not enter upon it more as the farmer's friend than as the labourer's friend ; for I have long persuaded myself that the truest friend of the labourer is he who begets in him an increased interest in his employer and his real work. Well, gentlemen, I might seem to have ex- hausted all the subjects a farmer or a farmers' club is interested in ; but I must remind that there is one more, viz., the farmer himself — the man who, at the penalty of loss and perhaps ruin, is obliged to deal with land, with plants, with animals, and with his fellow-men. How is he to mahitain the position he holds? how is he to improve that situation and improve himi self? Surely there is another great range of subjects that may in course of time occupy us as members of a farmers' cub - and the allusion Mr. Guppy made to a school in this neigh- bourhood which I have been interested in establishing must be my excuse for venturing to say to those gentlemen present that the education of themselves — of that class to which they ought to feel proud to belong — is a subject which is well deserving their serious attention. I liave made these few remarks, gen- tlemen, to you on the present occasion only as indicating'the Itind of subjects to wliich I think we may through the coming year — and I hope for many years to come — bring carefully and thoughtfully, and with the kindest disposition, the in- fluence of this very important Club to bear. If I should not be anticipating some better proposal, I would undertake at the first meeting for discussionto introduce the subject to which I have referred — the employer and the employed. I thank you very much for once again electing me as your Prerident. I can only say — and I say it most sincerely — that a s soon as ever the members of this Club think it more for its interest to ask some gentleman, of whom there are so many qualified in this neighbourhood, to take the presidency, I shall not feel re- lieved of any of the interest I take in the Club, but shi U feel rather proud that the office I now hold is one that some worthy successor wiU be proud to occupy. THE LABOURER AND HIS PROSPECTS. At the dinner of the Dunmow Agricultural Society, on Oct. 2ud, the President, Mr. H. J. Selwin, M.P., said : No one would deny the utility of meetings of this sort. ' If for no other consideration, he thought they were desirable as bring- ing neighbours together, and giving themselves, as it were, rallying-points at which to meet those who lived around them. But, above all things, they were desirable because at them the labourer was brought into friendly relation with his employer, and got to realize and appreciate the efforts made to improve his condition, and the good feeling that dic- tates the attempt; while at the same time the employer was made to know, if he never knew before, that the man by the sweat of whose brow he lived was something better than a mere machine — something to be cared for and looked after, and urged on in his career in the world ; and thus each helped the other to carry out the great work of life. But, beyond this, he attributed great good to the fact that in this way they W'Cre taught the lesson that they were not sent here merely to study their own interests and their own advancement ; and there was also another point in wiiich these meetings exer- cised a beneficial influence over the neighbourhoods in which they were held. At them ditferent subjects, such as the im- provement of the dwellings of the labouring classes, the scarcity of labour, and hovv that scarcity may best be met by the introduction of the newest inventions in machinery, and other similar matters, were discussed and considered. In this way opinions were ventilated and experiments suggested ; and when these experiments were put into practice, and success followed them, the whole neighbourhood was benefited ; and thus these societies had silently, but slowly, done their work, and helped forward the cause of science and agricultural im- provement. But they must remember that in these days, when our population was rapidly increasing, and when the demand for food to meet the supply for the people was growing larger every day, it behoved them to look for the best possible means to supply the deficiency which had arisen, and would arise, in the labouring market. As our manufacturing towns and our railways drew away our labour, farmers and agriculturists would have to look for machines to supply the deficiency ; and he could not help thinking the want would be supphed, be- cause as they got machinery they would get a better, because a more instructed, class of labour with it, and woidd get their work better done, and therefore more of it done. But if they got a better class of labour, they must remember this — that the labourer must occupy a better position. If they made him more useful, and gave him greater skill and greater in- struction in his work, they must remember they had raised him in the social scale, and given him greater cultivation and greater wants ; and, as one result, they ought to see a better class of habitation, as he was glad to see was already the case in many instances, springing up throughout the country, the landlords being brought to regard the labourers' cottages as being, after all, not an investment, but an adjunct to the cul- tivation of the soil ; and in this way he hoped to see the day when, the comforts of home growing up around him, the la- bourer would make his cottage his home, instead of the beer- house, so that the vice of drunkenness, leading as it now did to many crimes, might, to a certain extent at any rate, disap- pear from among us, and the labourer be not only improved in skiU, but an improved man himself. If this should take place, and if it were brought about by any agency in connec- tion with these societies, he thought they might say, on con- sideration, that they h;\d doue their duty, THE FABMEB'S MAGAZINE. 379 TEXTLESS NOTES. BY A C'liOTCHETY TARMEK. My readers having now been fairly accustomed to the very crotchety nature of my notions and my mode of treatment of them will probably not be surprised to learn that the subject of my present note may be entitled " A Sermon without a Text." Nor is such a sermon, I take it, by any means out of place in the pages of this Journal, which has always been distinguished not merely for its able expositions of agricultural and practical science, but for its plain statements, and, as I may say without any fear of being charged (if, indeed, I fear such a charge) of being crotchety, its manly utterances of what may be called "agricultural moralities;" nay more, by its distinguished and — I am proud to say in these days of scientific free- thinking — noble expression of its belief that there is something in all our experience which is daily leading us in all humility to the feet of Him who rules all things wisely and well, to own His power and our helplessness, and that there is something to be thought of besides mere money-grubbing; and that, further, the relationship be- tween master and man carries with it something more noble and aspiring, something more connected with our higher interest than those connected with the motive of how much we may make out of each other, and how, to speak frankly, we may do best for ourselves and second- best (if best at all) to our neighbours. Considerations such as these, I say, convince me that my sermon without a text will not be, as I make bold to say it is not, out of place in a page of the present Journal ; all the more that its subject is supplementary, or may be con- sidered so, to some remarks on the relation- ship existing, or which should exist, between the master and his servant, which some months ago I had the privilege to present to its readers. Nor will they now, on due reflection, consider that the subject of my sermon is foreign to this relationship, for right well assured am I that their experience has been, if it is not now, like mine, that much of the misery shall I call it ? — certainly much of the annoyance of actual every-day working life arises from an indulgence of the habit against which I am about io preach. For it is, I conceive, of wretchedly small avail to ignore the fact that the high tone of morality which we all profess to love and revere has an influence of a most potent kind upon the working relationship between man and man. We may ignore it, nay, we may persistently deny its existence or its worth, but its influence will croj) out in a way so marked and decided, that we shall be compelled to own that we feel it. Without further pre- face, then, I proceed to my sermon : In the whole range of suggestive and most touching incidents recorded in the life of our Lord, there is none so suggestive, few so touching as that which we find narrated of the woman taken in adultery. While it rebukes so readily my eagerness to condemn a person in a fault, and brings home so pungently the consciousness of how prone I am to commit a fault myself, while it cuts so keenly at the bitter root of pride and self-esteem, it teaches me also a lesson which is perhaps not often derived from it. For I read that as the accusers pressed fiercely forward, each eager to tell his tale, and by implication convey that in his denunciation of the sinner he at least was free from the sin, Jesus sat on the ground, and made as if he wrote thereon. It seems to me, in thinking over this apparent indifference of our Sa\'iour to what was going on around him, that by it he meant to say — " True as this evil story, or story of evil may be, I will not listen to it. Come to me with tales of good, or stories of human woes or human wants, I will hear you out ; but tale-bearing and slander I cannot away with." It is indeed very striking, this de- termined indifference of our blessed Lord about the /leetriiiff of evil, as is the reproof which this indifference conveyed to those who displayed so much eageniess to tell of it. And it conveys this lesson— at all events, it does so to myself — not to be a listener, even to evil stories. I have often felt how rapidly evil-speaking — alike in its plainer and blunter utterances, as in the cowardly suggestions of its quieter insinuations — would be checked if the individual to whom they were being conveyed refused to listen to them. There must, in the very nature of things, be two parties to complete the record of evil-speaking — the nar- rator and the listener. Nothing, indeed, delights an evil scandal-monger so much as a good listener. In this case, is not the receiver as bad as the thief? I clearly think he is. If the congregation could not be got together, would the sermon be preached? Like actors, gossipers and busy-bodies have no notion of speaking to empty benches : they like to see them tilled with rows of eager faces and listening ears. It would be a fine thing if we were all as glad to tell of the good in others as of their evil. I remember well on one occasion, when a large party of men and women — if, indeed, they were deserving of the nobility of the name — were amusing themselves by tearing to tatters the character of an absent /nVwf/. One who did not join in this pleasing pastime after a time took advantage of a lull in the storm of scandal which swept round the room to say, in a quiet way, " Come, we have heard much against our friend : if for no other rea- son, at least for the sake of novelty, let us see if we can say anything/b;' him. He cannot surely be altogether one of the wicked." The rebuke, all the more racy from the gentleness with which it was delivered, went home like a dagger to the hearts of all ; and in the silence which for some time reigned, sober and seemlier thoughts, I hope, were at work for a while. Some people, in the eagerness with which they are perpetually retailing scandal, seem to me to be the very scavengers of society, always raking amongst its mud and filth to find some odorous and filthy things to fliug at folk. Of these, who are perpetually strewing in society the seeds of scandal, and who seem to wait eagerly for the coming crop of discord, it may be said that their ])atli may be tracked, like that of the snail, by the slime which it leaves behind it. I, for one, confess to being at least ambitious to belong to a nobler class : hence, while trying, with God's blessing — without it, the trial will be a failure— to speak no evil of anyone, I would give equal importance to the duty of not hearing any. It does not follow — as some think it does — that because the evil which may be said of anyone is true that there- fore it may be spoken about. What is the lesson which the incident I have named in the beginning of this paper teaches us ? He who knows all things knew well enough that the story told of the poor trembling sinner brought before him i.vas true ; but not the less decided was his determination not to hear it — anything but that. It would be well if we all tried in all things — well for yon the reader, well for me the writer who now addresses you — to follow in the footsteps of Him whose every ac- D D 380 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. tion was prompted by love to fallen men or degraded women. I pray the reader to note here that I speak of om- trying ; little more, alas ! in too many eases than this, is left us, for the complete suceess of that is not given to hiunanity ; but trying, nevertheless, is a grand thing. If we try to keep ourselves pnre, we shall be the less fre- quently defiled ; if we kee]) the goal constantly before us and try to reach it, we shall make some progress ; while if we think nothing of it, linger and loiter asleep by the way, we know what the result must be. While remem- bering then the way in which individual peace and family happiness are ruthlessly destroyed, tlu'ough speaking of evil, let us not forget how much its ills are intensified through listening to it. It is difficult to touch pitch and not be defiled : no less so is it to hear evil without being touched by it. Evil communications corrupt good man- ners. We are told to do good and to communicate it. Some live such a wretchedly inverted life, that they wait only to know of evil and communicate ihut. What stinging satii'e should there be to such in the saying that evil news find quick messengers ! Who would not, if the Eastern belief of transmigration of souls was true, rather be the dove with its message of life and peace, than the vulture with its tidings of death and cai-nage ? " Speech" says, in his quaint way, and if our quaint- est, by the way he is sometimes one of our obscurest writers — "Speech is silvern, silence is golden;" and if my tongue then must wag, as wag it often will, let it wag only with words of good speaking of my neighbours. Possibly in view of this desideratum to be arrived at, we might with safety invert the above doctrine, and say that when we can speak good of our neighbours, that speech is golden— silence silvern. At all events, if I cannot discipline myself to speak only of the good of ray neigh- bour, I must discipline myself to keep silence, and, more- over, not be a listener to the evil speaking of another — to turn a deaf ear to the charmer, charm he never so wisely. "WORDS ABOUT WASTE." The subject of my note on this occasion is one specially addressed to or bearing upon the condition of the farm labourer. Its title may be put as vjordsuponvxisfe ; and if I used texts, the text might be " that nothing be lost." The remarks which I am privileged now to make have a direct utility at all times, but they have a special one at the jiresent time ; when without in any way being desirous to take the part of a prophet of evil, I may say that there is a probability of the necessaries of life, if not all, certainly some of them, being unusually high priced. It may be accepted as an axiom that the more carefully we use a thing, the more valuable does it become to us ; and also that carefulness does not include in auy way the notion of stinginess. If then, these words of mine about to follow reach the notice, as I am vain enongli to believe that they will, in some way, direct or indirect, as the case may be, of those who " live to labour and labour to live," I trust that they will do themselves, if they do not do me, the favour to believe that they possess some value : the words I use may be strong, the spirit in which they are written is gentle ; the medicine they convey may be bitter, the end it is designed to serve sweet. In the economy of nature — and it is a school in which many rare things may be learnt — while everything sur- rounding us tells of change, there is no such thing as waste. AVe may talk certainly of consumption, as if that were equivalent to annihilation ; there is no such thing however as the latter : there is simply a change of con- dition. Philosophy tells, and tells us truly, that if we cousuwe a lump of coal in oiu- grates, of distil a piece gf wood in a retort, and if we are at pains to collect the gases which residt fi'om the processes, that these gases will exactly, neither more nor less, not even by the difter- ence of the thousandth part of a grain, weigh the same as the material originally subjected to them. There is no waste — merely a change of form or condition. So then it may be truly, as it has been supposed by some to have been merely poetically said, that we are literally formed of materials which, in ages gone by, peopled our earth ; and that the contrary is equally true — that the material of which we are composed will in like manner go in future times to make up the forms of other beings, or of objects of utility and beauty. And it is a fine thing to think of the adaptability to our every-day wants, in this absence of waste, this change merely of the form or condition of matter ; for the waste of to-day, as in our ignorance we choose to call it, yields substances which minister to the needs of to-morrow. The refuse of the streets of our towns adds to the fertility of the soil of the country dis- tricts ; the smoke which dims the sun-light in the city lends in the country a fresher green to the waving grass, a richer loveliness to the flowers of the field. There is in nature, therefore, nothing lost ; and the lesson which this grand truth teaches us should not be overlooked, and to it I propose to dkect somewhat close attention in the re- maining paragraphs of this note. Although nukuovvn to the classes whom he now desires and hopes that he does specially address, the writer may say this much for himself in support of his right to ad- dress them — that he has spent much of his time in advo- cating their interest and in supporting what he conceived to be their just pleas to the care and attention of their employers and those placed in happier, because freer, circumstances of worldly condition. He therefore be- lieves that the having said and written much for them, gives him a claim to say a little to them. That little at the outset he most frankly states is much more in the way of blame than of praise ; he leaves to others the task, or pleasm-e as it may be, to sound the praises of what are called the " working classes ;" to ignore their faults and to make the most — shall we say the very most? — of their virtues. As for himself, he has no new intention, as he never has had any desire, to mince matters, to use fine words, to deck out and decorate foul things. What I have therefore to say I say plainly, yet I hope with all kindly consideration ; Ibr I should be doing my reader, as I would be doing myself, a wrong, if I forgot this consideration of the feelings of those who live to work and work to live. To the " true men " amongst those I address — meaning by this designation those who in the time of prosperity look forward with calmness, even although with dread, to those of adversitv, because they have done what they could to mitigate its miseries — it is needless to say that, as I deal censure, that censure does not apply to them. Those to whom I hand the " cap " or the " saddle " will well and easily know whether it fits or is likely to fit the head, or to sit well upon the back. To labour, then, is the a])pointed lot of all of us ; we are all, in a sense, working men ; and nothing is more honourable than honest work, although the dazed dandy or the mincing miss affect to despise it. To serve the right purpose of labour, however, it is right, nay, it is absolutely essential, that the work it affects should not only be well done as work, but that what proceeds — may be obtained for it— may be rightly or well used. It is not enougli, my friend, that you point out to me that you work hard, to show me how industriously you make its gains : your duty is not complete in the matter till you show me that you use them rightly. It is not — would that the truth were known in lordly mansion as weU as in lowly hut !— it is not the amount of the gaias whicl\ THE FARMEB'S MAGAZINE. S8l secures competency and comfort, but the amount of that which is used judiciously. What is gained with painful labour may be squandered sillily — not merely in the reck- lessness of riot, but in the carelessness of little things in the house. It is indeed the great characteristic of the prudent man, aud that which distinguishes him from the man of opposite tendencies, that he is more careful in small things than in great ones, as if he knew — aud he does know — that not only are small things apt to be overlooked because they are small, but because he knows that if the little things are attended to, the great ones are sure to be. He rarely forgets the proverb, aud the vast fund of truth which it conveys, " Talce care of the pennies, and the pounds will take care of themselves." In any establishment, no inatter what, that servant in it is marked by the master for promotion in the mauage- nrent of great who has been noticed as careful in that of small things. Now you must bear with me when I say that in my e.xperience of your ways — and it has not beeu in any way limited — you working or labouring men are 'not distinguished by this carefulness over or about small things ; indeed, on the contrary, most painfully have I witnessed your indifference about little things in house- hold aud domestic economy. It seems to mc as if you had a most thorough contempt for all "saving," and to be embued with the notion that this means "stinginess." My good friends, to be saving is not to be stingy ; it is not mean to be economical ; and this I maintain to be true, no matter what is said, or by whonr said, to the contrary. No one but likes to be thought to be possessed of a generous spirit — that spirit of which it is said that its belief is that it is more blessed (as indeed it is) to give than to receive; but one is apt to forget that before you can give you must get, and after getting you must save. What says the wise man of old? "There is much profit in the tillage of the poor, but there is — ah ! how much there is ! — that is destroyed from lack of judgment." It is not safe, as it is by no means dignified, thus to despise — as too many amongst you do despise — "little things." Pray consider well the power of little things in nature, and you will learn from this consideration their power in those matters which concern your daily doings in life. What makes up the river as it rolls its majestic waters, and bears on its bosom stately vessels on the sea? What but a countless multitude of little drops ? Each one of those di'ops splashed in the tiny brook at the river's source, or glittered in the blades of grass, or sparkled in the petals of the flowers which decked its banks. " 'Tis sand makes the mountain ; moments make the year." So sings the poet, and it is true ; nor should you, whose daily life is in the labours of the field, forget that the stores of our bursting barns are made up of an aggregate of single grains. Brick by brick the house is built ; and if you deem a man nothing but a silly fool who would ex- pect his house to rise up as if by the magic of the con- juror's wand, is he less silly if he expects to be rich in big things if he neglects to save the little ones ? And yet this is what mauy of the labouring classes practically do, and grumble grievously if they see any one rise in the world who does mind little things, and do not hesitate to say that it is impossible that they can rise. The truth is, that every man has it in his power to make some pro- gi-ess. Of course, it does not follow that the speed of the tortoise wiU be naturally gi-eater than that of the hare; yet, as the fable teaches us, the tortoise may gain the race if the hare slmnbers vi'hile the tortoise crawls. Good times are only good in name, if out of the abun- dance or comparative abundance which they yield some- thing is not stored up for the evil ones which may come. Better far, indeed, for the moral condition at all events of man, that good times so-called did not come to him, than, if coniing, they are only used for worthless purposes. Nor do I believe, myself— and I shoidd like any working- man reader to believe this great truth also — that there is anything whatever in the circumstances of the condition of the working-classes in tliis country calculated to crash him down and keep him domi, as some demagogues tell him he is crushed down aud kept down. In such meji the truth is not. Infinitely better were it for the working- man to believe, in place of believing this falsehood, that there is no crushing like that brought about by the exer- cise of imprudence and reckless waste — no keeping down so powerful as that brought about by the indulgence of evil habits. Believe me, my friend, that the true tyranny we have all to fear is the tyranny of personal and indi' vidual evil. Of course, all this, and more than this — as more might easily be said — may be met now, as it has been met before, by the assertion that it is not in the power of the working- man out of his pittance to save anything. This we have lately been told in the high place of Parliament, and, having been told us there, it must, I suppose, be looked upon as true. I for one do not, howevei-, believe it, although told this by those who ought to know bettei-, and who, say what they may, do know better. The wages of many may be so low that nothing can be saved out of them; but the saving which is the result of careful man- agement is within the reach of all. If you cannot secure direct saving, this I do kuow — that you can prevent tvaste, I'or how does it come about that in the case of two fami- lies, both in receipt of the same income, we find in the house and about the person of one of the families all the eWdences are abundant of comfort aud happiness ; while in the other, we see the demon of discord — the signs of wretchedness and want ? A shilling is but a shilling, in your hands or in mine ; and if I can get more out of it than you can, it is clear that it must be by the way in which I use its proceeds. Is it, or is it not, true that care brings comfort, waste brings want ? I do not here say anything, although indeed I might say much, on the waste of means brought about by putting away one's in- come in repeated " gills of ale," or "little goes of gin- and-water-." I refer here, aud most specially, to the waste of materials which are used in the house. While I write, memory brings before me the painful features of many a walk " amongst the huts where poor men lie." Pieces of bread tossed carelessly out of cottage-door, and trampled under the feet of the passer-by ; great slices of potatoes thrown out into the kennels — not parings or peels, but large pieces of the potatoes themselves ; capital good warmth-giving cinders, and not only cinders, but actually lumps of uuburnt coal, thrown out into ash-pits and upon meadows : all these, aye, and much worse than these, I have noticed in my rambles amongst the houses of working-men — shameful, or rather shameless, waste, not once, and in a way perpetrated as if by a mistake, but regularly done, and so little thought of, that where atten- tion has been drawn to the circumstances, they have beea pooh-poohed as matters of no moment ; and the opposite course of careful saving stigmatised and sneered at as mean, stingy, and narrow. I have heard, or read some- where, of a party of gentlemen who were collecting for a charitable purpose, and who, about to knock at a door where they contemplated a call, were " given pause " iu being made the unwilling listeners to a scolding which the master of the house was giving to a maid for the " waste," as he called it, of a single match. " No use to call here," was the apparently wise commentary of one of the party ; " no use to call hei'e for money, if a match is grudged." "No matter," said another; "as we are here, at all events let us go in." And in they went ; and on being ushered into the presence of the proprietor of the house, they explained the purposes of their visit. Their tale was but barely told before a sum munificently D D 2 332 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. large was placed deli.KlitecIly at their service. Astounded beyoud measure at the contnist between the magnificence of'the gift and the apparent stinginess of sentiment of which, unwillingly, they had been made to be the auditors, they could not resist recounting the circumstances to their generous host. His reply was as ready as it was striking and suggestive : " Ah ! if I encouraged waste, I would soon know what it would be to want ! lu my care of little things lies the secret of my being able to do great ones." And this is but a paraphrase of a thousand-and- oue sayings, all of which bear upon the truth that he who is careful over little things is sure to have the care of large ones. And the lesson of carefulness comes to us from the highest of all sources. In the best of all books — which, I regret to sjiy, is by many now-a-days lightly esteemed, if, indeed, esteemed at all — there is a re- cord of a miracle which seems to my mind to be re- markable for two things. It is that of the loaves and fishes ; and the two things which render it remarkable are, lirst, the power which our Saviour displayed in pro- viding for the multitude an ample supply of food from such limited resources as " live barley-loaves and two fishes ;" and secondly, the care shown by Him as to the saving of the fragments of that mighty feast. " Gather up the fragments, that nothing be lost," was the charge He gave the wondering disciples, just as if He had said, " I have shown to you this day the power of Omnipo- tence providing great things ; but I design no less to show you the care I take of the little ones. Although I can command the wealth of a world, I am as careful of its smallest portion as if I had no resources." AVhat a lesson of suggestive wisdom does this couvey to you and me ! — a lesson so plain, so easy to be understood, that, lite- rally, "he who runs may read." If we possess un- bounded wealth, we are none the less called upon to be careful of the veriest trifles. What nobler or higher evi- dence can be given us than this gives us of the dhju'di/ of economy ? that there is no meanness in being saving ? that there is meanness in the waste which brings waut, none in the saving which brings security against it? It is curious how different are the views which poor people take of saving, according to the circumstances under which they are placed : they can save to get out of a difficulty, while they will protest most lustily that they cannot save to Iccpp out of it. " I wish," said a working man to his master—" I wish that you would lend me live pounds." " Willingly," was the reply — " willingly ; but what do yon wish it for, and how do you propose to repay me?" " I want it to get rid of an execution for debt ; and I w ill repay you by instalments of so much a week, to be kept by you out of my wages." "Tom," said the master — " Tom, does it not strike you that, if you can manage to do this now, and for some tinae, you could certainly do it always? If you can save at a pinch, could you not save without one ?" The honest man had never, probably, taken this view of the matter, thoroughly reasonable as it was and is. It is astonishing how logical some are, in treating of their neighbours' aftaii-s, and how unreasoning when they try to treat their own. I have known a man prove to me most cogently his neighbour Jack Brown could easily save, and ought to do so for the sake of his wife and children, so much out of his wages, while the joke was — if joke such a story could be — that he himself had actually more wages than Brown, and never saved anything. Sundry glasses of ale are drunk and divers screws of tobacco are smoked, without a single thought of the sums which could be laid aside for a rainy day, if mere luxuries were dispensed with. Not that I would really advocate the deprival of the beer of the poor man, nor, for the matter of that, his pipe either; for, if we have our luxuries, why should our poorer neigh- bours not have theirs ? but I certainly do insist that, while the poor man has these luxuries, he should use them moderately. The great mistake which lies at the root of the "want" of the labouring man is just this — that he will not believe that in the expenditure of trifles lies the waste which brings the want. You will hear him again and again saying that it is of no use to save this twopence and that penny — that that can do no good. If he could only be got to believe that it is not in the amount of his makings, but in that of his savings, that his real wealth lies, some striking good would result from it. A working man who saves a pound a year is in reality a richer man than he with ten thousand a year who saves none. Let the working man begin to save a penny a week, he will be urged — I know he will — to try to save twopence the next week. True, it may be ad- vanced, in answer to all that we have said, that a man has a right to do as he likes with his own. Not so fast, my friend. Try to see how such a principle wiU act to- wards you in the time of distress, when you expect your richer neighbour to help you. I maintain it as incon- trovertible, that no man has a right to consider himself, where society has a claim upon him ; and if the poor man will dispute this claim, will do what he likes with his earnings in good times, crotcheLy as the notion may appear, I nevertheless maintain that in times of distress he has no claim upon others. If he has a right to spend foolishly, he has no right to claim help when the distress comes which is the inevitable result of such folly. He who knowingly flings himself into the sea need not com- plain if the life-buoy is not thrown out to him. Why should he who sets his house on fire complain if the fire- engines do not come and put it out? Much as I have said on this point of waste and its connection with want, I could say much more. The im- portance of the subject cannot, indeed, be over-estimated, nor is it a diflicult thing to prove that a large amount of the want of the poor arises from their waste. HINTS ON DAIRY FARMING. Dairy husbandry has long been a most important branch of the rural economy ot the United Kingdom. Milk and its diUereut products ot butter and cheese enter more or less into the daily bill of fare of all classes of tlie community. Milk is a true food, that is, it contains a combination of all the various materials necessary to supply the daily waste of the bone and muscle of the body, and is, therefore, uot only capa- l)le of maintaining life, but also increasing the frame, so that iihoulu a rigorous economy of food ever l)ecome necessary, all classes might betake tliemselves to a milk diet to maintain life. ^ rapidly increasing population, tlie IurIi prices of butcher's meat, the destruction of stock in some of the principal dairy counties through tlie late severe visitation of tliat most fatal disease the rinderpest, has tended to increase the value of all kinds of dairy produce. The price of all niarketaljle commo- dities is regulated by supply and demand : iu this particular branch the demand has been steadily increasing, whilst the sup- ply has been gradually diminishing : thus botli are tending to enhance the price to the consumer. Within the last twenty years rapid strides have been made iu the cultivation of tlie soil, new and improved implements have been introduced, a better rotation of cropping has been substituted : tboroui;)) THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 383 drainage, tlie use of artificial manures and feeding stuiTs have in many instances nearly doubled tlie produce. Tlie feeding of stock has during the same period likewise become better understood, and is now much more successfully and extensively practised, whilst we think the dairy has barely maintained its place in the race of progress and improvement. The great amount of labour entailed on the female members of the far- mer's liousehold in the management of a large dairy, wliether the mUk is converted into butter or cheese, has caused many farmers to cliange their system of management, even in locali- ties wliere dairying could not fail, if properly managed, to pro- duce the most profitable results. i5ut unless tlie dairy can either be let (as is practised in some dairy counties) to a man who pays the farmer so much per head for the use of his cows, or the farmer's wife or daugliters can take an active part in the management, or at least superintend the operations, if left entirely in the hands of servants, who take no interest be- yond that of the moment, it will seldom prove remunerative. Some idea may be formed of the magnitude of the demand and inability of this country to meet it under tlie present cir- cumstances, when we consider that for butter alone imported into the United Kingdom during 1865 we paid the foreigner the handsome sum of £5,945,884', which shows ample room for improving as far as practicable our present manaugement, and likewise of extending our dairy establishments wherever the soil and other circumstances will permit. In considering tliis subject we purpose to begin with the calf as soon as it is dropped, and trace it through its various stages until the cow finally arrives at tlie shambles of the butclier. Practical men differ in opinion as to the liest and most economical method of weaning calves ; it is generally admitted that tlie young animal thrives best wlieu allowed to suck the cow at pleasure. As this practice cannot be defended on the principle of economy, we may dismiss it without far- ther comment. AVith the generality of rent-paying farmers, where every pint of milk is a consideration, tliose who can wean their calves with the least quantity are considered tlie most successful. After the first week there is no difficulty in weaning calves without giving them any milk at all, as they may be kept entirely on gruel made of good linseed cake, linseed-meal, or oatmeal, or a mixture of each. Where chcese-makiug is practised, the whey may be used in making the gruel w ith good effect ; if whey is not procurable, nice sweet hay-tea may be substituted. Sweet food of a proper temperature, which should never exceed that of the body, and given at regular intervals, with plenty of pure air aud light, and kept scrupu- lously clean, are the great secrets of calf-rearing. The calf during its early Ufe is amongst the most tender of our domes- ticated animals ; yet how often do we sec them treated with the utmost carelessness and neglect ! their food is often sour, or given eitlier too cold or too hot ; they are confined in crowded, dark, and ill-ventilated pens, where the manure is sulfercd to accumulate and ferment, and from whence emanate the most noisome smells and poisonous gases. Where this is the case need we wonder at the young animals becoming suddenly attacked and quickly succumbLng to diarrlicca and other intes- tinal diseases of a kindred nature ? The calf-house should be furnisbed with a small manger to contain their food ; from a month to six weeks old they will begin to eat if proper food is placed before them in small quantities — some nice sweet meadow hay cut into fine chaff mixed with meal of some ki!id, or a mixture of meal and finely ground linseed-cake : the mix- ture should be slightly damped with water in order to cause the meal the better to adhere to the chaff. For young calves we have found nothing equal to finely ground wheat with one- third part of linseed-meal, or well pulverized linseed-cake; we prefer the latter, as it is not so liable to relax the bowels, and is easier of digestion from its containing a less quantity of oil. During the summer, when the calf has attained a month old, we prefer letting them have the run of a small grass-field near the homestead : the pure air aud exercise they get in this way are highly conducive to health. They should be regularly housed at night, and duriug wet weather ; for except when allowed to suck the dam, any undue exposure to wet or cold is very liable at this early age to bring on an attack of disease, even when fairly weaned. The most profitable system fur the farmer to pursue is, to give his calves the shelter of a yard or shed every night until they are at least nine or ten months old; to keep them in a state of progression, they slioidd still receive a daily allowance of from ~lbs. to 31bs, of meal or of good lin- seed-cake ; good keeping wards off many diseases. During the winter months all the yearlings should be housed or kept in clean well-littered yards, at least for the night ; where the grass land is dry and sound they may lie allowed to run out in the daytime, in fine weather. On dairy farms, as a rule, only cow calves are reared, to keep up the regular stock of milkers. On every farm there is acertain numberof cows which from some cause or other require drafting off yearly : these are replaced by home-bred heifers. Of course, the number of calves reared for this purpose will depend on the number of the herd. When they have arrived at a year old, the farmer can form a pretty good idea of which will best suit his purpose ; such as are the most promising should be selected for keeping, and all the others sold or disposed of: unless this is done the farm will soon become over-stocked. We will suppose the_ calves are dropped from the beginning of jMurch to tlie 1st of May : tlie young heifers should not be put to the bull until they are at least 26 or 27 months old ; they will thus calve at a time when the weather is favourable and a prospect of abundance of keep. Some farmers put their heifers to the bull at from 14 to 15 months old. On dairy farms this is unprofitable management, as it not only produces a puny stunted animal, but as far as the produce of the dairy is concerned will require two such to be equal to an ordinary cow. With high-bred stock, where milk is a secondary consideration, it is considered good management to put the heifer early to the bull ; here it is less injurious. As soon as they calve, the heifer can be put dry with extra keeiiing : the animal suffers little in growth, and by producing a calf at this early age the tendency to lay on an extra amount of fat, so unfavourable to conception, is avoided. All dairy cows, but more particularly the in-calf heifers, should be well sheltered and cared for during the winter. There should he sufficient shed-room to hold all the cows kept on the farm. These should be kept clean and well-ventilated: sanitary improvements are necessary, even amongst the lower animals. It may be said the farm-buildings arc a landlord's question. This we fully admit; but the landlords, as a class, are becoming too much alive to their own interests and the interests of their tenants — for they are identical — long to permit the want of suitable buildings to retard agricultural improvement. Sufhcient air, exercise, and pure water are con- ducive to the health of in-calf cows. In fine weather they may daily be turned out into the pastures during the winter, with advantage ; if rain sets in, they should at once be re- moved to the shelter of the yard or cow-stall. Instead of this, how^ often do we see them standing behind some gate, with arched backs, staring coats, aud empty bellies, and possibly knee-deep in mud ! "With this management, is it fair to ex- pect an average amount of produce duriug the summer ? Ou most dairy-farms the ploughed land is very limited ; yet we often see the small quantity of wheat-straw grown, sold off the farm to the highest bidder, instead of being used as litter for the farmer's own stock, and as a means of increasing the quan- tity of manure. In few dairy countries is there sufficient attention paid to improving the breed of the cows. In many places we find a mixture of various breeds — in fact, it would be difficult to tell what the breed was. This mixture of various materials often produces an animal of inferior value, either for the dairyman or the gra/.ier. An unthrifty mongrel costs as much to keep as a well-bred cow ; yet there is not unfrequently a great difference in the value of the produce, and when they come to be fed off for the butcher, the well-bred animal still farther maintains its superiority. All practical men who are at all acquainted with the dairy countries are agreed that there is still ample room for improving the general stock of cows. This is quite within the reach of the farmer, and could be effected at a small outlay; and if properly and judiciously carried out, w ould not fail to be a source of profit to the oc- cupiers of the soil : a better class of cows for the dairy might he bred, the draft or barren cows would command an enhanced price, and would be more sought after Ijy the graziers, whilst the in-calvers would'find a ready market at high prices to sup- ply the large dairies of London and other populous towns. The first step to be taken in improving the stock is by the use of better-bred Imlls. There are plenty of well-bred young bulls, of from six to ten mouths old, which may be purchased for 10 to 2iJ guineas. This to some may appear a large sum. If once they try the experiment, we feel sure they will con- tinue, and every time they change their bull they will be anxious to secure a better-bred one. We find it is a commou 384 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. practice with dairy-farmers to allow the bull to run with the cows duriug the summer. For several reasons this practice is objectionable. First, there is the danger to persons passing tlirougli the fields where a bidl is at liberty, and with auythmg above two years old the danger is considerable, as after that age tliey cannot be trusted. Again, where the bidl is allowed to range with the cows the farmer seldom knows when any particular cow's time is up for calving ; aU that he knows, as the tune approaclies, is that the cow springs in her bay, and shows other symptoms of parturition ; but whether she should calve the beginning of the raontli or the latter end is quite a matter of conjecture to him. Cows vary so much that even the most practised are sometimes deceived, hence we often find a calf sacrificed, and often even the life of the cow is en- dangered, by calving unexpectedly. Where a valuable herd is kept things are never left to this chapter-of-accident method of proceeding. The buUs are kept up, and a correct register, with name, number, or description of eacli cow, and the date of bulling. This plan should be introduced on every farm. It entails but little extra trouble, as the cows are seen at least twice a day, that is at milking-times. Any cow that is then in season should be taken to the bidl, and after being served, should be tied up for at least the next twelve hours. Where this is neglected great injury and loss frequently ensue. Abortion is often caused by the in-calvers becoming strained in leaping cows that are in season. Keeping the buU shut up at all times entails a little labour and attention on the part of the farmer, but is amply repaid the avoidance of a greater amount of disturbance amongst his cows. Both the quantity and quality of the milk is easily depreciated if the cows are over- heated during the day, from racing, gadding, or driving them long distances to and from milking. The kind and quality of food on which they are kept produces a marked effect on both the quantity and quality of the produce. Young grass or sloppy food, boiled turnips, brewers' grains, or any food containing much water, tend to increase the quantity ; whilst for butter, bruised oats, linseed-cake, or maize are the best feeding-stuffs ; for the production of cheese, beau or pea-meal or lentUs are the most suitable food for increasing the quan- tity. So well is this understood amongst the farmers and dairy-managers in some counties, particularly where the cows are let to a bower, or person who rents them of the farmer at so much per head for the year, that a fixed quantity of bean- meal for each cow is stipulated in the agreement, the price rising or faUing with the allowance. Boiled food is better for dairy-cows than raw ; being more easily digested and easier assimilated, there is less demand on the organs of digestion. The average produce of a dairy-cow is variously estimated, and, as before stated, depends both on the animal and the sys- tem of feeding. Most dairy-farmers agree that cows after their secoud or third calf are the most profitable, both as to quantity and quality ; hence the utility of keeping a regular supply of young stock, to replace those drafted off yearly. The younger the cows are drafted, the more valuable they are for the purpose of feeding. As a general ride, stock bred on a farm are more healthy than those brought from a distance. A good milker wiU give a yield of from 500 to 550 gallons of niUk a-year. During the early part of the season one gallon of mUk will produce a pound of cheese ; when the cow be- comes again in-calf the quality of the mUk begins to deteriorate, and gradually becomes poorer as the period of gestation ad- vances ; hence, from 3^ to 4 cwt. per cow is a good average. Dairy-farming is most profitably practised where land is under a mixed system of husbandry, where roots and straw can be grown for the use of the stock. No fixed ride can be laid down for the number of cows that can be kept on a given number of acres ; the quahty of the laud and the management of the stock will always be the best guide. On ordinary land, with one-fourth part under cultivation, about twenty-five milking-cows, and a sufficient number of young stock to keep up the herd, and horses to work the laud, may be kept per himdred acres. G. MukK-VY. Ekastoii Castle y Berhy. DISINFECTION AND DISINFECTANTS. In the matter of disinfection, as in certain other applica- tions of science to useful ends, England, with the exception of Bristol, has fallen a little behind the advance of continental practice. Ten years ago, certainly, it woidd have been as difficult to find a comprehensive account in our own language of the agents for purifying our air, water, houses, and mes- suages, as it would have been to discover in the same tongue a detailed description of the needle-gun. We are at last busily engaged, we are thankful to say, in rolling away from our- selves this latter reproach ; and in this article we shall make it our business to show how we are now beginning to make up our deficiencies in a branch of the arts to which we may, perhaps with some justice, think foreigners have more need to pay attention than ourselves. A Minute of Information on Disinfection and Deodorisation was prepared for the General Board of Health by Mr. Lynd- scy Blyth in 1857. In the year 1863 Professor Hoffmann, in liis Report on the " Chemical Products and Processes," illus- trated in the International Exhibition of the preceding year, covered four closely-printed and double-columned pages — 101-108 — of that handsome octavo, with a most valuable memorandum on this subject. The Crimean War may be supposed to have called forth Mr. Blyth's memorandum ; and the American AYar evoked a similarly excellent pronuncia- niento on the same subject from a Dr. Elisha Harris, which Mas jjublishcd separately in the first instance, and may now be consulted as one in a volume of seventeen essays on militaiy medicine, edited by Dr. Hammond, lately Surgeon-General to the United States Army. It is superfluous to say that on this, as on all other matters of practical hygiene. Dr. Parkes' " Manual," which has just reached its second edition, is of the very highest authority. Within the last few weeks very considerable accessions have been made to our knowledge of the agencies in question by tlie contributions of Dr. Angus Smith and of Mr. Crookes to the "Third Keport of the Cattle Plague Commissioners." The views, and the actual and most successful carrying out of those views into practice, which England owes to Dr. Budd, and Germany to Professor Pettenkofer, may be studied so far as England is concerned in a threepenny pamphlet by Dr. Budd, and so far as Germany is concerned, in a shilling tract, " Cholera Regulativ," published at Munich. And finally, and, as we imagine, most recently of all, the Privy CouucU Oifice have put out what we may consider as an improved and abridged edition on a single sheet of Mr. Blyth's memorandum of 1857. We do not propose here and now to weigh the merits of these several memoirs one against the other. We can assure our readers that from any one of them sufficieait and reliable information, direction, and advice, may be ob- tained by any one who will consult them ; and in what fol- lows we shall cull from each and all, indifferently and without acknowledgment, whatever we may consider good and whole- some doctrine, and necessary for these times. We will begin by defining the field of operation of disin- fecting agencies ; in other words, by specifying the objects and places to which and in which disinfectants are applicable. Secondly, we will give a very short explanation of the theory of the operation of tliese agents. And, finally, we will give certain hints and advice as to the actual enjoyment of them as preventives of disease. The eartli we stand upon, the water wc drink, and the air we breathe, may, one and all of them, need for themselves the disinfection and purification which, when rightly employed, can themselves confer. Fire is the only one of the four ele- ments of the ancient philosophers which always purifies and never itself needs to be purified. It is, liowever, to the porous walls and woodwork of our houses and outhojises, to our clothes and carpets, and to our various apparatuses aiul con- trivances for storing up and hurrying away human and animal rcjccUnncnla and c.ecrciti, that tlie ojjeration of disin- fectants is mainly directed. Earth, if not unfairly ovcrhiaded, will disinfect itself, vegetable hfe and the inorganic forces of ^HE I^ARMER'S MAGAZINE. 38S the winds and elasticity will keep the atmospheric ocean pure outside and around our houses and towns, so that it only re- mains for us to admit its currents without stint within our walls hy free ventilation ; and with reference to drinking water, it must be keep free from any and all contact with de- lUement, so far as we have anything to do with it, for, in the words of the Thames Commissioners, " as applied to sewage, disinfectants do not disinfect, and filter beds do not filter." And practically, therefore, it comes to this — that it is within the precincts of our dwellings'and of their immediate surround- ings that disinfection finds its sphere of operation. Now, as by employing disinfectants thus and there we aim at prevent- ing the propagation, diffusion, and origination of diseases, it is necessary tor us as rational beings to have some rationale or explanation of the ways in which this origination, diifusiou, and propagation of disease may take place. And science says that the diseases which we can control l)y processes of disin- fection are diseases which depend for their origination upon some special " poison," germ (it may be), or ferment, and for their difi'asion and spread upon the existence of a particular atmosphere, medium, or nidus, to breathe, feed, and multiply in. Consumption and cancer are not so conditioned, and we cannot control them by disinfection. Cholera, liowever, typhus, and the cattle plague, are dependent upon these con- ditions, and control them we can to no inconsiderable extent. Our line of defence is obviously two-fold, as we direct our ex- ertions to the destruction and stamping out of the special poison-germ or virus, or to the abolition and destruction of the atmosphere and pabulum on which it feeds. The special germs or ferment, whence the special diseases cholera, typhus, and the cattle plague respectively spring, can unhappily be wafted and carried on the wings of the wind ; and if we are to meet and destroy them there, we must provide ourselves with some disinfectant wliicli can be, like them, air- borne and volatile, even if not necessarily aeriform. The doing of this is obviously a very large undertaking, one indeed which is cubieally commensurate with the cubical measure of the air into relation with which we or our cattle can come. And at first sight it would seem as though any atnrosphere which was not too strongly charged with disinfectants for us or our cattle to breathe would be ex hi/pothesi too weakly charged with them to meet and slay these specific disease embryos, i'or considering what an infinitesimal " point" of vaccine or small- pox " matter" is sufdcient to produce vaccination or inocula- tion, and all their consequences, vkc are tempted to think that dilution against dilution, a diluted aerial poison would have a better chance for a victory in an atmosplieric Ijattlc than a diluted gaseous disinfectant. But as a matter of fact, and in spite of the discouraging considerations which pathology on the one side and mensuration on the otlier suggest to us, it has, happily, been shown that the judicious disposition, or rather exposition, of carboUc acid to evaporate on cloths and pieces of carpet inside the stalls, as well as upon tlie horns and legs of the cattle, furnishes a very complete protection against the specific air-borne infection of the rinderpest. And it is well known that the specific germs of cholera and typhus are in greater need of being concentrated, and are conse- quently rendered less dangerous by mere unassisted dilution and ventilation, than is the pestilence wliieli falls on our flocks and herds. Our operations on our second line of defence are even more sure and rational. Poisons, in the medical as opposed to the pharmaceutical sense of the words — poisons, that is, sucli as that of the rinderpest as opposed to that of ihlc coiiiica, if they are to multiply their own life and destroy ours, require a cer- tain set of " favouring conditions." These " favouring condi- tions" happen to be furnished and constituted I)y the decom- position of organic matters; and as such matters in decomposing give ott" certain exhalations, these favouring conditions may be spoken of as a favouring atmosphere. jN ow, it is witliin our power, by acting upon decomposing organic matters, either whilst still solid or whUst in solution, to prevent tliem from giving off any exhalations at all, and thus to prevent the very formation of that atmosphere which is the breath and life of the special poison. The Genius was powerless for mischief as long as he was within the copper vessel ; the fisherman was ;it his mercy when he was set free into space by the removal of the leaden cover. Or, to change the metaphor borrowed from the Araljian, Nights into one furnished us by these September days, it is more philosophical, and certainly more economical, though it may be less sportsmanlike, to crush the egg than to wait to shoot the bird on the wing. The way in which these favouring atmospheres or media are generated resembles, to our apprehension, the ways in which certain other media or atmospheres, and specially those set free in processes of fer- mentation, are generated ; and, as a matter of fact and in practice, agencies which cheek the one are found to check the other set of processes also. This explanation or rationale of the operation of disinfectants has been arrived at partly by the , interpretation of the success which was found to attend certain processes discovered empirically under the pressure of pre- scientifie man's necessities, and partly by the verification of certain theoretical views to wliicli the eyes of modern science have gradually opened after long gazing through somewh&t narrow easements. Coming now to the practical recommendations which a diligent perusal of the severd memoranda we have specified, coupled with some practical acquaintance witli the employ- ment of disinfectants, emboldens us to make, we will speak of carbolic acid first, as it is just now the most fashionable as it is always likely to remain one of the most useful of disin- fectants. CarboHc acid does seem to have proved itself to be of the very first utility and efliciency in checking the cattle plague, as it protected whole herds to which it was applied against the infection, which depopulated contiguous farms at the same time, and afterwards destroyed these very herds when the application of the disinfectant to them was discontinued. This seems to be suflicient evidence to induce all owners of horned or other cattle to employ it, and we may add that its efficacy in arresting fermentative change can be testified to very feelingly by any brewer into whose water supply the refuse of a gas manufactory may have soaked itself. Its presence is certainly competent to arrest the processes of ordinary fermentation, but we should add that there seems to be some doubt as to whether it finally destroys, or merely temporarily suspends the vital powers of the fungoid organisms which are necessary to the carrying on of those processes. It may be purchased from the manufacturing chemist, who is by no means, it should be remembered, the same thing as a wholesale chemist, at the very moderate rate of Is. 3d. per gallon for large, and Is. 6d. for small quantities. It is not very easily mixed with water, requiring for this pur- pose a good deal of beating and shaking up with, according to various authorities, quantities of water exceeding its own volume in the various proportions of from twenty to even one hundred to one. There are many cases in which it will be well to sprinkle it, without diluting it, all over such floors or other porous and defiled structures as we can afl^ord to impreg- nate with so strong a scent ; or it may be allowed to difliise its undiluted self through the perforated lid of a box. Acting thus indifferently and simultaneously by evaporation and in solution, pure or diluted, it can be poured into masses of sew- age, or thrown over heaps of filth, or be left to diftuse itself into the air, at its own pungent will, from cloths, mats, or pieces of carpet soaked in it. We are inclined, for several reasons, to think its employment more suitable for cattle than for human epidemics, where, however, it still has a place and power, and, in the proportion of a teaspoonful to a couple of winegiassfuis of water, may, in times of epidemics, serve as the daily ration per head of disinfectant. But, under such circumstances, the sewers in connection with the house-drains which are to be thus dieted should have been previously acidified by the metallic salts of which we shall proceed to speak iu the second place, though we incline to tliink they merit the very first in our enumeration. The salts to which we refer are two iron salts, tiie sulphate and the chloride. Their especial scientific claims are their power of debarring sewage from running into that alkalinity which it so much loves, and in which cholera revels ; secondly, their deadly enmity to the lower forms of animal and vegetable life, in- fusoria, confervoids, and such like ; and thirdly, the power which they have recently been proved to possess of arresting the spread of cholera, and which they may be supposed to possess in the case of other and less deadly diseases. We will speak on each of these three points separately. The acid and tlie base which make up the iron salt part company readily wiien it is cast into sewage : the acid neutralises and masters tlie ammoniacal salts which give wings to, even if they do not constitute, miasma ; and the base — the precipitated oxide- acts persistently on the organic matters with which it is sur« 386 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. rounJed, Ijy perpetually transferring- to them the purifying oxy^^en \vitli which it as perpetu;illy re-eharges itself. This operation of the oxide of iron is illustrated by, aud even in some degree identical with, its operation in the ordinary pro- cess for the purification of coal-gas. Of the enmity of the salts of iron to the lower forms of organic life, the paucity of organic remains in the strata reddened with the oxide of iron, in the old and new red sandstone formations, speak very strikingly ; and an experiment on a modern vegetable with an excess of either of the salts we have mentioned will show, as is well enough known, that in this, as in other matters, the " thing which hath been is the thing which shall be." And if water containing those minute forms of life which are so abundant in miasmatic media be mixed under the micriscope with a solution of these salts, the same deadly effect will be seen to be produced upon them which Mr. Crookes and Dr. Angus Smith beheve, though Pettenkofer doubts, to be produced by carbolic acid. Thirdly, as a matter of fact, the disinfection of barracks, prisons, hospitals, and even of entire towns, with these salts, or rather with one of them, the sulphate, has been found to be followed in Germany by the arrest of the spreading of cholera. And we may add that the same process is being actually kept in operation at the present moment in the English towns of Bristol, Manchester, and Oxford. The chloride would be preferable to the sulphate of iron, were it not for its tendency to deliquesce, wliich makes its conveyance into all the out-of-the-way places which stand in need of it a matter of some little inconvenience. The waste chloride of manganese from the chlorine manufactories, when neutralised with iron, disinfects Manchester most econo- mically, but the trouble aud cost of carriage render this che- mically excellent fluid practicaUy unavailable except in towns blessed or plagued with chlorine manufactories. We learn, however, from Dr. Parkes' book, that it is possible to sell a yellowish not very deliquescent substance containing as much as 36 per cent, of perchloride of iron for as little as £3 7s. ton. Still we are inclined to think that trouble and expense would in the long run be saved by the employment of the sul- phate, the "green copperas" of commerce, which is manu- factured in large quantities for the making of dyes and of writing ink, and is procurable, therefore, at a moment's notice, and in any desirable quantities. It has, for many years, been a staple disinfectant in Germany, and is now Pettenkofer's favourite agent. It was used by the French army surgeons in the Crimea for the disinfection of the ground as well as of " soil" in its secondary sense. A square metre (about 1531 sq. in.) was disinfected by about three (juarts of a solution of this salt in fifteen times its weight in water. Being non- deliquescent this salt needs to be dissolved in water to be ope- rative at all ; it w ill dissolve in twice its own weight of water, but a solution of a pound to the gallon will be found as effi- cacious as easily remembered by the workmen who carry out the process. Cisterns which supply places which need disin- fecting, and do not supply, as such cisterns should not, any tap besides, may have copperas added, in this proportion to the water they they contain, and, as it does not act injuriously on metal piping, mortar, or cement, this may be done with safety and great saving of trouble. Por places which have no water supply of their own, a solution of this salt — in warm and soft water by preference— should be employed of the strength specified. Every cubic foot of the solid contents of such places needs f of a pound of copperas for its acidifica- tion in the first instance when an epidemic is impending. And every place devoted to the purpose in question, whether it be supplied with water or not, and whether it be offensive or not, should at such seasons be kept constantly disinfected at the rate of f of an ounce per head per diem. Green copperas is sold at the rate of 60s. per ton, or 3s. per cwt. On chloride of lime neither Mr. Crookes, in the " Cattle Plague Report," nor Professor Pettenkofer and his colleagues in their " Cholera Regulations," look with much favour. It is very easily adulterated, it is an irritating substance itself, and causes the formation of other substances more irritating stiU ; it impairs the value of manures and makes mortared walls damp and deliquescent, according to Mr. Crookes. According o the German authorities it is dear, and when employed in force disagreeable ; and, above all, it is alkaline and a favour- ing therefore rather than a disfavouring chemical to choleraic fermentation. There is no positive evidence, according to Pet- tenkofer, of its possessing any special power as a disinfectant ; though as a deodoriser, we must say it is perhaps the most speedy and efficient we possess. But deodorisation is one thing, and disinfection is anotlier. Though bad smells are or- dinarily to be smelt where poison is to be breathed, this is not always the case ; and where it is, tiie destruction of the one is no more necessarily the destruction of the other than the destruction of a monitor-lizard is the destruction of the croco- dile whose presence it warns us of. For the disinfection of clothing, for which purpose the chlorides of lime aud of soda are usually recommended, we sliould recommend tlie employ- ment of Burnett's and of Crewe's solutions of chloride and of sulphate of zinc. They leave no stains of rust behind them, and herein excel the salts of iron, which they resemble in the important point of being acidifiers, though they differ from them, we believe, a little cUsadvantageously in the matter of price. Clothes may be disinfected by simply exposing them to sufficient heat — to a boiling temperature, that is — for a suffi- cient time. The oldest of disinfectants, sulphurous acid, the product of burning brimstone, the " sulpkura cum titdis'^ of the Roman augurs, is perhaps as good as any volatile disinfectant of more recent invention. It wiU search out foul crannies and crevices in stalls and stables, in pig and in man styes. The Germans recommend its use in solution in water for the disinfection of clothes ; there is a little risk in injury to colour from such an agent ; but where colour is " no object," as also in the other cases we have mentioned, sulphurous acid may be elegantly and readily obtamed by acting on sulphite of soda, which is largely used in the arts, and known as " antichlore," with any fitting acid. The refuse liquor from such a process would itself be a disinfectant, being charged with the familiarly-known and unjustly-neglected antiseptic, common salt. Being ourselves determined never knowingly to drink water which can by any possibility have been tainted by sewage, howsoever it may have been filtered, irrigated, or disinfected, and wishing that all mankind were like-minded with ourselves, we have nothing to say, from the disease-prevention point of view, as to the employment of alum, lime, and iron salts on the large scale. When all the world has taken, as we believe it shortly will, this our pledge of total abstinence, these pro- cesses will fall into disuse ; and more time, attention, and money will be spent on what is even now of greater importance — viz., the disinfection of the house-drain and the homestead. Of the various absorbent and so far deodorisant substances, such as charcoal, sand, ashes, and porous clay, we have little to say as to the control of epidemics, except that the very greatest care must be taken to prevent disproportion being es- tablished between their porosity, which is their main or exclu- sive agency for disinfecting, and the quantity of matter which they are expected thus to disinfect. This quantity only too frequently is out of all proportion to tlieir area of pores ; it would be amusingly so if the matter were not a grave one, when the overcrowded household of the poor man is told to disinfect its inadequate conveniences with the scanty supply ot ashes which comes from their coals, bought by the hundred. The kitchen fire of the alderman may well produce more ashes in twenty-four hours than many a blind alley in Spitalfields does from all its grates taken together for a week ; and yet Mr. Bumble avers that there is no earthly reason why the ash- pits and back yards of his tenants need be more offensive than those of his own suburban villa. Air, which should at all times, except those of fumigation, be freely admitted to such places as need disinfection at any time, should be most spe- cially sent through them after they have been subjected to the disinfecting process. — Standard. GYPSUM IN STABLES.— The Germantoxm Telegraph says : " Gypsum should be sprinkled daily over the floors and tie-ups to absorb the ammonia of the urine. The strorig odour observable on entering the stable on a morning, arisei from the presence of ammonia, one of the most valuable pro- ducts of stable manure, when properly economised. Gypsum or lime, either slacked or caustic, should also be sprinkled over the bottoms of cellars in the spring. This will tend to purify the atmosphere, and prevent many deleterious effects resulting from the presence of miasma. After a few days it should be removed, and a fresh supply substituted in its place." THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 387 STATISTICS, IRISH AGRICULTURAL IN 1866. The Registrar-General has forwarded us the usual annual statement of the crops in Ireland. From it we learn that — Acres. The total acreage under all crops this year was ... 5,519,678 The do. do. in 1865 was (revised numbers) 5,6-l'8,403 Showing a decrease in the extent under crops in 1866 of The crops wliich diminished in area this year are — Acres. Oats 47,580 Barley 26,564 B ere and rye 99 Beans and peas 2,118 Potatoes 15,841 Turnips 17,091 Meadow and clover 77,998 The crops which increased iu acreage in 1SG6 arc- Wheat 33,485 Mangel and beet 5,740 Cabbage 2,824 Carrots, parsnips, and other gi-eeu crops 2,661 Vetches and rape 1,630 Flax 12 226 128,725 Acres. 187,291 5S,.566 THE WAY TO VENTILATE CORN STACKS. Making a net decrease in the area under all crops of 128,725 Although the foregoing statement shows a decrease of 138,725 acres in the total extent under crops in ISGG, there was an increase in the extent under " grass" to the amount of 210,425 acres, and a diminution in the area under " bog and waste unoccupied" of Sfi.fifi-i acres. Woods and plantations also show an increase this year, and fallow a decrease. Tlie following abstracts exhibit the acreage under each crop in 1865 and 1866, and the increase or decrease in the latter year :— Abstract of Cere-^l Crops. 1865. 1866. Incrse. in 1866. Decrse. in 1866. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Wheat .. 266,989 300,474 33,485 — Oats .. 1,745,228 1,697,648 — 47,580 Barley .. 177,102 150,538 — 26, .564 Bereandrye ... 10,091 9,992 — 99 Beans and peas 16,899 .. 2,216,309 14,781 — 2,118 76,361 Total 2,173,433 33,485 Decrease in cereal crops in 1866 ... 42,876 Abste.\.ct of Gheen Crops. Potatoes .. 1,066,260 1,050,419 _ 1.5,8 tl Turnips .. 331,212 317,121 — 17,091 Mangel A\-urtzel and beetroot 14,478 20,218 5,740 — Cabbage 33,622 36,446 2,824 — Carrots, parsnips, and other green crops 24,130 26,791 2,661 — Vetches and rape 29,4«6 ... 1,502,168 31,096 1,482,091 1,630 — Total 12,855 32,932 Decrease in green crops in 1866 ... 20,077 General Summary. Decrease in cereal crops in 1866 42,876 Do. gi-een crops in do. 20,077 Do. meadow and clover in do. 77,998 140,951 Increase in flax in do. 12,226 in 1866 128,725 Returns of Live Stock. The returns of live stock for 1866 compared with 1865 show an increase in the number of cattle of 2-i5,38't ; of sheep, 575,671 ; and of pigs, 187,570 ; and a decrease in horses of 13,708. The total estimated value of horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs this year, is £35,178,010, being an increase of £3,361,033 compared with 1865. This ventilator is constructed of light poles, eight feet in length. The thinnings of a larch plantation will answer, placed in a triangular form, as represented. The three poles are either tied together at the top, or have a wooden pin passed through them. "When put in their proper position the lower ends of the poles will be three feet apart from each other. Where the corn stack is built on a frame elevated on pillars, this is placed in the centre, and the air enters from underneath ; but where the stack is built on the ground it is necessary to have a small trestle two feet high (as given above), and long enough to reach to the outside of the stack, for the purpose of making an opening for admitting the air. No ventilator is re- quired at the top, as the air passes out readily enough through the upper part of the stack. Sometimes two trestles are used, one on each side, in order to secure perfect vcntUation. This is another form. In this the upright poles are equi- distant at top and bottom. This can be used both with stacks built on frames, or with such as arc built on the ground, and trestles are also necessary in the latter case. Either form, when placed on frames elevated above the ground, should be attached to the framo by nailing oue end of a stay to each leg I and the other to the frame. 38S *mE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. ^HE HARVEST OP EVERY YEAR; OR, PLAIN HINTS TO TAEMERS ABOUT THE WEATHER. VI 1. TllK INFLUEXCB OF TREES ON CLIMATE, WATER SUPPLY, AJJD RAINFALL. The question of tlie influence of woods and forests in a country is equally interesting in tlic scientific and political point of view. Science is interested in tlioni as important physical agents in creation ; and political economy must take them into consideration if, as seems certain, trees in a country are iri general absolutely necessary to secure its fertility — to enable us to count upon average, if not superabundant, lian'ests for oxir increasing populations. In fact, it would seem that if we wish to increase the annual yield of wheat ire must plant hiore trees throughout the country. Sncli is the positive upshot of the argument which we shaU proceed to discuss. In France a very considerable destruction of forests had taken place for a very long time, with the object of giving to tillage the land occupied by woods ; but of late years the in- undations which have devastated great extents of the country have compelled the Government to make a vigorous attempt to restore the forests on a great scale. A vast deal has been said and written on the influence of trees in the general economy of Nature, without elucidating the subject by reasoning founded on clear and precise experience ; and therefore we must be thankful to anyone who can furnish us with such downright facts as may enable us to draw our own conclusions. The question comes home to us in England in connection with our decreasing rainfall and deficiency of water, complained of almost on all sides, and so perhaps it may be useful to give an account of the researches and conclusions of a French author, M. Becquerel, who has recently devoted his attention to it, and endeavoured to come to right conclusions on the subject. The subject is two-fold : in the first place it relates to the social importance of forests, and secondly to the influence which they exert on the temperature and the humidity of the soil and the atmosphere, both of the latter being vital agricultu- ral considerations. The history of all nations reveals the causes and the eifects of cutting down the woods and forests of countries. At first it was the increase of population which necessitated the mea- sure progressively ; but the great devastations only go back to the epoch when mighty conquerors, with the view of subjecting newly-formed nations, cut down and burned the forests which served as a refuge to the inhabitants. Therefore, the increase of populations, wars, and the progress of civilization have been the chief causes of the destruction of forests. The banks of the Euphrates, the Ganges, and the shores of the Mediterra- nean now present to the traveller only deserts and marshes, in which we scarcely find a trace of the exuberant tillage of past ages. From the time of Sesostris — far "back in the ancient history of Egypt — to that of Mahomed II., in the 15th cen- tury of the present era, Asia Minor was the theatre of devas- tating wars, which destroyed the forests ; and the water- courses dried up. The Land of Canaan, Avhicli the Bible cites as the most fertile in the universe, is, at the present day, de- prived of both vegetation and water, bee ause her forests were destroyed. The beautiful forests, which formerly vivified the sea-board of Africa, are now at least oik '. Inindred and twenty miles distant from the shores of the ocern i. In the early history of France, we fi nd that Julius Csesar, in order to penetrate into Gaul, had tc i play sad havoc con- tinually with the woods and forests. I'' here, as all over Eu- rope, wars and the progress of civiliz; ition have transformed vast extents of country into barren swai nps, wastes, or regions of everlasting heath. Contrary to the general assumption , it appears that those vast regions covered with forests did no t render the climate so rude as is supposed to be the consequence of their existence, for Cresar himself tells us that the territories in question were amongst the most fertile in the country. The cutting down of the forests of France continued ever after, and in the 9th century the incursions of the Normans vastly contributed to the abandonment of tillage, and originated the wide wastes or " lands" of Brittany and the deserts of Champagne and Poitou, which occupy the sites of the ancient forests. From the time of Charlemagne many royal edicts were directed against this blind destruction of forests ; but all such preservative measures left a great latitude for evasive interpre- tations, and the cutting down of forests has continued with de- plorable facility. At length, in 1859, more rigorous measures were taken. The law now permits the cutting down of forests to an extent above 25 acres, only on the following conditions : The land on mountains and slopes must be maintained ; the soil must be protected from inundations ; the springs must be preserved ; the downs must be preserved, and other precau- tions must be taken with reference to the public health. These restrictions would l)e suflicient if it were always easy to en- force them. During the last sixteen years the extent of forests cut down in France has been at the rate of about 75,000 acres per annum. Against this there has been a re-planting of forests to the mean extent of about 25,000 acres per annum, the difference being 50,000 acres. The result is, that in the space of one century the French have \ostfiL-e millions of acres: that is, nearly one-fourth of the wooded surface of France, which is at present about 22|- millions of acres. Such is the state of matters in France, and that too, in the face of the fact that France by no means needs such an increase of arable land, since the production of wheat there already exceeds the require- ments of consumption. Now, this clearing out of forests in France concerna us here in England more than we are apt to imagine, if, as seems certain, the existence of forests is directly connected with the prodnctioH, of rain ; therefore, any interference with Nature in this respect, as in aU others, must sooner or later tell on her neighbours. We owe much moisture to our S. and S.E. winds, from their decomposition by the prevalent N.W. and W. and S.W. winds, in summer. Well, the vapour brought to us by S. and S.E. winds must have been generated in countries lying to the south and south-east of our island. It is therefore pro- bable that in the extensive valleys watered by the Mense, the Moselle, and the Rhine, if not from the more distant Elbe, the Oder, and the Weser, the water rises, in the midst of sunshine, which is soon afterwards to form oitr clouds, and pour down in our thunder-showers. And England, in all probability, does the same office for Ireland, and the eastern for the western counties of south Britain. Any interference with Nature is, in its effect, much like that of a pebble flung on the still sur- face of a lake, when the consequent circles go on for ever enlarging — Heaven only knows how far. Any disturbance in the rainfall of one country must necessarily react on that of its neighbour. On the other hand, drought and sunshine in one part of Europe may be as necessary for the production of a wet season in another, as it is found to be on the great scale of the continents of Africa and South America, where the plains during one-half of the year are burnt up, to feed the springs of the mountains, which, in their turn, contribute to inundate the fertile valleys, and prepare them for a luxuriant vegetation. It may be a strange question to ask if it is in any degree within the power of man to alter the weather ; but, as Sir J. Herschel observes, it is by no means so absurd as it appears. The total rainfall and— which is, perhaps, as regards weather and climate, of even more importance — the frequoioj of showers on an extensive well-wooded tract, or one entirely THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 589 covered by forests, ouglit, 011 every theoretical view of the causes which determine rain, to be greater tlian on the same tract denuded of trees. The foliage of trees defends the soil beneath and around them from the sun's direct rays, and dis- penses their heat in the air, to be carried away by" winds, and thus prevents the ground from becoming heated in the sum- mer ; while, on the otlier liand, a heated surface-soil re-acts by its radiation on the clouds as they pass over it, and thus pre- vents many a refreshing shower, which they would otherwise deposit, or disperses them altogether. But this is not tlie only way in which man alters the weatlicr. Tliat admirable agricultural improvement, drainage, from having been unwisely carried out, has, so to speak, done as much liarm as good to England's broad acres. By carrying away rapidly the surface-water down to the rivulet, and so hurrying it away to the ocean, drainage not only cuts off a great deal of the supply of local evaporation — wliich is a material element in tlie amount of rainfall — but, by causing the surface to dry more rapidly under the sun's influence, it allows it also to become more heated, and so to conspire with the action of the denudation of trees to jrreceiit ruin. Evidence is at hand to corroborate this theoretical view of the matter. Tlie rainfall over large regions of North America is said to be gradually diminishing, and tlie climate otlierwise altering, in consequence of the clearance of the forests ; wliilst, on the other hand, we have the very remarkable fact that under the beneficent influence of a largely-increased cultivation of the palm-tree in Egypt, rain is annually becoming more frequent. Again, there are lakes in what was fonnerly Spanish America — that of Nicaragua, if we mistake not — whose water supply (derived, of course, from atmospheric sources) had Ije- come so diminished, owing to the denudation of the country under tlie Spanish refjime, as to contract their area, and leave large tracts of their shores dry ; but now, since the trees have become restored, are once more covered by their waters. Even in our own soutliern counties complaints are beginning to be heard of a diminution of water-supply — partly owing to gradually-decreasing rainfall, from the universal clearance of timber, although chiefly, perhaps, attributable to robbing tlie springs of their supply by draining — a practice no doubt beneficial to agriculture if used with caution and in moderation, but of which the consequences if carried to excess may ere long be severely felt, in rendering large tracts of country uninhabit- able in summer from mere want of water. Our outfalls are every day becoming more direct and rapid in their action. Rain, wliich used to drag sluggislily downwards through mean- dering streams, runs straight out to sea. Floods, rather as the result of this arterial drainage than as the effect of parallel subsoil drainage, follow excessive rainf;iUs more immediately than they used ; and, unexpected as it may be, the influence of agricultural drainage becomes apparent on our springs, our mill-streams, and our rivers. It is of great importance that an inquiry be made into tliis subject, in order that the truth of the matter may be known before the owners of estates shall have permanently injured tlieir own interests by a too narrow con- finement of their views to the mere agricultural object of land- drainage. And stUl more is it necessary that the owners of land may not have permanently injured the general interests of the island and its population before Government shall have lost any opportunity of interference. Lastly, several discussions have been lield on the M'cU-supply in and around London, during which it has been elicited that a serious and progressive pression of water-level has been taking place for a period of many years. Snch have been the consequences of denudation and excessive or injudicious drainage — the latter lieing a direct waste of precious water, the former a prevention of tlie natural supply designed by Providence. The destruction of forests and trees in general exerts various influences on the climate of a country. Tliis influence depends upon their extent, the height of the trees, and their nature — their power of evaporation by their leaves, the faculty wliicli they possess of getting warmed or becoming cooled by the air ; lastly, on the nature and physical condition of the soil and snhsoil. On tlie other hand, trees influence running waters and springs. As a shelter from low winds the utility of woods is evident : it is proportional to the height of the trees. The evaporation which goes on by their leaves is a powerful and incessant -cause of moisture ; the least lowering of the temperature pre- cipitntes the vapours of the air, the resulting water penetrates into the soil, or is al)sorI)ed by the roots. On a soil denuded of trees it runs off, and adds to the hulk of water-courses, often causing inundations. As to the calorific state of trees, or their capacity for receiv- ing and parting with heat, it has been demonstrated that they gel warm and become cool in the air, like all inorganised bodies, by the action of -the sun. Being bad conductors of heat, they attain the equilibrium of temperature with the air only after a considerable time. The tree, warmed during art entire day by the sun's rays, gives off the greater part of the heat during the refrigeration of night, and restores by degrees to the surrounding air the heat which it has laid up. These facts have been verified by M. Becquerel by observations with the electric thermometer ; and they refute the general assump- tion that trees tend to lower the temperature. On the con- trary, it would appear that they increase it precisely at a time when it is most needed. The influence of clearing out a country on the mean tempe- rature has been studied by two emmeut investigators, Bous- singault and Humboldt. The former found, in the equinoctial regions of America, that the abundance of forests and humidity tend to make tlie climate cooler, whilst the dryness and aridity of the soil keep it warm. Humboldt, on the contrary, declared that in North America the climate has not been altered by the destruction of the forests ; but was still of opinion that, in many parts, the clearance of forests would raise tlie mean tem- perature. The difference in the results of these two investi- gators is easily explained if we have due regard to the natnre of the soil, which is of the utmost importance to the inquiry. M. Becquerel has specially examined the influence of denuded soil on the temperature. He has found that dift'erent soils ex- posed to the sun acquire temperatures varying from -iS to 5i degrees. In their refrigeration by radiation the difl'erence is also very considerable. A silicious or flinty soil cools more slowly than one in which chalk or clay predominates. No\v, such being the case, it is evident that a clearance of forests from a flinty soil must raise the mean temperature more than a clearance from other soils, all other conditions being equal. The effects of clearance on the springs and the quantity of running water in a coimtry are a still more important conside- ration. Forests contribute to the formation of springs and river-sources, not only by means of the humidity which they produce and the condensation of vapour by refrigeration, but also by reason of the obstacles which they present to the evapo- ration of tlie water in the soil itself, and by means of the roots of their trees, wliich, by dividing the soil Like so many perfora- tions, render it more permeable and facilitate infiltration. We have given niunerous instances in proof of these averments, and will only add one more. The city of Nueva Valencia, in South America, built in 1555, was then situated about a mile and a-half from a lake; but by the year 1800 it was four miles and a-half distant. In 18;!xl, however, the waters of the lake had a rise, and the lands formerly cultivated were sub- merged. The explanation is that during twenty-five years the vaUey, in which the city is situated, had been the theatre of bloody conflicts during the vrar of independence ; tlic popula- tion was decimated, the land had remained uncultivated, and the forests, which increase with such prodigious rapidity in the tropics, had completely taken possession of the country. Such examples prove that by clearing out a fertile country, depending for water only on its springs, we run the risk of drying up the latter to the extent of impoverishing the laud. By recent accounts in an American paper, it seems that even the great Mississippi is " drying up" from the same cause, and the time must come when it wHl no longer be, as its Indian name sig- nifies, "the mother of the waters." In discussing the great question of the influence of clearing out woods and forests on the water supply of a country, M. Becquerel comes to the following conclusions: 1, Great clearances diminish the quantity of running water in a country ; 2, We cannot as yet decide whether this diminiitiou must be ascribed to a less annual quantity of water falUug, or a great evaporation of the rain-waters, to both these causes combined, or to a new repartition of the rain-water ; 3, The estabhshed cultivation of an arid and exposed country dissi- pates a portion of the running waters ; ■!•, In countries in wliich no change of cultivation has taken place, the quantity of spring-water seems always the same ; 5, Forests, by pre- serving the sprmg- waters, economise and regulate their flow ; 6, The humidity which prevails in woods, and the intervention »0 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. of the roots iu reiideriug the soil more permeable, must be taken into consideration ; 7, The overflows of water in moun- tainous countries exert an influence on the watercourses and the springs — in level countries they can only act on the springs. Such is the various aud complex influence of forests and trees in general on the climate of countries. If their clear- ance does not always entail sterility upon a country, it is in- jurious by facilitating the invasion of sand on the plains, as ia France, where the winds drive the sands freely from the sea-shore, unopposed by the forests. With M. Becquerel, we may conclude tliat we ameliorate the climate of a country by clearing out lieaths, draining and purifying marshy lands, and by planting witli woods our mountains, liills, and other suit- able localities ; but that great clearances of woods and forests are neither necessary nor useful in any point of view whatever. Tlie fertility of soils is in proportion to their ahsorhent ■power fur water ; and therefore, if water be deficient, all " ad- vanced " tillage, the most appropriate manures, &c., will be useless. The conclusion is, that we must reform many of our modern " advanced " notions about drainage, &c., and fall back upon the old methods of Motlier Nature, who cannot go on for ever humouring us in our unwise experiments aud in- terference with her rules and regulations. VIII. THE STORY OF THE EAST WINDS OF MAY AND THE WEATHER OF AUGUST, 18G6. The months of May and August are critical periods to tlie farmer. The success of the year's labours depends mainly upon a genial May and a kind accommodating August. Tlie former is the turning point of early growth, and the latter is the goal of the year's expectation. Unquestionably, at the present day, the expectancies of the harvest do not inspire the interest of former times. Time was when, almost from month to montli, the clianges of the weather influenced tiie price of grain — raised or lowered the cost of bread. But things are altered now. If tlic causes of a defi- cient harvest be as interesting to us now as they ever were, in the consideration of the public weal, it must be admitted that they are no longer of much importance a-s far as the farmer's material interests are concerned — as far as Great Britain is con- cerned as a corn-growing country, which should not entirely, if at all, depend upon the foreigner for tlie supply of bread. A deficient harvest in England alone will never again suffice to raise the price of corn ; for, whatever may be the falling off iu the crops with us iu England, the importation will be such as efi'ectually to keep down prices far below what is re(iuired to remunerate the British grower. Nevertheless, we are still, and probably will long continue, a corn-growing people, and therefore that on which it depends — the weather — will always be a primary consideration, especially at the critical periods to which we liave aUuded, the months of May and August. Even now-a-days, heavy rains wiU stimulate the trade and cause speculation in Mark-lane. The story of a year's or a month's weather will always be interesting ; even should it not serve completely to guide our expectations in the future, it will open to us the consideration of meteorological influences intimately connected with the harvest, and perliaps suggest a useful hint or two to the thoughtful and scientific farmer. Tlie cast winds of last May, and the unsettled weather of August, which has just closed, have been attended with some remarkable circumstances, which we propose to consider with reference to tlieir ettects on plants and the public health. There is a striking regularity in the succession of tlie winds in the first six months of the year, as established liy numerous records, and attested by Luke Howard. The classes of winds run as follows : January, W. — N. ; February, S. — W. ; March, N.— E. ; April, N.— E. ; May, S.— W. ; June, W.— N. After this, the class W. — N. prevails during the summer, and the class S. — W. through the latter four montlis of the year. It appears, also, tliat a wind between north and east is connected witli our driest season about the vernal equinox, and a wind between south and west with the wet season following the autumnal. Lastly, tliere is always a spell of east winds in May, which exert their evil influence on plants and the public health. Their unhealthiness is proved by a greater number of deaths from consumption and brain diseases taking place in May than in any other i.ionth. In general, a cold May is not injurious to cereals: it prevents them from getting too rapidly into car, mtli a weak stem. " A cold May and windy makes a full barn and findy ;" but then the cold must be moderate, and be followed by appropriate weather tliroughoiit for a good harvest. No doubt the last was good for tlie turnips. During last May, east winds were to west winds in the pro- portion of 9 to 8|, so that, if we consider only the mean of the month, there was nothing unusual. South-west winds were generally prevalent during the first ten and last six days of the month ; Init, from the 17th to the 26th, or near London from the 14tli to the 27th, tliere was a spell of continuous and steady easterly winds, and the air was remarkably dry aud parching. It is the dirily rait'je of temperature that these east winds influence to so pernicious an extent, aud tliis is caused by their dryness ; for the greater the dryness and clearness of tlie air, the higher will the temperature rise during the day, aud the lower will it fall during the night. Radiation being in eitlier case less impeded, it follows that the daily range of temperature will be great when the air is dry. This principle, and the fact with which it is connected, sliould be never forgotten, by tlie gardener at least, who must care for the temperature to which Jiis plants may be exposed during the nights following hot days. The daily range of temperature in the month of May always reaches a higher point than in any other month ; but during those twelve days in May last the range far exceeded its usual average. Thus, at Kirkwall, in Orkney, we find that tlie mean range of May is 9.6 degrees, but during the seven days from tlie 17th to 26tli it averaged 16.6 degrees ; at Portree — one of the wettest places in Great Britain — the mean range of May is 13.8 degrees, but last May it amounted to 26 degrees on a mean of the week, and on one day it rose to 34.9 degrees. At Corrimony, iu Invcrness-shire, tlie mean was 37.1 degrees, rising on one day to ■i2 degrees ! Other stations also of the Scottish Meteorological Society show an enormous range. Auotlicr remarkable fact must be mentioned. The relatively lowest day-tcmperafures occurred iu the east and south-east ; and the farther distant from the sea any place was in the direction of the south-east, the higher was its day-temperature above the average of the place. As suggested by Mr. Buclian, the cause of this difference was probably owing to the circum- stance that during this time the general direction of tlie wind was from the south-east ; consequently tlie air having passed over a great breadth of heated laud, had its temperature very much raised before arriving at those places at which there was an excess of day-temperature. Next, as to liumiditij, or tlie degree of moisture in the air. We need scarcely state that complete saturation with moisture in the air is represented by 100, or the state in which it can hold no more vapour in suspension. Every month has its average humidity, aud the average of May is the least of all ; but this average was far lower in last May, and the unusual dryness may be inferred from the following : For the week ending the 26t h, the mean humidity at Kirkwall was 63, being 20 less than the average ; at Portree 52, or 30 less than the average ; at Corrimony 39, or 31 less than the average ; and at East Linton 64, or 14 less than the average. In fact, all over the country the humidity ranged or alternated from 50, 60, to 70 during the last few days of the period, when it increased to that figure, indicative of the coming change to westerly unsettled weather, as will be remembered. The mean temperature of the month was little above 51 degrees, which is 8 degrees lower than that of last year. There was in many places a variation from 40 to 61 degrees, thus making the range of morning temperature 21 degrees. From the 20tli to the 26tli the nocturnal temperature, under the in- fluence of the cold gusty winds, sank to a few degrees only above the freezing point ; hoar frosts covered the ground — for terrestrial evaporation was rapid, but speedily carried off by the stirring wind — vegetation received a severe check, and the tender foliage was crisped by ungenial nights ; uneasy feelings were experienced by all persons who are peculiarly susceptible of the evil influences of the east wind, which seems to have been an abomination even to Job himself, if we may judge from the way iu which he always alludes to it. With Mr. Buchaii, we incline to believe that east winds de- pend on differences of atmospheric pressure. During the time the east wind prevailed the atmospheric pressure was liigh in Great Britain, as is almost invariably the case during east winds ; but it is not to tlie absolute amount of the atmos- pheric pressure we must look for an explanation so much as to THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 391 the circumstance that the pressure was greater at places to the nortli-east of Great Britain than in Great Britain itself, the east wind being simply the flowing away of tlie air from the region of high to that of low pressure, in obedience to the law by which gases, as well as fluids, seek their own level. In all cases of high barometer the wind is obser\ed to whirl out from the area of high pressure in the direction of the motion of the hands of a watch, being the opposite direction assumed by the winds when they blow round and iu upon an area of low pressure. Of this law, the atmospheric pressure and winds of each day att'ord constant illustration ; and should we bear it iu mind, there will be little ditficulty in prog- nosticating coming weather, if, by the aid of the hygrometer, we can reason out its infallible conclusions. On the 21st the area of high pressure extended through Christiansund, Bergen, Brussels, and Paris, and the line of equal pressure of 30.0U curved through Shetland, the North of IJenmark, Stockholm, and the west of the distant White Sea. In England the wind was north-easterly, whilst in Scotland, however, it was everywhere south-east, but still iu accordance with the whirHnr/ out of the tiir from the region of high pressure ; for though coming from a southerly direction, it was truly part of the polar current, flowing out of the polar current which at the time occupied the greater part of Central Europe, fi'om Lapland downwards. There was, however, another influence at work, besides tliis high pressure in the north-east, thus making the east winds drier, more injurious to vegetation, and more disagreeable to mankind. This influence was the low atmospheric pressure (at least, low as compared with the high-pressure northward) which continued to prevail over southern Europe. As more imme- diately concerning Great Britain, the atmospheric depression iu the Bay of Biscay was not only stationary from the 18th to the 25th, but became deeper absolutely, as well as relatively, to the high-pressures to the north-east of it. The clfect of this depression was to cause the winds in the north of France and the south of England to assume a more truly easterly di- rection than in Scotland. Without entering into the extensive meteorological hearings of the subject, it may suffice to say that the cause of this high atmospheric pressure and the east winds of IMay was a long- continued low temperature iu llussia. From the middle of February till about the end of May, with the exception of the first two weeks of April, the temperature of the north of Europe was not merely as low as it usually is at that time of the year, but very much lower, lieing frequently from 10 to 20 degrees below its very low range. Such was May. We now come to August, which, if we be not mistaken, invariably couirasls in some way or corresponds with the month of May ; at any rate, with respect to our present investigation, we do not hesitate to state that easterly winds in J\Iay are followed by westerly winds in August. We have gone through the long records of Luke Howard, ex- tending through three-and-twenty years, and find the fact abundantly attested : for instance, iu 1814., 181G, 1822, 1831-, 1825, 1826, 1828. Tlius seven years out of the twenty-three correspond with the August of the present year ; but, indeed, as before stated, the W — N. class of winds prevails in this month, although the coincidence to which we have drawn attention is not on that account less remarkable. As it may be supposed that the weather of August was a compensation for that of July, we may state that the usual W-S. winds predominated in July as usual, although there was a spell of E — N. winds in the latter half, the like of which has not occurred since July 1793 and 1795 ; but in both these years there had Ijeen a speU of E — N. winds in May. Moreover, as to the notion of " compensation," we may also state that in spite of the twenty days' drought, the rainfall of July was above the average — iu some parts 1 inch above the average. Lastly, there was no " compensation" of rainfall in August, since it was not excessive. In speaking of the pressure of the atmosphere, Luke Howard makes a remark which has been most strikingly verified during the montli we are considering. The entire passage is worth quoting from his old book, which meteorologists should read attentively. He says : " I proposed in the former edition of this work to remove the marks ' fair,' ' changeable,' _' rain,' &c., from the parts of the scale to which they are at present found attached, and place them anew more fitly — with some reference to the elcra- tioit (ihove the sea at which the barometer is to be used. It is clear that, at tlie level of the sea, the height of 29.80 will more tridy represent the Medium, or the limit of fair and wet weather, than 29.50, at present marked 'changeable.' As a proposition in round numbers, let us suppose a barometer intended for use at from one to two hundred feet above that level to be marked ' changeable' at 2U. 70, and so in propor- tion, lower for greater heights, up to OUO feet, where this mark would be at 29.30 inches ; the others, which are of less con- sequence, being placed at their proportionate distances above and below it. I say these are of minor consequence, because I Believe that in employing this instrument as a weather-glass, it is needful to the success of the observer to attend to it daily, and to watch the approach of the quicksilver to the true limit of the fair and tret indications, and its receding from this in ascent or descent — with attention to past as well as present appearances. Fair weather and sunshine may often be found to accompany a low state of the barometer ; but they are not in that case to be depended on. Continued movements in either direction may be safely taken as indicative of a corresponding duration in the weather they imply ; and when the quicksilver in its downward 'course; has passed the true ' changeable' point, rain (if it have not fallen already) is to be expected ■in its rising again above it ; after which the fair weather in- dicated by that rise is found to obtain. " The most difficult weather of all for the husbandman, when his labours require a certain degree and continuance of dry- ness, is that in which the quicksilver makes frequent short movements in ascent and descent, still keeping about the point which answers to the limit above mentioned, and which point it is therefore of consequence to settle accurately for him, according to the elevation at which he is placed above the sea.'' Now we have not found this passage quoted in any treatise on meteorology ; and yet there can be" no doubt that it is the grand secret of all weather-wisdom, and worth all the rest by its utility to the practical man — if the instrument-makers would only take Howard's hint, and apply it to a true farmers' barometer. But, as before stated, it is the application of this grand rule of Luke Howard's to the weather of the late August, to which we would draw attention. Throughout the entire month there has beennothingbut a zig-zag ascentand desceutto and from the indicated medium (29.80) ; and in every instance the result has corresponded with Howard's description, the rain cominu- at the " rising again above it," if it had not fallen already, with westerly, north-westerly, or south-westerly ^^inds. Through- out the month, those who prognosticate merely from the ap- pearances of the skies must have been sorely puzzled. For instance, on the evening of the 15th the barometer was at 29.90 in., the wind north-westerly, the sky fair (excepting elevated cirrus clouds), the air warm, the temperature beiu"- 62 deg. at 7 p.m., the humidity G2. On the following day the barometer fell to 29.80 in., and we had rain 0.12 in from the S.W. We need only aUnde to the sudden fall of some four or five- tenths of the barometer downwards on the night of Tuesday, the 28th, followed by the tremendous down-pour, which re- minded us of rain within the tropics, causing a flood in all directions, and, as wc find, very serious inundations through- out the country, especially in the North Riding. A corre- sponding spurt upwards began on the evening of the same day ; and thus the month ended, with the mercury again up to the fatal 2!t..S(J in., with cloudy but still fair weather.* Notwithstanding the frequent " dripping," the rain-fall of August was scarcely more than an average, if it was not a trifle below it in certain parts. Throughout the month the temperature has been very variable. For nearly twenty days it was considerably below the average ; and to this must be ascribed its unfavourable aspect as a harvest-month. We may observe that the propensity to frequent " dripping" in England is due to its moderate and variable temperature. The hotter or the colder countries are, the greater number of dry days will be their lot during the year. If the low temperature of August has tended to check the "* As the reader is aware, the result was as foreshadowed by the above prognostic, a severe thunderstorm of rain and hail having broken over us on Sunday afternoon. '.95 THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE. cholera, tlie month has been generally unfavourable to the liuman constitution— in every way unseasonable. We sluill conclude with two more observations. The quan- tity of water that annually falls in rain or snow upon the sur- face of the earth is much less considerable than we are apt to imagine, on account of the great nuraljcr of rainy days in all countries, our own especially ; and at the sight of those ter- rific down-pours which sometimes last several days. The dilu- vian rains of the tropics do not yield more than 7-86 inches in twelve hours. In our latitudes, however, when the quan- tity of water that falls in a day exceeds 1.17 inches, the plains are very soon inundated, as by the rain of last Wednesday. From this it will appear both how exaggerated our notions are respecting the quantity of water that falls in rain, and also how soon another Deluge could be produced, if the small quantity named can etfect such devastation. The other observation is respecting the probable rain-fall of the present year. At the end of June Mr. Symons an- nounced that we had already had more rain-fall than that of the year preceding ; and the quantity fallen was, within a few inches, equal to the average of the entire year. Several inches have since faUeu ; and yet we have before us four of the wettest months of the year, for in general the first six months are the driest. It seems, therefore, that this wll be a very wet year, perhaps preparatory to a more than average harvest for next year. IX. PERIODICAL PEKTUEBATIONS OF TEMPEKATURE IN- JURIOUS TO THE nEALTIX OF PIANTS AND .ANIMALS. Amongst the weather-proverbs of the rrench farmers there are four remarkable ones relative to certain saints' days or dates of the year, which are characterised hj notable variations of temperature. First, we have the proverb respecting the 11th, 12th, and 13th of May, the days of St. Mamert, St. Pancrace, and St. Servais, who are said " never to go without cold and ice ;" indeed, they are termed the " Icy Saints," on account of a marked decrease in the mean temperature of the period in question. Although the temperature rises rapidly during the last days of May, the farmers have remarked for ages, and the fact has been confirmed by meteorological obser- vations, that during the first fortnight of May there occurs a notable refrigeration. Hence the supposed influence of these " Icy Saints." In fact, the temperature, after rising abuost regularly every day during the month of April and sometimes the first days of May, suffers a sudden lowering, which is often accompanied by frost. Until this critical period is passed, the French farmers are anxious for the harvest ; the rye, the wheat, the young sprouts of lucern, may then be struck down by sudden frost. So much for the Icy Saints. Secondly, there is "The Summer of St. Martin," the 11th of November, or rather the precedhig and following days, which are, on the contrary, remarkable for an increase in the mean temperature. The thermometer remains stationary, or even rises, and does not resume its normal lovi'ering until after the period in question. It is scarcely necessary to state that we have from time to time seen the effect of this rise in tem- perature in England, on vegetation, giving us after-crops of vegetables and fruit in December, as announced in the papers, among the many instances of the extraordinary temi)erature of the season in tiuestion — green peas, of full growih and flavour, gathered in the first fortnight of December ; a thorn-tree in fuU bloom, and presenting a May-like appearance on the 1st of December ; an apple-tree covered with a second fuU crop of a])plos in the first fortnight of November ; nay, even at Stock- holm, an abundant supjjly of garden-produce, meadov^s covered with verdure instead of snow, in the first fortnight of Novem- ber— all which facts we find recorded in the Public Ledr/er of 1818, and quoted by Luke Howard iu his Climate of London, who further observes that the few nocturnal frosts that oc- curred up to the 12th of December of the year in question were so slight as to permit the nasturtiums — the tenderest of our autumnal garden-flowers — to continue to vegetate, and that other indications of the mildness of the season were equally striking. Here, then, we find two anomalies, the observation of which appears to be verified both by the tradition of ages and by the precise investigations of meteorologists. Doubtless, it is not a rare thing to find in the course of a year analogous per- turbations ; but for the most part these are merely local varia- tions, irregular in their dates, and consequently deficient in that periodicity li^hich characterises the refrigeration of the first days of May, and the increase of temperature in the first fortnight of November. Thirdly, we find two other dates which have equally struck the patient, if rude, observers of the fields and the seasons. Wliercas most rural proverbs are equivocal and conditional, those relating to the " Icy Saints" and " St. Martin's Sum- mer" are affirmative, which is a rare characteristic of such popular sayings. One of these dates is the 6th of February (St. Dorothea in the French calendar), which is said to bring " deeper snow ;" the other is the 10th of August or St. Laurence, which is also a critical period for the French farmers ; but, like the 6th of February, it is less remarked and passes off, so to speak, unperceived. The reason is obvious : when the temperature is rising rapidly, as in May, a sudden refriger- ation is perceptible to everybody — it is the same in November, with respect to the sudden rise of temperature — hut a moment- ary refrigeration in the midst of a rigorous season in February, and an increase of temperature during the period of great heat in August, are only noted by those who attentively trace the variations of meteorological phenomena. It is scarcely too much to say that aU the weather-maxims of all nations are founded on fact, admitting of scientific ex- planation. At any rate, even the great French astronomer Arago, who never could be brought to beheve in the moon's influence on the weather, had the courage to admit that there are in these popular sayings important truths, which it would be better to tiy and explain rationally, rather than to deny a jxriori their possible accuracy. In every case, moreover, they may serve to place us on the track of phenomena, the existence of which may have escaped our more methodical observations. Now, this result has actually happened witli respect to the periodic perturbations in the temperature of the mouths of May and November, February and August, as handed down from time immemorial by these popular weather-maxims. Induced by these rural weather-proverbs of the French, M. C. St. Claire Deville has recently investigated the subject, and his conclusions, after immense research, are positive as to the per- turbations of the earth's temperature, coincident, from time immemorial, with about the first fortnight of February, May, August, and November — attaining their niaxiim/jn in certain years, whose periodicity he has been able to fix with apparent certainty. The object of this eminent meteorologist was primarily to ascertain whether the four anomalies in our terrestrial sea- sons in question, as noted by popular proverlis and verified by scientific observation, were really constant — of an incontest- able periodicity — and what were the limits of their action ; for of course, if the character of these facts could not be esta- blished, it would have been utterly useless to try and compare them with phenomena of another order. Examining in the first place, in its totality, a somewhat considerable period of fifty-seven years, comprised between 1806 and 18G3, then another of forty years, between 1816 and 1856, M. Deville discovered that from the 10th to the 16th, or from the 11th to the loth of each of the months of Feb- ruary, May, August, and November, the thermoraetric per- turbation is clearly traceable, with the exception of the last, which, however, exhibits at most an increase in the refrigera- tion of the first days, followed by a decrease in the last days, of November. Other documents — for example, 110 years of thermometric observation at Berlin — exhibit, for the 11th, 12th, and 13th of jMay, a very remarkable lowering of the temperature. But of the four periods the most marked seems to be that of February. A mere glance through the meteorological -records of Luke Howard, for a long series of years, discloses the same perturba- tion of temperatirre at the respective dates or the periods in question. So far, the statistical method adopted by ]\I. DeviUe consists in calculating the mean temperature of the same date for a series of years, according to numbers which themselves ex- pi'ess the mean temperature of the days in question. Tliis is the method generally adopted in physical researches. Its chief advantage consists in enabling us to eliminate from ac- cidental variations those constant variations which permit us to establish the law of any phenomenon. On the other hand, however, this method is attended with the serious liability of masking under an artificial uniformity the real anomalies by which the periodicity of the phenomenon is effected. If em^ THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE. 393 ployed alone, without the control exerted by the examination of the maxima and the minima, it may lead to erroneous con- clusions. Jl. Deville was perfectly aware of the liability of error, without these precautious. His object was to verify a theory suggested as far back as 1840 by Professor Hermann, of Berlin, in a letter to the French astronomer Arago, couched in the following terms : " The two swarms, or currents, of asteroids (planetary bodies) which the earth meets on the ecliptic, respectively about the lUth of August and the 13th of November, annually intervene between the earth and the sun, the first during the days of the 5th and 11th of February, the second from the 10th to the 15th of May. Each of these conjunctions annually causes, at these dates, a very remark- able extinction of the lieaiing rays of the sail, and thereby lo\vers the temperature at all points of the surface of the globe." The great display of these meteors on the evening of the 13th of November, 1833, was perfectly appalling. The num- ber exhibited every quarter of an hour was not less than 10,000, being at the rate of 40,000 per hour ; and as the phe- nomenon lasted for seven hours, the total number must have greatly exceeded 380,000. It may therefore be inferred that on this memorable night of the l'3-13th November, 1833, at least 300,000 masses forming part of the solar system, and foreign to the earth, passed through the atmosphere of Boston, United States. From the apparent magnitude of many of the meteors, and their probable distance, it was conjectured that they were bodies of a very large size, although it was impos- sible to ascertain their magnitude with any certainty. It was supposed that they were only stopped in the atmosphere, and prevented from reaching the earth, by transferring their mo- tion to columns of air, large volumes of which they would sud- denly and violently displace. It was remarkable that the state of the ^veather and the conditions of the seasons follow- ing this meteoric shower were just such as might have been anticipated from these disturbing circumstances of the atmo- spheric equilibrium. In connection with the subject we may remind the reader that " shooting stars" have always been considered signs of weather ; and another Frenchman, M. Coulvier-Gravier, who has investigated them in this point of view, believes that they show the direction of the coming wind ; that their slow motion foretells a calm to ensue, or to continue if it exists ; in fact, he says they are our anemometers or weather-cocks in the upper regions of the sky. M. Deville's object, however, was different. It was not only to verify the perturbations in temperature before mentioned, but also to discover if these perturbations are or are not con- nected with the epochs of the periodic returns of these meteors or shooting stars. But, as he began the investigation without any preconceived idea respecting the nature of the relations that might exist between the two series of phenomena, he did not content himself with a general consideration of the obser- vatious on which it is based. Besides, the facts so long known suggested of themselves a different kind of examination. It was known that the apparition of meteors under the name of shooting stars were subjected — in their maxima — to consider- able variations. For instance, the apparitions of November vary in a period of about thirty-four years. Two very brilliant maxima occurred in 1779 and in 1833. From the last date the phenomenon has diminished in intensity almost to disappear- ance— although sufficiently remarkable last year — to recom- mence its ascending march, which it will attain, according to the prediction of Olbers, in 1867, or next year. In like manner the ap])aritions of August presented a maximum about the years 1847 and 1848. He had therefore to discover whether the temperature of the days forming the critical periods exhibited corresponding variations in the refrigerations of May and February, as in the opposite effects in August and November. With tliis object M. Deville made two different comparisons. He took two periods of ten years, in the midst of which were found the maxima in 1833 and in 1848, calculated for those periods the temperatures of the critical days, and compared the results cither with those of the period of fifty-seven years before mentioned, or among themselves. The result is, that in February and May, the 13th of the month is always the centre of an oscillation of temperature. Ouly, in February, the oscillation of the period 1843-1855, or ef the maxlmnm of the asteroids of August, is long and con- siderable ; while the oscillation of the period 1839-1839, or of the maximniii of the asteroids of November, is very short and very feeble, and inversely for the month of May. We may therefore conclude from this double circumstance that the passage of ihe earth in the vicinity of the groups or clusters of asteroids is the cause of the remarkable oscillations of tem- perature in February and May. But it is important to add, that if these two periods mani- festly show oscillations on certain days the direction of the oscLUatious are sometimes inverse. This remark is of a nature to complicate in a great degree the nature of these coinci- dences. How, indeed, if the lowering of the temperature is in certain cases correlative with an interposition of the meteors, can we reconcile the hypothesis with the absolutely contrary effect of a conjunction coincident with an increase of temper- ature ? But, before seeking a rational explanation of the facts, the first duty of an in([uirer who is honestly desirous of dis- covering the truth in any investigation, is to verify and estab- lish the facts without shutting his eyes to any of the anomalies which they present. If the thermometric perturbations of the four months in question are due to cosmical causes — if they present a relation, as to their origin, \ritli the passage of shooting stars, the entire earth should experience them at the same time. So far the meteorological documents brought to support this relation belong exclusively to stations in the uorthern hemisphere and the temperate latitudes. Is the same effect apparent in the regions of the torrid zone and the southern hemisphere ? Now, eight years' observations made at St. Louis on the Senegal (latitude 11 deg. 35 min. N., longitude 11 deg. 15 min. W.), show a remarkable lowering of the temperature, on one hand, for the six days of Feln-uary comprised between the 13th and 17th ; on the other, for the period from the 8tli to the 13th of May. Again, the perturbation of the month of August is specially remarkable at the island of St. Helena, according to seven years' observation; at Hobart Town, Australia; and at Papehete in Haiti, respectively for eight aud three years. In the two last stations the oscillations of February and Novetn- ber are nearly nuU, but the maximum of August is, on the con- trary, very evident and very strong. ]\Ioreover, we may observe that the month of August is the coldest of the year in the southern hemisphere, so that, " as in the northern hemisphere, it is the coldest month in the southern that suffers the greatest oscillation." M. DeviUe has found in other series of thermometric ob- servations made at Calcutta, Madras, and British Guyana, the the confirmation of this extension of the perturbations to the tropical regions. Moreover, we may remark that the pheno- menon is strikingly apparent in the years 1833-34-35, that is, at one of the critical epochs which we have mentioned, and bearing out our suggestion. But if the refrigeration be caused by a sort of eclipse of the sun effected by these small planetary bodies clustered to- gether, how are we to account for their producing an increase of temperature in August and November? The reply is, that whilst in February aud May they merely intercept a portion of the heat radiated by the sun to the earth, they, on the con- trary, in August and November, as solid bodies, check aud diminish the earth's radiation in space, and also retard her re- fiigeration by returning to her a portion of the heat which they themselves receive from the sun. M. Deville has not restricted his attention to the thermo- metric elements of the question ; the barometic pressure, the tension of watery vapour in the atmosphere, the ozouometric means have been added by him to the tables which indicate not only the mean temperature of each day, but also the ex- cess of each day, at noon and at the hour of the diurnal maximum, by a thermometer with a blackcfted bulb compared with an ordinary one, exposed near it in the shade. All these elements have verified tlie perturbations already attested by previous documents, and, according to M. Deville, " they justify us in believing that these periodic perturbations are accompanied by a modification in the eft'ects of the solar radia- tion, and in the proportions of ihatac/irr pri/icijjle — whatever may be its nature — which changes the colour of paper im- pregnated \\dfh iodide of potassium," namely, ozone. The ozouometric observations made with the greatest assiduity by Dr. Beriguy, at Versailles, confirm those of M. Peville madfl in the environs of Boulogne, 894 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. " Do not all tliese considerations," observes M. Deville, "al- mDst necessarily lead us to infer the influence of tliese critical periods — by their sudden variations of temperature — not only on tJie health of the vegetable creation, but on that of the human race ? Should we not examine the registers of hos- pitals to see if certain diseases are not more frequent on cer- tain days of certain years ? Can we not even go back to the past, and see — in the history and chronicles of past ages — if there was some trace of periodicity in certain great perturba- tions in the health of nations — like the invasions of cholera, which occurred in 1832 and in 1849 — about the centre of the two critical periods, and which came from the nurth like the Aurora Borealis ? since it seems also that it is the great atmos- pheric waves that propagate the perturbations of temperature." When M. Deville suggested the connection of the visitation of cholera with tliese cosmical perturbations of temperature, lie had no idea of the iiopending outbreak, nor of the catlle plaffiie which has not as yet ended its ravages. Whilst the other years of partial outbreak of cholera and influenza coincide with similar atmospheric perturbations, we have now apparently established the period of serenteeti years for the great manifestations of this terrible disease — 1832, 1849, 1S6C ! At any rate, there seems good ground for believing that we liave at length got a clue to the periodicity of this dreadful plague ; and if so, the advantage we may take of the fact — if such it be — will be attended with immense results in enabling us to prepare for its future visitations. The present or apjiarent lull in the ravages of cholera should not mislead us into a fancied security. The unseason- ably low temperature of late 1ms given us a respite — probably nothing more. The germ of the disease exists among us ; and a change in the weather to heat and moisture which may be reasonably expected, may, as of old, intensify the violence of the scourge. It is usual to say that to be fore-warned is to be fore-armed ; but then we must resolve to help ourselves in the present instance by redoubled sanitary precautions, if, under Providence, we wish to entertain any reasonable hope of lessening our national wounds in so terrible a conflict. X. WHAT MAY BE DONE IN BAD HARVEST WEATHER. It would be difficult to find throughout the meteorological records of the present century a year more unfavourable than the present for harvest operations The hopes and fears of early spring and advancing summer have at length settled down to the conviction, if not that " all is lost," at any rate, that all is more or less damaged — the harvest of this year a failure. Nor is this the case only in England. Other coun- tries have suffered as much — Germany, Italy, France, and the United States. Russia and Spain appear to be the only fa- voured lands this year, having had an excellent wheat har- vest. In England the result is aggravated by the belief, pretty generally maintained, that the yield is good — if we could only secure it. This has been the most fickle and difficult weather for harvest since 18G0. Corn has been got up by " snatches" as it is termed, and although some of our farmers have finished their harvest, many acres of wheat are yet to be cut, while a great extent of land is covered with shocks of wheat and mown barley and oats, which are literally spoiling from the incessant rains. Fine crops of both wheat and barley are sprouting, and will doubtless turn out much discoloured, and only fit for cattle feeding. As a consequence of this deplor- able state of things, the labouring classes wiU be immediately affected by the protracted harvest, as the loss of time occa- sioned by the wet weather will reduce their earnings to about ordinary day-wages. There has scarcely been a thoroughly good harvest day in August ; clouds or rain have ruled it throughout, as well as the first fortnight of the present month. There certainly is a reasonable hope that we have already had the great majority of rainy days which constitute the average of September, even in a wet year ; still the state of the ground below and of the skies above makes it more than probable that the grain will be exposed yet awhile to occasional showers, and a temperature sufficient to entail all the evil effects of secondary germina- tion, or final must or smut, which has damaged many a crop even more favourably gathered than the present is likely to be. A most perishable property is thus at the mercy of the ele- ments, and lies like a wreck before the hopeless proprietor. His harvest is being drowned, and he cannot save it. Such is the account which we read on all hands, and it re- mains for us to consider the subject in all its bearings, iu order to see if certain measures could not be generally adopted, which, if they did not enable us quite to bid defiance to the elements, might at least place us in a much better position than we enjoy at present. No doubt that science, skill, and capital have done wonders for agriculture. Drainage, manuring, the choice and rotation of crops have brought farming almost to perfection. We are enabled, so to speak, to do just what we like with the soil. But, unfortunately, when we have done everything that ought to be done — we find ourselves helpless at the last moment ; the art of man seems to fail at the critical juncture when the crop is to be got in. After a year's continual labour and anxiety the farmer all at once becomes hopeless, and sees nothing to be done but to " wait for the fine day" that will not come, or that only comes just to set the grain sprouting, and then give way to a run of bad weather ! We believe that a little more attention to his weather- instruments, a little more knowledge of the scientific principles of the weather, would be an advance iu the right direction by the farmer, since it might enable him to avail himself of the respite, however short, which the weather may give him on such occasions. The man who has courage to begin his operations nnder an unfavourable sky, but with good ground to conclude, from the state of his instruments and his collateral knowledge, that a fair interval is approach- ing, may often be profiting by his observations, whilst his cautious neighbour, who lias waited "for the weather to settle," may find that he has let go the opportunity. This superiority, however, is attainable by a very moderate share of application to the subject, and by keeping a plain diary of the barometer, the rain-gauge, the hygrometer, and the vane under his daily notice. Surely it will be better for the farmer to guide himself in this matter, from season to season, from month to month, from week to week, and from day to day, according to the simple principlgs suggested in these articles, rather than trust to almanacs or predictions, which, by the very nature of the things themselves, can rarely be applicable to every locality in the kingdom, even \^hen not entirely fallacious. On the other hand, is it absolutely necessary that a crop should be left standing long after it is necessary to be cut, or left lying for weeks after it is ready to be carried ? In the North of Europe they actually dry their com in kilns, as being better than losing it altogether. Indeed, if the fanners of these regions waited for the weather to " settle," they would never be able to settle their accounts, in their uncertain seasons. In like manner, the Irish and the Normans and Bretons of France make up their minds to expect rain, and collect their crops in small ricks all over the field, and thus escape a greater injury by the certain amount of loss there must be in this process. Here in England, it is now abundantly evident that we must expect five or six rainy summers in succession, apparently in consequence of some law of compensation. The same thing has occurred before. In 181G or 1817, we forget which, bean- crops stood out ungathered till Christmas, and the stacked wheat had to be taken out to be dried, to check germination, when it was found to have sprouted. Although we may not be able to ascertain the exact cycles of bad weather, it is surely sufficient to know that sometliing of the kind exists, and, therefore, that we should devise and employ the means of counteracting their disastrous effects. There are two" things to which we mnst call attention, which appear to be opposed to the chance — for such it is — of being able always to secure the harvest, in our uncertain cli- mate. Not content with endeavouring to force the soil to the ut- most by means of stimulating manures, we make it subserve a double function : we grow grass or clover-seed with the barley or oats, so that, when the graiu-crop has been gathered, we may find the field ready laid down with green food. No doubt this plan is considered a capital idea. It brings down two birds at one shot, but only provided we have a good, genial season. What must happen, if it turn out to be wet ? Wliy, our double crop is rendered more retentire of the vet, and the more important crop must suffer. This fact may ac- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 395 couut for tlie relanlalion Of the harvest, even iu seasous less favourable than the past. Secondly, the want of siraw makes us blind to the conse- quences of waiting until we can secure it in the greatest abundance. Straw is more valuable than it was formerly : more is done with it : it is in demand. Therefore, it will not do to cut the corn short, " with only a hand's-breadth of stalk," as was tlie custom of old. We must have all we can get of it ; and so we must wait for the weather, until we tan secure as much straw as possible, together with the grain. Our greediness makes us wait ; and so we wait until we find ourselves " in the lurch," as at present. We must take the consequence, if we persist in tliis determination. In foreign countries, and in accordance with the ancient agricultural usage, long straw is lett on the ground, to be ploughed-in for tlie benefit of the future crop. It seems wasteful to us ; but it is a true gain, because it is in accord-, ance with the requirements of Nature that something should be left to her out of what she yields for our benefit. If, in addition to the fact of enabling us to get the utmost from the soil, science can devise a satisfactory plan for permit- ting us to go on as we have been doing, and yet be able always to supplement the requisite drying process by artiJicial means, then we may become, in a measure, independent of the season. From the papers it appears that grain is now largely dried, and even brought from bad condition into good, by currents of air forced through it by steam-power. If in former times mere ventilation answered the purpose, surely our powerful mecha- nical appliances will succeed much better. We can not only dry a blanket in five minutes by machinery, but drive thou- sands of cubic feet of air per minute tlirough a mile's length in our coal-pits, and employ the same process in a variety of ways in our manufactories, and in effecting expeditious loco- motion. Such is the problem for science to solve, with respect to the drying of our crops ; and, judging by analogy, we see no rea- son why the thing should not succeed as easily as in the dry- ing of a blanket. XI. WHAT BECOMES OF THE SHOWERS? " What's the use of all this rain ?" is one of those questions the answer to which involves far more than we are aj)t to imagine. Such, certainly, is the case with the answer to tlie above question, and the investigation which it pre-supposes is one of the most interesting in the domain of science. On the other hand, we may observe that the implication as to the quantify in " all this rain " is apt to be vastly exagge- rated. The quantity of water, cither in snow or rain, that aunually falls on the surface of the earth is much less con- siderable than we fancy from the number of rainy days in the year, and even from those implacable down-pours which sometimes last for entire days and nights in succession. The " deluging" rains of the tropics — where it does, indeed, rain as nowhere else — do not positively produce more than eight inches of water in twelve hours ; and in our latitudes, when we hear of Hoods and inundations, as recently from the heavy downpour of the 2yth ult. in various parts of the coun- try, the absolute rainfall does not much exceed one inch and a quarter. The rain-gauge is the only test iu this matter, audit dispels the delusion. But, indeed, according to M. Becquerel, if the entire quantity of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere at any time were condensed into one diluvian downpour, it could not produce a depth of more than/o«/' inches of water on the surface of the globe. Surely this is more than enough to give us an idea of the small quantity of water that falls even in the heaviest showers. Moreover, we have ever .and anon to complain of its deliciency, whilst surrounded by its great source, the world-encircling ocean. A great portion of the surface of our planet is covered with water. The ocean drapes it round about as witli a graceful garment, disclosing here and there mucli that is charming, and elsewhere what is anything but charming. If her surface be represented by 1, then the diiferent seas and oceans united to- gether would be expressed .by 0.75, or, in plain language, three- quarters — without, liowever, including the various lakes, ponds, marshes, rivers, streams, and rivulets. Moreover, the dark in- terior of the eartli herself contains an immense quantity of water, since we meet with water wherever we dig. In the cutting through marly clay for the railway from Tours to Bor- deaux, between the valleys of the Cher and the Iiulrr, M. Rozet discovered an immense quantity of filets of water, Miliich crossed each other in every direction, aud which might be compared to the veins in the body of an animal. Indeed, one cannot lielp considering water as the blood of the earth, which certain philosophers have considered a liriiig tieiag, with all the plants and animals preying upon her surface or skin, after the fashion of the parasites or very disagree- able insects which prey upon the skin of every animal. The soundings made for the construction of Artesian wells, or weUs delivering water from great depths, show that there exist at very considerable depths immense masses and even currents of water ; aud it is these subterranean waters that give rise to all the water-courses on the surface, as well as the fountains and the lakes. Now, as water is constantly changing into vapour at all tem- peratures—even when in the state of ice — all the water on the surface of the earth, and consequently in its interior, would become exhausted after a certain lapse of time, if there were no means of compensating its losses. This means is the pre- cipitation of the vapour dispersed in the atmosphere — by dew, by snow, and by rain. As the level of the ocean, which is the great reservoir of the waters, has not varied for ages, as far as oliservation goes, it follows that the quantity of water contin- ually carried off by evaporation is immediately restored by the precipitation of vapour. This fact involves the necessity of rain falling at all times upon a certain extent of the earth's surface ; for the dew that falls every night could not alone compensate for evaporation. In effect, we know for certain that the seasons of sunshine in certain countries correspond to the seasons of showers in others, and rice rersd. Even in a country, rain is never or seldom general, any more than drouglit — at any rate, in our latitudes ; hence, as previously observed, the absurdity of the almanac weather-predictions for every day in the year, without specifying the locality. Kain, then, is indispensable for the maintenance of the universal equilibrium of the waters covering a portion of the surface of our planet, which nourish in their interior an im- mense number of living beings, plants, and animals, and serve to quench the tliirst of those which live on the surface. We all know the great influence of rain on the progress of vegetation, and that those countries which are deprived of it, without any watery compensation — such as the deserts of central Africa — are stricken with eternal sterility. It is not only by the moisture which it conveys to the soil that rain supports vegetation. Rain carries dowii with it a certain quantity of ammonia, from which the plants derive nitrogen — a gas which is indispensable to their growth. It also intro- duces into the soil the detritus of animals and plants, which decay, without any benefit to vegetation, in those countries where it never rains. By moistening the manure which the cultivator buries in the soil, rain facilitates its absorption by plants. Finally, it is probable that it is by means of the de- composition of the water which they absorb that jilants pro- cure a great portion of their hydrogen, if it be not, indeed, all their hydrogen. It is quite certain that more than 75 per cent, of all plants and animals consists of water ; so that, after all, we may fairly be amazed at the tliought of the size, the strength, the vigour, and all the other manifestations of plants, trees," and animals, man included, all which would vanish into nought were they deprived of the water in them, which is more than tliree-fourths of their entire substance ! The masses and watercourses underground, by reason of the capillarity and the property which water has of penetrating into all permeable bodies that touch it, sufl'er continual looses from the quantity of water which they send to the surface of the soil, on all the points where there is no permeable layer, like potters' earth, betwixt the surface and themselves. Now, this is the means which, in a great measure, supports vege- tation during drought. Anyone may convince himself of this fact by delving under sucli parts of a field or piece of ground iu which the "plants appear greener tlian in others, when he will find the soil moister than elsewhere, and moist even when the remainder is absolutely dry. Evidently this moisture can be derived only from the interior. In all the oases of the deserts, whore it never rains, water is fonnd by digging to a small depth ; and it is to its presence that tiiose countries owe their beautiful vegetation iu the midst of arid sands. That water certainly comes from the interior of the earth by cur- rents issuing from ths mountains v/hicli border the deserts ; nnd these o;Ws arc points liitualed above those currents, over 396 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. which there happen to be no impermeable layers between them and the soil, or above interior reservoirs in which water has accumulated, and which are covered only with sand. Thus the aridity of the deserts is not only due to the fact that it never rains there, as has been supposed, but also to the fact that an impermeable layer prevents the subterranean waters from mounting up to the surface of the soil. It is generally believed that the subterranean waters are supplied by those of the rains and snows which filter gra- dually through the soU; but, according to M. Rozet's ex- perience and observation, it seems certain that rain-water never penetrates to a great depth in our arable soils which are permeable to water, but which have no fissures. It requires more than one day's continual rain to moisten cultivated soil, after an ordinary drought, to the depth of eight inches ; and after the heaviest rains, continued for several days in succes- sion, the soil is not moistened beyond the depth of forty inches. But, indeed, this fact becomes at once apparent by observing the small depth of the layer of water that generally falls in a heavy shower. Moreover, all this water does not pene- trate into the soil : a great portion of it runs on the surface to the rivulets, rivers, &c. A portion of that which penetrates into the earth is pumped up by the plants, which pour back again a great part of it into the atmosphere. The currents of air, in sweeping the surface of the soil, carry off fi'om it, at every instant, a portion of the moisture which gets into it, Finally, the natural heat of the soil reduces into vapour a part of the water which it receives. From all these causes united, it happens that the water which penetrates through the particles of arable soils can never descend to a certain depth, and that a few dry days will suffice to exhaust it entirely. It follows, therefore, that the water which supplies the subterranean reservoirs does not get there by penetrating the earth above them, as a mass of sand. It passes through the fissures of rocks, which are very numerous, especially in mountainous countries, being, as it were, nature's rain-gauges on the everlasting hills : hence the fact that such countries are situated betwixt the great reservoirs of the subterranean waters. Certain meteorologists say that the mountains are regions of reservoirs because it rains more on mountains than on plains ; but it happens to be just the contrary. It certainly raius oftener on mountains, but the annual rainfall of mountains is less than that of the plains at their feet. This is an incon- testable fact, and it must be evident even from the considera- tion of mere -altitude or height ; all other conditions being equal, the greater the height of a locality the less the rainfall as shown by the rain-gauge. The summits only get, as it were, a slice of the showery column. On the other hand, it appears that when rain takes place with a turbid atmosphere, a considerable and variable propor- tion of the water is actually separated from the vaporous me- dium at a height not exceeding 50 feet ; but in showers from an elevated region, falling through an air which is not itself undergoing decomposition, the products ought to be alike above and below. Again, during the heats of summer a por- tion of the rain falling from an elevated region of the atmo- sphere is vaporized near the surface by the heat of the latter. If such be the case, of course elevated gauges will give greater results than those on the ground. It rains oftener on the mountains than on the plains because their summits, in popular parlance, attracts the clouds. Elec- tricity, perhaps, plays a great part in this phenomenon ; but we are very far as yet from having settled the point. What is certain is, that the elevated summits of mountains, radiating in all directions into space, cool more than the soil of the plateaux situated below them, whilst they are also frequently surrounded with snows and glaciers. They are, therefore, regions of mhimium temperature, which condenses the vajiours in their sphere of refrigeration, and compels them to form clouds. In Italy much less rain falls at the south than at the north of the Apennines ; and a vast deal more falls at Bergen, at the foot of the Scandinavian Alps, than at Chambery, at the foot of Mont Blanc. The snow which at certain seasons covers the surface of the soU, finally melting, below the limit of perpetual snow, also supplies the earth with a great quantity of water, which moistens it more than the rains ; in fact, the melting of the snow being generally slow, the ground can continually absorb its products ; whereas a great portion of the water from heavy showers flows over the soil, following the lines of the greatest slope towards the bed of rivulets and rivers, as before stated. On the other hand, the snow, remaining and preserving the surface which it covers from the contact of the air, prevents to a great extent the evaporation of the water which filters through ; moreover, during the snow season the ground is much less covered witli vegetation than during the rainy sea- son, and we have just stated that plants continually carry ofi" from the soil in which they live a notable portion of the water which it has absorbed. It is not only by means of the water with which it furnishes it that snow is useful — very useful to vegetation. Snow is also a huge screen interposed between the surface of the soil and the celestial spaces ; it obstructs the radiation of the soil's heat into space ; it enables the surface to cool much less rapidly than when uncovered by its woolly flakes : moreover, its white colour reduces the radiating power of the soil to the utmost. It is therefore certain that snow preserves tlie earth from cold during winter. M. Rozet established this fact by direct and careful experi- ment during the last ten days of January, 1855, when the country round about Paris was covered with snow S.Si inches in thickness. He found that the temperature of tlie air might diminish to a very great extent \\ithout the plants buried in the snow being in any danger from excessive cold. Moreover, during a thaw, the snow prevents them from passing suddenly from a low to a higher temperature, which is of itself the fre- quent cause of destruction to many of them when miprotected by snow. Hence, in northern countries, and in the regions of the Alps, the plants, especially the cereals, emerge perfectly vigorous from beneath the snow which has covered them for many months in the hardest winters. It is well known that wheat and many other plants vegetate under the snow at the very time when similar plants are destroyed by the cold in un- covered places. It is an established fact, in our latitudes, that those years whose winters are very snowy yield the most abun- dant harvests ; and that when trees have been covered with hoar-frost during winter they produce an abundant crop of fruit. It even appears, from tlie experiments alluded to, that snow in the vicinity maintains the temperature of the soil which may be uncovered, to a limited extent. The surface of mountains cools more rapidly than that of plains, and there are two causes of the dift'erence : first, their great elevation ; and secondly, because, as isolated places, they lose a great amount of heat by radiation. Now, if during winter that surface remained naked, the great intensity of the cold might destroy both tlie plants which grow there naturally and those cultivated by man : thus, the snow preserves tliem from this calamity. Some such function as this, we mean the preservation of the earth's internal heat, must be subserved by the perpefnal snows of different regions. Those huge isolated mountains would be vast radiators of the earth's heat if the line of perpetual snow did not interpose its veto. So we find that this line gets lower just in proportion to the necessity for preserving heat in the different latitudes. Thus, it is highest on the mountains near the equator (where there is plenty of heat to spare), and then goes on descending lower and lower, until, in fact, it has no elevation at all, snow being perpetual on the surface in the Polar Regions.* On ordinary mountains the snow melts at the commencement of the warm seasons, and yields the water which, trickling through the numerous fissures of the rocks, goes to fill the subterranean reservoirs whence issue the rivulets whose combi- nation forms the rivers which flow at the bottom of the valleys, making them fruitful, and then flow in the plains, where man makes use of them to water his plants, to give motion to his mills, and to transport his produce, merchandize, and bulky materials. Thus, is the house of man built up by the Jack of snow, in the order of Providence. Admirable is the harmony that exists between all the phenomena which we have described. As before observed, according to the organisation of living * Accordincr to Humboldt there is constant snow on moun- tains near the equator, at 15,700 feet ; at 20 deg. lat., 15,000 feet ; at 45 deg. lat., 8,300 feet ; and at 66 deg. lat., 4,900 feet. According to M. Renou, the relation of the perpetnal snow line is as follows : In all countries of the earth the limit of perpetual snow is the altitude at which the hottest half of the year has a mean iemperaitire e/jiial to 32 dec/, Fah. THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 397 beings, all of which contain a certain quantity of water, life could not be developed without the intervention of this liquid. A vast layer of water covers a portion of our globe, and masses more or less considerable circulate in its interior. In order to distribute this beneficent liquid to all organized beings wliich are not plunged in it, the earth is surrounded by a gaseous envelope — the atmosphere — designed to act as a vehicle to water ; under the influence of the heat of the sun and the pro- per heat of tlie earth, the water rises slowly, and in the shape of molecules, into the atmosphere, until the lowering of the tem- perature brings it back into the solid state. Forces wliicli are as yet unknown to us, but among wliich are certainly electrical influences, keep the vapour of water in the solid state, and also in the vesicular state in suspension in the atmosphere, in the upper' regions where the air is exceedingly rarefied. In these two states, vapour may form, for a considerable time, homo- geneous layers which are not always visilile below ; but cir- cumstances, still unknown to us, determine certain groupings in these layers whicli finally produce clouds. It is a sort of summons which bids the vapour to prepare to descend again into the reservoirs whence it went forth before. Soon after the two species of clouds, the icy and the vesicular, are formed, they unite to descend together, at first in the shape of snow, which dissolves into rain on reaching tlie lower regions. A portion of the water which falls upon the earth goes di- rectly into the ocean, the lakes, the water-courses ; a second portion goes to tlie same destination after flowing over the soil ; the tliird filters into tlie earth through the fissures of the rocks to go and compensate for the losses of the subterranean reservoirs ; and, finally, the fourth is almost immediately restored to the atmospliere by means of the expiration of plants and the evaporation caused by the proper heat of the earth. Thus, there exists a continual and universal circulation in the terrestrial reservoirs of water, even up towards the high regions of the air, and from there towards the same reservoirs. It is an endless chain in perpetual motion. This perpetual movement brings to each living being the quantity of water it needs, whilst, at the same time, it tempers the heat of the sun in summer, and the intensity of cold in winter. Both, espe- cially the former, would be intolerable without the moisture of the air. Such is the simplicity of the mechanism which gives and secures existence to so many millions of organised beings, and we have, literally, only to open our eyes to see it in operation, and to comprehend it in its totality. The least we can say is — Thank God for it ! XII. THE RAINFALL OF SEPTEMBER. Throughout the meteorological records of the climate of England we find no parallel to the weather of September last in rainfall, although, oddly enough, the mean temperature of the month happens to have been just about the average. In this most important respect — in connection with the liealth of mankind and vegetation — the September of last year was just the reverse. Far from decreasing as usual, the tem- perature rose higher. There was excessive heat and continuous drought, to which is attributed the development of a multitude of diseases, especially in France, where many places liad no rain from the beginning of September to the end of October : the largest rivers manifested the failure of their waters : in- sects re-appeared, just as in the beguining of spring : flies were especially numerous during this strange month. As to the general condition of Europe during the month of September, 1S05, there were storms in Russia and Italy on the first three days ; in the Baltic, from the 4tli to the 0th ; in the North of France, on the 7th and 9th. From the 16th to the 23rd there was fine weather in France and in Central Europe ; but on the last-named day there was a storm in the Channel and in Spain, whilst fine weather existed in France. From the 27th to the 30th of September the weather was alternately fine and over- cast, with incessant variations of temperature, which have been very injurious to the public health. Such was the September of 1865. The changes in the state of the atmosphere in autumn, which commences on the 8th of September, are all referable to one and the same cause — the return of the sun to the south. The heat declining daily, the store of vapour in tlie atmosphere undergoes a coutiuued decomposition j the loss of weight or pressure arising from which is made up, as in summer, by an equal production of new vapour. Hence a declining barometer, with extensive heavy rains, but chiefly in the latter part of the season. The whole increase, derived on the average of the liarometer in spring and summer, is thus disposed of, and the atmosphere returns to its minimum weight or pressure. From the more saturated state of the air, the evaporation falls short of the temperature ; and the hygrometer — at the same mean temperature — exhibits an average of about 8 degrees more moisture than in spring (79.3 against 87 — saturation being equal to 100). In general, and as we expect, the fore-part of this season is, in spite of these meteorological conditions, the most delightful period of the year in our cUmate. When the decomposition of vapour, from the decline of the lieat, is as yet but at its com- mencement, or wlule the electricity remaining in the air con- tinues to give buoyancy to the suspended particles, a delicious calm often prevails for many days in succession, amidst a per- fect sunshine, mellowed by the vaporous air, and diffusing a rich golden tint as the day declines upon the landscape. The past September has been otherwise. Instead of the stratus cloud (its usual attendant) — the lowest and most singular of cloud-laud, coining forth in the evenings to occupy the low plains and valleys, and shroud the landscape in a veil of mist, until revisited by the sun — we had notliing but nimbus or rain cloud, positively every day of the month in some part of the country, if not everywhere. At Leeds, on the morning of the 5th, there was a canopy of cloud, which occasioned a darkness as dense as midnight, lasting about a quarter-of-an-hour, during which the gas was lighted all over the town, and out- door occupations were completely suspended. With respect to the barometrical pressure of September, we may observe that during the month the greater oscillations be- gin to come on again, in proportion as the temperature decUnes, and the two great currents (polar and equatorial) get more interchange of direction northward and southward. Hence the range of the barometer is usually very great — ac- cording to Luke Howard's observations, 1.51 inches; but during last September the range did not exceed, if it ever reached, 1 inch, and yet the month was characterized by the prevalence of gales and excessive rainfall. The maximum reading of the barometer in London was, on the ISth, 30.09 in. ; the lowest, on the 22nd, 29.20 in. The mean temperature of the month was 58 deg., or 7 degs. higher tlian the last seven years' mean, and the daily range of tem- perature has been very great : hence the increase of cholera and generaj unhealthiness of the month. The degree of mean humidity was 85. The prevailing winds of September are generally the class S. — W., but during the last month we had W. and S.W, winds almost incessantlij . At Portsmouth there was a destructive gale on the 6th ; and in Cornwall, both on the 4th and 6th, a hurricane raged vidtli fearful violence, broke down fragments of timber trees, which, acting as a harrier, choked up the de- scending streams, and produced great floods. During the last week the general direction of the wind was S.E., attended with some of the heaviest rainfall of the month for instance, at Wakefield, on the 2-itli, 0.77 inch, at Clifton, on the 27th, 0.61 inch, at Manchester, Eccles, and Clifton, on the 28th, 0.77 inch, 0.70, and 0.71, respectively ; at Birmingham, on the 24th, 1.17 inches. Thus the heaviest rain came with S.E. wind from the Continent, as observed to be the case in a previous article. But in accordance with the apparent insufficiency of the barometric fall to account for these violent atmospheric commotions, the direction of the winds at times demon- strated a conflict of the two currents, polar and equatorial. Thus (as recorded by Mr. Allnatt, in his letter to the Times) ^ on the 11th, the whole day was gusty and tempestuous, the wind dashing from S. to N. in direct movement, and retro- grading to S.S.E., thus describing an almost instantaneous arc of 200 degrees of the compass. In like manner, on the 14t]i, whilst its main force was almost due AV., the wind, in retro- grade and direct motion, described an arc of 300 degrees ; and on the morning of the 17th such small circular currents pre- vailed, that the vane of the weathercock on several occasions described the entire circuit of the compass. Nothing could more conclusively demonstrate the conflict of the two curieuts ; in fact, the eminently " unsettled wea- ther" of September can only be explained by the close proxi-^ mity of the two juaiu currents tluoughout the month—tend- E e 2 398 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ing constantly to destroy the atmospheric equilibrium alter- nately, yet ou no occasion to any great extent. The temperature of August seems to be the explanation of this state of tilings. Up to the 20th of August the mean temperature was considerably below the standard, with con- stanily clotidi/ shies throughout the month, which caused the refrigeration in spite of S. — W. winds. Then followed, during the last ten days, a degree of temperature above the aver- age. Evaporation which had been checked was then redoubled and the accumulated vapour stored over Great Britain and the neighbouring countries thus remained ever ready for con- densation into nun. On the 24th of August, according to Mr. Alnatt, there was complete saturation of the atmosphere with moisture, and the foliage of high trees poured down its accu- mulated condensation in complete showers. A continuous cloudy sky during any part of summer will ever be followed by a " rainy season," reminding us of the same in the tropics. t The rainfall of September was certainly tropical. The average rainfall of the month does not exceed 2 inches ; the number of days on which it usually tails is only 12.3 ; it is the month which stands next in point of dryness to June, being in this respect nearly equal to IMarch. Now, in the last September, raiu fell in England every day from the 1st to the 27th, and amounted in the aggregate to upwards of C| inches. On the 5tli and Gth, in various parts of the midland counties, the meadows were submerged, and all the low-lying lands were visited by disastrous floods, grain crops were destroyed, and in Leicestershire the turnpike roads in several places were laid under water. At Plymouth such rainfall had not occurred for half-a-century as that which fell during the week ending the Sth, when the ancient and pic- turesque bridge across the Plyra, and other structures, were swept away. In Cornwall the low lands presented the appear- ance of a lake, and great damage was sustained. At Malton the fall was so great as to obstruct the drains, convert the streets into rivers, and submerge the basements of several houses. So far Mr. Allnatt. According to Mr. G. Brown, the rainfall at Callington, CornwaU, was 12^ inches nearly. There was but one day without raiu during the month. Ac- cording to another correspondent, five miles north of Newport, Monmouthshire, the extraordinary quantity of 11^ inches of rain was registered during the mouth, at an elevation of 360 feet above the sea : over 2 inches on one occasion fell in 24' hours. On the Cotswold Hills, near Cheltenham, the rainfall of the month was 8.29 inches. At Seathwaite, the wettest spot in Europe, there fell 8.14< inches above its enormous average. In London it rained 25 days, and the fall at Camden Town was 3. 89 inches ; elsewhere 3.21 and 3.54- inches, which is less than London had in September, 1863. With a few exceptions, such as Portree in the Isle of Skie, and Sandwick in the Orkneys (where they had very fine weather), there was excessive rain throughout the country. In such extraordinary circumstances there is matter for re- flection. These diluvian rains have prevailed on the Continent as well, with the usual consequences — wide-spread inundations, rivers overflowing their banks ; even the Seine threatening Paris. Most of the rivers have risen from 18 to 25 feet above the ordinary level. The labourer and his cattle are every- where driven from shelter; the debris of barns and cottages float on the swelling tide ; bridges and embankments are swept away ; roads and railroads are broken up ; people in towns are moving about in boats. The destruction of property is in- calculable, and the populations will have reason to be thank- ful if it be unattended with the loss of life. Such is the ac- count received from the Continent. But this is no new calamity there : the thing is frequently recurring. The same happened in 1825, 1836, and IS^G— an ominous tea-year period, or something very like it, and corre- sponding with full, heavy, or excessive rainfall in Great Britain. Thus, in 1825, the rainfall was 26.57 inches ; in 1836, 33.49 inches , in 1846, 29.57 inches. In 1866 what will it be? It is impossible to say; but already it is far above the average ; and at Ca'.lington, Cornwall, it amounted to nearly 41 inches at the end ot September. The year 1825, not having a very excessive rainfall, gave a good harvest, followed by two good harvests in succession— that is, the price of wheat remained nearly stationary for two years (58s. Sd., 58s. 6d.) In 1830, however, the rainfaU *as excessive, and there was a bad liarvest, followed by three bad harvests in succession. In 1846 (the year of the repeal of the corn-laws), the rain was in excess, with a bad harvest, followed by another very bad harvest. In the year 1856, we escaped, but, apparently, only to be terribly punished in 1866. What are we to hope respecting next year's harvest ? And should not the farmers turn their thoughts on cjreeti crops ? We shall do well, perhaps, to make a note of the period. Any hint must be acceptable in a matter of such obscurity. This is not the only hint given to us by the present disasters ou the Coutiuent. In^a previous article, we pointed out the evil consequences to the climate — as far as the fertility of the soil is concerned — resulting from the clearance of forests, which are one of the means provided by Nature for securing adequate rainfall. They are not the only cause of rain, as must be obvious ; for rain mainly depends upon atmospheric conditions. But whilst forests tend to secure an adequate rainfall, they also constitute a natural security against inun- dations from excessive rainfall, by preventing the crumbling down of the mountain sides in landslips and ravines, the ravaging of the plains by floods carrying down vast masses of stone and gravel — all which results from the binding roots of forest-trees. Trees also prevent the freshets, almost invariably attending, of late, every spring-thaw and every autumn raiu. On the Continent, the suddenness aud rapidity of the flow of waters have been determined by baring the hills, by widening the valleys, and smoothing down the grooves through which paths were opened for the slide of tiie felled timber. As a writer in The Times puts it : " Something like a universal loosening of the cataracts of the mountains has been effected ; and the fall of the streams, from their sources to their mouths, has been increased in speed, in proportion as the filliug-up of their channels, by the accumulation of their deposits, has clogged and slackened their course in the plain. The almost total disappearance of green vegetation in the higher moun- tains, and th(! overthrow of the barrier that dense and lofty timber raised against the violence of the winds, have both affected the degree of moisture and the heat in the atmos- phere, and substituted an alternative of long droughts and sudden storms, instead of the mild and gradual transitions by which season followed season in those genial climates. At- uiospheric influences are certainly not amenable to calculation by human rule and compass. The science which reasonably aims at determining their phenomena is still in its infancy ; but there is little doubt that much of the suffering inflicted on mankind by what was attributed to the disorder of the seasons must be accounted for by their own recklessness and improvi- dence ; and that, in many cases, as in these matters of inun- dations, what was in Nature only a casual and exceptional evil, has become permanent, and been greatly aggravated by circumstances under man's free control." There is still a third hint that we may take, if we like, from these deluging rains. Why do we not take means to preserve the flood-waters ? Why has not every district and town its well-made, well-kept reservoir always ready, to prevent the ravages of inundations, and to afford a cheap and plentiful supply of the fluid which becomes so precious in the time of drought? The present system of water-companies is to inter- cept the regular flow of streams, aud reject the flood-waters. Nothing can be more wasteful. Again, some of the com- panies draw upon the natural lakes, which must eventually be exhausted, unless " heads " are raised at their outlet, to retain a quantity from the autumn and winter rains equivalent to a year's demand. All our companies should be compelled by Parliament to draw their supplies from artificial lakes. All our manufac- turing towns are situated within a moderate distance from mountain ranges, where lakes, ranging from six to eight miles long, could be formed by a " head " of from 100 to 150 feet high. The cost of these heads, according to a Times' corre- spondent, would not probably exceed £1,000,000 or £1,500,000, and the aqueduct not more than .€20,000 per mile — small sums when the importance of tlu; subject is considered. The metropolis is large enough to afford a larger cost of convey- ance. The gigantic tanks artificially formed in Ceylon would give our hydraulic engineers some idea of what will shortly be required for our increasing population. But a proper metliod should be adopted in constructing dam-heads. The bursting of the Holmftrth and Sheffield reservoirs was reaUy owing to the want of proper consolidation of the head. The modern way of forming dam-heads is by tipping waggon-load.s of eartli THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 399 weigliiug not less tliau li:dt'-a-ton — generally a ton. Of course, these large masses of earth take years to cousolidate. The earth should be carried in baskets, upon the head, tlie gangs of carriers to be so arranged tliat each quantity, after it is thrown down, sliould be trodden upon by the whole gang. Tiiis may appear, at first sight, a very expensive process ; but it has been found the cheapest and most expeditious way of coaling the mail-packets in tlic West Indies, where from fifty to one hundred tons per hour are put on board the mail-boats, carried on the heads of tlie " coloured ladies," who often con- tinue the work through the whole night. At any rate, means must be taken to consolidate the mass more effectually than at present. Such are the hints suggested to us by tlic rainfall and floods of September ; and we apprehend that their importance will recommend them to all concerned, if not to the nation at large, which is certainly very deeply interested in the matter, in all its bearings. Finally, we had better make up our minds to expect another wet year, and provide against the consequences by directing our attention to tlie roots and green crops. These wet years cling together like drops of water ; they rarely come single — thus, beginning in 1S:J7, they lasted to 1831, or rather to 1833, just seven years, more or less. In no case has a year greatly in excess been followed by an average or good harvest rainfall. Jlay the next prove an exception to the rule ! MIDLAND FARMERS' CLUB. AGRICULTUllAL LABOURERS AND SERVANTS. A meeting of tliis club was held at Nock's Hotel, Birming- ham, on Thursday, Sept. 27 ; Viscount Sandon in the chair. The Rev. R. W. Essington read a paper on "Agricultural Labourers and Servants." After pointing out that the fact of tlie price of farm labour rising aud the supply falling off had long been evident to both landlords and tenants, and was beginning to dawn on the minds of the labourers themselves, Mr. Essington showed how the extension of trade and manufactures, and the opening of vast emigration fields, had led to this state of things ; and this being so, it would appear that higher wages and better wages might turn the tide whicli was (lowing from the rural dis- tricts to the towns aud to thinly-peopled countries. But the question arose, could farming be made to pay a fair rate of in- terest on capital with such an additional expense imposed upon it ? After dealing with the hypothesis of farming being carried oil from principles of philantliropy, the rev. gentleman ex- pressed his opinion that it would be carried on for lower profits than other pursuits on account of its interesting character in- ducing many to engage in it, and an overstocked trade could never be a very profitable one. But it was worthy of considera- tion whether higher wages and improved cottages would di- minish the farmer's profits, as to which he said : That there is any saving in paying a man whom one employs less than enough to keep up his strength, no one in these days will venture to as- sert. There was, it is true, something to be said even for this practice in the times of the old poor-law system, when the par- sons and the ratepayers w'ere obliged habitually to make up the deficiency in wages by out-door relief. But this state of affairs, fortunately or unfortunately, belongs to the past ; and now a man who does not earn enough to support himself and his family will not get what he wants elsewhere, and consequently will be underfed. But does the present rate of wages meet these requirements of a man, making all allowance for cottage lowly rented, for allotments, for piece-work, for harvest-work, and even for doles — the most wretched supplement for wages ? Are 10s., or lis., or 13s. a-week sufficient to keep a human frame in vigour and to find food for a family too young to work P Would lCs.,or even 18s. a-week be too much, with meat at its present price ? But there are two ways of replying to this argument, the first being that it is essentially unsound, and con- trary to all commercial principles, to give more for anything, including labour, than you are obliged to give ; the second, that men not only do live on 10s. a-week, but also find money for the public-house out of it, and that if more were given the surplus would find its way tliere, and nowhere else. He admitted that the first of these reasons looked plausible, but it was open to wide exceptions, and no one would think it wise to refuse corn to a horse because hay without corn would do, whilst the horse which was stinted not knowing that its master stinted it acquired no ill will towards him on that ac- count ; but the labourer did know that it was his master who kept down his wages, aud was likely — acting on the same prin- ciple of giving as little as one is obliged — to give as little of his laljour as he could for his wages. Again as to drink, was it not possible that poor food, especially the substitution of liacon for fresh meat, drove a man to drink ? Coming to the question of cottages, Mr. Essington observed that the house accommo- dation of the ordinary workman, whether in town or country, was simply shocking. After noticing the mixing of the sexes, he said : Nor is the want of space by any means the worst feature. The low thatched cottage in some romantic lane smiles pleasantly no doub t on the passer-liy, especially if he be an artist. The honeysuckle in front smells delightfully no doubt ; but just turn to the back door, and sniff the mixeu which is close to it. The little window lying half-hid iu tlie roof looks charmingly picturesque ; but only go into that low angular chamber, whicli it docs not light, and then say what you think of it. A man who has a house of this sort, with the ground floor, as the old song says, and a cross wife (for such dwellings are very aggravating to females) and half-a-dozen children, and no beer of his own brewing— thanks to the abominable Malt Tax — and nothing but salt meat, of course ought not to be tempted into the nearest public-house ; but, nevertheless, he is very likely to be so tempted, and I need not say that his visits there will not tend to make him a better workman, nor to raise the rate of profit which his master may wish to get out of him. As to the distance of cottages from the farms, Mr. Essington thus explained the cause of the ex- isting state of things : My Lord Deadlock, so let us call him, owns an entire parish in wliich he and the farmers (through whom he at least in the main pays his poor rates) reside ; whicli being the case he takes care that no one who is likely to require parochial relief shall settle within his borders, the result of which arrangement is that all the farm labourers employed in Deadlockdale live in St. Lazarus-among-the-Thistles, which is three miles away from several of the farms, and the further result is that while the poor-rate in Deadlockdale is nominal and scarcely goes to the poor at all, the rate in St. Lazarus-among- the-Thistles is 2s. 6d. in the pound, and the still further result is that while Lord Deadlock on £20,000 a-year pays— tenants and all — something hke £50 a-year, the Rev. Telipher Popper on an income of £500 pays half as much as the whole Dead- lockdale following put together. Happily, however, the duty to act in this shabby, not to say dishonest, manner has been curtailed, and it is to be hoped that it will dis- appear entirely by the transference of the burden of main- taining the poor, not only from the parish to the union, but from the local rates to the general taxation of the country. As to the question of how labourers were to pay the rent of improved cottages, Mr. Essington said an increase of wages would go far to solve the difficulty, but apart from that it does not pay to have cattle, and it answers far worse to have men, badly housed. Bad cottages lend to bad habits, and these to the pothouse, and that to the poorhouse and the gaol, which cost landlords and tenants far more than good cottages would. I'assing from these main points he went on to the question of parochial schools, and acknowledged that there was truth in the statement that education tended to raise the price of labour and to diminish the supply ; for a lad who could read and write, and had heard of Birmingham, and even perhaps of America, and knew how to get to these places, would be less likely to stick to his parish than one brought up in negro-like ignorance, which, however, had its disadvantages. But schools existed, and could not lie put down, even if anyone thought it desirable ; and he expressed regret that the farmers did not take an interest in their management, did not see that they 400 THE FArvMER'S MAGAZmE. •were sensibly conducted, and did not endeavour to make them the means of supplying their wants in the shape of servants and labourers. Again, the workhouse scliool, of which the tenants, as guardians, had the management, might he made the means of supplying labour ; whereas the children were put to any trade except Jhrming, which, he reminded his audience, wanted learning as much as any other business. The rev. gentleman touched with much force on the iise of bad lan- guage to servants, and said he believed that this was often the deterring cause of labourers leaving the country ; for, as he said, a man, in spite of geography in the abstract, and rail- ways or steamers, which are its concrete exponents, clings to the spot where he was reared, to the school where he learnt his book, the church where he worsliipped his God, the lane in which he first hunted for hirds' nests and afterwards loitered with his sweetheart ; so, although lie hears of l)roader lands beyond the Atlantic sea, the pastures of Oliio, and the corn- fields of Erie, he turns a deaf ear to the charmer, for he thuiks of sea-sickness, or possibly of the sea-serpent — he finds that " there are fevers and wild beasts in them 'ere furriu parts, and that no beer worth haviu' is to be got," so he concludes to stay at home ; but then, just as he has made up liis mind to adopt this course, and has accordingly joined the sick club of Stick-in-the-Mud, the angry oath of some unreasonable em- ployer, or, still worse, of his bailitf, sends him off to the utter- most ends of the eartli. That this practice of cursing, how- ever, is not universal of course I knovv ; but how common it is ! Indeed, I believe that no one, except a very raw recruit in the Yeomanry, or a merchant seaman, or a man who will ride into the hounds, gets so frequently sworn at as a farm labourer. There seems, in fact, to be a sort of impression with respect to him, as there is with respect to a bullock-team in Australia, that a volley of oaths is, under certain circum- stances, the only mode of leverage. It is said that our colo- nial hishops so far concede to the prejudice as to walk on rapidly when their teams happen to get stuck in a gulley. Tlie paper went on to censure the practice of those who, whUst they never allowed their labourers to forget that they have a master on earth, appeared never themselves to remem- ber that they had a Master in heaven. In the discussion which followed, there was a general dis- claimer of the practice of swearing heing common amongst farmers, and a very general agreement with Mr. King, who denounced beerhouses as the great curse of the rural districts. Mr. Masfen said the rate of wages paid to agricultural labourers in his district was 16s. a-week, and Is. extra for waggoners ; and he maintained that though colliers and iron- workers got more wages, the agricultural labourer who was employed all the year round and was not discharged in old age was really now in a better position. The PiiEsiDEJJT observed that it was not quite clear that the rural population was diminishing, for liis experience of villages in Staffordshire, Gloucestershire, and Lincolnshire was, that a cottage was very seldom vacant for a fortnight, which was an indication that the population was not deserting them. He thought a good deal of the scarcity of labour arose from the improvement in agriculture leading to the em- ployment of a larger number of labourers on the farm. Witliin the range of his own experience — but he did not know whe- ther that was generally the case — the practice which formerly prevailed of the young farm labourers living in the farm- houses was discontinued, and he thought it very likely that these young men, disgusted with the want of accommodation in their parents' homes, would be rather tempted to resort to the public-house. Again, with regard to the distance men often lived from their employment, it was only fair to say that this was a most crying evil in the great towns — in London, Manchester, and Liverpool, and especially in Paris, where the Emperor was striviiig to find a remedy for it. From his own knowledge of the state of things in the East of London, with whicli he was familiar, he could say that the evil — that of crowded and unwholesome dwellings — was felt there to a very great extent. He quite agreed that it was most desirable that landlords should find good cottages for their labourers, but it must be remembered tliat this was not required of any other great class of proprietors, and that when a few manufac- turers here and tjiere, as Sir Frank Crossley, did so, it was re- garded as a ground for special admiration and praise. Still, the necessity for better cottage accommodation was evident, and landlords must more and more provide tlieir tenants with suitable houses for those necessary to cultivate the soil ; and he hoped that in such cottages three bedrooms, so as to separate the sexes of the children, would be the rule, as it would tend very greatly to elevate the class among whom, considering their frequent domestic circumstances, the amount of modesty and purity to be met with often put to shame those in higher positions. With regard to the low profits which it was stated arose from farming, he must say that as far as his experience went he questioned whetlier farming was so very bad a busi- ness after all. He knew instances where men had taken farms ^^itli a small capital, and who were able to put their two or three sons on farms in a position equal to their own. He presumed the capital necessary for that must come from somewhere, and he rejoiced to see a family spreading its roots around a parent home ; but it did throw a little doubt on the statements that fiirming was so very unprofitable a business. The great point was that no man should take bad land at any rent. Mr. OsBOUN, in moving a vote of thanks to Mr. Essington for his paper, urged the great proportion of landlords providing cottages on the farms. Mr. Hayden said the way and the only way to retain the labourers in the coijntry was to raise their wages. Mr. Lythall said he was at the present time in want of a man at 16s. a-week, with a cottage rent-free, and who could get £2 a-week at harvest-time ; and he said men who worked piece-work on his fann, and he encouraged that all he could, got on an average £1 a-week. One means of encouraging good labourers to stay was by giving them an interest in their own success, as by paying a shepherd extra for all lambs be- yond a certain number from each ewe, and when that could be carried out it was very beneficial. Another important point was the evil of the present system of paying men equal day-wages, instead of varying their wages according to their skill and value in other ways. Mr. EssijjGTOJj having replied to the vote of thanks to him, a similar compliment was paid to Lord Saudon for presiding. Previous to the Discussion Meeting a resolution was passed directing that a subscription should be sent to the Chamber of Agriculture. THE CLEEGY AND THE LABOUREE. At the meeting of the Northampton Agricultural Society — The Reverend T. Whitehukst said he was sorry there was no other clergyman present to represent the profession. He considered that the interests of agriculture were intimately connected and bound up with the interests of the country clergy. In many ways this was the case. They might tlunk that while they were improving tlie methods of farming they were doing a certain work that helped to fill their own pockets ; hut it was not only so, for tliey were raising the condition of those below them, tlie labourers, with wliom the country clergy had much to do. Every new imiilement that was introduced into farming operations required a certain amount of intel- ligence to use, therefore they had directed tlieir attention to the education of the labourer, and thus after having acquired the mens Sana, the sound mind, let them hope that now the attention of landowners and occupiers would be turned to giving the labourers healthy cottages, that he might have the mens sana in corpore sano — that he might have strong muscles as well as a well-educated mind. They had no fear of the labourers breaking their machines lest they should be put out of work. It was not a long time since it took six horses to scratch as much fallow as could now be done by two horses. Tlie number of horses and men had been increased of late years in spite of the alteration to which he had alluded. He therefore thought that, as country clergymen, they were much interested in the improvements that had taken place in agri- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 401 culture, as they tended to improve the level of the labourers ; and everything that accomplished that object tended to lighten the burden which was cast on the shoulders of the clergy. It would then be evident that the success of the agricultural in- terest was intimately connected with the success of the ministra- tions of the clergy. Mr. W. Beaen said he wished to say one word of a practical character, to the farmers present, with regard to the weather, or rather the recent exposure of the crops. He believed that in this district they had been exposed to two or three weeks' rain. (Several voices: "Four weeks.") He wished, as a practical farmer, to make one observation as to the setting of shocks in the field. Though but a humble thing, at least it was valuable. He went through the corn of a gentleman that was present in that room, and who would bear testimony to what he was about to say. The corn had been exposed for some two or three weeks' rain, and he called this gentleman's attention to the manner in which some of the shocks were set up, some being set up iirm and well, whilst another part was set up in a loose manner. The sheaves required setting up at a certain angle, of how many degrees he could not tell, for he had forgotten his mathematics, and then the rain would run off without any injury being done to the crops ; indeed, sheaves set up at a proper angle would bear almost a deluge of rain. If any of them had any crups out, and he hoped noue of them had, they would find that the sheaves that had sustained the most damage were those that liad not been set up, but had been loosely thrown together. It was well worth their while, as agriculturists, to pay attention to the way in which the sheaves were set up by the men. Mr. J. L. Stratton said : If they considered the education the agricultural labourer had received, they must admit that he did his work in an unexampled excellent manner. The labourer had been taught very little, not being able in some instances even to read and write. If they gave him a quantity of seed wheat to sow, he would do it in such a manner as would show vBry considerable thought and calculation. There was a great deal more skill required in the ploughing, draining, and hedge- cutting than they were apt to think. But the labourer at- tained a knowledge of these things without any special course of education. The knowledge came to him as a matter of course, or by experience, but they had no school in which to teach him these things. He quite agreed with Mr. Beam's remarks about the setting up of tlie sheaves, but how was the labourer to know how to do it if he was never taught ? Some of them could show their labourers how to do it, but there were many labourers who conld do' it better than their masters. In the North, night-caps were placed over the shocks, so that the rain fell off. He thought the labourers had not been con- sidered in a proper light, and they had been neglected by the landowners of England. It was a shame that they should be so neglected ; and he felt it more strongly when he saw these poor fellows, after a hard day's work, walking home in the rain, perhaps some three or four miles, because landovraers would not put up cottages for them near to their work. It was not the farmers' fault, for many of them would only be too glad to have it so ; but he was sorry to find that in numerous in- stances they had no labourers on the spot. Many landowners allowed the work-people to reside in another parish in order that they might be saved the rates of their own parish. They sometimes met with the landed proprietors, who came aud talked at these meetings, telling them about what they did for the farmers : they did not tell them what they did for the la- bourers, who were, for lack of cottages, obliged to live a dis- tance from the spot where they worked. That was not the way they ought to be treated. There was no man on the face of England so contented as the agricultural labourer. They never heard of strikes amongst them, although sometimes a labourer would ask for a shUling extra per week. Take them as a body, they were the best disposed of any class of the work- ing population in England, and he was sure it was not only in the power of the landlords, but also in the power of the farm- ers, to improve the labourers' condition. He thought the first thing the farmer ought to do was to try to induce the labourer to keep from the public-house. When he attended the magis- trates' meetings there were numbers of men who were brought up for lieing drunk and riotous ; they were fined 5s. and costs, or something like that, and if unable to pay were sent to prison. That money was every bit out of the farmers' pocket, for when the inau returned to his work he was not in a condition to do his work so well. He was pleased to see the reading-room in the Towcester town-hall, and he did admire the town for it. It was a very diificult thing to es- taliUsh in some parishes, but it was one of the best things they could do in endeavouring to elevate the condition of the laljourer. By establishing a reading-room they gave the labourer an inducement not to go to the public-house, to which it was very natural he would go. He, perhaps, had an un- comfortable cottage, a wife, and may-be half-a-dozen chil- dren, who bothered him ; and for the sake of a comfortable seat he would go to the public-house, where his drinking would probably begin at half a pint, from which he would be induced to take more ; then the next morning he would be unfit for liis work. But if they gave him a reading- room it would improve his mind as weU as keep liim from the weakening influence of drunkenness. But let them not put literature into these reading-rooms that would have a tendency to corrupt his mind. Let them give him that which would keep his tastes as pure as they are now. Mr. R. DoiG referred to the observations made by Mr. Beam about the setting up of shocks, and said he was the un- fortunate individual through whose exposed corn he had walked, and said that in Ireland it was a practice in some parts to use " night-caps," which were tied on so that they were like a roof. He had seen wheat stand thus covered for six weeks without taking a drop of rain. He thought, how- ever, that they could not do so in this county. Then, with regard to the labourer, he thought Mr. Stratton did not know him as well as they (the farmers) did, although he (Mr. Doig) would not wish to detract from that gentleman's kind words. But he could not help thinking that, whatever reading-rooms were established for the agricultural labourers, it was not possible for a man, after working ten or twelve hours in a-day, to take up a book and read. Mr. Stkatton -. He goes to the public-house. I want to keep him out of that, and put him into a reading-room in- stead. Mr. Doig did not think it eould be accomplished. He could give examples of men when they had had beer. (A Voice : And a little wme, too). They would not go and read. AU they wanted done to benefit the labourers was that the land- owners should get proper accommodation for the labourers. They would never have the public-house to drop into on their way home, and would therefore lose the temptation to go in and get " boosy." Let the men have cottages as near the farms as possible. Until that was done, the labourers would never be in the condition they ought to be in. Mr. J. M. Verno:;^ should like to say one word with regard to the question of the labourers' cottages which had been in- troduced. He could not see why the poor man's cottage should not be made the most attractive place in the universe to him. If their homes were not attractive they sought society else- where, for that happiness which they could not find in-doors. If tliey placed the poor man in the same position as the upper and middle-classes as regarded his home, he would not go away from it. There was no place so dear as a poor man's cottage, which was dearer to him than a queen's palace or a noble- man's mansion. Make the home happy, and they would not have to make those complaints about the poor man's habits. DEER V. SHEEP. — A. correspondent of the Econoniid has the follovring remarks on this subject : " In an article which appeared in your columns a short time ago, the writer ventured to express an opinion that the maintenance of a deer- forest was a form of unproductive expentliture no more cul- pable or injurious than most other objects of unproductive ex- penditure. It seldom happens that, when people spend money upon things the only result of which is health or pleasure, we are able to show with any approach to exactness the cost of their amusements. This, however, I think may be done with respect to deer-forests, and proceed to show what appears to me the luaximum of national cost which they involve. I need hardly point out that this cost — in other words, the loss to the community — consists of the annual rent which the land would produce if used for sheep-farming, reckoning only what would be paid as rent for the land in its natural condition. It has been stated in your pages that the deer-forests of Scotland oc- cupy two millions of acres. I assume this to be correct, al- ■402 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. though I believe the extent to be overstated. I allow nothing for the deer or other animals of chase which may be killed, although of course they must be of some value. I also sup- pose that not a cow, bullock, or sheep is kept upon any por- tion of the land. Now, then, what is a fair rent for the land, unimproved and in its natural condition? It is mostly bog, mountain, and rocks, the soil of the poorest quality, and the climate ungenial and rude. Do I not value liljerally in putting the rent of this wild laud, in its natural state, at one sliilling an acre ? If I am right, the rent of all tlie deer- forests in Scotland would be £100,000 per annum ; and that sum is all that is lost to the state, if, indeed, a simple item of unproductive expenditure can be said to involve a loss to the state, consequent upon their maintenance. I need hardly mention to the readers of the Econounst that the profits arising from sheep-feeding instead of deer-preserving would be the result of a large outlay of fi.xed capital in building houses and making roads, yards, &:c., &.C., and of circulating capital in buying sheep, paying shepherds, &c., &:c. ; that the returns yielded by this capital would not exceed the ordinary rate of profit ; or that the necessary capital could only be obtained by its abstraction from other employments equally profitable. Of course, the owners or occupiers of deer-forests spend a good deal of money, besides the rent, in paying keepers and gillies and feeding dogs, as well as for their own living ; but it can hardly be pretended that, if all deer-forests were put an end to, such people would be obliged or induced to spend their incomes productively. As some indication of the proportion borne by the expenditure on deer-forests, when compared with other forms of unproductive expenditure, it may be mentioned that, many years ago, the disbursements of the English sub- jects travelling or residing on the Continent, which must be considered almost unproductive, was valued at twelve millions per annum. It is probably now far greater. It may be not improper to state that the writer of what precedes never saw a Scotch deer-forest in his life. Now a few words on the opinions held by Mr. John Stuart Mill and Mr. Leone Levi as to the rights and obligations of the owners of laud. I agree with them that the Legislature is fully justified in dealing with landed, as with all other property, in the way which it may deem most conducive to tlie public good. I will add, however, that in a country like England, where land has for many centuries been bought and inherited, witli an absolute right to use or misuse it at discretion, any interference with this right, without ample compensation, would be an act of gross injustice." "THE QUESTION OF WHEAT IN 18G6." [translated from the "journal d'agriculture pratique."] French agriculturists were much perplexed at the time of the harvest of 1865, in consequence of tiie low price of wheat. At the outset tlie great majority of the landowners attributed the general fall to the abolition of the sliding-scale and to the free importation of foreign wlieat, made legal by the law of the 15th of June, ISGl-. Great sufiering was tlien predicted, and it was even said, that if it lasted we should witness the gradual decline in the value of landed property, a prediction which, I trust so far as we can see, is not likely to be realized. It is not the first time in France, where there is so much talk of liberty, that the experiments of liberal legislation have been denounced. Under the old ^lonarchy we saw the la\;s of 17G3 and ITSl give way, in consequence of a bad harvest. The dearness of grain was attributed to the newly-iustaUed liberal policy, which lasted only six years, just a century back. Thus the free policy, which was accused of having produced tlie advance in 17G7, is now accused of having caused the fall of 1865. Is there not a fallacy in these accusations against liberty, and in the demand for protective laws, to which tlie power is accorded of regulating the seasons and nature of things. Liberty being always in proportion to the enlightenment of man, may we not conclude that we are more enlightened in the present day than our predecessors in 1767 ? In opposition to the authors wlio have written against tlie new legislation, some economists liave maintained that the low price of corn was wholly owing to the abundant harvests of 1863 and IbGi. I have no wish to discuss the opinions of either side, or to quote the statistics of importation and ex- portation : " No one can assert that scarcity is to be preferred to plenty." This is wholly beside the question. As there have been several periods in our time, when the price of corn has descended as low, and even lower, without producing so much anxiety, there must exist some more jiotent cause for the present agricultural difficulty. It appears to me that we are not now concerned with a momentary crisis, a passing disturbance, which will not be thought of next year. Frencli agriculturists are intelligent : they have an intuitive idea that what is now taking place is of unprecedented and lasting importance. They perceive the element of uncertainty which must be taken into account ; and there must always be some degree of hesitation, however courageous, in deahng with a new influence. This is the agri- cultural improvement at which we have all laboured, and which comes in due time, the natural efiect of our efforts and our combined industry — a fresh step attained in man's progress towards the amelioration of his earthly lot. TUE EARLY AND MIDDLE AGES. Man, from his first entrance into the world to the present time, has made a constant and invariable progress in his aspi- ration towards the improvement of his pliysical and moral faculties and the amelioration and diffusion of luiman life, and his object can only be obtained by the aid of agricultural pro- gress. The wealth and power of a nation are in proportion to its population ; its population is in proportion to its means of subsistence ; and these are in proportion to the perfection of its processes of rural economy. Uncultivated lands, virgin forests, are at first only peopled by poor savages, forming little isolated tribes, obliged to subsist upon herbs and the flesh of animals taken by hunting. From the fear that their means of subsistence may fail, these tribes make deadly war upon eacli other, in which the weakest are exterminated. But in these wars some hardy warriors succeed in making themselves masters of a wide extent of territory. Having thus attained to some degree of security, the women and the old and weakly men make the first attempts at agriculture. From these attempts may be dated the commencement of a reserved stock of provisions, the foundation of our present wealth. However, war, robbery, and slavery have for many long years aftiicted humanity. The tillers of the land, at first slaves, through thrift and the progressive development of their intel- ligence become serfs ; then f(/fo/»', free men of different classes ; and lastly landowners. With each step taken in the attain- ment of freedom, there is a corresponding progress iu agricul- tural industry. Even the feudal institutions were, in the be- ginning, favourable to the amelioration of the condition of the people. Under the protection of strong castles, tlie habitations of the tillers of the ground were comparatively safe ; and the priest, raising his voice in the name of God, preaching peace and charity, softened the manners of men and disseminated the first elements of education. Tiiis was the time of the founding of the first villages and towns. MODERN TIMES. Whenever populations increase and grow wealthy, they ex- perience new wants ; ;ind for the satisfaction of these wants, attention must be given to agriculture. Agriculture can only respond to these wants by liaving entire freedom in working.* * It must 1)8 undorstood that the word " freedom" is here used as implying freedom for industry, iu the widest sense the faculty which permits a man to use all his physical power and his intellectual force without being restrained by a superior, or by artificial hinckances. The agriculturiet will THE FAEMEU'S MAGAZINE. 403 Thus we see that, from the day in whicli primitive man learnt the iirst rudiments of agriculture, each progressive step was preceded by an extension of liberty, to be followed by an in- crease in production. We can follow these steps in regular order : the savage, the slave, the serf, the colonus, the metayer, the farmer, the land- owner. In proportion as man has become free, he has been able to give fall play to his productive faculties. Let us here notice that the constant aim of humanity is to better its moral and material condition on the earth. The land- owner, living peacefully in society, furnished with all that is needful to his existence, and having abundant leisure for study, is the representative of the highest state of civilization at the present time. But the number of men who have attained the rank of landowners is still very limited, and there is not one of them who, in the present state of society, docs not find some check upon the full exercise of Ids productive faculties. Of course, I do not now speak of natural obstacles, which will always exist to a certain degree, although man is overcoming them daily. I speak of the artificial hindrances, transmitted to us by former generations ; necessary perhaps in the. state of society in which they were imposed, but wliich in the present day arrest the progress which our generation ought to eifect. A very important part of this progress is involved in the law of distribution, by which the wants of the ever-increasing population arc to be supplied. This activity in the growth of population is the most powerful stimulus to progress ; and although France makes less progress in population than some of the nations which surround her, she must nevertheless obey the common law for the general good. According to the statistics published, the population of Trance is only doubled in 1~S years, whilst the average time in the other nations of Europe is once in 60 years : and among these figures Belgium gives 41 years. The position of France, therefore, is favourable for commencing a liberal move- ment, as she is surrounded by an increasing number of con- sumers. We are to-day in the same position with foreigners, through our frontier custom-dues, as our ancestors were with their home custom-dues and the prohibition of the importation of grain. Liberty is ushering in new progress for agriculture, and raising civilization into a higher sphere. Formerly every tiller of the ground who attained freedom was forced to live isolated and to produce all that was needful for himself and his family, in the limited space which surrounded him ; the agriculturist of the present day, having access to rapid and unlimited means of coiiimumcatiou with others, can provide the best articles with little expense for transit. Thus agriculture based on the iramntable laws of nature and no longer restrained by the arbitrary laws of man, will be able to respond to the most numerous wants. Doubtless these changes cannot be made without some grievances : but ■they are inevitable ; and is it not better calmly to study their different phases, and to endeavour to pass through them safely, rather than oppose their progress by ineffectual ob- stacles ? Everything in this world is fuU of change, and no one can imagine that agricultural industry as it has existed during the last fifty years will revolve for ever in the same circle. Being myself a clearer of land, I announced long ago the increase of produce which these cleared lands and energetic agriculture would bring into the market. Since that time our produce in wheat has more than doubled, and now exceeds 100 million hectolitres, and we shall not stand still. There may be bad seasons, but on the whole the produce will increase. This increase in the growth of wheat in France is in accord- ance with the laws of nature. In the first place, the climate is favourable to the plant, at an average price of 20 francs the hectolitre* the majority of gro\> ers ^^ould get a profit, even make jirogress in proportion as he is free, whether it be in cultivating the plants which suit liis land best, or in making exchanges for his own interest without foreign intervention. * This is ahout the average for the last 65 j-ears. It may be objected that the standard is not tlie same as it was : wages have increased, as well as rent and taxes. We reply that the gi-ain has a larger yield, and that the new processes of modern agricultui-e liave brought to light economical com- binations hitherto unknown. Whence we may consider the balance as equal, which is probably the reason that wheat has a uniform price. under the present conditions of hand-labour and the letting of lands ; at this price, and even lower, farmers prefer that grain to all others. We must take the straw into account, which is seldom spoken of, but which throws weight into the balance. Wheaten-bread is more nnd more made use of in this country. I know country people who will not make any use of rye. Farmers, through foresight, or from the fear of a bad season, take care to grow more wheat thau is actually required, so that there is generally a surplus for sale. In consequence of the improvement in cultivation the yield per hectare is in- creased ; and lastly, new lands are constantly brought into cul- tivation. If we bear in mind all these united causes, and the impossibilify of changing the routine in a country where more than half the people live by the cultivation of the land, we shall see that a market is what is chiefly required. Economic science teaches us that the great question must be looked at from the fanner's point of view ; it is the only way to judge for the present and the future. The Government, then, has shown its enlightenment by in- spiring liberal ideas, and providing for the future by the ex- tension of markets for the consumer. But this liberal move- ment will be incomplete if it is not followed by other mea- sures granting to agriculture a free use of all its resources. Among other obstacles which it finds in its path I shall speci- ally mention those home-dues called octrois. The octrois bring in about ISO millions yearly, and it is the agriculture of the country which pays this sum. It has been said that it is piiid by the town consumers, but this fiction is easily detected. The city consumers merely pay the price of the purchase, and the octroi is a dead loss to the producer, who, without noticing the cause, would sell the produce to the extent of 180 millions more but for the tax. Each time that the price of any produce rises, the number of buyers diminishes fatally. This is a serious question for the future, which requires a speedily solution, for it conceals war in the folds of its mantle. In the same connection we must not omit mentioning the rise in the interest on money-loans as a cause of perturbation. The absence of agricultural credit on the one hand, and the growing increase in the late of interest on the other, are ob- stacles which doubly hamper the operations of agriculture. Through the want of credit, the grower is prevented from moving into the new conditions created for liim. Through the rise in the price of money all industry suffers. When these two causes act together upon a nation, the growers di- minish on all sides, a void is caused, and the nation grows poor. The agriculturists have of late been urged to decrease their growth of wheat, to change their soil to cultivate other crops, to produce cattle, milk, butter, poultry and eggs. This advice is excellent, but it is only part of the question ; for with the exception of wheat the rest is burdened with heavy tolls, and in certain towns it is stUl enforced that the wheat should be sold in a specified place and nowhere else ; that it should be measured by special officers ^^'ithout any power of refusal on the part of buyer or seller. Must we not fear that the efforts of agriculture will be turned against itself by demanding new taxes P According to M. Leon Faucher, it is by crushing down the peasants under the weight of the faille and corvee that the Old Monarchy desolated and depopulated France ; and it is by suppressing the taxes whicn encumbered food-products that Sir Robert Peel made living easy in England, and spread comfort among the labourers of liis country. SUMMAIIY. The whole histoi^ of mankind bears witness to the fact, that at whatever period an increase of liberty has been attained, agTiculture has in like degree made progress in improved methods of working and increase of produce. No industry has more need of freedom than that of agriculture. Agriculture is subordinate to the invariable laws of nature, and certain limits being fixed, it can with profit grow only the produce fitted for these limits. Whilst manufacturing industry places its workshops under cover, regulates its temperature, and works upon dead material, the agricultural industry is fixed under the vault of heaven, with a temperature which it cannot regulate, and woiks upon living matter. The question beiug thus stated, it is easy to understand why freedom exercises so great an influence upon rural operations. The agriculturist, who finds liimself face to face with nature 404 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. and living matter, all the laws of which are immutable, needs the fullest liberty of action. Every intervention of human power opposed to these laws is a fatal obstacle to tlie develop- ment of agricultural industry. Every time tliat legislation by duty upon exportation and importation, arbitrary taxes, in- creased rate of interest, heavy imposts or other irrational measures disturbs the natural progress of agricultural enter- prise, it stops production. In our time no one can venture to assert that it is a benefit to clieck production. But it is said that the French agricul- turists produce too much wlieat. There may be two opinions about this ; one thing is certain — tlie growth of wheat in France lias not yet reached its limit ; it wiU increase daily, both in extent and in yield, for the plain reason that the growers find profit in it. We must not reckon, then, upon any lasting reduction, even supposing there may be a temporary change, the effect of a crisis. If among the French agriculturists there are any who can- not produce wheat at the same average price as the rest, they will naturally inquire into the cause of their want of success ; and they will find tliem in their methods of operation, or in the general economic laws of improvement. These inc^uiries will necessarily lead to the alterations which will ensure more durable and real progress than any new law for a sliding- scale. I foresee what an immense boon complete freedom would be, as each agriculturist would be induced to consult the benefit of the whole community by devoting his land to the produce wliicli it could supply most abundantly, and at the lowest price, provided at the same time tliat new taxes were not levied at each step in advance, making it impossible to accumulate. This would be the solution of the difiicult problem of wages rising with cheap living, which ought at least to be tried, after all the fruitless attempts that have been made in an opposite direction. But human life is so ordered that we only attain the simplest proposition after having long moved in a vicious circle. If we wish to see the effect which liberal measures can pro- duce : in 1824, coffee paid on landing in England Is. from the colonics. Is. l|d. from India, and ~s. from foreign countries. Huskisson reduced these duties by one-half, and in ten years the consuiuption increased fourfold from S million pounds to 33 million. And many analogous cases might be quoted in the present day. I think, then, that the French farmers who were disturbed at the low price of corn in 1865 have taken a false step in seeking a remedy for their losses in fresh legislation. AH the tendencies of the age are to liberty and the diffusion of human life; and it will be a glorious retrospect for our generation, that of having inaugurated this era of liberty and freedom, in com- pany with railroads, the cutting of the isthmus of Suez, and other pacific measures, all bound up with the same economic system. The certain result for agriculture is, that with liberty it wiU make new progress, larger profits, and will ensure the ease and well-doing of its successors. Jules Rufiel, Director of the Imperial Agricultural School, at Grand-Jouau. THE DISEASES OF CATTLE [The following remarks are from the address delivered by Professor Siuonbs, on the opening of the Session at the Eoyal Veterinary College, on Monday, Oct. 1]. Besides a general knowledge, there are few professions which require a greater diversify of special information than ours, although a far more erudite education may be needed by many. Among tliese requirements an acquaintance with the various systems of agriculture stand prominently forwards, for they liave much to do ^^ith the health of farmers' stock. The dis- eases which prevail in heavy-land districts are almost unknown in light, and vice versa. The system of farming necessarily depends on the cliaracter of the soil, and this in its turn is due to tlie geology of the district. If you ask me. Do we, then, require to be geologists ? I answer. Yes, in so far as that science is connected with the soil and the particular substrata on which it rests. Beyond this the study may not be neces- sary, however elevating and ennobling when rightly used it may be. By way of illustration, look to the enervating effects of wet clay soUs, and their connection with dropsical diseases, and, not unfrequeutly, \\-ith rot in sheep. Look also at the ill effects of sandy soils, deficient as they are in all the ele- ments required to produce sufficient nutrbnent in the food of growing animals. There is yet another and important view to be taken of agricultural science in its connection with vege- table physiology, which is, that the present system of raising large crops from the soil by the use of artilcial manures is probably productive of disease in animals. Plants may be lirought into a state of plethora which will as completely unfit them for food, as animals similarly placed would be imfitted to undergosevcreexertionwithouttheoccurrenceof disease. Besides tills, pletlioric animals, as is well known, are more susceptible to the influences of all the ordinary causes of disease, and ex- perience is proving that plants quickly forced to maturity are similarly circumstanced. It is vain to suppose that the health of animals can be long maintained when they are fed on forced or imperfectly developed vegetables. By these re- marks, however, we wish not to be understood as objecting, in the abstract, to the employment of artificial manures, but rather to offer a caution against the too free and frequent use of them to such plants as are used in their crude state as food for cattle and sheep. The light-land farmer, again, not un- frequeutly brings into operation another cause of disease, es- pecially under certain conditions of the atmosphere. The system which he of necessity adopts of manuring the so-called artificial grasses on the surfaces as a preparation for tlie wheat crop, frequently causes the sudden death of sheep when fed thereon. The reason of this is often not to be found merely in the amount of vegetable matter, or in the rapidity with wliich it had been produced. The cause, indeed, would rather appear to depend on the decomposition of the manure, and the modern view of decomposition will perhaps help to explain this, and show, at the same time, the relation which exists be- tween veterinary science and chemistry. In a lecture recently delivered by my colleague. Professor Tuson, before the Royal College of Surgeons, he showed that until 18G2 the ordinary theories of putrefaction and fermentation were accepted. At that time Pasteur gave to the world the results of his laborious and masterly researches on these phenomena, proving that pu- trefaction and fermentation were not purely chemical, but physiological processes, and that the chemical effects observ- able were the accompaniments, as results of so-called vital acts. Pasteur proved, by the most sagaciously contrived and carefully conducted experiments, that the atmospheie in most situations is cliarged with living beings, and that they are the true exciters or causes of putrefaction and fermentation. These organisms alight from the atmosphere, come in contact with dead animal and vegetable matter, and by a vital process decompose such bodies, and abstract and assimilate from them the elements which they require for their own nutrition and growth. At the same time the organisms increase and multi- ply very rapidly, and in turn become wafted from place to place, ready and capable to effect the decomposition of other quanti- ties of dead organised materials. These living beings are known as mnccdincs wA. bacteria. " Now, when we reflect," added the lecturer, " on the nature of decomposition and fer- mentation, and the character and power of the minute beings which give rise to them, the question naturally arises in our minds — May not certain of these minute but formidable crea- tures, or their germs, or both, which can be detected in the atmosphere, and vvhich, therefore, are being constantly inhaled by animals, be the excitants or aggravators of some of the well-known epidemic and other diseases ? On inquiry we shall find that, althougli tlie evidence in this direction is as yet neither abundant nor conclusive, we have stiU sufficient ground for believing that under peculiar conditions of the system cer- tain maladies may be caused by the introduction info the body of the low forms of vitality to which reference has been made." In these remarks there will be found more than a gleam of light respecting the frequent outbreaks of that inys- THE FARMER'S MAGAZHSfE. 405 terious and fatal disease known as splenic apoplexy. Tiic mi- croscope has revealed that the blood of animals dying of this affection is loaded with bacteria. May not not these have liad their orgin in tlie decomposing manure ? and may not the sud- den death of slieep and cattle from splenic apoplexy, and its frequent extension from them to other animals on the farm, be explained by their being surrounded with myriads of these beings, while feeding on grasses manured after the manner to which I have alluded ? Without referring at greater length to an abstruse subject of this kind, it may be remarked that every day's experience convinces us more fully that dis- ease and deatli are oftan to be referred in another way directly to the food of animals. How could we expect otherwise, seeing tliat we have chiefly to do with herbivor- ous creatures, and that very many plants indigenous to tlie soil are springing up with their ordinary food, which possess not merely injurious, but positively poisonous properties. In- stinct doubtless leads, as a rule, to an avoidance of these, or their baneful effects would be increased in a tenfold degree. The annals of veterinary medicine are replete with instances of this kind ; and the pages of the Veleriuarian often contain similar cases. It may be, perliaps, that Nature, ever wise in all her operations, thus teaches that, by the free dispersion of such plants, we possess a ready means to the removal of dis- ease in some of its varied forms, it being an oft-repeated axiom that what is food to one creature is poison to another. Be tliis as it may, we see enough in the circumstances to prove that botany is intimately connected with pathology, and has a direct bearing on the progress of veterinary medicine. Again, let us look at ordinary causes in tlie production of diseases ; and we shall find a potent one in temperature and in the more common changes of the weather. Take the pre- sent season as an example ; and I venture to predict that the large fall of rain which has taken place since the middle of the year down to the present time, associated as it has been with an elevated temperature, has laid, and is laying, the foundation for an attack of rot among the sheep. You who are familiar with the natural history of the liver-fluke know liow this is brought about. The rot, perhaps, may be only partial ; but on our undrained clay pastures and the feeding- grounds of our valleys it is sure to obtain. We have thus attempted to show that disease is often traceable to the nature of the food supplied to animals; besides which, that it is found to depend on the manner in which the food is prepared, and the way in which it is used. The education of the veterinary surgeon should be made, then, to embrace a knowledge of all these things. He should be as familiar with the habits of animals, and the influence of external causes over their suscep- tibilities, as wdth the nature of disease and the mode by which it is to be combated. Indeed, without a knowledge of the one, he can never excel in the other. I pass to more special matters ; for, under existing circumstances, and standing as I do, it is to be expected that something be said on the stiU- great question of the cattle-plague. At this distance of time, it is unnecessary to repeat my convictions as to how the dis- ease reached this country. Experience has only tended to confirm their correctness, and to show that it is to Russian, aud not Hungarian or other foreign cattle, we must look as the cause of the evil. It is now a matter of history that the cows in two or three of the London dairies were the first Icnown victims of the plague, and that the disease, which had been existing in one of them for a week, was recognised by me on July 4th. By tliis time the malady had not only spread in the Metropolis, but had gained a footing in no less than four places in Norfolk ; and within a day or two afterwards it was recognised in Suffolk, Shropshire, and Devonshire. By the end of July, Berks, Bucks, Essex, Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Northumberland, Staffordshire, and Warwickshire were in- fected ; and in most of these counties the malady was satis- factorily shown to have emanated from the Metropolitan Cattle Market. From this time the disease spread in all di- rections, the attacks gradually rising until they reached, in the week ending Eeb. 17th, the alanning number of 15,70G. The first Order of Council was dated July 14th, 1865 ; and from that period until now Order has succeeded Order, with more or less influence in checking the progress of the malady, and providing for the altered state of things arising out of its ex- istence. The passing of the Cattle Plague Act was, however, the real cause of the diminution which has taken place, and wliich emboldens us to hope that ere long the disease will be cmiitly L.\lcimiuatcd. For the first tune in the history of the visitation, the attacks were returned as under lUOfor the week ending September 1st, 99 being the exact number reported by the inspectors. On September loth these had fallen to 58, when a slight increase again took place, the last official returns giving them as 67. It is to be remembered, however, that a focus of the disease still exists in the Metropolis, and in no less than eleven coimties, ready to extend its area, if a with- drawal of the restriction were to take place. Among other important steps taken by the Government was the appoint- ment of a Royal Commission, one of the members of \vluch was the Principal of this Institution. The amount of infor- mation obtained by the Commission was considerable ; and the pubUcation of this, together with the minutes of evidence and the reports of the several scientific gentlemen engaged to investigate the pathology, treatment, and prevention of the disease, form the most valuable and complete history of tlie plague probably to be found in the world. The application of curative means was confided to the investigatinii of Professor Varnell and Assistant-Professor Pritchard ; and the able report of these gentlemen I w ould recommend to your careful perusal, especially to those who still cherish the hope that a cure for the plague may be found. A few salient points in connection with tliis subject can only be referred to ; and therefore for the present I shall content myself by quoting from the ofticial returns the amount of loss which England Iierself, apart from other parts of Great Britain, has sustained. The total attacks are returned as 198,364. The animals killed (diseased) amount to 77,469 ; those which died, 90,412 ; reco- vered, 21,589 ; unaccounted for, 8,894 : besides which no less than 38,295 have been slaughtered healthy, to prevent the spread of the malady. These figures are truly formidable ; but they fail to show a tithe part of the distress and ruin which have been brought on hundreds of thriving and industrious far- mers and cattle-owners by this dreadful visitation. To pass to Scotland. By the middle of last July the disease had been elfectually stamped out in Scotland ; and in consequence thereof an Order in Council, bearing date August 11th, was issued, suspending all restrictions as to the movements of cattle in that country. The Order set forth that — " Fronr and after the 13th day of August, 1866, and subject to the further Orders of the Lords of the said Council, all the provisions contained in any Order of Council restraining or regulating the move- ments of animals within Scotland, or any part thereof, and aU Orders of any Local Authority in Scotland made under or in virtue thereof, and all the Provisions contained in any Order of Council prohibiting or regulating the holding of markets, fairs, auctions, exhibitions, or sale of cattle within Scotland, or any part thereof, and all Orders of any Local Authority in Scotland made under or in virtue thereof, shall be suspended ; provided that notlung herein contained shall prevent any Local Authority in Scotland, or the officer or officers appointed thereby, from granting ' fat stock or store stock' Hcences, under the Order of 1 1th April, IS66, for the removal of cattle from Scotland to England or elsewhere beyond Scotland." Subsequent to the issuing of the Order, five cases were officially reported as having occurred at West Kilbride, County of Ayr. As may be easDy understood, this supposed fresh outbreak ex- cited the liveliest apprehensions that the disease might again gain a footing in the coiuitry. These were, however, quickly set at rest by fui-ther professional examination, Profr-ssor M'CaU being ordered to specially investigate the facts of the case. This gentleman reported that the animals had not died of cattle plague, but from splenic apoplexy ; an opinion wliich was coincided in by the inspector who had originally reported the outbreak, and also by other inspectors whom he had con- sidted. So keenly alive, however, were the Caledonians to the necessity of preserving Scotland free, that although an Order of Council was issued to prohibit the removal of stock from England into Scotland, the Highland and Agricultural Society, and also the Chamber of Agriculture, memorialized the Lords of the Council to suspend the great autumnal cattle fairs and markets. The memorial of the Highland Society set forth — 1st, That the holding of lean and store markets for cattle should for the present be entirely suspended, and that especially Falkirk Cattle Tryst should not be held. That the directors had come to this resolution after communication with all the local authorities in Scotland. The memorial of the Chamber of Agriculture pointed out that the Order in Council of August 11th did not secure Scotland again.st re- 40t) THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. iutroductiou of tlie cattle plague from Eogland, and urged that the transport of cattle fi'om England should he fenced about with more stringent conditions as to licence, S:c. The Cham- ber, moreover, " humbly recommended and earnestly urged upon their Lordsliips the necessity, under existing circum- stances, of prohibiting all public fairs, trysts, or public markets for the sale of store cattle, unless such markets as may be ex- pressly sanctioned by the local authority of the place where the same are to he held." These memorials were fully considered by the Lords of the Council, and an answer was returned to the effect that as both Scotland and Ireland were free from cattle plague, and as no cattle or sheep could enter Scotlaiul from England, their Lordships did not see sufficient reason to vary or revoke their Order of August 11th. The Falkirk trysts consequently have been held, and without any injurious consequences ; and from the date of the Order Scotland has been as free, with regard to movements of animals within her borders, as she was prior to the outbreak of the cattle plague. It appears from tlie official returns that the attacks in Scotland amount to -iGjSei, being 4-,Stl per cent, ou the entire stock of the coimtry. Of this number there died 28,088, and were kiUed 6,2G3, making a loss of 34,351. 10,707 recovered, and 1,803 are unaccounted for, the larger part of which may probably be regarded as having died. Scotland, too, has lost 13,4il cattle, which were slaughtered to limit the spread of the infection. The disease prevailed in Scotland for a year, the first cases being reported to have occurred July 18th, 1865, and the last on July 1-ith, 1866. We come now to Wales. It has somewhat singularly happened that, witli the exception of two counties, no part of the Principality has suffered from the disease. These counties are Flint and Denbigh. The disease is said to have first visited Elintshire, and as early as Jidy, 1865 ; but doubts may not unreasonably be entertained as to the correctness of this state- ment. Be this as it may, the malady was established in Sep- tember, both in Flintshire and Denbighshire, and continued down to the third week of August last, when for the first time no cases were returned ; Flintshire having suffered to the ex- tent of I'JS attacks and Denbighshire 81 attacks per thousand animals. Wales has since remained free from the disease. In the aggregate, 8,388 of the Cambrian cattle have been attacked ; and of these 5,794 died, 1,180 were killed, and 1,117 recovered, leaving 297 unaccounted for. In Wales also 528 were also slaughtered healthy. The confinement of the disease to the counties named was doubtless due in a great measure to legis- lative enactments. To come next to Ireland. As may be easily understood, from the first appearance of the plague the greatest solicitude existed with regard to Ireland, should the disease unhappily extend to that country. Very early, legis- lative measures, far more stringent than those employed in England, were adopted to protect the cattle of the Sister Isle. For many months these proved fully effective ; but suddenly, and totally unexpectedly, the disease appeared in the North of Ireland, at Dreunan, near to Lisburn, County Down, in the month of April last. How the contagion was conveyed thereto has never been satisfactorily ascertained. By some it is sup- posed to have been taken from Scotland by drovers, whilst by others it is thought that its introduction was not altogether accidental. A fair was held about four miles from Drennan a week previous to the appearance of the disease ; but none of the infected cattle had been taken there, nor were any drovers from either Scotland or England known to have gone into the parish. I am indebted to Professor Brown, who was specially commissioned to investigate the cases, for the following details of the outbreak: On ]\[ay 13th, he states, notice was received of an outbreak of cattle plague in County Down, at a place called Drennan, about seven miles from Belfast, and three from Lisburn. Ou inquiry, however, it was found that the disease had existed there since April 8th, on which day a cow was attacked with plague on a farm belonging to John McKee. From this time other cases occurred on the following davs — April 8th, 13th, 16t]i, 19tli, 2Sth, 30th, May 3rd, 10th, llth, 12th, 13th, 17th ; the disease having extended during this period to three adjoining farms. Thus, from John McKce's it spread to W. J. Erskine's, forty perches away; then to W. McKee's, ten perches distant ; and thence to Ilea's, adjoining. The owners of these farms liad assisted each other in drench- ing the sick animals, and in skinning and burying the carcases, not knowing the nature of the disease. From the same centre the malady likewise extended to jMcCartney's, at Cabragh, one mile and a-half from Drennan ; and, after an interval of twenty-one days, namely, on June 7th, it was reported to have broken out at McKetterick's farm, half a mUe from Drennan. The report was not received, as just stated, until June 7th ; but on inquiry it was found that three animals had died, and bceu buried before the inspector was called iu. On his arrival he found that two others were lying dead, and two more were ill ; making, in aU, seven animals which had been attacked. On June 13th all the stock ou this farm was killed; and ou June 15th a case occurred on Erskine's farm, whose cattle were in the ne.xt field. Professor Brown saw this cow on June 18th, and found all the symptoms of plague to be well developed, and likewise that the post-mortem appearances are perfectly characteristic of the malady. On June 20th, 21st, and 25th, the rest of Erskine's cattle were attacked. These were also examined by Professor Brown. No more cases oc- curred in that district, but on June 22nd he was called to in- spect some cattle at BaUynasken, Co. Meath. Here he found one dead from plague, and another dying. This, with three others that had been taken with the disease, were at once kUled and buried. On July 5th another case occurred ou the next farm, and ou Mr. Brov^^l's arrival the animal was found to be dying. Eight others were on the farm, which were immediately killed and buried. No more cases occurred. No cause could be assigned for the outbreak iu either of these instances, the poison, as in the County of Down, having been introduced in some mysterious manner. The arrangements for meeting the emergency were perfect. Cordons were drawn round infected districts, and strictly kept by the constabulary. AU diseased animals were immediately killed and buried, and also every one that had been in contact with them. All persons going near the place were disinfected by the constabulary, and no horses nor vehicles were allowed to be taken out of infected boundaries. The en- tire number of animals exposed to the infection was fifty, and out of these twenty-nine were attacked, and either died or were killed, and twenty-one were slaughtered healthy. Nothing can show more clearly the propriety of the " stamping-out process" than this result. In it we have a parallel with what took place in France, where only forty-three animals, healthy and diseased, were sacrificed to the poleaxe, and the country freed from the plague. It is fearful to contemplate the distress which would have attended the spread of the disease in a country like Ireland, and at a time, too, when Fenianism was rife in many men's minds. Happily, we have been spared the scenes which would have followed ; and heartily, therefore, may we congratulate the Government on the success which has fol- lowed the adoption of its exterminating me^isures. It may here be remarked that the process of destroying the germ of the disease, wherever it may appear, has ])roved equally suc- cessful in Belgium. This country, after enjoying an immunity from the pest for a period of fifty years, at which time the disease followed the track of tlie Russian and Austrian armies, received the malady from Holland in August of last year. The imports from Holland were at the time larger than ordinary, and it is known that some diseased beasts, supposed to have come from Rotterdam market, entered Belgium on August 16th. The affection gained a footing in no less than six dif- ferent provinces ; notwithstanding which, the energy displayed by the Government, as soon as it had correct information on the subject, quickly succeeded in exterminating the pest with a loss of only four hundred and fifty-five animals. The closure of the frontier against the importation of cattle and sheep, with hides, &c., from Holland, and of the ports against English cattle, have since then preserved Belgium free from the disease. Contrast with these facts the vacillating policy of Holland, and the desire to treat the diseased cattle, and you have a result which may be rightly termed deplorable. In South Holland, and Utrecht iu particular, the disease still prevails to an alarming extent, and not only has no diminution taken place in the number of weekly attacks, but a positive and alarming increase, since about the middle of the summer. The last official reports which we liave seen give the total weekly attacks from June 30th as follows : June 30th 335 Aug. nth 1,225 July 7th 597 „ 18th 1,133 „ 14th 526 „ 25th 1,379 „ 21st 776 Sept. 1st 1,643 „ 28th 971 „ 8th 1,849 Aug. 4th 989 „ 15th — THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 407 The relative numbers in the three divisions, from Sept. 2nd to 8th, being as follows : South Holland Utrecht Nortli Holland 731 1,083 3G showing a material increase in each division. With regard to the way in which the disease was introduced into Holland, it is unnecessary here to repeat the particulars in detail. Suffi- cient to say, that its importation from England has never been denied, the cattle taking it being Dutch oxen -which were re- turned to Rotterdam in consequence of not bringing a remu- nerative price in the London market. To whatever country we look, it will be seen that attempts at cure are invariably as- sociated with a keepiug-up of the disease. Tlie mischief thus done is often ruinous to individuals, as well as injurious to the wealth of the nation. The counties which have suffered most in England, and in which the disease still lingers, are those where encouragement has been given to treat infected aninmls, and where the local authority has been otlierwise lax in en- forcing the law. Even now there are many advocates for treatment to be found. Indeed, it is to be feared that some practitioners are more solicitous in obtaining informa- tion relative to remedies than to investigate the laws that govern the spread of the malady, or the changes that are produced in the organism by the maieriea laorhi. Cheshire is a remarkable illustration of the truth of the remark that the loss is always in proportion to the attempts to keep .alive plague- stricken animals. In this county no less than 23,7-i3 cattle have been killed diseased, and 4,660 healtliy ; 33,729 have died, 3,147 are accounted for, and 7,907 have recovered. Ruin has been brought on numerous farmers and others, and the effects on the whole county niust be felt for mauy years to come. No less thau ±300,000 will have to be borrowed to compensate the cattle-owners. This sum has to be repaid in thirty years, and it has been calculated that it amounts to two- pence in the pound on all the rateable property of the county during the whole of this time. Many of the dairies it is im- possible to replace, and it is evident that the farmers have to be taught that to emerge from their difficulties they must henceforth look to other sources of income besides cheese- making. The system of farming must be modified, and Che- shire become a cattle and sheep-grazing county as well as a cheese-producing one. With regard to treatment, it is not a little remarkable that the plan which received most favour at the hands of the public was one that emanated from a gentleman who had no medical knowledge. " Drowning men," it is said, " catch at straws ;" and this adage was well illustrated by the readiness with wliich men adopted the treatment advised by Mr. Worius. This consisted chiefly of the exliibition of a mixture compounded of onions, garlic, and assafiEtida. Little was to be expected from this odoriferous compound, except perhaps that which really did take place — namely, a rise of £1 per ton in the price of onions, and a scarcity of assatbetida in the drug inarket. A more modern remedy is chloroform, which, like every other, has found favour with some persons. Our experience of it is anything but favour.able ; nor can we see how such an agent could act beneficially in the destruction of the cattle-plague poison. If any agents were likely to prove of use in such a way, it was to be expected that the sulphites might ; but these, like everything else, failed com- pletely when used on a large scale. Neither time nor the occasion will, however, allow of my dwelling on the treatment of cattle plague, and I might at once dismiss the subject alto- gether ; Imt it appears to me that reference should be made to one system at least which was adopted as a preventive — I allude to vaccination. The system had its origin in the belief that cattle plague was not only an exantliematous affection, but closely allied, if not identical with, variola. This view having had its origin with some distinguished members of the medical profession, soon found favour with the public, and vaccination was at once seized upon with an avidity that would have done honour to a better cause. The great demand for vaccine lympli led pretty soon to the manufacture of a spurious fluid by a class of persons ever ready to trade on jiublic credulity. Points charged with a compound of collo- dion and croton oil, or some similar irritant, were sold by the gross, and more than one person in London is said to have profited largely by the transaction. The Northwich hundred of Cheshire was made the site of the nefarous practice of two persons, who travelled throughout it, carrying an irritating mixture in quart bottles, with which to " vaccinate" cattle. It is said that they operated upon a thousand animals at least, making large incisions on the lower parts of the neck or shoulder, and wetting the wound with the fluid. In many cases the plague showed itself in about eight days afterwards, and its outbreak was believed to depend on these persons visiting diseased and healthy stock indiscriminately. The charge made by them was two shillings and sixpence per head, so that the sum netted was very considerable. No doubt, how- ever, that a very large number of cattle were properly vacci- nated ; and as so many applications for lymph were made that it was found absolutely necessary for the national vaccine es- tablishments to refuse all comers. Five shillings for a well- charged point was given in many instances, and as much as a guinea a head is said to have been paid for legitimate vaccina- tion.. The vaccination mania, no doubt, largely contributed to the spread of the plague. Three causes for this were especially brought into operation : 1st, A fancied security in the mind of the cattle owner ; Sndly, The totaUy unprotected state of even properly vaccinated cattle ; and 3rdly, The positive inoculation of animals with cattle-plague virus, persons acting under the belief that this was vaccinating them. Strange as it may ap- pear, some country surgeons, among others, were found to speak of the artificial introduction of the virus of cattle-plague as vaccination. Coming from a cow, they seemed to think that it must necessarily have some of the properties of vaccine lymph, and as the use of this in the human subject was a se- curity against sm.allpox, so the cattle-plague virus would give equal immunity to cattle without in any way endangering their lives. Without commenting on ignorance of this kind, I may observe that it was hoped that the important question of the susceptibility of cattle to the action of hu- manized vaccine lymph would have been solved by the experi- ments. Tor this purpose, and for other allied matters con- nected with vaccination, a circular was prepared by the Cattle Plague Department, and forwarded to each inspector who was a member of the profession. The questions asked were : 1st. The number of animals vaccinated. 2ndly. The number suc- cessfully vaccinated. 3rdly. The source wlience the lymph was obtained. 4thly. The number >r-vaccinated ; and, 5thly. The number in which vaccination failed altogether. A very large number of returns were received, and an attempt was made to classify the answers, so as to take those of value. This, however, may be said to have failed to rightly determine the matter ; but, taking the cases most to be depended upon, it appears that out of 7,693 animals 4,188 were successfully vaccinated, and 1,775 resisted the influence of the vaccine lymph entirely. The figures here given leave unaccounted for 1,729 animals. The return from Cheshire, like most other things connected with the cattle-plague, was unique of its kind : it stated that 28,113 animals had been vaccinated; 22,564 before the appearance of cattle-plague, and 5,649 after a de- claration of the symptoms. These figures are sufficient to show the extent of the delusion which possessed the minds of the farmers in that ill-fated county, apart from anything else which has been advanced in this address. It will be seen that no correct deductions can be made from the inquiry, and that the questions of susceptibility, the advantages or otherwise of retro- vaccination, remain very much in the same state in which they were prior to the cattle-vaccination mania. I come now to a matter of considerable importance, both in itself and as affecting the continuance of the cattle-plague — namely, the liability of other animals to this disease. That the poison is inert when introduced into the system of man and many of the domesticated animals we have abundant proof, but that goats and sheep are highly susceptible to its influence has been es- tablished beyond all doubt. Only a few weeks after the im- portation of cattle-plague, five goats, belonging to a dairy- man in Islington, died under circumstances which rendered it very probable that they had contracted the disease from plague- stricken eattle. These cases were quickly followed by others, and goat after goat came into the College suftering from the lualady. Towards the end of September, 1865, intelligence reached us that some slicep in Norfolk were dying from a disease, the symiitoms of wliich were strongly allied to cattle plague. The ease was investigated, and left no doubt what- ever as to the nature of the disease. Case followed upon case, until the question assumed a national importance. Such has been the progress of the disease among sheep, that the officially reported cases now amount to 6,721. This number, however, falls very far short of the real one ; and T have no hesitation 408 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. in saying that many hundreds would bav& been added to it if the matter had from the beginning been properly considered. By way of illustrating the mischief done by sheep, I select the followiug from many similar instances : Some sheep which nad contracted cattle-plague were uu\Tittingly sold by a farmer iu Norfolk. They were sent from his place to Bury St. Ed- munds, and were here divided into two lots. One lot went into Suffolk, and carrying the disease witli them, de- stroyed a large number of valuable sheep belonging to a large fanner, and two otlier small lots belonging to two diiferent persons. A lamb also, belonging to one of the ewes of the original lot, caused the destruction of fourteen cows and heifers, from being taken into premises at a distance at the time it was suffering from the plague. The other division of the sheep came into Essex, and led to no less than four distinct outlmrsts of plague — three among sheep and one iu cattle. One of tliese outbreaks took place iu Esses, two in Kent, and one in Middlesex. Facts like these are unanswerable by those who deny the liability of sheep to cattle-plague, and they would alone justify the course adopted by the Government in closing tlie fairs and markets, and restricting the movements of sheep in ten counties of England. As I have elsewhere said, we could afford to smile at the pretended knowledge of farmers which has given origin to the statements that sheep are un- susceptible of plague, were it not for the mischief it has pro- duced. A grave responsibihty rests with these men ; and should cattle-plague again increase, not a few of the cases will be found to depend on the malady being contracted from diseased sheep. It is incumbent on the veterinary pro- fession to show to farmers that, however i)erfect their education as tlUers of the soil may be, however great their knowledge of the various breeds of cattle, sheep, and pigs, for feeding or stock purposes, they are nevertheless totally incom- petent to give correct opinions of the nature or treatment of diesasc. The art of breeding, rearing, and feeding animals has not necessarily any more relation to the science of pathology than the art of cultivating the soil has with the knowledge of its geological epoch. It is said that farmers should l)e chemists, mineralogists, geologists, zoologists, naturalists, botanists, ve- terinary pathologists, and mechanical engineers ; but let us remember that, however desirable such a state of things may be, they are, as a class, none of these at present, but simply farmers — producers of food for the people. We have heard also a good deal from some of these persons respecting the practical knowledge of shepherds. Men, they say.- who have been among sheep during their whole lives must know all about their diseases. This is a fatal mistake ; for if there can be found one class more ignorant or prejudiced than auotlier, it is that of shepherds. We say this advisedly, having now had many years' experience of them. In truth, it is their v/ant of knowledge which greatly augments the farmers' loss of sheep from common causes. In matters of disease affecting slieep, shepherds should be taught that their duty to their masters consists in receiving, not in objecting to, the veteri- nary surgeon's opinion. The remark of a certain noble Scotch lady to her English shepherd — " You are a man among sheep, but a [sheep among men" — applies with equal truth to the whole class. Besides the dangers to which I have alluded for keeping up the disease, there is the further one of its reintro- ductiou from the Continent. Holland, as has been shown, is at this moment a great pest-house ; and although our ports are closed against Dutch cattle and sheep, there is, nevertheless, such an organized system existing in the cattle trade that a risk is continually being run of animals from Holland finding their way to the metropolitan and other markets. Nor is it improbable tb.at the disease may reacli us from other sources, as it would appear that one of the results of the late war has been to introduce the plague into some parts of Germany. Wlien we look at the net-work of railways which now exist on the Continent, and tlie facilities for bringing animals from such distant places as Hungary, Austria, and even Russia herself, we may well tremble for the safety of our English cattle and sheep. The great demand for animal food in this country, and the high ])rice at which it is sold, will always stimulate commercial en- terprise to push its ramifications to the greatest extent. In- deed, it would appear in our day that commerce knows no limits. Certain jirecautions, however, may be adopted by which the supply of foreign stock may be preserved, and a fair amount of security afforded against the introduction of conta- gious disease. One thing above all others is to exclude store stock, or, in other words, to make it imperative that every ani- mal imported shall lie kiUed for the meat market. Individually, I am strongly opposed to the establishment of a quarantine for store cattle and sheep. Practically, it cannot be carried out with the large numbers we are accustomed to import. Besides which, these quarantine stations \\ould become pest-houses, centres from which infection v^'ould spread tar and wide. The right way would be to establish a live market at each place of importation, that a fair competition might take place between buyers, and the sender thus obtain the full value of Ms ani- mals. After the sale, however, none should be allowed to leave tlie place alive ; and to meet this requirement slaughter- houses should lie attached to every such market. The slaughter of every animal should also be enforced within a limited time of its arrival at the place of importation. Very much more might be added on so important a subject as this, as the iutro- ductiou of contagious diseases from the Continent has now as- sumed such a proportion as to call for an entire revision of the importation law. Time, however, will not permit of any addi- tional observations, and therefore I pass to the more imme- diate object I have in view. Another contagious disease, how- ever, demands a passing remark, in consequence of the fre- quency of its recent outbreaks. I allude to the small-pox of slieep. It is a circumstance of no small significance, as showmg the increased danger to our flocks as well as our herds from imported contagious diseases, that this malady has been ascer- tained to have broken out no less than eleven times during the present year. The first of the cases occurred in Northamp- tonshire ; and although the flock with which the foreign sheep came in contact was not large, stUl the whole of it was sacri- ficed, the uuattacked as well as the attacked animals being killed. The second, third, and fourth outlireaks were in Essex, and confined nearly to foreign sheep, very iew of the English sheep exposed to the infection contracting, the malady. The fifth likewise took place in Essex among foreign sheep. Be- sides these, during the last fortnight I have learned, from per- sonal inspection, that the malady has been intioduced into no less than six places in Cheshire, thus bringing another serious evil upon that ill-fated county. It is much to be feared that the extent of the disaster has not yet been fuUy ascertained, as it is well known that many thousands of foreign sheep have been sent there for feeding on the pastures which had been emptied by the cattle-plague. Numerous as the cases of out- break from foreign sheep have been, there cannot be a doubt but they would have been greatly added to had it not been for the vigilance displayed on a recent occasion by the inspector at the port of Harwich. Only a fortnight since, a vessel — the Zealous — came into Harwich from Antwerp, having on board 1,369 sheep consi^-aod to different importers. On examining the animals, Iiy turning up each sheep, Sir. Taylor, the in- spector, found that no less than 87 of them were affected with variola. The whole cargo was detained, and two days after- wards seven more cases were detected. On the third day Pro- fessor Brown went to Harwich, and on re-examining the sheep he found nine others in the first stage of the malady, and five which presented pits. This brought the total number of cases to 108. It is worthy of remark that these sheep were all con- signed to one person, and were part of a lot of 300. AU the diseased animals were killed and buried, and the rest of the cargo was slaughtered for the meat-market, the skins being de- tained and disinfected. Since this, two other cargoes have been detained at the same port, that their true condition may be as- certained. HER MAJESTrS PRIZE FOR PLOUGHING.— This prize was competed for near Windsor, under the auspices of the Royal Bucks Association. After a sharp contest, it was won by Lieutenant-Colonel Vyse, whose ploughman, with one of Howard's Bedford ploughs, performed some remarkable workmanship, the furrows bemg laid with almost mathematical precision. A challenge cup was also offered for competition at the same match by the three adjoining counties, and was won liy Mr. Agar's ploughman, with a Bedford plough. 1 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 409 THE RINDERPEST AND ITS CONTRA- DICTIONS. Sir Brydges P. Henniker has given the following amusing account of the progress and treatment ''of the disease ; Without entering at all into those exciting subjects which produced such exciting debates and divisions in the House of Commons — subjects about which there might be a differeuce of opiuiou there, where political matters were very properly banished from their meetings — apart from all these, and wholly apart from all political feeling, there were many mat- ters wliich forced themselves on the notice of the House, mat- ters of deep importance to Ihem all, and quite sufficieut to tax to the utmost the energies of our members. \^Tien Parlia- ment first met we had been labouring for some mouths under a severe scourge. Por months the cattle plague had been among us, and in that neiglibourhood at least they had done what little tliey could to help themselves, and then could only wait for the governing powers to do what they could to get rid of the calamity, or at any rate to try to check its progress. How the matter was discussed and re-discussed those wlio read the daily papers knew well, and very weary, dreary reading it was. He, in common with many others, studied the papers every day iu hopes of seeing some remedy that would be efficb- cious — not that there was not some infallible remedy given every day, l)ut unfortunately next day it was contrailicted as utterly useless. He did not know if many of them studied the papers at the time, but the diversity of opinion was, to say the least, slightly curious. He took the trouble to extract from tlie Times for some months the remedies given, and to put them together to show how they contrasted with each other, and he should like very much to read one or two of them now. In the first place he found that every sound auimal ought to be destroyed within ten miles of where there had been a dis- eased one, and directly afterwards he found tliat no animal whatever ought to be destroyed. Then it was stated there was no cure at all for the disease, and immediately afterwards that the only cure was honiffiopathy. Next he saw the disease was caused by a fly, and the proper thing was to put up mosquito curtains in their cowsheds ; and this was followed up by the statement that it was the easiest thing iu the world, for they had only to wash their faces and wipe their eyes, and it was also recommended that a pound or two of tar sliould be put ou their noses : while the next tiling recommended was port wine and whisky administered l)y the gallon ; but unfortunately tliis was followed by the fact, that it had been tried on Miss Burdett Coutts' cows, and they had aU afterwards died from what was called " excitement," but which he (Sir Brydges) should call drunkenness. Well, the next thiug was beef tea every half-hour, and this was followed by the real, true, and only remedy — inoculation in the tail. It might probably have occurred that the tails would have dropped off, and it suggested itself to him afterwards that the name should be changed from the rinderpest to the liinderpest. He would only trouble them with one other remedy, which no doubt would prove a very useful one to them, though he confessed it was not so to him- self, for he could not understand it. He took the trouble of copying it out, and thought the first time he met his friends, the farmers of the neighbourhood, he should like to read it to them : " That the therapeutic inferences drawn from the state of the peritoneum, the capillaiy engorgement of the oinnasum and the hyperderraic condition of the tissues point to the organic hyposulphites and salaciue \vith hypodermic and subcutaneous injection of morphia and ferruginous preparations as the best remedy" (roars of laughter). Now he hoped they would bear that in mind, and that it would prove useful to them. He had heard of one more remedy, which he would repeat to them. One day when he was out hunting, he met a friend of his who lived, as their friends the newspaper reporters would say, not a hundred miles from Great Easton. They entered into conversation about the cattle- plague, and his friend said : " Well, Sir Brydges, I saw a real, good remedy in the papers the other morning." He replied : " I don't believe in remedies ; I have read them till I am tired of them, and I don't believe in them." " Well," his friend said, " I believe this ia a real, good, oue," 01' coui'se he Wi\5 very anxious to hear it, and there was something in the ex- planation that he thought everybody would like. He said : " I read in the papers the other day that Mr. ToUemache called together all his tenants who had sutfered from the cattle-plague and returned half their rents, and that is the oiilj/ reatly good remedy I know of yet ;" and he added — and he (Sir Brydges) was not responsible for the observation — " That is wuat I call a Christian : that man is of a very different kidney fi'om Mr. Gladstone." Well, he had got somewhat away from his toast ; but, as he said before, at the begiuniug of the session they were naturally in a great state of uncertainty and doubt, and he did not regret haviug called attention to the subject of the cattle-plague to-night, for he was afraid there was rather too strong an impression abroad that no more care need he taken. Now, it was a curious fact that although it was certainly di- minishing, yet it had broken out lately iu places that had been free from it before, and they ought to bear in mind that the cattle-plague was not over. Well, as he was about to say just now, amid all this doubt and uncertainty, they naturally turned to their members of Parliament, who were not slow to respond to their appeal. Directly they met, the subject was carefully gone into, and whether or uot it led to a good deal of useless discussion, and one or two useless clauses, he was not prepared to say, but he must say that their county members, and, indeed, their meinbbrs generally, showed a desire to do their whole duty iu the matter, and to give all their time, ability, energy, and consideration to the subject, not caring how long their sittings were prolonged so long as they did their duty hv those who sent them to Parliament to watch their interests. EFFECTS OF GOOD FEED ON MILCH COWS.— Our cows give fuUy one-third more butter this year than last, due solely to good feeding and warm quartei's in the win- ter. They were cows I bought with the farm. They looked well, but proved to be poor milkers. They had been suffered to go dry about the 1st of November, under the impres- sion that milking them in the winter would seriously injure them the coming summer. And I have no doubt that there is consideral}le truth in tliis idea, provided the cows in the winter have nothing but corn stalks and straw, and are uot stabled. But if they are fed liberally, they may be milked, uot only without injury, but with positive advantage. It favours the habit of secreting milk. Till within six weeks or two months of calving, a good cow, with plenty of rich food, can give four or five quarts of milk per day, and will still be able to secure milk enough for the calf: she will eat and assimilate more food, and will get the habit of secreting more milk. I believe there is no better way of restoring the milking qualities of cows that have degenerated from poor management. I gave my cows three quarts each of cornmeal a day, and an abundant supply of corn stalks and straw. Instead of letting them go dry in No- vember, I kept them stabled in cold weather, and they gave more milk, or rather they made more butter, after we com- menced to feed grain in November and December, than they did iu August and September. I milked some of them till within six weeks of calving. This is perhaps too much — ten weeks would be better. The cows, after vi'e stopped milking, fleshed up rapidly, and many were the predictions that the corn meal would spoil them for milk. But it did uot. They give more milk than ever before, and it is certainly very much richer. The prospects now are, that for the year commeucing the 1st of last November till the 1st of next November, they will give as much ayain butter as they ever gave iu ayear before. So much for good feeding iu winter. I weigh every pound of butter made, and feel confident that tfiis opinion will prove correct. I have uot yet fed meal this smumer, but shall do so the moment there is any indications of a falling off iu butter. In fact, I should feed meal now if I had my buildings conveniently arranged for the purpose. I have uot the slightest doubt that it would pay to give each cow two quarts of corn aud pea-meal a day. If twenty bushels of corn a- year wiU double, or even add one-third to, the amount of butter and cheese made by a cow, it is easy to figure whether it is pro- fitable or not. I do not say they will uot eat as nuich grass and fodder as if they were not fed with meal. The more food they will eat the better, i)rovided it is turned into butter aud cheese ,-i.r/f(fr/-(i''cf " WaUm md T((lks,'' 410 THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. MILLS AND MILLING. "THE RUNNER"— FORM; FUNCTION; POSITION; BALANCING, AND DRIVING. The aljove is the second head of our subject, as formerly proposed, wliich we now proceed to consider. In form, the runner presents a corresponding diversity to that of the bed- stone ; It has always done so from the earliest records of liis- tory giving any account of mills. Amongst the Hebrews it is represented as being of the same diameter as the bed-stone, but thinner in the middle or at the eye, which is easily ac- counted for by its concavity, the bed-stone being convex. According to the drawings in " Calmet's Fragments," by Tay- lor, the cup or hopper is of stone, forming part of the mill- stone, the whole being represented as hewn out of a solid block of stone. In the times of David and Solomon, the ancient Tyrians excelled in the art of stone-cutting, and, doubtless, it was from them and the Egyptians that the Hebrews learned, and also afterwards excelled, in tliis same art. It is, therefore, but reasonable to suppose that a highly- industrious nation, as the Israelites at that time were, would many of them expend no small amount of ornamental art upon the i'amily mill, considering that it was a domestic machine of so much importance, and held so sacred that it could not be pledged or removed from its place in the milling department. The same argument applies to the hand-mills of private families amongst tlie ancient Greeks and Romans, as amongst the Hebrews. Tlie mill-stones of the common people would be plain as to outward appearance ; but those of many of the higher classes would involve more expense in the manufacture. The old British quern was also a plain homely afl'air, very few of them having a hopper or cup hewn out of the stone, the eye of the runner being a large rude round hole, greatly larger than the pivot upon which the runner turned, and in at which hole the damsel at the mill shed the grain as fast as recpiiied. The pivot of Calmet's mill is represented as being also hewn out of the block, thus forming part of the nether mill-stone, and although we aver that this was the exception to the com- mon rule, the pivot for the most part being either wood, iron, or brass, yet it was doubtless the peculiar construction in not a few cases. The pivot of the querns, which have come under our own personal observation, was either iron or wood, and not above one-third to oue-half of the diameter of the eye of the runner. We draw special attention to the form and dimensions of the eye of the runner, and the pivot upon which it works, or rotates as a fulcrum, as they involve some important principles of mechanism, several times patented as modern discoveries, as will subsequently be shown : we allude to the eccentiic motion of the runner and the peculiar grinding action which it involves. In the early cattle mills, in which the draught-bar was fixed to the runner, the latter turning upon a pivot fixed in the bed-stone, the motion of the former (the runner) was also eccentric as in the hand-mills and quern. In practice, how- ever, there was a great objection to a lieavy runner thus rotating upon a lixed pivot, as there was nothing to keep the grind- ing surfaces asunder but the grain and flour between them. To obviate this objection, the runner was fixed upon an axis, or a spindle as it is generally technically termed, when the rota- tion of the runner became concentric with the bed-stone, and not eccentric. In the former case, the form of the eye of the runner had to be of greater diameter than that of the axis or spindle, in order to allow the grain to pass down to the grind- ing surfaces, just as the eye of the old hand-mills had to be larger than the pivot rigidly fixed in the bedstone. When water-power was applied by tlie ancient Romans, Greeks, &c., the runner also turned with the spindle ; but its position was sometimes changed from tlie horizontal to the vertical, as will subsequently be shown, and, in this latter case, the eye of the runner was closed, and the grain most probably fed in at or near the centre of the bed-stone, as in Rustall's hand-mill, for which the Society of Arts awarded a prize of forty guineas in LSUO. Mr. T. Rustall's hand-mill, just referred to, includes several peculiarities of mechanism that demand special attention. It is a vertical grinding mill, like the French military mills, and the spindle passes through the eyes of both stones. The runner is fixed upon the spindle, the eye being thereby closed. The lower part of the bed-stone rests upon a bolster, and it is brought nearer to and further from the runner by means of screws. The grain is fed in at the eye of the bed-stone, and this eye is closed according to the specification of several patents subsequently granted. And, lastly, the stones are surrounded with a cloth hood, by means of a broad wooden hoop, to prevent the liner particles of flour or the " stive " from escaping. This machine was not patented. In 181-i the Society of Arts jave to a Mr. C. Williams a premium for a vertical grinding mill ; but in this case the grinding surface was the periphery of the runner, and the bed-stone a corresponding concave segment of about the quadrant of the circle, forming the breast, the princi]ile of construction being similar to that suggested by Mortimer about a century prior, whose description we quote in a subse- quent paragraph. Many writers on this subject take the pestle as the origin of the runner — the steps of progress being something as fol- lows : First, a draught-bar was fixed to the handle of a large pestle, and turned round by an ass or ox ; second, the pestle assumed a conical form, as is now used in grinding colours ; third, it took the form of an edge-runner, as used in crushing- apples, or as mortar mills worked by cattle (in principle there- fore it resembled the spindle or rolling-pin, used and preferred by the Arabs to this day for grinding grain and coffee, accord- ing to the testimony of Nieliuhr) ; fourth, cylindrical-edge grinding stones, as in AVilliams' mill, and as proposed by Mortimer subsequently quoted ; fifth, vertical stones on the principle of Rustall's; and, sixth, horizontal stones worked by water wheels, as described by Vitruvius. But the writers thus referred to fall into many erroneous conclusions evidently, from an imperfect knowledge of practice, and the somewhat am- biguous account of mills and milling given by Pliny and the old authors. We shall first quote Phny, Vitruvius, and the other authorities referred to, and then eudeavour to reconcile their statements with the demands of practice. Pliny, in giving an account of the mode of grinding corn, says (quoting Bohn's Library) : " All the grains are not easily broken. In Etruria they parch the spelt in the ear, and then pound it with a pestle shod with iron at the end. In this in- strument the iron is notched at the bottom, sharp ridges run- ning out like the edge of a knife, and concentrating in the form of a star ; so that, if care is not taken to hold the pestle perpendicularly while pounding, the grains will only be splin- tered and the iron teeth broken. Throughout the greater part of Italy, however, they employ a pestle that is only rough at the end and wheels turned by water, by means of which the corn is gradually ground." — (Book xviii., chap. 23.) Vitruvius, after describing water-wheels for raising water, such wheels having paddles fixed round their circumference, says : " Water-mills are turned on the same principle, and are in all respects similar, except that at one end of the axis they are provided with a drum-wheel toothed aud framed fast to the said axis ; this, being placed vertically on the edge, turns round with the wheel. Corres]ionding with the drum-wheel, a large horizontal-toothed wheel is placed working on an axis, whose upper head is in the form of a dovetail, and is inserted in the millstone. Thus, the teeth of the drum wheel, which is made fast to the axis, acting on the teeth of the horizontal wheel produce the revolution of the millstones ; and in the engine a suspended hopper supplying them with grain, in the same revolution the flour is produced." — (Gwilt's " Vitruvius" ; Chap. X., p. 244.) From Johnston's translation of Eeckmau's " History of Inventions " we quote the following relative to water mills in THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 411 Palestine and Italy : " The Arabs have no windraills — these are used iu the East only, in places where no streams are to be found, and in most parts the people make use of hand-mills. Those (watermills) on Mount Lebanon and Mount Carmel have a great resemblance to those wluch I found in many parts of Italy. They are exceedingly simple, and cost very little. The millstones and the wheel are fastened to the same axis. The wheel, if it can be so called, consists of eight hollow boads, shaped hke a shovel, placed across the axis. When the water falls with violence upon these boards, it turns them round, and puts in motion the millstones over which the corn is poured." — (Darvieux, Reisen, I'art III.) Mortimer (vol. ii., p. 383, fifth edition, 1721) says, " A mill may probably be so contrived that the grindiug-stone or run- ner may be vertical, and of but a small circumference; the flat and square edge whereof may be fitted into another fixed stone, cut hollow, about half or a tliird-part of a circle, which runner by its first motion may despatch as much corn in the same time as a larger one the other way. Several also of these vertical stones may be placed on the same axis, and may be used in all sorts of nulls." In the first of these extracts, Pliny is evidently giving a de- scription of two different processes in the art of milling with a pestle. The first shelling or decorticating, as in tlie manufac- ture of groats and pearl barley, and the other pounding into meal, the pestle in both cases being actuated by a wheel, most probably of the simpler construction, as seen by the above tra- veller in Lebanon and Carmel. But be this latter as it may, the former is proved by the practice having come down to the present day. Thus, in China they hull rice by a pestle in a mortar, the former being actuated by the feet upon a plank, or lever, working over a fulcrum. The head of the pestle is fixed to the underside of the plank at one end, and at the opposite end the foot of the operator is applied, who grasps a cross rail in his hands, the better to steady himself when at work. In " sheeling," or decorticating, the mortar is nearly fiUed, and the pestle is not allowed to touch the bottom, but by a gentle vertical stroke plunged down through the grain as near to the bottom as not to bruise the wetted barley, or splinter tlie parched oat or spelt ; but in making meal or flour with a pestle, the bottom of the mortar is only thinly covered, against which the grain is ground by the pounding action of the pestle, a small quantity only being thus ground at a time, which when suffi- ciently fine has to be removed before any more fresh grain is thrown in and pounded. In the example which the writer saw in Inverness-shire, the pestle had a handle like a mallet, but inserted near its head, so that it hung vertically in the hand, ready for work ; and in working it, the measure of the stroke so as not to bruise the wetted barley in the bottom, was acquired by the experience of the operator; but when worked by the foot, as in the Chinese example, or by cams or teeth upon the axle of a water-wheel like a forge-hammer, as in the examples of Pliny, the pestle would be prevented from touching the bottom by mechanical means. But further into minute details we need not go, tlie above being suSicient to indicate the principle of construction and of working. At every stroke of the pestle, when actuated by water, the person attending to the mortar in grinding would have either to throw in fresh grain, or put the braised mass in the mortar in a proper posi- tion to receive the next stroke of the pestle. However, that the ingenuity of the Romans, in Pliny's time, soon got a-head of the pestle and mortar, from the description by Vitruvius of canal mills in working horizontal stones, is manifest. Mill-wheels were generally driven by water from canals ; and the drawings of Vitruvius' canal mill pub- lished at Leipsic in 1720, a copy of which is filed in the British Museum, correspond with the above description, only in the drawing the millstones actuated by two water-wheels are most probably situated below the level of the axes of the latter, whereas in the above description they appear above them. The probability is, that in practice Vitruvian mills were con- structed on both plans, that represented by the above extract being the more common. It is not so easy to reconcile the description of the simple water-mills of Lebanon, Carmel, and.Italy to any definite work- ing plan, the pouring of the corn over the millstone in feeding being the more difficult part of the description to unravel, as it admits of several^diff'ereut interpretations. Thus it may have been on the plan of Mortimer's and Williams's cylinders, as in mills constructed on this plan the corn falls upon the grinding surface of the runner. It corresponds in principle to the roll- ing pin or spindle-stone grinding against a concave surface, as seen by Niebuhr, and said by him to be preferred by the Arabs, both for grinding flour and coffee, only the rotary motion in the former case is continuous in one direction, whereas the Arabian spindle-stones alternately rotate backwards and for- wards. Rustall's crank and stones are upon the same axle ; but the corn is fed in at the eye of the bed-stone. In the case of the French military mill and other examples of a modem date, the grain, however, is fed in at the top of a vertical run- ner, which would answer the Palestine problem of feeding. Of these two plans the former corresponds more closely with the literal interpretation of the quotation, hut probably both plans were reduced to practice. Of Mortimer's plan nothing more requires to be said, unless we add that it has been some half-a-dozen times described and patented since the publication of his work in 1721 (?) Of the diversified form of grinding-surfaces, both of the bed- stone and runner, an extended notice has been given in No. II. ; and the same may be said of the position of the runner, when coupled with the preceding observations in this paper. In two respects the function of the runner differs from that of the bed-stone — viz., its fanning and centrifugal action ; and both these will be more advantageously considered under the head of aerating stones, &c. The remainder of our remarks in this paper will, therefore, be confined to the balancing and driving of the runner. The vertical balancing and working a pestle in a mortar, aUke in grinding as in decorticating, is a very nice piece of art, as already stated, and requires no little experience to gain its mastery. It is reported that the first pearl-barley mills were introduced from Holland into Scotland in 1710, by Mr. Meikle-; so that prior to that date the whole of the barley thus used was decorticated in mortars. And the new method of making pot-barley thus introduced was between two horizontal stones, set sufficiently far asunder not to grind. In this case the barley-dust, &c., was sometimes pressed through a perfo- rated casing that surrounded the two horizontal stones ; but the principle of mechanism was different from the perforated casing of the single vertical pot-barley cylinder now commonly in use, for the latter acts both as a grinding surface and a filtrating medium. In other cases the two pot-barley stones were surrounded by a close case, or hoop. Moreover, in the first plan, when the dust was forced or filtered through the perforated hoop, it fell either into a dust or stive-room, or was surrounded by a hood or cloth, to keep it together and prevent waste, as in Rustall's hand-mill ; and the same principle of economy is observed in the more modern mills for making pot-barley. In the Hebrew hand-miU and old British quern the runner was balanced by the gram being ground under it : hence the nice manipulation of feeding these mills so as to make good work ; and to some extent this is also true in feeding water and other power mills, the runner being always less or more supported by the grain being ground under it, when rotating over the bed-stone. In the Vitruvian miU, which is doubtless that which was introduced into Britain by the Romans, the " dovetail" on the spindle obviously corresponds with the more modern " iron cross" or " rynd," for supporting and turning round the runner, just as the " drum-wheel" and crown-wheel, or " hori- zontal wheel," upon the spindle, correspond to the old cog- wheel and trundle. In both cases there is, no doubt, a slight difTcrence of mechanism between the two plans ; but in prin - ciple they may be said to be identically the same. At first the Roman hopper, suspended over the eye of the runner, required a damsel to attend it, in order to regiJate the feed ; but here manual labour has been supplanted by special mechanism upon the spindle, to which the significant name of " damsel" has been retained. The " cup" of the old hand-mill runner, already noticed, has also been retained both iu principle of mechanism and name. In the Roman examples of the Vitruvian mill, constructed as represented by the Leipsic drawings, with the millstones below the crown-wheel on the spindle, the bottom of the spindle would most likely turn in a socket or upon a pivot fixed iu the centre of the bed-stone, as in the hand-mills. There are many reasons for believing that both these plans were iu use, at the period in ([uestion. In the British Museum Egyptian Gallery there is a large monumental slab, presented F F 412 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. by Lord Speucer, that had been used, ou some military or like occasion, as a nether millstone, ou the above plan of a socket in the centre for the spindle of the runner to work in. Wards, or channels, radiate from the centre iu the usual way, roughly made by the rude hand of some military miller ; and the runner was most probably driven by an ass or ox, like the Arab mills, iu Egypt, or tiiose found iu the ruins of Pompeii, subsequently noticed. The Romans had also floating mills. These carried paddle- wheels, so tliat, when moored in the rapids of rivers, or at bridges, the wheels were forced rouud by the current, and the miUstoues driven in the ordinary way, as in canal mills. In examples of tliis kind the millstones were most probably below the axles of the water-wheels, the bottom of the barges serving for the floor of the mills. A number of these barges, or floating miUs, moored across a river, would make a rapid anywhere, by damming back the water, so that tlie head-current would stand lighter than the tail-water, just as we see at bridges and the Uke. The old tide-mills of this country were, doubtless, copies of the floating mills of the ancient Romans, at least iu principle, if not in the details of much special mechanism. WHEAT — ITS CULTURE IN AMERICA. Wheat is the most prominent cereal which we find spoken of in ancient record. The Prophet Ezekiel mentions it as being traded in, in the land of Judah and Israel. We also find it spokeu of in the days of Joseph iu Egypt, etc. It has been cultivated from those days to tlie present by many nations of the globe. There are limits beyond which it may not be cul- tivated, as with all other cereals. What those limits are, we are not fully prepared to say, and as they have no immediate influence upon our present discussion, will be passed. The question will rather be upon its production iu the wheat-grow- ing section of the United States. From tlie census statistics of 18G0 we learn that it is grown in thirty-four States, seven Territories and districts ; in other wo^-ds, every inhabited State and Territory of our Union pro- duced a greater or less quantity of this fii'st of all the bread crops. The aggregate number of busliels in 1860 was 173,104<,924?. Illinois produced the greatest number of bushels of any of the States, and Rhode Island the least. The produc- tion, in proportion to inhabitants, wa^s greater in the Western States tlian iu any other section ; also, the increased proportion since the census of 1850 was greater, some of the other sec- tions actually falling ofi', or producing less to each inhabitant than heretofore. We' now come to the question, why this falling ofl', especially in New England and the Middle States ? There are many causes, more or less remote, aflecting this result. One princi- pal cause is the immense surplus, more cheaply produced in the West, finding its way to better markets ; these sections finding that other crops, etc., could be produced at a greater profit, and witli less risk and care, turned from tlie culture of a crop which was gradually lessening in profit. Other causes, as disease, insects, diminished production, from the partial ex- haustion of the soU, etc., had tlieir influence on this result. That our lands are as capable of being made to produce as good, if not better, crops than ever heretofore, admits not of a shadow of doubt m the miud of the writer ; the requisite necessary is proper culture. As good wheat can be grown in Connecticut as in any of the Middle or Western States — wheat that will yield as many bushels to the acre, and make as nice flour, as that from any other section. I have raised wheat in Connec- ticut that for quality had no superior that I have been able to And, yielding twenty-five to thirty busliels per acre, and that upon land not higlily prepared for more than an ordinary crop. Others have done the same or better. With a proper rotation and culture, the same good results may be attained by a good proportion of the farmers of the Eastern or Middle States. Li newly-settled countries, the soil being virgin, contains a large amount of accumulated organic matter, derived from natu- ral sources. This furnished pabulum for growing crops for 3iiany years. The cultivator, not feeling the necessity of fer- tilizing his soil — as when one piece failed to give full crops, all he had to do was to adopt another — he thus acquired a habit which succeeding generations were slow to deviate from ; con- sequently the partial exhaustion of the soil, causing the failure in many instances to produce paying crops. Such culture brought its natural rev^ard — disease, wiuter-kiUing, insect destruction, etc. Now, to bring our land into the proper con- dition to give us good crops of wheat, we must adopt a better system of culture. Our land must be worked to a greater depth, be more thoroughly pulverized, have suitable fertiUzing material liberally applied : where necessai-y be uaderdrained, to the better warming, draining, and aerification of the soil. When we accomplish this, we shall find that as good crops will be realized as in former days ; and those destructive insect ene- mies, which are the dread of all wheat growers, will lie defeated, especially wliere we adopt a system of rotation, raising crops for feeding stock, and manuring with especial reference to this crop, and growing from a less area a greater amount of grain or other crops. We must adopt an alternation of growing the cereals with the leguminous and root crops, and feed them out, applying the manure made therefrom to the soil. Such crops should be raised for feeding as will furnish the elements for the richest manure, such manures being found the most economical for application to the soil. It wiU scarcely be necessary to say that wheat may be grown on a variety of soUs, as there exists a great diversity over the region in which it is a leading crop ; that should be selected which is a little rolling, well drained, naturally or artificially. Selection oe Seed. — Varieties are numerous of winter and spring. Winter wheat being the most valuable, and most generally raised, will be the kind here discussed. These varie- ties are, to a greater or less extent, dependent for their good qualities upon the soil, climate, and cultivation which tliey receive. A variety should be selected by comparison whicli yields well, is hardy, commands a good market, and makes a good article of flour. When such is found, secure it even at a liberal outlay of money. Having once obtained it endeavour to improve upon it by selection and cultivation. Select the earliest and longest heads from the field, or that part of the field containing them, and let it get fully ripe ; keep it separate from the general crop, thresh it with the flail, clean it ; then, with a sieve which will pass all the small shrunken grains, separate it. A further improvement is by throwing it across a long floor, rejecting all that falls short as light, and retaining for seed the heaviest and best, which goes beyond. This pro- cess will efl'ectually clear the grain of cheat and other foul seed. PEErARATiON OF Seed FOR SOWING. — Having cleaned your seed as above, prepare a pickle of salt dissolved in water suffi- ciently strong to bear up a potato, and for half a barrel of such pickle add half a pound of blue vitriol. When all is dissolved, put in the seed, stir it well, and skim ofi^ all that rises to the surface ; throw tlie remainder into a liasket to drain ; let this be done ten or twelve hours previous to sowing. Just before sowing, spread it on a tight floor, and roll it in slaked lime, to a powder, stirring it well with rakes. It is now ready to deposit iu the soU. The first of September is as late as the seed ought to be sown, and in no case ought it to be delayed later than the 10th of the montli. Quantity of Seed to the Acre. — As tlie seed of dif- ferent varieties varies in size, some will require a larger quan- tity than others ; so also, if sown broadcast by hand or drilled by machine, the former requiring more seed than the latter. From five pecks to two bushels, and, in some instances, more is used, varying with the mode of sowing and witt different cultivators. The grain drill, properly adjusted, deposits the seed more uniformly, covei's it at an even depth, requires less seed, and usually gives greater crops than when sown by hand ; also, the work is done quicker, the seed comes up more uni- formly, and is better prepared to resist any counteracting in- fluences. Where seed is sown by hand it should be evenly dis- tributed, and the harrowing should be botli leugtli and cross- ways the field, to cover tlie seed as uniformly as possible, ;uid THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 413 Aim the soil. Having ia previous communications expressed my views how good ploughing should be done, I only add here, that the soil is brought into a nmcli better conditioa for wheat if ploughed twice or more. I now pass to the llAitvESTiNG. — The proper time for cutting wheat or rye, to be made into flour, is before it comes to full maturity, as in the latter case it yields a less and poorer quality of flour than wlien cut in a more mature state. Experience teaches that the greatest quantity and best quality of flour is made from grain ent in the dough state — that is, wlien the grain is yet soft, yielding no milk when crushed between the nails of the thumbs. The perfection of machinery for cutting grain has to a great measure done away with the sickle and grain cradle, thus abolishing a very laborious part of harvesting. The machine, with the self-raker, now makes quick work of cutting down a field of grain, so that more of it cau be cut in just the right time. Binding, Shocking, etc. — We are liable, while harvest- ing, to have heavy showers of rain ; it therefore becomes us to perform those operations well. In binding, the bands should be drawn tight, or iu curing the bundles shrink, loosening the bands so that iu hauling, etc., many become loose, causing delay to re-bind, etc. Ten or twelve are suflicient for a'singlc shock ; they should be set in two rows, the butts firmly im- planted in the stubble, a little open, the tops leaning together and well pressed ; take two sheaves and part the tops and place them astride the shock, spreading so as to cover the tops well ; bind them togetlier by twisting the straw from one cap sheaf to the other, and, if properly done, they will stand any ordinary amount of wind and rain. Here it may remain till sufficiently cured for the mow or stack. Every one who raises grain ought to have sufficient bijrn room to store his grain iu, so that it may be secure in any weather, and that he may take advantage of circumstances in threshing and preparing it for market ; but comparatively few large growers are thus provided, conse- quently the grain is stacked out. In stacking out, preparation siiould be made by laying a suitable foundation to raise the bottom at least a foot from the ground, to keep it dry and give ventilation, with a suitable stack pole in the centre. The centre of the stack should be kept well rounded, firmly built, and the outer sheaves have the huts well forced into those on which they lie and be inclined to shed rain, etc. Tlie topping should be carefully done, closing every place so tliat no rain may penetrate, and fastening the top sheaves so that they will in no case blow or slip ofl", and iinishiug with a thatch well bound and secured. TiiKESHiNG AND CLEANING. — These operations are now performed almost exclusively by horse or steam power ; the best way, or mode of doing, needs no elucidation ; but that the cleaning part is very imperfectly performed is too evident from the amount of foreign matter contained in the grain sent to market. Much pains shoidd be taken in cleauipg, to get it as clean as possible of cockle, cheat, etc., as a good clean article of grain will sell enough more readily, and for a greater price, to pay the extra expense of the little extra trouble. The better the straw is preserved after threshing the greater its value for feeding or other purposes. Wm. H. White. — T/io American. Qauntrij Genileman. THE HUNTINGDONSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. MEETING AT ST. NEOTS. The annual show and dinner of this society was held at St. Neot's on Wednesday, Sept. 26, and there was a very good show considering the absence of cattle. The horses were good, both as regards numbers and quality. There were some excellent roots, and the poultry was well represented. There was also some capital ploughiug, the weather and land considered. The judges of stallious were Messrs. Cranfield, Buckden ; Edwards, Buckworth ; and Prior, Leighton ; — of other horses, Mr. E. Kooper, Abbotts Ripton ; Mr. C. Barnett, Stratton Park ; and Mr. Thomas, Bletsoc ; — of sheep, swine, and roots, Messrs. Plowright, Manea ; Craig, Eotheriughay ; and Sear- son, Deeping St. James. The following are the awards of prizes : — STOCK. Open to all England. To the exhibitor of the best stallion for agricultural purposes, the property of or hired by the ex- hibitor.— First prize, £15, Mr. John Manning, Orlingbury ; second, £7, Mr. William Walker, Cohie. To the owner of the best cart mare and foal, first premium, £5, by the society, and a cup of the value of £5 by tlie inhabit- ants of St. Neot's. — First prize, Mr. R. H. Ekins, Wenington ; second, £3, Mr. Looker, Wytou. To the owner of the best two-year-old cart gelding. — First prize, £4, Messrs. T. and S. Fyson, Warboys ; second, £2, Mr. R. H. Ekins, Wenington. To the owner of the best two-year-old cart fiUy. — First prize, £4, Mr. Rowland Wood, Clapton ; second, £2, Mr. E. Faux, Yaxley. To the owner of the best two cart horses, — Mr. J. 0. Dain- tree, Lolworth, £4. To the owner of the best yearling cart colt or filly. — First prize, £3, Mrs. Orbell, Abbott's Ripton ; second, £3, Messrs. Fyson, Warboys. To the owner of the best mare or gelding above four and under five years old, adapted for hunting purposes, tlie pro- perty of the exhibitor six months previous to the show. A cup of the value of £25, by Mr. James Marshall. — Mr. Sisinan, Buckworth. To the owner of the best mare or gelding, five years old and upwards, adapted for himting purposes, tlie property of the ex- hibitor six mouths previous to the show, — Mr, Samuel Earl, Morborne, £10. A protest against payment of this premium entered. To the owner of the best marc or gelding above four and under five years old, not exceeding fifteen hands, adapted as a roadster, the property of the exhibitor six montjis previous to the show. — A premium of £5, Mr. F. Reynolds, Chatteris. To the owner of the best mare or gelding, above five years old, not exceeding fifteen hands, adapted as a roadster, the property of the exhibitor six months previous to the show. A cup of the value of £5, by the inhabitiints of St. Neots. — Mr. S. D.ay, St. Neots. To the owner of the best pony, not exceeding 13^ hands high. A cup of the value of £5, by the inhabitants of St. Neots. — Mr. L. Carpenter, St. ^s^eots. SHEEP. To the owner of the best pen of three wethers, under two years old. — First prize, £6, Mr. Edwards, Buckworth ; second £3, Mr. Edwards. To the owner of the best pen of ten theaves, under two years old, and to be kept for breeding purposes. — £5, Mr. Edwards, Buckworth. To the owner of the best pen of ten ewes, that have suckled lambs to the 1st of June last, and to be kept for breeding pur- poses.— First prize, £5, Mr. J. O. Daiutree, Lolworth ; second, £3 lOs., Mr. J. Goodliffe, Connington. To the owner of the best pen of ten wether lambs. — First prize, £4, Mr. Edwards, Buckworth ; second, £3, Mr. Ed- wards. or THE SHORT WOOL OR MIXED BREED. To the owner of the best pen of three wethers under two years old. — First prize, £0, Mr. Wilkinson, Godman- chester. To the owner of the best pen of ten ewes, that have suckled lambs to the 1st of June last, and to be kept for breeding pur- poses.— First prize, £5, the Earl of Sandwich ; second, £3 10s., the Duke of Manchester. To the owner of the best pen of ten wether lambs. — First prize, £4, Mr. Wilkinson, Godinancliester. To the owner of the best pen of ten ewe lambs. — I'irst prize, £4, Mr. Wilkinson, Godraanchester. F F 2 414 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. A cup of the value of twenty guineas, by Messrs. Browns and Goodman, to the breeder of the best sheep exhibited in the yard, eitlier by itself or in any one of the preceding classes, such breeder being a member of the society. — Mr. Cranfield, J3uckden, for a long-wool shearling ram. SWINE. To the owner of the best boar of the large breed. — First prize, £3, Mr. G. E. Daintree, Eenton ; second, 30s., Mr. J. O. Daintree, Lolworth. To the owner of the best breeding or suckling sow of the large breed. — Krst prize, £3, Mr. C. Lewin, Brington ; se- cond, 30s., Mr. J. 0. Daintree, Lolworth. To the owner of the best breeding or suckling sow of the small breed. — First prize, £3, Mr. Sisman, Buckworth ; se- cond, 30s., Mr. Edwards, Buckworth. To the owner of the best pen of three yelts, over six and under twelve months old. — Prize, £3, Mr. J. 0. Daintree, Lolworth. About one hundred of the members of the society sat down to dinner at the Corn Exchange, under the presidency of the Hon. Colonel Duucombe. Mr. Atte:il/eman).—Behv please find remedy for roup or swelled head in fowls : Two tea- spoonfuls rum ; wheat bread sufficient to absorb it. Cram this down the fowl. After six hours, rejieat the dose ; twelve hours after, give eight drops laudanum on bread ; give water only when the fowl will drink. At intervals give soft bread and raw fresh meat, by cramming. The above treatment lias never failed iu my hands to cure. — R. Elmira, Aug. 13, 18GG, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 433 DEATH OE MR. W. FISHER HOBBS. This well-known agriculturist died at his house, Boxted Lodge, near Colchester, on Thursday, the 11th Oct., in the 5Sth year of his age. He had been iu delicate health for some time past, and for the last few mouths had been almost entirely confined to his room, as for a year or two previously he had been seen but little iu public. One of the last occasions, in- deed, upon which he took any prominent part in the proceed- ings at any of our great gatherings was at the Newcastle-upon- Tyne Show of the lloyal Agricultural Society, in 1861, where he acted as one of the judges of dairy stock. He was, how- ever, so unweU at the time, tliat he had to leave for home on the same day, having just before this been taken very suddenly and seriously iU while on a visit to his friend, the late Mr. Richard Garrett, during the Meeting of the Suflblk Agricul- tural Society at Saxmundham. He never, in fact, recovered from that attack ; or, to adopt a somewhat homely phrase, was not the same man afterwards. Mr. WiUiam Fisher Uobbs wiU deservedly occupy a very prominent place iu the annals of modern agriculture. There were few of his fellows so wcU grounded, and none perhaps who united so thoroughly practical a knowledge of the business of the farm with those scientific acquirements which he did so much to develop. He was at all points one of the best judges of stock that ever entered a show-yard, and equally at home with cattle, sheep, pigs, or cart-horses. Tlien, he was well up in implements, while he coidd set a furrow and put a labourer riglit in almost any work upon which the man might be emidoyed. But, famous as he was for his improved Essex pigs, liis llerefords and Alderneys, or his Southdowns, it was in the more general service of agriculture that Fisher llobbs came to be distinguished. lie was one of t lie founders of the lloyal Agricultural Society of England, as for more than twenty years he was one of its most useful members. As one of the Council, as the chairmari of a committee, or as a steward of the show, his energy was indomitable, and his ad- ministrative ability as excellent. He put a very liigh render- ing upon the duties associated witli such ai)poiutnients, and neitlier favour nor influence could make him swerve from his point. At the meetings in Hanover-square he was heard witli marked attention, as few had more weight, regarded, as he was, as the leader of the more practical element in the Couucil Chamber. Men of all ranks, however, were as anxious to know " what Hobbs had to say about it," and perhaps in no other place did he stand so well. Still, he was equally active at the Smithfield Club, where he was in turn an exhibitor, a steward, aud a judge ; while he was one of the oldest members of the Farmers' Club, of wliicli he had been chairman, and where he opened several of the discussions, his papers on the Beer-shop Nuisanee and the Law of Copyhold more especially having been re- ceived with marked effect, lie was also kuowii here as the consistent supporter of the Tenant-right prin- ciple, and as determined an opponent of the Malt Tax and the Law of Settlement. In what may be termed the politics of Agriculture he took, indeed, a strong interest, and at one period he might, had he so chosen, have been most jn-obably returned to Parliament. But he was well content to 1)e more directly identified with the cause for which he did so much, and at the time of his decease Mr. Fisher Uobbs was a Vice- President of the lloyal Agricultural Society of England, a member of the Council of the Smithfield Club, one of tlie Com- mittee of the Fanners' Club, one of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Benevolent Listitution, as well as a sujiporter of many simOar societies in his own aud other coimties. He was also well known abroad, and had frequently given liis services to the Paris and other Agricultural Expositions in France. Mr. Fisher Hobbs, who was born at White Colne, in Essex, was the son of aKentish yeoman,by wliom he was early inculcated into the business of the farm ; but his education was com- pleted in Leicestershiie, where he was with Mr. Stone, a pupil of Bakewell, aud renowned for his own flock of Leicesters. On his return he studied for some time further in Suffolk, and then took a farm at Mark's Hall ; but succeeding to a good fortune on the death of his uncle, Mr. Fisher, he removed to Boxted. Here, so long as his health permitted, he also farmed extensively ; although, from the public calls upon his time, he was not much at home. He was a good shot, and inherited some of his father's foudn«ss for cricket ; but he was not often of late seen with hounds, aud thought more of breeding a Suffolk Punch than a lumtcr. Like most men, Mr. Fisher Hobbs had his feUings ; but as a friend — we might almost say as a slave — to the cause of agriculture, none have ever laboured more con- scientiously and few to a Ijetter purpose. His great practical knowledge, his untiring industry, aud a certain quickness of observation, were of immense service, backed as these qualifi- cations were l)y ample means, and with no family ties to inter- fere with his pubhc pursuits, for he died unmarried. Just as his health begau to fail, the more general recognition of these la- bours evinced itself in the proposal for a testimonial picture, and the portrait is now on the easel of Mr. Knight, the lloyal Academician, although, from the continual illness of Mr. Hobbs, the artist has had but few sittings. There is little doubt, however, but that the painting will yet Ije iinished. VALUE OF WOOD ASHES. Different kinds of wood, when burned, will produce ashes of quite different value, not only for promoting the growth and fructification of crops, but for culinary purposes. And, if farmers only knew their value as a fertiliser, there would be no ashes wasted, neither would there be any for sale, exccptiug by those people who liavc no soils to improve or crops to raise. A distinguished writer on agricultural chemistry, in a com- munication to the Albany Cidlivaior, says : " Several salts are necessary for a full growth and maturity of a wheat crop. Li using the superphosphate of lime, the farmer nses but one of the salts necessary for the perfection of a wheat crop. But in the use of ashes the farmer ajiplies to his land, besides the several salts of potash, more or less of several other salts, no less valuable, according to the Idnd of timber from which the ashes were produced. Ashes from the beech contain nearly 20 per cent, of the salts of phosphoric acid. According to the iuialysis of De Saussure, one hundred pounds of ashes would be suflicient for the production of 3,830 pounds of straw. But, besides the other salts of potash, the ashes either furnish, ready prepared, or produce after beiug put upon the land, a good supply of the silicate of potash, a salt as necessary as any other salts of potash, or even as any salt of phosphoric acid. But the ashes, besides furnishing several important salts, may perform another oifice in the economy of agriculture, no less important. In the preparation of compost, they may be used as a solvent, to convert into important manures many other things useless without being dissolved. And this, too, without destrojing any of tlieir eflicacy as salts. They give compact- ness to liglit sandy soils, and render lieav^ clay soils light and friable. They serve, too, to neutralise whatever superabundance of acids there may be in any soil." Every observing farmer has noticed how luxuiiantly grass or grain of any kind usually grows where a brush-heap or log- heap has been burned ; and, also, how superior the grain usually is, both in quality and in quantity, which has growu on such places. This consideration establishes, beyond a doubt, the fact that nnleached wool ashes are excellent fertilisers, and are of more real value to a good farmer when they are applied to a crop than when they are sold for the purpose of making potash. Unleached ashes are far superior to leached aslies, because they furnish a large supply of fertilising material, which makes the straw more stiff than it otherwise would be. Therefore if the straw of cereal grain can be rendered much more stiff by sowing a few bushels of wood ashes per acre, of course there will be a much greater yield of grain if the straw can be kept erect, than there would be if the straw is so limber that it falls down before the grain is harvested. Ashes, whether leached or unleached, are very valuable for promoting the growth of any kind of grass, when they are sown broadcast over the fields ; and Prof. Liebig recommends sowing ashes on meadows, for the purpose of increasing tlie quantity of grass for hay. On some soils ashes appear to exert abuost a magical influence iu promoting tlie growth of cereal grain as well as the growtli of the grasses. Wood ashes, either leached or fresh, in some places can be obtained in large quantities, and at reasonable rates, especially at the pot and pearl-ash factories. Leached ashes contain but little potash compared, with tlie unleached ; yet they have in their composition all the inorganic or ash constituents of our cultivated crops, and their application to light dry soils generally exhibit very favourable and marked effects, much improving their moisture-retaining qualities, and higlily favouring the growth of corn and graft. — IVcclcbj Jye. 434 l^HE FAKMEK'S MAGAZINE. THE NEW NUMBER OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S JOURNAL. At this ofF-seasou, with the ingatlicring getting on to completion, a new number of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society sliould be particularly well timed. Indeed, the appearance of the Part may be regarded with more than ordinary interest, offering as it should do some- thing of an index to the future of an institution, tliat of late has liad no very great hold upon the public, and whose fortunes are supposed to have suffered accordingly. In this respect, however, the conduct of our national organ is singularly weak and defective. Nine or ten of the dozen papers here put together would have read just as well two or three years since, or might have been kept back for two or three years more without material inconvenience to any one. Prize Essays like those of Mr. Moscrop on the Farming of Leicester- shire, of Mr. Dixon on the jNIonntain Breeds of Sheep, or of Mr. Little on The Improvement of Waste Lands connected with Mines, of course more or less edit themselves, as such productious are fitted to no especial epoch. Still, such standard treatises should surely have been supplemented by contributions more material to the crisis through which we have passed, and the losses we have sustained. But it is not so. The other lengthy and more elaborate artijlcs would go equally well on a swivel, so as to eome in just whenever they might be wanted, for they turn in little or no way upon the momentous events of last year, or upon things that arc still upper- most in men's minds. Mr. Algernon Clarke writes pointedly, and evidently with his heart in his subject, on The Production of Poultry, and Professors Voeleker and Coleman go very practically into the question of how far the improvement of grass land can be warranted. Dr. Voeleker supplies another paper on Clover Seeds, and Mr. Buckman also takes the clover plant as his text word, Avhile Mr. Lewis engages himself upon the very vexed question of Agricultural Statistics. A mere enumera- tion of these contents wiU show their adaptability to any occasion, and the little influence they can exerciseinrelieving us from a difficulty that has not even yet quite passed away, or in guarding us from any further danger. It must be clearly understood that we do not by any manner of means attempt to disparage the worth of the papers we have here cited. On the contrary, we should, with an ex- ception or so, estimate their use and value very much, as did the judgcswho awarded theprizes,or the committee who availed itself of the other articles we havementioned. It would be almost impossible to have these several topics better treated; or if we did make any exception, it would be against Mr. Lewis' argument on the necessity for agricul- tural statistics. Such a matter no doubt requires delicate handling, but it is going rather too far to assume that any failure hitherto has been altogether attributable to the iuefliciency of the Government. We know of many good men who refused to fill in the returns last issued ; and if, as Mr. Lewis says, the less intelligent class of farmers evince a jealous distrust of supplying information, these might be matched by members of even the Council of the Royal Society itself. Still, more eggs, mountain sheep, the improvement of grasses or waste lands, cannot any of them be said to go very directly to the main topic of the time ; although, if we remember aright, Mr. Howard Reed's review of the cattle disease, as given in the previous number of the Journal, was offered at the time only as the prologue to something to follow here- after. This promise has certainly not been kept in the present number. Professor Simonds has not furnished a line upon the subject, and all we have are the abstract reports of the discussions opened long ago by Lord Cathcart and IMr. Farr. The last-named of these gentle- men has amplified his address on cattle insurance in a separate paper ; but if any member of the Society would have ever been likely to read the accounts of these Wed- nesday's proceedings, it would have been when they ap- peared in our own columns, or those of our contempora- ries. The very prize-list for 1867 as thoroughly ignores the existence of the cattle-plague as if we had never had such a visitation for the last hundred years. There are offers for papers on the farming of Huntingdonshire and Westmoreland, for farm customs and covenants, for ploughing-in green crops, for loans for improvements, for the drainage of grass-land, for farm poultry, for labourers' dwellings, for a history of Herefords, and for the diseases of sheep, but with no reference whatever to the diseases of cattle 1 Smely we cannot have so far conquered these 1 surely the veterinary art has not ad- vanced so far that we can afford to stop where we are I With oui medicine-men absolutely powerless, the aim at least of the Royal Agricultural Society should have been to seek aid elsewhere, or to draw some deduction, to de- vise some more systematic means for our futm-e safety from the terrible ordeal we have undergone. With really nothing else to do, such indifference at such a time is almost unpardonable. In fact, there is but one paper to the point in the new Number, and that one is Mr. Herbert's on the supply of meat to large towns. The tone of this, moreover, is not encouraging; for it goes directly against the establishment of dead-meat markets as equally unprofitable to the pro- ducer and consumer. " Let us suppose," he says, " that the Metropolitan ^Market for the sale "f live stock was abolished. The live stock imported from the Continent would, of course, be slaughtered in abattoirs erected near the place of landing — say at Blackwall. The supplies from Ireland would, in all probability, be disposed of and slaughtered at Derby, from whence they would be trans- ferred to London per railway. In that case, the carcases of the foreign beasts, sheep, lambs, and pigs, though far in- ferior in quality to our best breeds, would have an undue advantage over our own country-killed meat, simply be- cause they would make their appearance in the butchers' shops in a more saleable condition. Those who are not practically acquainted with the general bearings of the trade may feel disposed to doubt these assertions ; but it is a fact that both beef and mutton killed in Scotland, Yorkshire, &c., invariably produces 2d. per 81bs. less money in the metropolis than meat of a similar quality slaughtered in London." Against this proposition one might be inclined to ask how is it that so much prime beef continues to be sent as beef from Aberdeen to London ? However, Air. Herbert maintains the argument, though not with so much force, when he puts the wide difference " between the cost of sending live animals and dead meat to London from a distance. A bullock can be transmitted per rfiilway and steamboat over 200 miles for 20s. ; to that sum must be added about 4s. 6d. for commission and charges. To ti'ansrait four quarters of beef, the hide, and rough fat to the metropolis, the same distance — assuming that the animal weighed about 100 stones — would cost nearly £4, exclusive of the expenses of slaughtering and the payment for commission, viz.. Id. per Slbs. No doubt agents would be despatched to the provinces by some of the large London houses to purchase hides, skins, fat, &c., so as to some extent to relieve the graziers." No doubt, as Mr. Herbert says, there would be some agency of this kind j THE FAtlMEtt'S MAGAZINE. 436 or, lA other words, the trade would to a certain extent be revolutionized ; but even as it is, putting the offal, fat, and so forth, out of the question, how does it happen, even under existing circumstances, if dead meat pays so badly pro- portionately witb live stock, that country butchers kill at home and send their best joints up the line ? The plan would seem to be nothing more or less thau making a loss. Still, Mr. Herbert's paper is eminently useful and suggestive, forcing as it does the consideration of how far the abattoir system would give the foreigner an advantage over the home producer ? Admitted that the closer the beasts are brought to the market the better will the beef be, is it altogether so impracticable to establish abattoirs for English stock at Ilighgatc, Camden Town, or Ishng- ton, when we can make similar arrangements for the re- ception of foreign stock at Blackwall ? Mr. Herbert is, however, dead against any such change as that contem- plated, while he supports his own views by citing the oft-quoted abattoir system of Paris as having in reahty very little force, if not, in fact, more or less of a failure : " The quantity of country- killed meat disposed of in Paris is, as will be seen, small compared with the total eousumptiou. Such, in- deed, is the case in London, and no legislative or other interference could possibly change the present system. Those who imagine that it would be an easy thing to work a beneficial change, forget that meat is a perishable article and very expensive to move. Moreover, it should be remembered that the consumers in London would, in the event of the live-stock market being abolished, be compelled to ])ay much higher prices for meat, to cover the expenses of carriage, &c., and that we must have competition in the trade, or we should have a great amount of dissatisfaction amongst the great consuming classes." Again, we woidd ask why should there not be competition in a dead-meat as well as in a live-stock market ? But in doing so, we are quite ready to admit that Mr. Herbert speaks with authority, and that his paper will set men a thinking over a matter on which many had probably al- ready come to a conclusion. Such words in season give a date as it were to the new Journal, and we can only wish there were more of them. IRISH AGRICULTURE : THE CULTIVATION OF FLAX. At the Enniscorthy Society's Meeting Mr. George, M.P., said : The originators of these societies will need all the efforts and vigour, and all the energy they can muster to keep thera in the position they no doubt ought to occupy — that of being the leaders of societies like this. The landlords of this county, as II body, will require to put forth very great efforts indeed, not only to lead the van, but even to keep pace witli tiie efforts being made by the farming class of this county. It was stated yesterday, at Gorey, by the judges. Sir lloljert Paul and Mr. ^ Moffatt, that they were perfectly astonished at the progress made by the farming-class of this county. The fh-st prize for the best animal in the yard — the best bull, for whicii tliere were six, seven, or eiglit competitors, was carried off by a tenant farmer. I don't altogether despair myself of being able to get the first prize another year, as it lias yet to be de- cided by the judges whetlier the animal I myself exhibited is not entitled to the second prize. I think it is quite plain that what has taken root at Gorey has spread to this part of the country also. In sheep farming, and the breeding of rams in this part of the country, the landlords will require all the efforts they can possibly make use of, to keep pace with the farmers. And although in one sense it may be a matter of reproach to the landlords, I think it is oue very great proof of the benefits tliat have been conferred by these societies. No- body can suppose the object of the landlords of the county in establishing these shows was to secure their own interests alone, or for the benefit and improvement of their own stock. Tlieir object must be that of benefiting their tenantry, and the tenant-farmers of the country at large. I think it is a matter of gratification to every landlord of the Gorey union to find they are now begun to be beaten with their own weapons. After some few further rem arks, the lion, gentleman proceeded to say : It is for us now to tliank God that we liave escaped a pestileuee tliat has devastated our sister island, England, and which would liave been all but absolute ruin to tliis country if it liad reached us. In warding off this disease, the lloyal Agricultural Society took a most active part. And it is owing in a great measure to the exertions of that Society, utider the guidance of Lord Naas, that such active steps were taken to ward off the pestilence from this country. The discussion occupied weeks of the time of the House of Commons, while the disease was spreading and inllictiug most terrible injury in different parts of England, before any final steps were taken to get rid of it. In reference to Ireland, and I say it to its pride, tliat Irish m embers of Parliament expressed a bold opinion that some measure should be at once passed to stamp out the disease, no matter whether taxation was in- creased on cattle slaughtered. And the consequence was, tliat ina very short period they got that Act passed that gave them the fullest powers to prevent, as far as possible, the spread of the disease in Trelaud. The steps taken, under Providence, have been successful ; and I trust we may all now hope that the immunity from the disease we have had so far will be still continued. You are all probably aware that for a considerable time in England half the medical relief and the educational charges in poor-houses has been discharged from the consoli- dated fund, although the entire of these charges, up to the present time in Ireland, have been taken from the local rates. It is a matter of congratulation to us that, by a resolution of the House of Coramous, for tlie future one-half of these charges in Ireland will be taken from the consolidated fimd, instead of being chargeable to the local rates. Mr. H. Ellis said : I think any branch of agriculture in Ireland that has been crowned with success this year ought to be mentioned at a meeting of this kind, and to consider it with a view to its general adoption. I wish, therefore, to say a word or two on that branch of agriculture in which I am con- cerned— flax. Mr. Chairman, I think I may say flax is the needle-gun with which the men of Ulster drive everything before them. I see no reason why flax should not be culti- vated on the banks of the Slaney, as well as on the banks of the Lagan. I will say, with your permission, a few words about the present state of the flax crops in Ulster. Tiie mar- ket price of dressed flax in our neighbourhood, the week before last, was lis. per stone. An acre of ground wiU produce about 80 stone of dressed flax. At lis. per stone this would reahze about £14. Now, sir, if from this we take the expense of sowing, growing, and dressing, which will amount to about £11 per acre, we have £33 as the net value of the produce of an acre of dressed flax. £30 is above the value of au acre of land such as produces flax. One year's growth of flax, there- fore, is worth the land on whicli it grows. That is a good story to tell of Irisli agriculture this year. Belfast will pro- duce tliis year about £7,000,000 worth of flax, and in return should make more than ten times seven millions of money. Tbis is another good story, too ; and the trade is not likely to fail, for every year it is extending. Ireland is at present at the head of this branch of manufiwture. I see no reason why Wexford sliould not grow that portion of ilax whicli Belfast at lirescnt requires, in addition to what is now grown in Ireland. I think I see no reason why, on the banks of the Slaney, flaX should not be produced wliicii is at present produced in foreign parts, especially as Wexford, by taking that course, wUl not enter into competition with any Irish interests, but will only supplant Belgium and Russia. Mr. BoLANi) said : The show had been a first-rate one. One great feature in it was tiic fact that the working farmers of the county were coming forward and producing animals superior to their more wealthy, and, therefore, more able, land« lords and neighbours. THE FARMER'S MAGA2mi. LEICESTERSHIRE AND WALTHAM AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. MEETING AT LEICESTER. The show of the above Society, which was confined ou this occasion to horses and poultry, with the usual supple- mentary premiums for ploughing, labourers, and roots, took place at Leicester on Tuesday, bet. 19. The two sections of riding and rart-horses, together with the pens of poultry, were arranged in the lirst instance in the yard of the Bell Hotel. The space at the command of the stewards was here, however, so terriljly Imiited and tlie crowd so great, that the judges of " the nags" refused to proceed, and an adjournment took place accordingly to a field on the outside of the town, where there was really room to try a horse, and whither the great body of the spectators also followed, the cart-horses and Mr. Hewett with his chickens being left pretty much to themselves. And the huutcrs and hacks unquestionably fui-nished the great feature of the meeting, every class being numerically well fiUed, and some of the entries being of"a very high order of merit. This was more particularly the case with the hunters, where in the All-aged All-England class there were no less than fifteen nominated, pointed by three or four particularly clever animals to pick out, as the judges were not long in doing. Their first and second'prizes were still of a very different stamp, Mr. Tailby's Irish horse being all over a Leicestershire nag, full of blood and fashion, and flying his fences famously; whereas the Bedale chesnut is a great banging weight-carrier, up to almost anything in reason, but with scarcely pace enough for the Shires. Nevertheless, Mr. Gilford, who had a nice business-like bay in the class, bought up the Yorkshire- man at something under two hundred, while iMr. Waldy admitted at the dinner, that he had been fairly beaten by Mr. Tailby's horse, " than which he would not wish to see a better, tliough not equal to more than eleven stone." Aboiit the best of the remainder was JNIr. George Cooper's blemished chesnut, who looked and went like a'workman, a compliment that could not be extended to some of the others. Of the four-year-olds the two prize horses were far away the best, with no great deal of clioice between them, though the public voice went altogether with Mr. Sanders' chesnut, which was placed first. It is not en- couvaging to report that a long way the worst of the hunting stock were the two-year-olds, the brood mares, and the foals. Of the thirteen two-year-olds there was really not a prize-horse amongst them, though the pre- mium eventually went to a brown colt of j\Ir. Ilobson's by a thorough-bred sire, but very coarse forward, though with capital quarters, thighs, and hocks. A great ma- joi-ity of the others were more like harness than hunting purposes, aud even Lord Berners has not yet learned the lesson which his fellow-members of the Council of the Itoyal Agricultural Society have, it is hoped, got off by heart by this time, for he entered a couple of gi-eat grown things, absolutely got by a half-bred horse ! Not quite the material with which to cross Leicestershire. His Lord- ship did better among hacks, where he took second with a light, lathy, galloping cover-hack by Ben-y-GhIo, the first prize going to a very pretty ponv, for she was little more, exhibited by Messrs. Berridge, while Mr. Milward's famous British Queen and high-stepping Crisis were both passed over, though the judges hung for some time to the roan, as very probably trying to see^how it was she had famshed so forward elsewhere. However, there was no go about her at Leicester, and we believe even her owner allowed that she was fairly beaten for first. With the cobs, on the contrary, Mr. Milward had it all to himself with the midtaiu-ui-jMrvo Dunstan, and a wonderfully lively little chesnut, that if not up to all the weight of the other, had a deal of merit in other ways, if not quite of the cob character. Of the hunting- mares, Mr. Smith's prize was a very neat one, her foal also winning the prize as the best, by Mr. Tomlin's stallion Mowbray ; but the competition here was not great, and the foal class should be thrown open to anything by a thoroughbred sire. Amongst the other mares, Mr. J. N. Beaslcy showed a blood-like old dowager by Burgundy, and JNIr. S. W. Coleman a grey of some character, but the lot were otherwise veiy deficient of merit ; in fact, the farmers of Leicestershire would seem to be hardly up to the breeding of hunters — a point that was proved in the open class, where the first prize came from Ireland, the second from Yorkshire, and the liigh-commendation from Shropsliire. There are no thoroughbred stallions shown here, and the premimns for cart-stallions were awarded in the spring, when Mr. John Manning, of Orlingbury, took the first prize with Black Prince, and ilr. W. Saunders the second with Glendou. Neither of these was now on the ground ; aud as the business commenced about two hours at least too late in the day, there was really no time to look through the other classes of cart-horses ; of which, however, Mr. Spencer said at the dinner, " he thought that, in one respect, the horse-shows were better suppoi'ted forty years ago than they were now, namely, in the class of black fillies. Cross-bred animals were too mmier- ous ; but if they had good cart-mares and thoroughbred horses, the little farmer would be able to obtain, at Michaelmas-time, a good price for cart foals. Their teams were not half so good as they used to be, with the ' tiddle- widlums' they now had." Nevertheless, it will be found there were a number of commendations, and three or four very fair yearlings exhibited. There was a tolerably good show of poultry, with a few roots and cabbages ; and Ransome and Sims's man Barker won the champion ploughing-match ; the Howards being, of course, not ia competition. PRIZE LIST. HORSES. HUNTERS AND HACKS. Judges. — H. Corbet, Farmers' Club, London. W. A. Pocliiu, Edmontburpe llaU, Leicester. Captain J. Skipworth, Hovvsham, Brigg. Geldings or mares, not less tlian five years old and under ten, open to aU England, £20, W. W. TaUby, Skeffingtou HaU (Orangeman). Second, £10, J. Waldy, St. Gregory's, Bedale (Sam Wellcr). Highly conmiended : W, Gilford, North Luf- feuliam. Geldings or fillies, four years old, adapted for hunting pur- poseji, bred within the limits of the Belvoir, Quorn, Mr. Tailby's, Cottesmore, Atlierstone, aud Pytchley hunts, £30, Mr. IL Sanders, Cliapel Brampton (gelding hy Kentucky). Second, £5, Major Knight, Glenn Parva Manor (gelding by Harkaway). Geldings or fillies, two years old, adapted for hunting pur- poses, bred within the limits of the Belvoir, Quorn, Mr. Tailby's, Cottesmore, Atlierstone, aud PytcUey Hunts, £5, J. Hobson, Isham (gelding by Lovett). Commended: J. S. Clarke, Peatling Parva (gelding by Hurworth). Mares calculated to breed hunters, that shall have suckled a foal, or in foal, £10, A. Smith, Great Bowden Inn (bay marc). Commended: J, N. Bcasley, Chapel Brampton (Ge- raldine). THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE. 437 Hacks not less tlulii tburteed luuuls and a-halt', ami uot ex- ceeding fifteen hands, £10, Messrs. J. aud E. Bcrridge, North Kilvvorth. Second, £5, Lord Berners. Cobs not exceeding foiu'teeu liands aud a-half, £5, R. Mil- ward, Thui-garton Priory (Dunstau). Second, £3, E. JMilward (Hannattau). Poals by Mowbray, £4-, A. Smith, Great Bowden Inn. Se- cond, £1, R. Swain, Stoughton. CART HORSES. Judges. — G. Smith, jun., Leighton Buzzard. F. Spencer, Claybrook. R. Walker, Great Bowden. Geldings or fillies, two years old, £5, Ann Bass, Aylestone. Second, £3, J. Wright, Sysouby Lodge. Yearling geldings or fiUies, £5, Ann Bass. Second, £2, T. Allen, Tliurmastou. Highly commended : H. Burgess, Mid- dleton. Commended : T. Allen. In-foal mares, £10, W. Black. Second, £5, Wm. Carver, Ingarsby. Commended: Wm. Rippin, Cranoe. I'oals, £5, Ann Bass. Commended: W. Rippin, Crauoe, and W. Carver, Ligarsby. The dinner took place at the Bell Hotel, Lord Berners in the chair, who said that they had had a most creditable show of horses on that occasion. He might mention that in York- shire these shows were considered as advertisements, the exhi- bition of good yearHngs or two-year-olds by breeders ensuring their names Ijcing put down for the Loudon markets. It was a great object that Leicestershire, which was so celebrated for its sheep aud grazing grounds, should stand high in the king- dom for its breed of horses. One of the peculiar characteristics, if he might so call it, of this Society, in which it differed from other Societies in the kingdom, was that they always considered it their duty to exclude at their meetings anything that could be construed into party politics : but at the same time they always reserved to themselves the right, and indeed encouraged as much as possible observations on purely agricultural subjects, altliongh they were coming before Parliament. On these occa- sions they had petitioned Parliament on various subjects that tliey considered regarded their welfare, and he hoped the Society would always continue to do so, for he lield it one of the great objects of these societies, that when they met together they should have an opportunity of expressing their opinions pub- licly and freely upon subjects affecting their interests ; especially as the farmers not meeting together, or having the means of being called together as manufacturers were in the town, had not the same means of making kno\vn their wants which otlier classes possessed. He believed it was for the want of that, and the want of imion, that the claims of the agriculturists of tliis country had been put aside wlien those of other classes had been conceded. He might just remark tliat one of the things for which they had petitioned, and which he \\\u\ for more than thirty years advocated, was the abolition of the malt-tax. He would just allude to the report of last week as to the cattle- plague, which many of them, no doubt, must have, seen iu tlie papers. How much tliey must rejoice that that was rapidly decreasing in tlie country, and that they had been favoured far above other counties in this matter. Under Providence he at- tributed it much to the good feeling that had existed among the occupiers of land, and the manner in which they had cheer- fully sulimitted to tlie troublesome process of coming to magis- trates and the local authorities for licences. But he did believe that it was because they had carried out the rules and regiila- lations of the Privy Council strictly and rigidly, and because the farmers had assisted and had seen the necessity of it, that they had reaped the inestimable benefit of having so little dis- ease in this county. He took out some figures relating to tliis subject from a Parliamentary return the other day. From this he foiuid that Leicesterseire contamed an area of 51-i,15J' acres, and if he compared that with the acreage of all otlier counties, he found tliat the number of cattle to the hundred acres was 17 3-lOths, whUe there was not another county iu England except one which approached that, and that was 17 2-lOths. The total cattle in this county up to March 5th WIS 89,115 head, and up to Marcii 3rd, it was reported that there were only 22G diseased. There were slaughtered out of that number 171 ; and the total reported of the back numbers had been only 4'27, of which 219 had been killed, IGO died, 4G recovered, and 2 were xmaccounted for. Compare this with Clieshiie, iu which were 707,000 acres ; the numlier of cattle to the hundred acres was 13 3-lOths ; and out of those 36,443 had been attacked, and taking altogether G7,000, of wliich 23,000 had been kiUed, 32,000 died, and 8,000 only had re- covered. He would make one remark upon that, and no doubt they would bear him out in it, that during last year there had been an extraordinary decrease in other diseases, and pleuro-pneiunonia among the rest. He thought that good had come out of the evil of this cattle plague ; the cattle imported from Ireland and other places had not lieen brought over in such large numbers together as they used to be, and conse- quently they had not become so heated in the steamboats, and had uot been crammed together so much on the railways ; they had not been exposed so much as hitherto to be shunted into sidings and kept so long on the road ; and another great thing was, that in consequence of the disease the orders of the Council had been such that the trucks had been kept a great deal cleaner than they used to be. He thought that was one good which had come out of the evil. To go to another sub- ject, the disease had prevented the meeting of the Royal Agri- cultural Society and Show of Cattle being held at Bury, and consequently the chance of having the Royal Society here un- til 18GS. The Show would be held at Bury, in 1867, and the next year in the INIitUand Counties. The town of Leicester came forward, as he was given to understand, in the most handsome and liberal manner, and were ready to support the meeting as much as possible ; and he must now remind every- one of them, that it was desirable they should all put their shoulders to the wheel, and all subscribe their mite to attain that great good wliich was conferred upon a county by the meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society in it. There was one other point to which he wished to call their attention, whicli they had also been in the habit of petitioning upon, and that was on the poor rates, and the general system of rating, showing how much in proportion to other classes the land had been taxed. Now a great advance had been made in the right direction by having union rating, but that would not be just if it was not succeeded by something that he liad the honour of proposing eight or nine years ago iu the House of Lords, which was that the system which was adopted by the late Sir Robert Peel, of paying a portion of the expenses of criminal prosecutions, should be extended to the poor rates. Now there could not be the slightest reason, in justice or equity or common sense, why the land only should pay the ex- penses on account of the Registration Act. There could be no reason why they should pay the fees of the clergy and other matters connected with the registrars, or for vaccination, or Parliamentary and municipal registration, which amounted to no less than £173,108 annually. The farmers had no interest in it more than tlie rest of the public. The poor rate collected amounted to £9,871,000, and out of that only £6,000,000 was expended upon the poor. He hoped their attention woidd be called to tliese matters ; and if any union was inclined to peti- tion Parliament on the subject, he should not only feel it his duty, but an honour, if they would entrust their petitions to his care in the House of Lords, and would take care they were brought licfore the proper quarter. One word aud he had done, the amount of payments not connected with relief was no less than £2,378,006. (A voice : " That is the highway ex- penditure.") Out of the nine millions collected by the poor rate, six millions went to the rehef of the poor, and the sum he had mentioned was expended for matters entirely unconnected with it. Yesterday he received a letter, which he woidd now lay before them. It was one of very considerable importance. No doubt, if the market for cattle was not opened, it might subject many of them, and especially small occupiers, to inconvenience; still the danger was so great if it was opened that be thought it was well worthy of their consideration, and he should feel ex- tremely indebted to them if they would express their views, that he might communicate them to tlie Town Clerk and the Corporation. He had studied the thing very carefully from the first comiupuceraent of the disease — he had looked into it as well as he was able to do ; he had conversed with the au- thorities, and eonsidted the scientific men, and those on whom he could place the greatest reliance ; and he did not hesitate to express the opinion that if in the first instance the Govern- ment had carried out the views of the Council, if they had stopped the importation of cattle, or if they had not chosen to do that, if they had had them slaughtered on the spot, or put them under a cjuarantine of fourteen days, the disease might 438 tHE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. have bccu stiimpeJ out months and months hcibie it liad been; and that it was the stopjiing of tlie general traflic tlirouj^h the country, and the withliolding- the power of having fairs in the towns, that had reduced the disease into such a narrow com- pass. The Northamptonshire gentlemen knew that six bulls brought down from London communicated the disease in six dilTcrent places in Northamptonshire. He did not say that every case could be traced, but there were very few cases that could not be traced to the introduction of animals from other parts of the country. His lordship then read the following letter : — " Leicester, 5th October, ISGG. " My Lord, — Observing that your Lordship will preside at the meeting of the Leicestershire Agricultural Society on Tuesday, I take the liberty of informing you that the borough authorities have been requested to consider whether it is not desirable to open the Leicester market for the sale of cattle. I understand that a memorial from the butchers and others is now in course of signature, urging the Corporation to open the market. As the opinion of the agricultural interest will, I am sure, have great weight with the Corporation, will you be so good as to bring the subject under the notice of your Society, and T shall be happy to lay any communication or expression of opinion with which you may favour me before the Com- mittee to whom the question is referred. " I have the honour to he, my Lord, " Your Lordship's obedient servant, " Samuel Stojje. " The llight Hon. Lord Beruers." Mr. WiLLSON (the Vice-President) said he had mentioned the subject to several gentlemen, and they were all unanimously against opening the juarket at present. He had seen Mr. Stone himself, and he told him tlieCorporationwere very much pressed by the butchers to open the market. No doubt, the market being closed was to them a very great inconvenience ; at the same time now the county was free from the disease he hoped they should be able to keep it so, and keeping the mar- ket closed would be the best method of doing it. The CiiAiRM.SJf : To close the market for fat stock as well as lean ? Mr. WiLLSON said, yes ; it was closed. He might say the great fear the farmers had if the market was opened for fat stock was occasioned by what they remembered of last winter, and the difficulty they had with two or three g.'ntlemen from Leicester bringing foreign stock into the market, after know- ing that foreign cattle brought the disease into the country. He believed the majority of the farmers and graziers would agree with him that it was best, taking all things into con- sideration, to put up with the ditticulty a little longer, and keep the market closed. Mr. T. AViUGUT concurred with Mr. AVillson ; and, believ- ing that the prohibition of moving cattle had caused the disease to become so nearly extinct as it was, considered that if they opened the market before it had become entirely ex- tinct, they might become as bad as they were this time last year. Therefore it was his opinion they had better not open the market at present. Mr. H. DRA.YCOTT was convinced if the town opened the cattle market, every head of cattle that entered it must be killed, and not allowed to circulate over the county again. If not, they would very soon have the disease brought from the foreign ports to Leicester, and from Leicester to every village in the county. If the market was opened by the borough, ho thought the county magistrates ought to draw a cordon round it, and not allow anything to come out. Mr. EvEiiARi) did not think they should use strong lan- guage towards the borough, because lie believed the authorities were very anxious to deal properly with the matter, and if the opinion was expressed there to that etfect, the market would be kept closed. As far .as he could see, the great evil that existed when the market was open was that, if there happened to be a very crowded market, and stock was a little lower, butchers would take home two or three beasts, and keep them two or three weeks before slaughtering them, and certainly if they got disease in the neighbourhood, it would soon spread through the county. Mr. J. WniGiiT said the consumer and producer were more interested in this matter than the butcher. If the market was opened the consequences might be what no man could predict, and, as a consumer, no farmer could say what he should pay fiu' his meat. He knew tliat the butchers were subjeected to some inconvenicuccs, liut as they were merely agents between the producer and the consumer, he did not think they ought to be considered. He thought the market ought not to be opened. The Chairman brielly referred to what he thought a mis- apprehension on tlie part of Mr. Draycott, as to the intentions of the borough authorities with respect to the market, and then put the question to the meeting, when there was a unanimous vote in favour of keeping the market closed. He then proposed the " Town and Trade of Leicester," remarking that agriculture and commerce went hand in hand, and that one could not suffer without the other. Mr. Hunt briefly responded to the toast, and observed that he was sure the town authorities had been most anxious, from all he had heard, to preserve a good feeling and act in perfect unity with the county in regard to closing or opening the market, according as it might seem desirable, and he had no doubt they would act upon the report of that meeting. THE PETERBOROUGH SHOW. From tlie expressions which fell, on Wednesday, Oct. 10, from a number of the members of this society, it is determined to make every exertion and effort to organize an annual gathering in tlie future equal to the facilities by which this town is sur- rounded. As a nursery for taking an honest pride in the art and skill of straight, even, and weU-turned ploughing, this so- ciety already stands well ; for -iO pairs of horses were followed by men, youths, and hoys, among them being 10 farmers' sons or pupils of farmers. It is not, however, necessary to enter fully into the list of successful competitors. The draining was generally of a most extraordinary charac- ter, surpassing everything wc have before inspected. Lincoln- shire, Northamptonshire, and Huntingdonshire, it is generally known, have been counties where the practice of draining has been extensively pursued. The spot selected for these trials was an old " high-backed" pasture. Hitherto the quantity has been 15 yards per man at 3 feet deep ; but this year it was 9 yards per man and 4 feet deep. The extraordinary feature in the work done was the small amount of eartli raised to in- sert the tile 4 feet deep : several of the drains were inukr sir inches ill width at the top. The shortest time in which 9 yards of this work was cut was 3 hours. This length, as well as many others, was as straight and level on e!\ch side as brick- work. The left-hand side was perpendicular, the other start- ing from the width of the top. This veiy narrow width, how- ever, is not an economical plan as regards expenditure of labour when the soil is of a stiff kind ; for the edges formed in the digging so catch the sides that the strain on the arms, when the long tools are used for the bottom lift, is so great that it makes very sweating work of it. One inch more in width, although one-seventh more soil, or nearly so, would have to be stirred, and raised would be less lalwur to the mail lifting it. As a specimen of the art of draining — and this is an art — these deep narrow cuts were models worth riding many miles to see. The animal exhibition was a meagre affair; but this is the first attempt at a local show with any pretensions, and besides, no cattle were aUowed to be present. The future intentions of the committee were practically demonstrated by a small wooden shed being fitted up for the few high-bred and nursed horses. The Hon. C. W. Fitzwilliam gave £10 to be awarded to the best four-year-old gelding or filly for hunting purposes. This was taken by one of the select five at York, a chesnut colt called Duke of Kichmond, the property of Mr. W. Sisman. This horse in our opinion, under good horsemanship, would make an extraordinarily good horse, as his style of moving is THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 439 of the easiest and most elegant character, wliile he has ample pace for tlie hunting-field, all of wliich is combined or governed witii the most docile and calm of tempers. Mr. Joliu Law- rauce took tlie £3 offered as second prize witli a very lively and spicy bay. I'or tlie best hackney mare or gelding a cup of the value of £7 was oll'ered by tlie Society, and this was taken by Mr. George Green for a clever chesnut mare 4 years old. Por this there were ten entries. The next class was brought together by an offer hy the lion. C. W. EitzwiUiam for the best yearling fiUy or colt, which was taken by Mr. Thomas Bouser for a bay colt by Richmond. There were eiglit entries in this class, Mr. Odam's chesnut colt being a promising one. The same gentleman also offered £10 for the best mare suitable for hunting purposes, with foal at foot. This was a hit-or-miss class, being composed of farm hacks, bakers' mongrels between a pony and cob, and butchers' bustlers for 10 minutes' with intermediate 5 minutes' rest. Mr. Bird's Contest, however, was a very fine mare for quality and style ; but her legs, if they were ever good, were very badly damaged. The cart-mare, with foal at foot, class was composed of 8 entries, and it was a collection that would not have disgraced a York- shire or even a lloyal show. The first prize, a bay mare, shown by Mr. Mr. A. I'rovostjWasan extraordinarily good ani- mal for apparent hardness of cQustitution, cQmhined with fine form and good movements. The second, Mr. Parker's, was also a capital mare ; and the foal with Mr. Warwick's mare was a wonder for its age and the size of its dam. The fillies were a mean lot of six, and the three geldings were not credit- able to their country. A few sheep were shown, £5 being offered for the best long-woolled ram ; two, liowever, only were offered, the prize going to Mr. John Beecroft, of Rye, for a ram with a heavy fleece, capital legs, back, and scrags; and if he had not been a little too much like his mother about the head and face, ,he would have been all over a ram-breeder's sheep, and a good one too. The prizes for 10 two-shear long- woolled ewes were taken, first, by Mr. Samuel Vergette, and, second, by Mr. W. Thomas Edwards. l""or the shearlings of the same kind Mr. S. Vergette was first, and Mr. Odam second. The prizes for the 10 best ewes and the same number of wether lambs, and capital ones they were, were both taken by Mr. S. Middleton, of Water Newton. Mr. Beecroft had also good pens, but their coats were not ecpial to the prize-takers'. There was ouly one pen of fat wethers shown for the £5 prize, hut they were deserving of the award, and were shown by Mr. Edwards. The pigs were composed of large and small whites and Berkshires, while it was shown by the decisions that the Berkshirea were not the judges' favourite breed. THE ABERGAVENNY HORSE SHOW. The annual meeting of the Abergavenny Agricultural Society was held on Thursday. To compensate for the absence of cattle, and with the further view of establishing au annual horse show for the counties of Monmouth, Here- lord, and Brecon, a plan was a short time back set on foot by a few of the leading men who direct the operations of the society, in conjunction with some other gentlemen in- terested in matters pertaining to agriculture ; and this scheme lias produced greater results than even the most sanguine of its promoters could have anticipated. True indeed the prizes were liberal, ranging from £35 downwards, and the proposal taken up with a thorough earnestness of purpose that fore- shadowed success ; but yet one hardly expected to find the special list of subscribers reaching to the high figures of 170. The show of sheep, though not nearly so large as it was last year, comprised some animals of much merit, both in the long- wool and Down varieties. The Raduorshires were also very good. The breeding pigs were few in number, but of average (luality. In the extra stock department, two fine lots of bacon pigs — 8 shown by Messrs. Tucker, and 5 by Mr. James Phillips — were very well deserving of the first-class commendations which they received. The ordinary society's prizes for horses brought about the usual number of animals into the yard, but tliere were few among tiiem calling for any special notice. The two-year-old cart colts were useful ; and in addition to the prize animals in the several classes, there were a few well- deserved commendations given by the judges. The special horse show was, however, the object of interest, and drew together a large company of almost every class interested in agriculture ; whilst the amount of merit displayed vvas very encouraging for the future. The Judges were — for hunters, harness horses, and ponies : Mr. J. Bosiey, Hereford ; Mr. C. E. Lewis, St. Pierre, Chep- stow ; and Mr. David' Brown, Brecon. For stock : Mr. J. Wigmore, Biekerton Court, Ross ; and Mr. Stejihens, Sheep- house, Hay. The chief awards are subjoined : Ram (longwool), not less than two years old. — Prize of £2 to P. Morgan. Yearling ram (longwool), £3, J. Morgan, Triley. Lamb ram (longwool), £3, Messrs. Tucker, Abergavenny. For the best Dovvn ram, not less than two years old, £3, J. Rogers, Alteryuis. Down yearling ram, £3, J. Rogers. For the best Mountain ram, £3, M. Fothergill, Si^ ewes (longwool), £3, J. Logan. Six yearling ewes (longwool), for breeding purposes, £3, J. Logan. Six Down ewes, for breeding purposes, £3, N. G. Price, Llancillo. Si.x ewe lambs, £3, J. Logan. Six unshorn wether lambs, £3, N. G. Price. Ten breeding mountain ewes, £1 Is., R. Rees. Breeding sow, £1, Mrs. Gwynne Holford. Stock boar, £1, Mrs. Gwynne Holford. Cart stallion, £3, D. Ellis, The Bryn. Brood mare (not less than 15 hands) with foal, best calcu- lated for producing a roadster or hunter, 5 gs., J . W. Harvey, Abergavenny. Three-years-old or four-years-old nag gelding or fiUy, £5, W. Morgan, White House, Llanvetherine. Two-years-old nag colt or filly, £3, T. Watkins, Llanvair. Yearling nag colt or filly, £3, G. Pritchard, Llanvihangel. Two-years-old cart gelding or filly, £3, J.Rosser,Triley Farm. Yearling cart gelding or filly, £3, C. Knight. Cart marc and foal, £3, J. Watkins, Duft'ryn. SPECIAL PHIZES. Hunter, of any age, capable of carrying 14' st., being the bona fide property of the exhibitor, residing in the counties of Monmouth, Hereford, or Brecon. — First prize, Capt, Heygate, Leominster, four years old (Mountain Dew) ; second, W. R. Stretton, Brynderwen (Kildare). Highly commended : W. Smith, Tarrington (Troublesome) ; and F. B. Jones, Hereford (gelding by Birkenhead). Hunter, of any age, capable of carrying 13 st., being the bona fide property of tiie exhibitor, residing in the counties of Monmouth, Hereford, or Brecon. — I'irst prize, W. Smith, Tarrington (The Miller) ; second, W. F. Batt (Silverlock). Commended : J. P. Gwynne, Holford (Paddy) ; F. B. Jones, Hereford (bay gelding by Wantage) ; and Hon. G. Morgan (Buono Core). Harness horse, not under 15 hands 1 inch liigh. — First prize, J. P Gwynne Holford (Albert) ; second, R. Herbert. Harness horse, 11 hands, and under 15 hands 1 inch. — First prize, Dr. Smythe ; second, W. Matthews, Brecon. The class commended. Pony under 14 liands high. — First prize, J. T. Wilson, Monson Cottage ; second. Col. Lindsay. Highly commended : J . Price, Peualt, and Mr. Roberts, Brynmawr. Brood mare, not less than 15 liands 1 inch high, calculated to produce hunters. — £5, Mr. Enibrey, Much Birch. Highly commended : Rev. Thos, Evans, Nantyderry. 440 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, THE GREAT NATIONAL HORSE SHOW OF IRELAND. This show was held on Wednesday last, and the two suc- ceeding days, in the premises of the Royal Duhlin Society. Tlie sliow was a large one, embracing 3U3 entries in all classes and sections, very few of which did not put in an appearance. As regards quality, breeding, and action, the show of horses, in the eyes of competent judges, was a great success, and proves that Ireland is not altogether so deficient in the quality of her horse flesh as we are accustomed to hear of late years, and that she still holds a prominent position in this way. The show of horses this year has been unquestionably a great- improvement on that held about two years ago, and, if persisted in, will become one of the annual institutions of the country. The following is the list of prizes awarded : — Best thorough-bred stud horse best calculated to improve and perpetuate the breed of sound and stout thorough-bred horses, weight-carrying hunters, and horses for general stud purposes. — First prize, £40, William Disney, J.P. (Artillery). Second, £15, Samuel Hill (Strood). Highly commended, Lord Naas (Rapid Rhone). Commended, Richard Coffey. Rest sire calculated to get hunters, troop horses, or hacks. — First prize, £35, and first-class silver medal, John Mealey (Wanderer). Second, £10, David Kays (Blazer). HUNTERS. Best weight-carrier, not less than five years old, equal to 15 stoue and upwards. — First, £15, William TuthiU ; second, £10, Michael Gavacan. From 13 stone to 15 stone, and not less than five years old. — First, £10, William Pasley Vaughan ; second, £5, Thomas Seymour. Extra prize recommended to Ftichard Gradwell. Best four-year-old colt ; for the animal showing most quality and best action, first-class silver medal. — First, £10, Jonathan Bruce ; second, £5, Edward Riddick, Highly com- mended : Michael Betagh. Best four-year-old iilly. — First, £10, Thomas Seymour ; second, £5, Hon. St. John Butler. For the animal showing the most quality and best "action, first-class silver medal, Thomas Seymour. Best four-year-old colt, suited for harness. — £10, Jonathan Bruce. Highly commended : Seymour Mowbray, Best three-year-old colt or filly. — First, £10, John Ilickey ; second, £5, Major Wilkin. For the animal showing most quaUty and best action, first-class silver medal, Henry Murray. LADIES' HORSES. Prize, £8, Lady Albertha Hamilton. WEIGHT-CARRYING COBS AND ROADSTERS. Best cob, not exceeding 15-1 hands, calculated to carry 15 stone and upwards. — First, the Earl of IMeath ; second, Wil- liam Garnett. Best animal from 14 to 15 hands, cnlculated to carry from 13 to 15 stone ; and for the animal showing most quality and the best action in this class. — First, and silver medal, Bernard Coyne ; second, Joseph Wilson. Best brougham horse or gelding. — H. J. O'Neill. OFFICERS' CHARGERS. First prize, gold medal. Colonel C. C. Shutc, 4th Dragoon Guards ; second, silver medal, Captain Temple Godmau, 5tU Dragoon Guards. PONIES. Best pony from 13 to 14 hands. — First prize, Arthur Brown , second, John II, C. Wynne. Best pony under 13 hands. — First prize and silver medal, having most merit, Rodney Purdon ; second, Francis Chris- well. Silver medal, as smallest pony exhibited, Tiiomas W. Adams. BROOD MARES. Best mare, thorough-bred, being iu foal, or having produced a foal in 1865 or 1806. — Rrst prize, £20, Captain Walter G. Nugent; second, £10, Earl of Howth. Uiglily commended : Captain Daniel Bayley. Best mare calculated to produce weight-carrying hunters, being iu foal, or having produced a foal in 1865 or 1866. — First prize, £15, James Lambert ; second, £7, Stawell Garnett. Best thorough-bred colt, not exceeding two years old. — First, £15, and second, £10, Allan M'Donogh. Best thorough-bred tllly, not exceeding two years old. — First prize, £15, Captain Daniel Bayley ; second, £10, Russell Patterson. Best agricultural stallion, over three years old. — First prize, £25, Patrick Mooney; second, £15, John M'Court. Highly commended: Thomas Lindsay. Best agricultural stallion, three years old. — Commended : Lord James Butler. Best gelding for agricultural purposes, three years old. — First prize, £7, Patrick Mooney. Best filly, for agricultural purposes, three years old. — First prize, £7, James Butter ; second, £4, Lord Clermont. Higlily commended : Andrew Hope. Best agricultural brood mare, iu foal, or having produced a foal in 1865 or 1866. — First prize, £15, James Waldie ; se- cond, £7 10s., Edward Piamsl)ottam. Highly commended : James Moft'att and Wellesley Prendergast. Commended : Thomas Frajiks. — The Judges were Lord Comberinere, Mr. Dunne, Capt. Archdall, Lord Crofton, Sir John Power, Capt. Beatie, Mr. Sheppard, Mr. J. Kilbie, the Hon. C. Crofton, Mr. Bernard, Lord James Butler, Mr. J. Lambert, Col. Baker, Col. Ilillier, and Capt. Dunne, Mr. S. Garnett, Mr. Arthur Boud, Mr. Richard Chaloner, and Mr. Fethertou. — Abridged from Irish Farmers' Gazette. THE STEAM PLOUGH IN KINCARDINESHIRE. TRIAL OF IMPLEMENTS. Several of the leading farmers of Kincardineshire have formed a comjiany on the limited liability principle for the purpose of introducing and fairly testing iu its economic and practical aspect the system of cultivation by steam. The company made its first practical start on Thursday, Oct. 4, on the farm of Mr. Garland, Cainitou, Fordoun, and with very satisfactory results — with Mr. Greig as general manager. For the purposes of the company, the county lias been divided into four districts. The trial at Cairnton commenced between nine and ten. Previously to that, the engines, which had been landed at Aberdeen, were worked out by their own motive power on the turnpike road all the way to Fordoun. Leaving Alierdeen on Tuesday afternoon, they reached Cairnton at a pretty late hour on Wednesday night. The scene of the trial was a large field of stubble, from which the crop of barley had all Ijeen removed. The soil is strong and almost perfectly level. The ploughing, &c., began between nine and ten, and continued during a good part of the day, and there was a large gathering present to witness the trial. Readers who vrish to have a knowledge of the operations at Cairnton may fancy a 30-acre field, of tlie sort we have de- scril)ed, and jutting out to a considerably greater width at the south end, where the trial was going on. An engine is placed at each end of the rig, and as each engine claims a half of the steel hauling rope of the company, the distance between the engines is seen to be 400 yards. On this h>ngth of rig the plough was first put in operation. Tliis plough consists of an iron frame set on two wheels, of rather greater diameter and strength than ordinary cart wheels. One of these wheels runs in the open furrow, the other on what the ploughman calls tiie THE PAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 441 " lau" — representing so far his " lau" aud " fur" horses. At each end the iron frame skews off at one side to a point, and each end carries four plough-heads — coulter, " sock," and • mould hoard — ranging the one hehind the other toward the extreme point. Over the axle, in the centre, are screws for adjusting the draught (giving more or less "yird") and a guiding rod, with a seat for the ploughmen at each end. As each engine pulls the plough towards itself, it never requires to he turned. When the end of tlie rig is reached, the part wliich has been working is tilted up aud the other end put down, the signal is given, and steam is put on the engine at the opposite end, which forthwith hegins to coil up its own rope, dragging the plough along, and unwinding the rope from the drum of the other engine, which is then free to shift along the top 01 the field a few yards as the work goes on. The strap that is in action passes over a series of " porters" — a small wheelbarrow-like affair, with a running pulley for the rope, and wliich are removed as the plough comes up to them. As regards the action of the plough on Thursday, it would have completely satisfied any intelligent farmer. While the surface of the ploughed land did not present that square " high cutting," which our ploughmen are wont to "pride themselves" on in ploughing lea, it seemed to be just the very thing re- quired in turning over stubbles. Eour furrows, of course, were done at once, anil the depths varied from seven to ten inches. In virtue of a well-formed .share (or " sock") with a good broad " feather," the bottom of the furrow was admirably well loosened, and the furrow slice at same time well turned aud packed by the mould boards ; aud while the rate of speed was fully an acre ploughed ])er hour, the tillage was such that a single furrow of like breadth and depth in such strong soil would have been decidedly too much for a pair of the strongest horses. About one o'clock the process of digging took the place of ploughing. Tliis is eifected by simply unscrewing the mould- boards of the plough, and putting on iu their place a plate, which at the front sits close to the share like the ordinary mould-board, but, iu place of presenting a shoulder to turn over the furrow, separates into two broad thick prongs, some two to three inches apart, the result being that while the soil is thoroughly well loosened in the bottom, the part raised as a furrow slice is broken up, even more effectually than it could be done with the spade. The operation of digging was uni- versally admitted to be exceedingly satisfactory ; in the case of laud that is quite dry, and iu want of a thorough shake up, it would leave nothing to be desired. It may be noted that, while digging, the implement was driven at the rate of 100 yards per minute, equivalent to digging fully an acre and a quarter per hour. A round of the cultivator was tried simply to illustrate its workiug, which was found to be quite satisfactory, though, as its action is something like that of the ordinary grubber, the laud was not properly in the state for bringing it into opera- tion. The " Ilowe o' the Mearns," with its rich clay bottoms, affords a capital field for the operations, and we have no doubt that the advantages of the system will soon be generally ap- preciated. The terms on which the company propose to work are these : " Cultivating, 7 inches deep, 7s. per acre. Do. 10 „ 9s. „ Do. 13 „ 10s. „ " Ploughing and digging, from 8s. to 12s. per acre. " The working staff' of the compdny will consist of three men and two boys, being a suflicient strength in ordinary cir- cumstances ; but the employer will have to provide any extra hands tliat the peculiarities of liis field may render necessary ; also coals aud water, the company furnishing a water-cart, with pump, and 20 feet of suction pipe. The company's men win find tlieir own board and lodgiug." — Abridged from the Aberdeen Free Press. THE PAEIS EXHIBITION OF 1867. THE RURAL AND NATURAL HISTORY DEPARTMENTS. The great decennial Exhibition iu Paris next year will have an increased interest for the British farmer from the extended share whicli is to be given to raw products of agriculture and horticultiu'e, the chase, alimentary sub- stances, models of agricultural buildings, and live stock. Beyond an art aud manufacturing exhibition, it vfiU in fact comprise a great agricultural gathering, in which the nations of the world are invited to compete. Whether many of the distant countries will put in an appearance at this great competitive gathering, in response to the iimtation of the French nation, tlic countries of Europe at least ought to do so ; but we fear there will be a sad falling-oft' even there, for Austria and Prussia, Italy aud Denmark, have been too much crippled by war to be very ready for industrial efforts of any great extent, indi- vidually or nationally. France is evidently desirous of eliciting all the useful information relative to agriculture possible, and the direc- tion of her efforts in this line have long been evident. , Her central aud provincial agricultural societies are doing much to stimulate improvement, and in mauy quarters both as to the character of her live stock and the intro- duction of the latest agricultural machinery there is marked progress. In 1860, under the auspices of the Imperial and Central vSociety of Agriculture of IVance, at the meeting in Paris, there was a very good collection of live stock and all kinds of domestic animals, agricultural implements, machines, utensils and apparatus used iu husbandry, and various products of agriculture belonging to the Empire shows. A large number of gold, silver, aud bronze medals, together with money prizes ranging from 700 to 1,000 francs were then awarded. Of this show a good account was subsequently published in a detailed volume, issued by order of the Minister of Agri- culture, handsomely got up and illustrated with plates. As the Paris Exhibition is to open a month earlier than the usual period at whicli these gatherings have com- menced, the time is not very long for prepai-ation by those who intend to take part. A brief abstract of the classifi- cation may, therefore, be useful to many under whose notice it may not hitherto have been brought. There is a maz'ked contrast and great expansion iu the arrange- ments of the forthcoming Exhibition as compared with the last Paris one. In 18.5.5 there were but 8 groups of objects and 30 classes. Next year there will be 10 great groups aud 95 classes. The general arrangement and classification have also been materially altered. Pine Arts, which then brought up the rear, are now promoted to the first group, or front rauk. In 1855, Agriculture Hunting, Shooting, and their products, were included in the first group : now they are transferred to the fifth group. Food substances, which were then included in one class, are now extended to seven classes. As an luternational Exhibition that of next year will difi^'er from all the preceding great Exhibitions in em- bracing live stock of all kinds, vegetables and forest trees, flowers and plants. To many these wiU prove of special attraction, and we shall endeavour to point out what is proposed to be done in this direction. A passing survey of the classes interesting to the agriculturist will best accomplish this object. The first to be noticed is " Class 41. — Products of the Cultivation of Forests, and of the Trades appertaining thereto." — This is to in- clude specimens of different kinds of trees. Wood for cabinet-work, and for building purposes. Fire-wood. Tim- ber for shipbuilding ; staves; cleft tiraJjer shingles. Cork; 4i-: THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. bark for textile purposes. Tanning, colouring, odoriferous, resinous substauees. Products obtained from forests : charcoal and dried wood ; raw potash ; tui'uery ; basket- work ; straw-work, and wooden shoes. " Class 42. — Products of shooting, fishing, and of the gathering of fruits obtained without cultivation," includes collections and drawings of terrestrial and amphibious animals, of birds, eggs, fish, of cetacea, of raollusca, and of Crustacea. Products of shooting : furs and skins, hair, bristles, feathers, down ; horn, teeth, ivory, bone, and analogous products. Products of lishing -. train oil and spermaceti ; whalebone ; ambergris ; shells of mollusca, pearls, mother of pearl, sepia, purple ; coral, sponge. Vegetable products of the earth obtained without culture: mushrooms, truffles, wild fmit, lichens used as dyes, food and fodder ; fermented sap ; Peruvian bark ; useful barks and filaments ; wax, resinous gums ; india-rubber and gutta-percha. " Class 43. — Agricultural products (not used as food) easily preserved." — Textile materials ; raw cotton, Uax and hemp scutched and nnseutched, textile vegetable fibres of all kinds ; wool in its grease; cocoons of the silkworm. Various agricultural products used in manufactures, in ] hai'macy, and for household purposes ; oleaginous plants ; ( ils, wax, resin. Tobacco. German tinder. Tanning substances. Dyeing substances. Preserved fodder. " Class 48. — Agricultural appai'atus and processes used n the cultivation of fields and forests." — Plans of culture, distribution of crops, and management. Apparatus for agricultural works ; drainage, irrigation. Plans and models of farm-buildings. Tools, implements, machines, and apparatus used in husbandry, sowing and planting, harvesting, preparation and preservation of crops. Carts and other rural means of transport. Locomotives and horse-gins. Manures, organic or mineral. Apparatus for the physical and chemical study of soils. Plans of dift'erent systems of replanting, managing, and cultivating forests. Apparatus used in the cidtivation of forests, and in the trades appertaining thereto. " Class 49. — Apparatus used in shooting, fishing- tackle, and implements used in gathei'ing fruits obtained without culture." — Guns, traps, and shooting-apparatus and equipment. Fishing-lines and hooks. Harpoons. Nets. Fishing-tackle and bait. Apparatus and imple- ments used in gathering products obtained without cul- tivation. " Class 50. — Apparatus and processes used in agricul- tural works, and in works for the preparation of food." — Apparatus used in agricultural works ; manufacture of artificial manures, of drain-pipes, dairies ; apparatus used in making flour, fecula, starches, oils ; apparatus used in breweries, distilleries, sugar-manufactories, and refineries ; workshops for the di'essing of textile materials, silkworm nurseries, &e. Apparatus used in the preparation of alimentary products, bread-making machinery, and me- cluanical ovens for bakers, instruments used in making pastry and confectionery. Apparatus for the manufacture of vermicelli and maccaroni. Machines for making ship- biscuits. Chocolate machines. Apparatus for roasting coffee. The seventh group is devoted to food, fresh or pre- pared, in various states of preparation, in which there are seven classes (67 to 73). " Class 67. — Cereals and other eatable farinaceous pro- ducts, and the products derived from them," includes wheat, rye, barley, rice, maize, millet, and other cereals in grain and in flour ; grain witliout husk and groats ; fecula from potatoes, rice, lentils, &c. ; gluten, tapioca, sago, arrowroot, cassava, and other fecula ; compound farinaceous products ; Italian pastes, semolina, vermicelli, maccaroni ; alimentary preparations, as substitutes for bread, home-made p£(ste, " Class 68. — Bread and pastry." — Various kinds of bread, wifh or without yeast ; fancy bread, and bread in shapes ; compressed bread, for travelling, military cam- paigns ; navy biscuits ; pastry of vai-ious kinds peculiar to each country ; gingerbread and dry cakes capable of being preserved. " Class 69. — Fatty substances used as food, milk, and eggs." — Fatty substances and oils good for food, fresh and preserved milk, fresh and salt butter, cheese, eggs of all kinds. " Class 70. — Meat and fish." — Fresh and salt meat of all kinds, meats preserved by various processes, meat and soup cakes, hams and jirepared meats, poultry and game, fresh fish, salt fish, fish in ban-els (cod, herrings, &c.), flsh preserved in oil (sardines, tunny, &c.), Crustacea and shell-fish, &c. "Class 71. — Vegetables and fruit." — Tubers (potatoes, &c.), dry farinaceous vegetables (beans and lentils), green vegetables for cooking (cabbages, &c.), vegetable roots (carrots, turnips, &c.), vegetables used for flavouring (onions, garlic, &c.), salads, cucmnbers, goni'ds (pumpkins, melons, &c.), vegetables preserved in salt, vinegar, or by acetic fermentation (saur-krout, &c.), vegetables pre- served by various methods, fresh fruit, dried and prepared fruits (prunes, figs, raisins, &c.), fruits preserved without sugar. " Class 72. — Condiments and stimulants : sugar and confectionery." — Spices (pepper, cinnamon, and allspice), fable salt, vinegar, compound condiments and stimulants (mustard, kari, English sauces, &c.) ; tea, cofi'ee, and other aromatic beverages ; chicory and sweet acorn (!otfee, chocolate, sugar for household purposes (grape sugar, sugar of milk), confectionery (sugar-plums, bonbons, &c.), jellies and preserves, dried and preserved fruits, cedi'ats, citrons, oranges, pine-apples, fruits preserved in brandy, syrups and liqueurs. " Class 73. — Fermented drinks." — Vin ordinaire, white and red ; sweet Avincs and still wines ; sparkling wines ; cider, perry, and otlier beverages made from fruits ; beer, and other beverages made from cereals ; fermented drinks made from vegetable sap, from milk, and sweet sub- stances of all kinds ; brandies and alcohols ; spirits (gin, rum, tafia, kirseh, &c.) lint the eighth group, as respects an international ex- hibition, is the most novel and extensive ; for while we have had partial shows of live-stock in various countries, there has never been such an opportunity afl"orded for gathering all the best rcpi-esentatives of animals from Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. This eighth group, besides having specimens of agricultural buildings of various countries, will comprise a cattle-show, a horse- show, with sheep, goats, pigs, rabbits, and other domestic animals ; and will include a poultry-show and a dog-show. Even our dependence upon useful insects is not overlooked, and bees and silkworms, and the cocci producing cochi- neal, lac vermis, are to be shown. Here is the classifica- tion of this large group, and who will deny that there will be ample objects for study in such a wide interna- tional range ? " Class 74. — Fanii-buildings and agricultural works." — Examples of the farm-buildings of variinis countries. Utensils used in the stable, cattle-shed, kennel, &c. Ap- paratus for pi'cparing the food of domestic animals. Agricultural machinery in motion : steam ploughs, reap- ing and mowing machines, haymaking machines, and thrashing machines. Distilleries, sugar mills, sugar refine- ries, breweries, works for the preparation of flour, fecula, starch ; silkworm nurseries. Presses for wine, cider, and oil. " Class 75. — Horses, asses, mules." — Animals exhibited as characteristice specimens of the breeds of each country. Specimens of stabling. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 443 " Class 76. — Bulls, buffaloes." — Animals exhibited as characteristic specimens of the breeds of each country. Specimens of cattle-sheds. " Class 77. — Sheep, goats." — Animals exhibited as characteristic specimens of the breeds of each country. Examples of sheep-folds, and sheep-walks. " Class 78. — Pigs, rabbits." — Animals exhibited as characteristic specimens of the breeds of each country. Examines of pig-sties, and of premises suitable to the • rearing of animals of this class. " Class 7y. — Poultry."~Animals exhibitQd as characT teristic specimens of the breeds of each country. Examples of poultry -houses, pigeon-houses, and pheasantries. Ap- paratus for artiticial hatching. " Class 80. — Sporting dogs and watch dogs." — Shep- herds' dogs, watch dogs, sporting dogs. Examples of kennels, and apparatus used in training. " Class 81. — T'seful insects." — Bees, silkworms, and other kinds of bombyx. Cochineal, insects producing shell lac, &c. Apparatus used in the culture of bees and silkworms, CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE. All crops beinpf now secured, the attention of the farmer is directed to the manufactory and disposal of these crops, and to the preparation required for those of the ensuinj^ year. Thrash {jrain con- stantly by flail, and once or twice a week by ma- chinery, which will aflFord fresh provender for the cattle, and for being cut into chaff. Sell and deliver all grain as thrashed ; placed in granaries, both quantity and quality is lost, an expense in- curred in turning over the heaps, and a smell is contracted, money or capital lies dormant, and performs no activity. Money must be circulated, as stagnant water turns no machinery. Granary on a farm is useful in holding horses' food, as oats and seed grain, wool for a time, but no further. Finish the sowing of wheat, if any remains un- finished from last month. Continue draining on grass land, and cut the drains half the depth on fallow lands, to be finished in dry seasons. Attend to the feeding of cattle in the yards, and of sheep in the field ; litter the yards frequently and thinly; on wet lands carry the turnips, roots cut off, to a dry field of ley or stubble, and spread them over the surface. Feed pigs with raw and steamed food, potatoes and beet in troughs, steamed and mashed with meals. Place young horses in a yard with a shed, two or three together, and give tender foods, as potatoes, grains, and bran. The first winter's treatment makes or. spoils animals of all kinds. Carrots raw or steamed are good for horses. The calves of this year require a kind treatment in a dry and warm bed, an ample and regular foddering, and constant supply of fresh water. Lay dung and composts on grass lands and meadows, and flood watered grounds. Begin to cut underwoods and forest trees; plant all arborescent plants ; make new hedges, and repair old ones ; mend roads, scour ditches, and gather dung of all kinds. In fine weather fallow the land for the early green crops as long as the weather permits. Begin to stubble for next year, deeply in seven or eight inches. Feed poultry with light grain and steamed potatoes in troughs under a shed, in the poultry yard. These animals, though reckoned insignifi- cant, repay attention equally with other live stock. CALENDAR OF GARDENING, Kitchen Garden. Artichokes : Protect the plants by mulch or masses of leaves, after removing all the old stalks or decayed foliage. Dig for a temporary supply of the so-called Jerusalem artichoke. Store all the potatoes, carefully observing the condition of sound- ness or decay. Keep the store very dry. Brocoli and cauliflower in the open ground should be laid down, and be guarded with a cover- ing dry earth laid close over the stems. Carrots : Dig and store, also beetroot, and some parsnips. Celery: Finish earthing; if frost threaten, cover the ridge and tops with dry haulm. Endive : Tie up some plants, and remove others to dry frames, for bleeching. Lettuce in frames give air to, occasionally. Po (he saRie by radish ^nd salad?, Fruit Department. Wall trees and berry-bearing shrubs may be pruned just now, but as well in February. Rasp- berries may be tied by cords neatly to the stakes, six rods to each, stopping at an angle towards the north. Full exposure to the sun i.s beneficial beyond the common perpendicular crowding. Flower Garden. Tulips, hyacinths, &c. : Plant in rich warm beds ; open the holes neatly ; place the bulb an inch or two deep among sand, carefully pressed around the lower bulb. Move herbaceous plants, roughly- fork the surface of beds, and scatter decayed leaf- mould and cow-dung over the surface. Observe neatness and order everywhere. Semi-hardy plants are kept dry in pits and frjimes, with sawpit du.st and ashes occasionly, V: H 441 TSE FAJlMSIi'S MAGA^JJ^E. THE LATE ME, FISHER HOBBS, After the burial, vvliich noticeably enough was within a few yards of the place of his birth, at White Colne, the will of 3Ir. Fisher Hobbs was read in the presence of a number of relatives and friends who attended the funeral on Thursday Oct. 18. 'fhe great bulk of his property goes to his cousin, Mr. William Hobbs, of Selinge, near Hythe, with reversion of the landed estate to another cousin, Mr. Henry Hobbs, a brother of Mr. William Hobbs, and also a native of Kent. Annuities are left to the two sisters and the housekeeper of the deceased, and small legacies to distant relatives and god-children. To his two trustees, Messrs. J. T. Halium and H. Trethewy, he gives £250 each ; to the Royal Agricultural Benevolent Institution the sum of £500 ; to the Colchester Hospital £100: and to the Essex Idiot Asylum £100. To Messrs. Hall Dare, Braudrcth Gibbs, and Henry Corbet, as the oliicial representatives of the three national Agricultural Institutions, he directs the payment of legacies of £100 each ; and to another friend, M. de Trehonnais, he leaves the selection of any works from his agricultural library. Mr. Hobbs, it may be added, had neither brother nor nephew. The following is from a biographical sketch in the Revue Agricole, published some years since : — At the age of twenty-lwo years, Mr. Hobbs' friends consi- dering him qualified to conduct a business for himself, took for him the farm of Marks-hall in the parish of Coggeshall, in Essex, containing nearly 500 acres, chiefly grazing land, which afforded. him ample scope for the exercise of the know- ledge he had acquired. At the first meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, at Oxford, Mr. Hobbs took the first prize for cereals, and after that time the grain raised on his farm was always in request, as well for seed with the farmers as with the miller and merchant. His success at Oxford encouraged him to persevere in the improvement of all kinds of grain and roots cultivated in the district ; for which purpose he offered a bonus of Is. to his harvestmen for every ear of wheat containing at least 100 grains. Ou one occasion a workman brought him six ears containing an average of 107 grains each. These he sowed separately, and found that not only were the best ears the most prolific and produced the largest ears, but that the largest grains and the best formed also yielded the strongest and best products. In 1855 Mr. Hobbs was nominated a delegate from the Royal Agricultural Society to the Universal Exhibition at Paris. The following year he formed part of the jury at the Great Exhibition of the Palace of Industry ; and in 1857 of that of the famous Inter- national Show at Poissy. Mr. Hobbs was honoured with the friendship and respect of men of the first rank in society ; among others, that of Lord Western, one of the contemporaries of Coke and the Duke of Bedford, and one of the most skilful agriculturists of that school. It was through the former noble- man's means that he was enabled to raise that remarkable breed of pigs for which he and the county of Essex are so famous. In a journey in Italy, Lord Western was struck with the cubic conformation and smallness of bone of the porcine race in the neighbourhood of Naples. Carefully selecting the finest boar be could find, he brought it with him to England. This he crossed with the black sows of Essex, which fully answered the expectation of Lord Western, the product possessing the same smallness of bone and great aptitude to fatten. Unfortunately, the improvement was confined to the male progeny of the cross, the series of organs constituted by the females, especially the digestive arrangements, still remaining defective in the pro- duction of flesh , so that, for want of assimilating power suffi- cient to counterbalance this aptitude to lay ou fat, which they inherited from the male parent, they turned all into lard and formed no flesh. This defect Mr. Hobbs undertook to correct in the following manner. Instead of crossing the Neapolitan boar with the narrow-chested sows of the Essex breed, he se- lected his females from the Essex-Berkshire sub-race— that is to say a breed produced by a croos of an Essex boar with a Berkshire sow. The influence of the Essex boar had prevailed as to colour, which still remained black; but the Berkshire element was manifested iu tlie amplitude of the pectoral cavity, and consequently iu the development of the viscera it con- tained. The large lungs, the deep and easy breathing of the animals of this cross, caused naturally a greater combustion of carbon, and thus a smaller assimilation of the adipose parts of the food. On the other hand, their digestive organs being more powerful, allowed them to assimilate tiie azoteous por- tions in a more complete manner ; so that these animals pro- duced more flesh than fat. It was by coupling these two elements, namely, the Naples-Essex cross, so remarkable for its fineness of bone and aptitude to fatten, with the Essex- Berkshire wliich Mr. Fisher Hobbs found in two neighbouring piggeries, that he eventually and permanently established, in a new breed that bears his name, the union of these two valuable qualities, the fortunate combination of \Ahich has rendered this breed so estimable with the breeders. In ISli, Mr. Fisher Hobbs' uncle died. It was unfortunate that, on the same day, Mr. Hobbs had invited a large party of agriculturists to dine at Marks-hall, to do honour to Mr, Smith, of Deanstou, who had engaged to come and explain his system of drainage. Iu the midst of the dinner a mes- senger arrived, covered with dust and perspiration, to announce to Mr. Hobbs that Mr. Fisher was at the point of death, and wished to see him before he died. Excusing himself to his guests, be arrived in time to close the eyes of his benefactor. He left Marks-hall a sinijile farmer, and a few days after re- turned a rich man, his uncle having named him his heir and only legatee. The new position of Mr. Hobbs made no difference in the predilections and pursuits of his life. In becoming a rich landowner, he remained a farmer ; and the estate of Boxted Lodge is stiU one of the best cultivated in the country, no- thing being neglected, even to the hedges, which are kept neatly clipped and cleared from parasitic plants, giving the inclosures the appearance of gardens. It was in the trans- formation of this property that Mr. Hobbs displayed his deep science as a practical farmer. Up to the period of his taking it in hand, it had been neglected and unproductive. The light land wanted consistence ; the heavy lands were soddened with water ; the bottoms of the ravines were turf-bogs impervious to man or horse. The estate was divided into innumerable inclosures by high hedges, and a ditch on each side to carry oft' the water ; whilst thickets occupied a large space that should have been devoted to the plough. All the farm build- ings were in ruins ; and disorder and sterility prevailed through- out. Soon everything was changed. The peat-bogs were converted into fertile meadows, the old hedges disappeared, the ditches were filled up and the land drained, the springs opened and utilized, the sandy soils solidified, excellent farm buildings erected where the old ones stood, the small in- closures converted into large rectangular fields, the mansion, the gardens, the homestead — all have been transformed; and the Boxted estate is now one of the best-managed properties of its size in the kingdom. We close this sketch of the life of Fisher Hobbs witli the following trait, which exhibits at once his benevolence and his discernment. At the time of the repeal of the corn laws, all his neighbours were struck with stupor under the apprehension of certain ruin. They dismissed their house-servants and labourers, who, having no employment, went in crowds to the union-houses, to the great increase of the parish burthens. What coursedid Fisher Hobbspursue? Heassembled those unfortunate labourers destitute of bread or work, whom the senseless in- humanity of the farmers had abandoned to starvation, and set them to work to clear and cut down a large wood on his estate. His neighbours thought him mad, for they were aU reducing, rather than increasing, the area of their arable land. Scarcely had he finished his undertaking, when they recovered from their panic, and again took on their labourers. The field cleared by these unfortunate men is called to this day " The Free-trade Close," and is one of the most productive in the country. Mr. Hobbs sowed it with wheat every second year, and always obtained large crops. In other respects, he gene- rally practised a biennial course at Boxted— the reverse of the Norfolk husbandry. THE FARMER'S MACIA^INi;, #5 FOREIGN AGRICULTURAL GOSSIP. The present month has opened gloomily for French agricul- ture. The continual rains of August and September rendered the securing of the crops of cereals, potatoes, and beet root a matter of great difficulty. They also deteriorated the quality of the grapes and all the later fruits. Many lands saturated with humidity were also rendered quite unfit for autumn tillage. To aU these causes of agricultural depression must be added the terrible inundation, wliich has ravaged the valleys of the Seine and the Loire, as well as their principal afiluents. Savoy has been severely affected by the same adverse influence, while the south has also suffered a good deal, particularly in the valleys of the Lot and the Dordogne. Embankments broken by a sudden and unusual flood ; railways, roads, and bridges carried away ; villages literally engulphed in the t^ood waters ; cattle, stacks of grahi, timber, &c., whirled away in the torrents ; lands covered with sterile sands ; uuliappy populations driven from their dwellings, and seeking an asylum in towns themselves partially inundated — such have been the startling facts, the narration of which fills the columns of all the French journals. There is one bright side to the sad picture. The ready succour afforded ; the precautionary measures taken by all the authorities to mitigate the evil, when it was impossible to altogether prevent it ; the personal devotion displayed by individuals — these are such as have been recorded on previous occasions of the same sad character. Evrrywherp we witness the organization of means of safety, temporary provision of lodgings, subscriptions for the 'inundes. The misfortunes sus- tained have been severe ; the sentiments which appreciate them and the acts which seek to lessen their sad effects will not fall below the gravity of the situation. All France will endeavour to come to the aid of the victims of the inundation, and once more public and ofticial attention will be devoted to tlie means best adapted to prevent a recurrence of such calamities. — The various agricultural committees and societies of France are pre- occupying them.selves more and more with the official inquiry about to be instituted into the state of French agriculture. The Baron de Veauce, in addressing the committee of St. Pourcain, in the Alher, specially called the atten- tion of his auditors to the comparative position of landed and share property. Everything, he said, has marched on rapidly with moveable values, new laws having been passed for societies of credit in all forms. The new laws with refer- ence to moveabh^ values also relieve them from all the charges which still weigh ou landed property. On the other hand, said the Baron, we have the grave fact that for the last 70 years the laws relating to the position of agriculture and of rural property have remained the same. Reverting to the agricultural committee of Wassy, in the Haute-Marne, M. Dannaelle-Bernardiu, president of the committee, observed : " Let them stop the metallic current which carries our money to foreign countries to which it is attracted by the lust for heavy interests, too often of an illusory character ; let them restrict the spirit of speculation which enervates both the fi- nancial force of the country and the public mind ; let them slacken to a just extent the works on hand in the great towns, and then they will be enabled to develope in the departements the third and fourth networks of railways and to dig the canals promised when the rer/ime of commercial liberty was inaugurated. This would be a certain means of spreading much money over the rural districts and would secnre such an increased amount of ease to agriculturists as would enable them to maintain wages at a high rate and promote the general well-being of the working-classes. By this means also a numerous body of workpeople would be brought back to their villages, who would wiUingly resume the plough or the sickle whenever the labours of the fields required their co- operation." At the Chauniont committee, in the Haute- Marne, M. Bontemps de Montreuil, in devoting his attention to the means of securing an equahty in public charges, said : " These means are contained in this short proposition — revise the tax on moveable values and the charges ou land, so as to put them both on the same level. By this means a nearer approach would be made to the principle of equality in taxa- lioD, and public oqiniou would be satisfied, the treasury would have the same resources, the great fortunes composed of farms and financial values would recover on one side what they lost on the other, and agriculture, less heavily burthened, would advance more rapidly on the path of improvement." At the Blaye committee, which assembled at Saint Savin, the Marquis de la Grange, senator, more particularly devoted his attention to the question of the duties levied on beverages. A certain number of committees, that of the arrondissement of Mafon among others, directed attention to the subject of agricultural instruc- tion ; and M. de Parseval, Grand-maison, delivered on this head a speech in which he indicated the object and the prin- cipal means of the new course of instruction which the Minis- ter of Public Instruction has just founded at Cluny. The CharoUes committee has also been favoured with a speech by M. Bouthier de Latour, director of the Montceau farm-school. AVe append a passage in which the speaker referred to the best means of running off the surplus cereal production of the em- pire: " Two means present themselves — exportation and aug- mentation in the consumption. The first will be the most simple and the most advantageous when our neighbours have requirements to satisfy, and v/hen a sufficiently high price is paid for our grain. The second will be preferable in the con- trary case. AU cultivators, breeders, and graziers know now that when cereals are at a low rate animals may consume ad- vantageously oats, barley, rye, snd even ordinary wheat. Li j'ears of abuudauce it would perhaps be also economical to re- serve for the consumption of man only the pure flour of wheat, and to keeiJ the bran and other products for animals. It will be readily understood that the abandonment of aU these sub- stances to cattle would increase in a considerable degree the total consumption, and that the greater part of the secondary products might in years of scarcity increase very conveniently the food supplies of the human race." At the Moncoutant agricultural committee. General AUard gave some advice with reference to the use and abuse of lime — advice which must have caused many of his auditors to reflect, as the application of lime is either a great benefit or a great evil. The argument of the General appears to have been that, although lime is productive of favourable results when its object is to develop a hitherto insufficient forage production, it exerts a disastrous influence on the future when an application is made of it in order to increase directly the produc- tion of cereals. A trial has been made on the latter head, and the application of lime has doubtless had something to do with the rapid iucreaje in the grain crops of France — the production of wheat in that empire having risen, according to official statistics, from 75,000,000 hectolitres to 113,000,000 per annum. But General Allard appears to have warned his auditors against placing too much confidence in this " improvisation" of wheat ; lie especially urged tiiem not to conclude that such crops result from seriously estabhshed improvements ; and he argued tliat the honey-moon of first crops obtained from lime was like all honey-moons, in that it passed quickly away. The montlily agriculturists have begun to dine together again in France — that is, the monthly dinners of French agriculturists at Paris have been resumed. In the ordinary course of things, the resumption of the dinners would not have occurred until the last Wednesday in October ; but it was deemed advisable, iu consequence of the rapid progress impressed on the proceedings of tlie official enquete to advance by a month the period of the meetings. M. Payen, one of the first promoters of these pleasant dinners, presided at the first meeting for the season, 1866-7. M. Wolowski developed the thesis of commercial liberty with great elevation of views. Without seeking to prejudge the results of tlie enqwte, the eminent economist appeared to be convinced that the legisla- tion of 1861 — for it was not until 1861 that a free-trade policy was acted ou in France — had nothing to fear from a serious examination ; and this he affirmed boldly, without fear- ing to pass for an enemy to agriculture. In the eyes of M. Wolowski, the real enemies of agriculture are not the parti- sans of commercial liberty ; they are those wlio maintain ciJ- tivators in a cliiiuerical terror of foreign importations; and H H 2 ue THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. who attribute the fall not only to the real importation, hut to those mountains of cereals which might invade the French markets. French agriculturists, M, Wolowski argued, must learn to appreciate their own force and accept foreign compe- tition as the best of all stimulants. It was not, he said, by estabhshing on the frontiers a system of protective duties that the return of crises could be prevented, but rather by im- proving the internal re//i/ite. M. Gustave Heuze, in order to show the advantages of the legislation wliich came into force in France in 1S61, compared this year's harvest with the harvest of sad memory whicli distinguished the year 181G. He said the harvests of 1816 and 1S66 have certainly a great analogy, but it may perhaps be objected that no defi- nitively fixed results have yet been arrived at astotlie crops of 1866, so tliat wliat happened immediately after tlie application of the newret/ime may be regarded, perhaps, as more conclusive. The deficit of 1861 is considered to have been more considerable than that of 1816, and yet in that year wheat never exceeded in France 24s. per hectolitre (as nearly as possible three bushels English) . The commercial world being able to make pur- chases of grain without fearing that our advance in prices during the voyage would increase the import duties, as frequently happened during the period of the sliding-scale, imported in fact with complete security a sufficient quantity of goods. It was irom tliis circumstance, it is true, said M. Heuze, that agricul- ture did not sell wheat at exorliitant rates, hut it found a cer- tain compensation iu the maintenance of prices in 1863 and 1864 ; and it is evident that if the liberal rcgline of 1861 had not enabled commerce to make large exportations during that period of unprecedented abundance, and to sustain prices in consequence at an average of about 14s. per qr., wheat would have fallen during the two years in question to an unprece- dentedly low point. If under the r^qbne of the sliding-scale iu 1829, 1833, ana 1843, and from 1849 to 1853, with crops which did not attain an annual average of 90,000,000 hecto- litres, prices fell to IDs. per liectolitre, where would they have stopped after the successive crops which produced together more than 220,000,000 hectolitres? M. Heuze considered, then, that agriculture had derived conclusively-established ad- vantages from the new legislation, and that if agriculturists appreciate their position and their true interests, tliose advan- tages will become more and more sensible. The development of an export trade will be an encouragement to produce more and at a cheaper rate. Before a legislation keeping the ports open, and applying the spur to competition, routine, M. Heuze thinks, will disappear, and farmers will he enabled to pro- duce more and better. The new regime will be also favourable to the consumer, whose interests must not be forgotten, and who will be assured by it a perfect security. Without antici- pating the results of the otHcial cmpit'te, which wiU present numerous and often contradictory projects, ideas, and remedies, M. Heuze considers that there is one point upon which all par- ties are likely to be agreed — viz., that it is necessary to pro- duce as much as possible. But then it becomes necessary to seek and assure outlets through which to run off the surplus productions of France, which appear to occupy a position especially favourable to the promotion and attainment of this object. Thus France is surrounded by needy neighbours ; Belgium, Holland, Germany, Italy, and a part of Prussia have often insufficient crops ; and Switzerland and England never produce enough. England alone, M. Heuze calculated, has to import annually 20,000,000 to 30,000,000 hectolitres, wliich she lias to seek from a distance, instead of taking them from the French, wlio are at her very door. Why is this ? M. Heuze asked. Tlie cause is very simple — permanent wants are required, and markets always in a state to satisfy them ; but in France the harvests are alternately superabundant or deficient ; and the English, not being able to rely at all times upon France, have established in the Black Sea, the Baltic, and the United States agencies and means of transport, by the aid of wliich they can at all times assure regular supplies. This is the reason, according to M. Heuze, why, notwithstand- ing the superiority of French wheat and flour, and the advan- tages whicli French quotations often present, France has fur- nished to England — until the present year, we should remark — only relatively small quantities of the products of her fields. This state of afl'airs, which M. Heuze considers highly preju- dicial to French agriculture, will, he expects, experience a great change when the price of the wheat enables France to fiompete in that regard '.ntli Pvussia tm'l Rvtssis, n»d wheij a trade in grain exists in France on a large scale, as commerce can alone create warehouses and depots capable of responding to the wants of neighbouring countries, and maintaining out- lets bearing a due ratio to production. To render commerce sufficiently powerful to fulfil such a mission, M. Heuze argued that it requires the greatest security and the most entire liberty, two matters in which it is still deficient. Ignorance and passion have iu all ages excited prejudices against grain merchants and millers, who are exposed to great perils in moments of scarcity and dearness ; and M. Heuze contended that articles 419 and 420 of the Penal Code (which he regarded as based on the prejudices in question) should be abrogated, since so long as they existed the grain trade would not develop itself in France, as no one dare operate on an extensive scale in the presence of a legislation which daily exposed him to the risk of defending his fortune, his liberty, and even his honour. It is impossible, in the opinion of M. Heuze, to determine the limits of legal profits, and to fix the commencement of cupidity, while the articles 419 and 420 of the Penal Code expose the French grain merchant under certain circumstances to resti- tution, imprisonment, and the surveillance of the police for a period of ten years. Some persons, little versed in economic science, fear that perfect freedom in the French grain trade would be attended with abuses ; but M. Heuze pronounces their fears chimerical, and to support his assertion he appeals to England. In England, he says, the grain trade has been entirely free since 1846 ; nevertheless, notwithstanding inces- sant and considerable requirements, supplies have never run short, and prices have never been excessive. Facilities of transport enable masses of cereals to be sent promptly on all the markets on vvhich a little profit can be realized, and a ficti- ■ tious advance can never continue long. It would be wise then, M. Heuze contended, to remove as soon as possible the last traces of an epocli of ignorance and barbarism, if it is de- sired tiiat the new legislation adopted in F^rance should secure a beneficent agricultural and commercial transformation, and improve simultaneously the position of the proprietor, the fanner, and the consumer. France, M. Heuze thinks, has been too long treated to half measures in economic matters. In 1861, the Government suppressed the sliding scale, main- taining only a fixed export duty; it desired, in fact, that the grain trade should be entirely free, but it left remaining a sys- tem of legislation which does not allow commerce to use its new liberty as it ought to do. This system, which consists in commencing great reforms without completing them by secon- dary measures whicli would assure their success, calls for the attention of all farmers who may he ex- amined in connexion witli tlie approaching enquete — at least so says M. Heuze, who wants to see the legislation of France rendered in harmony with the regime inaugurated in 1861. — The Journal (V Agriculture Pratique gives an engraving of ?. ( 'liarolais beast which received a prize at the last show at Poissy. The animal in question was exhibited by M. Suif, of the Pavilion, about 2J miles from jVevers ; it belongs to the Charolais breed, or, to speak with more strict accuracy, to the Nivernais breed. It was exhibited this year at the Poissy show, where it obtained the second prize in the first category. At M. Suifs, as among all the breeders of the Nivernais, the animals remain in the pastures from April to October, so that the feeding of the beasts is exclusively derived from herbage during seven months of the year. It was thus tliat the beast which received a prize at Poissy was reared ; it further passed five months in the shed, living on hay, lucern, and trefoil. It was not until October, 1805, that ]\I. Suif began to fatten the animal, and then its daily ration was composed of beetroot mixed with barleymeal, with colza or linseed cakes. By adopting this regime, M. Suif obtained an animal which at the age of three years weighed nearly 19 cwt., and which weighed 18 cwt. 25 lbs. on its arrival at the Lyons exhibition of fat stock. At the Lyons show, the animal obtained the first prize of tlie first category and the prize of honour of the town. From Lyons it was sent to Poissy, and in its long journey it only lost 25 lbs., still weighing 18 cwt. when it reached Poissy. Less fortunate at Poissy than at Lyons, it was beaten by one of its Lyons competitors, and obtained only the second prize of the first series, tlie first having been awarded to a fine Durham entered by M. Tiersounier, to which we may possibly make some future reference, as it took the "cup of honour" offered at Poissy. The struggle hetween the Purhani ami Charolais breeds es.cUed unicU interest bwqo^ ^m^ E'AEMEfe^S MAGAiilKB. 44^? agriculturists, as it proved tluit tlie Cliarolais breed very nearly possesses the aptitude for grazing whieli distinguish short- horns. It testified also in favour of the cultivators of the Nievre, who make themselves especially remarked by their efforts and their success in the breeding of stock. Thus, out of 17 specimens of the bovine race presented at Poissy by exhibitors of the Nievre, 13 received premiums. Among these premiums were 6 first-class aud 4 second-class prizes, so that the results obtained by Nirvre breeders scarcely leave anything to be desired. M. Suif has devoted his attention for 23 years to the breeding of cattle ; but it was only in 1861 that he came out as a public exhibitor. — In connexion with the Paris Universal Exliibition of 1867 it may be observed that the imperial commission has selected a trial-field on which it is intended to show in activity the implements now ordinarily in use on farms. The site selected is He dc Billancourt, situated at a small distance from the Champ de Mars, and which pre- sents on an area of 44 acres a soil of average consistency. LIFFOKD ESTATE FARMING SOCIETY. This society, which is composed of the tenantry on tlie County Donegal estate of the Earl of Erne, has just held its thirteenth annual show of cattle, agricultural imple- ments, and farm produce near the village of Ballindrait, about two miles from Lifford. The estate comprises about 4,000 acres, and contains a fair proportion of as fine land as may be found in the north west district. A good deal of it is also mountainous, the celebrated Croghan Hill rising to a considerable altitude. In passing through the estate the visitor is much struck with the neatness and uniform cleanli- ness of the houses, from those of the wealthy farmer to the humblest cottier — a result mainly owing to the example and instruction of Lord Erne, conveyed through his agent and agriculturist. There was a large attendance of the tenantry, who evidently viewed tlie proceedings with the keenest interest. Lord Erne, accompanied by his eldest son, visited the exhibition. Silver medals were granted to George M'Beth, Alexander Weir, and James Harkin, they being the best exhibitors of stock at last year's show. The winners this year are . A. M'Beth, Joseph Smith, and James Harkin. Lord Erne addressed the tenants, and congratulated them on the show, the best they had ever held. He next alluded to the importance of such exhibitions — their good elFects on the country in keeping alive a spirit of emulation, and spoke of the gratitude to God which should move them all at the ab- sence of the cattle plague from the country. He was glad to find the stock shown, especially the young stock, so very much over the condition of that shown in former years. With respect to the state of the property he had also reason to be satisfied. Years ago he had established an estate court for the redressing of any wrongs which the tenants had reason to com- plain of ; but this year he found there were only two com- plaints— he was wrong — they were not complaints, but re- (£uests — one for a lease, the other for assistance in making repairs. The first he would grant, the second refuse, inas- much as the applicant had himself carried out the repairs with- out consulting the agent. But perhaps the greatest cause for congratulation among them all was to be found in the fact that in the year ending in June last, there was not one penny of rent unpaid. Let them all hope that this may long continue. Lord Erne then complimented the tenants on the good order, cleanliness, and neatness of their houses. He did not know any other tenantry which surpassed them for cleanliness, good order, and good farming. But still they must push forward, and avail themselves of the best implements of husbandry. He had himself sent to their show a AVood's reajier, drawn by a single horse, which his agent told him would cut nine acres of oats daily. He was glad to find tliey had now three tlax- mills on the estate and Ijetween thirty and forty tlirashing- mills. With respect to the labourers on the estate, he advised the farmers to pay them well, and look after their condition, by providing and keeping up comfortable cottages, and allow- ing their cottiers to go home on wet days in the slack season to effect little improvements about their homes. His lordship next advised the labourers to stock their gardens with good vegetables, to keep bees, and rear poultry. He gave instances of labourers on his Fermanagh estate realizing from £12 to £15 or £16 yearly from these sources, and they could be looked after by their wives or children. By way of ascertain- ing what progress the estate had been making, he had asked Mr. Weir to draw up a statement, wliich, bethought, would surprise them, as it had certainly astonished himself. Mr Weir then read a report, of which the following is the substance. Mr. Weir stated that, thirty years ago, when he was appointed agriculturist, the estate was broken up into small fields, surrounded by large and irregular fences, ^o ree;ular or systematic rotation crops was carried on, or even attempted. The cattle kept by the farmers were of a poor, stunted class. There were but few iron ploughs on the estate, and all the other implements in use were, of a very primitive description. There was but one thrashing machine on the propertv, while some portions of the estate were nearly inac- cessible", owing to the M'ant of proper roads.. All this was now, however, changed for the better, of which an idea could be gathered from the following items of expenditure, the amounts being, if anything, understated : 120,000 perches of drains, £4,000 ; 500 acres subsoiled, £1,500 ; 20,000 perches of old fences levelled, £500 ; 10,000 of new fences made, £500 ; 2,000 perches of new roads made, £500 ; atones sunk and cleared off, and other land improvements, £250 ; embank- ments, £500 ; iron gates for fields, &c., £250 ; new buildings on the estate, £14,000; machinery and improved implements for cultivation, £2,000 ; three steam engines, £1,000— total, £25,000. All these improvements had been carried out at the joint expense of Lord Erne and his tenantry in about etjual proportions. Lord Erne said this was a very gratifying statement, and hoped it would stimulate them all to higher exertions in the good work of improving the country in which they lived. SALE OF SHORTHOENS AT BALLY- WATER, CORK. On Thursday, Oct. 11, Mr. Marsh, of Cork, sold by auction seventeen bull calves and six two-year-old heifers, the property of Mr. Richard AVelsted. The following were the prices realized : BULL CALVES. Roan Cliief, roan, calved October 6, 1865 ; got by Moun- tain Chief (20,383) : purchased by Mr. Reardon, Ballincollig, Cork, for 32 guineas. Sir Simon, red, calved December 15, 1865 ; got by Sir James (16,080) : Mr. Roche, Annakisney, Mallow, 20 guineas. Red Ned, red, calved November 23, 1865 ; got by Uncle Ned (19,026) : Mr. Evans, Carker, Doneraile, 15 guineas. King James, white, calved January 5, 1866 ; got by Sir James (16,980) : Mr. Hewson, Errismore, Listowel, 23 ° Ned, roan, calved January 10, 1866 ; got by Uncle Ned (10,062) : Captain Smith Barry, Ballyedmond, Midleton, 43 gui'oeas. Twin Brother to Ned, roan, calved January 10, 1860 ; got by Uncle Ned (19,036) : the Hon. Moore Smith, Ballinatray, Youghal, 30 guineas. Sir Edwin, red and white, calved January 10, 1866 ; got by Sir James (16,980) : Major Barry, Castlecor, Buttevant, 39 guineas. Royal James, white, calved January 14, 1866 ; got by Sir James (16,980) : Professor Baldwin, Glasneviu, Dublin, 24 guineas. Woodcraft, roan, calved January 32, 1866 ; got by Sir James (16,080) : Mr. Law, Kilshane, Tipperary, 56 guineas. Uncle Fred, red and white, calved January 23, 1806 ; got by Uncle Ned (10,062) : Mr. Mannion, Skibbereen, 23 gs. Sir Francis, roan, calved January 27, 1866; got by Sir James (16,980) : Mr. Taffe, Miltown, County Roscom- mon, 24 gs. Merlin, roan, calved February 12, 1866 ; got by Sir James (16,080) ; Captain Leader, Mount Leader, Millstreet, 27 gs. Jovial, red and white, c:Jved jMarch 5, 1866 ; got by Sir James (16,080) : Major Barry, Castlecor, Buttevant, 41 gs. Sir Charles, roan, calved March 21, 1806 ; got by Sir James (16,980) : Mr. Byrne, Wallstown, Shanballymore, 26 gs. Robin Hood, red, calved April 32, 1866 ; got by Uncle Ned (10,036): Mr, Hewson, Errismore, 10 gs. us 'Me FARMER'S MAI&AZIKE. Esca, red, calved May 6, 1$66 ; got by Uucle Ned (19,02G) : C. TV. Massy Granstown, Tipperan% 32 g-s. Coxcomb, roan, calved May 17, 1866; got by Sir James (16,980) : 11. W. Bayly, Dundrum, 28 gs. HEIFERS. Olivia oth, roan, calved October 22, 1863 ; got by Bride- groom (17,4-13) : Captain Bury, Little Island, Cork, 25 gs. Favourite 3rd, red and white, calved December 6, 1863 ; got by Prince Regent (18,637): Major Barry, Castlecor, Buttevant, 24gs. Sophy 5th, red, calved January 31, 1861; got by Elfin King (17,7''fi) : same, 35 gs. Sophy 6th, white, calved February 21, 186-1; got by El fm King (17,796) • same, 31 gs. Olivia 6th, roan, calved March ll, 18C1. ; got by Elfin King (17,796) : Captain Bury, Little Island, Cork,^32 gs. Annie 3rd, roan, calved June 7, 1864; got by Etbelred (19,709) : Major Barry, Castlecor, Buttevant, 37 gs. The buU-calves averaged 29^ guineas, and the heifers about 31 guineas. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. BEDFORDSHIRE. We have deferred our usual report at this season in the hope that we might announce tlie conclusion of the dreary and long-to-be-remenibered harvest of 1866 ; but we still hear that com is yet in the field. We I hint, however, wdth the present fine weather, that all will be secured during this week. Har- vest commenced the first week in August on the forward soils, and was completed, in some instances, in little more than three weeks, just before the wet weather set in ; these, we regret to say, were the exceptions ; in most cases it lasted double the time, and in some few instances, as we have before stated, it is not yet completed. The wind of the 7th August did a great deal of damage to the forward wheat and barley, whipping it out and blowing off the ears. Some have estimated the loss at a quarter an acre, and, from the appearance of the fields, which are now green with it, we do not think it over-estimated. Tlie wheat on the warm soils we believe to be an average crop, but not superior in quality. On clay-soils we consider it below an average, and only of moderate quality, and its con- dition will prevent much of it fmding its way to market for some time to come. The same may be said pretty much of the barley crop, except that the quality on really barley soils is very fine. We have seen some for which considerably over 50s. per quarter could be obtained — the finest we have seen this year, or for some years past ; but such will only come oiitin very small parcels : the bulk must be very inferior. The crop, particularly on heavy soils, was badly got-in in the spring, and has been, un- fortunately, badly harvested. One word here about stacking and thatching. Very much damage has been done by the im- perfect manner in which stacks have been built, and remaining uuthatclied. We may learn something in this county from our friends in the north, who are accustomed to a greater rainfall. In forming the roof of the stacks the middle is kept so fuU that the ears are uppermost, with the butt-end of the sheaves dropping at a sharp angle, so that the rain rims off. We have seen stacks thus built wliich remained uuthatched during the greater part of the wet weather, and, to our astonishment, with very little damage done to them. We know it wiU be said there is uothing new in this style of building ; if known, however, it is but seldom practised. In most instances you will see the sheaves the reverse of what has been stated, being conductors of the rain into the stack. We have thought it right to call attention to this matter, particularly as we have seen and heard of stacks being as green as a meadow. Men are rather averse to this plan, as it entails more trouble not only in the building but in the thatching. Beans and peas are an average crop, the latter, perhaps, above, and were generally harvested favourably. Oats are not much grown in this county ; the re- port of the crop is, however, only moderate. There has been a large breadth of clover mown for seed, of which an indif- ferent account is given. Potatoes yield weU, but are sadly dis- eased, and it is feared they will go on decaying in the pits. We have had too much rain and too little sun to be able to report favourably of the root crops : they fall far below, both in weight and quality, the crops of last year. If we get a fine October, the bulbs no doubt will improve. We can speak the most favourably of kolil rabi, wliich is now largely planted in this county, and is likely still to grow in the estimation of the stoc.959 sacks country-made, 6,895 sacks 3,868 brls. foreifjn ; against 73,539 sacks country-made, 8C8 sacks 13,551 brls. foreign for the same period in 1865. The barley trade, after some hesitation and a downward tendency after successive weeks of short supplies, closed with an upward movement. An exceptionally fine parcel of malting on the last mariiet brought 52s., while inferior stained and damp English have been of uncertain value, though perhaps worth 32s. — a price which in former years was considered fair for the primest qualities. Da- nuhian exports being prohibited must necessarily keep our foreign supplies short through the season, and very low rates, with all other grain dear, seem unlikely ; but we can hardly depend on the con- tinuance of such a range of prices as now obtains for malting sorts, which have commanded 46s. free on board at Harabro'. The imports into Lon- don for four weeks were 18,538 qrs. British, 21,166 qrs. foreign ; against 12,171 qrs. British, 44,213 qrs. foreign in 1865. It was impossible that malt should be stationary while such high rates have been paid for fine barley, more especially as the samples of new have given much satisfaction, and rates have therefore risen gradually 4s. to 6s. per qr. As to oats, the damage done in Scotland, and the protractedness of the season, with the certainty that winter will materially reduce our foreign im- ports, have all contributed to enhance prices, though the inferiority of some new foreign, and the general repletion of dealers, have now and then brought on a temporary decline. The month's gain has certainly been Is. 6d. per qi'., 38 lbs. inferior Russian being worth 23s., and only a little while back, during the heaviest imports, such corn could have been bought at 18s. per qr. Those im- porters, therefore, who during the glut had courage to land their cargoes, will be more than reimbursed to the extent of the charges. It will be seen by the figures below that scarcely anything has come from Scotland and very little from Ireland. The London receipts for four weeks have been in English qualities 13,120 qrs., Scotch 93 qrs., Irish 4.920 qrs., foreign 1-16,584 qrs., against 11,935 qrs, Eng- lish, 705 qrs. Scotch, 6,7 15 qrs. Irish, 209,801 qrs. foreign in 1865. With scarcely any foreign imports of beans, our own crop only moderate in quantity and bad in quality, and the fact that there has been an overflow of the Nile in Upper Egypt, carrying away much corn standing on the river banks, beans have been improving in value from Is. to 2s. per qr., and as neither France nor Barbary sends us anything, and hard qualities for splitting are much wanted, it seems buyers will be forced upon the more plentiful use of maize ; and, indeed, this grain has already improved 3s. to 4s. per qr., while the prospect of large imports has greatly diminished by recent advices from New York and the Western States. The London imports of beans for four weeks has been 2,550 qrs. English, 1,415 qrs. foreign, against 2,885 qrs. English, 7,212 qrs. foreign in 1865. Peas having failed this month as to foreign sup- plies, have slowly followed the rise in beans, and should there be a hard winter, and the old- fashioned habit be generally resumed of adding peas-pudding to boiled pork, we may find a further advance in boilers, which now are only 44s. to 45s. per qr. The imports into London for four weeks were 3,705 qrs. English, 50 qrs. foreign, against 3,000 qrs. English, 8,634 qrs. foreign in 1865. Linseed, with slender imports and no prospects of increased supplies, has kept its price, and so it must till a generally good harvest is noted in Russia and India. Cakes have sold freely at full rates. With but a poor look-out as respects the crop of cloverseed, holders of the small stocks of red and white have been repeatedly raising their preten- sions, till 56s. per qr. is demanded for old red American. Mustardseed has partially revived, as well as tares and canaryseed, and all seeds give better promise of paying holders than recently. AVE RAGES Fob the lasi Six AVeeks : Sept. 8, 1S66 Sept. 15, 1866 Sept. 23, 1866 Sept. 29, 1866 Oct. 6, 1866, Oct. 13, 1866 Aggregate Average Ayeragea last year 41 U 30 9 20 11 Wheat. Barley. s. d. s. d. 47 3 36 1 47 0 37 1 49 8 37 10 51 5 40 1 52 2 41 4 53 7 42 1 60 0 39 1 41 U 30 9 Oats. s. d. 25 3 25 2 24 9 24 3 23 1 23 0 24 3 454 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. IMPERIAL AVERAGES For the week ended Oct. 13, 1866. Wheat 78,065|qrs. 52s. 7d. Barley 52,798| ,, 428. Id. Oats 5,199i ,, 238. Od. COMPARATIVE AVERAGES. WHEAT. Years. Qrs. s. d. 1862... 70,019j- ... 49 6 1863... 84,887i... 41 0 1864... 76,126f ... 38 9 1865... 80,312 ... 41 11 1866... 78,0651 ... 52 7 BARLEY. Qrs. 8. d. 32,679J ... 34 8 68,758^ ... 34 7 44,7501 ... 30 2 40,2461 ... 30 9 52,798| ... 42 1 OATS. Qrs. 8. d. 15,285J...21 5 ll,635i ... 19 4 10,261i ... 20 0 6,537 ... 20 11 5,199^ ... 23 0 FLUCTUATIONS in the AVERAGE PRICE of WHEAT. Price. Sept. 8. 'Sept. 15. Sept. 22. Sept. 29. Oct. 6. Oct.l3. 52s. 7d. 62s. 2d. 51s. 5d. 49s. 8d. 47s. 3d. 478. Od. — i._.:J: ::: .:: p ... r PRICES OF SEEDS. BRITISH SEEDS. MusTAED, per bush., brov^Ti 16s. to 18s. white 12s.tol6s. CiNABT.perqr 68s. 68s. CLOVEBSEED,red 00s. 00s. CoBiANDEE, per cwt 18s. 203. Tabes, winter, new, per bushel 4s. 6d. 58. Od. Tbefoil 2l8. 24s. Ryegrass, per qr 22s. 24s. Linseed, per qr., sowing 638. to.728., crushing 66s. 68s. Rapeseed, per qr 58s. 60s. Linseed Cakes, per ton £10 10s. to £11 lOs. Rape Caeb, per ton £5 Os.-to£5 10s. FOREIGN SEEDS. CoBiAiTDEB, per cwt 18s. to 20s. Cloveeseed, red 50s. to56s., white 72s. 84s. Trefoil 188. 20s. Rtegeass, per qr 18s. 203. Hempseed, small 38s. per qr., Dutch 40s. 42s. Linseed, per qr., Baltic 64s. to 68s... Bombay 71s. 72s. Linseed Cakes, perton £9 10s. to £11 10s. Rape Cake, perton £5 Os. to £5 lOs. Rapeseed, Dutch 51s. 60s. Caeeawat „ 36s. 388. POTATO MARKETS. SOUTHWARK WATERSIDE. LONDON, Monday, Oct. 22 —During the past week the arrivals coastwise have been very small, but considerable by rail. The trade has been good for sound and first-class sam- ples, but inferior sorts were a very dull sale. The following are this day's quotations : — Yorkshire Flukes perton 90s. to 120s. „ Regents 70s. to 90s. Lincolnshire Regents 70s. to 80s. Dunbar and East Lothian Regents 80s. to 100s. Kent and Essex Regents 50s. to 100s. „ Rocks 70s. to 100s. Perth, Eorfar, and Fife Regents ... 70s. to 80s. BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS. LONDON, Mo^'DAY, Oct. 22. — The accounts respecting the disease are again unfavourable. The supplies of potatoes on sale are fairly extensive. Fine parcels move off freely, at full prices ; otherwise the trade is heavy. The imports into Lon- don last week was 16 bags from Amsterdam, oi tons from St. Brieux, and 565 sacks from Dunkirk. Regents 40s. to 120s. per ton. Rocks 50s. to 90s. „ Flukes 90s. to 150s. „ COUNTRY POTATO MARKETS. — York, (Thursday last) : We had a very good show of Potatoes, which sold at 8s. per 2801bs., and 8d. per peck. — Knaresborougii, (Wed- nesday last) : Potatoes lOd. to 12d. per 211bs. — Leeds, (Tues- day last) : Potatoes 9d. to lOd. wholesale, and lOd. to lid. retail per 211bs. — Manchester, (Tuesday last) : Potatoes 5s. to 9s. per 2521bs. — Northallerton, (Wednesday last) : Po- tatoes 8d. to 9d. per stone. — Sheffield, (Tuesday last) : Common Potatoes 6s. to 8s., round ones 9s. to 10s. per load. -rDQi?CA.ST5R, (Saturday last) -. The supply of Potatoes was not so large, for which the demand ruled brisk, prices ranging from 8s. Od. to 9s. 6d. per load of 18 stones. — Pontefract, (Saturday last) : Potatoes Is. per score. — York, (Saturday last) : The market was again liberally supplied, notwithstand- ing the reports as to the Potato disease. The prices have an upward tendency, and we cannot quote them lower than from 9s. to lOs. per tub of 2801bs., and 9d. to lOd. per peck retail. ENGLISH WOOL ]\LA.RKET. CITY, Monday, Oct. 22. — Since our last report, the trans- actions in all kinds of English wool, both for home I'.se and export, have been on a moderate scale ; but no actual fall has taken place in the quotations. The supply of wool on ofTer is by no means extensive. Cueeent Prices op English Wool. s. d. s. d. Fleeces— Southdown hoggets per lb. 1 7itol 8^ Half-bred ditto ,, 1 9^ 1 10^ Kent fleeces ,, 18 19 Southdown ewes and wethers ,, 17 18 Leicester ditto ,, 17 19 SOETS— Clothing „ 16 1 lOJ Combing „ 1 6^ 2 0 LEEDS (English and Foreign) WOOL MARKETS, Friday. — There is uo change of importance in either demand or price for English wool. The demand for yarns for the continent being almost nothing, tends to keep down the con- suption of wool, and prevent an advance in price. There is a steady consumption of clothing wool, but there is not any de- mand likely at present to advance prices materially. BRADFORD WOOL MARKET, (Thursday last.)— There has been another week of slow, dragging " hand-to-mouth" trade, and this morning's market brings little or no improve- ment. It is just as we have reported it for several weeks past — dull and inanimate. Spinners take just enough to keep their wheels in motion, but no one is bold enough to buy in anticipation of his wants ; as a proof of which, matchings rather than fleece wool seem most in demand. A few staplers report rather more inquiry in hogg wool, and indeed lioggs are quite firm at the price we quoted them some three or four weeks since. The upward movement in cotton during the past week has prevented any decline in the value of wool gene- rally, and the fact that there is no relaxation on the part of country holders encourages staplers here to keep pretty firm to late quotations. There have been instances in which a frac- tional decline has been submitted to, but these are the excep- tions, and not the rule. — Bradford Ohserver. GLASGOW WOOL MARKET, (Saturday last.)- There is no change to report in the aspect of this wool market. The demand continues dull, and buyers restrict themselves to pur- chasing for immediate wants. Pieces remain unchanged, and holders are C[uite firm in their quotations. — F. U.AVLeod. MANURES. PRICE CURRENT OP GUANO, &o. Peruvian Guano direct from the Importers' stores, £12 53. to £12 10s. perton. Bones, £6 Ditto Crushed, £G 10s. per ton. Animal Charcoal (70 per cunt. Phosphate) £5 per ton. Coprolite, Cambridge, whole £2 lOs., ground £3 to £3 2s. 6d. per ton. Suffolk, whole £3 to £2 IDs., ground £2 10s. Nitrate of Soda, £12 5s. to £12 10s. per ton. Gypsum, £1 10s. Superphosphates of Lime, £5 5s. to £6 5s. perton. Sulphuric Acid, concentrated 1-845 Id. per lb., brown 1712 O^d. Blood Manure, £G 5s. to £7 10s. Dissolved Bones, £6 15s. per ton. Linseed Cakes, best American barrel £11 5s. to £11 153., bag £10 53. to Cotton Seed Cake, £3 to £5 15s. per ton. E. Pdeseb, London Manure Company, 116, Fenchurch Street, E.C. Guano, Peruvian £12 7 6 to £0 0 0 Linseed Cake, per ton- Do. Upper do. 6 15 0 7 0 0, Americ.,thin,bgs.£10 0 0 to£10 5 0 Maiden Island 0 0 0 0 00 Do. inbrls 0 00 0 Do Bone Ash 0 0 0 0 00 English 10 10 0 10 15 0 Brimstone, 2d&3rd 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cotsd.Cake.decort. 0 0 0 0 00 Saltpetre, Bengal, |Linsd.Bomby,p.qr. 3 10 0 Silo 2pereent 0 0 0 0 0 0, Rapeseed, Guzerat 2 18 0 3 On Nitr.of Soda. p.ct.O 10 6 0 11 0 Niger 0 00 0 00 Cloverseed, N.Am. iTaUow, 1st P.Y.C. 2 6 0 2 70 red, new per cwt. 2 5 0 2 10 0' „ super. Norths 2 56 2 6o SAMUEL DOWNES and CO., General Brokers, Exchange Court, Liverpool. T,_ i.. ■ « Agricultural Chemical Works, Stowmarket, Suffolk. Prentice's Cereal Manure for Corn Crops per ton £8 10 0 Mangold Manure 8 0 0 Prsntice's Turnip Manure !!.]!!!!]]!]!!!!.!]!!"! * 6 10 0 Prentice's Superphosphate of Lime ................'...1'" !! 0 0 0 Printed by Jloserjou and Ti^ford, 246 Str?.«d, London, W.C, THE ROYAL FARMERS' INSURANCE COMPANY, 3, NORFOLK STREET, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. PERSONS Insured by this Company have the security of an extensive and wealthy Proprietary, as well as of an ample capital, always applicable to the payment of claims. FIRS! ]>x:PARXjax:wT. First Class Not Hazardous Is. 6d. per cent. Second Class Hazardous 2s. 6d. ,, Third Class Doubly Hazardous 4s, 6d. ,, KUIIiDinrO A]!iri> MERCAWXIIiE PROPERTY of every description in Public or Private Warehouses — Distilleries, Steam Engines, Goods in Boats or Canals, Ships in Port or Harbour, &c., &c., are insured in this Office at moderate rates. JUPECIAli R f 8K-S. — At such i-ales as may be considered reasonable. ji^J^mUf MCr STOCK. — 58. percent. ; and Portable Steam Thrashing Maehines allowed to be used, without extra charge. Nearly Five Millions insured in this Office on this description of property alone. liOSSES paid immediately after the amounts have been ascertained. lilFE. — Life Insurances on moderate terms by Policies payable to the registered holders. BOHf US. — Insurers of the participating class are eutitled to four-fifths of the profits. At the last declaration of Bonus, in May, 1864, £6 3s. was added to every £100 insured by Policies of five years' standing, being at the rate of £1 5s. per cent, per annum, and proportionate amounts to all other insu- rances on which two or more annual payments had been made, being in some cases about 60 per cent, on the premiums received. Additional Agents wanted. Application to JOHN REDDISH, Esq,., Secretary and Actuary. IMPORTANT TO THOMAS BIGG, Agricultural and Veterinary CHBMI3T, by Appointment to His late Royal Highness The Prince Consort, K..G., Leicester House, Great Dover-street, Borough, London, begs to call the attention of Farmers and Graziers to his valuable SHEEP and LAMB DIPPING COM- POSITION, whi ch requires no Boiling, and may be used with Warm or Cold Vatcr, for effectually destroying the Tick, Lice, and all other insects Injurious to the Flock, preventing the alarming attacks of Fly and Shab, and cleansing and purifying the Skin, thereby greatly improving the Wool, both in quantity and quality, and highly contributing to the general health of the animal. Prepared only by Thomas Bigg, Chemist, &c., at his Manufac- tory as above, and sold as follows, although any other quantity may be had, if required :— 4 lb. for 20 sheep, price, jar included £0 2 0 6 1b. 80 „ „ „ 0 3 0 8 lb. 40 „ „ „ ...... 0 4 0 10 1b. 50 „ „ „ 0 5 0 20 lb. 100 ,, ,, (cask and measure 0 10 0 SO lb. 130 „ „ included) 0 15 0 40 1b. 200 „ „ „ 10 0 50 1b. 250 „ „ „ 13 6 60 1b. 800 „ ,, ,, 17 6 80 lb. 400 „ „ „ 1 17 6 100 1b. 500 „ „ „ 2 5 0 Should any Flockmaster prefer boiling theComposition, it will be equally efi'ective. MOST IMPORTANT CERTIFICATE. From Ma. Hbrapath, tke celebrated Analytical Chemist : — Bristol Laboratory, Old Park, January 18th, 1861. Sir, — I have submitted your Sheep-Dipping Composition to analysis, and find that the ingredients are well blended, and the mixtars neutral. If it is used according to the directions given, 1 feel satisfied, that while it effectually destroys vermin, it will not injure the hair roots (or " yolk ") in the skin, the fleece, or the carcase. I think it deserves the n'jimerous testimonials pub- lished. I am, Sir, yours respectfully, William Herapath, Sen., P.C.S., &c., &c.. To Mr. Thomas Bigg, Professor of Chemistry. Leicester House. Great Dovef'Street, Borough, London. FLOCKMASTERS, He would also especially (lall attention to his SPECIFIC, or LOTION, for the SCAB, or SHAB, which will be found a certain remedy for eradicating that loathsome and ruinous disorder in Sheep, and which may be saft'ly used in all climates, and at all seasons of the year, and to all descriptions of sheep, even ewes in lamb. Price FIVE SHILLINGS per gallon— suiflcient on an average for thirty Sheep (according to the virulence of the disease); also in wine quart bottles. Is. 3d. each. IMPORTANT TESTIMONIAL. "ScouUon, near Hingham, Norfolk, April 16th, 1855. " Dear Sir, — In answer to yours of the 4th inst, which would have been replied to before this had I been at home, I hav« much pleasure in bearing testimony to the efficacy of your in- valuable 'Specific for the cure of Scab in Sheep.' The 600 sheep were all dressed in August last with 84 gallons of the ' Non- Poisonous Specific,' that was so highly recommended at the Lincoln Show, and by their own dresser, the best attention being paid to the flock by my shepherd after dressing according to instructions left; but notwithstanding the Scab continued getting worse. Being determined to have the Scab cured If possible, I wrote to you for a supply of your Specific, which I received the following day; and although the weather was most severe in February duriag the dressing, your Specific proved itself an invaluable remf dy, for In three weeks the Sheep were quite cured ; and I am happy to say the young lambs are doing remarkably well at present. In conclusion, I believe it to be the safest and best remedy now in use. " I remain, dear Sir, your obedient servant, " For JOHN TINGEY, Esq., " To Mr. Thomas Bigg." " R. RENNEY. i^g" Flockmasters would do well to beware of such prepara- ions as " Non-poisonous Compositions :" it is only necessary to appeal to their good common sense and judgment to be tho- roughly convinced, that no " Non-poisonous" article can poison or destroy insect vermin, particularly such as the Tick, Lice, and Scab Parasites — creatures (so ten.icious of life. Such advertised preparations must be wholly usnless, or they are not what they are represented to be. Dipping Apparatus , ....£14, £5, £4,& £3. TWENTY-FIRST EDITION. WARREN'S FARMERS' ACCOUNT BOOK.— Price, Folio, for Large Farms, 8s. j Quarto, for Small Farms and for Schools where Youths are trained for Agricultural Pursuits, 5s. Also, Folio, with pages for a weekly instead of a daily account of labour, 78. Royston : John Warren. London : Simpkiu and Co. ; Whittaker and Co. ; Longman and Co.; Ridgway, To be had of all Booksellers. BOGEBSON & TIIXFORD'S AGBICIJLTURAL^ PRICE ONE SHILLING EACH, t' , - Neatly Bov/nd in Foolscap Octmoy ''' EACH VOLUME CONTAINING from 130 to 190 PAGES OF LETTERPRESS, RICHAEDSOf S RURAL HMD-ROOKS. I WHEAT : ITS HISTORY, CHARAC- TEBISTICS, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, and NUTRITIVE PROPERTIES. By "The Old Norfolk Eaemer," Author of " Agricidture, Ancient and Modern," &c., &c. THE AGRICULTURIST'S WEATHER- GUIDE A2fD MANUAL OF METEOROLOGY. By Henet C. Ckeswick, Assistant Observer in tlie Magnetical and Meteorological Department of the Royal Observatory at Grreenwich, Author of several papers on Meteor ^^ €IIAMPIO]¥ PrOIIC^Ii: has RECEIVED FIFTEEN FIRST PRIZES FROM THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND, Being the Largest Number of Prizes awarded to any kind of Plough ever exhibited. MORE THAN SIXTY JHOUSAND ARE IN USE. The following Prizes have been awarded to J. & F. Howard by the Royal Agricultural Society of England : FORTY-FOUR FIRST PRIZES FOR THE BEST PLOUGHS FOR LIGHT LAND, BEST PLOUGHS FOR HEAVY LAND, BEST PLOUGHS FOR GENERAL PURPOSES. BEST RIDGING PLOUGHS, BEST SUBSOIL PLOUGHS, BEST HARROWS, BEST HORSE RAKES, BEST HAYMAKERS, AND BEST HORSE HOES; ALSO THE GOLD MEDAL, AND OTHER PRIZES, FOR STEAM-CULTIVATING MACHINERY. FULL PARTICULARS MAY BE HAD OF THEIR AGENTS THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, OR WILL BE SENT FREE ON APPLICATION TO JAMES AND FREDERICK HOWARD, BRITANNIA IRON WORKS, BEDFORD, ENGLAND. LONDON OFFICE ; 4, Cheapside-Three Doors from St. Paul's. r EANSOMES & SIMS, 32*S^ ORWELL WORKS, 9, GRACEOHURCH ST. IPSWICH AND LONDON. ORWELL WORKS, IPSWICH. LONDON: 9, GRAGECHURCH STREET. IMPROVED HORSE GEAR, 33RIVING^ AN AURAISraEMENT OF FOOD MACHINERY. One-Horse Gear . . £9 O 0 Intermediate Motion, for either, 4 0 0 Two-Horse Gear, £10 O O Pulleys and Straps according to size. SELECT LIST OF THE MOST USEFUL SIZES OF FOOD PREPARING MACHINERY FOR HORSE POWER. Two-Horse Gear, £10 0 0, 1 Intermediate Motion, £4 0 0 20-incli Pulley on ditto, ) for driving Oil Cake Breaker, £0 14 6 24-inch Pulley for driving Universal Mill, £1 "l 0 Strap ,' for Oil Cake Breaker, £117 0 Strap for Universal Mill, £117 0 ) Chaff Cutter No. 24, cuts two lengths, | and f in. without change of wheels. Will cut ahout i 15 cwt. of hay or straw into | in. length per hour, with 1 Plorse power, £9 0 0 Change Wheels I for other lengths, 3s. Gd. iier pair. Crotch on the Chaff Cutter for connecting it to Intermediate I Motion £0 5 0 ) 1 Pulper No. 14, will pulp ahout 40 cwt. of roots per hour £6 6 0 connecting it to Intermediate Motion, £0 10 0 18-inch Pulle}' on ditto for 1 Universal Mill No. 15, will sjdit about 24 bushels of beans and bruise about 15 to 20 bushels of oats, or one-half more linseed per hour, £10 lO 0 18-inch Pulley on ditto for connecting it to Intermediate Motion, £0 10 0 1 Oil Cake Breaker No. 4, will break about 30 cwt. of cake per hour, fine enough for .sheep, or^ fa- bullocks about twice as much. The dust is screened out, and the roller teeth are chilled so ( that they do not wear blunt £4 4 0 18-inch PuUev on ditto for connecting it to Intermediate ( Motion £0 10 0 £19 9 6 9 5 0 6 16 0 11 0 0 4 £51 14 4 The above arc the most useful sizes, but R. d: S. mamifactm-e both larger and smaller Machines of the same description. rarticulars on application. HAND POWER MACHINES. 3 (First Prize Biddell's Patent Chaff Cutter No. It.A.S.E. at Chester) Chaff Cutter No. 22 . {The cheapest Chaff Cutter in the trade) Oil Cake Breaker No. 2 Biddell's Patent Oat Mill No. 4 . * , ' Biddell's Patent Bean Cutter or Maize Splitter . Biddells Patent Combined Mill for beans and oats. No. 10 , . BIDDELL'S PATENT Ditto, for beau.s, oats, and oil cake. No." 11 " . ' n^ A , -r. . ■'^*^""' for beans, oats, and oil cake, stronger, No. 17 Gardner's Patent Turnip Cutter, Single- action, for sheep ■RiHHoin., -D i. "u. -r. " ^ »' Double-action for sheep and bullocks Biddell's Patent Root Pulper, No. 10 . . . Full// Illustrated Catalogues forwarded gratis on application. CHAFF CUTTER No. 22. More than 1,000 Men and Boys are employed at the Orwell Works, and their labour is aided by the best modern tools and appliances. THE EARMBR'S MAGAZINE. DECEMBER, 1 8 CONTENTS. Plate I. — R A I N B O W . Plate II.— SILVER ROYALj A LONG-WOOL RAM, Descriptions of Plates .... Dressing for Cereals — By Cuthbekt W. Johnson, F.R.S. The Herds op Great Britain: The Braithwaite Herd Wintering Sheep in Fold-yards Milk Fever in Cows ..... Agriculture in 1866 ..... Road Reform in Scotland .... Notes on Hedging ..... The Sewage of Towns .... The Reform Movement and the Counties' Representatioxn Experience, Capital, and Security The Farmers of Progress .... What Women can do . Agriculture and Agricultural Statistics The Future of Agriculture .... Labourers' Lodgings and Wages The Interchange of Disease between Man and Animals The Lamb Disease and the Cattle Plague The Breeding and Rearing of Pigs Poultry and Eggs . ... The Cattle Plague and the Cholera Principles of Breeding .... Smearing and Dipping of Sheep Regulations for the Sale of Cattle . Canadian Agriculture.— The President's Address Cumberland Shorthorns .... The Labour Market, the Malt-tax and the Harvest. Monmouthshire Farming. — Masters and Servants On Agricultural Principles. — Tillage. Prizes for Well-cultivated Farms The Harvesting of the Mangold Chop.— -By a Practical Farmer Lifting and Storing Roots .... Cabbages for Spring Feeding Michaelmas Rents and Corn Averages The Labourers' Wages , ; . . Agricultural Matters in Essex Central Farmers' Club : Things in America . Regulations for the Irial of Mowers and Reapers . The Royal Agricultural Society of England : Proceedings in Council Agricultural Practice and Prospects in Scotland On Drying Grain Artificially Agricultural Matters in Suffolk Braxy in Sheep . . . . • Manual Labour and its Relations to Agriculture The Use of Artificial Food . . . • The Faversham Plough Trials On Harvesting Corn . . . . • One Peck of Wheat per Acre Agricultural Reports . » . • Agricultural Intelligence, Fairs, &d. Sale of the Duke of Hamilton's Stock Great Cheese Show at Kilmarnock . The Smithfield Club : Council Meeting Reviews .... • • Foreign Agricultural Gossip . . • • Calendars of Agriculture and Gardening Review of the Corn Trade duri?s'g the past Month . Market Currencies, &c. . , • • page. 455 456 459 461 462 464 468 470 471 474 475 476 477 473 479 480 482 483 484 486 487 488 490 491 492 493 494 496 497 498 499 600 i-OO 501 502 504 506 516 518 520 522 524 525 526 529 530 532 533 534 536 537 538 539 539 540 541 542 545-6 THE MARK LANE EXPRESS AND AGRICUI«TUR AI. JOURNAI. IS THE LARGEST AND THE LEADING FARMERS' AND GRAZIERS' NEWSPAPER. PUBLISHED EVERY MONEAY EVENING IN TIME FOR POST. The object of the Proprietors of the MARK LANE EXPRESS has ever been, to render it in every way the most efficient orgin ofthp Apricultural ClafE, to direct and difluse practical and scientific information of all k*nds relating to rural atl'airs, to be a medium for giving rircnJation to the Proceedings of the Uoyal Agricultural Society of England , he Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, the Koyal Agricu tural Improvement Society of Ireland, and of every Agricultural Society and Farmers' Club in the Kingdom. All political and party discussions are care- fully avoided, except such as are purely Agricultural since its establislinient, twenty-sixyears i-ince,this course has been steadily adhered to, and the retult has been, the accession of a numerous and rapidly-increasing list of Subscribers, comprising the most influential Agriculturists Inthe kingdom. In times when the position of the Tenant Farmers has been one of great difficulty, the MARK LANE EXPRESS has ever been directed to the advocacy and support of the kighis of the Teuaht Farmers. In stating this, it is not intended to lose sight of that noble principle which the great Lord Leicester so successfully followed; viz., that Ziftcrni conduct towards the Tenant irill ever be found to be the most beneficial to the Landlord. THE MALT TAX.— This is the only Farmer's Paper inLondon which advocates the Repeal of the Malt Tax. In authenticitv and extent of Market information, the MARK LANE EXPRESS stands unrivalled. A REVIEW OFTHECORN TRADE (British and Foreign) fully explains the Causes which occasion the Rise or Fall in Prices, thus affording the Growers and Speculator some grounds for anticipating the stability or future tendency of Prices. The Latest Reports of the Corn, Cattle, ProTision, Wool, Seed, Hop, Malt, and Commercial Markets, appear with the leading Country Fairs and Agricultural Meetings. Authentic Weekly Advices are received from all the Important Mirkets in the king- dom, our Colonial Possessions, as well as all parts of Europe and America. ROGERSON & TUXFORD, 246, STRAND, LONDON. May be had of all Booksellers and Newsmen throughout the Kingdom, price Scvcnpcncc, or £\ 10s. 4d. per ancum. BEAUTIFULLY EMBELLISHED WITH HIGHLY FINISHED STEEL ENGRAVINGS, PORTRAITS OF THE NOBILITY, ETC. Published Monthly— Price One Shilling, PUBLISHED BY ROGERSON & TUXFORD, 246, STRAND, LONDON. Mav be had of all Booksellers. NEW WORK BY THE AUTHOR OF "MANHOOD." Post Free from tbe Author, 12 stamps ; Sealed Ends, 16 stamps, DR. CURTIS'S MEDICAL GUIDE TO MARRIAGE : a Practical Treatise on its PHY.SICAL AND PERSONAL OBLIGATIONS. With instructions to the Married and Unmarried of both Sexes, for removing the special disqualifications ar.d impediments which destroy the happiness of wedded life. — By Dr. J. L. Curtis, 15, Albemarle Street, Piccadilly, London, W. This work contains plain directions by which forfeited privileges, originating in injurious habits and excesses in early youth, can be strengthened and preserved. Also, by the same Author, a New and Revised Edition of ANHOOD : A MEDICAL ESSAY on the Causes and Cmeof Premoiure LecUnein Man ; the Treatment of Nervous Debility, Spermatorrhoea, Impotence, and those peculiar infirmities which result from youthful abuses, adult excesses, tropical climates and other causes ; with Instructions for the Cure of Infection without Mercury, and its Prevention by the Author's Prescription (his infallible Lotion).— By Dr. J. L. CURTIS, 15, Albemarle Street, Piccadilly, London, W. REVIEWS OF THE WORK. " Manhood. — This is truly a valuable work, and should be in the hands of young and old." — Sunday Times, 23rd March, 1858. "We feel no hesitation in saying that there is no member of society by whom the book will not be found use- ful, whether such person hold the relation of a Parent, Pkeceptok, or Clergyman" — ^wn, Evening Paper, " Dr. Curtis has conferred a great boon by publishing this little work, in which is described the source of those diseases which produce decline in youth, or more frequently, premature old age." — Daily Telegraph, March 27, 1856. London : Published by Allen, 20, Warwick Lane, Pateraoster-row ; and Mann, 39, Cornhill, London. *** Either of the above scientific and useful Works sent Post free by the Author ov Publishers for 12 Postage stamps ; or in sealed envelopes, 16 and 20 stamps. Consultations from 10 to 3, and 6 to 8. ^^^ LETTS'S DIARIES FOR 1867 -- -^^p-» « "^^ ^r .^^^^a.. wants of all classes of society, being published ia over 100 different ^K^Nfl^^^J^//^^^^ forms and at prices ranging from 6 pence to 6 pOUnds R f ^^^fe^ ^K .^r ^^^W^'"^^^s>^ eich. All booksellers keep them, and will -«^^^ «r^ ^^^^ , ^^J^^UH J^ ^^^s^ supply ILLUSTRATED AND you purchase your ^^^feb^ ^H^ V« ^^^fe^,^ CHRISTMAS PRESENtI^^^ jQ^^^^''''''''''''"'^'' ''^'^''" ^^W^ ^BJm BT .^fc^^^^ LOGUES Gratis, remember that one combining use ^^^feJ^^^^H. ^rU ^^^/^^^St*. with elegance is sure to be most appreciated. ^^^^ ^fc.^W^^ ^B^AkJ^^^fe*.. Any bookseller will provide you with a Catalogue of such, ^^^^»>, ^^kJf^ fl^^ ^^ published by Lbtti, Son, & Co., and will show a variety of ^^^&w ^%0^ LETTS'S DIABIES FOE 1867, - «"'"». ^"™'. *- ^****»* THE MOMENTOUS QUESTION. THOMSON'S NEW STYLE, Which, light, graceful, and elegant in outline, combines comfort aud economy with the very latest fashion. Observe the name "Thompson," and the Trade Mark ** A Crown." Sold everywhere. PICKSLEY, SIMS, AND CO. (LIMITED), BEDFORD FOUNDRY, LEIGH, LANCASHIRE, MANUFACTURERS of CHAFF CUTTERS, CORN GRmDINGand CRUSHING MILLS TURNIP CUTTERS, PULPBRS, CAKE BREAKERS, Etc., Etc. In addition to the ordinary sizes of Chaff Cutters, P., S., and Co. have introduced a new Machine, specially adapted for the London Market, iitted with a large Fly Wheel and wide Mouthpiece, at a low cost. P., S., and Co. also make a new Combined Machine for Slicing Turnips and for Pulping and Cutting Finger Pieces for Sheep. This Machine is entirely new, of treble action, and requires little power to work it. P., S., and Co., manufacturers of STEAM ENGINES, BONE-GRINDING and RASPING MILLS, REAPING and MOWING MACHINES, HYDRAULIC and SCREW PRESSES and PUMPS of every description, COTTON GINS, etc., etc. ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUES EREE PER POST ON APPLICATION. NolO ready i in One Volume^ post %vo, loith about 90 Illustrations on Copper and Wood, including upwards of 60 neto in this New Edition, price 125. Qd. cloth, A Treatise on En3:li8h and Foreign Boats ; descriptive of the various forms of Boats and Sails of Every Nation with Practical Directions for Sailing, Management, &c. * BY H. C. F O L K A R D, ESQ., AuffloR OP "Thb Wild.Fowler," d:c. THIRD EDITION, considerabhj enlarged. London Longman, Green, & Co, 14, Ludgatc Hill. BOGERSON & TUXFOItP'S AGRICULTURAL WORKS PRICE ONE SHILLING EACH, Neatly Bov/nd in Foolscap Octawo, EACH VOLUME CONTAINIISTG from 130 to 190 PAGES OF LETTERPRESS, WflTIHl [f^y[R{iliK@yg DLILy§T[S^Ta\^i lI[!^©[MW[lli^©ij RICHAKDSOB'S RUEAL HAND-BOOES. WHEAT : ITS HISTORY, CHARAC- TERISTICS, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, and NUTRITIVE PROPERTIES. By "The Olu Norfolk Parmek," Author of " Agriculture, Ancient and Modern," &c., &c. THE AGRICULTURIST'S WEATHER- GUIDE AND MANUAL OP METEOROLOGY. By Henry C. Creswick, Assistant Observer in tlie Magnetical and Meteorological Department of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, Author of several papers on Meteorology. FLAX: ITS CULTIVATION AND PRE- PARATION, and BEST MODE OP CON- VERSION.—By James Ward, Author of "The World and its Workshops," &c. RURAL ARCHITECTURE : a SERIES OF DESIGNS POR RURAL AND OTHER DWELLINGS. The Ground Plans, Elevations, and Specifications by James Sanderson, Burgh Engineers' Office, Liverpool. THE AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTOR: or, YOUNG PARMER'S CLASS BOOK.— By Edmund Murpht, A.B. DOMESTIC FOWL: THEIR NATURAL HISTORY, BREEDING, AND GENERAL MAIfAGEMENT. ORSES: THEIR VARIETIES, BREED- ING, AND MANAGEMENT.— Edited by M. M. MiLBURN. D OGS : THEIR ORIGIN AND VA- RIETIES. IGS: THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIE- TIES. COWS AND DAIRY HUSBANDRY.— By M. M. MiLBURN, Author of "The Sheep," &c. The Dairy Department Revised by T. Horsfall. THE FLOWER GARDEN.— By George Glennt, P.L.S., Author of "Properties of Flowers," Ac. SHEEP AND SHEPHERDING : embrac- ing the History, Varieties, Rearing, Feeding, and General Management of Sheep ; with Treatises on Australian Sheep Farming, the Spanish and Saxon Merinos, &c. By M. M. Milbukn, Author of " The Cow," and various Agricultural Prize Essays. THE HIVE AND THE HONEY BEE. P xrv. ESTS OF THE FARM. A New Edition. By M. M. MiLBURN, Author of " The Sheep,", Ac. XV. LAND DRAINAGE, EMBANKMENT, AND IRRIGATION.— By James Donald, Civil Engineer, Derby. SOILS AND MANURES, with INSTRUC- TIONS FOR THEIR IMPROVEMENT.— By John Donaldson, Government Land Drainage Sur- veyor. In the Press, m contvrmaUon of the same Series, THE IMPLEMENTS OF THE FARM. —By R. Scott Burn, O.E. THE POTATO: ITS HISTORY, CUL- TURE, AND NATIONAL IMPORTANCE.— By S: Copland. London •• Honlston & Wright, 65, Paternoster Row ; Rogerson & Tuxford, 246, Strand, W.G. Dnhlin : J. McGlashan, Upper Sackville Street. And all Booksellers. BOGEESON & TUXFORD,] [PRINTERS, 246, STRAND. ^^ ^ \?N- IP ' '-C'.U"/*'" DECEMBER, 186G. PLATE I. RAINBOW. THE PROPERTY OF MR. J. ANSTRUTHER THOMSON, THE MASTER OF THE PYTCHLEY. Rainbow, an Irish horse, supposed to be by Arthur, was brouj^ht over by Mr. Peter Moir, the Scotch dealer, who sold hirn to Mr. Richard Rayner, the Edinburgh riding-master, not only a first-rate horseman in the school, but a very good man with hounds. The horse passed in turn into the hands of Mr. Anstruther Thomson, who purchased him in 1865, and sent him into Northamptonshire for his own riding, on taking to the Pytchley in the autumn of the same year. Rainbow, then only five years old, distinguished himself during that season in the famous Waterloo run, although he had been at exercise for two hours, and had his water before he went out, being only called on at the last moment to take the place of another horse that had fallen lame. Mr. Thomson rode him as second horse for about the last hour and a-half of the run, and did not get home on him until half- past ten at night. Rainbow having been out about thirteen hours. He, however, was never off his feet, and came out again in his turn. It was stated, in some of the many versions of this extraordinary run, that Mr. Thomson began and ended on Rain- bow; but this is a mistake, as the master rode a chesnut mare called Valeria during the first part of it, and only got Rainbow at Gloaston Wood. At the end of the season. Rainbow was entered for the Islington Hall Show in the 15st. weight- carrying hunter class, and where he was un- questionably the lion of the Hall. He, hov/ever, only reached to the second prize of £30, the first being awarded to Mr, Sutton's Voyageur, and when we thus wrote of the class : " Having disposed of ' the blood horses,' Lord Portsmouth, Sir Watkin, and Captain Percy Williams com- menced on the catalogue in regulation order, with the weight-carrying hunters, of which there was no less than forty entries, good, bad, and superlatively indiflPerent. The most famous nag of the lot, and thoroughly reahzing in his every look and movement the modern hunter, was Mr. Anstruther Thomson's Rainbow, the horse his owner rode through the greater part of the renowned Waterloo run with the Pytchley, and that here with a natty second horseman on his back looked wonderfully Vike. business. Rainbow is, in fact, full of varmint character, with a fine neck, well-laid shoulders, and as altogether good forehand ; but he finishes off badly behind; with a slack loin and goose rump, so as to scarcely realize the fifteen-stone condition — a point upon which he was fairly beaten by the chesnut Voyageur, a wonderfully clever nag, up to almost any weight, but with plenty of breeding and appearance about him, and that only required to have been better ridden to have made a still more favourable impression. However, he won un- mistakably all through, with Rainbow second, and Ingleby, ' the prize horse of last year,' a bad third, as not having since gone on well, though he must have wintered comfortably enough on oilcake and mangolds, being brought out as fat as butler, and as little like work as anything in the Hall. Mr. Thomson's other entry, the roan Phoebus, that was also in the Waterloo run, went very short and stumpy; but he appears to be as handy as a glove, and has many good points about him; and for the pick of the others in this large field we might take Mr. Drage's Luck's All, Mr, Paddison's chesnut, Mr. Fuller's Old Cyclops, of a wonderfully nice stamp, but terribly worn ; Mr. Bode's Baron, Mr. Mumford's The Rejected, well deserving of some notice; Mr. Gale's Hopbine, Mr. Booth's Bullfinch, Mr. Oakley's Esca, with very good action ; Mr. Jackson's Avonmore, Mr. Campbell's Dainty Dav)', and a weight-carrier of John Tollitt's. The judges, however, confined their commenda- tions to Mr. Robson's Ex-President, and a cream- coloured horse from Yorkshire, with nothing re- markable about him but his colour, and that furnished the joke of the day, not one of the judges being willing to admit that he had been any party to such a preference." Mr. Thomson now writes to say : "I think your remarks about him at Islington were very good, except that you did not give him credit for carry- ing the weight ;" while his owner adds something very acceptable as to Rainbow's character in the field : " He is a dark brown, six years old, and T I Hi^oT.. LX,— No, G. 456 THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. standing sixteen hands two inches high. He is a very strong horse, with the finest temper possible, and can go a good pace, while he is a very bold and very big jumper. He will do his fences any- how you hke, either flying or standing, and will go through any bullfinch you can see through. His great merit is his stoutness," Mr, Thornson testifies, further, to the fidelity of our portrait, by Corbet: "The engraving is very good, especially the very large muscles in his shoulders. The ears are a little too small, and the head rather lean ; but it is altogether an excellent likeness." The original picture is now in Mr, Thomson's possession. PLATE II. SILVER ROYAL; a Long-wool Ram. THE PROPERTY OP MR. J. LYNN, OF STROXTON, GRANTHAM. Silver Royal, bred by Mr. Lynn, is by Battersea Royal, dam by Royal Leeds ; Battersea Royal by a son of Mr. Sandy's 5/ guineas sheep, the pro- perty of Mr. F. Spencer, out of a Silver Medal ewe of Mr. Lynn's own breed. In 1864 Silver Royal took the third prize in the shearling class of Lincoln or Other Long-wools at theNewcastle-upon-Tyne meeting of the Royal Agri- cultural Society ; and the first prize, of £5, at the meeting of the Leicestershire Agricultural Society. In 1865 he took the first prize of £20, in the " Other Long-wool" class, at the Plymouth meet- ing of the Royal Agricultural Society ; the first prize of £5, at the Hereford show of the Bath and West of England Society ; the special prize of flO, at the Bedfordshire Agricultural Society; the first prize of £S, at the North Lincolnshire Society's meeting, at Market Rasen ; the first prize of £5, at the Leicestershire Agricultural Society; and the first prize of £5, together with the special prize of £5 as the best ram, of any age, at the Sparkenhoe Farmers' Club show. The merits of this Leicester and Lincoln cross are now well known ; and, in addition to a good home trade, Mr. Lynn is sending sheep to India, St. Helena, and Australia. Silver Royal, to whose excellence we hax'e often spoken upon meeting him about the country, has, however, been retained for use in his owner's flock, where his produce have answered remarkably well, as taking very generally after their sire — not always such a certainty with the stock of a cross-bred animal. DRESSINGS FOR CEREALS. BY CTJTHBEBT "W. JOHNSOK, F.K.S. During the past ten years a series of valuable iuvesti- s;ations have been made on the growth of cereal crops. These experiments have been as carefully as laboriously conducted ; by men,'too, who like Voelcker, Way, Liebig, Lawes, and Gilbert, were anxiously searching after the truth— philosophers who happily stood high enough to aflbrd, if they made an error, to acknowledge the fact. It is now some years since Way arrived at the following conclusion {Jour. Roi/. Jff. Soc, vol. xvi., p. 535) : " It seems to be proved beyond all doubt by the experiments of Mr. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, that ammonia is tl/e manure for direct application to the cereals ; phosphate of lime being usefully applied to turnips and other root crops, but being quite without effect upon wheat." Time, liowever, has led to rather a modilied view of this great question. It is certain that on particular soils already abounding in phosphate of hme, the appUcation of this salt is useless; but in many others a very beneficial result is obtained by dressing the soil with bones dis- solved in sulphiu-ic acid. In some comparative experi- ments recently carefully ai\d ably conducted upon wheat in the alluvial soils of' Bedfordshire, under the direction of Mr. Edward Purser, of the London Manure Com- pany, the result has been very much in favour of the dis- solved bones. It is admitted that on heavy soils the application of ammonia is of less value to the wheat crop than on the h"'-fhte). descriptions of land. It is in clay soils that we find the largest proportion of ammonia ; while on sandy, gravelly lands it is chiefly deficient. Way some time since alluded to the constant presence of this alkali in heavy soils {ibid, vol. xvi., p. 262). He observed: "Recent examinations of the ammonia contained in soils, some of them taken at considerable depths, and long out of the reach of cultivation, have shown a large quantity of this substance to exist in them. Whence was this ammonia derived ? Not from manure nor from rain, for in one case I examined a clay of the plastic-clay foi'mation, dug 20 feet from the surface. It was physically impossible, one would think, that either air or water could, in any quantity at least, get access to this depth in so close and tenacious a material ; yet I found more than 1 part of ammonia in 1,000 parts of this clay, and I ascribed its origin then, as it still appears to me it should be ascribed, to the waters of the seas or lakes from which the clay was first deposited, and from which, by its absorptive powers for ammonia, it had removed this alkali in an insoluble fonn. The existence of ammonia in a soil seems an inherent and inseparable resxilt of the presence of clay in the soil, and we may well question whether all ordin- ary soils in a state of nature do not contain within reach of the roots of plants, especially of large trees, sufiScient ammonia to account for any accumulation of vegeta- tion. " It is needless to endeavour to trace the origin of the animouia which is found iu such cnnsidcralilc proportions THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 457 m some soils. It could hardly have been derived I take it, from any other source thau from the decompositiou of nitrogenous substances, and from the atmosphere. The question has been examined recently by Professor Schulz- Schultzenstein {Joid-. Eoy. Hort. Soc, N. S., vol. i., p. 123) ; we need not, however, concur in all his conclusions ^Yhen Vi'e avail oiu"selves of his valuable paper. He re- marks that "Saussure, who made the discovery that rain-water contains a small quantity of carbonate of am- monia, expressed an opinion that the nitrogen of plants might be derived from the ah' in the form of carbonate of ammonia, that this substance might be developed from animal matters by putrescence and so dispersed in the air, and that organic manure decomposed chiefly into carbon- ate of ammonia and carbonic acid. The quantity of car- bonate of ammonia which is brought down by the rain from the au- is, however, so small, that a hogshead of rain-water contains barely half a grain ; while, on the other hand, rotting dung, as Davy has shown, evolves, besides carbonic acid, gaseous acetate and carbonate of ammonia, and is by no means entirely decomposed into carbonic acid and anunoniacal gas, but leaves behind a solid ammoniacal Iihhuis or mould — which is contraiy to the views of Ingenhouz, who supposed the whole of the dung passed into a gaseous form by fermentation and putrescence, so that all the constituents which were nu- tritive to plants were communicated to the air ; whereas, on the contrary, the nutritive properties reside, for the most part, in the mould which arises fi'om the dung by means of decomposition. " The ammoniacal matter in the atmosphere is there- fore extremely small ; whereas that of the soil, and of many particular soils, is very large. Clay is the richest of all in ammonia. According to Bamnhauer, the clay of the Zuyderzee of Holland contains in a thousand parts .075-. 078 of ammonia, which is about 0.13 or t per cent. The virgin forest-soil of Texas contains \ per cent, of ammonia ; lOOlbs. of it contain 6 oz. of sal- ammoniac, or 2 oz. of ammonia. According to Kroc- ker's experiments, loam contains l-8th per cent., sand and marl l-20th and 1-lOth per cent, of ammonia. In four acres of land having 1 foot depth of soil, containing i per cent, of ammonia, there are above 16,0001bs., or 4,0001bs. per acre. This quantity is greater thau what is given to land by manure. If an acre of land contains 120 cwt. of manure, supposing it to contain 1 -200th of ammonia, there are only GGlbs. of ammonia, Vi'hereas in the soil just mentioned there are 4,0001bs. The duug is by no means effectual merely by addition of ammonia, but besides by the accumulation of hitiiuts as a ferment for other constituents. "The mode in which ammonia is formed in the soil is elucidated by the experiments of Kuhlmann on the for- mation of saltpetre, and has been fm'ther followed out by Mulder in his ' Physiological Chemistry.' Ammonia is formed in rotting, porous matters, which evolve hydro- gen ; while the nitrogen of the air combines with the nascent hydrogen, as in tlie rusting of metals by decom- position of water — as, for instance, in damp irou-lilings, in consequence of which iron-rust also contains ammonia. So porous fermenting soil without dung forms ammonia by the elimination of hydrogen, which at a later period is oxidized into saltpeti'e. " Another form in which nitrogen enters into plants is nitric acid, which is widely diffused in the soil, and gene- rally combined with clay, magnesia, lime, potash, or soda — in many places so abundantly that in Egypt, Thibet, the East Indies, Italy, France, Spain, Hungary, and America the saltpetre effloresces and is easily collected. Nitric acid is formed by the oxidation of the ammonia, which is produced by the combination of the hydrogen elimin- ated from the soil with the nitrogen of the air. In con- sequence nitric acid, nitrate of lime, and saltpetre always exist in humous clay and limestone soils. The nitric acid is assimilated by the plants in the same way as other acids and huniic acids, since the oxygen is exhaled in light, the nitrogen retained. " Saussure's view, reproduced by Liebig, that the nitro- gen of plants originates from the carbonate of ammonia in the air, and that all manures operate only by the for- mation of carbonate of ammonia, is therefore altogether erroneous, and can only lead to great errors in practical farming. Liebig's theory of manures runs throughout on the evolution of carbonate of ammonia from the dung, and the addition of gypsum in order to its fixation. It has been supposed that the effect of gypsum depends only on the fixation of ammonia. It is plain, from practical experiments on the effect of gypsum in horticulture and agricultm-e, that this view is altogether wrong. Gypsum promotes the growth of the leaves and stems only of legmniuous plants, as clover and peas, but never the blossoming and ripening of the fruit. On the contrary, gypsum, in consequence of the continued luxuriant growth, hinders the formation and ripening of the fruit, and there- fore is very injurious in the cultivation of peas in fields, since these plants, when strewed with gypsum, continue green for a long time and produce with difficulty only a little seed. We have also shown that no neutral salts, aud therefore neitlier gypsum nor sulphate of ammonia, can be decomposed and assimilated by plants. " Ammoniacal, especially nitrogenous matters, have precisely the contrary effect on vegetation ; they promote, that is, the blossoming and formation of fruit, and impede the growth of leaves and stem. We may, therefore, by manuring push the production of fruit and flowers, in fruit-trees, 'to such an extent that they wiU at last perish, especially in dry soils. I have myself seen young pear and plum-trees, in certain years, perish from over-manm-- ing. Gypsum never produces this eftect, whereas if gypsum operated by the fixation of carbonate of ammonia it must have the same effect as animal manures." The long-continued and valuable experiments of Lawes and Dr. Gilbert upon the wheat plant have been elaborately described by them {ibid, vol. xxv., p. 93). These trials were intended, amid other objects, to test the comparative advantage of using for it ammoniacal and mineral dress- ings— very considerable questions, to which writing in 1864, they thus allude : " The records of a field of 14 acres in which wheat has been grown without manure, and by different descrip- tions of manure, year after year for twenty successive seasons, without either fallow or a fallow crop, and in which the lowest produce was in the first year 15, and in the last 17t bushels, and the highest in the first year M\, and in the last 56^ bushels, cannot fail to be of much in- terest at once to the practical farmer, to the economist, aud the man of science. Accounts have been before re- ported of the growth of wheat for many consecutive years apparently with great success, aud without much evidence of exhaustion, on soils of extraordinary fertility ; and the recent experience of the Rev. S. Smith, of Lois-Weedon, has shown that, on his soil at least, many wheat-crops can be taken, under a system of alternate crop and fallow, witliout reaching, at any rate for many years, the point of deterioration" History also tells us of large tracts of land on which the wheat-crop has been cultivated year after year for many years, but which have eventually succumbed to the unnatural strain put upon them. The records now to be laid before the reader refer to condi- tions of growth like in some points, but essentially difterent in most, to those cases to which we have alluded. 458 THE FAEMKR'S MAGAZINE. "Tlie experiments have been made upon what may be called fair averatrc wheat-land. But, as the rental of similar land in the immediate locality ran^•es, and has ranged for mai'y years past, only from 25s. to 80s. per acre, tithe free, and its wheat-crop imder the ordinary management of the district certainly does not average more than from 25 to 27 bushels per acre once every five years, it is obvious that, in a practical point of view, it can lay no claim to extraordinary fertility, or to be ranked on a higher level than a large proportion of the soils on which wheat is grown with a moderate degree of success under a system of rotation and home manuring. Such, in an agricultural or commercial point of view, were the general characters of the land. Speaking still in agricul- tural language, it may be said that the soil is a somewhat heavy loam, with a subsoil of raw yellowish red clay, but resting in its turn upon chalk, which provides good natural drainage. "The questions arise: What are the grain-yielding capabilities of such land V what its powers of endurance ? in what constituents, or class of constituents, does it soonest show signs of exhaustion ? and how far will the answers an-ived at, on these points in reference to it, accord with, or be a guide to, those which would apply to any large proportion of the arable land of Great Britain when farmed in the ordinary way, with rotation ? " When the .Tom-nnl of the Royal Agricultural Society first appeared, now fivc-and-twenty years since, such ques- tions as these were hardly thought of, excepting by a few philosophers and economists whose speculations were scarcely heard of, and still less heeded, by any consider- able number of even the most intelligent of agriculturists. Since that period, however, matters have very much changed ; and the history of the change shows it to have been due to by no means one cause alone. Almost coin- cidently, or at any rate following very closely upon one another's footsteps, and each reacting upon the other, the increase of pojnJation, commercial freedom and competi- tion, a vast increase in scicntiiic knowledge, and extensive diffusion both of it and of information of a practical kind bearing upon the farmer's art, have contributed to the wide-spread spirit of inquiry of the present day on such subjects. " But it is especially to the laborious investigations on agricultui-al chemistry of Boiissingault, and to the generali- sations of Liebig to a great extent founded upon them, nearly a quarter of a century ago, that we must attribute much of the stimulus and dii'ection that has been re- cently given to chemical inquiries in connexion with agri- ciUture." It was when writing towards the autumn of 1864, that these two fellow-labourers thus arrived at the prac- tical bearing of their experiments (jlicl, p. 490) : 1. On a soil of not more than average wlieat-producing quality, and taken for experiment after a course of five crops since the application of manure, wheat has been grown success- fully, without manure, and with different descriptions of ma- nure, for twenty years in succession. 2. Without manure, the produce of dressed corn was, in the first year, 15 busliels per acre ; in the last, 17:^ bushels ; and, taking tlie average of the twenty years, IG:^ bushels. 3. With farmyard manure, applied every year, the produce was, in the first year, 20^ busliels ; in the last, 44 bushels ; and, on the average of the twenty- years, 33^ bushels. 4. With artificial manures, the highest produce was, in the first year, 24;^ bushels ; in the last SGI bushels ; and, taking the average of the twenty years, 35f bushels, or considerably more than the average produce of Great Britain when wheat is grown in the ordinary course of agriculture in rotation ; and also considerably more tlum was obtained in the same field by an annual appheation of farmyard manure. 5. Mineral manures alone, though applied in the soluble lorm, increased the produce scarcely at all ; that is, they did not enable the plant in any material degree to as?jiflil,Rty more nitrogen and carbon from atmospheric sources than wlieii it was grown on the practically exhausted unmanured land. 0. Nitrogenous manures alone increased tlie produce very considerably for many years in succession ; hence, the soil in its practically exhausted condition was relatively much richer in available mineral constituents than in available ni- trogen. 7. The largest crops were obtained when mineral and nitro- genous manures were employed together ; and it was by sueii mixtures, even though they supplied no sihca (nor carbon), that the produce by farmyard manure was far exceeded, al- though the latter supplied not only both silica and carbon, but all other constituents, in larger quantity than they were removed in the crops. And then, at the termination of their paper, they ob- serve, when alluding to any supposed danger of "in- juriously deranging that balance of constituents within the soil which it is essential to keep up "' (/3/c/, p. 501j : "At present, at any rate, the produce per acre over the country at large is annually increasing rather than diminishing. The probability is, indeed, that any growing derangement in the composition of our soils will show itself in increasing tendency to abnormal growth, or disease of various kinds, rather than in gradual diminution of, at the same time, healthy crops. There is, however, as yet, so far as we are aware, no well-established evi- dence showing any clear connection between the essential conditions of oirr modern system of cultivation, manuring and cro])ping on the one hand, and the prevalence of par- ticular forms of faulty growth on the other. " Indeed, on many of our heavier soils, and even on lighter ones if purchased cattle-food be liberally employed, corn crops may be grown more frequently than is con- sistent with what have generally been considered the established rules of good farming, not only without in- jury to the soil, but with pecuniary benefit to the pro- ducer. On heavy soils, barley of better quality may be obtained after wheat than after a root -crop ; but wdien corn is taken after corn, great attention should be paid to the cleaning of the land, and manure shoidd be liberally applied. When wheat follows another corn crop, not less than 501bs. to GOlbs. of ammonia (or its equivalent of nitrogen in some other form) should be applied per acre ; and when barley or oats follow a corn crop, from 401bs. to 501bs. The quantity of phosphate employed with the ammonia should be greater for spring than for autumn- sown corn crops. The manures should be applied at the time of sowing the seed." It is not very long since Professor Voelcker {}hid, vol. xxiv. p. 40) gave a rather modified view of the value of the ammouiaeal and phosphatic manures to root and cereal crops. As he remarked, a fair average crop of turnips removes from the soil about 401bs. of phosphoric acid per acre ; an av'erage crop of wheat, about 201bs. : there- fore, a turnip crop, weighing 20 tons per acre, removes from the soil 141bs. more phosphoric acid than 32 bushels of wheat and its straw. If we suppose the turnips to have been grown with 3 cwts. of superphosphate, con- taining 20 per cent, of soluble phosphate, the manure w ill supply 3 libs, of phosphoric acid, and the remaining 91bs. must be derived from the soil. Although the larger amount of phosphoric acid contained in a crop of turnips accoimts, to some extent, for this plant being more bene- fited by phosphatic manures than wheat, yet I believe the more striking effects produced on cereals, especially wheat, will be found in tiie different mode in which green and white crops take up food from the soil, and the different duration of their period of growth* Tlie roots of wheat penetrate the soil to a much greater depth, and the plant remains on the ground two or three months longer than the turnip plant. This view of the matter appears to gain strength by the fact that barley, '(.vhiph is a .spviui' THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. m sown crop, is much more improved by a dressing of superphosphate of lime than oats or wheat. On hite- sowu barley, this manure has a strikiufj;ly beuelicial eli'eet. A crop of barley does not contain more phosphoric acid tliau a wheat crop ; and yet I have repeatedly noticed the effects produced on it by the application to the preceding crop of 3 or 4 cvvts. of superphosphate, made entirely from mineral phosphates and containing no ammonia whatever. Although the superphosphate was applied to the preceding root crop, and no other manure with it, and the turnips were carried oif the laud, it nevertheless pro- duced on the succeeding barley an eifect as plainly visible as in the case when barley is top-dressed with nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia. These valuable researches, then, all tend lo support a conclusion to which every practical farmer must have arrived — that it is injurious to the progress of our know- ledge of manures to regard as certain any tkeor// witli respect to the application of fertilizers. No one who has patiently and anxiously watched the growth of a plant under different circumstances can have failed to remark the varying and often inexplicable phenomena which pre- sent themselves — these, too, so often and so remarkably contradictory of each other. This truth, however, will never deter our readers, who remember what industry and perseverance have long since accomplished in im- proving the value of our crops, from persevering in researches which have long met with an ample reward. THE HEUDS OF GEE AT BEITAIN, Chai'Tek LII. THE BRAITHWAITE HERD. There is no need to speak of the scenery through which we passed one August day on the branciilinc from North- allerton to Leyburn. It was done to hand in a llichmond paper by the Robins, we might almost say the Donkin of the district. " You can stand," he says, "and see almost to Sedburg north-west, with a valley bursting forth with living beauty and grandeur ; and the river moving in its serpentine form, and in all its silvery brightness. You can then turn round and you will be able to see on a clear day eastward, the Catheckal at York, and a landscape of living beauty that becomes overwhelming with grandeur to the intelligent admirers of greatness and beauty. I look forward to the tune when the railway shall pass through the valley to every part of England ; and when the princely manufacturers will be drawn by the beauties of the Dale, to come and reside here, and till the Dale with their splendid mansions, so that it should become like Sharon, Carmcl, or Lebanon for splendour and grandeur. " Parson's Barn is soon in sight, that once great tryst- ing place of the Edic Ociiiltrees of every age and degree, find tor which Yorkshiremen say that they have heard summer appointments made by the vagrants when they have been strolling in Hyde Park. At a little to the right is Spcnnithorue, in whose " Throstle's Nest" poor Job Marson, the jockey, made his last investment, not long before he was carried to its church-yard. Middle- ham, with its castle ou the hill, we leave to the right, and wind round by East Witton, where the grass is hardly grown ou the grave of Tommy Lye, through lanes, in which two carts can barely pass without considerable generalship, up the sycamore avenue, and so to Mr. Eruere's hermitage at Braithwaite. It stands in the midst of a rose-treeprairie, among which white Dorkings, which proved hardier than Spanish, lead a meriy sort of life. The three gables, of which the ivy has seisin, were said to have been built by three sisteft, and they bear the date of 1672. Everything is in keeping with the wide entrance hall and massive stairs, and the low black oak wainscoted, parlour, with no emblazonment but " the Booth bull tree" on its walls. ^Modern taste has crept in with a small dairy, in whose midst a fountain, of iron and painted glass, plays for shortliorn men. China of naany patterns, with yellow, blue, green, and claret as the ground work, is on the shelves, and the new milk is hel(\ in dishes of iron, coated with pot. The Covcrdalc valley lies in front, with the river Cover winding through its deep dingle of ash and sycamore. In the distance is the ridge of the Low Moor, with occasional sheeted strings of racers glancing along its skyline, like the scenes in a magic lantern, and stretching away to the High Moor, which has the frowning Peuhill to back it. The old church at Coverham is hard by the Cover stream, and many an old racing celebrity lies under its shadow. There sleep old ,Bob Johnson, the steers- man of Beeswing and Dr. Syntax ; Ben Smith, as simple as a young turkey on his mother earth, but a very Talley- rand in tie saddle and the winner of six St. Legers ; the hapless Harry Grimshaw, of Gladiateur fame, and there, too, old John Osborne now rests his dreamless head. Ash- gill, in whose cpiiet little parlour he used to sit like a wizard, not consulting the stars or perusing the prophets, but weighing handicaps in his good, brain balance, is perched high on the hiU side. Below it is Tupgill, from which Tomboy and Caccia Piatti used to go forth to clear their pipes in good air ; and beyond is Brecon Gill, which is also associated with some of Tom Dawson's best triumphs, of the tartan, and the dark blue, the John- stone crimson, and the ileiklam stripes. Mr. Bruere farms about 300 acres under General Wood, and two hundred of muirland. Of the rest, which has been gradually enclosed from the slopes of Braithwaite Fell, only 38 acres is arable, and 12 of them turuip. The blackcocks club within three hundred yards of the house, and, when the wind is' in the west, the hill-sides are full of grouse, but an easterly blast drives them further over to Dally Gill Moors or jNIafeham Moor Head. About 150 blackfaced ewes are kept for the heather, aud crossed with a blue-faced Leicester. The produce are sold off as lambs and shearling-wethers, the latter, of them generally weighing from 20 lbs. to 22 lbs. per ([uarter, aud averaging C lbs. per Heece ; while the best of the shearling gimmers are kept to make up the ranks of a half-bred Hock to 50. The cross invariably knocks the horn out of the gimmers ; and those of the wethers which retain their horns are coarser, but make bigger sheep. The white-faced Lei- cester has never suited the half-bred ewes so well, and his stock never seemed to travel so well through the ling. Mr. Bruere considers that he owes most to a black Leicester, who gave plenty of "japan" to the face and legs, aud yet only got four black sheep in the course of his four seasons. The district is not unknown in siiorthoru story. In Mr. Claridge's day there was a nice herd at Jerveaux 460 THE FAUMEE'S MAGAZINE. Abbey, with Norman, Darius, and Lisbon as its bulls, which were open to the Aylesbury tenantry. He and Mr. Bates held the Daisy or White Rose tribe betvTeen them, aud each mutually tried to buy out the other in vain. Mr. Scroope, of Danby, had no mean fame. He showed four heifers against four of the late Thomas Booth's (father of the celebrated brothers) for a rump and dozen at Bedale ; and, instead of sulking when he was beaten, he at once hired Booth's Young Albion (15). He also bred Miss Seroope, the dam of Rouge, whose infant existence once hung upon a thread. She was thought to be barren, and was being fed oif for the poor of the parish, when Mr. Dowth- waite, the steward, begged for her life. " But where's the Christmas beef to come from, Dowthwaite?" said the Squire, who iinally granted a reprieve on the receipt of a fat Scot. The Powlett family have used Duke (225), Studley Grange, Protector by Pilot (49G), and Nero (from Young Anna by Isaac) (1129) — aUofthemBoothbulls — at Bolton Hall ; and Hartforth, of Colonel Cradock's Cherry tribe, has been a subscription bull among the tenant-farmers in the vaUey. Mr. Bruere came to Braithwaite about nineteen years ago, after spending fourteen years at Agglethorpe in Coverdalc. His Booth devotion dates back to 1824, when he was a school-lad at Ripon. Mr. Richard Booth used to invite him and his two brothers over to Studley, where those buxom matrons, the red Anna aud the roan Isabella, stole his youthful heart. A fine white bull. Young Albion (15), also held him in a spell, and so completely deadened an early longing for Australia, that he settled to farming at Agglethorpe. In 1836 he began a herd with Lily and Damsel, half-sisters by Cleveland (3404), and Lily's dam aud Leaf both by Burton (3250), a son of Comet (155), and bred by Mr. Wyville, of Burton Hall. He has gra- dually formed six tribes from Kate, Damsel, Leaf, Lily, Vesper, and Garnet, and distinguishes them respectively in his nomenclature as " Sweets," " Roses," " Leafs," " Mowers," " Stars," and " Precious Stones." Of the Kate sort very few are left. The old cow Kate was bred by Mr. "Whitaker, of Otley, and was the dame of Kate by Chance (3329), of the Fairfax blood. Sweetbriar by King Arthur (13110) is her leading descendant; but Silky Laddie (1094"), a white bull, with long curly soft hair, did most during his seven years' sojourn to briig out the milk of the tribes. Leqfvf-a.3 by Burton (3250) Son of Comet, from Tulip by Chance, who had twins three times ; but Lady Pigot bought some of the older females of the tribe, and others went to Prance and Sweden at good prices. Lavender Leaf by Windsor (14013), the dam of three heifers, is the only old cow left ; and strange enough her Rouge (5012) granddam was a free martin. The first Damsel was a good cow, and they used to say of her that at twelve Manchester accepted her as eight- penny heifer beef ; and Windsor nicked well with the blood in Windsor Rose Wreath, dam of Rosa Sybella and Sylvia by Baron Booth, and a heifer calf by The Sutler. i//y JFYowCT' was a very deep butter cow, and this attri- bute belonged to others of the tribe in a very I'emark- able degree. The original Vesper by Morning Star with tbree Booth bulls in her pedigree, and then Mason's -Matchem, was a present from Mr. Bruere's mother ; and the present Vesper, a tribe upon which he specially builds, has six crosses in her veins of bidls used by IMessrs. Booth or inheriting their blood. Three out of her four heifers and her only bull are by Prince George. The latter is Baron Booth, who succeeded Englishman last year in Mr. Barclay's herd, at an outlay of 200 gs. Windsor Star by Windsor is one of the daughters, and her produce Viscount Booth went to Australia for 150 gs. — making the tenth bull which has gone from Braithwaite to the colonies since 1858. She has also had Star of Braith- waite, Venus Star (own sister to Baron Booth), who died last spring, leaving Royal Booth by Count of Windsor, and Vernal Star by Sutler. Morning and Evening Star were twins, and her last offering to Prince George, who, after gaining a settlement on Braithvxaite Fell, was sold full of years in Darlington Market, like old Usm-er before him. Garnet, the latest of the tribes, is a very nice red cow, by Booth's King Arthur (19110), who has so far only bred Ruby by Prince George, Sir David by Baron Booth, andRed Granite, by the Sutler. Chance, the first bull who came to Agglethorpe, was succeeded by Shipton, from IMr. Edwards', of Market Weighton. Shipton only got one thing (Strawberry) that has left any descendants in the female line, and he went back to Lady Sarah, own sister to Isabella by Pilot. He had also pretty nearly made an end of Mr. Bruere, as he flung him on to some lime-heaps in a lane ; and if his cloak had not become imclasped and wound itself round his horns for a few seconds, his victim could not have crept through the hedge. This was our Braithwaite friend's first and "positively last appearance" in the Spanish matadore line of business. After this savage came Rouge, who was purchased from Mr. Dowthwaite, steward to the Scroopes of Danby, and left some wealthy steers and an ai'ray of seventeen good milking roans. St. Martin, of mixed Booth, Colling, and Hutton blood, had the next turn; and then cime Silky Laddie, for whom ]Mr. Bruere gave Mr. Tophani £5 as a calf, and used him for seven years. The white which claimed descent from John Ceiling's Rachel (eighteen of which averaged £92 Cs. lOd. at his sale in '39) was a great heifer- getter; and Lady Pigot by her purchase of Dahlia and Garland, when they were well on in years, showed that she liked the model. His successor. Sylvan Kiug, was Silky's half-brother, and five bulls by him went to Australia. After him, the pure Booth period set -in with King Arthur, half-brother to Venus de Medicis, who was hired from the late Mr. John Booth for 100 gs. a year. Thirty-two calves, a moiety of them heifers, were the produce of the visit ; and, as he had gone home three months before his time. Prince George arrived to finish out the two years, aud never left Braithwaite except for the block. Windsor was also kindly lent to Mr. Bruere by Mr. Richard Booth, from May, '60, to February, '61, on his return fi'om Mr. Carr's. Thirteen cows and heifers held to the Royal white, who looked the mere outline of his once great self; and two out of the thu'teen cast twins ; but three bulls and seven heifers were the produce of the rest. Prince George was rather yellow-red in his colour, and infused a good deal of red with white legs into the stock, as well as his round Booth-rib and soft, well- covered huggins. Baron Booth, from Vesper, was his son, and was used for a time, before his sale to Mr. Bar- clay, and won a silver mug, between hours, at Bedale, as the best beast in the yard, which was the only piece of plate that Mr. Bruere ever showed foi-. The present forty females are all by Booth bulls ; and The Sutler, by Valasco, from Soldier's Joy, the fourth bull he has had from Warlaby or Killerby, aud Royal Booth, have been their true knights this season. We found some of the cracks on a knoUin the Ox Close and other fields. Windsor Star, with her yearling Star of Braithwaite, by Baron Booth, her Sutler calf Star Queen, and the twins Morning and Evening Star in at- tendance ; and Garnet, with her deep-fleshed Sutler calf, Red Granite, at her side ; while Windsor Lilac, Windsor Lavender Leaf, and Windsor Rose Wreath, made up another family trio. There too was Sweetbriar, a famous old cow with a good picture-head by King Arthur — a great cow-getter in her day ; and so were Vesper and her THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. 461 orphan grand daugliter, Vernal Star, on whom Mr. Bruere, both, as regards looks and blood, may weU rely for a tribe. Our evening was chiefly spent over the Booth Chart 1790, or " Warlahy, KiUerby, and Studley Bradshaw." We had all the more pleasure in helping to prop it on the table, and exciting Mr. Bruere into a lecture thereon, as, according to him, we had the honour of being its sponsor. During a visit to Braithwaitc in the Christmas of 'Sixty, we found Mr. Bruere armed with numberless rolls of pedigree papers, which he unfolded upon us to a sea-serpent length. The prospect was appalling, and our spirits sank when we heard that Bates and tlie Duchesses, on the same principle, would be the programme of the following eve- ning. " "Why not pull yourself together," we said, " and combine all this into one chart, on the fashion of the Temperance Allegory, or the Morrison's Pills tree ?" So he set to work that very v/inter. Here was "the self-supporting herd," diawn out, after many a weary night's labour, with pencil a;id brush, into one vast sheet, bristling with names and dates, and resplendent with the banners of its ten great tribes. The ten flags were each painted into their place, and also grouped at the top, five and five, with the Booth crest — three boars heads, and three drops of blood on them. Under the dedication is the record of the Auna tribe, going back through eight gene- rations. Mr. Richard Booth always loved to tell how Anna walked to a Manchester show, and bore a calf after- wards, and how she was such a high grazier, that he had nicked fat with his penknife out of lumps on her side, and preserved it as a curiosity. As between her and Isabella, he always felt, " Let both divide the crown." If you praised the one, he tui'ned on to you with the other. The top is quite a pedigreed Bashan — bulls bred by Booth to the right, and bulls introduced into the herd to the left. Each tribe rests, in its " linked sweetness long drawn out," under its own flag ; and the yellow flag is for Isabella by Pilot. It waves over a tribe which has been spread very largely over the United Kingdom through the agency of the '34 sale at Studley. The ISlnrse or British Rose tribe is white and blue ; and the red flag is devoted to Bracelet and Necklace. The Hope tribe, from which Charity sprang, rests under the Imperial pm-ple ; while the Fairholmcs or Blossoms, which originally came from Fairholme in Ainderby parisli, make a brave show under the green flag. The Christen by Jerry (4097) stiU flourishes under the cobalt blue, and the sort have always been known as great milkers. Under the orange flag of Broughton or Bliss, we find Lady Fragrant, " the Plymouth crack." Bride of the Vale another plum, is of the Vivandiere, or the choco- late tribe, which begins with Dairy Maid by Pilot. The Halnabij or Strawberry tribe, from which come Red Rose and her " Queens," is ranked under the blue; and the first of the sort, a large yeUow-red and white cow, arrived at Warlahy from Halnaby, when jMr. Richard Booth was hardly eight. Such is the merest outline of this remarkable work. May we trust that not many years will pass over our heads ere Mr. Bruere takes down his paint-boxes once more, and begs back the " Booth Bradshaw" from its old nook at Warlaby, for the in- dulgence of " that stern joy" which writers as well as warriors " feel" of sitting down to grapple with a second edition. ia U 1^ vntinteeing sheep in FOLD-YAEDS This is a subject of considerable importance at the pre- sent season, when so many arable farmers are very pro- perly demurring as to the purchase of cattle to convert their straw into manm-e. The rinderpest made sad havoc last winter with the fold-yard cattle, and although the danger would appear to be almost over, yet it behoves us to be cautious as to our futm'e course. There is compa- ratively very little danger of sheep taking the disease; therefore if sheep can be made to perform all the offices of cattle, as maniu'e manufacturers, it would be wise and prudent to use them for such purposes rather than buy cattle, particularly to winter upon those fanns where the disease was prevalent in the past year. I aml)y no means well conversant with the proper mode of wintering sheep in fold-yards, and I take up the subject chiefly with the view to elicit infonnation upon a question of such imme- diate import. I trust some of the readers of the Mark Lane Express will kindly give us their views or experi- ence upon it. In order to induce others to give us the benefit of their knowledge of the subject, I wiU detail the course I am now ])ursuing, with the hope of making " a yard of good muck." At harvest day I stacked a consi- derable quantity of wheat, barley, and peas, in the sheltered corner of a field, conveniently situate tor a fold-yard, and near to the turnip and mangold crops. Some of the wheat and barley has been thi-ashed, and of the straw we have made stacks, arranged so as to form a fold-yard in part, to the north and north-west, the remaining being otherwise fenced in, so that the yard may be roomy and warm. These stacks arc fenced from the lambs l)y shec]) trays, through which they receive their straw. The yard thus fenced is about 45 yards by 25 yards. It looks large and roomy, but having about 150 lambs to occupy it, there does not seem much room to spare. Adjoining the yard is a field of thirteen acres of eddish, now par- tially eaten off, to which they have access daily in fine weather, but are shut into the fold-yard at night and aU suitable times. The lambs are ewe-lambs ; as I am told the heder lambs, or male sheep of any age, are not well adapted for this order of confinement. It has been the painful experience of many to find that nimibers of the males die, while the females at the same time are doing well. The cause is ascertained to be a derangement of the urinary organisation, resulting from a partial or total stoppage of the urinary passages. It appears to be a de- posit of sandy or fine gravelly matter in the region of the bladder, which the animal cannot void freely, and in many cases it so accumulates as to cause death. This being the fact, we take the liberty to urge upon all flock -masters who contemplate using sheep for fold-yard service, that they alone use the ewe flock, as being by far the safest course. I am told that guile ewes fatten admirably in these yards — that breeding ewes and lambs are doubtfixl. On this point I have no personal experience, and, as it is higMy important, it forms an additional reason for de- siring the best information from those who have adopted the practice of wintering sheep in fold-yards : it wiU confer a favom- upon the writer, and be of great benefit and interest to the public. My lambs are thus managed : They have at present three rations per day of sliced turnips, by Gardner's cut- ter. This is their principal food. The tops are taken ofl' and are led on to the old eddish, v«'here the lambs go and pick them up freely, which greatly tends to their safe and 482 THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE. healthy jrrowUi ; for it must always be borne in mind that it is the constituent piu-ts of the turnip-top that is so con- ducive to the production of bone positively, and of muscle in a great degree. Lambs fed upon turnips only, without leaf or top, are very liable to turn rickety, and many will do so unless some artificial food is supplied to counteract that tendency — such as oats, brau, beans, peas, &c. If the season is eold and the turnips are wet, and likely to cause scouring, their artificial food consists of cotton cake ; but if all goes right, linsced-cake and bran, mixed with oat chaff, are given, and is the better food and most valuable ; but it is given in limited quantity. Of straw they have an unlimited amount, in fact all they can ob- tain from the stacks supplied through the trays by which their yard is fenced, besides a daily sprinkling over their lairage, some of which they consume. With respect to lairage, I have had a large experience, and have invariably found that it is absolutely requisite to keep it comparatively dry and free from fermentation, or it is fatal to the sheep's feet. In order to prevent this, a small cartload of soil, ashes, loam, or earthy matter should be sprinkled over the fold-yard as often as in the llockmaster'sjudgment it may be necessary. This will re- tard fermentatiou to such an extent that but little injury to their feet will ensue, and when the fold-yard is turned over in the spring prior to leading out to the field, it will be found to make a profitable addition to the heap, and form a highly valuable compost for the crop. It may ap- pear objectionable to permit the lambs to range over the field of over-eaten eddish, however conducive to their growth and welfare. In many respects it is so, because some of the lambs will prefer the grass to the turnips, and are continually searching for every pleasant blade to eat. When we find these incorrigible animals so deter- mined, they are taken into a compartment of the yard which we appropriate for the weaker lambs, and are there conlined entirely for a time to their Vv'inter food. I should have observed that a separate yard should always be made in which the weak and ailing lambs could always be fed. This is no doubt customary in all well-managed ilocks, or the stronger sheep will secure to themselves the best and largest amount of the food, to the almost certain destruction of their weaker fellows. Of course these weaker lambs require especial attention, and a regular sup- ply of the cleanest and best roots, as well as the most tempting of artificial aids — i. c, linseed-cake, oats, malt- coomb, hay, and oat-chafT, bran mixed with a little barley- meal, and all in moderation, never to be cloyed. Tender stomachs require tender nursing. It is also desirable that salt be accessible to all, and water in limited quantity, in accordance with weight of roots given. If the turnips are fresh from the field and contain much moisture, scarcely any water is required by the general flock; but there are always some individual animals of a feverish turn in the fold — for them it is* requisite. As the winter proceeds, and should the weather become frosty and inclement, I propose to confine the lambs altogether in the fold-yard, the difllculty being to keep them healthy under such con- finement, and breathing a somewhat noxious air, which caunot fail to rise from theii- lairage, however careful and provident we may be. To aid iu this way, I propose to give them a diuretic; drink occasionally, or, should colds and scourings be obsei'vant, gruel containing chalk and laudanum to those animals requiring it. The manure thus obtained, I am told, is usually long, and not well made, as so little of the straw is consumed and a much larger quantity is required for lairage than for cattle. This may easily be rectified, either by cutting the straw into long cliaft' before spreading, or in small squares from the stack ; or when the manure is turned over or carted out, it might be also cut into suitable squares or lengths for mixing and fermentation. This is a minor matter : providing good manure cau be made by sheep, it may readily be got over. I wish some of my readers would give us information upon these matters. I want to know what etfect this order of management has upon the wool? AVill the parti- cles of straw work injuriously into the tleece? Will the lambs grow and thrive iu this confinement ? Should older sheep be substituted for the lamb flock ? Would it be best to divide the flocks into two equal numbers, and place them in alternate confinement — i. e., in the yard and the field for a period? Can any course be pointed out to make male shceji available for this management ? Will the lambs abide such coufioement ? What wrongs or injuries are likely to arise to mar the experiment ? P. i'. MILK FEVER IN COWS The followlnjf paper was recently read before the Lancashire Veterinary Medical Association, by Mr. G.Br.ow>', Veterinary Surgcou, of Oldliaiu. Jlr. President and Gentlemen, — Immersed in the all- absorbing duties of my profession, T find little time for study and scientific research, and I feel that the subject I am about to treat upou must sulfer as a necessary consequence ; yet tlie practical lessons I intend to bring before you I trust will not prove entirely valueless. It may be thought by some that it is superiluous on ray part to introduce the subject of our con- sideration to-night, as once since the commencement of our association it has been brought before us ; but I am of opinion the subject ou that occasion was by no means ex- hausted, and that there still remains a vast field for us to explore. Erom my earliest connection with veterinary science it has been a matter of regret to me that, generally speaking, the attention of our brightest luminaries is exclusively devoted to the diseases ati'ccting our noble steeds, almost ignoring those to which our cattle are exposed. 13ut I would not have you for a moment entertain the idea that I would disparage the merits of the horse, or that I would exalt the ox at his ex- pense, for I am second to none in my admiration of him ; bis splendid figure, exquisite symmetry, and noble qualities, endear him to every lover of the heautiiul, and I sliould be extremely sorry to see him the subject of neglect by tlie profession with which I am identified, but I want to see the talents and ener- gies of my brethren directed also to the scientific treatment of bovine animals whilst sufferiug from disease. And when this is done, when we are as familiar with the suflFerings of cattle as of horses, we shall have done more toviards advancing our professional status than the uew Veterinary Bill is ever cal- culated to do for that object, for I am of opinion that succesSj wliether viewed iu its personal or general aspect, whether ap- plied to us as individuals or to us as a body, depends more upon individual efforts than outward circumstances or legisla- tive enactments. If we, as a profession, wish to rise, we may do so ; and one mean tovrards that desirable end is briiiging our talent and energies to bear upon the diseases afl'ectiug our cattle. And amidst all those direful disasters uoue stand forth more prominent than those consequent ou parturition. It is true rinderpest may come as a whirhvind, sweeping away with its almost irresistible besom myriads of noble animals from our pastures and farmsteads, bringing meu of opulence to the verge of bankruptcy. Pleuro-pueumonia, like a blight, may blast our flocks and herds, ruining our noble yeomen ; but tlie foe we have met to combat is almost as deadly as they are. But we are about to ascertain his weak positions, to attack him in his strongholds, to mine and countermine his works, to uuuiask his batteries, aud to learn how to unfurl tlie flag of THE FARMBE'S MAGAZINE. 463 liealth where disease autl sickness abouud. We are met to achieve a victory, and to gatliev fresh laurels to adorn tlic tenii)le of science ; for we shall have met to little purpose un- less we go away belter prepared to assuage the suH'erings of animals little inferior to ourselves. The highest paths of science are those which the medical man walks in, the clioicest ilowers that grow in her garden are culled by him, and the goal to which he is running is one of the noblest open to mankind. His office is not to spread ter- ror and desolation upon myriads of our race, sowing sickness and fell disease broadcast, in the vain pursuit of glory and conquest, but to spread happiness where misery aljounds, to alleviate physical suifering, and to impart strength and vigour to a weakened and relaxed system. This, gentlemen, is tlie object we have in view, and allow me to say it stands before the world in a gai'b of unsullied purity and peerless excellence ; the empty struggle after fame and popularity have little effect upon us — om-s is a far nobler pursuit. Yet, notwithstanding that many of the arts and sciences witli which our world is adorned receive the homage of man- kind, the merits of our own noble profession are very much overlooked. The ])oet, wlio, for moving our passions, shines upon the pages of history when all his mortal part has returned to mother earth ; the painter, who strikes the eye and fills the mind with beauty, with his blending of shades and artistic touches, inherits a deathless fame'; and the sculptor, who_,with his chisel imitates some of the world's celebrities, leasts upon the aj)plause of tiic greatest and noblest of men ; but we la- bour on silently and unobtrusively, our efforts being very much overlooked, although we confer immense benefits all around. But the time is coming when we shall stand upon a loftier pedestal than those we might envy now, and the world will esteem us in proportion to the benefit it lias received from us. I have stated that diseases consequent on parturition are not only frequent, but very fatal, and our own country suffers immense losses every year in consequence. Having two ap- pointments as cattle inspector, one in L:incashire and the oilier in Yorkshire, I have been able to collect statistics, and make some calculations which otherwise T should have lieen unable to do ; and I find that fully 3 per cent, of the entire stock of cattle have died of parturient apoplexy and paralysis alone in one year. Now, if tliis is a fair average, the appalling fact stares us in the face, that in fifty years stock equal iu number and value to the entire stock now existing iu this country is swe])t away by these diseases alone (for very few cases recover that are attended by the ordinary " cow doctor") ; and yet, in my ^opinion, the maj(jrity, if properly treated, would be re- stored. But before euteiing upon the treatment of parturient apopxlcy, or milk fever, I beg to trespass a little further upon your attention, and make a few preliminary observations as to predisposing causes. The attention of the agriculturist iu the rearing of cattle is mainly directed to two distinct objects, viz., the production of fat aud milk, and he breeds from those ani- mals that are remarkable for possessing these qualities in an eminent degree. In accomplishing these ends, liowever,healtii and vigour are to a great extent sacrificed ; for do we not find tiiat our obese, well-bred, heavy-milking. Shorthorn cows arc most likely to suffer from diseases consequent on calving? Another predisposing cause is tlie artificial mode of manage- ment to which they are subject, especially in this and sur- rounding districts. Cows are kept in sliippens badly drained and still W'Orse ventilated, during two-thirds of the year with- out exercise, supplied with rich stimulating food, aud breath- ing an atmosphere iu the depth of winter equal to the height of summer in point of temperature. Wlieu we reflect upon the subject, is it any wonder that so many fall a prey to dis- eases of every kind ? This system certainly tends to the pro- duction of fat and milk, but at what a sacrifice ! The vitality of the stock is lowered, the power to ward off disease becomes feebler, and tiie future oft'spring is likely to become weak, de- bilitated, and deteriorated. Tlie exciting causes are tiie changes that take place in the system at the period of parturition. There lias been a vast amount of nervous force expended iu supplying energy and vitality to tlie foetus, and during labour another heavy call upon the exchequer has been made, sadly diminishiug the funds. The mammary gland is kept in a state of constant excitement by milking every three or four liours ; these continual drains bring about a state of bankruptcy, and the poor auimal succumbs to what is popularly termed milk- fever. But nature, like a clever financier, when the demand has been excessive aud the supply exhausted, commences a system of retrenchment by suspending some of tlie vital functions. The sight, hearing, the power of deglutition, are gone, the bowels become constipated, rumination arrested, and the secretion of milk suspended. Now, it appears to me that these symptoms point to one commou centre, viz., an exhaustion of nervous lorcp, imphcating the cerebral, spinal, and ganglionic systems. The post-morleM appearances also lead us to the same con- clusion. The evidence is of a two-fold character, and may be designated positive and negative ; the jiositive evidence in- cludes the impaction of the omasum with hard and dry ingesta, congestive appearance of the vessels at the base of the brain, likewise on that portion of the cord we find situated iu the lumber regions, aud I have frequently found petechial spots on the outer aud central portions of the heart, likewise on those parts of the endocardium situated round the auricular and ventricular openings. The negative evidence is the absence of disease in the other vital organs, viz., the lungs, liver, bowels, kidneys, &c. The stomach is hard and dry because there is not sufficient nervous force to carry on its functions, the bowels constipated because there is not suflicient power to carry on the peristaltic action ; and the suspension of the secretion of milk, and the congestive appearance of the heart, are due to the same cause. Trcaiment. — There are various modes of attaining an end, aud iu no cases that we are called upon to attend is the prin- ciple better illustrated than those under consideration this eve- ning, obviously for this reason — that the nature of the disease is not yet well understood. jMany practitioners have recourse to that empirical panacea for all the " ills that flesh is heir to," viz., bleeding aud purging ; but if my theory be correct, that mode must be injudicious and unscientific, and, as far as my ob- servation goes, very unsuccessful. It must be injudicious because inexpedient ; aud unscientific, because the vital forces are already too low, and this method must lower them still more, and I can only compare it to accelerating the gushing cataract or increasing the velocity of a rolling avalanche. Narcotics have been recommended, and sedatives likewise, and it would be a mere waste of time to enumerate everyagent that liasbeen advocated; but,amidsttliem all,acouite, camphor, digitalis, opium, and belladonna stand conspicuous ; but- I cannot see the propriety of employing these and similar agents unless we endorse the liomccopathic theory, " siniilia slmllhus cunuihii-r Cold wet sheets have been recommended also, witli the view of setting up a fresh action in the system and causing perspiration. The mere fact of opening the per- spiratosy tubes will only relax the system without imparting vigour or restoring the vital functions. I would here make a passing remark, that I think it a desirable object to cause per- spiration, but it is of absolute importance that tone and vigour should be imparted at the same time. A friend of mine once stated to me in conversation that upon being called upon to attend these cases he invariably carried a treacle can in his gig, and gave in the first instance twelve or fourteen pounds of tlie contents, and was freiiuently successful ; but the treacle can only act as an aperient, and I am convinced that the opening of the bowels should not be the primary object. If a stone of treacle can cure the disease, publish it to the world at once, for the farmer is quite as equal to the emergency as the scientific practitioner ; but I feel per- suaded that the methods I have glanced at savour too much of empiricism for any around me to have recourse to them. I will not say that cases thus treated do not occasionally recover , but it is in spite of, and not in consequence of, treatment. A veterinary surgeon of considerable cattle-practice said to me, in speaking of these cases, the primary object is to open the bowels ; in order to do this, give strong drastic purges ; assault the stomach, as the fortress you mean to take, with oue dis- charge of heavy artillery, and follow up by smaller and re- pealed charges. Give a drachm of crolon seeds, in powder, combined with aloes aud sulphate of magnesia ; aud then give smaller, say scruple doses, every two or three hours, until the liowels have responded ; then pour in stimulants. I have tried 1liis system, and ha\(' succeeded iu ojieniug the bowels; but, immediately after, my jiaiieut has retired from the stage, and gone bey embrassc, mal eireiid (He who grasps too much, holds loosely), it is not to be supposed that our old sys- tem of dissipating agricultural resources can stand out against the new system, in which the increasing price of land and labour calls loudly for high farming for wheat. The competition now going on between the different branches of agriculture is not the only cause for these rural crises. Within the same boundaries live two agricultural classes, the one working scientifically and paying money for rent, taxes, wages, manure, and expenses of all kjnds ; the other, treating agriculture as an unskilled business, indicting upon them- fe'-yefi, tl]eiv eattle, and the land, privjitiou of every kind. It is dilficult to find out the net return price in these two extremes, or rather to find the limits of the prices at which each of these classes can oH'er their produce. However, it is cer- tain that in a state of things in which low farming so mucli preponderates over high farming, the price of agricultural pro- duce must to a great extent depend upon the weather. High farming has, indeed, exorcised the extremes of abundance and destitution by the quantity, the variety, and the security of its produce. Low farming ismoredependant on the atmosphere than the earth, and, being unable to reserve its produce, must sell at any price, and this bears down the quotations of everything. jMiscry and fre?dom of action do not go together : to be com- pelled to sell, is to sell at disadvantage. Consequently wh^it is to be most desired by the wealthy farmers is, not to have to compete with the petty farmers. This competition is fatal. It IS the struggle between growers who have to reckon on the future with those who through misery are obliged to undPr- seU. Shine out then, sun of civilization, and enhghten tli^ world : let there be no more countries without roads and mai'- kets : let the growers supply the markets, and not consume all their produce on the spot. And, when all these shall labour under the same conditions, when they shall all be consumers) when they shall all feel the wants of an advanced civilization, we shall less often have those disturbances and crises in agri- culture which we may rest assured greatly result from differ- ences in production and in the way of living of the growers. It is fitting that when nations have a large extent of territory they shall be able to give up a certain part of this territory to a more or less desirable cultivation, which does not require capital to bring forth small crops, and tlirough that become the resource of a rural pojuJation, leading, in some respects, a life apart from the rest. To say that this system prevails in France is to describe a state of things which explains the fre- quency of our rural crises and emigration. Let us not then contend against our better aspirations : this would be to preach in a desert. Numbers of the population leave the villages because there is a feel- ing of desire in the fathers to set their children free from a burdensome condition. These are facts, and they contain a warning. All this signifies that civilization holds at bay the system of cultivation on large surfaces. In years of abund- ance this agriculture of the masses depreciates tlie value of produce with which the markets are swamped. In years of scarcity, it retires within itself, disappears from civilization, and consumes its produce. Can we, tlien, be surprised that the rising generation do not wish to accept a life of such vicissi- tude, of struggle, of self-denial, and misery ? The essential evil in our agriculture, as a whole, is a want of balance between capital, labour, and land. In the past the problem has been solved by practising an exhausting system of cultivation, which coufd not l«st. Now, this more and more fails us. Applied to poor and exhausted soil, rural labour is fettered. It can only free itself, it can only obtain its proper position, on fertile land. How and when will this second revolution take place ? Evi- dently, when personal and real property shall have found their level— when matters have returned to their normal state — when we shall be delivered from large public loans — wlwn wealth shall circulate freely in town and country — and when our system of taxes, not being antagonistic to agricultural pro- gress, shall husband the raw material of agriculture, and espe- cially all which tends to the production of manure. It is said that we are approaching that period. Agriculturists may look forward to the time when they are not limited to the home consumption, but have the prospect of widely-extended ex- portation. It may be, however, that the general position of France may not yet allow of the full satisfaction of the desires of agriculturists. This ought not to jirevent them from striving after their object. The more the agricultural position is subor''- dinate to the general position, the more necessary is it that the rural population should be feirly represented. 'Great interests which die out are such as yield to the fatality of circum- stances, and sutt'er through the fauUs of others. Taught by experience, public opinion in France at the present time hold's that the economic balance of the country requires that agricul- ture should have a large share in all the advantages of our powerful organization. Government has acknowledged that agriculture has, by its sacrifices acquired a right to economic equality. During the formation of our personal property ngrieullnre Jias suffered from the desertion of capital, of lahouf' 468 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. aud iutelligence. The day of reparation has arrived, Tlie principal wealth of Trance is the agricultural wealth ; not only that which is obtained from poor lands worked by petty farmers — eating rj-e bread, drinking water, wearing fustian and sabots --Init tlie wealth derived from fertile laud, worked by a popu- lation consuming and producing all that ought to he produced in our days. Village comfort ! That phrase speaks volumes : it means equality between town and country, equality betAveen trade aud industry — in short, general prosperity. E. Lecouteux. ROAD REFORM IN SCOTLAND. At the ordinary half-yearly meeting of the Chamljer of the Highland aud Agricultural Society in Edinburgh, held on the 13th instant, Provost P.^gan, of Cupar-Eife, moved the adoption of the following resolution : " That the Chamber deeply regret the failures of the several attempts which have been made to pass a General Road Act for Scotlaud. But the Chamber have the satisfaction of knowing that so many t.s twelve Scottish counties have promoted and obtained Acts for the immediate or prospective abolition of all tolls and pontages within tlieir own bounds." In supporting the resolution Pro- vost Pagan began by saying that he felt honoured in being called upon to address the meeting upon a question iu which he had long taken a deep interest, and which, he was glad to say, had takeu a deep hold upon the feelings of the peoi)le of these kingdords. He proceeded to give a detailed narrative of the movement for the aboUtion of tolls from the time that he published his work upon the subject in 1845, acknowledging the encouragement which he had received from the press, and directing particular attention to the report of the lloyal Com- mission on the question, and to the Act which was brought in by the Lord Advocate, giving it as his 'opinion that perhaps one reason why that Act failed was that it did not adhere sufficiently close to the recommendations of the commissioners. He also referred to the abolition of tolls in Ireland, and to the various local road acts which had been passed of late years, pointing out the peculiar provisions of these local acts, and the defects of each. The Haddington BLU, he said, was suc- cessful, although it contained a damaging clause which per- mitted the keeping up of toll-bars in order to pay olf the debt. The Elgin and Nairn Act was working most beneficially. It was more in terms with the Uoad Commission report. The proprietors in these counties were, in terms of the act, to pay off the debt, and the niaintenanre was to be paid half by laud- lords and half by tenants. Kirkcudbright aud Peebles were also successful in procuring acts, the latter county after a hard struggle ; and in both these comities tolls were abolished. He deprecated the practice of counties going into Par- liament for local acts, on account of the expense aud the trouble they gave rise to, and he was sanguine that country gentlemen might now be persuaded to go in for a general bill. He then referred to the public meeting held in Edinburgh in November, 1864, at which a committee was appointed to draw up a Gene- ral Road Bill. The bill was prepared in the form of a Per- missive Act, iu the hope that although it might not be adopted all at once, it would gradually be brought into operation in the same way as Provost Lindsay's General Police Bill. Lord Eleho took charge of the bill, but after going through various stages in Pailiament it was found impossible to proceed with it. The diiferent modes which it proposed of abolishing or keeping on the toUs operated much against it. After referring to the Acts procured by Aberdeen, Wigtown, and Dumfries, the Provost described fully the provisions of the Banff Bill, which empowered the trustees to pay the debts of the roads in full or by dividend according to circumstances — a manner of deal- ing with these debts which he considered most equitable. When they were lamenting that they had not got as yet a general road bill, they had now all the elements before them on which tjicy could go and ask a biU. They had the benefit of practice and experience, and they also knew better what the temper of Parhament was. Provost Pagan went on to show that England had not been behind on this question, after which he noticed the enormous cost of the toll-bar system, all of which would be saved under the system of maintaining roads ]n-oposed to be substituted for toll-bars. Then the toll-bars, he said, discouraged the use of roads ; and on the whole he contended that there could be no doubt that under the new system there would be great economy, both in money and iu time, as well as a great public benefit" in giving facilities to intercourse, compared with the present system. The general result of the recent local Acts was that at present there were still seven counties which had tolls, and which v.'ould require still to be dealt with in a General Road Bill ; and if these seven counties cotdd be persuaded to take a Gene- ral Road BiU, he could not doubt that very great benefit would arise, both to them and to the public. Provost Pagan then referred to the question of expense, stating that he had corre- sponded with the clerks of the roads in those counties which are working upon the Abolition Acts, and had got returns which showed the rate per pound for maintenance aud repair. His information was to the elfect that, in the seven counties referred to, the actual rate per pound for maintenance and re- pair gave an average of nearly 5|d. Taking that as the pro- balile rate, the burden upon the tenant paying £100 rent would be £1 2s. lid., the same sum being payable by the landlord. Provost Pagan concluded by moving the adoption of his re- solution. Mr. Geokge Davidson, Dean Park, seconded Provost Pagan's resolution, referring to his able exposure of the evils and errors of the present road system, which would be looked back upon as one of the strangest anomalies of the present age. He alluded to the enormous expense of keeping up the tolls, the inconvenience aud often danger to which they sub- jected people at night, and the discreditable shifts that Avere often resorted to in order to avoid them. Perhaps the greatest of aU their evils was the distrust attaching to them. They knew what was the amount of money cast into that public ex- chequer, but they did not knov,- the amount which came from the public into the bag of the toll. Mr. Davidson went on to notice some of the objections which had been urged to the passing of the general Act, one of which was as to the pro- prietors being saddled witli the debt. He concurred in the opinion that, as these roads were not for the benefit of the proprietors, htit of the public generally, and Were public as well as private property, the burden ought to be borne by both. He thought the debt should have been provided for by keeping up such a rate on land as to extinguish it in twenty-five years. Another objection which had been urged to the passing of the General Act had been in counties like Edinburgh, where there was a large mineral and manufacturing traffic, people being under the impression that tlie mineral and manufacturing in- terests would be much more largely served than the agricul- tural. But by introducing a larger rate on land this would be obviated. Mr. George Glendinnikg, ITatton Mains, and Mr. Bau- VEY, Whittinghame, briefly supported the resolution. Mr. P. M'Lagan, M.P., moved the adoption of the fol- lowing resolution : " That the Chamber are of opinion that a General Road Act for Scotland should be forthwith prosecuted and passed by Government on the principles and recommenda- tions contained in the report of the Royal Commissioners on Scottish roads, viz. : (1) The liquidation of road debt by owners of lauds and heritages. (3) The consolidation of turnpike, statute labour, and bridge trusts. (3) The abolition of toUs and pontages, statute labour, assessments. (4) The maintaining and repairing of roads to be borne equally by owners and occupants of lands and heritages. (5) The ex- pense of new roads and bridges to be borne by owners of lands and heritages." In supporting the resolution, Mr. M'Lagan said he rejoiced that the Chamber were likely to recommend the introduction of a General Road Bill for the whole of Scotlaud. He thought there was a good reason why the Chainher should go forward at present with a memorial to the Government in favour of the introduction of a road biU, seeing that Lord Derby was in power when the Road Commission was appointed ; and his Government would in all likelihood be inclined to do something in the way of carrying out tlip THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 469 I'ecoiumenJatious of the commissioners. Tlio time had now passed for anyone to recommend the turnpike system. He did not think that any man need pretend to possess tlie spirit of propliecy who predicted that in a few years every toll-bar would be swept oil' the roads of Scotland. After insisting on the necessity for a General Road Act, and remarking on the mistake committed in East Lothian by keeping up tolls till the debts were paid, Mr. M'Lagan expressed it as his opmion that in any general Act it would be necessary for some central board to control the commissioners of the different counties, particularly where roads met, that all the roads might be kept in a like state of repair. • Mr. Joim Dickson (Saughton M.ains), in seconding the motion, said that lie seldom met with anyone who supported the present system, and who was against the abolition of tiie tolls, except upon the plea that it would affect their own pockets ; and lie trusted tliat, as the matter came to be better undei'stood, parties who had only that plea to urge would be ashamed to urge it. Mr. DuA'CAN M'Laren, M.P., said that Mr. M' Lagan had remarked that the fact that Lord Derby's Government was in power when tlie Royal Road Commission was appointed made the present time peculiarly favourable for pressing the Govern- ment to bring in a biU upon tliis subject. There was a still stronger reason in tlie same direction to be found in the fact that Mr. Walpole, the new Home Secretary, vvas the same Home Secretary tliat issued the Royal Commission. They could now go to Jlr. Walpole, and tell him that he appointed the Commission, and that they liad now a strong claim upon Jiim to urge him to carry into efi'cct the report of the Com- mission which he appointed. They had, in the report of the Royal Commission, a nucleus of legislation which had received great consideration from all the commissioners. The best policy was to stick entirely to the recommendations of the report without amendments or qualifications. He thought that they had a capital opportunity at present of pressing tlie question. That Association was a power in the State if it was discreetly worked. He wished them all success in tlie cause ; and he should be very glad if he could lend a helping hand, along with Mr. M'Lagan, to carry on the proposed measure. Mr. Harper, Snawdon, supported the resolution, and in doing so referred to the Haddington Road Bill, maintaining that he did not know a more unjustifiable proceeding than that which had been adopted in that bill as to the debt, be- cause the toUs were mainly supported by the tenant-farmers and traders, and it was not fair that they should lie called upon to pay the large proportion of the debts on the roads. Mr. Scot Skirving proposed the adoption of the last re- solution, which was as follows ; " That a memorial to the above effect be submitted by the Chamber to the Right Hon. the Home Secretary, the Lord Advocate, and other members of Her Majesty's Government ; and petitions presented to both Houses of Parliament, praying them to take up and settle the question on the principles and recommendations foresaid." Mr. Skirving referred to the unanimity which pre- vailed at the meeting as a proof of the growing strength of the feeling agauist tolls, as he was perfectly certain that ten years ago many of those present would have supported tolls. Railways would knock the tolls down in the end, because they cut away the argument that he who used the road should pay for it. The present system, by placing bars close to tlie rail- way gates, was to force the people who used the railways to pay for the roads. Although Elgin and Banif might be com- mended for what they had done in their local hills, yet he tlionglit that a general road biU was much to be preferred to the scarecrow of a thing which they had got in East Lothian. That was a bungling one-sided measure, which made the far- mers pay almost the whole of the debt. They paid two-thirds of the (lirect taxes, and nineteen-twentieths of the toUs ; and for these reasons he would strongly recommend a general bill. Mr. Geddes, Orbliston, Eocliabers, in seconding the mo- tion, gave an account of tlie operation of the local Act abolish- ing tolls in the county of Elgin, remarking that it had been a great success. He concluded by stating that as the counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Ross had all obtained similar powers to those contained in the Elgin Bill, by next Whitsunday there would scarcely be a toll-bar between Aberdeen and J ojin- o' -Groat's. Mr, M'CoMBiE, before puttijig the resolutionsj said : After the report of the Royal Commissioners in 1839, and the evidence then laid, I do not suppose that anyone, unless it may be a salaried official, can be found to sujiport the present system of making and maintaining public roads. Tlie system is ruinous to every interest involved, is inconsistent with all modern ideas of economic management of large moneyed con- cerns, and has already resulted in tlie loss of a million of monev to the unfortunate traffickers in it. I see the gi'oss de1jt of the turnpike roads in 1859 amounted to £2,332,006, while the trusts were only able to pay £45,000 of interest, which represents a capital of not more than 10s. per pound of the real debt. Hence a dead loss of upwards of a million of money ; and hence, I say, it may be assumed that the present system is doomed. It must end. Either the Legislature must end it, or it wiU end itself, and, with it, many of the trustees now liable for tliis million of bad and rapidly-increas- ing debt. I concur heartily in the recommendation of the Pi-oyal Commissioners, that all roads, bridges, and ferries trusts in every county should be consolidated into one trust — that the toU system should he abolished, as a system of collecting money at an absurdly extravagant rate — as a system, besides, not consistent with the age we live in — inconsistent vnth the necessities of the system it grew out of— a system terminated when the turnpilce roads ceased to be through routes by the opening of the rail- ways—and altogether a thing of the past, which the present and future have no need of, and which they ought not to be called u])on to pay for. But how is this to be done — how, regard being had to all the interests involved, is this great and necessary reform to be brought about ? Tlie difficulty does not appear to be so much Iww it is to he done, as loJw is to do it. The late Lord Advocate brought in an excellent bill in 1861, showing how it could be done ; and for myself, I have no diffi- culty as to the how or the who either. The various county- trusts being consolidated into one, and tolls abolished, the mak- ing of new roads, and the maintaining of old and new, should be borne by the parties whose they are, and for whose benefit the roads are made and maintained. Now, who are they ? I unhesitatingly assert they are the owners of heritages of all kinds, whetlier landed proprietors, house proprietors, mine pro- prietors, or others. What is the value of land in any part of this country without roads to it ? The better the accesses for stock and folk and for the commodities both require — and for the transmission of which mainly roads were and are made and maintained — the higher the rent the land produces to the laud- lord. Had the landowner not invested in the making and maintaining of roads to his property, his rent-roU must have been greatly less than it is. His tenants just pay annually the sum his investment in roads is worth in addition to what his land would liave been worth without it. The roads are of such vital and prhnary interest to the landlord, that I look on them as additions — as parts and pertinent — and most valuable parts and pertinents of his landed property. House proprietors stand much in the same position as lands — the roads probably led to the building of the houses — but for the roads no villages would have been built, no traffic would have been needed ; the roads have done it all,and opened up mineral fields, and improved pro])erties in every direction, converting what was formerly a wilderness into productive agricultural land. Now, the owners have got all these benefits and blessings — their farms have let, their villages have been feued, an outlet for their mineral wealth has been found — elegant society has surrounded them, and all because of what ? — because they wisely invested in road-making. Nor is it different in the case of railways or canals. Without local roads, and good roads too, where is their local traffic to come from, or be discharged ? My view of the matter is, that the blessings, the benefits, or the loss of making and maintaining or not making and maintaining onr public roads is primarily an owners' question, and that the burden of making the roads falls naturally on owners. 1 kuow it has been said that the £3,000,000 of road debt should not be laid upon the proprietors, and it has been instanced that proprietors have paid in an increased purchase price for the roads formed to their respective purchases at the time of their purchase. But first, if the proprietors are not liable, no one else can justly be charged ; second, proprietors at the time of contracting the debt have no excuse for uot paying it ; but third, the proprietors of recently-acquired estates may possibly liave some excuse, so far as past road debt is concerned, hut none so far as present and future Hjaintejnance goes. TI\e 470 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. debt is . not the dM ol' the property, but of the old proprietor who g-rautcd bond for it. If a purcliaser pays his predecessor's ruad debt, he iias liis relief against liis predecessor. If purchasers paid tlicir predecessors for roads they have to pay for again, they sliould get back their money — clearly and honestly their relief for their share of the old road debt unpaid by their predecessors (the proper debtor) lies against their predecessor. But their predecessors may not be able to give the relief they are honestly bound to give ; and to meet such a ease the Royal Commissioners recommend a valuation at the sight of the Sheriff of these road debts, and that would operate as a perfect relief to them : they would then only be burdened for value received, and would ha\e no right to complain. I know it has also been said that railway companies should not be made liable for road debt or even for maintenance of the roads made — but I have already sufiicieiitly met that objection. Their existence depends on accesses to their stations for the receipt and discharge of their traffic, and iu my opinion their interest lies as much in having good roads as any other party concerned. They have carried away the through turnpike traffic, to meet which through turnpike roads were formed and debt contracted, and the obligation on them to meet a fair share of that debt is in consequence all the stronger, as in a question with other owners of heritages, and in my opinion they ought not to refuse their fair share witli others of the debt contracted, and which would have been paid from ordinary traffic on the road but for their taking it Ijy rail, it has also been argued that occupants should pay both debt and maintenance to the extent of one-half, and that they sliould be assessed accordingly. But it occurs to me tliat this objection has been made without thought; for (1) so far as current leases are concerned, these must regulate the liabihty of parties ; and (2) so far as future leases are concerned, if an occupant is to be assessed £30 per annum for a road debt, he yi'ill just offer £2U per annum of less rent. K 1 am taking a farm which 1 know will raise as many animals one year with another as will enable me in an average of years to pay £500 of rent on the gross, and if 1 find that I have a shilling a pound of road debt to pay in addition, and sixpence per pound of assessment to maintain roads of access to the farm — in place of offering £500 of rent I will only offer £462 10s. ; and every sensible offerer will do the same. The nmtter just comes back on the landlord again, and I apprehend it would be best to lay it direct on him at first. Roads being part of the landlord's property, the property and the roads to it go and are let together, and the rent given is the rent the two combined are worth to the tenant, and no sensible man will offer more : and I take it that if a landlord prefers dealing wdth a man who is not sensible, the rent he will draw in the end will be less, whatever more it may appear on paper. The bill of the late Lord Advocate, to which I lia\e already adverted, gave substantial effect to most of these views. It (1) abolished the tolls, statute service, and bridge money ; (3) consolidated the statute labour, turnpike, and bridges trusts of each county into one trust, and provided one management ; (3) it gave a certain voice to the tenants in the management of the roads ; (4-) road debts were to be valued by Sheriff', and made a charge on the owners of lands and heri- tages ; (.5) the roads were to be maintained by an assessment, half payable by owners and half by occupants, and any new- roads were to be made at the cost of owners. That was, on the \\hole, a well conceived attempt at a general settlement of the question, and I hope, with modifications, it will be re- vived by liis successor, if not yet promoted by Mr. Moncrieff himself; but it ought to be a compulsory, and not a permissive measure. Such a measure deserves, in my humble apprehen- sion, the support of this chamber of practical men, AYith these remarks, I put the resolutions to the meeting. The resolutions were all unanimously adopted, NOTES ON HEDGINa. Much has been said of late in agricultural papers on hedg- ing, and its importance justifies all that has been or can be said in its favour, as it is the method by which much of the enclosure of the farming lands of the prairie must of necessity in time at last be effected. Having during the past season travelled through a good many counties of Illinois and Iowa in about the latitude of Chicago, and noting some of the defects in their system of management, I propose to point out what I conceive to be a radical error in the general manage- ment of hedging. I do this with the more assurance, having been practically concerned with hedging for more than thirty years. I first began with the Virginia thorn, sometimes called the Washington thorn, and though tolerably successful, it has not been quite satisfactory ; but for the last ten years I have tried the osage orange, and with proper treatment I think it the far preferable material. The hedges so prevalent in the West are of this material, but after being planted and got to growing, there the attention has generally ceased, when it should have but just begun. Soon after I begun with the osage orange I got Dr. Warder's book on hedging, as soon as published, and have followed its direc- tions and considered it a success. We now have a hedge that is proof against any stock and would almost turn a rabbit. The great secret of management is early and regular cutting back the upright shoots, leaving the side-branches, thus divid- ing the growth and causing it to spread, and not allow the upper shoots to develope and smother the lower ones, as they assuredly will do if allowed to grow unpruned. I would ■earnestly advise all who have hedges to get Dr. Warder's book and foUow its teachings, and I am satisfied they will be amply rewarded. Those who have hedges, if not too large, had better cut them dowii at once and begin anew by trimming as directed. The great object is to get a thick bottom, and this can only be done by close cutting down while young : this will take some labour it is true, then what good ever was accomplished with- out labour ? and remember tliat it is working for future time. In first trimming we used a pair of large garden shears, but lately my son got an old sword blade a'lid ground it up, nnd used that ; and this, if not literally turning a sword into a ploughshare, is at least turning it into a pruning implement. And by giving this a backhanded npw'ard stroke, an active hand can trim many rods in a day, from a quarter to half a mile. It should be done when the shoots are tender, say a little after midsummer. Dr. Warder gives particular directions, from the sowing of the seed to the finishing of the hedge, with plates shewing the dift'erent implements used. I see some have planted the seed where the hedge is to grow. This I think is not a good plan ; first, it requires more work to keep the young plants clean than if in a bed, and then there must be more seed used than necessary, and some will have to be taken out, or we shall not be sure of enough to have the plants at regular distances that are left to grow. Our plan has been to plant in beds four feet wide witli alleys between, and the seed dibbled in rofls across the bed wide enough apart to use a hoe between the rows. For planting the hedge have the ground prepared beforehand, then stretch a line with marks on it the distance apart for the plants, and then make a hole with a dibble at each mark, or insert the spade a little slanting, and raising tlie earth up by raising the spade then insert the plant under it, then withdraw the spade and press the earth on to the plant ; either method is soon done. I see by an advertisement that a machine has been patented for a hedge trimmer by horse power ; this is what I have been looking for, thinking that our machinists would bring out one ere loug, and if a good one it will be a great desideratnm, and make the laliour of trimming much easier and more expedi- tious. Again, let me urge those who contemplate planting hedges to follow Dr. Warder's recommendations, and I am sure they will be successful, and one need to travel but a little on the prairie country to see the want of success with tlie present management. There is one weU-managed liedge near Rich- mond, Indiana, and it seems a perfect success, worthy to be followed. Xaedley Taylor T,nii(Jnfi Covnf]!, Vh-'iiiuo, (i^ Prairie Ffrrnxr.) TSFi FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 471 THE SEWAGE OF TOWNS. On Thursday, October 35, a congress of agriculturists, land- owners, engineers, and others interested in this question, assembled at the Royal Pump Rooms, Leamington, for the purpose of considering in what mode the sewage of towns could best be disposed of. The subject is one which at present is exciting great attention, in consequence of the diffi- culties iu which the governing bodies of towns are becoming involved by the pollution of rivers with sewage matter. Even Leamington, the royal spa, is at present under an injunction from the Court of Chancery, with a penalty of i5,000 for its infringement, granted at the suit of Messrs. Thomas Heath and Alfred Field, two extensive landowners ou the banks of the Leam, into which the sewage of Leamington is discharged, a short distance above its confluence with the Avon, after having been deodorized by what is technically termed the lime pro- cess. It is in a great measure owing to the difficulties in which the Local Board of Leamington are involved that the conference has taken place, as the board are prohibited by in- junction from discharging the effluent water from the sewage works into the river, and their efforts to obtain land for irri- gation have proved unsuccessful. The idea of the conference originated with Mr. Hitchman, of the Arboretum, who was recently a member of the Leamington Local Board of Health, and who for several years past has strenuously advocated the application of sewage to the land. The congress was presided over by Lord Leigh, the Lord- Lieutenant of Warwickshire, who convened the meeting in compliance with a numerously signed requisition. Amongst those present were Mr. A. W. Peel, M.P. for Warwick ; Mr. Davenport Bromley, M.P. for North Warwickshire , Dr. Hawkesley and Dr. B. W. Richardson, of London ; Drs. Jeph- son, Jeaffreson, Hornibland, and O'Callaghau, of Leamington; the Hon. and Rev. J, W. Leigh, and a number of eminent en- gineers and agriculturists, as well as representatives from the corporations of ^lanchester, Glasgow, and other towns. Lord Leigh, in opening the proceedings, said he sliould be happy to do anythingin his power to assist in solving one of the greatest social difficulties of the day, in which not only those present, but the entire population of the country were deeply interested. When first asked by Mr. Hitchman to preside over the conference, he thought the present time inopportune, and that it would be better to wait until the Royal Commission had made its report upon the pollution of rivers. When, however, he received a requisition, signed by all the large land- holders of the neighbourhood and by the principal inhabitants of Leamington, he felt it to be his duty to consent to preside over the congress, especially as he had been assured by gentle- men whose opinion he valued, tliat the proceedings of that meeting would be likely to elicit facts and information calcu- lated to be of assistance to the Royal Commission. Dr. Hawkesley read a paper on " The power for good or evil of refuse organic matter, with an exposition of the failure of the existing plans for turning it to good account, together with a description of a successful method." He set out by referring to tlie importance of effecting two things — Restore to the land the ingredients necessary to continued productiveness ; and prevent the contamination of wells and rivers, from which the supplies of water were obtained for towns, by sewage and organic matter. In support of the fer- tilizing properties of town sewage he quoted Liebig and other eminent authorities ; and iu illustration of the evils resulting from water being rendered impure by sewage ingredients, he cited the cholera cases traced to the Broad-street pump, the outbreak of the epidemic at Epping, and the increase of chole- raic seizures, in districts, supplied with water from theRiverLea, from 13 per cent, in 1849 to 31 per cent, in 1854<, and 78 per cent, in 1866. He also mentioned, as a remarkable fact, that the type of disease had clianged from pthcnic to 'teM\emc,pari passu as water closets had been substituted for privies. It was not difficult now to see that the change from cesspools to water closets had been made without due reflection, but that the in- gredients, wliich would have been productive of much wealth, had been converted into the fruitful sources of disease and deatli. The high, middle, and low level drainage of London would not rec- tify the evils resulting from the present system of sewerage, for science and experience were dead against it. The more exten- sive the drainage system, the greater would be tlie generation of pestiferous gases, which would eventually escape through the imperfectly-trapped drains of the poor, the street gullies, and every tinte a water closet was made use of. Irrigation was a less evil than the pollution of rivers, but irrigation still left un- remedied the pollution of the sources of our water supplies. Any attempt to back the present system would only result in loss of time, money, and many valuable lives. How, then, was every requirement to be met and every difficulty removed ? He believed this was only to he accomplished by the employment of dry-earth closets. Earth was Nature's own deodorizer, in- tended by God for the purpose, and the clod men trod under their feet bore as distinctive evidences of design as any other portion of the creation. If Moule's earth-closet was used, he calculated that tlie cost of removing the whole of the excreta of the three millions of population in London would cost £G23,250perannum. He proposed thattheCity should be divided into 500 sections, and, estimating the total separate habitations at 500,000, and allowing two closets as an average for each, he made the round number 1,000,000. Each of the 500 sections would have charge of 2,000 closets, to empty which three times a week, between six and seven o'clock in the morning, would require ten carts, twenty horses, and twenty men ; the cost of which he estimated at 8s. per day. The annual cost, therefore, of the whole of the 500 sections would be £623,350. On the other hand, taking the lowest estimate of the value of the fluid and solid excreta of every person at 1-ts. per annum, the value of the sewage of London would be £3,100,000 a-year. If from this sum were deducted the expenses of removal, there would stUl remain a profit of £1,476,750 ; or, if 7s. per head was given to each person annually for these refuse materials, which would amount to £1,050,000, there would remain a net balance to the credit of £426,750. The deductions he drew, at the conclusion of his paper, were That the refuse organic matter from auy human community is of immense amount, and of great value if well applied ; but the source ot great, varied, and increasing evils to the public health if ill applied, as well as a great drain on the resources of the wealth and the food of the people. That the present mode of dealing witli the sew- age of towns fails to utilize it, but, on the other hand, so mixes it up with the great essentials of life — the air we breathe and the water we drink — as to lower the standard of vitality, pro- duce raucli disease, and convey epidemic poisons in the most fatal and wide-spread manner. That the present system is an error from the beginning to the end, and incapable of any sa- tisfactory improvement. And that the method of employing agents for absorbing, deodorizing, and utilizing the matter, according as he had described and detailed it, affords a com- plete, practicable, and highly practical mode of accomplishing all the objects of the sewage system. Mr. Helon, of Manchester, approved of the principle Mr. Hawkesley had propounded, but could not pledge himself to all the details. He read a letter setting forth the views of the Manchester Corporation, from which it appeared they were favourable to the substitution of dry closets for the existing water-closets. He complained that the Royal Commissioners did not appear to be fully considering the whole question, but seemed to have set out with the conclusion that the application of sewage to land by irrigation was the proper mode, and that their investigation was to be restricted to the pollution of rivers. Mr. Stephen Eohd held that sewage was valueless as a manure unless it could be applied to land by irrigation. Mr. Menzies, who is attached to the Engineers at Alder- shot, mentioned that the sewage of the camp was collected in tanks ; and, instead of receiving anything for it, it actually cost between £500 and £600 a-year to get it removed. Mr. Walter McEarren (of Glasgow) stated that in that town they had applied dry-earth closets to about 80,000 of the population, chiefly of the lower classes, and, by removing the pKcreta within the twenty -four hours, no nuisance whatever was 472 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. experienced ; and though the receptacles were fixtures, no in- convenience or difficulty was experienced in emptying them. Mr. James briefly spoke of the success which had at- tended the employment of Moule's dry-earth closets at Halton, ou Baron Rothschild's estate. They had been in use six months, and closets with self-acting lids being used, the requisite quantity of soil was deposited every time they were used, and although fixed inside the houses, not the least nuisance was occasioned by them. A man was employed to see that a due supply of earth was provided ; but the value of the sewage paid his wages, and left a surplus. Mr. HiTCHMAN spoke in favour of the adoption of dry closets, and the appointment of officers of health throughout the country to see that they were properly supplied with earth and regularly emptied. Mr. Taylor (of Royston, Herts) then read a description of a plan for the manufacture of British excreta ; and Mr. J. Rose having described a patent for accomplishing the same object, the Conference adjourned. The Conference re-assembled at the Royal Pump Rooms, on Friday morning, Lord Leigh again presiding. The proceed- ings were commenced by — Mr. Menzies (of Windsor) reading a Paper on the separa- tion system. He holds that lay the separation of the rainfall from the sewage proper, the solution of the greater part of the difficulties connected with tlie disposal of the sewage of towns would be accomplished. By means of a. filter he would intercept solid particles, and mix them with ashes ; and the fluid portions he would dispose of by imgation. Having se- parated the rainfall from the sewage, the latter would always be the same in quantity and quality, and would not be in the greatest value at that season of the year when least required, whilst the rainfall would be returned to the rivers, where it was much needed. Mr. Rose, of Birkenhead, then gave a description of his patent for the manufacture of British guano from town excreta. He held that earth was not an efficient deodorizer, and that the effluent water passing from laud irrigated with sewage water contained a large quantity of the ingredients of sewage. Mr. Bell Galloway, of London, read a paper entitled, " Suggested Plans to Utilize Sewage and Prevent the Con- tamination of Wells, Streams, and Rivers." He advocated the adoption of dry closets, and that ashes and liouse-sweepings should be used with tlie excreta, and, if necessary, peat-ashes. He affirmed that the present system of disposing of sewage, in the waste of fertilizing matter and injury to public health, represented a loss that could not be set down at less than £20,000,000 or £30,000,000 (a laugh). The Secretary then read a letter from Mr. Brown, J.P., of Antigua, in which he described the success that had there attended the use of closets, by which the urine was separated from the fseces. Dr. Cabpenteu read a paper " On Croydon ; the Past and Present Successes and Failures of the Local Board." He set out by showing that, according to Mr. Grainger's evidence before a committee of the House of Commons, in IS-iD, Croydon was then one of the most unhealthy places in the kingdom, the death rate being 1 in 36, whilst the county generally showed an average death rate of 1 in 58. He also stated that a large amount of premature mortality resulted from the entire absence of general drainage, defective water supply, and the presence of various local causes of disease of a coucentrated character. Mr. Grainger also reported the fever rate to be rising, being, between ISiS and 1850, no less than 7.6 per cent., the general death rate being 26.1 ; and lastly, Dr. Westall sliowed that the deaths from zymotic diseases were very numerous. The popu- lation was then 19,000, but it had now increased to 42,000. Since 1848 the town had been thoroughly drained, a good and abundant supply of water had been provided, and local nui- sances had been removed. The result had been a very large de- crease in the rate of mortality, whilst zymotic diseases had fallen from 31 to 18 per cent. After describing the manner in which sewage is conveyed to the land used for irrigation, he proceeded to speak of the expense which the works had en- tiiled. The total amount expended upon Government works had been £120,000, of which £1,536 liadbeen repaid, leaving a balance of £104,841 to be discharged within thirty years. But in addition to the sewage irrigation, the board had pro- vided an adequate supply of water, purchased 36 acres of land as a recreation ground, provided public slaughter-houses, erected extensive baths, and purchased various freehold properties for the purposes of the board. If they could charge the same price for water as many companies did, the revenue from that source alone would pay the interest on all the capital ex- pended. But, if they took into consideration the various im- provements he liad enumerated, it would be seen that the cost of the sewage works themselves had not been very great. The expenses, however, had been greatly increased by mistakes into which the Croydon board fell, but which other towns, benefiting by their experience, could avoid. These mistakes were — laying down too small sewage-pipes, laying them in wrong situations, the use of too cheap materials, and the omission of every ef- ficient provision for flushing the sewers ; but the greatest mis- take of all was the attempting to deodorize the sewage. Every improved plan was tried in succession, but when thought to be most successful it was found wanting. It was not until they adopted the system of irrigation that they got rid of their legal difficulties and expenses. Then their sewage outfall, formerly one of the most troublesome, became one of the sim- plest of their works, and those who were their most inveterate enemies became their staunchest friends, lie affirmed that the result was, they had increased the healthiness of the locality, the death rate having decreased from 28 to 19 ; whilst, with respect to the debt incurred in carrying out the improvements, there was only an increase of 9d. per pound in the rates, and the local board had more than sufficient stock-in-trade to pay off the whole of the debt, if it were necessary to do so. In answer to questions. Dr. Cahpentee, said that an out- break of typhoid fever at Croydon was in every instance at- tributable to a want of ventilation in the sewers connected with the houses in which the cases occurred. The local board had taken steps to remedy this, and to prevent the evil being per- petuated in new houses. He had no hesitation in saying that the Croydon system was the only one which he found to answer for large towns like Manchester, hut it was not adapted for small country places. Mr. Baldwin Latham, Surveyor of the Croydon Local Board, read a paper on the " Croydon Sewage." He said that, at Croydon, the sewers were well constructed, had a good fall, and deposited the sewage at four outfalls, the principal two being at Beddington and South Norwood, and a third dis- charges into the metropolitan sewers. At Beddington and Soutli Norwood the sewage was strained, to keep back tlie more crude portions, which experience showed was inju- rious when passed on to the land with the fluid. The solid matter thus intercepted, when mixed with ashes, was applied to the land, in connexion with irrigation, with great advantage. The Croydon principle was most efl'ectual, and might be car- ried out upon any land. The sewage flowed in a thin fdm over the roots of the plants, and could be applied during all the stages of their growth, and up to witliiu a short time of cutting a crop. It was applied at all seasons of the year, and in win- ter the land retained the fertilizing properties until required for the growth of plants ; but the crops at Croydon were al- ways growing, although of course not so rapidly in winter as in summer. He attributed this continued growth of crops in winter to the temperature of the sewage, which he had found increased during a period of frost. The produce from the land was equiil to 5s. per head of the population. The purification of the sewage, after it had flowed over the land, was most com- plete, and actually contained less organic matter than the water supplied by several of the London water companies. It must be remembered tliat water which had been in contact with the eartli took up some of its constituents, and that about twenty per cent, of the fluid was evaporated whilst it flowed over the land, and therefore allowance must be made for both in estimating the organic matter found in the sewage. With- out allowing for either cause, however, there were only 2 grains more inorganic, and not quite 1| grains more organic matter in the purified sewage water than in the water supplied to Croydon. In answer to questions, Mr. Latham stated that they had 330 acres under irrigation, and he advised that land should be purchased by local boards. The complaint at one time was that sewage would render land barren, but now the objection was that it produced such immense crops that there was a dif- ficult in disposing of them, They had found J^y experience THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 473 that a toE of grass could be converted iuto hay in from an hour aad a-half to two hours, by passing heated air through it, at a cost of about 12s. per ton. It woiild pay either to pump sewage or to apply it by gravitation. Their experience had shown that Italian ryegrass was the best thing to cultivate, as the fact of its requiring to he renewed every three years was an advantage, as they then cropped the laud with mangolds. Tliis was done to exhaust the land ; and the great prin- ciple in applying sewage was to keep the soil as poor as possible, so that it might the more freely absorb the fertilizing properties of the sewage. The sewage at Croydon flowed on to the land continually, day and night, summer and winter, and every particle was utilised. It was not true that the sewage at South Norwood was insufficient to benefit the land, and that nothing had grown there for some time past. There was now a crop of rye-grass three feet long, and that was the fifth crop this year. The Italian rye-grass sold for about £13 per ton, and the average produce was about eight tons per acre. Their chief opponents had been the owners of the fisheries in the Wandle, and the millowuers. But the former had tu put down a grating before the outfall-sewer, to prevent the fish ascending it ; and a millowuer, who required them to construct a drain to discharge the overflow-water be- low his mill-head, had himself constructed a drain to convey it above his mill, so that he might have the benefit of it. He did think a time might come when the soil having become saturated with sewage would not yield the crops they obtained at Croydon ; but the way to obviate that was to exhaust the land as much as possible, by carrying off every crop, and re- turning nothing to the land but sewage. If they did not break up the land every third year and alternate the crop, the yield of rye-grass would neither be so large nor so valuable. After mowing a crop of rye-grass in May, they broke up the land and sowed it with mangolds, which were off in sufficient time to allow tJie land to be again sown with rye-grass at the close of the year. The Seceetauy read a letter from Mr. S. W. Congreve, of Harborough Magna, who formerly applied the sewage of Eugby to laud. He said his experience was that sewage could only be profitably applied to land in some few cases. When applied to good land, it produced a large quantity of coarse inferior herbage, only fit for store cattle. Tliat was liis ex- perience, and he had suffered great losses by the application of sewage. Mr. C. H. BK.4.CEimiDGE, of Atherstoue Hall, said Mr. Congreve paid £50 a year for the sewage and £50 for pump- ing, and some years the experiment was successful and others it was not. The land, however, was not properly prepared for its reception, and it was only tried upon ordinary grass land. Besides, as Rugby was then inadequately supplied with water, the sewage was not sufficiently diluted. Mr. Maup, of Rugby, said that now an abundant supply of water had been obtained ; and that the Local Board of Health were negotiating for land on which to apply the sewage, under the direction of Mr. Baldwin Latham. The Conference then adjourned for refreshment, and on re- assembling, Mr. MoOKE, of Pump Court, London, read a paper in fiivour of irrigation, based on his own observations of practical experience, extending over a period of forty years. Exjierience had shown deodorizatiou was both expensive and ineffectual ; and the dry-earth closet system was not much superior to that which water-closets superseded. Mr. Bakdwell read a Paper on the " alternating system." He would precipitate the solids of the sewage with French sulphate of Urae, and convert it into a dry manure ; and then send purified liquor only, alternately with sewage from the out- faU, to the laud. Ills objections to irrigation were — that con- stant irrigation would injure rather tluiii benefit the growing crops, and that sewage cannot be sent through pipes without their gradually becoming clogged up. The' sewage, too, de- posited a crust on the surface of the land, and the liquid carried off the urea of phosphates, which were the most valuable fertilizing ingredients of sewage. The Rev. Mr. Groome then gave a brief review of the Stroud deodorizing works, which he spoke of simply as an ex- periment, He stated they had rendered the water approxi- mately pure — so pure in fact that fish existed in it without in- jury, and that he thought was as much as would be insisted upon. He expressed an opinion that irrigation woidd eventually injure the land, and that the objection to the dry closets was the quantity of earth that would be required. Mr. C. E. Austin read a paper on what he termed the "Prompt Filtration System of Drainage." His proposition was to separate the fluid from soUd portions of sewage by filtration, at the earliest possible moment. Mr. Garnett (of Quernmore Park, Lancashire) described a method he had adopted, at Lancaster, of dealing with sewage on the tby-closet principle. The closets had been introduced ' iuto the grammar school, the county gaol, a large manufactory, and other places ; and the excreta, after being mixed with ashes, cotton waste, or other dry substances, were dried in a shed. The outlay had been £236 lis. 3d., and the proceeds, 400 tons of solidified manure, were valued at £200. The manure thus manufactured had been applied to grass and turnips, and found to be better than ordinary farm-yard manure. Mr. CiiEssiRE (of Bleam) showed one of his patent inter- ceptors, and explained its operation ; Mr. Hitceman read a paper on " Tlie Removal of Refuse from Towns ;" and W. Baujiber (of Exeter) exhibited a patent self-acting closet, and an intercepting urinal. Several other papers still remained to be read, at 4 o'clock, when — J[r. Heron (of Manchester) urged the importance of the Conference expressing some definite opinion on the question. It was essential they should do so, if the Conference were to have any practical ell'ect. The President put it to the meeting whether the remaining papers should be read, and on the Conference deciding they should not — Mr. Garnett, of Quernmore Park, rose and moved the following resolution for adoption by the meeting : — " That after careful consideration of the valuable information sub- mitted, this Congress is of opinion that the system of allowing excrementitious matter from houses to pass iuto drains and sewers, and to pollute the rivers, is in all cases highly objec- tionable, and ought, so far as may be practicable, to be pre- vented." He thought it most desirable the Congress should express itself as opposed to the generally-received opinion that the rivers are the natural outfalls for sewage. He complained that Mr. Rawhngson, one of the Royal Commissioners, had an inclination in favour of irrigation ; whereas the duty of the Commissioners was to consider the whole question fairly, dis- passionately, and judicially. Mr. Alderman Romney, of Manchester, seconded the resolu- tion. He held that there had been satisfactory evidence ad- duced that the dry-closet system would be superior to water- closets, and that the wet system of removing sewage was both philosophically and scientifically unsound, and had only been adopted for w ant of a better. Mr. Baldwin Latham, of Croydon, moved an amendment, for the omission of the words " drains and sewers," on the ground that it aimed a blow at the general dramage of all towns. Mr. Spencer, of Manchester, seconded the amendment; and Mr. Heron, of Manchester, opposed it ; but, on being put from the chair, it was carried by a large majority. Dr. Carpenter urged that the dry-closet and water-systems ought not to be pitted against each other, and moved the fol- lowing resolution as expressing the opinion of the Congress : — " That the system of irrigation, when carried out in a scientific manner, removes the difficulty which arises from the present noxious plan of polluting the rivers of England, but that there are circumstances in which other systems may be applicable." Mr. Stephen Ford seconded Dr. Carpenter's proposition. Several amendments were proposed and withdrawn, and Dr. Carpenter's proposition was eventually unanimously adopted, with the following addition, to which Dr. Carpenter consented — " Tliat this Congress considers that no one system can be laid down which will be suited to all towns" — on the motion of Mr. Draper, of Banbury, seconded by Mr. Bell Galloway, of London, The Congress terminated with a vote of thanks to Mr. Hitchman for the trouble he had taken in connection with the meeting, and to Lord Leigh for presiding over it. K K 2 474 THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE, THE REFORM MOVEMENT AND THE COUNTIES' REPRESENTATION. The subjoined is a full report of Mr. jN'ewdegate's speech : Mr. ?Cewdegate said : I am perfectly aware that we are drawing near to the close of this protracted and important de- bate. I will therefore state what I have to say upon the question before the House in the fewest possible words. I join most heartily in the tribute which has been paid by the lion, member for Leeds to the merits, the virtues, and the progress of the working classes. It would, sir, indeed be most singular if, as a county member, one of the IGO members of this House who endeavour to represent the majority of the working classes in this country, I should fail in appreciating those high qualities which I have seen tried and tested in pe- riods not only of prosperity but of adversity. Sir, I have seen the working classes under the temptation of violence ; I have seen them tried when they might have been misled by the arguments and incitements, not only of what may be called Eadical, but Chartist orators ; and, in my humble capacity, I do most heartily bear my unfeigned testimony to the merits, to the virtues, to the common-sense, and, in many cases, to the ac- quirements of the working classes. But I should be doing an injustice to the hon. member for Leeds, and I should be doing an injustice to the hon. member for East Surrey, who sits be- hind him, if I failed to object to the bill now before the House, in the form in which it has been presented to the House, because I have voted against the mere reduction of the county franchise wlieu it has been proposed by the hon. member for East Surrey, and I have voted against the mere reduction of the borough franchise when it has been proposed by the hon. member for Leeds. And, as I am one of those who are not ashamed of being consistent, I feel it my duty, as a matter of consistency, to give my vote for the amendment of the noble lord the "member for Chester. There are other grounds for my taking this course, which, with the permission of the House, I will sliortly state. Before I do so, however, I wish to take this opportunity of expressing my sense of the conduct of the noble lord the member for Chester. Sir, the noble lord's conduct on this occasion is well worthy of his high position, and will be remembered for many years to come. If this debate has been unusually protracted, why has it been so ? Because we are debating a portion of a measure of Reform, the whole of which is not before the House. And I say, sir, in the words of Mr. Fox, that " the duty of this House is vigilance in preference to secrecy, and deliberation in preference to despatch." "When a Government comes to this House, and produces a measure which it calls a Bill for the Improvement of the Representation of the People, but which is, in fact, only a measure for the reduction of the franchise, justifiable, perhaps, in that respect, but imperfect nevertheless, inasmuch as it does nothing to adapt the representation to the extension of the franchise thcj propose — when such a measure as this is submitted to the House, without any explanation in the first instance, but merely thrnst upon our attention, I take it that the noble lord the member for Chester is performing a duty which Mr. Burke described as " not yielding to the fear of differing with the authority of leaders on the one hand, and of contradicting the desires of the multitude on the other, which induces them (members of Parliament) to give a care- less and facile assent to measures as to which they have never been consulted ; and thus things proceed by a sort of activity of inertness until whole bodies, leaders, middlemen, and fol- lowers, are all hurried, with every appearance and with many of the effects of unanimity, into schemes of politics in the substance of whicli no two of them are fully agreed, and the origin and authors of which, in this circular mode of commu- nication, none of tliem find it possible to trace." Now, sir, I believe that the noble lord has performed a great duty ; and I have quoted the language of Mr. Burke in order that my tri- bute to hira may not rest upon my humble authority alone, but on the authority of one of the greatest political thinkers that ever left the legacy of his inquiries to the people of England. In paying this tribute to the noble lord, I may be permitted to add that the circumstances of to-night, when a rela- tivp of his has oppoopd the course, v/hich he haa taken, must convince the House that he has not yielded to any feelings but those which have respect to the public good ; and that he has discarded every feeling of family connection as well as party ties in order to perform a duty which, I say, this House will hereafter appreciate more fully than perhaps it does at present. Sir, we have been relieved from all doubt as to the origin of the conduct of Her Majesty's Government. The hon. mem- ber for Birmingham has informed us that six years ago he re- commended the noble lord at the head of the Government to adopt the course of proposing merely a reduction of the fran- chise, without any redistribution of seats ; that is, without providing for the adaptation of the representation to the in- creased constituencies, trusting that he would thereby obtain a lever by which the representation might subsequently be adapted to his views. Sir, I have a distinct objection to this course. Much has been said in the course of this debate of the vices and the dangers of Democracy, in all of which I concur ; but you may have all the vices and the dangers of Democracy, by the undue aggregation of those who form a minority of the electors ; and that is precisely what will en- sue if tliis measure passes, and a dissolution of Parliament takes place. This House will be elected with exaggerated constituencies, and without a representation adapted to the aggregation of the voters which you are now asked to create. The distribution of seats would, in that case, be left to the discretion of a Parliament elected by a body confessedly not accommodated with a representation that would secure the due and proper expression of public opinion. I object to this measure, then, upon the same grounds that I objected to the bills of the hon. member for East Surrey, and to the bills of the hon. member for Leeds. I hold that, if the Reform Bill of 1832 deserved its name, the present bill is not a Reform Bill at all. The eflfect and intention of the measure of 1832 was actually to raise the qualification for the franchise, by pro- viding for the gradual extinction of the Scot and Lot voters, and providing also for the gradual extinction of the freemen. It absolutely raised the qualification ; nevertheless it has been justly called a Reform Bill, because it so redistributed the re- presentation, that the will of the people could be adequately expressed through their representatives by that redistribution. Although I felt the force and the beauty of the speech ad- dressed to this House by the right hon. gentleman the mem- ber for Calne ; although I rejoice that one of the small boroughs has vindicated its claim to the long period of exist- ence they have enjoyed by sending to this House a gentleman who is capable of calling up to the memory of the House the nature of the Constitution under which this country has risen to its present greatness, as well as of showing us how fallacious are some of the views which militate against the basis of that Constitution, my position is diff'erent as representing a con- stituency which was created in its present dimensions by the Act of 1832, and is intimately connected by representation with the town of Birmingham, which is from hour to hour increasing in population at the rate of six thousand a year ; and seeing that, in the case of Birmingham, and in the case of North Warwickshire, the electoral body increases in a greater ratio than the population by a natural process, I feel it my duty to enter my protest, as I shall do by voting for the amend- ment of the noble lord the member for Chester, against any measure which proposes to extend the franchise without adapt- ing the representation to the extended franchise that it creates, without granting increased representation to populous districts such as that of which I siiare the representation, in which the constituencies are increased by a natural process, through which the working classes have already a large share by occu- pation in the boroughs, and in the counties by the acquirement of freeholds, which I rejoice to say have been greatly extended. And here I beg lO remin.. the House that I objected to the bill of Lord Derby's Government in 1859, because I could not consent to the inhabitants of Birmingham or other towns who might hold or acquire freeholds in those towns being deprived of the right of sharing in the election of the members for North Warwickshire, one of whom it has been my privi- THE FAEMElt'S MAGAZINE, 475 lege to be for so uiauy years. But to state the main grounds of my objection to this measure, I must refer to the lijiures wnicli liave been ])resented to the House. In 1862 I moved for a return showing the population, the property, the niunber of houses, and the allocation of seats in boroughs and counties at that time. Well, what is now the state of things in England and Wales which this measure does nothing to meet P 1 find that the population of the counties, according to the returns laid before the House, with the view of inducing the house to adopt this measur^!, is 11,427,655 ; that the gross estimated rental of the counties is £67,010,983 ; that the number of electors for the counties is 542,633, and yet that they are represented by only 162 members in this House. On the other hand I fiud,with regard to the boroughs, that they have a population of only 9,326,709 ; that the gross estimated rental of the property in boroughs is only £41,068,325 ; that the num- ber of electors is 514,026 ; and that they are represented in this House by not less than 334 members. This is the position of the population, the property, the number of electors, and the number of representatives in England and Wales. Now take the houses : I find that in the counties — that is, outside the boroughs — there are 2,290,061 houses, whilst in the boroughs there are only 1,449,444 houses. I must say, therefore, that I cannot consent to any biU for the reduction of the franchise, tliat I cannot consent to any step in the direction of lleform, until Her Majesty's Government give proof that it is their serious in- tention in some degree to mitigate this gross anomaly — an ano- maly which exists neither in the representation of Scotland nor that of Ireland — an anomaly which is confined to England and W'ales alone. Until, sir, I have some proof that Her Majesty's Government will consider this gross anomaly I cannot consent to any bill which assumes to be, though this measure does not deserve the title of being, a Kefortu 15ill. The hon. member for Birmingham once said that the proposal which I made to consider this gross anomaly was a most Democratic proposal. Sir, I have no insane fear of Democracy ; the basis of this House is Democratic ; but does my anxiety to consider this gross anomaly deserve to be called Democratic ? Lord Chatham was not a Democratic Minister, yet he proposed to disfranchise largely, and to transfer 100 seats to the counties. In 1783 Mr. Pitt introduced a proposal for Reform, and what did it propose ? To add considerably to the number of memljers for the counties, and to abolish a number of small and corrupt constituencies. But does the House consider that the noble lord at the head of the Government, that the late Lord Palmerston, that the late Sir James Graham, and that the late Lord Aberdeen were De- mocratic statesmen ? Yet, when Lord Aberdeen was at the head of a Government, in which were associated the noble earl tlie present Prime Minister, the late Sir James Graham, and the late Lord Palmerston — three of the statesmen who passed the Reform Act of ]S32 — and when in 1854 that Government proposed a Reform Bill, they proposed to deal with more than sixty seats, to transfer more than sixty seats ; and so sensible were they of the anomaly I have pointed out, that they proposed to give not less than forty-six additional members to the majority of the people in counties. And the house itself has acted in a certain degree upon the same principle. For of the seats which have been taken from disfranchised boroughs three have been given to Yorkshire and Lancashire. Sir, 1 am quite willing to consider the question of a reduction of the franchise. 1 was in favour of the plan of the right hon. gentleman the member for Oxfordshire, and of the right hon. gentleman the member for Cambridge University, in 1859. I thought they were right in proposing that the franchise in the boroughs should be reduced to £8, and that in counties should be reduced to £20. I say, then that I am ready to consider the question of a reduction of tlie franchise; but, as one of the few members in this House who represent the majority of the people, I will consent to no bill purporting to be a Reform Bill which does not in some de- gree remove this gross anomaly — that the majority of the people in England and VVales are represented by a number of members in this House which, if yon subtract from the 163 county mem- bers those wiio would properly fall to the share of the urban voters for the counties, does not exceed 100, or less than one- s'xth of the whole House. Sir, I repeat, and with this obser- vation I conclude what I have to say, that I never will give fny consent to any measure of Reform that does not propose in some degree to mitigate this gross anomaly. EXPERIENCE, CAPITAL, AND SECURITY. At the Freshwell Labourers' Erieud Society's Meeting, Lieut.-Col. BmsE, the President of the Society,' said : It was the custom very often to commence their observations by con- gratulating those present, or perhaps condoling with them, on the agricultural prospects of the time ; but really on the pre- sent occasion he hardly knew what to say on that point, for he heard such a variety of opinions as to the result of the late har- vest. He had so often ventured an opinion on the subject and been contradicted, and had so often heard contradicted the opinions of others, that he hardly knew at present what the residt was. It seemed to him to be a sort of hybrid result — in some parts very fair and in others quite the contrary. On the whole our crop of corn was not up to the average, but below it, and in some parts very much so ; but prices were very satis- factory, and therefore the prospects of some of his agricultural friends were not so gloomy as when he last had the pleasure of speaking to this toast. There were no doubt some who were not at all satisfied with their prospects. There were some who must take all their wheat to pay their rent ; while the others would take all their barley, and the horses all their oats, so that they would have very little left indeed. But he hoped that was not the condition of any in that room. They must remember that the labour market was not altogether governed by the law of supply and demand, and that labour was as neces- sary to capital as capital to labour. What would labour be without capital ? What would capital be without labour ? A few evenings ago he was at a meeting of this description in another part of the county, where the question was asked, How was it that with a sufficient acreage of land and a sufficient labouring population to cultivate tiie acreage, we did not grow sufficient food to feed the people of this country ? And this gave rise to two questions, the first being What was the reason we did not grow sufficient food for the people, so as to be inde- pendent of foreign countries ? And the reason given was that there was an insufficiency of capital throughout the country There were, no doubt, those who were of opinion that it would be advantageous to the country to grow food enough for the people, but they believed it was not to be done hy the present generation of farmers. They would like to see all the old farms, the old associations, and the old squires laid on one side, and the country peopled with monied men from the agricultural districts. Well, the question then arose, would these gentle- men grow more corn than the present race of farmers ? (No, no.) Would they be enabled to feed the country better than it was fed at the present moment ? Well, there was no doubt that experience was as valuable in farming as capital; and he firmly believed himself that the experience of the practical farmer, even if he had insufficient capital, was better able to produce corn even than a large amount of capital put into the land without experience ; and if they came to look at it in that Hght the experienced farmer would, they must admit, grow a quarter of an acre more corn on his occupation than an inex- perienced farmer. But there was one way of increasing the production of the land without extirpating the present race of farmers ; and though in most cases the agriculturists had suffi- cient capital to farm their land, nevertheless there were cases where occupiers had large holdings and insufficient capital to work them with ; and in these cases, he was convinced, as he had said before, that they would find it much more to their own advantage to farm less land and farm it well, while at the same time in so doing they would be conferring an advantage on the farmer generally, for there woidd be more land in the market, and, therefore, rents would be proportionately lower and easier. He thought there was one more qualification besides capital and e.xperience that was necessary to tlie occupiers of land, and that was security. Arthur Y'oung had happily said, " Let them give a man secure possession of a hard rock and he would convert it into a garden ; but give him a nine years' lease of a 476 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. garden and he woiUd turn it into a desert." Well, there was some truth in that. Speaking, as he would act himself if he were a tenant farmer, he would not like to take a farm without a lease, and for this reason — he might have the utmost confi- deuce in the landlord or his agent ; hut the landlord might change his agent, or another landlord might succeed, and aifairs assume a very different position, though no douht there were exceptions to this which tended to show the impossibility, as in all other faiming operations, of laying down any one fixed rule. There were times, perhaps, when it was advantageous to the farmer to take land without lease, and there could be no doubt whatever that the system of leasing should be applied to every case as it arose, and must depend on certain positions, in some cases on the position, prospects, and wealth of the land- lord ; in others in the constitution of the laud, and in others on the skill and enterprise of tlie tenant. He considered the three cpaMcationshehadmentioned — experience, capital, and security — as the most important and material to agricultural interests. THE FARMERS OP PROGRESS. [translated from the "journal d'agriculture pratique."] It lias long been usual to boast of the English farmers, and this was perfectly just ; for it is incontestable that they have taken the lead in the improvement of agriculture in their country. Circumstances have doubtless been eminently fa- vourable to them. They have had vast advantages, and es- pecially those favouring to the highest pitch of the breeding and rearing of cattle. For the greater part they have had excellent landlords, not hesitating to execute at their ovni ex- pense the permanent improvements. In short, free as they were from the " demon of property," they have had the full disposable use of their capital, which thereby not being trans- ferred in the pm'chase of land, has been exclusively appro- priated to the cultivation of the soil properly so called. Thus, everything has combined to enable the English farmer to take the lead, and we must acknowledge that tliey have done this in the improvement of agriculture to the full extent of their ability. But we must be allowed to say that now the French fanners of the present period have amply taken their revenge. They also have their well-informed, energetic class eager for im- provement, anxious to see what is doing in the best cultivated countries, travelling, reading, discussing its interests — holding, in sliort, in society an elevated position, which has not a little contributed to promote the taste for and the habits of rural Ufe in its widest sense. For a long time, and this was at its commencement, this class having acquired competence, if not ■wealth, was anxious to lu-ing up their sons to a so-called libe- ral profession. Their point of honour was to make them notaries, advocates, physicians, officers, public functionaries, &c. ; wliilst, with the same object in view, their daughters were married and portioned off to citizens. But they have now abandoned this erroneous system, and the farmer's sons become farmers in their turn ; and if the daughters still yield to the force of habit, this is compensated by the conquests that the farm makes in the city by the young city dames taking farmers for husbands, not less remarkable for their excellent education, than by their aptitude to identify themselves vdth the new society in wliich they are called to move. All these changes in rural manners have an important significance. It is the agriculture of former times, in which the farmer called his landlord "Our master," that is decidedly being abandoned ; and it is the new husbandry asserting its power by showing at its head, and not without very pardonable pride, a class of men who are the living demonstration of the profits and en- joyments attached in the present day to an agricultural life. The farmer of progress is one of the types that best characterise our modern society. The cities had formerly their bourgeoisie (wealthy citizens), who by dint of labour and economy had been able to acquire a standing in the country. The rural districts were destitute of this middle class, which was able to hold its own position, because it was enlightened and independent enough not to be always the victim of the fraudulent. It was evidently nothing but the formation of a class of rich and educated farmers that could introduce into our rural parts an element whicli commenced, for example, with the emancipation of the rural population. This element has been produced, and works side by side with small farming, which of itself also is power in France. Let us carefully avoid })eing exclusives. In aU large societies various modes of action are required. The absolute often engenders the decadence of a nation. In order to obtain the maximum of useful results of soils, climates, and human aptitude, it re- quires only the combination of mingled powers balanced among themselves, and measuring each its own importance by its social utility, its efl"orts, and its sources. Such is the large husbandry of the fanners with great capitals, and the small husbandry of the working farmers. Each wiU develope itself in proportion to its means of success. The more farming with large capital increases, the more reason wiU there be to hope that farming will become of im- portance. At the present time, a farm of two hundred hec- tares, in a good country, sells for from 4,000f. to 5,000f. per hectare (or from £67 to £84 per acre) — say, 800,000f. or l,000,OOUf. Now, in order to work this farm by extensive culture, with a distillery, we estimate that it will require a working capital of from SOOf. to l,000f. per hectare; say, then, an aggregate of from 160,000f. to 200,000f. Con- sequently, the owner who wishes to make such a farm profit- able by working it himself ought to be more than a millionaire, othervrise he will always be hampered for want of money, and will be the slave, instead of the master, of the land ; and while circumstances \\ill dictate a very active cultivation, his capital — too small — wiU necessitate a course of husbandry below the circumstances, and he will inevitably become in- debted and ruined. Tenant-farming fortunately resolves this problem. It brings before us two parties ; the one gives up his land upon lease — the other charges himself with tlie cultivation, and throws into it the whole of his capital. From hence, with people who seek the improvement of the soil, everything becomes easy : each fulfils his task, and the land gains by it. We understood all the measures of prudence in the law, when the farmers consisted of poor devils who could give no guarantee, no material tie. Thus, the crops and the chattels and utensils of the farm were not too much to answer to lease- holds. But what a difierence when compared with rich far- mers paying rents of lOOf. to 150f. per hectare, fattening thousands of sheep or hundreds of cattle in a winter, har- vesting large crops of wheat, roots, and forage, and putting into operation a capital of oue hundred or two hundred thou- sand francs. Assuredly, such fanners as the first ought to be avoided by every landovraer, for they can only practise an exhausting cultivation. Their interest calls for an improving husbandry — one that leaves the laud at the end of a lease richer than at its beginning. Not comprehending that, compels them, for want of equitable agreements, to take from the soil, on leaving it, what they have put into it: in other words, as a final result, to destroy their work of improvement, for want of knowing tlie difference between land in full profit and the same exhausted. ]\Iany proprietors have fiiUy comprehended this situation. Having had the good fortune to contract with improving tenants, they have thought it good policy to take upon them- selves the permanent improvements — that is to say, such as wiU remain irremovable in the land. Thus, these intelligent proprietors have, at their own expense, erected farm-buildings, drained, marled, drilled, and irrigated, only requiring the farmer to do the cartage, and to pay, in addition to the rent, an interest varying from three to five per cent, upon the permanent outlay. What is the result? A very important one. The tenant, assured of sufficient buildings, no longer fears to increase these crops and cattle. Certain of operating upon a healthy THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 477 soil, they do not liesitate to expend money upon it by heavy manuring. The more the proprietor fulfils his part, the more the tenant increases his efforts. And in the long-run, it often happens that such a farm, which, for a long time, was de- nounced on account of the number of tenants who left it ruined, is raised in public estimation to such a pitch that the only difficulty with the owuer is to choose a tenant out of the numbers who apply for it on lease. The " Credit Foncier" would soon become a truly profitable institution to agriculture if the number of improving landlords increased in France. They charge it of lending to the cities and towns much more than to the country. In that respect, it only follows the market for capitals, which go where the de- mand exists, and where they are repaid at the time agreed on. And they will go to the land when the rural proprietors will employ themselves resolutely in the work of improvements, whether in cultivating the land themselves, or in uniting them- selves with improving tenants. For large farming, the first of these conditions supposes millionaire proprietors : the second appears the most practical, and the most in accordance with our national disposition. It creates an important distinction in agricidtural capitals — the one constituting the fortune of the proprietor, the other tlie capital of the farmer. In proportion as the Credit Foncier shall become so much more rural that the class of improving proprietors will be more numerous, so wiU it be for agricultural credit, the extent of which depends upon the increase in the number of improv- ing tenants. To borrow for double the extent cultivated when each hectare has not the amount of capital required, is to take a passport for the country of ruin. But to borrow for double and triple the capital of every hectare, for the purpose of manuring, working, and harvesting at the maximum is another thing. In the first case, small crops afford only small profits; and it may even happen that the more land we hold the greater the risk of impoverishing ourselves. In the second case, large crops conduce to large profits, and when we gain 10 or 13 per cent, upon the culture we may be allowed to borrow at 5 or 6 per cent., provided that the periods of repay- ment coincide with those of the receipts of money. But it is a certain fact, that the position of a farmer who ebtains credit, is so much the bet-fer that he cultivates land the owner of which does the permanent improvements. Such a farmer has certainly more capital at his disposal. He sinks nothing, and only operates lor short terms. His capital is circulating in the first rank, being essentially an industrial capital. We have seen proprietors who have had no reason to con- gratulate themselves on their improvements. They were anxious to proceed, or have associated themselves with tenants who proceed faster than the position of the country admits. The great law of demand and supply was true with the land as with the products. To create lands of IjOOOf. per hectare in countries where lauds of 500f. are alone in demand for purchasers and tenants, is to create a nominal value which has not the sanction of public opinion, and must be subjected to depreciation. Beyond a doubt, things now change far more rapidly than they formerly did ; and a coun- try winch actively employs itself in improving the means of communication and thus increasing its prosperity, becomes the theatre, more or less rapid, of changes in the value of land, of band-labour, and of its produce. Nor is it less certain that these changes demand more or less the acquiescence of the times. Such a country progresses very fast, whUst another is very slow : from thence, consequently, in some cases from hopes surpassed, at others from hopes disappointed ; and there is no occasion to say more in order to explain how certain improving proprietors have succeeded whilst others have failed. What are we to say of these histories of success and re- verses ? They certainly teach us more than one important lesson. Minds disposed to believe that a multiplied addition of small secondary objects can couuterbalause the inllucnce of facts of the first importance, will timidly conclude from it that there is no scope for recommending great agricultural im- provements. In our view of the matter it will be best to avoid taking too much part with these nervous people. There is one overwhelming truth that rules the whole case, namely, that European agriculture can only save itself by the improve- ment of the soil ; and that if there are countries whose turn is not yet arrived, there are others in which husbandry has not been carried to its proper height of perfection. Countries over-peopled require to be relieved of the excess of rural popu- lation. Let the husbandmen of the north disperse themselves in the centre, the east and the west. The south alone is not migratory ; it has its sun which attracts the inhabitants of the more temperate regions. But on the whole, if we freely re- turn to agricultural life, it is to be presumed that the genius of colonisation will find in a great number of rural solitudes much land of greater value than has formerly been ascribed to them. The absence of roads and local demand struck them with sterility, although they surpass in natural fertility certain lands improved at a great expense in our districts of advanced husbandry. Let commimicatious be formed, and population wiU follow. Let science and capital be introduced, and agri- cultural wealth will transform more than one district, ad- mired by poets, who saw it only in passing, but never lived there. Success, then, to our good tenant farmers. Tliey have been the great promoters of artificial pastures, of the cultivation of roots, and manufacturing plants, of Merino sheep, and of preco- cious breeds of annuals, distilleries, and agricultural implements. They have instituted in rural society a class which exercises, and wiU exercise more and more a beneficial influence over our destinies. The work has been worthily accomplished. Welcome to the labourers of the first hour ; welcome also, welcome always to those who shall come the next day to crown the edifice. Nor shaU the sympathetic co-operation of the Journat of Pradical AgriculUire be withheld from them ; for one of the first objects that Journal has in view, is to promote the triumph between the landlords and the tenant farmers of the fruitful principle of a union of interests over the disas- trous principle of antagonism. This is, in our opinion, one of the most powerful means of contributing, by the press, to the progress of our agriculture. E. Lecouteux. WHAT WOMEN CAN DO. Among the strangers in Philadelphia recently, were two ladies from Martinsburg, West Virginia. They were pur- chasing a seed drill, a mowing machine, and other agricultural implements, whose cost in the aggregate was about 800 dols. Their home was very close to the theatre of the late war. Be- tween the two conteuding armies their houses and barns were burned, their horses and cattle driven off, their only brother conscripted into the rebel army, and themselves left utterly des- titute and homeless. Any one who, seeing a young lady such as we saw yesterday, had been told that she had personally ploughed and planted many acres of land, would have laughed to scorn the party so informing him. Such, however is literally the case. We learned the facts from a gentleman residing in the vicinity. The smoking ruins of the farm upon which these young people resided had scarcely cooled when the neighbours clubbed together, built them a log house, and ex- temporized a sort of barn. Horses were loaned to them, and the girls with their own hands ploughed the ground and seeded it with corn. The crop grew apace, and with their own hands they harvested it. They sold it to good advantage. They had owned forty-seven negro slaves. Some of these went into the Union army, others deserted the locaUty. The girls were left alone to battle with the vicissitudes of the war. Our informant, whose respectability is beyond a question, says that these girls produced by their works in the field more decided and productive results than were accomplished by the entire gang of slaves. They toiled for three years, and now have a comfortable house and most substantial barns upon their pro- perty, while improvements liave been made upon it to an extent that makes it of considerably more value than before the torch of conflicting armies reduced its building to ashes. One of the young ladies has since married, but the others still do duty as their own " overseers," and they themselves purchased yesterday, and directed the shipment of the agricultural implements to which we have above referred. The wonder to the dealer was that a lady, delicately-gloved and attired as though she had never overstepped the bounds of the boudoir, should descant ex- perimentally and intelligently upon the respective merits of the different reaping machines, and upon the comparative values of the different patents for threshiug-out the cereals. These young ladies were educated in Philadelphia, and are well known to many of our best people. — Philadelphia North American. 478 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. AGRICULTURE AND AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS, At the annual meeting of the Witheridge (North Devon) (Vgricultural Association on Monday, Oct. 22, the lliglit Hon. Sir S. JN'oKTiicOTE, M.P., tlie President of tlie Board of Trade, said he came to Witheridge witli some doubt on liis mind as to tlie benelicial elFects of ploughing matches — a subject upon which much diversit}- of opinion existed. liaving come by no means prejudiced in their favour, what be had seen that day convinced liira that agricultural societies were useful and va- luable institutions. In the first place, the spirit of emulation engendered among tbeir young men, who were, by means of the AH England prize, brought into competition with distin- guished ploughmen who were able to show them the bighest specimens of the art, must do a great deal towards promoting the special work which they were endeavouring to forward. They had matches of all kinds — rille, archery, liorse racing — and surely in so useful and important a work as that of plough- ing, the same principle could be brought into play with ad- vantage. It must be satisfactory to them to kuo\v tbat they had men among them who could bold their own against those who came from a distance. On being shown tlie work of the latter gentlemen (wbo were supposed to sbow tbem how their ploughing should be done), and afterwards work contiguous thereto of persons belonging to the district, he (the riggt hou. baronet) could not but see that, although they bad no doubt something to learn, the ploughmen of Witheridge were not by any means behind. The establishment of ploughing matches had done a great deal towards elevating tbe standard of that kind ot work. If they looked, therefore, at the effect of agri- cultural associations on the ploughing of the ground alone tliey were obviously well worth keeping up. "But tbey must also consider tlie indirect advantages of these meetings. They caused large bodies of men interested in tbe practical work of agriculture to assemble — not as mere theorists^jut as men who are conscious of the worthlessness of theoretical know- ledge simply, and as men who were fully alive to the im- portance of conducting their business so as to make a living out of it. They came together to compare ideas one with an- other, to watcli the operations of the competitors, and at the same time to converse upon subjects which had a common in- terest for aU. Such meetings as these, if they were conducted in a liberal spirit, must be productive of great good. Societies, such as they sometimes found in small places, which were formed merely for the purpose of keeping alive local preju- dices, would do harm instead of good ; but where they had meetings of men who were prepared to look boldly at' their position, to the wants which they experienced, to the difhcul- ties which existed, and to the means of meeting those difficul- ties— if they met to express and submit for discussion, as Cap- tain Davy had, opinions, perhaps, with which their audience might differ — these meetings, he was convinced, would result in benefit to all. The agricultural interest of England v,as now in rather a critical position — and not only the agricultural interest, but all the interests which depended upon the employment of labour. There was a great difficulty just now in obtaining a sufficient supply of prop'erly- trained labourers for nearly every branch of industry. Not very long ago he had the good fortune to be present at a meeting in Liverpool, and while there he had occasion to see what was going on among our enterprising merchants, es- pecially those engaged in tbe commercial shipping of this country ; and there he met with the same kind of complaint as he found in the rural districts. There was a great difficulty in obtaining a supply of seamen of the same class which for- merly manned our commercial navy. Superior advantages were offered in so many other occupations, that, in spite of the high rate of wages given, the men failed to come forward ill sufficient numbers, and those who did were not so well trained nor so ready to do their duty as formerly. He (Sir Stafford) was asked whether it was not possible to devise some measures for remedying this evil ; and it was a question of such great national interest that public attention would lnev^tably have to be given to it. 13ut he ventured to say to those gentlemen who spoke to him on the subject, " You may naturally deem this matter one of national importance, and that it is desirable Government should assist in obtaining a supply of seamen for your ships ; but recollect, tbe difficulty of which you complain does not exist in your branch of in- dustry alone — there are other classes who also complain of a deficiency in the supply of labour ; and, if we endeavour to increase that supply by artificial means, the agricultural inte- rest may justly complain that we are drawing labourers away from them." Now, he recommended that persons engaged in every kind of business, and especially in one so important as that of agriculture, should frequently meet together and en- deavour as far as possible by mutual consultation to discover what were their dilficulties, and m what way those difficulties were to be met. T'hey must remember that many advantages might be offered to the laljourer which might act as a counter- poise to the inducements of higher wages in other trades. If they took upon themselves the duty of making his position as comfortable and advantageous as possible, tbey would thereby find for themselves the best mode of procuring that supply which was so essentially necessary for the furtlierance of their own interests. One efficient was undoubtedly better than two or three slovenly and inefficient labourers ; therefore, their first aim should be to make their situations as attractive as possible to the best labourers, for those were the men who went away, while the least efficient remained at home. They could not fight against the great law of supply and demand. If men found that by going a certain distance from home and engaging in other occupations they could obtain better liveli- lioods and more favourable positions in society, it was no use preaching to them tbat they ought to stay where they were. It was obviously tbeir duty to induce labourers to remain at home by making them more comfortable and rendering them more efficient. This opened up the question between landlord and tenant, and was one of the points on which meetings of that kind were extremely useful. The tenant-farmers, who were endeavouring to maintain themselves and reap a profit out of the cultivation of the land, should compare notes with their landlords, and endeavour to ascertain what were the matters in which they could best assist their labourers. He com- pletely recognized the corresponding duty on the part of the landlord as compared with the duty of the tenant. But it was of no use meeting together to make general observations, or to complain that they could not do their part because the landlords did not do theirs. Practical men should make up their minds as to what their landlord should be called upon to do; because, liowever well disposed a landovi-ner might be to do everything necessary for the advantage of his tenant, he was often at a loss in which way best to apply his money. Sometimes, having been taken by some theory advanced in a periodical or by a crochety professor, belaid out a great deal of money, but found out, after all, that it did not answer, and that he had much better have kept the money in his pocket. But where the landlord had inteUigent tenants, who would show him that they were doing their part — that tliey required better farm-buildings, improved cottages for their labourers, and assistance in draining the land — who would show him that tbey understood what they were about — that if he laid out his capital under their advice it would be productive of advantage in a great number of ways — then he (Sir Staf- ford) believed landlords would always be found ready to do tbeir duty. If they did not, then let them bear the responsi- bility— he had no desire to screen them. In developing a science like that of agriculture, they must bear in mind two points. It was important to study to some extent general principles, to keep themselves acquainted with the general march of events, and to be informed of the condition of agri- culture and of all interests connected with it, both in this and other countries. On the other hand, it was also necessary that tbey should observe the local conditions under which they lived ; because a man farming an estate at Witheridge was not farming an estate in general : he must not treat the matter tike a professor who was dealing with agriculture as a science. With the local knowledge supplied by a practical acquaintance THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 479 w ith the estate, he ought to know not wliat laud in general would do, but what his own land in particular would do — not what were the implements employed and the mode of cultiva- tion adopted in other parts, but what were the implements and what the culture most suited to his particular farm. But he could not do this without a general knowledge of the princi- ples upon which operations were conducted elsewhere ; and the knowledge of his own laud enabled him to judge how far those principles were applicable to himself. This gave him (the speaker) an opportunity of saying a word in connexion with his department of Government — he referred to the collec- tion of agricultural statistics. It was important for the in- terests not only of the agricultural, but of every other portion of the community, that full and correct information should be obtained of the progress of agriculture in different parts of the country. Many gentlemen supposed that the questions put jto them were addressed in a prying spirit, in order to obtain nformation with regard to individual concerns. This was quite a mistake ; the only motive of Government was to as- certain the condition of agriculture at the present time, what the amount of acreage, what classes of crops were being raised, and what amount of stock was being kept. It was desirable to obtain that information from year to year, so as to mark the progress of the country, and to com- pare one portion with another. Some persons asked what was the use of this information ? Doubtless, in a single year the statistics desired would be of very little use ; but their utility was obvious, when collected during a series of years. Take, for instance, the question raised so many years ago — the feeding of cattle upon root-crops. It would have been iuteresting if they could have seen how far the breaking up of the country for the cultivation of root-crops affected the number of cattle. And then, again, wlien so much of the land was laid down to grass, it would Jiave been useful to see how the introduction of artificial manures and the adoption of particular systems of husbandry had an increased effect upon the produce of the country. How to obtain this infor- mation in the least unpalatable manner to those called upon to supply, it wag a matter which had for the last thirty years been under the consideration of tlie Government. Thirty years ago the first attempt was made to obtain agricultural statistics ; and the information was in one or two counties sought by application to the clergy. They refused ; and after- wards, in other counties, similar applications were made to Boards of Guardians, but they also would not comply with the request of Government. It was true the application was fa- vourably received in Norfolk ; but, ou the whole, great reluct- ance was manifested to make use of that machinery. Then it was attempted to make the matter compulsory ; but the bills brought into I'arliament for that purpose always failed- A Committee of the House of Lords sat, inquired into the sub- ject, and reported upon it ; and now this last attempt had been made to obtain the information through the intervention of the officers of Excise. So far, it seemed to be successful. He (the speaker) had read the returns of stock, with the excep- tion of a few instances in whicli the numbers had been esti- mated. Nine-tenths of the returns were made very freely, having been a little stimulated, perhaps, in some parts, by the presence of the cattle-plague. The acreage returns were not complete, but in many cases he believed the reports were very good. He hoped they would consider this subject as being one which affected the interests of the whole country. He argued that, as farmers were interested in tlie statistics con- nected with every other trade, with the exports and imports of the country, and with the produce of America, France, and otlier parts of the world, they ought, in mere fairness, to fur- nish information relating to themselves. He asked them to talk over the matter among themselves ; and if they thought the present mode of collecting the statistics objectionable, they should try to suggest a better. These were points ou wliich the Government were in tlie dark .- they were feeling their way. It was said that it would not do to collect statis- tical information through the police, the clergy, or boards of guardians ; and, now they were trying the revenue officers, they were told that would not do also. Now Government asked, " Is there any way ? or are you determined that this in- formation shall not he forthcoming ? And, if you are, let us know what are your reasons, if you have any ?" for he con- fessed he was not able to arrive at any conclusion witli regard to the objections against giving agricultural statistics, lie felt deeply interested in the w^elfare of British agriculture. He was perfectly certain that at the present time it was in a critical position, and he was also quite certain that the way to overcome the difficulties with which they had to contend was to encourage the most perfect freedom of intercommunication between all classes, to disclose with readiness the difliculties which arose, and to meet all questions in a liberal and candid spirit, making at the same time proper allowance for local views, local knowledge, and even (if it be so) local prejudice, because he believed local prejudice to be generally founded upon something that had truth at the bottom. THE FUTURE OF AGRICULTURE. At the Norton Farmers' Club some very practical speeches were made. ]Mr. Jaukson, M.P., for North Derbyshire, said he had been in many countries in the course of his life, and had seen the source of wealth in many of them had sprung from mother earth. It was no matter how well they managed, if tiiey treated mother earth well, she will repay them fourfold. He had been a keen observer of the various modes of agriculture in various parts of tlie world, and he could say England has yet a great deal to do ; that though she had done more than other countries, there are other countries who have done more than she. She ought not to be last, and the farmers of Eng- land should not rest until they had by perseverance and labour become almost if not in advance of the otlier nations of the earth. There were many things we do not produce. Legisla- tion has prevented it. They say the climate stops it. He thought when he looked at the various flowers exhibited that day — what had they done? They had acclimatised the dahlia ; they had acclimatised the fuschia ; and if they went into Chats- worth and saw the various plants acclimatised they would never tell him tliey could not acclimatise any plant if they applied themselves to it. The middle classes had been termed the back bone of England, but he contended the tillers of the soil were the back bone of the country. Mr. Fowler, after some general observations on the close union that existed between the commercial and the agricultural classes, referred to the course of legislation during the last thirty years as it affected the great staple of our agriculture — corn. Mr. Jackson and the political party with whom he acted no doubt claimed the credit of having repealed the corn laws, and it was a wise and excellent measure ; but there was no room to doubt that, in a short time, if Parliament had not taken the course it did, it would have been compelled to do so by the popular will. The effect upon agriculture by the repeal of those laws was that our farmers were exposed to the competition of the whole world, and that competition became more severe in proportion as other countries developed their means of internal transit, and so brought their productions nearer to the English market. The English farmer was also placed at a disadvan- tage by the increased cost of labour, as compared witli the prices paid in other countries ; but this was met to some extent by the introduction of labour-saving machines. There was nothing more interesting than to see in a large agricultural show the ingenuity of the devices for saving labour in farming operations. The practical end to which he wished to direct their attention was this. They were at a disadvantage in this district, first of aU by the high price of labour, and secondly by the smaDncss of the enclosures, which would not allow them to take advantage to the full extent of reaping machines, steam ploughs, and other necessary implements. But if they were thus at a disadvantage in regard to growing com, the y 480 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. were compeusated in another way which lie would point out, namely, by facilities for the production of beef and mutton. The importation of fat cattle had been to a great extent a failure. A fat beast was a delicate animal, and could not bear the rough usuage inseparable from a sea voyage and a long land journey ; and he did not think with all the efforts that could be made, that the importation of cattle or dead meat would ever assume very large proportions. That being so, it was ob- vious that the English farmers could compensate themselves for the competition in corn ; and he drew the attention of the company to the capabilities of this district for grazing pur- poses, and the production of milk and butter, to the partial exclusion of corn. No doubt he would be told, " We must grow such things as our farm are adapted for." To that he offered no objection. In the Peak of Derbysliire it would be idle to attempt to grow wheat, and in some retentive clay in the south, where the natural grasses found no home, the peculiari- ties of the soil rendered certain operations of farming impossi- ble. He farmed 250 acres, and he was fully satisfied that his best policy was to produce meat rather than corn, and he advdsed his hearers to foUow his example, and to find in that way a compensation for the very little profit they could now extract out of corn. Mr. Jackson said he felt very strongly upon this subject. This part of Derbyshire was not suited to grow wheat, but the country had every facility for an immense production of Ijcef and mutton. The lion, member proceeded to call the attention of the company to the vast importance of a brancli of farming which was generally overlooked in tliis country — he alluded to the breeding of poultry. The enormous im- portation of eggs showed the extent of the demand. A Liverpool banker told him that he had cashed cheques to the extent of £400,000 for eggs alone, and a London merchant pointed out to him the enormous extent of the traffic. That was a direct loss ta the farmers of England ; and he suggested tliat if they would turn their attention to the breeding of poultry they would find that with very little care and trouble they would receive immense benefit, and vast sums of money now paid to Continental breeders would be retained in Eng- land. He spoke of the importance attached in Ireland, Italy, and other countries to the rearing of poultry, and urged the farmers to commit that part of their business to the sole charge of their wives aud daughters. They might depend upon it that a rich source of profit was being at present neg- lected. LABOURERS' LODGINGS AND WAGES. The following correspondence has recently appeared in The Times : — Sir, — You were kind enough last month to publish a letter which I addressed to you respecting the ill-conditioned dwel- lings and low wages of agricultural labourers in my own parish, as well as in other parts of the county of Devon and some other counties. You wUl, perhaps, be as much surprised, and certainly as much pleased, as I am with the result of tliat appeal to public opinion, and wUl not possibly be disinclined to publisli this short account of it. In a few days after the publication of that letter I received applications for labourers on very advantageous terms from various parts of the country where \Tages "are high, and la- bourers, even ou high wages, very scarce. I have already sent three families, and am on the point of sending two more, to one estate in the neighbourhood of Dublin, on the very liberal terms of payment of the whole expense of removal of the men with their wives and children, 14s. a-week wages, a furnished house and garden rent-free, and half the cost of a suit of work- ing clothes for each man. I have two other families engaged for Yorkshire at Martinmas, at wages of 12s. Gd. a-week, house and garden rent-free, and part of the cost of removal allowed. I have an application from Berkshire at day wages of lis. a- week, and piece wages during the summer o'f from 13s. to 20s. a-week ; and from Hertfordshire for " a whole cargo" of labourers, at wages varying from 15s. to 18s. a-week, accord- ing to capability. Owing to the difficulty arising from the ex- pense of removal wlien this is not provided for, and the fact that very many of the labourers in my neighbourhood are by the custom of the county legally bound to their employers till next Lady-day, it may be some time before men are found in a position to accept all the offers last mentioned. There is, however, no lack of will, but only of way ; and, without doubt, at next Lady-day, when the term of last year's hiring will ex- pire, unless the farmers generally are prepared, as some do now, to give better wages, abandon the truck system, pay in com, and treat their labourers in aU respects better, these ^\'ill contrive in some way or other to raise the means of removal to those parts of the country in which they are now aware they can make the pleasant change from wages at 7s. or 8s. a-week, •with deductions for house-rent and wet days, and the remainder partly paid in grist, to the comparative wealth of los. or 18s. wages a-week paid wholly in coin. The agricultural labourers in the badly-paid districts are, as well as myself, deeply indebted to you for publishing my first letter. They are under great obligation also to those of your readers who have so promptly adopted the practical way above Uescnbed of assisting me to compass my object. Free trade in labour is as fair for aU parties as in everything else. Only there can be no such thing as free trade for the agricultural labourer, but rather he is completely at the mercy of the far- mer as long as he is kept in ignorance of the existence of a better market for labour, or when he knows of it is hindered by extreme poverty from attempting to reach it. Such igno- rance is now to a certain extent removed, and will no doubt be still more completely removed when accounts are received by their friends from those who have already changed their homes. As for the expense of removal, it would be well if all, as far as possible, who apply to me for labourers, would, as has been already done by some, offer to take either in whole or part that expense upon themselves. And it may not, perhaps, be too much to hope that some independent persons who take an interest in my work may be inclined to place a small fund at my disposal for this purpose. When aU obstacles are thus removed, wages, like water, are sure to find their level, and free trade in agricultural labour will be really established. Your obedient servant, Edwaiid Giedlestone, Canon of Bristol Oct. 16. and Vicar of Halberton. Sir, — In TJie Times of to-day is a letter from the Vicar of Halberton. I wish to ask the rev. gentleman if all that I see there comes of careful inquiry, and is penned after coolly weighing the evidence he v.Tites on ? Coming from such a quarter, to doubt the truth of the statements is absurd, if only they are the result of thought and not enthusiasm ; but there is one passage so astounding that, for the sake of the class to which the letter is a hint, I hope it is misprinted or hastily \ATitten. Speaking of the advantages of the labourer removing to better-paid districts, he says : — " They can make the plea- sant change from wages at 7s. or 8s. a-week, with deductions for house-rent and wet days, and the rest partly paid in grist, to the comparative wealth of los. or 18s. a-week paid wholly in coin." Does the writer mean to tell your readers that tliere is in Devonshire, or anjTvhere in England or Scotland, from Cornwall to Caithness, from Liverpool to Dover, a district, or even a parish, where the gross earnings of a full-grown able- bodied agricultural labourer are as low as 7s. a-week ? I can- not believe it. With the present price of agricultural produce, the general scarcity of labour, the extraordinary facility for cheap travelling, and the ever-present penny paper to tell the underpaid of better wages in other districts, is it possible that hands are to be had at 7s. or 8s. a-week, and that paid partly in kind, and pay house-rent and everything out of what is left ? I was brought up as an agriculturist, and reside and farm in a county where wages are not by any means equal to what is paid in the north ; but I know of nothing like this. I am aware all manner of extraordinary things are said about agri- cultural labourers, and aU manner of charges are brought against their employers on the score of scanty remuneration, THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 481 These are, however, for the most part auonymous communica- tions to papers of a different grade to The Times ; but when I see a high dignitary in the Church signing his name to a state- ment of this kind, I am forced to inquire if tliere is not some mistake. Few farmers care to enter upon a paper correspon- dence, and thus many assertions pass as true from want of con- tradiction or correction. If the statements I allude to are cor- rect, I can offer no explanation, and should not wish to be the defender of a scale of wages apparently so unwarrantably be- low the ordinary rate of remuneration ; but if there is any mistake, I trust, for the sake of the Devonsliire farmers, the Vicar of Halberton wiU give your readers some explanation. Unless something more is said on the subject, we may expect to hear of Mr. Bright " stumping" in Exeter, exhorting the labourers in the " garden of England" to force at the point of the pitchfork a higher standard of wages. I am. Sir, yours obediently, Flayford, Ipsicick, Oct. 18. Herji.\:m Biddell. Canons' House, Bristol, Oct. 22. Sir, — I have just read your letter in The Times of to-day. I am not at all surprised that my statements almost surpass your power of behef. Nevertheless, these statements are of facts which have passed daUy l)efore my eyes during the four years I have been Vicar of Halberton. That parish contains nearly. 8,000 acres, and there are in it. more or less, about 60 farmers. With very few exceptions, 8s., and in some cases only 7s., a-week, are the wages given to an able-bodied agri- cultural labourer. I believe tlie same scale of wages, or nearly so, prevails in a large part of the county of Devon, but I will only vouch for what I personally know. In one family, for which I am thankful to say I have a better berth in prospect, the man — a yomig, strong, industrious fellow — has Ss. a-week wages if the weather be fine, from which Is. lid. is deducted for rent. So that he brings liome never more than 6s. Id. for food, clothing, and fuel for his family, consisting of a wife, three young children, and a fourth on the way. This is not by any meaus an uncommon case. In many instances deduc- tion is made not ouly for rent but for grist at the farmer's price, so that the labourer sometimes does not carry home more than 3s. 6d. a-week in coin. I know of two strong lads in one family, aged respectively 16 and 14, who receive from the farmer who employs them, the one 3s. 9d., the other 2s. 6d. a-week ; and the farmer, reckoning these miserable earn- ings of the two lads together with the father's wages, stated in a public paper that he gave his labourers 14s. a-week. In some cases the labourers are not allowed to keep pigs, lest they should steal food for them from their masters, which I verily believe they are far too honest under any circumstances to do. It is only in a very few instances, which I acknowledge with thankfulness, that in case of sickness or accident the farmers are really kind to their labourers, while it more generally hap- pens that they leave them wholly to themselves, their club, if they have one, the poor-rate, and me. It is seldom that they can get even a pint of milk from their employer. A shepherd near me broke his ribs in bis master's service. Owing to liis being shepherd, he had his house rent-free, in addition to liis 8s. wages. But during his illness his rent was stopped out of his son's wages. You will see, then, that by mentioning the bare amount of wages only, without the addition of such par- ticulars as I have now supplied, I have rather understated than overstated tlie case. I send you a copy of an address I lately circulated among my parisliioners, that you may see the sort of way in which a large number of Devonshire farmers have in the enlightened year 1866 resented my attempt to improve the condition of the labourer. I am happy to say, liowever, tliat the work of emigration is going on steadily. Those labourers wliom I have succeeded in removing to other places write me word that notliing would induce them to return to Hal- berton. I have also already received £5 in answer to my appeal in my last letter in Tlie Times for a small fund to defray the cost of the removal of labourers. I hope I may yet receive more, addressed to me at Canons' House, Bristol, where my duties at tlie cathedral oblige me at present to reside. Your obedient servant, Edward Girdlestone, Canon of Bristol, and Vicar of Halberton. To Hermau Biddell, Esq. Sir, — I reside in a small agricultural parish in Hampshire. I have this moment made inquiry of two of my labourers, and I find that tlie wage now received by an able-bodied labourer, when engaged in ordinary work, is 9s. a-week. Out of this they have to pay Is. a-week for house-rent — one of my infor- mants, receiving no better wages than the others, pays £4 per annum. The labourer is generally paid for wet days— always when at work ; but sometimes there is no work for him, and sometimes, I imagine, he prefers remaining at home, thinking tliat, with the wear and tear of clothes and with the personal discomfort, staying at home is the most economical plan. I know, certainly, that for some time during the past win- ter the wages were only 8s. per week, and the wife of one of tlie labourers remembers them at 7s. within the last few years. There is no ale, cider, or any other emolument given. It is possible that, after this, Mr. BiddeU may really believe that hands arc to be procured at the paltry sum of 7s. or 8s. per week. Your obedient servant, Oct. 23. The Vicar. Mr. Kekewich, one of the Members for South Devon, said, at Woodbury, during the past week, " I have seen wiih some degree of pain a letter in the leading journal of the country, stating that in this county landlords give the most niggardly wages to their labourers. I cannot endorse that opinion : I don't believe that in this county labourers are badly paid. Some time since, I took upon myself to make some inquiries on the subject in the district for which I am an ex-otlicio Guardian, and I found that the wages paid to the labourer were by no means as low as they were represented, viz., 7s. per week. I know that the occupiers of land in my own district are giving 10s. and lis. per week besides liquor (a voice : " And 12s.") I know there are many good labourers in my district, working by piece, who receive from 12s. to 15s. But, let me tell you, they are very good labourers ; and I do not see why a bad labourer should be paid the same wages as a man who performs liis task well. The labourer is worthy of his hire, but he must be paid according to his worth. Then, we are told that the labourers will leave the county ; but I have very great doubt whether tliey will get better wages else- where. There are great advantages which the labourer has in this county — he has his house at much lower rent than the labourer in other parts of England. It is not for me to dictate what rent a Devonshire labourer should pay ; but perhaps Is. a-week is as much as he can pay for a cottage with a good garden attached. In other parts the labourers receive 12s. or 14s. a-week against 10s. given here, hut then they liave to pay £3 or £6 a-year, and even more, for rfent. Tlierefore, I think the labourer in this county is not badly paid. I do not mean to say that he is paid as well as he ought to be. That is quite a cUfterent question ; but that he is paid small wages on which he cannot live I most absolutely deny. We are told that the labourers go away. W' hat ! go away ? Quit their county ? Leave ail the associations of their parish — tlieir native place ? No, gentlemen ; if we think the labourer has not suflicient wages in order that lie may be retained on the soil on whicli he was born, then I beseech you to raise his wages, and I my- self wiU do the same." NAILS, NUTS, SCREWS AND BOLTS.— One of the most component parts ofa good farmer is mechanical ingenuity. Some lose lialf a day's time, for want of knowing how to repair a breakage, which an ingenious person could do in five minutes. A team and two or three men are sometimes stopped a \\holc day, at a critical season, for want of a little mechanical skill. It is well for every farmer to have at hand the facilities for repairing. In addition to the more common tools, he should keep a supply of nails of different sizes, screws, bolts, and nuts. Common cut nails are too brittle for repairing implements, or for other similar purposes. Buy only the very best and anneal them, and tliey will answer aU the ordinary purposes of the best wTought naUs. To anneal, all that is necessary is to heat them red hot in a common fire, and cool gradually. Let them cool, for instance, by remaining in tlie fire, while it burns down and goes out. One such nail, MeU clenched, will be worth half a dozen unannealed. Nothing is more common than for a farmer to visit the blacksmith shop to get a broken or lost bolt or rivet inserted, and ol'tcu ' a single nut on a bolt. This must be paid for 46:; THE FAEMEK'S MAGAZINE. and much time is lost. Tiy providing a supply of bolts nuts and rivets much trouble may be saved. They may be purchased wliolesale at a low rate. These sliould all be kept in shallow boxes, ^rith compartments made for the purpose furnished vvitli a bow-haudle for conveuieuce in carrying them. One box, with half a dozeu divisions, may be appropriated to nails of different sizes ; and another, with as many compart- ments, to screws, bolts, rivets, etc. Every farmer should keep on baud a supply of copper wire, and small pieces of sheet copper or copper straps. Copper wire is better than annealed iron wire ; it is almost as flexible as twine, and may be bent and twisted as desired ; and it will not rust. Copper straps nailed a cross or around a fracture or split in any wooded article, will strengthen it in a thorough manner. — ;S'. E. Todd. THE INTERCHANGE OF DISEASE BETWEEN MAN AND ANIMALS. It has occurred to us that since so much has been said aud written of late on the diseases of cattle — pleuro-pneumonia, rinderpest, fluke, trichina, and what not — a very appropriate sequel might be found in tracing the influence which such diseases are likely to have on the liuraan frame. Though, like good Christians, we keep the fact out of sight, it is neverthe- less true that all our anxiety about the health of the animal creation is selfish at bottom. It is only the diseases of domestic animals we pay any attention to ; wild ones may sutfer as much as ever, and die ofl' as fast as ever, and Mel- come. Of tlie domestic animals, we are most concerned about those which are likely to become conducive to our stomachic comfort — oxen and pigs rather than horses or dogs, though why the former sliould have obtained precedence of the latter it is hard to say. Till within the last half-century there was hardly any such thing as veterinary science. The animal con- stitution was ignored almost as much as the animal soul. There was no lack of disease, however ; and since it began to be studied in earnest it has started some curious speculations — for as yet they are nothing more — as to the pathological re- lations of the liuman and the brute creation. A savan read a paper on this subject some time ago before the Society of Arts, which, as a specimen of the romance of science, is well worthy of reproduction in a popular form. The communi- cability of disease from animals to man might, he said, be considered under three aspects — first, as to specific diseases ; second, as to deleterious eifects of a general nature ; and, third, as to parasitic affections. Under the first head we get no very definite information, but only vague assurances that each species has its own kinds of disease, which cannot be transplanted, or at least not perma- nently, to another species. The only animal disease which has yet been observed to be distinctly reproduced in the human sub- ject is anthrax, or maligniant pustule. We mean reproduced by infection, for the negative does not extend to inoculation. It is notorious that cow-pox, for example, can be and is trans- planted to man by the latter process, liovine typhus and pleuro- pneumonia and rinderpest luive fortunately no sympathy what- ever with the human frame. They cannot be reproduced in it even by inoculation. Some Yorkshire bumpkin recently took it into his head that he had been seized with rinderpest, aud would not be dissuaded until his friends pointed out to him that if his apprehensions were true he would have to be dealt with according to the act, and the pole-axe applied to him. It is kind of Dr. Thudicum and his brother savans, at an alarming pathological crisis like this, to come forward and assure us that the infectiousness of specific diseases is limited to our own species. To the very worst there is a worser. Even when the rinderpest was raging among his herds, the English squire might congratulate himself on the comparative mildness of his misfortune. It was only his butcher-meat he lost, after all ; whereas, had the liability to infection not been limited as it was, he might have lost everything, his own life included. The second class of dangers to which we are exposed in our iutercourse with the lower animals arises from the poi- sonous effects of unhealthy meat. Though eating diseased meat may not produce in us the original form of disease, it may greatly disturb our physiological equanimity — cause more or less violent indigestion, in fact. There have been instances of pleuro-pneumonia beef or measly pork, though not offen- sively bad, causing severe illness, from vomiting to cramps and collapse which have even proved fatal. Putridity would impart the same influence to healthy meat ; and there is a kind of incipient putridity, to wliich veal and pork are spe- cially liable, which may exist without giving very strong in- dications of its presence. Thorough cookiug is the only safe remedy against it. Thus the " turned" game of the English nobility, the rancid butter of the Laplander, and the nature- pickled meat of the Japanese are all alike repudiated by the sanitary reformer. He admits that the processes of slaugh- tering and cookiug may have a corrective effect even on dis- eased meat ; but if the stomach rebels, that is an argument in itself stronger than any amount of scientific theory. The third and most dangerous means of infection from ani- mals is parasitic diseases. Parasites are very peculiar institu- tions, whether social or physiological. Perhaps their greatest peculiarity is the deliberation with which they develope them- selves, and the multitude of stages they pass through, for such small, insignificant customers. Parasites in real life not only divide their growth into stages, but often select a distinct lo- cale for each stage : they transfer their patronage to a new subject at every new phase they assume. Some ascend from the lower animals to a man, and some descend from a man to the lower animals. The tapeworms, which travelling quacks wage war against, we derive from measly pork : in the live pig they exist as bladder-worms, and it is only in human flesh that they can attain tlie full dignity of their existence. A more vicious and prolific parasite is the bladder-worm inter- changed between us and calves. It appears first in the man, producing from 300,000 to 400,000 eggs a day. Some of these get transferred by one of nature's innumerable media to a calf. The calf does not appreciate them most likely, turns sick, and is killed. Homo believes in veal as a special delicacy — eats it as white and sickly as he can get it, and so the bladder-worm may return to his old quarters to complete his cycle of existence. Often he attains the length often or twelve feet, and it is almost impossible to expel him. From oxen and sheep, we derive a parasite of a still more painful kind, which settles on the liver. Another, which is generally inter- changed between sheep, or oxen, and dogs, but may also be developed in man, settles always on the brain. In sheep i; causes the disease well known as sturdy. Fluke in sheep is simply a liver parasite, supposed to be derived originally from moUucs or fish. Every part of the body has its peculiar tenants. Kext to the brain the most dangerous part that can be affected is the muscular tissue. It is there the dreadful parasite trichina does its deadly work, being deposited in the shape of capsules so hard that they blunt the knives of the dissectors. We presume it will not be necessary to go further into de- tails. Our readers ought by this timo to be horrified if they are not enUghtened. If they happen to have sufficient pre- sence of mind left, some of them may ask, what is the use of frightening us in this way about tapeworms, and fluke and trichina ? Simply friend, that you may be warned of the con- sequences of eating unhealthy meat. UntQ there is a sanitary police trained to prevent its sale, you will not even, with the utmost caution and the most respectable of butchers, be able to steer clear of it alway. One remedy, however, you have in your own hands — good cooking. Veal and pork especially should be well done. Beef and mutton are not so dangerous ; but it has been shown that they also harbour specimens of animated nature more interesting than agreeable. — Soiiih Australian Register. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 48J THE LAMB DISEASE AND THE CATTLE PLAGUE. At a meeting of the council of the Royal Cornwall Agri- cultural Association, at Truro, Dr. Edwards Crisp, of London, having offered to deliver a lecture on tlie disease in lambs and tlie cattle-plague, a meeting was held in the Council Chamber. Dr. Crisp commenced by observing that a great deal of mystery and obscurity prevailed, as no doubt they were aware, about the disease in lambs, especially the disease where para- sites existed in the lungs. It must not be supposed that all lambs died from that cause, although there was no doubt that tens of thousands did die from it in this country ; and it was especially important to remember it in speaking of the disease in lambs — that if a lamb happened to have these parasites in its lungs, then any depressing disease with which it might be attacked would be sulficient to cause a fatal result. The additional irritation, depression, and wasting which the para- sites in the bronchial tubes caused to it, would be more than it could bear up against. They might have known the case of a man who, while brushing his teeth, liad got a piece of one of the bristles from the brusli into the windpipe, and the irritation caused by it had at times been such, that tlie assist- ance of a surgeon had been known to be required to remove it. The irritation caused by parasites in the lungs of lambs was much of the same character. He pointed, in illustration of his subject, to coloured drawings of the windpipes and principal bronchial tubes of an ox, a sheep, and a lamb, ex- plaining that he had not attempted to introduce the snialler bronchial tubes, there being two hundred or three hundred of them in connection with the iungs, and said that persons fre- quently committed a great mistake in assuming, when they found no parasites on opening only the larger tubes of a sheep or lamb, that there were none in the lungs. He had shown this to be the case that morning, as, on opening tlie large bronchial tubes of a lamb, the luugs of which liad been sent him, very few parasites were found ; while in the smaller tubes, portions of which he had opened, he discovered a very large quantity ; in fact, the smaller tubes were almost choked up by them. And here he would just mentiou that tlie parasites were the same as those found in the calf. In the lamb to which he had referred, he found a great many in the lungs ; and knowing, as they did, that oue great function performed by the lungs was oxidation of the blood, they could well un- derstand that when the lungs were filled with these enfozoa, the lamb must readily succumb. He referred to drawings of the four or five species of entozoa magnified, found in sheep, commencing with the lowest grade, the cystica — Ajephalocysts, or bladder-worms, which were very common, he said, in sheep, oxen, and pigs, and were, in reality, larva or baby tapewoms ; the strongyli — Strongylus filaria, the Nematoideuni ovis Ru- dolphi, the Strongylus paradoxus, and the fluke, Distoma hepaticum, pointing out their distinctive forms and ap- pearances. The last named of these, and other forms of entozoa, he explained, passed the early part of their existence in the bodies of water snails, or the larva of some insect, and were afterwards perfected in those that happened to swallow them. These flukes, it was supposed, were taken into the stomachs of sheep while grazing on wet and marshy land, and every farmer knew they caused a great deal of sutfering and destruction to animals. Some of the entozoa possessed the generative organs in one and the same individual, and this was the case with tape worms. In others the male and female organs were joined in the same individual ; but in the strongyli the males and females were separate and distinct, tlie latter being rather larger than the former. He contended that the history and cause of this disease in sheep had been satisfactorily made out. The strongyli produced their young by eggs, the young being not unfrequently extruded from the eggs when leaving the body of the mother, and as they were exuded rapidly from the egg, it could be easily understood that when once they got into a few sheep, the field in which they grazed would soon be thickly sown with these eggs. If healthy lambs were turned into that field they would be sure to take some of the eggs and young worms into their system in the herbage. and thus become diseased. A very foolish thing was often done by farmers in turning theirlambs into a fieldof clover which had been eaten down close by sheep, because if any of these sheep liad been suffering from worms nature tried to get rid of the irritation, as in the case of poison, by evacuations, and largo quantities of old and young worms, with their eggs, passed off in the mucus from the nostrils and in the excrement. In this way the ground, especially in the case of overstocked fields, became thickly sown with them ; and if lambs were placed in such fields they were almost certain to obtain the eggs or embryo worms in tlie herbage. Since be had been in this part of the country his friend Mr. Tucker, who took great interest in this disease, had furnished him with some practical and impor- tant facts, to which he would refer, as he was sure they would prove instructive. He had always maintained that the history and cause of this disease were tolerably well made out. They could understand that if a lamb had these worms in its bronchial tubes, worms which contained something like a thousand eggs — and if they were to put them under a microscope they would see that those eggs would burst and the worms come out, and if taken into the lungs would in a short space of time do a great deal of mischief — they could understand that if a field was thickly sown with those eggs, the sheep turned into that field — the lambs espe- cially— must, in the herbage, get some of them. A very com- mon thing was that farmers foolishly turned their lambs into pastures of second growth, on which sheep had been previously fed, and although these worms did not materially injure the old sheep, yet he believed that large numbers of old sheep had them, and that they passed to the earth through their ex- crement, and the sheep got rid of them in that way ; for it was a curious fact that these worms did not remain long in the body, and he believed that all the lambs that recovered got rid of the greater part of them. It was most important in this disease to keep up the strength of the animals — to feed them well, and so to support them that they might weather the storm. As he had said, Mr. Tucker had furnished him with some important facts, one of which was that a gentleman of the name of Rundle, who occupied Catchfrench Farm, had a quantity of sheep which were perfectly healthy and free from the disease. He bought 20 lambs at Camelford market, how- ever, and after these reached his farm l-i of the 20 died, with every symptom of parasitic disease. The other six were in a dangerous state, but they struggled through. He now came to a most important fact connected with this case, which bore especially upon the matter which had brought them to- gether that day, and which he desired to impress upon the minds of agriculturists generally. This disease had no(; ap- peared upon Mr. Rundle's farm before the arrival of these lambs ; but this year his lambs were aflected with the disease, having been put into the field which had been occupied by those that had died, and he had lost 20 out of 40 of them. He then sent the others to a farm near Dosmary Pool, in a dilferent district, and they were all, he believed, doing well. This showed that it was always well to remove the sheep or lambs to another locality as soon as it was found that they were atfected with the disease. That morning he and Mr. Tucker had called upon Mr. Hamley, of Badwa, who had until lately 70 lambs in a good state of health. He had lost 10 out of the 70. There could be no doubt from the account given of the disease as to what the 10 died of. Mr. Hamley allowed one ot the 60 lambs to be killed for his examination. At first, on cutting into the lungs, no parasites were seen, and many per- sons under such circumstances would have said, " Oh, we have made a mistake— there is no parasitic disease here." Such persons, however, would have been altogether wrong, for he found that the smaller bronchial tubes were full of the stroiKjyli ; in fact, there were thousands of them, so that the greater part of the lungs was filled up, and therefore rendered useless for the purpose of oxidating the blood. But, in addition to the stroiif/i/li in the lungs, lie found also in the cacum the incocephidits affiiiis (the hair- ' headed worm) in great abundance, and uot only that, but 484 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. the digestive stomach was likewise covered \nt\\ worms ; so that there were three causes to account for the illness of the animal. The worms found in the lungs only might, perhaps, occasion death ; hut, at any rate, the worms all tended to weaken it and to impoverish "the blood, and it was almost im- possible to elfect a cure. He now came to the question of treatment. What was a veterinary surgeon to do ? Was he to touch the worms in the lungs, and if so, how was he to get at them ? Tliey had heard, no doubt, of lambs being placed in a room or building, and made to inhale chlorine gas ; but great care was required to be exercised in trying this remedy, and he scarcely thought^tliat farmers generally would take the trouble to apply it properly. If they could get a proper building or room that would allow of the admission of the requisite amount of air and no more, diseased lambs would, he believed, derive great benefit from inlialing the chlorine gas. As he had said, this remedy required great care, A gentleman in Devon, whom he should visit next day, had informed him that a veterinary surgeon had nearly killed a lot of 24' of his lambs by putting them into a smaU cheese-house, packed tight, and making them inhale chlorine gas. It actually killled 16 of them instantly, and one of his labourers was nearly poisoned in getting the other lambs out, and was under medical treat- ment for a week after. The treatment, however, effectually cured those lambs that could be got out directly. Another mode tried was that of placing sulphur on a large piece of iron and lighting it in a chamber, so as to keep the cliamber well filled with sulphurous gas, which the lambs inhaled, and by that means he believed a great many worms were got rid of. But there was yet another and very important medicine, and that was turpentine, for the removal of these worms from the stomach and intestines. If they gave a tablespoonful of tur- pentine and linseed-oil to a lamb about twice a-week — perhaps a dessertspoonful of turpentine would be best to begin with — the worms would be killed ; and he had not the slightest doubt tliat the action of turpentine was positive and certain, for tur- pentine and oil would not only remove worms from tlie sto- mach, but also a great many from the cacum. Referring again to the importance of removing lambs wlien attacked with the disease, he said that Mr. Tucker had informed him that tlie steward of the Earl of St. Germans had told him he had lost many lambs by the disease, but since he had removed them to fresh pastures he had not lost one. It was not every person who possessed a wide range of land to enable him to do this ; but where it could be done, he was sure such removal would be always attended with great benefit, and he attached more im- portance to clmnge of locality than to any medicine that could be administered. The effect of medicine, he admitted, might in some cases be doubtful, but he did think that good food and a change of locality would generally have a very beneficial in- fluence, because lie believed that a good deal of lamb disease had been occasioned by that forcing and over-stocking system, which was far more prevalent now than it was twenty years ago. After referring to the disease in fowls and pheasants by these parasites, he proceeded to offer a few words on the cattle- plague, about which they perhaps knew less than they did about the lamb disease. Tliere was a notion in the minds of some people that sheep could not take the cattle-plague ; but a more erroneous idea never existed, for he himself had seen a vast number of sheep that had died of that disease. Thousands had died from it, and he knew of an instance in which Mr. Harvey, of Norwich, did not save more than 600 out of 2,000 lambs, the remainder having died of the cattle-plague ; but there was this difference between the disease in the ox and the disease in tlie sheep, that in the former the paunch was gener- ally filled witli dry food, as also was the third storaacli, which was often round and hard ; but this he had never seen in sheep, and that was why he believed the disease was not so destructive to sheep as it was to oxen. Now the great error with tlie Government had been that tliey did not report the sheep-plague, for it was not only very recently that this had been done, and the week before the last it was reported that 90 cows and oxen had died of tlie plague, against 208 sheep, being more than double the number, and yet two or three gen- tlemen in the House of Commons not long since asserted that sheep could not be affected by the disease, and no person was there to contradict them ; but that the disease was as positive and unmistakable in aheep as in oxen there was now not the slightest doubt. Dr. Crisp then referred to the steps whicli the Government had taken to suppress the cattle-plague after it liad made its appe.arance in this country, stating that lie had always from the first held that the only mode of elfectually getting rid of the disease was by stamping it out. They had been labouring under disadvantages, which he hoped would be corrected hereafter. What they wanted was a central head for agriculture, for at present they had no scientific body of any description, and lie believed that had the Government taken his advice at the outset, they would have saved the country millions of pounds. He also believed that one great evil under which they laboured was that the agricultural body had no head. Wliat they wanted was a board of agriculture and a Veterinary College that could stand on its own merits, with scientific men to support it, and to give it repute, Mr. Olver offered a few observations, in which he detailed the results of his experience on the subject of the lamb disease. In the course of his remarks he stated that his own opinion was that after sheep had grazed for some time on certain land, especially cold wet pasture, it became exhausted of certain medicinal herbs which lambs require, and doubtless the absence of these left them more open to the attack of the disease. On the motion of the Hon. and Rev. J. Townsend Boscawen, seconded by Mr. E. Beauchamp Tucker, a vote of thanks was passed by acclamation to Dr. Crisp for his able lecture, and the meeting separated. THE BREEDING AND REARING OP PIGS. At the Ballymahon Farmer's Club, Mr. Archibald Higgins read tlie following pajier : — The subject proposed for me, not by me, is the " Breeding and Feeding of Pigs." I do not in- tend to go into any general outline of the history of tlie pig ; I believe this would be neither practicable nor profitable. This is done by those whose time and aliihties qualify them for the work, as Martin, Ricliardson, Youatt, and others, whose history is both useful and interesting. My object will be to narrow this sphere, ajid merely notice some of those breeds wiih which I am principally acquainted, and select from them those I find best calculated to pay afterwards for their care and feeding. The origin of our present stock, botli in England and Ireland — and I believe a few are stiU to be found in the Galway and western districts — was a description of swine commonly called the greyhound pig— tall, long-legged, bony, heavy-eared, coarse, bristled animals. These, I say, in their natural shapes, are almost extinct. In the years of 1846 and 1847, when the potato crop failed, numbers of these poor ani- mals, of all colours and all sizes, looked like hard times, as did many of their owners. Many of this description of auinaals were got rid of; and, although through rather unpleasant cir- cumstances, it was not without some beneficial results. From this period little in the pig way was done until 1850 or 1851, when people were obliged to acknowledge that pigs could not only be made live, but be made fat, on roots, vegetables, and many other things to be hereafter described. I said obliged to acknowledge, because I well know there are many stiU to be conformed to this well-proved fact. But better days came, and for which we have good reason to be thankful, and with these better days a vast improvement in all our domestic ani- mals. I do not mean to say we had no good pigs before that particular crisis of the pig liistory — what I mean is, before that the same amount of careful breeding and feeding was not practised that was since, and, consequently, had not the same beneficial results. A small farmer fed his one pig heretofore nearly two full years with the pure floury potato, and then sold him for five or six pounds. This was slow coacliing, and it has given place to locomotion. My farming friends will find, by very little reflection, that the hog and steam-power are very closely allied. We plough the ground by steam; we THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 48t tlirash tlie grain by steam ; we gviud the com by steam ; we prepare liis food by steam, aud oft" he goes by steam. What I wish to convey is, we require a breed of pigs that, with proper care, will be fit for this speedy despatch. To our English friends much credit is due for tlieir exertions aud care in bringing the numerous breeds to the present state of perfec- tion. There are at present niunerous breeds, differing in some slight degree of shape, of equality, of colour, and of size. Many of these breeds are called after the various shires in England, as the Berkshire, tlie Suffolk, the Cheshire, the Hampshire, the Yorkshire, and many other shires. There are also many breeds named after those gentlonen and farmers who, with great painstaking and care, and then baptizing and re-christening are at no loss for names. They have, no doubt, brought the pig to a high stand- ing amongst our domestic animals. Some will say, no doubt, whence come aU tliese breeds, when we pre- sume there went but two in the ark ? that is, if tliey were then called unclean ; but if clean, there went in seven. We know they were called unclean by Moses aud by Israel. We are also informed they were so called by other eastern in- habitants. There is, however, some good reason assigned for this — namely, that the svi'ine of these countries were of a most unpalatable description — a mass of soft, lardy substance, with iU tlavour, and might fairly have been called disgusting, and it is believed by many of high standing that had it been the article with them, as it is now found with us, it would be held in high estimation. But to return to our breeding. I said there were numerous breeds differing in colour and in size ; some coarse and some fine in different countries, accord- ing to tlieir several climates. These taken, and by careful crossing and judicious interchanges, have brought most of our breeds to their present perfection. The first step to this im- provement was effected between the old coarse, bouy, flat-sided pig and the Chinese breed, or, better still, the black Neapolitan ; and from theSe three, they being nearly a perfect contrast as to shape and size, this great renovation of this most valuable stock was effected. Tliere are some good breeders in Ireland ; but these are chiefly confined to those who intend them for the show-yard ; but in the midland counties little or no trouble is taken as to what kind of points a good sow should have, or what are tlie deficiencies a boar may possess, I have seen miserable animals kept for this purpose, and thereby incurring both loss and disappointment to the breeder and feeder. Our present breeds may be designated by four (Uffereut classes. Tlie first is the small porker ; tliey are a round, short pig, with cocked ears, thick neck, round barrelled, short-legged, fine both in bone and bristle, the latter approaching to hair, carrying weight to the ground, and answers dairy-feeders and others living near large towns or cities, wliere quick market- ing is the object. The second class is what we call the medium size : these pigs, when properly bred, are what gene- rally suit the farmer ; they are a hardy, thriving pig, possess- ing a uniformity in points, keep up a fair condition wliile growing, and, if properly cared, will be ripe and fat at from 12 to 15 months, varying in price from £7 to £8. The third class is still a size larger ; a little heavy in the ears, deeper in body, approaching to fatness, not so weU proportioned, look- ing too narrow for tlieir lieight ; they are heavy feeders, al- most impossible to keep in condition while growing, they have sucli bone and muscle to develope, which lasts for 16 or 17 months, aud coming up to two years it may be fairly called excellent, lieavy bacon ; these pigs could not pay the farmer, although they may go from £10 to £12 each. The fourth class is the one I first hinted at — the old, coarse, I would say both English and Irish, pig — the original parent of our pre- sent stock, and approaching in similitude to its wild ancestors. In tlie selection of eitlier boar or sow for breeding, much more attention and consideration are necessary than people appear generally to imagine. With very little judgment and management, and much less expense than is generally incurred, it is as easy to procure a good breed as an inferior ; and as the former is infinitely more lucrative and remunerative in proportion to the outlay than the latter can ever be, a little attention to the subject may be advantageous. In choosing the parents of future stock, in every case, whether the object be pork or bacon, tlie points to be looked for are — in the sow a small, lively head, a broad and deep chest, round ribs, a hamicli falling dmost to the liough, deep aud broad loin, ample iiipsj and coa< siderable length of body in proportion to its height, uor must the broad, flat, table-like back, the broad, thick shoulders and liams, be forgotten. One qualification should ever be kept la view, and, perhaps, should be the first point to which attention should be directed — smallness of bone in proportion to the flesh aud fineness of the best parts, with lightness of offal. The boar may be less in size than tlie sow, shorter, and more compact in form, witli a raised and brawny neck, lively eye, a small head, firm, hard flesh, and if of the large breed, his neck well furnished with bristles ; in other respects look for the same points I have described in reference to the sow. The pe- riod of the sow's gestation is generally about sixteen weeks, and sometimes a day, but seldom more : she shoidd not be fed too high tlie first eight weeks, but gradually minded afterwards, and a little bran given during the last week, and should not be allowed to lie in the same sty with stores or other pigs, or allowed to thieve, or go through fences ; it someuraes causes loss and disappointment. Care shoidd be taken that she has two good rings well put in before letting to the boar, as ringing afterwards will not do. The proper seasons for young pigs are spring and harvest ; this is easily managed, as a sow that has two litters in the year meets the right market for selling sucks, and answers the right season for keeping stores. There is no domestic animal, perhaps, suft'ers as little from parturition as the sow, and is delivered with comparative ease : she shoWd have her own way, and be allowed to indulge her own inclina- tions. A difference of opinion exists with breeders as to the propriety of taking the offspring away as they are farrowed with a young sow. This mode of treatment is sometimes attended with disadvantage aud loss : one pig should not be taken from a young sow until she has another — that is to say, leaving one still with her during her sickness ; it will go round her nose and squeak, and they become united, the sickness being the proper time for this union. AVe have seen pigs taken away aud afterbirths cleared off ; the young then offered, the sows be- came most ferocious, and would even tear their own offspring ; but we never knew of a single failure where tliey were treated as described. We believe this worthy of some notice. There is no animal, perhaps, in existence can be fed with as great a variety of food as the hog. He will do well on mill and brewery wastes, on distillery and starch mill wastes, kitchen, dairy, and slaughter-house refuse, and abnost aU kinds of roots ; potatoes, turnips, mangels, parsnips, and carrots ; crushed corn of all kinds, as crushed wheat, oats, beans, here, barley, peas, rape, rye, vetches, and numerous vegetables — cabbage, lettuce, pea haulm, tares, clover, sainfoin, lucerne ; and even many kinds of fruit — apples, nuts, haws, and such like. Weeds also are resorted to, as thistles, dockens, chickweed, coltsfoot, and others too numerous to mention. Our object now will be to use these ingredients to the best advantage. Much might be said ou this point, but we must shorten it for the sake of convenience. The sow particularly requires most care, aud should be fed wth the most nutritious food at least four times a day ; her food should be potatoes, mangels, swede turnips, and white cabbage, well boiled and weU pounded ; to this should be added gruel, composed of Indian and oatmeal, or any of the other grains mentioned ; salt, and soaked bran, flaxseed boUs ground, milk well mixed, and given in a liquid state. The variety has a decided advantage ; mind the sow, that's what makes the pigs. The young need not be fed until three weeks old ; they should get skim milk for a few days, then give potatoes with the gruel as described for the sow, crushed oats steeped and fermented ; this sliould be strained, and a little pollard added, which greatly improves young pigs' mess. One rule is indispensable, not only with the pig, but with other animals, to mind the laxative portions of the food given, and add or diminish as the case may re- quire. It is time to wean and sell, or turn out for stores, at eight weeks old. The stores when turned out should not be neglected, but condition kept up as well as it possibly can : neglect on this point will cause both disadvantage aud loss. It does not require much attention to discern it is much easier to keep up condition than after it has gone down to bring it up ; besides, the animal is never the same. This is the pig for all the refuse, for all the shifts, and for all the garbage before mentioned, and should be plentifully given with every advantage. Two rules must not be forgotten with stores — that tliey have always clean water at command, aud a place to shel- ter from the weather. The last to mention is the fattening. In order to do this you will require dry floors, fresh air, aud 4SG THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. cleanliuess. i'oiil sii' oucoiiniycs dibcnse ; cold air consumes food in making: heat, that ought to make fat. It would not be practicable to put in a growing store to take fat, nor would it be judicious to put in a coarse dwarf to make a good bacon ho°-. You must have a full-grown, fair-conditioned animal, possessing at least some of the principal points to which we have already alluded, and with this, and proper attention, it is not easy to conceive the rapidity with which a pig will fatten. There should not be more than sis kept iu one stye. The far- mer has five principal ingredients for this purpose, viz., grain, potatoes, swedes, mangels, aud cabbage. Tlie roots well boiled and well bruised, the grain also well boiled : take equal parts of Indian and oatmeal, aud any of the grains mentioned you may liave, as crushed beans, peas, vetches, rye, or barley, with a little pollard and salt, made iu thick gruel, added to the roots, and left to ferment and sour, and always given in a luke- warm state at regular hours, three times a day. The less ex- citement or annoyance the better, and a desire for sloth and sleep encouraged, by v/atching his comforts, and the words made applicable that are sometimes used with some easy-going and quiet dispositions . " To eat and drink and sleep ; what then ? To eat and drink and sleep again." We say it is the small fanner's duty of the 40 Irish-acre class to which I belong, and may also apply to a still smaller class, to supply his family with every want and requirement for feed- ing, and encourage two niles — neither spare, nor waste : the former is unprofitable ; the latter, dangerous. My present stock is thirty, all black ; two medium sows, half-bred, nurs- ing ten each, from a bred black Berkshire boar ; a sow of the larger breed, at the drop ; and seven stores. I consume all my roots ; I crush aU my graia. My object is to have as much green as grain crops. My tillage this season is less than usual, and consists of five acres and a-half of green, and five acres of grain crops, all drilled ; first pota- toes, then cabbage, mangels, and swede turnips. I always keep my stall-fed and pig-manure for the cabbage and man- gels, with salt. I mention this for the sake of the small and struggling class, to whom my undivided regard and sincere sympathy are directed ; and would now beg to thank our honourable chairman and gentlemen, whose patience and forbearance are so heavily trespassed on. POULTRY AND EGGS A subject to which we have frequently di-awn attention — viz., the increased raising of poultry — is beginning to attract notice in other quarters, aud we believe it to be one which may be very p-ofitably ventilated and discussed, with individual and national advantage. In the new part of The Journal of the lioyal Agricultural Soeieii/ we find a paper by Mr. J. A. Clarke, " On increasing our Home Production of Poultry ;" whilst in the Society's premium list there is an olfer of £10 for the best essay to point out how far the rearing and management of poultry on an ordinary farm are capable of improvement and proiitable extension. We have not much faith in the results of joint stock companies, for the carrying out of what can usually be more satisfactorily supe'rvised and conducted by private enterprise and capital, and we therefore fear poultry- breeding companies, like fisheries and other associations, will break down from having too many managers, and too much money to play with. The expenses of poultry- breeding, even on a large scale, are not beyond the reach of individual capital and energy, and are much more likely to be carefully managed than by boards of directors. Be this as it may, we shall only be too glad to see poultry -breeding extended, with profit and advantage to all concerned, and our food supplies increased in this direc- tion, as there is little prospect of our being surfeited with fowls as they are on the south coast of Africa and the West Indies, where one gets to loath the sight of this white meat, however disguised by the art of the cook. Of eggs alone our continental supplies are becoming enonnous. A quarter of a century ago we were content with taking 70 or 80 million eggs annually from France and Belgium ; but this number has been increased fivefold. Last year we took nearly a million of foreign eggs a day, but this year we have already imported in the first eight months nearly as many as we received in the whole of last year ; and if we but take for the remainder of the year a million a day, as in 1865, we shall have received 447 million eggs — a pretty tidy number, to say nothing of our Irish and home supplies. Now, here is a round sum of nearly a million and a quarter sterling paid for the single item of eggs from abroad, as it is quite clear Ireland and Scotland might do some- thing more in this direction ; to say nothing of Eng- land and Wales. AVe may well echo the enquiry, " Cannot we compete \vith foreigners under the disadvantage of having to convey their fragile and perishable commodities over long journeys and voyages, with the expense of com- mission agents at the distant market, and a duty of a penny a dozen levied upon their eggs ?" M. Lavergne very recently stated the value of French eggs and poultry produced annually at ten millions sterling. Another credible authority tells us that six million head of fat poultry, worth about £750,000, are annually sold in three French country markets. The annual consumption of Paris is set down at four and a-half million head ; while with our ranch larger metro- politan population we do not receive more than about three and a-half million, whilst it is believed that the quantity annually killed in the kingdom is about nine or ten million head. But, of course, these figures must necessarily be conjectural. Ten years ago Ireland had about twelve million head of poultry. There is a continuous demand for poultry, and attention should be given to increase and improve the supply. Take another Catholic continental country. In 1857, there were sixty million head of poultry in Austria, valued at one and a-quarter million sterling, and the annual produce of eggs was stated at 2,400 million. Although this does not come up to one-fourth of the production of France, it makes a large item in returns. Not that we are disposed to give credit to the vague estimates of some writers who would have us believe that the value of the poultry bred in France is equal to thirty-eight million, or nearly one pound per head for the entire population. Without following Mr. Clarke through all his details of artificial incubators and modes of rearing and feeding young poultry, or the statistics of profit and loss on rear- ing large numbers on a systematic plan, his article in the Journal, and the several pamphlets on poultry -breeding from which he quotes, may well be commended to the careful perusal of many a farmer and farmer's wife, who may derive advantage from the facts stated and hints thrown out. There is one suggestion which he throws out, which ■we think well worthy of adoption, and that is the general sale of eggs and poultry by weight. We usually judge of the value of a goose or a turkey by weight, but fowls or ducks, or eggs, are sold only by appearance. A heavy aud a half-fat fowl go at a price irrespective of the cost per pound, and a Spanish egg counts for no more in making up a dozen than a Hamburg egg of two-thirds the size. THE FAiiMEH'S UAQAZm^, 4S7 THE CATTLE PLAGUE AND THE CHOLERA, At the meeting of the Ross Agricultural Society, Sir Joseph Bailey said he thought he might be allowed to eougratulate them, as farmers of England, upon the fact that at the present time tliat disease had almost entirely disappeared — that during the last week only eleven cases were reported for the wliole country. He might also further congratulate them, remembering that when the disease appeared in tliis country once before, about one hundred years ago, it toolc twelve years to eradicate, although at tliat time, from the non-existence of railways, contagious disease had not the chance of spreading as at present to so full an extent — he might, he said, congratulate them on the fact that it had now so soon been nearly exterminated. He might also congratulate tliem, as agriculturists, upon the fact that it was mainly by their own endeavours, by the energy and determination with which they had carried out tlie rules laid down by Government, that they had reached that happy conclusion of their troubles ; and the happiest thing of aU was that those rules and regula- tions, difficult as they were to submit to, and hard trials as they must have been to many men, were suggested and urged upon the Government by the farmers of England themselves. He recollected tliat towards the beginning of the session a very great authority upon these matters, a most eminent member of the Cattle-plague Commission, said he feared very much that the measures which were being adopted would not have a satis- factory conclusion, because, although we miglit prevent one animal from touching another, and so imparting the disease, there were other means of conveying it, viz., by the foot of a horse, the clothes of a man, or even by a fly. He said that if we took a glass of water carefully distilled and purified, and placed it in the open air for a few days, a quantity of minute vegetaljles would appear and settle on it as a light scum, and that those vegetables, if wafted over a farm-yard, might convey the seeds of the disease ; that though we might avoid any or- dinary mode of contagion, these remote causes were beyond human control, and that for tlie prevention of them we must trust entirely to Providence. It was therefore witli great satis- faction, he saw that these causes had abated in the same propor- tion as the other and more apparent causes of the disease ; and he woidd humbly suggest to tliem, as one knowing very little of agriculture speaking to those who knew a great deal about it, that slaughtering was at best an expensive mode of stopping any contagious disease whatever — that it might be possible to use similar means for the staying of the cattle-plague as we used for the staying of the cliolera, viz., cleanliness in our farm- yards and homesteads. If a man by keeping his farm-buildings clean could prevent the cattle-plague, it was his duty to do so in the interest of himself, his friends, and the country at large. Mr. BiDDULPH said : There was one tiling in those meetings which he admired, and that was that they had aU one common pursuit, were all interested in one object — that they had all one aim and one purpose, viz., the promotion of agriculture. By that they became bound in a kind of biotherliood, and the interest of farming — which he should always maintain to be the greatest interest in this country — received the common sympathy of all classes, from the highest to the lowest. He knew that at gatherings of that kind all allusions to political topics were for- bidden. It would not, therefore, become him to dilate on the merits of that party to which he was proud to belong, nor to say anything against that party to whicli he was opposed ; but he thought one observation he might safely make, viz., that no party, be it which it might, could ever keep the ascendancy in this country without looking for the assurance and support of the agricultural interest. He need hardly remind them how great that interest is, or that it is the opinion of some of our greatest political economists — men wlio have thought much on the subject — that the difference between a good and a bad harvest in this country is to be measured by something like the amount of from thirty to forty millions of pounds sterling. Captain Power said it must, he was sure, have been a plea- sure to them to hear the remarks of Sir Joseph Bailey with respect to the decrease in the cattle plague — tliat dire plague jvhich had visited so inani^ parts of I'ljiglanc} ; and it sliould, also be a great cause of thankfulness to them that that part of the county had been spared from the scourge. The district of Ross was considered more particularly as a sheep-breeding district, and it had a breed of sheep which he believed to be second to none in England of their particular class. Such being the case, the committee had thought little danger would be run, cattle being excluded, by bringing sheep together, and carrying on that competition which had now been continued for a good many seasons in the neighbourhood, He was sure they would hail with great satisfaction the time when they could open their show-yard once more to cattle, for although sheep were the staple of the district, he knew some good herds iu the neighbourhood of Ross : one he could particularly mention which he had lately seen at Bickerton (Mr. J. Wigmore's), such an one as was not often seen, and which he might say was panting with the energy of competition. He was sure that when the show-yards were again open to the competition of cattle that herd would be heard of all over Herefordshire. Colonel SyjiONDS (the Chairman) said in his opinion that the action of societies such as that might be more beneficial iu carrying out measures for its suppression than individual action could be, and also his belief that the disease, like cholera, is very much under our control. Thus, as Sir Jos. Bailey had remarked, if we attended to our homesteads we might do much. It seemed to be clear that the disease was brought to this country from abroad ; and it was most import- ant that great attention should be paid to the condition of cattle-ships, than which nothing could be more horrifying. Again, as to railway trucks and public markets, an effieient system of inspection should be organized. Our great Smith- field market, we had been told, was sadly deficient, having no water, and not sufficient room for the cattle, while the driving of the cattle was a disgrace to us. Looking at these things, and seeing the danger of relapsing, as far as railways are con- cerned, he thought agricultural societies might witli some chance of success represent to companies the duty which was demanded of them in this respect. Mr. AiiTnuK, Webb asked the meeting to consider whether it was not possible for many of the cottages in the neighbour- hood to be greatly improved. He believed that if gentlemen would only go round among their labourers they would find many filthy dwellings calculated to produce cholera. There could be no question, he argued, of the advantages of cleanli- ness and comfort in the cottage in their effect upon the work- man ; for he had invariably found that he was the best work- man who came from a comfortable home, rather than from one of squalid poverty and filth. Proceeding to condemn the condition of many of the cottages iu the neighbourhood, Mr. Webb pointed out the impossibility of the ordinary decencies of life being observed in a place where a man and his wife, with perhaps a daughter and son grown up, besides other child- ren and a lodger, had to occupy a couple of sleeping-rooms. The necessity for the improvement of the cottages of the neighbourhood was great, as tidy labourers were disgusted with them, and would not live in them ; and he would suggest the practicability of the relieving-officer making an inspection, and reporting to the board of guardians. If some practical scheme of this kind were adopted, he thought that we might then hope to see great and beneficial results, and we should have done what we could to keep the plague from the people as well as from cattle. Before the meeting of next year he hoped to see a great improvement iu the cottage dwellings of the neighbourhood. Mr, DucKHAM said : There was one subject which had been touched upon by nearly every speaker, and to which he would also briefly refer ; that was the dreadful visitation which had fallen upon the herds of this country, and which at one time threatened even to destroy the flocks. Much had been said and written upon that subject by different parties, who were putting forth their dicta as to whence the disease came. But in his (Mr. Duckluira's) opinion there could be no ques- tion but that it ciimB from abroad ; and he thought also that THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. unless the greatest precaution was exercised by our Govern- ment there was reason to fear that the result would he another visitation, for the)' read that it was spreading on the continent. They knew that under the stringent measures which had been adopted the disease had been materially reduced — all but banished from the land, there having been, as Sir Joseph Bailey had remarked, only eleven cases in the last week, and those spread over half-a-dozen counties — but he (Mr. D.) felt that it was just at this moment that care was wanted, and that they should, more than ever, be judicious in their measures with a view to prevent a further outbreak. Ho felt that the attention of the Privy Council should be prominently drawn to the subject in reference to the precautions and restrictions necessary to be observed for the future. He quite agreed in the opinion entertained by Mr. Kemp Bourne, a gentleman well known in the agricultural world, who had had some cor- respondence with the Earl of Lichfield and the Duke of Buck- ingham. The Earl of Lichfield had last week held a meeting in Staffordshire, and brought forward Mr. Kemp Bourne's scheme, which was that of holding district sales for cattle for a short time, instead of opening the fairs and markets. Agree- ing with that view, as one of great importance, he thought it right to submit it to the notice of a great agricultural gather- ing such as he had the honour of addressing. Mr. Bradstock said he wished to join in the expressions of regret which had been used by Mr. Webb — and which he beheved were universal — that the miserable dwellings of the poor would not admit of their having beer and cider at their own homes instead of being dependent on their employers for their daily supply, and which induced many who were not em- ployed upon farms, and who therefgre had not the supply which others had, to frequent public-houses and become ad- dicted to intemperate habits. We often heard of companies being formed for carrying on business of almost every de- scription. Freehold land societies were formed for buying land and building houses for political purposes ; and societies were instituted for various other purposes. His opinion was that if the gentry, the clergy, and other parties were really sincere in their desire to promote the comfort and the happiness of the labouring classes, to check drunkenness, and to lessen the evils arising from adults of one family — as had been stated by Mr. Webl)— sleeping in the same apartment, some scheme might be originated for the purpose of buying land and build- ing suitable dwellings for the poor, and thus making the occu- pation of wretched hovels less necessary than at present. He would venture to say that if in addition to such houses, it were practicable to put up couveniences lor the cottagers of every parish to brew their own beer, instead of being dependent on their employers — and if the malt-tax were repealed — every cottager would be able to brew for himself a hogshead of beer at about sixpence per gallon quite equal to that for which he now paid sixpence a quart in public-houses. Mr. Bradstock, in further urging this question on the attention of the meet- ing, referred to a plan which Mr. Bolt, one of the members for Gloucestershire, is carrying out in liis parish, where he is providing a small brewery for the use of the poor inhabitants of the village, and expressed his own opinion that there are many advantages to be derived from a scheme that will enable the labouring class to have beer at their own houses' Sup- port to such a scheme would be much more beneficial and much more agreeable than making complaints of existing arrangenipnts. PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. TO THE SQUATTERS OF VICTORIA. Gentlemen, — Having been for twenty years a professional sheep-breeder (classificator for Merino high breeding) in Prus- sia, I arrived here eight mouths ago from my native province, SUesia. Practically brought up in the most celebrated breed ing extablishments of Prussia, as well as in a renowned wool- len manufactory, I beg to refer to the high testimonials given to me by the Director of Sheep-breeding, A. Koerte (author of the as yet unequalled work on Merino-breeeding, " The Ger- man Merino Sheep" ; editor of the " Year Book for German Sheep-breeding ;" Member of the Association of German Sheep-breeders, &c.), as also from the breeders' Society of Liegnitz, the originators of the grand exhibition of Merinoes at Leignitz, in SUesia, last year, which has gained a far-famed celebrity. The rich collection of Victorian wools at the International Exhibition of London in 1863, first suggested to me the idea of devoting my efforts and abilities to this young and thriving wool-growing colony. My plan was soon matured, but its practical execuiion required time for the formation of neces- sary connections ; it finally necessitated also a degree of fami- liarity with the wool products of this colony, and with its soil and climate, bearing materially upon productions ; for thus qualified only, could I venture upon a course, which, while ad- vantageous to myself, should aim at promoting the welfare of this colony. After having passed through this necessary praparation, it is now my first step to express, in the following observations, my humble opinion on the question : — " By what means can the best and most permanent results in sheep-breeding in this colony be secured P" Before the breeder enters on his field of labour, he wiU first have to decide clearly, with what species of animal he intends to operate, and to what object he will direct his efforts. In sespect to the species with which stock-breeding in this colony is chiefly to be occupied, the practice has alreadv sufficiently and reasonably fixed the choice upon the sheep. The second question, then, at once arises what object IS to be aimed at by the breeder, who will not eo ipso toUow the path of custom and precedent, but who will eudea- VQur to convince himself of the correctness of such a course, so that, in accordance with his science, he may act conscienti- ously. Sheep-breeding is divided at the outset into two collateral (I will not say directly opposite) main branches — the flesh- growing and the wool-growing systems. Each of these treats the chief aim of the other as a secondary object only, without, however, neglecting it more than local circumstances neeessiate. Tliere cannot be a moment's doubt which of these branches is the one solely adapted to the colony of Victoria. The popula- tion, thougli rapidly increasing, is yet very scattered ; it is not sufficient for the consumptiou of the quautites of meat result- ing from the flesh-growing system within the colony ; and the want of a near market beyond its boundaries, combined with climatic conditions, which render the fattening of flocks period- ically almost impossible, are suflicient reasons for considering the wool-growing method as alone suitable, and further, the geographical situation of the country completely justifies the efforts made to produce wool of superior quality (Merino- breeding) . In wool-growing two kindred, but in their extremes com- pletely antagonistic, branches again luauifest themselves — the production of combing and carding wool, between which there is a further choice. Although ou this point I do not as yet venture to give my opinion, so far as that is dependent on the most accurate ac- quaintance with all local conditions, yet perhaps I may be allowed to make the following remarks on the subject. As it is proved by very interesting scientific investigations that in general an insular climate is favourable to a certain straight- ening and lengthening of the down-like fibre of our Merino sheep (structure of combing wool),so this result can only be accounted for as far as such a climate is characterized by a more humid atmosphere in a prevalent warmer temperature, whereas the drier coutinental climate favours the structure of carding wool, and the most perfect production of this kind of wool is alwaj's to be found within the boundaries of vine-growing climates. We will, however, consider this matter more closely. Combing wool, in the spinning, is expected to give a smooth thread (similar to the linen thread), and must for this purpose, after being deprived of its curvatures, be placed in parallel THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 489 layers, like flax (length of staple is therefore the chief require- ment), and has to this end to undergo the process of combing ; that is, it is drawn through tine metal combs. The wool must consequently also possess great solidity of the single hair, for every torn hair falls among the " noils," which have scarcely a quarter of the value of the " sliver." In carding wool, on the contrary, the object is to furnish a rough thread — i. e., a thread on which appear as many hair ends as possible, which afterwards favour the act of felting, and form the surface of the cloth. The tearing of a hair in this process (carding) is no loss, and will even, with some longer sorts of carding wool, he done purposely. Eirmness of the fibre is thus desirable for the durability of the manufactured article, but its absence does not make the wool absolutely useless for manufacture. Now, the relative firmness of the wool-hair principally re- sults on the equal nourishment of the same (consequently of the animal), and upon its being protected from atmospheric influences, atfectiug the substance of the hair, which are espe- cially manifested in violent changes from dry to wet, warm to cold, &c. Eloek-owners of this country have from the beginning ap- plied themselves to the growing of carding wool, and the ex- tent of the produce proves what success has been oljtained. Is the wool production of the colony, then, or rather the value of the same, capable of being increased ? This ques- tion must certainly be answered in the aflirmative ; and it would not be difficult to sh.ow that the value obtained, apart from any possible increase of the number of sheep, could be raised considerably. I will endeavour to demonstrate this briefly, without, however, taking into account any increase of the quantity of the produce. During my stay here I have taken advantage of every op- portunity to examine wools grown inland, and I readily and candidly confess, that not a small portion of these have reached a far higher degree of perfection than I expected to find. But observing, besides many very satisfactory samples (of great practical fineness, softness, and regular structure), so many and a far greater immber of imperfect products — the great hulk proves that the success achieved leaves still very much to he wished. This is also shown by the prices obtained for these wools. There is too wide a difi'ereuce between the higliest and lowest range of the price. It is evident from this that the average price is capable of a considerable rise. In the progressive improvement of the wool, then, I see the means of attaining permanently the highest results from sheep- breeding. This object, however, is not to be gained by the use of good rams alone. To improve the flocks, in the true sense, is to improve the wool for all purposes of manufacture (conjointly with increase of quantity and so to increese the value of the cHp to the highest possible remuneration). This aim can only be attained with certainty, and in proportionately short period, by judicious selection, in keeping steadUy in view the desired object of breeding. This requires a careful study of the natural lavifs of transmission ; of the individual quali- ties connected with each other ; a sure and accurate percep- tion and valuation of their merits and defects— in short, the technical knowledge, such as only the professional breeder can by many years' study make his own. The truth of this fact' is indisputably acknowledged in Germany, where JMerino- breediug has reached a high standard, and the most superior and dearest wools are produced. In Prussia, for instance, there are now few flocks, the breeding and supervision of which is not entrusted to a " classificator," and the most cele- brated flocks have for the greater part attained their extraor- dinary success by these breeders of technical knowledge. Of course, the breeder must not be mistaken for the wool-sorter. The latter has gathered his knowledge in the wool-shed only ; it is his task to examine the wool according to all its proper- ties, in its slightest distinctions, to sort it out of the bulk of the clip— his occupation refers to the ready product alone. It is otherwise with the lireeder — not the ready product, but that which is to be produced from the material at his command, is tlie object of his labour. With the knowledge of wool he must combine the knowledge of physiology ; he must be able to discover from what cause the wool shows any desirable or undesirable characteristic ; he must know by what combina- tion the kind of wool, which is most esteemed and highest paid for, can be produced ; he must devote as much attention to the body of tlie animal (the basis from which the produce is raised), as to the produce itself — for only a well-correspond- ing and sound basis can afford a rich, sound, and valuable yield. He must, therefore, consider all local, and even per- sonal conditions, in order to attain the best possible result. Practical breeding must then be in itself breeding by selection for the superiority of those previously mentioned yielding qualities. Breeding with regard to " blood alone, with- out valuing the parents and ofTspring upon their yielding, is not practical ; for " pure blood" has no practical value at all, unless combined witli sta^iility of the yielding qualities. Transmission is the base of breeding. " Bo/k jmrents h-aiismU their qnoUties ecpially into the offspriufj.'" This prin- ciple is the foundation of the whole science of breeding,. (Of course, it can only become evident in its strongest force, when all circumstances are perfectly equal, w hat in reality hardly ever. I may say, never happens). Experience teaches us that a real amalgamation of the parental quahties can only be at- tained when the parents are of a certain homogeneity, whereas the result of heterogeneous copulations are faults of the wool, aud (in the extreme of heterogeneousness) even disproportions of the body (the qualities having been laid only, as it were, side by side) — " Like produces like."* Thus, the purpose of classification is to group the flocks into as many classes as they possess prominent distinctions of form. In this'l follow the system first used by Koerte, which, in my opinion, answers all requirements, as by its use any heteroge- neousness in the individual classes can be eradicated, and as it can be modified easily according to the ideal variously formed for the difterent purposes of breeding. On this system five classes are suflicient, even for a flock consisting of very hetero- geneous animals. The object of this plan is to bring up the whole flock to a normal standard — proportionate to the ideal formed for the breeding aim aspired to — in which " nobility" and quantity of wool, and good structure of the body are consi- dered in an equal measure, and at this normal point to efl'ect an equalization through the flock. The middle-class contains the normal aninmls (elite) ; above this class (by poorness and over-refinement of the fleece and body) there are two classes, which we term jointly as I. and II., " over-bred" classes; be- low the normal class, (on account of coarseness of the wool and base shape) ; there are other two classes, IV. and V., both termed " under-bred" classes. The features of this system of classification may he shown by the following illustration : Over- I. refinement. Beginning to II. over-refine. Normal class. III. (Elite.) Begiiming to IV. to deteriorate. Deterioration V. of wool and body. In some cases the formation of an elite class at the outset will have perhaps to be abstained from. As soon as it is in existence we must endeavour to consolidate it and fix the type. At this stage the point is reached where in-breeding must take place. We form the stud out of the choicest speci- mens, aud we affix the numbers of the ewes of the stud to all their ofl'spring (formation of families). The keeping of a breeding register and valuation-book becomes necessary, &c. It only remains for me now to mention the material means for the further improvement of sheep-breeding. This relates to the purchase of good and suitable breeding material, as the same becomes necessary for those flocks which are too far be- low the breeding aim aspired to, for to introduce to them, or to hasten the development of those desirable qualities which are wbolly wanting, or only slightly present amoug them, and to eradicate existing defects. Eor this purpose rams have for some time been imported — among other countries, from Ger- * Modem wool maniifactui-e does not, a,s in former times, demand extreme fineness only, but looks rather to an union of all desirable qualities, viz., fineness and trueness of the fibre, strength, firmness, elasticity, softness, and lustre — the collective presence of which we terra the "nobility" of wool. ^ L 2 490 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. many ; aud, indeed, no country iu tlie world possesses more valuable improving material — an assertion wliich has been re- peatedly confirmed at the industrial exhibitions held in Europe within the last twenty years, by the verdict of qualified and impartial judges on the " nature, character, and manufacturing value" of the German-Merino wool. But I would caution against proceeding regardlessly in this respect ; for the result of cross-breeding viill always completely depend on the selec- tion of the improving animals, for which reason this selection must be made with the most accurate knowledge of their neces- sary qualities, and with especial regard to the permanency (stability) of these qualities. A ram excellently adapted for a certain purpose of crossing has a value that is scarcely to be calculated. Really good and suitable improving animals should therefore be imported. What is good aud suitable is, of course, to be decided by a special knowledge of the individual flocks ; but, generally speaking, I may say that the ram adapted for the requirement of this country ought to be of a strong, broad, and round frame, richly and well covered fi'om the head to the legs with a densely-closed fleece ; his wool of proper fineness, especially of uniformity and trueness of the fibre, with a length answering the object, strong, nervouS; elastic, briUiaut, soft, but still manifesting a Masculine character : the whole animal should distinctly evince a noble type. Such rains could be furnished above all other German flocks from the pure- blooded and well-bred Negretti flocks of Prussia, as has been proved by the great Leiguitz show in both branches of wool- growLng. The combing-wool flocks of Prussia have about 40 years since been brought to a very high state of perfection. They furnish the most valuable contingent for the unsurpass- ably fine manufactures of England in her soft-worsted stuffs. I am surprised that those beautiful animals have remained al- most unknown here, while the breeds of Mecklenburg and Wurtemburg, which are inferior botli as regards excellence of fleece aud body, and finally the Saxon race, whose delicacy and over-refinement have been dreaded in Germany for more than twenty years, have been imported. If the importation of breeding animals is to become of really great and lasting benefit, it must be transferred from mere spe- culators (who purchase in Germany at the cheapest rates, and through incompetent agents) to upright and qualified men, who take a pride in the improvement of sheep-breeding. I have the honour to be, gentlemen, your obedient servant, Oscar E. KapEj in Melbourne Economist, SMEARING AND DIPPING OF SHEEP. At the Eadenoch and Rothiemurclius Agricultural Society, Mr. Macdo>'ald, sen., Strathmashie, who introduced the dis- cussion as to tlie smearing and dipping of sheep, said : I have now been twelve years in Badenoch, and am an extensive sheep farmer. Young people generally think that they are wiser in their day and generation than older heads, and, acting up to this, my son induced me to leave part of my ewes un- smeared, and dip them instead. I followed his advice, and was the loser. He would not, however, give in, and he again made ine try the wedders with the same dipping composition. I found the second trial not to be beneficial to the stock. My son still continued to urge the dipping on me, and would not rest satisfied until I would dip my hoggs ; and, they being in the low country wintering, I went purposely there to superin- tend the operation, and see that the thing was properly done. This cost me more money than the smearing process. To make myself sure, I kept a separate account as to the price of the dipping and smearing, and also the weight of the wool, and found myself at the cud of three years to be £80 a-year short of the money I would have had by using tar and butter. A'ow, an old practical man arrived at the conclusion that he would not leave a single sheep unsmeared (and I have a good many of them), although he would put off his coat to do so. Mr. Peliiam, Ettrige, said: When I first came to this country, between two End three years ago, I was told that the more modern practice of dipping woukfuotpay ; but, being an Enghshraan, I was prejudiced — aud what Scotsman is not ? I, however, stuck to my own opinion, that dipping is the best mode, and I find it pay. I maintain that dipping is cheaper by sixpence a-head, including every n;iuor expense, and my sheep stood the winter equally as well. I also found that during the time of lambing the ewes were in a cleaner condi- tion, and the lambs more numerous. The deaths, moreover, during the winter were far less than when they were smeared. Mr. Macdoxald, jun., Strathmashie, said : We sold our hogg wool (white), the hoggs being fed in Lord Fife's parks, at 23s., whereas we sold the laid Highland wool at 17s. to 18s. I consider nine pints of tar for a half-stone of butteryne, and a half-stone of best butter for the tub, is the best and cheapest composition a black-faced slieep farmer can use, and that smearing slieep will stand the rigours of our high latitude better than they would by any dipping yet found out. Mr. Macpuerson, Urumore : I was advised by several south-country parties, with whom I had occasion to come in contact in the course of business,never to smear hill sheep, par- ticularly hoggs. I followed this advice, and left my hoggs un- smeared. I dipped them once and poured twice, and, in short, kept them quite clean. I wintered them on healthy pasture about .300 feet above the level of the sea ; but when weio-hino- my wool, I considered I lost about one shilling a fleece, and ray loggs not better or worse after clipping. Since then 1 resolved t9 smear every lull sheep I could get iu. It is, however, different with sheep fed ou turnips and grazed on grass parks. Mr. Macpheeson, banker, said ; I am not prepared to offer any detailed statement ou the subject. Dipping may do better in some climates than smearing ; but, gentlemen, I am of the old stock, aud confess my stronger attachment to the good old way of smearing as being, in my opinion, the best aud cheapest for the stock-holders of Badenoch. Mr. Gumming, Delraddy, and Mr. Gumming, Lynwilg, severally stated their opinion, and gave their adherence to the smearing process — the latter gentleman remarking that from practical experience he could say that smearing materials, com- posed of IU pints of tar, 8 pints of good fat butter, and 1^^ gallon of pure whale oil, was the best composition a sheep- farmer in Badenoch could use. Mr. Macgillivray, Ballachroan, gave in his adhesion to tar and butter. Mr. Allan Kennedy, Kinchyle, remarked that his expe- rience was limited, but that he would be in favour of smearing for sheep in high places, but for hoggs going to the low coun- try he thought dipping would be equally beneficial. Mr. Gordon, Coul, in a most humorous speech, said the discussion was more like a dispute than anything else, and con- tinued : In reference to the discussion last year at Inverness, on Professor Levi's statistical account of the Highlands, his Grace of Argyll might be better informed, owing to the region lie came from, aud we, being at Kingussie, the head of the pine forest, may be said to be tarred with the same stick. Be- fore a Campbell set foot on the territories of the Lord of the Isles, or a Marquis of Lorn was heard of, peace was preached from lona, and civilization was heard of in the Sound of Mull. But, to return to the question, my advice would be that every owner of sheep should just use the material they found best to suit. For my own part, I must say, as the English manager of a Scottish spinning company said, " lie is waste ;" so in like man- ner, but for a far difi'erent purpose, I say " Tar and hooterT Mr. Cluny JLvcpherson then summed up. He found the almost unanimous opinion of the meeting to be in favour of tar and butter. He continued : The late Mr. Macpherson, Biallid, a practical man of forty or fifty years' experience, told me that he dipped once, and found that he lost so much wool that he would never try it again. But there is no question that we should take advantage of anything tending to improve the stock. You don't smear before they are hoggs ; but \vhat would you think of dipping when they are lambs, thus rendering the ani- mal more clean and healthy ? We should not be so wedded to old practices as not to adopt new modes ; and I conceive that by dipping lambs the advantage would soon be apparent, the animal would be cleaned from vermin, and, by smearing him afterwards, the dift'erence would be seen when the wool came to be sold. I merely throw out these hints for your considera- tion, and sum up by saying that tar aud better carry the day. THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 491 REGULATIONS FOR THE SALE OF CATTLE. An adjourned Staffordshire Quarter Sessions, for the special consideration of the question of facilitating tlie sale of cattle without the risk of the dissemination of contagious disease, was held at the Shire HaU, Statl'ord, on Saturday se'nnight— the Earl of LiCHFiELB, chairman, who, in introducing the special husi- ness for which the magistrates had met, observed that there was a very strong feeling that further facilities were necessary for the disposal of stock, especially in the case of the smaller farmers, whilst there was a strong indisposition to incur the risk which would attend the general re-opening of fairs and markets. His lordship then proceeded to notice the plan suggested by Mr. Kemp Bourne, of Eisherwick, and which was ap- proved at an influential meeting a fortnight previously, that parishes should be grouped into districts, and that sales of cattle should be authorized to take place in them, when quite free from disease, of animals belenging to farmers within such districts, and that the local authority should lay down such groups, and should grant licences for the removal of cattle to such sales, and they being countersigned there by an authorized person (tlie auctioneer), should also permit of the conveyance of the animals oifered for sale, either back to the premises of the owner, in case they were not sold, or to those of the pur- chaser. His lordship read the resolutions adopted at the meet- ing above referred to, and which are to the effect already stated. As to the danger of generally re-opening fairs and markets. Lord Lichfield observed that he thouglit every one must be agreed that it would be very foolish, for the sake of some little inconvenience, to run the risk of re-iutroducLug the plague, and be did not think they could be very confident that the plague had altogether ceased in tliis part of the country, notwithstanding the great reduction in the attacks which had appeared in the last five weeks, for a fresh outbreak was rei)orted from the North Hiding of Yorkshire, and also within the last week one had taken place at Weni, in Shopshire, at which place two or three animals had been killed which had the disease, whilst nine others which had been in contact with them had been slaugh- tered. His lordship said he had also heard of another fresh outbreak within a very short period in Cheshire. He thought the plan suggested by IMr. Kemp Bourne, whilst it would afford great facilities for the disposal of stock, would be free from any danger of re-introducing the disease into districts free from it. It might be said that the plan did not meet the case of the purchase of Irish and other store stock from a dis- tance ; but it reaUy appeared most important to take every precaution in the ease of the sale of store stock, and he would rather see the present restrictions continued, and the sale of store stock entirely prohibited, than tliat animals from all parts of the country shoidd be brought to these sales. He thought the licences for such district sales as were suggested should be granted by the Court of Quarter Sessions, rather than that the arrangements should be made by the Privy Council, who were far less able to judge what arrangements would be most convenient for the purpose, and most likely to guard against possible risk. His lordship then proposed the following resolution :— " That in tlie opinion of this court it is desirable that public sales of fat and store stock be held for groups of parishes in uninfected districts, under licences to be granted by the justices acting in Quarter Sessions, and under such regulations as the justices may think fit." Lord Lichfield observed that should the Court agree to tliat or any similar resolution, they might ask him, or appoint a de- putation, to represent their views to the Government through the Privy Council. His lordship observed that he bad seen in the Stattbrd paper of that day a letter from the inspector in North Staffordshire in reference to the remarks of Professor Simonds as to the case of plague recently reported there. Professor Simonds certainly guarded himself most carefully against expressing an opinion as to whether there had been a case of disease or not, because he was not in a position to judge, not having seen the animals ; and all he said was that he trusted it might turn out that after all it might not have been a case of tlie disease, because some time had elapsed, and no animal whicli had been in contact with those aflected having been killed, and no fresh case having Ijrokeu out, that, certainly if no fresh case should break out, in all probability it might be considered that there had not been a case of the disease; but he most carefully guarded himself against giving an opinion. The noble lord added that he was desirous of correcting an impression which might arise from the report of his remarks at the meeting that day fortnight. The statement as reported was " If fat stock were necessary for the food of the country it should be slaughtered at the ports of landing." That might appear to indicate some doubt in his mind whether it was necessary to import fat stock. He had no doubt that fat stock must always be imported, but lie did e.\press some doubt whether the importation of store stock to this country was necessary ; and he was anxious to raise the question as one on which more information was required, for his own im- pression was that England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland could iireed sufficient stock for the country to feed without obtaining it from other countries at the risk that necessarily attended the importation of store stock. In the case of fat stock, the sales at the ports might lie facilitated and the animals killed before leavinij them ; but he thought it weU worthy of consideration whether tlie importation of store stock was necessary. Mr. T'wxMi.ow seconded the proposition of Lord Lich- field, observing that in tlie north of the county the inconve- nience to which Lord Lichfield had alluded, arising from the want of means to buy and sell stock, was very greatly felt ; and he was sure that they would receive such a plan as had been proposed with much satisfaction. At present tlie regulations were so strict that they offered great inducements to break the law, and they knew too well that it was broken every day, and it was very desirable that the restrictions should be so far modified that they might be more strictly carried out. With regard to the importation of store stock, he did not think any one in the nortli of the county desired to have fairs and mar- kets generally re-opened for the sale of Irish and other stock, and tliey woiddnot object to any reasonable precaution against the spread of the disease : for having already suffered, they would be disposed to act on the old motto, Careaf emptor. He did not think any farmer, however desirous of re-stocking his farm, would do so with animals which he was not perfectly satisfied were free from the disease. Mr. Locker said he had spoken to many farmers in the neighbourhood, and they liighly approved of the proposed plan. Eor one, he should prefer that the districts for which these sales should be held should not be made too wide ; for it was just at this time of the year, when cattle were about to be housed, that special precautions were required ; and the re- appearance of the disease at Wem was a warning to them to take additional care. Lord Hatiierton highly approved of tlie proposal as far as regarded store stock, but thought that less restriction was necessary for the disposal of fat stock, which was required to be slaughtered within a few days of the day of sale, it might be convenient for an owner of such stock for instance to have the choice of sending it to Penkridge or to Stafford, as the time of sale and other circumstances might suit him better at the one place than the other. He saw no risk in removing fat stock from one uninfected place to another uninfected place, provided it did not pass tlirougli an infected district. Lord LiciiEiELD explained that by tlie proposal it was in- tended that an owner of stock should not be obliged to sell his stuck at the sale, but might take it back to his farm ; and Mr. May.\e observed that the farmers were anxious not to be com- pelled to sell at these sales, as this put them too much in the power of the butchers ; and on this Lord Hatiierton did not press his suggestion. The resolution was unanimously agreed to, as was also one requesting tlie Earl of Lichfield to lay the resolution before the President of the Privy Council, m THE S'AEMER'S MAGAZINE. CANADIAN AaRICULTURE.— THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. Mr. N. J. M'Gillivmy, President of the Upper Canada Agri- cultural Association, delivered tlie annual address, as follows : — Farmers of Ca:s'.viia, — It now devolves npon me, as pre- sident of this society, in accordance with the usual custom, to address you on those important matters that have been occupy- ing our attention for the last three days. So many distin- guished agriculturists have addressed you in former years that I feel unequal to the task of interesting you as they have done. But the agricultural interests of the country are so important that it would l)e a dereliction of duty in me not to try to say something that may be beneficial to us. I liave to express my very great regret at the absence of his Excellency the Governor- General, occasioned, as you are doubtless aware, by the death of a near relation. I am satisfied that his Excellency has the sincere sympathy of the farmers of Canada in the occasion that has prevented us from having the pleasure of seeing him amongst us at this time. May I crave your attention, there- fore, while I address to you a few practical remarks on the present state and future prospects of agriculture in Canada. Year after year, with good reason, my predecessors in office have congratulated you on the progress which we, as farmers, have been making ; and with the greatest of pleasure I find that I might safely do the same. And I sincerely trust that such arrangements are being made that at the Exhibition in Paris next year the display of the natural and industrial pro- ductions of Canada will sufficiently prove that their encomium is just. Our prosperity has in the past been great, and still continues to increase. By reference to statistics, I observe that between the years 1851 and 1861 the live stock of Upper Canada has increased 30 per cent., while the produce of the soil attains the high figure of nearly 150 per cent, increase • but allow me to remark that this cannot be taken as a true criterion of the intrinsic prosperity of the country. Sucli in- crease may follow from extended cultivation, reclaiming new lands, and from immigration, while older settlements and older reclaimed lands may be decreasing. The true criterion of con- tinued prosperity must be that the lands already cleared arc, through better cultivation, becoming more productive. In this respect, however, from the imperfect statistics given on this point, I feel myself at a loss how to speak. But these statis- tics I look upon as one of the highest importance, and would submit that the attention of this society miglit profitably be drawn to the advantage of collecting the same. It seems to be an undisputed fact that in the older-settled portions of the United States the yield per acre is becoming less, and on some parts of Canada I am satisfied the same is true. Might we not, then, devote some consideration to tliis important fact upon which our prosperity so materially depends ? The exhibition of this year, however, gives proof that on the whole we are progressing. The stock shown has in number and quality ex- ceeded that of former years ; while the machinery and imple- ments exhibited show that the ingenuity of man is still prolific in adding to that which benefits the farmer, and to the means by which mother Earth is made to yield her treasures to her children, and that these are taken advantage of by the Cana- dian. And notwithstanding the inclemency of the season, espe- cially during the harvest, the varied productions of the soil submitted prove that a good crop has been secured in compa- ratively good condition. For this, as in duty bound, we give thanks to our God. It is right on such occasions as this to inquire into the causes that have led to this prosperity, so that from past ex- perience we may draw future guidance, and still advance. First, and most important among these, is the great blessings of peace, which we have so long enjoyed, and for which under Provi- dence we have to thank our connection with Great Britain. May we never cease to value that connection, and the more so, that England continually approves her care for us, for even now there are landing upon our shores some of her noble army to help in our defence in this time of threatened danger. And here let me make mention of that great and now accomplished undertaking of laying the Atlantic cable, through the medium of which we no sooner asked for aid, than immediately the answer came, " Toi/r help is comiiiff.'" Nothing drains the resources of the country and checks particularly agricultural improve- ment, like war ; drawing as it does so many of the inhabitants from profitable occupation, and carrying in its train suck im- mense destruction of property. Next to the blessing of peace, I might mention the fostering care of the Legislature, as exemplified in their annual grants to this and kindred societies throughout the country, and in their late endeavours to introduce and extend the cultivation of flax. The growth of the population, ever adding as it does to the working energy of our country, had tended in no small degree to the increase of agricultural wealth; while the railways and public highways, by facilitating the transmission of goods to market, benefit largely the farmers in the more remote settle- ments. The intelligence of a people is also a most important means toward this end ; and our common school system of edu- cation, in its steady advance and in the cheapness with which a young farmer may now acquire much theoretical and scienti- fic knowledge, has added greatly to this progress. The same has been the eff'ect of the press, by means of which, instructive articles on agriculture and commerce are daily cirulated and read by our people. Lastly, science has done its part in help- ing us. It is true that science, in its application to the farming interest, is slower in its eflects than when applied to the ma- nufacturing. The best mechanism of scientific research is ex- pensive, and the wealth of the manufacturer generally enables him at once to avail liimself of it, while the smaller available resources of the farmer ^ften preclude him from procuring many a machine which would prove of great advantage. Ne- vertheless, science has been laid hold of by the Canadian far- mer, and many are the appliances now, by which at little ex- pense compared to years gone by, the soil can be made to yield its fruits. These are some of the most important causes of our present prosperous condition. Let us now, reasoning from them, draw some useful instruction for the future. The same means that have proved successful in the past, must prove successful in the future, and if more earnestness and energy are applied to the use of those means, greater will be our progress. Of in- calculable importance is a wise and conciliatory spirit to^'ards foreign nations, so that as long as possible we may enjoy peace — especially the cultivation of friendly feelings with our nearest neighbours, the people of the United States ; children of the same parents, having the same interests with ourselves, and possessed of the same energetic Saxon spirit, whose effect in the civilization of the world and the improvement of all the interests of civilized nations can scarcely be compiited. In any neighbourhood, if the inhabitants live amicably together, interchanging the courtesies of life, they can materially assist each other in many ways : so with nations. The Reciprocity Treaty, entered into many years ago between Britain and the United States, prov cd of great advantage both to them and to us, as is shown by the immense increase of imports and ex- ports during its continuance. We regret it has now been repealed, but are thankful that it appears the effects will by no means be so hurtful as was anticipated. Nations cannot live without each other's assistance any more than individuals ; and we find tlie American people still continue to buy exten- sively from us. In the encouragement of immigration the Legislature might do much for ns. The more labourers we have in our land, the cheaper will labour be, and the more will be accomplished, thereby adding to our wealth. It is to be regretted that so many emigrants, year after year, pass through our country to the Western States, while in British territory there lies so much uncultivated fertile land. A great deal might also be done by our Government in the establishment of agricultural schools. In Ireland, under the supervision of the Board of National Education, these are among the valu- able means th.at have produced in that country the present advancement in farming. These Irish schools are preparatory to a higher institution, at which young men, generally the sons of farmers, are taught at a cheap rate the usual branches of a sound English education, as also book-keeping, land sur- THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. 493 veying, levelling, mapping, animal and vegetable physiology, botany, geology, chemistry with practical agriculture, and hor- ticulture— there being attached to the institution a farm on which the practice of agriculture in its most improved forms is pointed out. In this country generally there is little know- ledge of scientific farming, and often even by the farmer very little interest taken in the occupation. Hence the daily emi- gration of our young men to the gold regions or the com- mercial cities. A step of very great consequence, and from which no doubt beneficial results will flow, has been taken in the opening up of commercial relations with distant countries. And we may congratulate ourselves that the report of the Commissioners appointed for this purpose is so favourable. The Confederation of the Provinces, giving us a more influen- tial position and a name ; and the Intercolonial Railway, en- abling us at aU seasons of the year to excliange goods with other countries, will, no doubt, tend greatly to "our advance- ment. But we must ever bear in mind that the best Legisla- ture in the world can do little to advance a country, unless the individual exertions of enterprising men are faithfully and continuously employed. Therefore, let us, each and all, do our best to promote the agricultural interests of our beloved land. And now, in conclusion, let me call your attention to some matters that seem to me to have been too much overlooked heretofore. One is the necessity of a more satisfactory adaptation of our stock, our crops, and modes of farming to our climate. Every country, yes, even every district, has a peculiar climate and soil — so with Canada. And while we value the breeds of cattle that are found most profitable in Britain, it is a question whether the same breeds generally prove the most profitable here. Would it not be well to direct attention to the subject, and try if, by care in crossing our present breeds, we could not produce other breeds better adapted to the several parts of our country, -nhich being so extensive, must possess many varieties of soil as well as climate ? A similar remark might apply, altliough perhaps not to the same extent, to our crops. Rotation of crops is a matter that in Canada generally receives too little attention — this more especially in Central Canada. When a field is found to be good and yield well, it is too often the case that that field is cropped year after year Tmtil its very life-blood is witiidrawu, and years of good manuring will scarcely restore it — one of the causes, no doubt, of the complaint that old settlements do not produce such good crops as new. A re- gular rotation of crops and regular manuring would certainly ])revent this. Root crops are also, I believe, too much neg- lected. They are incalculably useful in pulverizing the soil, and enabling tlie fanner to clear it of weeds. One otlier matter, and I will not detain you longer. The establishment of regular fairs or markets throughout the whole country, quarterly, montlily, or weekly, according to the requirements of the place, would be of such advantage that those who have not been accustomed to them cannot comprehend it. There, and tiiere only, can the farmer become acquainted with the real value of that of which he has to dis- pose. An immense saving of time and labour would also be tlie consequence. Instead of the farmer in want of a good horse, cow, or slieep driving around the country for days or weeks, till he finds the object of his search, lialf a day at the fair will show him all the animals for sale. He can there satisfy himself better, and save much time, which is money. At such a place also, he will learn, by contact and conversa- tion with his fellow-farmers, any new ideas on the subjects that should interest him, and naturally be induced to emulate his more enterprising neighbour. Let us, tlien, for the sake of our beloved Canada, put our shoulders to the wheel, and push forward as best we can the agriculture of our laud. And while we do so, let us nobly detennine to defend what we do possess. If those threatening invaders, the Fenians, do set foot upon our soil, I am satisfied that we, the sons of toil and subjects of a beloved Queen and Government, will give them such a reception that they will regret that they ever at- tempted to molest us. CUMBERLAKD SHORTHORNS. Since the returns of the cattle plague began to show such a visible decline of the disease about two months ago, the ti-ade for cattle has begun to gradually right itself ; and although fairs are stiU discontinued, much good store stock has been changing hands by private treaty ; indeed, all over the country at the present time are to be found droves of good beasts pass- ing fronr the locked-up pastures to lands that have been devastated by the plague, but which are now considered to be in so healthy a state as to be re-stocked. This has naturally been the case with common or store stock ; even highly-bred Shorthorn sales liave lately been taking place all over the kingdom, and fair prices realised ; recently, in our own county, Mr. Hetherington's well-known herd of Shorthorns at Middle Farai, Brampton, was disposed of by auction by Mr. Stratford, and very fair prices were given for the animals ; in fact, several of the higher bred cows made prices ranging from 50 to 60 guineas each ; and, as a further proof of the confi- dence that is felt throughout the kingdom, in the abatement of the disease, we may mention that a small herd of pure Short- horns were recently sold at Yardley, near Birmingham, for just over £2,000. The herd consisted of only 30 animals, and these averaged £CG 14s. 2d. each ; three of them made each 100 guineas, and two yearling heifers made respectively 115 and 120 guineas a-piece. It is from these sales that our county has been much bene- fitted. Mr. J. P. I'oster, of Killhow, near Wigton, has been an extensive purchaser, not only at these sales but on former occasions ; soon after taking possession of tlie Killhow estate, and effecting great improvements thereon, he began purchasing Shorthorns at some of the best sales in the kingdom. Two heifers were obtained at the late Mr. Jonas Webb's sale at Babraham in 1863, where Mr. Clark Irving, also a native of this county, bouglit so largely for exportation. Then fol- lowed other purchases from the herds of Mr. A. L. Maynard (of Marton-le-Moor), Mr. J. H. Langston (of Sarsden), and Mr. Robinson (of Clifton Pastures) ; from the latter place came the celebrated heifer " Revelry," who, with her daughters has won several prizes at the Wigton shows, and was bought for 125 guineas. In 186-i two animals were oljtaiued from the Duke of Devonshire's sale at Holker ; and from thence fol- lowed, by private treaty, the first-class bull 13th Duke of Oxford, who has hitherto been used with the herd. At Mr. Hetherington's sale, to which allusion has just been made, he bought five animals, including two excellent specimens of a tribe that is so well known and so much esteemed throughout this country, viz., the Troutbeck " Gwynnes," and from these two, a cow " Polly Gwynne," and her heifer " Duchess Gwynne." It is his intention, with the aid of buUs of the Kirklevingtou blood, to estabUsh and perpetuate the famUy, that the county may not lose its high reputation for a tribe that is so higlily considered in the whole kingdom. Mr. Robert Jefterson, of Preston Hows, was also a purchaser of some animals at Mr. Hetherington's sale, including a " Gwynne " at a high price — likewise Mr. George Moore, of Whitehall, and Mr. G. C. Hope, of Aspatria. At the Yardley sale, Mr. Foster got " Fantail," of the Kirklevingtou blood, and her daughter " Fantail 3rd " — both at high figures ; and as a climax to these he has just purchased, through the agency of Mr. StraUbrd, a splendid young bull just twelve months old, thick and compact, a good roan of excellent (juality, and with fiue long hair, from Mr. Betts' magnificent herd at Preston Hall, Kent. Tliis young animal is by " Grand Duke 4th," a son of the best of the three cows which were sold for 1,900 guineas, and out of " Moss Rose," bred at Cobliam Park, a daughter of Mr. Bates's "Cambridge Rose 6th," one of the last relics of the famous Kirklevingtou sale. " Moss Rose " was sold, under a year old, for 200 guineas. In 1863 she was purchased by Mr. Betts, and, with a bull calf at her side, made -lOO guineas. The young buU, which is of great promise, and considered one of the best yet bred at Preston Hall, is called " Royal Cam- bridge," and cost 200 guineas. With so much enterprise and such first-class stock, our county will stiU sustain her reputa- tion among all ligr neighbours of the north, and indeed vie with any iu the sontlu—Octol/er 39. — Cumberland Pacqtiet, 4y4 THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. THE LABOUR MARKET, THE MALT-TAX, AND THE HARVEST. At tlie North Walsliam Society's Meeting, Mr. Howes, !M.P., said they must have read a remarkable speech of Sir Stafford iVorthcote on agricultural statistics, in ■which Norfolk was mentioned in very strong eulogistic terms, Norfolk not having resisted the gathering of these agricultural statistics. He thought therefore Norfolk stood one of the foremost counties of this kingdom. In looking at what had really taken place, he wished lie could congratulate them, hut he thought he might say there never was a worse harvest than that of 1S65 ; at least, he rememhered none. They had had that terrible cattle plague, which had had the effect of lessen- ing the show to-day in a very great degree, and also of lessen- ing their present meeting. He hoped that next year would have arrived to its full proportions, and that they might es- cape the annoyance and inconvenience which the agricultural interest had received from the restrictions of cattle ; hut he could only hope this, for there was no doubt they would have to submit for a time. Speaking of the harvest, Mr. Howes said that he was lately in Durham, and if we had wet here they had a deluge there, and the harvest was standing about last month, if it was painful for him to see the state of the liarvest in that county, it was far more painful for him to see the strike in the iron mines. There were 12,000 workmen in that comparatively small county, and £16,000 per week was the amount of their wages. Tliey could conceive what would l)e the effect upon the trade of that district from such a sum being withdrawn, as it had been, for twelve or fourteen weeks, for he believed the strike was not terminated now. There was no doubt the labour market was, and would be for many years, the subject of the day. Did it affect them ? Though they were free from anything like a strike ; still, it must be admitted that in different parts of the county they had found tlie want of labour. Many migrations too had taken place from this to otlier parts. Tliere were many men who would leave their homes only for a few shillings a week, and as fore- warned was forearmed, the question was, "How can this be met ?" It was in the treatment of the agricultural labourer — a subject which he had touched upon before, but which he thought might be entered into here, as they were all farmers, and interested in the prosperity of agriculture. The treat- ment of the agricultural labourer was not easy, but it was more easy than the treatment of the labourer in the manu- facturing districts ; for this reason — here they became ac- quainted with the individual character of the men. He con- gratulated them upon this. Although there had been an im- provement, even now the agricultural labourer, his wife, and family were not treated as they ought to be. With regard to the habitations of the poor, tliat was a subject so thoroughly thrashed out and winnowed that it was unnecessary for him to go into tlie subject ; but they had ascertained what ought to be done, and in a great measure how it ought to be done. He tliought the legislature had gone to the extreme of its power in this matter ; but perhaps it might do something in sanitary matfers, and in enabling landlords who had not a large sum of money at their disposal to do what was required by way of loan. Surely they must come to the conclusion that all that remained to be done rested with them individually. Let them all take this to heart; let them remember that there was a common interest in this matter between landlords and tenants ; let tliem make the home of the agricultural la- bourer attractive ; let him, if possible, have bis garden, instead of his allotment half a mile from his cottage, and let that cottage be such as he was entitled to expect. He differed with the Earl of Leicester as to the labourer's tenancy being weekly— he thought it should be of a more permanent cliaracter. He tliought the house or cottag.i of the labourer should be made his home ; but if it were a mere weekly tenancy, it was impossible for the man to look upon it as his home, because he would be liable to be removed at any time. He beUeved if the labourer's home was made what it should be, that home and the associations connected with it would have the effect of inducing him to remain in his present em- ployment ; for he believed there were no class of men more attached to their county than were Norfolk men, whether landlords, tenants, or labourers. He entered fully into that sentiment, being a Norfolk man and living in the county. Mr. Read, M.P., said : He believed they had in this dis- trict secured a fair barley crop, and had harvested it in com- paratively fair condition. There had also been an improved price for barley, the best barleys making, as they were aware, 2.5s. per coomb. This being so, some of his friends said, " Don't say .anythiug about the malt-tax : let well alone." Now, it was not when they had a poor crop, but when they had a good crop, like that they had three years ago, that they felt the pressure of this most abominable tax. It was only two years ago they sold barley, weighing fifteen stones — bright, good, sound barley — for 12s. 6d. a coomb : he had no doubt tlie same barley would now make 22s. or 23s. He did not believe, any more than it had been with the hop-duty, that if the malt-tax were repealed they weuld be inundated by foreign barley. Mr. Read then denied that the farmer had any so- called " protection," and remarked that they were twitted now-a-days by the saying, " Your friends are in power : now is the time to see what they will do for us." That was very legitimate chaff on their part. He did not think there was any probability of their obtaining at present a total repeal of the tax ; liut he thought they might be able to sub- stitute another tax to reduce it, such as a tax upon beer. Mr. Read concluded by urging the importance of this question being kept in mind, as he agreed with Mr. Gladstone, who thought there was no evangelising influence in beer, though he believed it was a national beverage, given by a kind Pro- vidence to be the solace of the poor man, and to cheer and comfort him when he was weary. He believed, further, that by no system could we extract so little good and so much harm from beer as we did by the brewing, adulterating, and retailing of that article in these days. The Earl of Kimberley said: He would speak upon a subject which had been touched upon by his friend Mr. Read — the malt-tax. It was a subject which, perhaps, most in- terested the people of Norfolk at this moment. Looking at it as a political question, they last year decided that for them- selves by declaring they would have members who would vote for the repeal of the malt-tax. He did not complain of this, because it was in accordance with the theory and practice of our constitutional system. Though he was not a malt-tax repealer, he should be considered unreasonable were he to at- tempt to quarrel with those who were. He had listened with great pleasure to the instructive speech of Mr. Read, which came with great weight, because he might be considered as speaking with authority. He was not going to foUow Mr. Read, and should only mention one point. He thought that they had done right by giving up the hope of a total repeal ; for he was certain, whichever party might be in power, and whoever might be the Chancellor of the Exchequer, they would never be permitted to take off a tax upon one par- ticular beverage, such as beer, while it remained upon other like beverages, such as wine, tea, coffee, &c. He was ex- ceedingly glad that Mr. Read looked to something like a com- mutation of the tax, rather than to a repeal ; and he hoped the question would be brought before Parliament, so that they might see whether such thing was possible. The noble earl then turned to the question of the scarcity of labour. He attributed much of this to the alteration in the settlement law, which had facilitated the movement of labourers from one district to another. He had no doubt that that question of labour was likely to become one of great importance, and he thought they ought to take every opportunity of considering it. If, however, he were asked if he considered the scarcity a misfortune, he should say that he did not. They knew that the condition of the agricultural labourer for years had been far from satisfactory. They had been on the verge of pau- perism ; and he would explain what he meant by that. If a man was a married man, with four or five children, on the very first visit of sickness to his family, and he was out of work, he liad to go to the union-house. Supposing that ano- THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 495 ther cliild was to be added to his family, he had to come and ask for assistance for his wife to pass through her confine- ment ; and if any of his children died, he had again to seek the workliouse for assistance to bury them. Did they not consider that this might be fairly called being on the verge of pauperism ? Now that was not a satisfactory state of things ; and no man could but rejoice at the prospect of something being done that was calculated to raise the labourer from this Slough of Despond. When the labourer found what his labour was worth he would demaud better terms ; and they had to see how they could make that bargain acceptable. Mr. Howes had pointed out that the landlord might do this. They might build cottages where they were needed ; and he believed that would arise out of this movement, not from motives of philan- thropy on the part of the landlords, but in order to have a regard to their own interests they must have a sutTicient num- ber of cottages. They could not cultivate their farms without tliey had bauds ; and they could not expect to have hands un- less those bauds were properly boused. If they built cottages as a speculation, they could not expect to make the investment pay from the cottage alone ; but they must take the cottage, the barn, and the farm-buildings altogether ; and then he maintained that the landlords would find that in their cottages they had made just as good an investment as they did in any other part of the farm. The landlords did not expect to get a separate rent from the barn or the cattle-sheds ; nor could he expect to get a separate rent out of the labourers' cottages : he must take the farm and the cottages as a whole, then he (the noble earl) had no doubt he would get a reasonable profit from it. He thought the question of wages would ad- just itself if they paid attention to the comfort and con- venience of the labourers. He agreed with Mr. Howes that there should be more than a weekly tenancy. He thought if there came a greater scarcity of labour they would inevitably use a greater number of machines. The noble earl called at- tention to the large number and great variety of machines in- vented in America, owing entirely to the great pressure upon the labour market. He had no doubt that the example of America would be followed here should the scarcity long con- tinue. In conclusion, the noble earl said he could not but look forward to the time when they should be able to deal with the children of the labourers who worked in their fields much in the same way as they dealt with factory children. He did not say that the time had yet arrived, but he thought by-and- bye they would be able to get some law passed similar to that now in operation with respect to factories. He thought that was one of the good results they might look forward to as arising from this question. They might depend upon it, although there might be a severe pressure upon them indi- vidually for a time, and although they might have difficulties to face, he believed they would see the time when their labouring population would be raised in comfort and in intel- ligence, and thus all around them would be raised, and the country would be made more prosperous. At the Blofield and Walthani meeting, Mr. E. Fellowes, M.P., said : For the last twenty-five years, I think I may say, this country has enjoyed a state of prosperity unexampled in its annals, and I may say perhaps unequalled, certainly unsur- passed, in any other country of the globe. During that time we have seen our commerce extended into all parts of the globe ; we have seen the distant seas covered with British ships ; we have seen new markets opened for our commerce and our manufactures ; and in this instance alone we have seen great symptoms of increasing prosperity. If we turn to the agriculture of the country, what enormous strides towards im- provement have been made during the last twenty-five years, owing to the skill, the intelligence, and the energy of the British farmer ! There was a time, not long since, when all the energies of the occupier of the land were called forth to meet difficulties which some believed to be insurmountable ; but the skill and perseverance of the British farmer were un- daunted ; when those difficulties arose his energy increased, and those difiiculties vanished from before him. Look, again, to our manufactures, to the enormous wealth that has been amassed in our manufacturing districts. We see places which were villages ten years ago, having but hundreds of inhabitants, grown into towns in which dwell thousands of people ; and such has been the increase that the population has not been equal to the requirements of the manufacturers, and they have been obliged to go elsewhere, beyond their own legitimate re- sources, for help and assistance to work their mills. Well, during all this period ot prosperity in this country, has the in- terest of the labouring class been neglected ? If we look to what has been done by the Legislature during the last twenty years, shall we not find that numerous Acts of Parliament have been passed with a view to ameliorate the condition of the labouring class of this country ? Have we not seen large sums of money expended by Government and by private hands for the improvement of the labouring class, in schools, in cot- tages, and in other ways ? And have we not seen also the great improvement that does exist in many parishes, and in several instances amongst the labouring class ? I quite agree with my reverend friend who lately addressed you, who stated that to a great extent a ditticulty does exist of getting domestic servants, and I perfectly agree Math bun that such is the case ; but such will be the case as you advance in civilization. As you attempt to raise the lower class of people in the social scale, as you give them education, yon render them more likely to think themselves equal with yourselves, and render it more difficult to get them to act as domestic servants. They, and such must be a natural consequence, look to a higher sphere of life. It is not, as my reverend friend says, that class alone that has risen in the estimation of the world, but all classes have advanced with rapid strides. None of us hold tlie same posi- tion as those who, filling like situations, went before us. Is not the farmer of to-day a far superior man to the farmer of fifty years ago? He lives in a greater state of luxury ; he lives in far greater affluence, than the farmer of half a century ago. And so it is in every grade of society in this country. If wc take the manufacturer, the commercial man, the agriculturist, or the labouring class, we find that all have risen to a certain extent in the social scale. Well, gentlemen, there is no doubt that the great increase of prosperity in the manufacturing dis- tricts may have been of great gain to the millowuers in some respects, but it has been to a great extent detrimental to the in- terests of the agriculturists. "V\liat I allude to, and what I wish particularly to draw the attention of those whom I address this evening to, is the great ana growing want of labour in the labour market. I believe this has arisen in a very great de- gree from the fact — and an admitted fact — that the manufac- turing interest has increased 1o such an enormous extent that their legitimate population is not sufficient to carry on their works, so that the manufacturers are obliged to go into the agricultural districts for the purpose of getting more labour to work their mills, to the detriment of the agriculturists. Now, I know it to be a fact, within my own knowledge, that whole families in different parishes have been swept away — father, mother, children, and the whole tribe of them — to go into the manufacturing districts. And, unfortunately for us, as far as my own experience goes, it is the honest and industrious labourer who goes into those districts, and it is the idle labourer who remains behind. The honest and industrious labourer has found this, that if he goes into the mamifacturing district he can earn high wages, obtain work for the whole of his family, get comfortably housed, has no particular distance to go to his work, and knows very well that as long as he con- tinues to work he may obtain an excellent livehhood. It is not so with the idle man, who will not put himself to hard work. He will remain behind, because he knows it is no use his going into another district unless he is prepared to exert himself to the utmost ; and he knows full well that if he remains behind he must be supported by somebody, and that he may continue to practise bis idle habits. If it be an admitted fact — and I pre- siune it will not be gainsaid — that the labour market is not so well supplied as it used to be, and in consequence of the cir- cumstance to which I have alluded, the real question for us to consider is how is this to be counteracted by us ? There is, unfortunately, I know, existing in many parts of the country a sort of independence — aye, and of insubordination — owing to the great scarcity of labour. I have heard of numerous instances where labourers object to being found fault with by their em- ployers, and where employers will hardly dare speak to them, because they will say, as they have said in many instances, " If you are not satisfied with me there are plenty of others who will employ me." This has been going on to a great extent in many parts of the country where there is a great scarcity of labour ; but I hope it is not the case in this district. What we have to ganrd against is, the increasing want of labour extending into our own district ; for, although we may for a time counteract the great want of labour, by our reaping, mowing, and othei 'Kee paemer's magazine. machines, it may be most incouvenient to the agriculturists should that great scarcity continue for any length of time. There is yet time, I think, for us to avert what I regard as so great a calamity. But how is this to be done? My belief is that we must weU study tlie interest of the labourer ; we must study his happiness and comfort; we must look to his cottage ; we must house him well and comfortably ; we must attach" him to the soil on which he lives; and we must attach him to the cottage in which he resides, and to the garden which he cultivates , we must make him feel that Jie is a part of the farm on which he works, and we must give him an interest in remaining at home in preference to seeking work elsewhere. If this be done, my belief is that we shall, in a great measure, prevent our labourers going into distant dis- tricts. If this is not done, we cannot be surprised at men going elsewhere, where they can get plenty of employment, plenty of wages, leaving us to take care of ourselves in the best way that we can. We must, therefore, take care of our labourers. In associations like this we are doing everything we can to promote their welfare, and it is with that view that I think you and I are so anxious to uphold and maintain the Eynsford Association. We feel that it is indispensable, and not only our duty, but our interest, to watch narrowly the wel- fare, the liappiness, and the comfort of the labouring class ; and unless that is done, we must take the consequences. Depend upon it, they are the real friends of the labouring class who look after their moral and social welfare and their mental improvement : those are not the friends of the labouring class who will instil into tlieir minds ideas and notions which they have not the learning to understand, nor the keenness of perception to see that they are fallacious. The llev. W. Howard, Vice-Chairman, said : Several re- marks had been made as to education, but he hoped and trusted that no one would suppose that the middle classes of society objected to a liberal or fair education to the lower classes, but that education was not required further than reading, writing, and arithmetic. They would see the truth of tliis when they remembered the early age at which children had to go to work — if more than this were put into their little minds they would be unable to retain it. He was of opinion that the education in the form of reading and writing should be from the Scriptures ; and then he thought those children, who were yearly examined at the prize scheme, would not disclose that ignorance of Scriptural truth, which lie saw tliat tlie bishop of the diocese and others had observed and commented upon at , the late meeting. The middle class, as a body, were always ready to support the clergy in anything that would benefit the community ; but he maintained that the funds of this asso- ciation ought not to be given to people as a bonus for sending children to school for a certain number of days, when they had the option of sending their children to that school for the nominal sum of a penny a-week. He trusted that, as far as the want of labour was concerned, the remarks of the chairman were not so applicable to the eastern division of the county as to tlie western, the eastern division being more divided and sub-divided than was the western. Mr. Leamon then referred to the remarks of the Lord-Lieu- tenant at the Docking Association. The speecli itself when cri- ticized would show tliat on Lord Leicester's estate the labourers had been worse provided for than the farmers' cattle. His lordship admitted that he wanted from 900 to 1,000 labourers on his farm, and that although his attention had been drawn to the matter for the last thirty years, he was now the owner of only 400 or 500 cottages, accommodating the like number of hands — this number including, as he (Mr. Leamon) supposed, males, females, and children. Lord Leicester also said that tlie best investment a gentleman could make was to build cottages on tliose estates that had none upon them. The middle classes of course had been long aware of this fact, and did not require any editorial reniarlcs, such as appeared in one of the Liberal papers, to draw them to that conclusion. Lord Leicester said he built several cottages in certain parishes which he named ; but when he remembered that those parislies embraced G,M& acres, and had in 1861 a population of 1,486, he (Mr. Leamon) thought there was plenty of room for his lordship to build cottages there ; and the fact that his lordsliip was lord of the manor in chief of these parishes ought not to be lost sight of. No doubt those who built cottages there had to pay a very smart fine when they took tliem up again. When they looked at the cottages throughout tlie country, they would find that those most dilapidated were those which were copyhold, and more especially those which belonged to the lord of the manor him- self. The lord of the manor had not built the cottages. Other people had built them ; and when they came to require repair, they very seldom got repaired from want of funds. He con- gratulated Lord Leicester upon the undertaking he had com- menced, and hoped and trusted that he would carry it on with vigour, for on looking through the parishes of Holkham, Warham Saint jMary, Warham All Saints, and Waterden, he found they emliraced 11,611 acres, wth a population of 1,007. He merely remarked upon these things, because he thought it hardly right, after the middle classes had found homes for the poor, that the landed interest should represent that they had done that, which nothing but the Union BiU that had just passed, and ought to have passed years ago, had compelled them to do. He should be sorry to say any word in disparagement of any gentleman to whom respect ought to be paid; but he held, as a middle-class man, that it was not right to hear remarks of this kind made without commenting npon them ; otherwise the middle-classes would be put down as the greatest noodles in existence, and would be said to have neither a voice nor will of their own. MONMOUTHSHIRE EARMlNG.— MASTERS AND SERVANTS. At the Usk Farmers' Club Mr. Relpjt said : Mr. Purchase, of Pilston, in 1841. made a tour of Monmouthshire, and got up an agitation for the purpose of improving the agriculture of tlie county. Among other places which he visited was Usk, and he did me the honour to ask my co-operation. He enlisted a few more in the good cause, and I am sorry to say that I miss this evening from among us many worthy men who then worked with us in the cause of agricultural improvement. I see, how- ever, sons who are worthily following in the footsteps of worthy fathers. Those men had the moral courage to break away from the yoke of ancient usage, to cast off the trammels of bad cus- toms, and conform themselves to the requirements of the age. I beheve the young farmers whom I see in this room are acting in a similar spirit. You do not continue to do a thing merely because it has been done. You look round and see what is best, and act accordingly. You are ready, to the utmost of your abilities, to adopt any improvements that are presented to you. Go on as you have done, and leave an example to your children which they may foUow. You will have many difticuhies to en- counter in your path. Many persons wiU pooh-pooh your ef- forts : petty malevolence will try to calumniate and assail, and self-esteem, set on stilts, will affect to look down with pity and say, " Behold the man." Never mind, however, what they say ; keep ahead ; never look behind and suffer the penalty which we read of, of an old lady, who, for looking behind, was turned into a pillar of salt. I consider that one of the great objects of meeting, upon occasions like this, is to say to each other what we tliink upon different topics. I can tell you, brother-farmers, for I farm a little myself, and I think I can address you as bro- ther labourers: although Ido not put my handtoguide the plough in cutting the furrows, I put my baud to the plough in other matters. There is a subject upon which I have thought often, and spoke of, and I should like to bring it before you. As a magistrate, I have often occasion to see employers of labour bronglit before the bench, and servants brought up by masters for wages, or breaches of contract, which I am convinced might have been settled in three minutes, if some mutual friend had stepped in to try to arrange the matter. There are not many labouring men here, but there are many who handle the plough. Now, a kindly word of advice, a little kind word, would often manage many things which are brought before a magistrate. The labourer says he was hired upon such terms, which the master denies ; or the master says he was hired upon such conditions, which the la- THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 497 tourer denies ? Both are equally convinced that their version is the correct one. Now, would it not he hetter if, upon hiring a servant, a master were to put down in his pocket-book the con- ditions of hiring, and give a copy of it to his servant ? If the ser- vant could not read, he could find some one to read it for him, and he would then discover at once whether he has properly understood the terms of the hiring. If it is not as lie has understood, he can go to his master at once, and point out wherein he does not think the terras are properly stated, and can have it rectified at once, according to his own sense of the couilitions, so as to prevent the necessity of the master having to take proceedings at some future time for an offence which the servant is unconscious of having committed, but which the master believes to be in opposition to the terras upon which he hired him. These mutual misunderstandings between master and man do much harm. If a master gets the character of being prone to bring his servants before the magistrates, he will be sure to have the worst of servants go to him to look for situations ; and if a servant get the name of bringing his master up, he will be sure to be employed by none but the worst masters. Let there be no misunderstanding. Let the rule be, if a man does good by me, I will do the same by him. Let there be a little forbearance on both sides. Let it he " give and take" on the part of master and man. I should hke to see prizes offered for long servitude, for they may be made the means of doing much good. As much depends in this matter upon the temperament of the master as upon the abilities of the servant. If the master has a bad temper, the servant may be ever so good, but if he cannot put up with him he must leave. There is a great difference between a moderate servant and an easy servant. There was one thing which he was glad to see this Club kept from their list of prizes. He thought it a disgrace for a Club to offer a prize to the labourer who had brought up the greatest number of children without relief off the parish. He had said once before, and he would do so again, that it was hke offering a prize for the sow which had kept the greatest number of pigs on the trough. It was, in his opinion, degrading to a man. It was offering a prize to a labourer for doing his^ duty. He thought the object intended was to induce a man to struggle on upon low wages in hopes of getting one of these prizes, and enabling farmers to reduce their labourers' wages below the fair and proper value of their labour. He was glad to see the improvements which had taken place in plough- ing. In the infancy of their Club they saw the plough drawn by three horses, " dragging its slow length along," and he re- membered the time when almost everybody gave the " cold shoulder" to the wheel-plough. Now he was happy to say that the judges looked with complacency on the wheel-plough. He never found fault with the judges, it was his duty to accept their judgment however much it might differ from his own. He liim- selt'brought a wheel-plough on the grouml for three years iu suceession, but the judges would not look at it. In the second year your nephew, Mr. Chairman, that useful fellow in the county, Major Herbert, brought a wheel-plough on the ground, but because it threw the furrow flat the judges would not look at it. There was only one swing-plough in the field to-day, the rest were all wheel-ploughs, but they did not perform such good work as he should hke to have seen. He thought many of the ploughmen using them had not had much experience with them ; but if they continued their use, and learned how to set the wheel, the flay, &c, he had no doubt that when they met twelve months hence they would do much better; that it mifrht be so was his earnest wish. ON AGRICULTURAL PR I N 0 I PL E S.— TI L LA G E. The farmer's business is often described as being to " till the soil." This vague expression, properly understood, well describes the most important part of his work. It is on the soil he has to operate. Out of it his returns must come. Everything depends upon the condition into which it is brought and kept. Its tillage, strictly speaking, has to do with secur- ing a state favourable to the reception and growth of seed. Several processes are necessary in order to this. In a new country like Canada, where the woody wilderness has to be converted into fruitful fields, clearing and draining must pre- cede ploughing, harrowing, and roUing. Much land is called " cleared," upon which this operation has been only half per- formed. It still bristles with stumps, or is thickly beset with stones. With such obstructions, it is impossible to bestow efl'ectual tillage upon laud, and every farmer should as quickly as possible get rid of stumps and stones. In ordinary circum- stances, there must be patient waiting for the stumps to rot. But it would pay iu many cases to extract the stumps by force. If several adjacent farmers would club together and buy an effective stump machine, the cost would he trifling to each, and the advantage great to aU. A long lever, consisting simply of a stout, tough, round log, wUl do good service in twisting out stumps that are partially decayed. Fastened with an extra strong chain to the stump, such a lever worked by a good yoke of cattle, wUl " dislodge" many an " old settler" that left in the ground would be a nuisance, an eyesore, and a hindrance to the plough, for years. Stumps are often allowed to stand in a field when they are so rotten that a push with tlie hand or foot will send them over. This is negligent, slovenly pro- cedure. By all means, be rid of the stumps and stones as quickly as possible. When land is wet, but little progress can be made without draining. A soil saturated with stagnant water is utterly unfit to grow crops. It is impossible to work wet lands early in the spring, aud thus valuable time is lost. When the seed is in, it will not germinate quickly, or grow fast, or ripea seasonably. An excess of water in the soil excludes the air, which is necessary to promote the assimilation of plant food. It also changes organic materials into vegetable acids, produc- ing the condition which we call a " sour" or " cold" soU. Land not properly speaking wet is greatly benefited by drain- age, aud there are few farms that would not be rendared far more valuable and productive by this important preparation for culture. Supposing land to be cleared and drained, thorough ploughing is the next process. Its objects are to make the soil meUow, to change the surface and bring up new portions for contact with the air, to mix the top soil and the subsoil together, to cover and distribute manure, and to destroy weeds. Ploughing should be deeply done. If shallow, it is to a great extent labour lost. Deep ploughing has many advantages. It exposes more of the soil to the action of light, warmth, air, and moistuie ; affords more space for the roots of plants ; produces many of the beneficial effects of draining ; gives more land to the acre, adding deep acres to broad ones ; preserves from the evil con- sequences of both drought and excessive rain; and saves labour by securing larger crops ou the same space, than can be raised by mere skim-ploughing. Where shallow ploughing has been practised, the deepening of the soil should be gradually accomplished. By going down an inch lower each time, only a little of the hungry subsoil is brought to the top. In this way, if, in addition to deepening, manure is liberally applied, gradually the whole of a deep seed-bed is pulverized and pervaded with fertilizing material. Subsoihng, as it is called, is an excellent practice. It is performed with a plough that does not turn a furrow, but simply stirs the soil beneath the furrow already turned. It has been known to add one- third to the crop. The importance of having a deep, rich, mellow soil cannot be over-rated. It is a pleasure to work such a soil, a pleasure to gaze at the luxuriant crops growing in it, a pleasure to harvest the abundant products it yields, and a pleasure to count up the gains derived from it. Most peo- ple arc unaware of the immense good done by mere tillage. It is h.^rdly possible to be too thorough in working the soil, so as thoroughly to stir and mix it. From the fact that a large amount of fertilizing material is absorbed from the air, and that a loose, light condition of soil is most favourable to extracting the suppUcs thus obtained, tillage not merely prepares the land for a growing crop, but to a considerable extent provides manure for it. Hence' the maxim which should never be lost sight of by the farmer, "tillage is m.\jsure." — Canada ' Farmer, 498 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. PRIZES FOR WELL-CULTIVATED FARMS. At the Tenbury Society's Meeting, Lord Northwick ad- dressed the meeting at some length on the subject of a prize for the best-cultivated form and an annual inspection. His attention, lie said, had been called to the subject by the prac- tice of his late colleague, Mr. J. H. Foley, and also by the practice adopted for some years past on the estate of the Lady Emily Foley at Stoke Edith, and which he believed to have been attended with the most beneficial results. Having re- ferred to the opinions entertained by Lord Lyttelton and other gentlemen in Worcestershire as to the good results to be ob- tained from this practice, the noble lord brought the subject directly home to the meeting. He proposed that the area of inspection should be the parisli of Kurtord, and offered to give £5 ; Mr. Pardoe would give his £5, and other landlords, all lying within a ring fence — although he had not spoken to them on the subject — would very probably contribute ; so that there would no doubt be a prize of £13 or £15 to begin with, and that would be worth having. The plan of inspec- tion which he suggested was similar to tliat which had been adopted at Stoke Edith — viz., for the competitors and others to ride round tlie estates, and the award to be made by some practical gentleman of great experience, as it had been made at Stoke Editli, by Mr. Jeremiah Matliews, who was very widely known in connection with agricultural matters. He would tell them fairly what his object was in introducing this matter. There were some very good farmers, some very bad farmers, and some indifferent ones. In estimating good farm- ing they would not take simply the crop of turnips or the crop of mangolds, but the state of the farm generally ; and if this were done, he believed that in the course of two years or so a great improvement would be perceptible. For instance, if a man had a field full of thistles or docks he would take care to have them puUed up before tlie day of inspection ; and thus good would result. Then, again, as to the landlord class. The inspection would show whose gates, fences, and farm- buildings were out of order ; and if the landlord had any pride in him, he would put such things in order or give a good " reason why." An inspection would therefore act well both for landlord and tenant indifferently. In conclusion, his Lordship said he thought he could answer for his own tenants falling in with his views, and he believed that other tenants would do so ; and on the general subject of the eourtesy and kindness of farmers, he remarked that he made it a practice to obtain information in going about the country, and that he knew no class more willing to impart it than agriculturists. Tlie Ciiaiiima:v said he fully agreed in the views of Lord Tvorthwick, but he disagreed with him as to the area. Instead of the parish of Burford, which he thought too small, he would suggest the area included in tlie prize offered by Captain Pardoe — viz., that of the Tenbury Union. By extending the area, greater good would be effected, and there would be more honour gained by the winner. Again, a system of classifica- tion should be introduced, so that the small farmers — those oc- cupying say 200 acres — slioiild not compete with large farmers. He thought such a way of spending their money would be much better than giving prizes for mangolds or swedes, as he was not sure that those were the best crops that could be grown on stiff land : he thought a crop of beans W'ould be better. Mr. Best said that some time ago he thought the society was — he would not say " going to the bad," but — rather flag- ging. Now, however, he came to tlie conclusion that it was going ia advance. Lord Korthwick, with the assistance of Mr. Pardee and others, had offered to give a prize for the best ■ cultivated farm, and he was sure that such a scheme would have many supporters. Lord Norlhwick, had referred to the prizes given by Lady Emily Foley. Now he (Mr. Best) knew the district of Stoke Edith, and also the good those prizes had effected. He was acquainted with several of tlie gentlemen who had taken those prizes, and had been over their farms, and he must certainly say that he knew of no estate that was better farmed, or in such a high state of cultivation as the Stoke Edith. That horrible weed called " scutcli" was not grown there. In the Tenbury district they were tormented with it, but at Stoke Edith they had none ; and he felt con- vinced that if the landed proprietors in tiie Tenbury district would only support the society in the way Lord Northwick, the Chairman, and Mr. Pardoe, had always done and intended to do, there would be no " scutch" in that district, and that the farms would in time reach as high a state of cultivation as Lady Emily Foley's estate. In reference to the prize which he had offered for the best crop of mangolds, Mr. Best ex- pressed his opinion that it was a crop which ought to be grown in that district, the soil being clay. In conjunction with his friend Mr. Cocks, he had looked over the crop of the only competitor — Mr. Strafford, of Orleton — and had found it so exceedingly good, as well as his farm generally in so high a state of cidtivation, that if the Society thought proper he should be very happy for Mr. Strafford to have the cup. A friend of his had offered next year to give a cup of the value of 10 guineas for the best crop of two acres of mangolds grown within the Tenbury Union, and as he (Mr. B.) would guaran- tee the cup, he hoped that landlord and tenant in the Tenbury Union would promote the object ; to wliicii he would suggest the addition of a 10s. sweepstakes. Tlie Hon. and Rev. C. S. CocKS, in the course of his reply, spoke strongly of the science of agriculture as being the greatest of all sciences, as it embraced the sciences of che- mistry, botany, mineralogy, mechanics, and others. But science, he said, was not all. The motto of the Royal Agri- cultural Society, " Science with practice," was the i^reat thing by which they must be guided. Gentlemen who wrote in books and went entirely by theory were very useful as ad- juncts, but they all knew that they could not farm entirely by books. If so, they would want a book to suit one soil, and another book to suit another kind of soil. The light-land and the heavy-land farmer could not pursue the same system. He knew that from experience, having farmed both light sand and heavy clay ; and, surprising as it might seem to many people, he would rather farm the heavy clay. He believed there was more to be got out of heavy land, and that the farmer of it had more strings to his bow than the light-land man. From heavy land, with good drainage, good manure, and other improve- ments, there was a great deal to be got, if the farmer had a good tenure. For instance, there were hops — a very pleasant feature in that neighbourhood — and orchards, which the sandy man could never indulge in. Again, the feeding of cattle, the dairy, cheese, and other things, while the sandy man had to de- pend on his turnips and sheep. The latter was much the easier style of fanning, but the clay farm was much more in- teresting. A friend of his (Mr. C. W. Hoskyns), who wrote " Talpa ; or. The History of a Clay Farm," did not take the same view as he did, and seemed rather checked^by the difficul- ties to be encountered ; but he (Mr. C.) had been for a good many years on a clay farm, and hoped he should live to.be so many more. Mr. JIason said he saw some very good ricks at Mr. Best's and other places, hut he had also seen a great deal of bad farming, and he was sure that if Lord Northwick had been with him he would have said that improvement was much wanted. As to the approaches to some of the farm houses, he never saw anything so bad ; while some of the land was in as bad state of cultivation as anything he ever saw. He hoped the new system about to be introduced would improve the dis- trict altogetlier, for it was much needed. The great thing was to pull together and try to improve. If they were to go on in the old, slow-fashioned way, they would have no profit ; there was not much to be gained by the adoption of the best plan. He thought Lord Northwick's plan for inspection of farms one of the best things that could be adopted, because then landlords would see the old buildings and the bad approaches to farm houses. He would strongly impress upon all the importance of good farming; but to do that they must have good drainage. Then farming might be profitable ; but as leng as tlie wet was allowed to remain on the land, and there were bad approaches and bad buildings, nothing bnt ruination could ensue. THE FARMER'S UAQAZm^, 499 THE HARVESTING OF THE MANGOLD CROP. BY A PRACTICAL FAKMER. Tlie mangel wurtzel crop, or, as it is now familiarly called, the " mangold" crop, has become of national im- portance. Its almost universal growth and extraordinary bulk per acre make it one of the most desirable crops to cultivate. The mode of culture is now so well understood, and the varieties are so many and so good, as to be of easy adaptation to almost every kind of soil. The long varie- ties aud globes are well suited to all rich and deep soils, whereas the globes only are properly applicable to shallow and inferior lauds. Ihe long sorts strike rather deeply into the soil, but the globe sorts grow more on the surface, and spread their fibres all around. The best varieties only are worthy of cultivation, and these soon become degenerated, if not carefully grown and renewed by selection of the best bidbs, from which to produce the seed. The long sort, called " cow-horn" red, has long been popular; but the palm is nigh being wrested from it by the improved variety of long yellows. Both varieties, if grown from the best stocks, are exceedingly valuable, aud will, under proper cultm'c and upon good soil, produce astonishing crops, frequently attaining aweight of from forty to near fifty tons per acre of bulbs only, as common field crops. The best yellow globe sorts are fully equal to them on like soils and culture, aud will certainly keep better ; but the general run of globe varieties are not quite equal. The red globe sorts, so far as my observation has gone, are not equal to either of the above kinds, but are very hardy, and probably on that account suited to inferior soils or cold climate. The various kinds have now become so well acclimatised that they may be profitably cultivated upon every variety of soil, and under many disadvantages of aspect, shade, stift", and imperfectly-drained lands, the great thing being to watch carefully every opportunity for preparing the soil and apeedily getting in the seed. The great desideratum in the growth of the mangold crop is the production of a good friable mould. If this can be obtained, then with manures, aud good seed well got in, a crop is ensured. In the district from whence I write, about one-fourth of the green-food crop is the mangold crop, and I could point out several farms where the crop will in this season average about forty tons per acre. AVhat an immense supply of excellent food ! and this is not all : if well harvested, the bulbs will keep in admii'a- ble order till the ensuing spring. The writer has now upon his farm some that were harvested at this period of last year, and are yet tolerable food. It is a common prac- tice to reserve a stock for the service of the porcine race during the summer, aud with great advantage to them. In fact, it constitutes the chief food for pigs till near har- vest time comes round again. Sheep, too, thrive admirably upon them. Just when the turnips are done, and the grass is slow to come, they form the connecting link be- tween turnips and grass. The introduction of " the mangold," its improvement, and the general management of the crop and its uses, have proved one of the highest eras in modern agriculture. Its value can scarcely be esti- mated. I therefore, with more than ordinary pleasure, pen a few lines to describe or point out some of the best courses to be pursued to ensure the safety of the crop. In the first place every grower should be very watchful lest an untoward season should come upon him. It is wise to wait the full growth of the crop, which is plainly denoted by the great majoritjr^ of the •J'.vr-; '.ji'co:^!:;;^- ytUov.'. When that is the case the crop is ripe, and the sooner it is secured the better. This unfortunately (for the most part) happeus ui the midst of seed time; consequently the grower is often perplexed whether to break off and secure his man- gold, or continue his seeding. Perhaps a litle forethought in many instances might overcome or obviate these diffi- culties. Every farmer must lay it to account that it will have to be doue before frost comes ; so he must provide accordingly, or he had better be without his crop. The process of taking up is straightforward and simple enough. My own practice is to have all the operations going on simultaneously : women precede the cartage, aud with both hands break off the leaves close to the bulb, and put them in rows or heaps for leading oft' at convenience, or occasionally they are strewn about and ploughed in. We endeavour to keep so far ahead with the stripping of leaves as to make sufficient room for the plough aud cartage. This is done thus : A skeleton plough, or a common Ran- somc or Howard's plough, without the mould-board, is passed along under the rows, so as to lift the roots or bidbs up, aud loosen them so that the men can readily take them and throw them into the accompanying cart, taking from seven to nine rows at a time. The carts take them to the place for graving, and the whole is so regulated that all are kept going. The grave is usually set out about eight or nine feet in width, and the slant upwards finishes in a point at about five to six feet in height. Straw or stubble is drawn out in "haulms" or"yealms" as for thatching, and with these the grave is securely thatched aud made safe by spits of earth being thrown upon the sides. In this state the graves are left for a short time in order to permit any heat from fermentation to escape ; they are then partially earthed up to within about a foot of the top, and again left fill signs of severe frost appear, when they are finally and securely earthed up, so as to defy the severity of the hardest of frosts ; in this way we get on rapidly. Ten or a dozen women stripping leaves will keep six or seven men filling carts ; boys drive to the heap or grave ; the carts are quickly backed to the end of the grave, shot down, and oft' again. The gravers pack them in order, taking cai-e to make even sides, so that the thatching will shoot oft' the rain, as it is essential to good preservation that they be kept dry aud free from fermen- tation. If the season is a difficidt one and much rain occurs, the graves must be of less width, and be left as long as possible unearthed, so that all evaporation may take place before the final earthing. Should an early frost attack them, they must on no account be taken up till all signs of the attack have passed away, and they show unmistakable signs of renewed growth. In an opeu sea- sou the roots or bulbs wiU soon put forth small leaves ; after this they may be graved with safety, providing never- theless not to make the graves too wide. The farmer must in this, as in all his other business, use his best judg- ment as to the in-oper time of taking up, the manner of graving, and time of final closing the grave. He may rest assured that if they are graved in a frozen state cer- tain destruction is the consequence. In fine open winters many of our graves remain earthed, but with their tops merely covered with a thick haulm of straw. If there is heat in the grave such a course is by no means to be con- demned, but they must be closed when frost puts in. It is not only the proper security in the autumn, but they 500 THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. require attention during winter and spring. If a frost is very intense, the grave should have a fresh covering of straw, haulm, or long muck. If unfortunately the grave i-eceives injury from frost, it should be partially uncovered as soon as possible after the frost is gone, to be covered agaiu if necessary on the approach of another. These matters all depend upon the farmer's judgment. In the eai-Iy spring the graves usually require air : if not given they take harm, as the bulbs laegin to vegetate. No rain, however, must be admitted. It is best for the stock that the consumption of these valuable crops should be deferred tiU the approaching spring, when they are invaluable. LIFTING AND STORING ROOTS. Tlie keeping properties of roots are greatly injured, and frequently altogether destroyed, by the action of frost, if not lifted and stored before it sets in. Light hoar frosts, occur- ring while the roots are still well protected by their foliage, liave but little or no deleterious effects on them ; but when re- peated, aud the frost is so intense as to prostrate the leaves, the cells of the roots filled with juice become frozen, aud, though not perceptible to the naked eye, are ruptured, aud, when followed by intense sun, putrefaction sets in more or less, and roots, when stored in this state, soon putrefy and become a mass of rottenness. Hence the necessity of lifting and storing roots before such imtoward circumstances set in, aud the folly of leaving them out because the roots are still growing, in order to obtain the greatest possible weight of produce from the land, though the extra weight thus obtained rather tends to decrease the value of the feeding properties of the produce than increase it, besides endangering the safety of the crop. Instances of this mismanagement occur every year with un- thinking farmers, who, tempted by the coutinued growth of the roots from the mildness of the after-season, leave their roots out, wlien the softness of the after-growtli, induced by the mildness and humidity of the season, only renders the crop more susceptible of injury by sudden and severe frosts. The weather we are now enjoying is highly fiivourable to lifting and securing tlie root crops ; it is important that this operation should be vigorously set about when the weather and laud are dry. The safe keeping of the produce and the comfort and health of those employed, and economy of expen- diture, alike demand it ; and the land is not iU-used, poached, and its fertility injured by the necessary trampling and carting. If the potatoes are not all out of the ground and pitted or housed, no time should be lost in doing so. Potatoes taken out dry and properly pitted keep well ; and if mixed in the pitting with a little dry tnrf-mould, sand, or even dry earth or ashes, their safety is greatly increased; and when stored in the house they should be mixed with some of the above materials, and covered with one or other of them, so as to exclude light ; for when light falls on the potato the part exposed to it be- comes green, and a poisonous quality is engendered, which renders the potato unpalatable and unlit for food. When pitted, it is better to leave the top of the pit unclosed with earth, so as to permit the escape of any heated air that may arise ; but the open part should be covered with potato haulm, rushes, or litter, to prevent wet coming down^ In a fortniglit this covering should be removed, and the aperture firmly closed v.'ith earth, and iinished with sods or scraws, if they can be had ; if not, a little straw pulled so as to hang down a little at each side, and topped with earth, prevents wet from entering, and the sides of the pit falling. Turnips and mangels sliould be carefully lifted, without bruis- ing the hides of the bulbs, aud the leaves t\«sted off hy hand, in- stead of cutting them off with a knife or old reaping hook, though the latter mode is the most expeditious. Some years since it was the custom to cut off the small roots aud scrape or shake off the loose earth. But we now know better, and the improved practice is to leave on all the small roots and the earth that adheres to them, as they keep Ijetter. These roots are best stored by heaping them against the north aspect of walls, if they are to be had, with a base of six or seven feet wide and as many high, and thatching them with a thin layer of straw or other litter. If walls are not to be had, any northern aspect that is available should be chosen, so as to protect them from the influence of the sun ; but if that cannot be obtained, any open site tliat is dry underneath wiU do, building the heaps six or seven feet wiie and as many high, shaped in potato-pit fashion ; and if a little brushwood can be had, a thin layer or two amongst the roots wiU keep them fi-om tumbling down. The long varieties of mangels do not need this so much, but the globular varieties and swedes will. If straw or other litter caunot be spared or obtained, these roots may be covered with a thin coat of earth. In this case a few drainage tiles laid through the centre, from end to end, wdl permit a circulation of air, and prevent undue fermentation. Carrots and parsnips are to be lifted carefully and stored in the same way as swedes and mangels, but from the closeness \iith which they fit together are more likely to heat, and must on that accomit be made in smaller heaps ; three to four feet wide at the base, aud about the same height, wiU be large enough. Mixing them with sand or turf mould will be of great service in keeping them sound and fresh, particularly for table use. The parsnips particularly will require the sand, moist turf mould, or dryish clay ; for if allowed to dry or get shrivelled the flavour of them is not so palatable as when kept fresh, aud on this account it is found the best mode to leave them in the ground, if it can be spared, and lift them as required for table use ; but when the ground is required for other purposes they occupy but little space, and may be kept equally good by storing them as directed. The foliage of swedes and mangels possesses much nutritive matter, and may be turned to profitable account for feeding milch cows or store stock, providing they do not get so much as to induce scouring, or by ploughing them into the ground they grew upon. In storing large breadths of these roots, it is seldom possible to feed off all the tops in time while they are good, and on this account stripping the roots of their fidl- growu leaves daUy for a month or so before lifting them is found judicious and economical ; but in case this is not prac- ticable, ploughing them in as green manure returns to the land again a large amount of both the organic aud inorganic matter extracted from the soil, manure, and the atmosphere in the growth of the plants, thus enriching the land for the benefit of the after-crops. — Jrisk Farmers' Gazeife. CABBAGES FOR SPRING FEEDING. The feeding value of cabbages is well known to many farmers, but not so generally appreciated as they should be, particularly the early sorts, which come iu opportunely for sheep, especially ewes and lambs, affording a nutritious and milk-producing food, at a period when it is of the utmost value. We therefore remind our readers tliat this is the best month for finally planting out the cabbages sown last June, and early in July, for this purpose. Cabbages require deep cultivation and a liberal dressing of farm-yard ; but, like turnips, good crops are produced by part farm-yard and part artificial manures — say 1~ to 15 tons of the former, and 3 to4< cwt. of the latter per Irish acre ; with these proportions, and deep and thorough cultivation, good crops are produced, vi'hich may be consumed in time to crop the land with barley, mangels, or swedes. Por early spring use dwarf early Yorks are best ; and for use farther on, the Nonpareils are best. The farm-yard manure should be put out and spread evenly, aud ploughed in ; a good harrowing should follow, after \\hioh the artificial manure should be broadcasted and lightly harrowed in. The land should then be gone over with a marking plough one way, and then across, so tliat there may be no diflicully iu the planters putting in the cabbages in straight aud parallel rows, at the proper distances apart. A good way to mark the land is to use a Cambridge roller witii the disc set at regulated distances apart. For dwarf Yorks, rows 18 inches apart, both ways, will sulTice ; for the large Yorks or Nonpareil, 20 to 23 inches apart, botli ways, will be the proper distances. By marking the laud both ways, the surface is divided into small squares, and tlie plants are put iu with a wooden dibble, shod with iron at the point, wliere the lines cross. The plants should THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE, 601 be lifted with a fork, which preserves all the tender fibrous roots entire, and not rudely pulled up, as is generally the practice, hy whieli the greater part of those fine roots are torn off and left behind. In dry weather a thick, rich puddle should be prepared, into which the roots should be plunged as the plants are lifted. Small or light hands should be employed to carry and drop the plants along the Hues for the planters, by which the work goes on expeditiously. Dwarf early Yorks, planted out in September or early in October, liberally manured, will come into use in March and April, and may be pulled, shaking the adherent manure and earth well from them, and carried, fresh and fresh, daily to the ewes or fatting wethers, in such quantities only as may be cleanly eaten up, and are very nutritive and milk-producing. It is not necessary to wait till the cabbages get close, com- pact white heads, as it is found by analysis that the green outer leaves are more nutritive than the white heart. Wait- ing till the hearts are fuUy formed, therefore, prolongs the time and keeps the crop longer in the ground than necessary. On the contrary, pulling the plants when the hearts are form- ing gives an earlier supply to the animals, more nutritious, and clears the land earlier than if allowed to become more matured. The judicious farmer will, therefore, go over the crop for the first supply, and pull the ripest plants ; others will come daily into use, and wlien the early dwarf Yorks are used up, the Nonpareil comes in and yields an increased supply. Early cabbages are also of great use to milch cows, yearling calves, and pigs, and are of great value with oil-cake, or, better still, whole wheaten meal, in maintaining and giving sleeky coats to highly-bred Sliortliorns. No farmer should be without a plentiful supply of early cabbages. They come in when turnips are scarce, and, if not well preserved, bad ; and fill the hiatus that too frequently prevails between the old and new supply of animal food. Wliat we have said respecting cabbages applies also to planting out rape, which should be proceeded with at once. Rape comes earlier to use than cabbages, and a valuable feed- ing plant for sheep of all sorts, milch cows, and store cattle. — Irish Fanners Gazette. MICHAELMAS EENTS ON CORN AYE- EAGES. Sir, — I again avail myself of the return of the close of the farmer's year to send you, for the informatiou of your agricultural readers, and more especially those who may have adopted the system of corn rents, based on the ave- rage price of wheat, or of wheat, barley, and oats, a state- ment of the average prices, founded on the returns pub- lished weekly in the Lundoii Gazette. For the year ending Michaelmas, 1866, the average prices are as follows : 8. d. Wheat 46 lOj per imp. qr. Barley 34 4J Oats 24 Of The highest and lowest prices during the same period are as follows : Highest price. Lowest price. ' ^'^' ° ' '■ once. s. d. s. d. s. d. Wheat, July 17, 18fi0 55 10 ... Oct. 3, 1S05 40 10 ...15 0 Barlev, Oct. 2, ISfiG 40 1 ... Oct. 3, 1805 2'J 11 ...10 2 Oats, July 10 and 17, 1866 20 7 ... Oct. 3, 1865 20 2 ... 7 G I remain, sir, your most obedient servant, Charles M. Willich, late Secretary and Actuary, University Life Assurance Society. 2, Montpelier-square, Rutland-gate, Nov. 3. P.S. I annex a table showing the fluctuations from week to week, producing the above results. The changes likely to take place before this time next year may I'ender it useful for reference. WEEKLY AVERAGE PRICE PER IMPERIAL QUARTER IN ENGLAND AND WALES POR 53 WEEKS ENDING MICIIAELJIAS, 1866 : London Gazette." A^lieat. Barley. Oats. 1865. s. d. s. d. s. d. Oct. 3 40 10 .. 29 11 . . 20 2 Oct. 10 41 1 .. 30 4 . . 20 5 Oct. 17 41 11 .. 30 9 . . 20 11 Oct. 24 42 1 .. 30 11 . . 20 11 Oct. 31 42 4 .. 31 0 . . 21 0 Nov. 7 43 4 . .. 31 G .. . 21 6 Nov. 14 45 3 .. 32 5 . 22 0 Nov. 21 46 11 .. 33 7 . . 22 9 Nov. 28 46 10 .. 34 0 . . 22 9 Dee. 5 46 6 .. 33 10 . . 22 8 Dec. 12 40 5 .. 33 2 . 23 1 Dec. 19 46 8 32 9 . . 22 11 Dec. 26 46 8 ''. 32 10 . . 23 1 1866. Jan. 2 40 11 .. 32 G . . 22 6 Jan. 9 46 3 .. 32 9 . . 23 G Jan. 16 46 1 .. 32 G . . 22 8 Jan. 23 45 7 .. 32 10 . . 22 10 Jan. 30 45 6 .. 33 1 . '. 23 3 Feb. 6 45 10 .. 33 0 . . 23 1 Feb. 13 45 5 .. 33 G . . 23 6 Feb. 20 45 9 .. 33 9 . . 23 0 Feb. 27 45 5 .. 34 8 . . 23 10 March G 45 7 .. 34 11 . . 23 5 March 13 .. 45 4 .. 35 7 . . 23 11 March 20 45 G .. 35 10 . . 23 10 March 27 .. 45 3 .. 36 6 . . 24 1 April 3 44 11 .. 36 9 . . 23 11 April 10 44 9 .. 37 2 . 24 6 April 17 44 5 .. 37 0 '. . 24 2 April 24 44 9 .. 37 2 . . 24 8 May 1 45 5 .. 36 3 . . 24 6 May 8 45 9 .. 36 3 . . 25 0 May 15 45 9 .. 36 4 . . 24 10 May 22 46 1 .. 36 2 . . 25 2 Ma*y20 47 4 .. 36 G . . 25 4 Jime 5 47 5 .. 35 4 . . 25 11 June 12 47 1 .. 35 9 . . 25 8 June 19 47 4 .. 36 0 . . 25 9 June 26 48 5 .. 34 4 . . 26 7 July 3 51 0 .. 34 0 . . 26 0 July 10 54 6 . .. 35 5 . 27 7 July 17 55 10 .. 35 1 . . 27 7 July 24 54 0 . .. 33 5 . . 26 2 July 31 52 0 . .. 33 10 . . 27 1 Aug. 7 51 1 .. 32 11 . . 25 3 Aug. 14 50 2 .. 35 2 . . 26 G Aug. 21 50 2 .. 34 9 . . 26 6 Aug. 28 50 10 .. 33 8 . . 26 6 Sept. 4 49 7 .. 35 1 . . 25 3 Sept. 11 47 3 .. 36 1 . . 25-2 Sept. 18 47 0 .. 37 1 . . 24 8 Sept. 25 49 8 .. 37 10 . . 24 1 Oct. 2 51 5 .. 40 1 . . 24 3 53)2485 2 53)1823 10 53)1276 2 Avei'age 46 lOi 34 4f 24 OJ 502 THE FAEMER'tS MAGAZINE, THE LABOURERS' WAGES, It i3 a very nice poiut as to how far a Clergyman should be suffered to interfere with the more secular business of his parish or district. From the continual practice he has, and the consequent confidence he feels, the Di\-ine is too apt to take a lead iu public that neither his abilities nor his position would warrant. There is, for in- stance, just at present a very growing prejudice against the Rector sitting on the Bench of Magistrates, as it is certain enough that of late there have been few objection- able decisions but where some Reverend law-giver has been actively concerned. At open dinners, again, or other such occasions, the Priest is tolerably siu-e to say too much, and to talk as an authority upon matters of which in reality he knows very little. The blame may appear, perhaps, to rest with his fellow-citizens for putting him so forward ; but all who have any experience of country life, more par- ticularly, are aware how difficult it is to keep these gentle- men in the background. The veiy rawest of Curates must have something to propound ; and whether it be a cattle show, a poultry show, or a flower show, an archery meet- ing, an edjicatioual meeting, or a fancy fair, the Cloth is certain enough to be in the ascendancy. It is not for us to declare whether the Vicar shordd go a-hunting, or pass sentence on poachers, or breed better 2)igs than his neighbours ; but rather to touch upon such duties which may come legitimately within his province, as prominent among these is, no doubt, the condition of the labourer. He is the very agent, of aU others, who should be of service here. It is his sacred mission to visit the poor man, and watch over alike his religious and moral welfare, if, indeed, the two terms be not some- thing synonymous. The village Pastor, so to speak, should stand between the owner and the occupier in this matter of the workman. If the cottager be badly housed, his advocate should in the first place seek audience with the Squire ; or if the ploughman be undeqjaid, the inter- view must be arranged for with the employer. The two classes more directly interested do not always come well together over such matters as building better houses or raising the rate of wages. They are inclined enough to answer each other with a tii quoque as to minding each his own business ; and the Clergyman, from his recognised rela- tions with the three estates, is the person above all others best qualified to act as ambassador, mediator, or even, if you will, as self-appointed referee. He may possibly be not quite " up" in the real merits or many bearings of the case ; but as he sees the necessity for interference, so is he called upon to ask for consideration. The Clergy are just at present engaged upon such a work, and one that will for many reasons command a deal of attention. Labour is getting scarce, and yet the labourer in many parts is poorly housed and badly paid. At least so says Canon Girdlestone of certain districts in Devonshire ; while another Vicar gives confirmation to the statement from wliat comes under his own knowledge in Hampshire. The Canon's report, to be sure, excites the surprise of Mr. Biddell, in Suffolk ; while another Hamp- shire man, Mr. Trask, corrects the Vicar's average in a letter which appears in our columns of this day. Mr. Kekewich, one of the members for South Devon, has also taken up the subject in a speech which, as will be found, has given rise to some further correspondence; while, noticeably enough, the same topic has just been broached in the northern division of the same county, where the lecturer of the evening on Employers and Employed introduced himself " in the double position of a clergyman and the president of a Farmer's Club." The Reverend Prebendary Brereton is, however, already well known for the ability and discretion with which he has associated the responsibilities of these offices, and many of his addi-esses on the kindred points of the two callings have been widely cir- culated. We were thus prepared, the more especially after all that has been advanced from the same quarter, to hear him speak to the condition and prospects of the em- ployed with more than ordinary interest ; but we confess that we have gone through his paper with some degree of disappointment. The chairman of the Barnstaple Farmers' Club is, to some extent at least, the champion of the present state of things ; and if he does not exactly defend a low scale of wages, he shows certain and very peculiar " advantages" attendant on such a state of things. As for instance : " Owing to the numerous farms in Devonshire, and the very graduated rise from the small farms to the large, there is no bar, as in other districts, to aii industrious, intelligent, and spirited labourer be- coming a farmer ; and, certainly, if I were a labourer, I should estimate this chance of promotion as an equiva- lent for any defect in money remuneration. I would rather receive 10s. where I and my childi'en were not condemned to remain always in the bottom class of so- ciety, than 20s. where a social rise was impossible. But as another consequence from this state of things, not only may the labourer in Devonshire hope to rise and become a farmer, but he is, or may become, even as a labom'er, socially connected with the farming class, and not unfrequently a sharer and inheritor of the farmer's capital. I am not sure that this close connection be- tween the employed and employing classes is in all respects an advantage to the farmer, though I have no doubt that it ought to be considered a very important advan- tage to the labourer. The same ladder of smaller and larger farms by which the labourer may rise may be the means through which the farmer's family too readily descends." To those not familiar with the customs of the country this argument will sound as somewhat strange logic. The labom-er who would " better himself," or rise in the social scale, must look to low wages as the means for doing so, as he will be more likely to improve his position upon ten shillings a-week than he would upon twenty 1 In fact, what he does not get in malt he may in meal ; and if the farmer cannot give him high wages he will give him his daughter instead thereof. This is an extension of " the co-operative system" that even Lord George Man- ners himself could never have contemplated. Mr. Brereton, however, is not so sure that this close connexion is in "all respects" an advantage to the farmer. We should think not, indeed ! but the rather be prone to ask. Can it be really an advantage in any way, or to anybody ? Mr. Brereton himself shows us how the practice puUs the em- ployer down again, while the present price of labour in the district demonstrates that it does nothing to perma- nently or generally improve the condition of the employed. Putting Devonshire or Barnstaple for the moment alto- gether out of court, perhaps no surer plan could be devised for the maintenance of a miserable rate of wage, or the perpetuity of a stand-stiU system of cultivation, than small holdings, little capital, and so slight a distinction in the social scale that the young herdsman or ploughman, who only behaved himself, might reasonably expect to become one of the family. We had hoped that the agriculturist had gradually outlived such times, and usages as are here THE FARMER'S MAaAZINE. 50£ pictured, thanks to educatlou and that spirit of progress which has tended to make even farming something of a scientific and refined occupation. In Devonshire so pecu- liar a principle of co-operation would seem, according to another speaker, to have come, naturally enough many will say, to such a state of things as this : " Not only were the cottages in a bad state, but the farmer's houses" — at which announcement there was both " laughter" and " applause." But this is not tlie only peculiarity of Mr. Brereton's address ; for while admitting the advantage of putting out work by task, he dwelt upon some of the difficulties that present them- selves, such as the want, by the farmers, of a system of eom])arison ; and evidently himself gave the preference to payment by merit : — " The householder in the Parable showed his right to do what he would with his own by giving to all the labourers the same wage ; but perhaps the Devonshire employers would sometimes best show their independence and do most good with their money, if they used more discrimination in awarding it. A uniform and customary rate of wages is very apt to put the labour of the idle and the diligent falsely and mischievously on a level. Many a thirty shillings that is now paid in equal sums to three labourers for their hire, would be more pro- fitable to the employer, and much more beneficial ulti- mately to the employed, if one of the party found that he had truly earned and received 15s., and another only 5s." But, surely, piece-work would, practically, be a far more satisfactory method than this ! Moveover, how would the family-connections stand it, supposing that Cousin John got his fifteen ^shillings a week, and Uncle Bill, though he was much more of a gentleman, only five ? However, the North Devon farmers cordially went with the lectm'er in this wise : " That this meeting cordially approves of the sentiments contained in the excellent lecture the president has just delivered, and woidd particularly im- press the importance of paying wages according to merit, and that more attention be given to the improvement of labourers' cottages." Mr. Biddell by this time may not feel quite so much surprised as he has done ; while Lord George Manners, whatever the Duke may think of it, may point to some systems of co-operation that are already in practice, and by no manner of means merely "wild jjotions." The following is a continuation of the correspoudence from pag-e 481 : " Oct. 27, 1866. " Sir, — lu an account of an agricultural meeting at Wood- bury, given in the Devon Weekly Times of the 26th of October inst.,you are reported to have spoken thus : — " ' I wish to remark that I have seen, perhaps, with some little degree of pain, some reflections which have passed through the public press — I don't mean the press of this county, but the press uf England, for it was mentioned in a letter in the Times, that in this county we were giving most niggard wages to our labourers. Now, 1 cannot endorse that opinion, be- cause I do not believe tliat in this county tlie labourer is badly paid. I don't mean to say that he is paid as he ought to be — • that is quite another question ; but that he is paid small and niggard wages, and such that he cannot live on, that 1 absolutely deny.' " In three letters which have lately appeared in The Times, after a four years' intimate personal acquaintance with every farmer and labourer in ray large parisli of llalberton, in North Devon, I deliberately made certain statements respecting the wages of agricultural labourers. The siun and substance of my statements briefly is — that in llalberton, certainly with rare exceptions, and to the best of my knowledge in much of the surrounding district, the wages of the common agricidtural labourer are no more than 8s., and sometimes only 7s. per week, often but partly made iu coin. Will you be kind enough to do me the favour of informing me — first, whether it is to my letters in The Times that your remarks above quoted re- ferred ; secondly, whether in that case you intended by those remarks to question the accuracy of my statements, or merely to avow your opinion that a labom-er who receives 7s. or 8s. a week, sometimes only partly paid in coin, is not 'badly paid' ? " Your obedient servant, " S. T. Kekewich, Esq., M.P." " £. Girdlestoni:. « Peamore, Oct. 29, 1866. " Dear Sir, — The remarks which I made at Woodbury on Wednesday last are correctly stated in the Devon WeeUy Times, although the report is more full in the Exeier Gazette, which 1 will take the liberty of sending to you. They had reference to two letters, the one from Mr. Biddell, near Ipsmch, the other written by yourself, and both inserted in The Times. I certainly concluded from those statements that they applied to a large part of the county, and not merely to the district in which you reside. With regard to the cases meutioned by you of labourers in your own parish I have no reason to doubt your accuracy, but I demur to the opinion that low wages are generally paid to the labourers in this count}'. I well know that there are districts in which the amount is far too small ; but 1 also believe that throughout the greater part of this county the wages of agricultural la- bourers were never so high. " It is very difficult for me to give an answer to your second question — viz.. Whether it is my opinion that a labourer who receives 7s. or 8s. a-week is badly paid — as it must depend on a variety of circumstances, whether he is an able-bodied labourer, capable of doing many kinds of work ; whether he has task-work during a great part of the year, and the amount paid for it ; whether he pays rent for his house, and whether he has perquisites, such as liquor, allotment-ground, and corn at a reduced price. You are well aware that the rate of wages depends on supply and demand, the prices of the necessaries of life, and the capacity of the labourer to do his work. One man will earn 12s. per week, and another only 8s. a-week by his labour. The question of his having a wife and family has nothing to do \vith the amount of his wages, although the number of his family and tbe want of means to provide for them must fully entitle hira to the charity of his neigh- bours. A very respectable farmer told me a few days since that the wages which he gave were 10s. and lis. a-vreek, three quarts of cider a day, a cottage rent-free, besides task- work, and that he believed it to be the general rate of wages in this district. My own observations, derived from the applica- tions to the Board of Guardians, would lead me to the same conclusion. I give lis. a week to those who work constantly for me. Some of them pay Is. a week for rent, and others live rent-free. I also hire occasional labourers at 15s. a week, but they are men capable of doing a great quantity of work of different kinds, and I doubt whether they are better off than others, as they pay £5 a year rent, and have no allow- ance of liquor. I have endeavoured to ascertain the amount of agricultural wages paid in the Midland counties, and com- pare it with that paid in our own county, and I find that in the former wages vary from 12s. to lis. a week, but from tliis must be deducted 3s. a week for rent ; besides which, there is no allowance for liquor, which costs Is. 6d. a week, and tlie necessaries of life are dearer than in Devonshire, so that 1 much doubt whether the labourers in the Midland counties are better off. However, I will not pursue this matter and subject further, or discuss the various matters entailed in your statement, as they would lead me far beyond the Umits of a letter. "I remain, dear sir, yours faithfully, " The Rev. Canon Girdlestone." " S. T. Kekewich. " Canons House, Bristol, Nov. 1, 1866. " Dear Sir, — The sum and substance of your reply seems to be that in your speech you did refer to one of my letters in the Times, that you concluded ray letter applied, not merely to the district in which I reside, but to ' a large part of the county of Devon,' and that, in your opinion, whether a man who receives 7s. to Ss. a week is ' badly paid' or not depends upon his havino- or not having in addition certain other so-called privileges which you enumerate. In my letter to the Times I plainly stated that I vouched for wages in my own large parish only ; had good reason for believing that the same rate prevailed in the sur- rounding district, but never said a word about ' a large part M M 504 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ofthecountv of Devon.' I plainly stated also in the same letters that' the labourers to whom my remarks applied were able-bodied, and had not only no addition whatever to their wages of 7s. or Ss. a week, except cider, often very bad, but^did not receive the whole even of that small pit- tance in coin. You will, I hope, therefore agree with me that it would have been better if you had read my letters more at- tentively before you made remarks in public about them. I am quite aware that in some parts of the county of Devon wages are higher than in Halberton and the neighbourhood, for I have already sent labourers for better wages into South Devon. At the same time the facts which I have before me leave me to believe that the extent of the county in which really fair wages prevail is not very large. My idea of a well- paid labourer is certainly very different from yoxirs as ex- pressed in your reply to me ; and, as regards your comparison of wages in Devonshire and in other places, I have at this moment a very large number of applications for common agri- cultural labourers, from almost eveiy part of England, at wages varying from 15s. to 20s. per week, with, in almost every case, house and garden rent free, at well as other additions too many and various to he enumerated in a letter. I shall, of course, feel myself at liberty to make what use I please of this correspondence, and remain " Your obedient servant, " E. GlRDLESTONi;. " S. T. Kekewich, Esq., M.P." AGEICULTURAL MATTE ES IN ESSEX. The following discussion took place at the Braiiitree Labourer.s' Eriend Society. Colonel Sutto:m Westeex, the chairman, said : Then there was another topic on which he should like to be allowed for a moment to touch: he alluded ton question immediately connected with these associations — namely, the rapid introduction of ma- chineiy, which he hoped his friend on his right (Mr. Mechi) would talk about presently. From the intercourse he had with the farmers generally, he understood that the more general in- troduction of machinery was very desirable, if any means could be devised by which they could get it on reasonably cheap terms, for eacli individual farmer could not be expected to set himself U]) in raachiucry. lie was extremely anxious that some means might be adopted in the neighbourhood for forming an association for carrying out their work by machinery, which they could do, if they went to work in the right way, much more quickly and cheaper than either by horse or manual labour. He should be glad to see a few landlords and tenants, and in fact all classes, whatever their ]>osition might be, meet together to see whether they could not find some means by which they could bring about an extensive employment of machinery in this district. They had advantages there for such work which were not seen in many counties. Essex was a flat county, and most of the farmers held large fields, and he thought that con- sidering the great difficulty they had in finding labour, and considering also the opportunities afforded to the labouring classes of getting better wages than it was the interest of the farmers to pay here, they ought to think whether they would not be driven somewhat into a corner unless they adopted some such plau as he had suggested for bringing mtichinery more into play. He thought also they might v.cll consider whether they sliould not try to keep their labourers at home, by having comfortable cottages for them, and showing, as he had no doubt most of them already did, that tliey really felt an interest in their welfare. He merely threw these things out as hints; for not being an occupier of land, or having a farm of his own, he could not pretend to speak with authority ; yet still he did not go through the world without reading and thinking, and when he saw what was going on in this and other counties it seemed to him that the time was arriving when the cultivation of the land would be carried on under a different system than at present. Of cOTirse, landlords must give long leases to make it worth the while of the tenant to expend his money, for it was utterly impossible to expect a man who held his tenure on an uncertainty to lay out any amount of cajiital ; but still he hoped the feeling between landlord and tenant — and he knew he might speak with confidence on that point of their own neighbourhood — was such, as perhaps to render any precau- tions of the kind unnecesRary. But though tenant and land- lord might entertain the best feelings towards each other, and not like to part company, stiU at the same time they could never tell what might happen. Human nature was infirm, and little things might occur which would give rise to angry words between landlord and tenant, and the tenant having expended his capital, such as he could afford, on his laud, would of course be left in considerable ditticulty to know what to do if he could not remain in his occupation. Now, how were they to meet the ditliculty which seemed to threaten them of a scarcity of labour and an increase of wages? To his mind the only way was to strive that thoso in their employ should be well housed. and to give them cottages in which they could live in decency, cleanliness, and order, aud also to give them education : i though he knew there were difticulties as to this point, for the 1 labourer was glad to send out his children as 'soon as he could to help in the maintenance of the family, and it was very difficult to get hira to keep them at school. But judging from the long list they saw to-day of labourers who had been for many years in the same employ, he thought they might many of them be taught to bring up their children in such a way as to make them afterwards useful members of society. They must remember that when this society was established thirty years ago things were not the same as they were now. They had no railways in those times, nor had tlie labourer the same opportunity as now of moving about to other places. There were no means then of his getting away to other places and other occupations ; hut now he could easily do so, and therefore it was essential for them to consider whether they could not do something among themselves to keep their labourers, and the children they were training up, at home, and not allow them to be led away by the temptations oft'ered in other places. He merely threw out these remarks as sugges- tions ; for he was always glad to say something that might lead to a discussion later in the evening. There was one other sub- ject, which had been brought before them within the last day or two, that he should like to allude to before he sat down. Eormerly it was a very unpopular subject among farmers, but they were now beginning to see it in a difl"erent light— lie meant agricultural statistics. Sir Stafford Northcote, who formerly, with many other members of Parliament, showed no desire for these statistics, made a speech a day or two ago in Devonshire, in which he said the Board of Trade were desiroiis if possible to collect information of the kind, but they wished also that it should be gratuitous; and he (the chairman) saw, Ijy an account of the meeting, a tenant farmer said that in Devonshire they had no objection to give the information, provided it was not sought for in an inquisitorial light, but that they W'cre left ou their honour to give what information they pleased, and it was not to be extorted from them. He himself had for a long time thought it was desirable that they should know the number of acres in the country and the extent of their produce, for without that knowledge he did not see how they were to get a correct account of the position and prosperity of the country. There was one other topic he was particularly interested in, though he did not know how it would be received by the farmers generally. They would very shortly get rid of that system which might have been very well in the time of Queeu Elizabeth, but was altogether out of date uoiv — he meant the turnpike gates. He had himself taken considerable pains to get rid of this odious system, and thought the burden of repairing the roads would now be thrown on the different parishes ; yet he was sure, when they considered the nature of a system which in England was most objectionable — for they could not go along the road without being stopped as it were by an Austrian barrier — they would agree that the Government had done right in leaving out of the Continuance Act all those trusts that were now free from debt. Of course for those who were not out of debt they had not yet provided a remedy. Sir T. B. Western, Bart., remarked that it had been said the supply of labour was fallina' off, but what was the reasnp. THE TAEMBR'S MAGAZINE. 505 for this ? Wliy did their labourers leave theni ? They left them because they could get lietter wages elsewhere ; and if this continued, it would be absolutely necessary that they should supply their places by other means. As to the ques- tion of machinery, he sliould not enter into that, in the pre- sence of his friend Mr. Mechi, who not only enlightened them by his speeches, but wliom they always welcomed there with the greatest pleasure. J\Ir. Mechi would proably address them presently, and he was sure he would deliver his sentiments in that genial yet clear and concise style, which always afforded them so much pleasure. Mr. J. J. Mechi said- With regard to the condition of British agriculture generally, which was a very large subject, he could only say it behoved them to endeavour to progress concurrently with the other great industrial occupations of the kingdom, and they knew this could only be done by the in- vestment of a much larger capital, and certainly also by the investment of a considerable amount of intelligence. This of course implied that a great many old prejudices must be given up, and so far as his own personal position was con- cerned he confessed he was not surprised tliat some 20 years ago, when he dashed into agriculture with a number of mer- cantile principles imbued in his mind, he should have received a very large amount of opposition. It was now 18 years ago since he put up his first steam-engine, which he believed was the first fixed steam-engine in Essex ; next he began draining stiff collapsing clays — not their hard chalky clays, but collapsing clays which he was told would swallow his pipes and everything else ; and then he went into garden cultiva- tion, cultivating deep — not bringing up the bad soil to the top, but after it had been stubbed up leaving it to the influence of the air, that great fructifier of all soil. Tlien again he did no't see the benefit of hundreds of ugly pollards and large fences, which took up a deal of land, and stood in the way of the plough. Was he to be told now that any one of these things was useless or unprofitable ? Certainly not. He saw they all agreed with hni, because they were now constantly practising them. He came to-day through a country uliere he saw a collection of pollards such as he believed did not now exist in the county, and he said to a friend with him, a jiractical man and once the steward of a large estate, " What is the value of those great ugly pollards, taking up such a space of land, and spreading their roots far into competition with the growing corn ?" He replied, " They are not worth half-a-crown a-piece when they are cut down ;" and he believed him, for he remembered selling many for a shilling a-piece when he cleared a farm for his own tenant. Timber vvas a landlord's prejudice ; but he (Mr. Mechi) did not want to deprive the land of trees in their proper places. He liked a good plantation in its proper place, for it was a refuge to those small birds which were so useful to them, and without which their crops would be destroyed by insects. But he could not agree with a little four, five, six, or seven-acre field, where there were no end of gates for the landlord to keep in repair, and where tlie faruier could not plough the head-land on account of the trees, and yet had to pay rent for all these, including half the roadway round his laud ; for the tenant could not be expected to prosper with such a state of things, and it would thus also be more difficult for the landlord to get a fair rent for his land. When he told thcni he had pulled down almost every fence on his farm, and had now loi acres without a fence, except a small one beside a ditch, would they not agree that he was in an advantageous position compared to tiiose who were surrounded by small fields with very large fences ? He was able in this way to make it pay, and it was a very diflicult question, as they knew, now to make farming pay. He was on a farm to-day and was told by the occupier, a practical farmer, that he was doing very badly with the farm, for lie paid a high rental, and had uncomfort- able fences and small fields, and he was losing money by it every year. He named no names ; but the spot was no, a hundred miles from that place. Before he left this pointt let him say that there was one thing which must be done in agriculture, if they wished to make it pay ; and that was, that a larger capital than was now generally the case must be in- vested by both tenant and landlord. If he (Mr. Mechi) had made many valuable changes on his farm, it had not been done without a large expenditure of money ; and if they would produce more corn and stock, they must invest more capital in tlte soil. He, with his modern ideas about farming, liad come to the conclusion that, if they wanted to make a profit out of their farms, it must be by a very large addition to their live-stock. With deeper cuUivation, which could only bo at- tained by using more horses or steam-]doughs, he could not farm his land profitably under a tenant's capital of il-i per acre ; but £16 would be better. The capital of the United Kingdom was not more than £4 per acre ; and therefore there was room for vast improvement in this direction. There was one other point which their Cliairman had already eloquently descanted on, and that was the increasing scarcity of labour. Labour was slipping away from them ; and, while the men were paid better wages and were better fed in other parts, it would continue to slip away. Statistics showed that the number of people employed in connexion with agriculture re- mained stationary, or rather diminished ; wherea^ in the ma- nufacturing districts it was increasing from something like fifteen to eighteen or twenty per cent. This was very im- portant to their interests as" agriculturists ; and it behoved them to see if they could not by some means retain the ser- vices of those men who were so necessary on their larms. Kow came the question, What was to be done ? and their chairman had very properly said that the supply of good cot- tages was the first consideration ; and if they regarded the health of the labourers and their families, he (Mr. Mechi) should say, good water, secondly ; and he was exceedinglv pleased in going over the Maynard estate, to fiud a pump of pure water placed against every cottage. By neglecting the health of the labourer and his tamily, they would bring them on the parish-rates : and these would become, insidiously but certainly, a great tax on the farmer, who had to pay them. Tliere was another means which he hoped many of them had adopted, for keeping their labourers at home ; and that was, paying them by piece-work. He had a character, perhaps, among his agricultural friends, of being expensive; but he maintained, and he was prepared to prove, that the labour on his farm was done as cheaply as on any farm in the county of Essex. But he paid for everything by piece-work ; and what was the result ? They heard "great complaints in the Times and other places of the low wages paid to agricultuaal la- bourers ; but he rather thought that those complaints were sometimes grossly exaggerated, and though the weekly rate of wages was said "to be lis., his men earned on the average, taking all circumstances together, not far short of £40 a year, or 16s. a week. One great benefit of piece-work was having a large quantity of work done in a short space of time, while the men were also able to be better fed, and their physical condition was much improved ; and they were able also to pay an extra shillmg a week for a good cottage, instead of living in a tumble-down, rickety tenement. The result was, these men did them a full amount of work for their money ; and their phy- sical and moral condition were improved by their earning more wages, without any deterioration or lossto themselves. He spoke strongly on this point, because he knew tliat by these means they would secure the services of men of superior power and judg- ment, and able to do a large amount of work. They might depend upon such men, and he might mention that many of his own men had been with him twenty-two and twenty-three years, and had dug the foundations of his new buildings, dug his drains, and everything. They were strong young men when they came to him, and piece-work would always bring them strong, useful men ; for men of that kind would of course go wliere they would have the opportunity of making the best of their own powers, of which they were conscious ; and they might depend upon it that if they paid all their men alike they paid dearly for their labour. He had had no difiiculty with his men excepting this year— when so many had experienced similar difHcutties, and they then seemed to have the slightest possible idea that they were not so well paid as they might be. A very curious fact was stated the other day by Mr. Brisiht — he wa's not going into politics— about the ownership of land. He stated that the greater part of half the land in England was owned by 163 persons, and half the land in Scotland by 10 or 13. That seemed a monstrous proposition ; but he believed it was quite true. He was visiting some years ago a great agri- cultural duke in Scotland, and after he had driven hjm about with two pair of horses all day, he said to him, " Well, your grace, how much land have you in Scotland ?" His reply was, " I don't tpiite know ; but taking water, and waste, and moors, and so on, something about a million acres ; but my neighbour has a grcal deal more than I have." That was independent of M M 3 606 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. liis estates in this country, and therefore lie did not at all dis- credit the assertion that half the land in Scotland was held by 10 or 12 individuals. But he did not think there was any disadvantage in tliis, agriculturally speaking, for he was hound to say that this very nobleman was among the foremost in im- provement, not only in Scotland, hut in England, and he was surprised at tlie amount of energy which he displayed in regard to agricultural improvement. He said to him, " Mr. Mechi, I have taken a large slice of the Government loan for drainage, and if they would have allowed me I would have taken all the money they offered ; hut they would not let me have it." H e (Mr. Mechi) might add, that he recollected that Scotchmen took the whole of the first Government loan for drainage, and the Englishmen who had let the opportunity slip took care that on thj next loan a reserve shoidd be made that only so much should go to Scotland, and a certain proportion to England. This only showed that their Scotch friends were somewhat sharper in the great matter of drain- age than they were. Tlie noblenmn he had referred to was a most spirited and liberal landlord, and he said to him (Mr. Mechi) " My tenants beat me now." Now what a pleasant thing that was ! He had heard of one large landlord who had improved his estate 25 per cent., and be only lioped the profits of the farming were such as to allow an equal per-centage of improvement on the farmers' part. He had the pleasure of knowing many people with large estates, and he was bound to say the greatest improvements were going on in those estates. Let them look, for instance, at the Duke of Bedford's estate. Every cottage there was a model one. His Grace gave long leases and valuations, and did not inter- fere politically with his tenants and the consequence was that he got a class of men on his farms who were able to invest a large amount of capital, p nd the estate became of greater valne, and the country generally was benefited by the large e.Ktent of labour employed. For twenty-three years he had been talking about what some people called a nasty subject, but which he called a nice one, and he was glad to find that in that neigh- bourhood they had remedied their deficiencies in this re- spect, and the sewage of the town was applied to its proper object, the fertilization of the land; and at Bridgemarsh farm, only 16 miles off, 150 men with a 20-horse power engine were employed in merely making bricks for the new tunnel which was to come into Essex bringing the London sewage ; and Mr. Offiu, who was a large farmer, told him the tunnel would come through a mile and^a-balf of his land, and he had made ar- rangements to take some, and possibly he should be a large con- sumer of the sewage from London. There was another point also, which he should like to mention. He heard that a great danger was likely to befall British manufactures and agricul- ture, and that to a great extent machinery and implements were likely to be rated. He understood that already a gentleman near that town, whose machinery was used for the purpose of manufacture, had been rated, and that the increase in charge was something like 200 per cent., and it was quite clear that if this held good as regarded the implements of manufacture, it would equally hold good as regarded the implements of agri- ture, and perhaps even their scientific friends who used the scalpel would be assessed. In conclusion he could only thank them for the kindness with whicli they had listened to his re- marks, and he would add that if he cotild do anything to for- ward agricultural improvement it would afford him the greatest possible pleasure, lie believed himself that the most impor- tant work in England was filling the British stomach; and if they asked their manufacturing friends there whether they would go without coats or their dinners for a month, he was afraid the coats would suffer. CENTRAL FARMERS' CLUB. THINGS IN AMERICA, The first monthly meeting of the Club, after the usual summer and autumnal recess, took place on Monday evening, November 5, at the Club-honse, Salisbury-square, Mr. G. Smythies in the chair. The attemlauce was very large. The Chaikman, in opening the proceedings, said : All present who were members of the Club had no doubt received a letter from Mr. Corbet, stating that, owing to unforeseen circumstances, they conld not have the discus- sion that evening which was proposed at the beginning of the year. Mr. Clarke, who was to have read a paper on steam cultivation, was so engaged in getting up that very question for the Royal Agricultural Society that he Avas not able to appear before them on that occasion. Of course they were, as farmers, very much disappointed that they could not have that paper ; but he had no doubt that when it did come it would be all the better for the in- creased attention devoted to the subject. The notice that Mr. Clarke could not attend that night came during the recess, when there were no meetings of the committee. Thus it devolved altogether on Mr. Corbet to find a sub- stitute for Mr. Clarke ; and he thought they were very much indebted to that gentleman for having managed so well as to induce Mr. Howard to tell them something about what he had seen in America (cheers). He (the Chairman) was very glad to find that the state and pro- spects of their cousins over the water had created so much interest, and brought so many people together ; and he had no doubt it would tend to cement the unity which he hoped would always exist between the two countries, when the Americans learnt what an interest was taken by farmers in subjects which concerned them. There was a great deal which they could learn from their brethren over the water, particularly at the present time, when, as far- mers, they found such great and increasing difficulty in getting labourers. In America this want was felt long ago ; and it compelled the people to turn their attention far moi-e than we had done to machinery. That had been a positive necessity for them ; and it would soon be a necessity for us. They would hear from Mr. Howard and other gentlemen present an account of the machines used in that country, which would, he trusted, prove oi great use to them (cheers). The subject that evening dif- fered so nmch from those generally introduced that he w'as afraid they would not have the usual farming discussion; but there were, he believed, several American gentlemen pre- sent, and the meeting would probably be very happy to hear them (cheers). Mr. James Howard prefaced his paper by observing that since he arrived in London he had been told that many persons expected to hear a great deal in the way of anecdote. Jluch had been said and written about America for amusement and far too much in a satirical strain ; he had no doubt that he could amuse them with incidents ; but he thought that in addressing the members of the Farmers' Club he should take a business view THE FARMBE'S MAGAZINE. 607 (Hear, hcnr). He should be very sorry if auy gentleman had taken the trouble to conic there from a long distance in the hope of being amused : his object was rather to in- struct (Hear, hear). Mr. Howard then proceeded to say : Some thirty years ago, when a boy at home, a well-known American, Dr. Msk, was a guest of my father's. At night, it was a great treat to me to sit up and listen to his glowing descriptions of that great country across the Atlantic. I formed, at that time, a strong desire to go and see the land which, to my youthful mind, seemed to present so many attractions. The occupations, however, of a busy life prevented the realization of these aspira- tions. In the spring of this year, circumstances (uo Royal Agricultural Society's show) seemed to favour the accomplishment of my long-cherished wish. I accordingly determined to go and see for myself a country which all the older countries of the world have begun to regard with so much interest. When I sailed across the Atlantic I had not the remotest idea of giving publicity to any account of my trip, much less of addressing this large and influential Club. However, as the Club was in a difficulty, caused by ilr. Algernon Clarke's inability to fidfil his engagement to read a paper on the subject of steam cultivation, I very reluctantly consented to fill the gap. I may, perhaps, be pardoned in making just one remark upon the subject which was on the card for dis- cussion this evening. I am convinced that on both sides of the Atlantic it must ere long excite more interest than it does at present. Steam has slowly, but not less sm'ely, superseded every other power with which it has been brought iuto competition ; and I most thoroughly believe it will, before many years, be the chief motive- power employed in tillage operations throughout the civilized world. Extent. — America is a country which must be seen to be understood. You may read volumes of books about a distant land, but a short visit will impress the mind more deeply, and afford more correct views than aU the books you can collect. I had read much and heard much about America before going, but my mind was not impressed with anything like an adequate idea of its vast extent or its great resoui'ces. I went, I shoidd remark, from New York thi-ough the State of New York, thence to Canada through Indiana, Ohio, and Illinois, to Iowa, beyond the Mississippi, and back through Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylva- nia to Washington, Virginia, and New Jersey, to New York again ; thence to Newport and Boston, through the New England States to Saratoga, and once more to New Yoi'k. The enclosed land of Amei'ica — I allude to the States, I leave out Mexico, Canada, and the other territo- ries— amounts to the enormous breadth of 400 millions of acres ; the unenclosed, or uncultivated, to about a billion and a-half — figui'es which seem to dwarf Great Britain in- to a mere speck upon the map of the world. The area of the United States alone is bigger than the whole conti- nent of Europe. Notwithstanding the vast extent of the territory indicated by these figures, the whole has been sm'veyed, and those portions which are likely to be set- tled within a reasonable time are mapped, divided into townships, subdivided into " squares," sections, and again into subsections. The roads and cross-roads are also laid out, and the widths determined. These several divisions are numbered and registered both in the office of the Surveyor- General at Washington, and in the Counties Register offices of the several States. No question, there- fore, of title can arise, and land in American can be trans- ferred as readily as Bank Stock. The People. — I have said that America is a country which must be seen to be understood. I may say the same of its people. It is notorious how little the people of France and England, although such near neighbours, understand each other ; but then they speak different Ian* guages ; to me, however, it is passing strange, that ])eople speaking the same language, reading each other's periodi- cals and literature; a people of the same race, descendants in the main of the same parent stock, should entertain such erroneous views respecting each other as do the Americans and English. It is difficult to say whether the Americans know less of the English or the English of tlic Americans ; but I incline to the latter opinion, and for this reason : where you meet with one Englishman who has been to America you meet with ten Americans who have been to England. Again, it has been too much the fashion with ouj' public writers to hold up the American people to ridicule, to represent them as rough, ill-mannered, boastful, unprincipled, with scarcely a redeeming feature. I cannot, of course, vouch for what they were in years gone by, nor can I say they are altogether free from the vices attributed to them. I do not maintain that in etiquette or personalmanuers they comequite up tothcEnglish standard, but any deficiency in this respect is more than compen- sated for by the absence of that stift'ncss and formality of the one class of English, and of the extreme servility of the other class. The Americans certainly can "brag;" but then, as J. A. Wright, a large Penusylvanian iron^ master, whom I twitted with this propensity, replied, " Yes, we acknowledge it ;" adding, " you will remember we inherit it from you." If asked the question, I should be obliged to confess they have shot far a-head of the old country in the art of boasting. But, to speak seriously, I do believe the American people have been misrepresented and traduced by some of ovu: public writers, in a way that no other people on the face of the earth have been. Three of England's leading commercial men, who, after having \asited America, have published to the world their ideas of America and its people — I allude to Mr. Whitworth, of Manchester, an engineer of the highest celebrity, and sub- sequently more widely knowu by his improvements in guns ; Mr. Chambers, the great publisher of Edinburgh ; and lastly Su" Morton Peto — these gentlemen, in my opinion, have in their books done not only much to enlighten us upon things in America, but they have done justice to the American people. Our professional writers have done them as great injustice. I went to America with a good many of the prejudices of Englishmen, expecting to find at least the bulk of the people rough, "rowdy," uncouth, and vulgar. Dickens and other professional writei's might have met with the characters they have pourtrayed. I can only speak of the people as I found them. I tra- velled some 5,000 milea without once beiug subject to in- sult or rudeness of any kind. I mixed with all classes — for there are no first — second and third class on their rail- 508 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ways or steam-boats, and I met with iiotliing but civility and politeness. The working classes are well-behaved, and, as a rule, are better educated and more intelligent than our own. The wealthier classes I found to be communica- tive, openhearted, and hospitable; indeed, as pleasant and agreeable a people as I could wish to mix with. I could give j"ou many instances of what we know as " good breeding," but as it would be foreign to the objects of this Club, I forbear. I will, however, mention one cii'cum- stance. At Pittsbm-g I went to the Bank with my letter of credit, which I handed to a clerk, to draw some " greenbacks." A grey-headed gentleman, evidently one of the principals, came up, and " guessed I was a stranger in their city." I said, "Yes, I was from Eng- land." He asked whether he could be of assistance, in giving me letters of introduction to the manufacturers. I thanked him, telling him to whom I had letters of in- troduction ; finding I was in good hands, he said how pleased he should have been to have facilitated the ob- jects of my visit. This is one instance among many, of people upon whom I had not the slightest claim, giving themselves trouble to make my visit pleasant and agreea- ble. I went to a large number of manufactories in vari- ous branches, at all of which I was received with the utmost politeness, and shown the various processes with- out the least reserve. American Agriculture. — I must now direct your at- tention to the real business of this evening's meeting, namely, the agriculture of America. America has been styled the granary of Europe; it is, doubtless, the largest corn-growing country in the world. It is mainly upon its agriculture that the progress of the country depends ; its manufactures are comparatively imimportant, as from three-fourths to seven-eighths of the population are en- gaged in agricultm-al pursuits. Although we may learu a good deal on various subjects fi'om our go-a-head kins- men in the art and practice of agriculture, the old country is in the position of teacher. As might be expected in a comparatively new country, the agriculture, as a rule, is rough, and far behind that of England. That the farming shoaldnot have the neat and finished appearance which it presents in England and Scotland is not to be wondered at, when the dearness and scarcity of labour are considered, and when it is remembered how large a number of the cultivators of the soil were not brought up to the busi- ness of farming. A very large proportion of the farms in the older states have been reclaimed from the primeval forest : for hundreds upon hundreds of miles the stumps of the larger trees still remain in the fields, so that the date of the settlement of the locality can be calculated by the number of the stumps remaining. In the rocky and stony districts the stones still remain piled in heaps, the plough and the reaping machine having to thread their way bet'.veeu these stumps and heaps of stones. The system pursued in clearing the land of timber is as fol- lows : In the fall or autumn the underwood is cut and piled. In the winter the trees are felled on to or toward the stacks of underwood, which are then set on fire. After this, the small stumps are extracted by a crab, worked by oxen or horses : the larger stumps are left to rot. The ground is then ploughed, or, as we should think, scratched over. Two or three crops of Indian corn are taken, in order to get rid of the second growth of underwood ; when it is left in grass until the larger stumps are sufliciently decayed to be extracted. The grass of America has nowhere the splendid, rich green of our English pastures. "Whether this arises wholly from the climate, I have some doubt. I think want of care in preparing the land, selection of seed, and subsequent stocking have something to do with the miserable condi- tion and appearance of the American pastures. If sheep are depastured on young permanent grasses, a good pas- ture must not be expected, even in our more humid cli- mate. After having travelled for weeks through this old forest-land, with its blackened stumps and zigzag rail-fences (or " snake-fences," as they are called), to get a view of those grand, open prairie-lands is a relief scarcely to be described. In the wooded dis- trict the toil of clearing and bringing the land into cultivation is immense. On tlie prairies the settler has no such labour ; he has simply to plough up the ground and sow the seed. The prairie lands are of three kinds — flat, something like our fens, and about as invit- ing districts to live in, without in many parts a tree or a shrub as far as the eye can reach. Then there are the rolling prairies — having a slight undulating surface and some wood — far less monotonous than the ^flat, but not, to those who have an eye to beauty, so inviting as the high rolling prairies. The most beautiful country for farming I saw in America was in Iowa, across the Mississippi; indeed, it is one of the most picturesque countries I have ever looked upon. Fine land in this State is to be purchased at less than it w^ould let for in England ; but more on the price of land presently. This fine State contains fifty millions of acres, only eight millions of which are at present under cultivation. The system generally pursued in American farming is one of exhaustion. The evils of this practice are beginning to be felt in the older-settled States in the gradually and steadily diminishing yield. There can be no doubt that the evils of such a course will be much more generally and seriously felt unless a change of system be adopted. Rotation is little observed. Root crops, except potatoes, are rarely seen. Crop after crop of corn is taken from the soil without anything in the shape of fertilizers being returned. The bones of the country are either thrown away, or, when collected, are exported. So also of the linseed and cotton cake — as there is very little native de- mand, they are exported to Europe. The use of manures and feeding stuffs is practised by a few, but they are quite the exception. An old farmer on the banks of the AV abash, in Indiana, told me he had grown grain crops — generally Indian corn— for thirty-five years in succession, with scarcely a dressing of manure, and that the last crop of Indian corn had yielded no less than 80 bushels an acre. This land, as you may suppose, is remarkably rich ; but, as a shrewd Quaker farmer from Ohio, who joined us about an hour after, remarked, such a course was too common, but that it must come to an end — that he had cleared no less than 600 acres of land himself, had brought up a large family and settled them in farms, and had found it most profitable to keep plenty of stock, to THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 50& oliserve a proper rotation, and to deal with the soil liberally. Tlie farms are mostly small — averaging about 100 acres. In the Western country they are larger, many being 500 to 1,000 acres. One gentleman, Mr. Sullivant, in Illinois, who invited me to go and see him, farms 70,000 acres, and does it systematically and weU. A large proportion of the cultivators are what may be described as working-farmers — men of rough exterior ; but, owing to the admirable public-school system, they are generally fairly educated. The immense circulation of most of the agricultural journals is a proof that they are a I'eadiug people. The New York Tribune issues a weekly number, in which prominence is given to agri- cultural matters. The issue I found to be over 200,000 ; the American Agriculturist issues 150,000. Tlic Prarie Farmer, The Countrij Gentleman, have also a large circu- lation. The larger and more opulent farmers are very gen- Icmanly and intelligent men ; know w^ell what is going on in England — I thought, sometimes, better than some Eng- lish farmers. There is another, and this a large, class in America — I mean amateur farmers. Doctors, lawyers, bankers, merchants, manufacturers — all seem possessed with the same love for farming so general on this side. I met with many of this class — for the acquisition of land is so easy — I found, however, that they told the same tale amateur farmers do on this side — viz., that farming was a very pleasant occupation, hut that it did not pay. The wheat and other cereal crops are much shorter and lighter than we grow in England— I should say fully one- third less, 30 bushels wheat bciug considered a good crop. Indian corn yields far more — 100 bushels an acre are occasionally raised; but 50 to GO bushels is considered a fair crop. It is liigHy prized, is often cut green for fodder, and attains a height of 12 feet. The feed in an acre is something wonderful. It is given to all kinds of stock. I lind my own farm-horses do well upon the grain. Agricultural Machinery . — The tillage of the land is so mixed up with the question of the implements used, that what little I have to say will be under the head of " Agricultural Machinery." In England, as you are all aware, an enormous demand has set in during the last twenty years for improved agricultural implements. This has mainly arisen from a more correct appreciation of the value and advantages of good machines. In America, owing to the high rate of wages and the difficulty of ob- taining an adequate supply of labour, agricultural ma- chinery calculated to save manual labour has been an absolute necessiig. Without the reaping machine the crops could not be harvested, and without the thrashing machine they could not be brought to market. Ileuce the trade in agricultural implements has reached gigantic proportions. From inquiries I made I found that at least 100,000 reaping and mowing machines are made annually in the States. I was there during the harvest — every- where the reaper was to be seen going ; the scythe or the sickle was just as exceptional as the reaping machine was in England ten years ago. The thrasliing machines were very inferior to ours, though the Americans were very apt to think they were far ahead of us, aud that we were a very slow people ; their machines were almost exclusively worked by horse-power. One far- mer on the banks of Lake Ontario, who had ten horses yoked to his thrashing machine, seemed much surprised that in England we did all our thrashing by steam power. He had never heard of such a thing. The im- plements of the farm, if wc except reapers, are of very inferior design and build to our English machines. I thought one great want in American farming was good steerage drills and horse-hoes to follow. In a country where labour is so scarce and dear, the hoeing of the corn crop by animal power would be an immense boon. The drills are not made with a steerage ; consequently, the drilling is bad, rendering the use of the horse-hoe impracticable ; and, as labour is so dear, in most cases tlie corn and the weeds seem to be left " to grow together until the harvest." To a farmer in the north of New York State, on vrhose land I went to see some reaping machines at work, aud whose barley was full of thistles, I said, " If that crop had been in England, we should have cut out the thistles." He replied it would not pay, adding he did not mind thistles, for he always had a good crop of wheat after. Nearly the whole of the im- plements are furnished with a seat for the men to ride — the idea being to get more work out of the labourers. I found the prairie farmers very desirous of having a good " gang-plough," as it is called, on which the ploughman could ride. I told them if the men had easier work, it would be at the expense of the horses. As reaping ma- chines are used, and in consequence open furrows unde- sirable, the land is frequently ploughed as follows : A short ridge is set in the middle of the field, the plough passing not only up and down each side, but a furrow is taken off in going round at each end. By this means the plough is always in the ground, and the whole field ploughed without leaving an open furrow. A field may also be commenced by ploughing a furrow all round the outside, and tinishing in the middle. The American far- mer is not satisfied, as we are, with one team ploughing an acre per day ; but expects from each team of a pair of horses two acres to two and a-half acres. I rather doubted so much being done ; but was over and over assured by both masters and men that two acres and a- half were not at all an unusual day's woi'k. The furrows, I must tell yon, are over a foot wide — none of your fancy ploughing-match style. The land is also generally much lighter than our English soils, and the depth of the ploughing is, according to my notions, very much too shallow — a fault not at all uncommon on this side the Atlantic. Steam ploughs have not yet been introduced. Several attempts have been made ; but as all the schemes have been with engines to travel over the surface — after llonraine's plan — no wonder they have not succeeded. On the prairies there would be no difficulty in constructing machinery capable of breaking up twenty or even twenty- rive acres of such land per day, and this with only three men. Where labour is so scarce, and time such an ob- jeet, the advantage of the steam plough would be im- mense. In Iowa I saw a very simple and efficient apparatus called a " horse pitchforlc " for raising crops on to the stack, a horse simply drawing the load over a pulley. I also saw a hay-loader attached to the rear of a waggon, and which gathered up and elevated the crop on to the vehicle, thereby saving much manual labour. Live Stock. — Although the territory of the United States is so much greater than England, the live stock is by no means in the same proportion. The cows and other horned cattle, according to the census of 1860, amounted to about 17 million, about double the estimated number of the United Kingdom — 2i millions of the cattle were retm-ned as working oxen. The sheep, on the other hand fell short of the estimated English number by 2^ millions ; whilst the pigs exceeded by ten times om* number, reaching the fabidous nmnber of 33 millions, or just about as many pigs as people. The bulk of the cattle I saw were of the shorthorn type, Alderneys an4 uo THE FAEMEH'S MAGAZINE. Ayrshii-es are much in repute for dairy purposes ; but, as ia England, the shorthorn is the prevailing breed. The sheep of America are of a very nondescript character, generally miserably bred and ill-looking things, about half the size of the English. Flocks of Leicesters, Southdowns, and merinoes are to be found ; but they are exceptional. There is one matter — an important one to an Englishman — viz., the quality of the meat. Whether it be the climate, the food, or the cooking, or all three, I don't know ; but the beef and mutton are most inferior, tasteless, and tough in the extreme. Pork is tolerably good. The national importance of paying more attention to sheep is being urged upon the American farmer by the daily as well as by the agricultural press, an increase in the supply of wool being deemed an absolute necessity, five millions sterling having been paid to England for woollen goods in 186-5. The di-aught-liorses used in America arc much smallei- — very diifcreut from our English type. They are well-bred, clean-legged, and active. The "Kentucky thorough-bred," as it is called, is the fa- vourite breed. I saw au entire horse of this breed upon the farm of Mr. Emery Cobb at Kankakee, in Illinois ; he was made, as our Secretary would say, "all over like a hunter." I could have picked out of Mr. Cobb's team a good many " weight carriers," which would fetch fancy prices at Tattersall's. I did not see in the whole of my travels what I call a good stout di'aught-horse, such as I win the prizes with in my own county. At the railway stations in Philadelphia and elsewhere are to be seen horses of the cart breed, " raised," as I was informed, iu Ohio and Pennsylvania. When the Americans grow bigger crops, as I am sure they might do, they will want bigger horses in their reaping machines ; and when they stir their land deeper, which I am sure they ought to do, they will, if they do not adopt steam, require horses of greater weight. In some districts I visited, horses are shod with malleable cast-iron shoes, which are fastened without the use of nails. They simply clip the foot, and are secured by rivets. I have a speciman on the table, which I intend to tiy. Dairying is an important branch of rural economy in America. A very novel feature is the introduction of the factory system. In Oneida Co., N. Y. S., there are about 40 cheese manufactories, or "Associated Dairies" as they arc called, having 16,000 cows. I have only time to glance at this subject. The advantages claimed are that the farmer's family is relieved of a good deal of drudgery — that by the employment of a skilful superintendent a more uniform and better quality at less cost is obtained, and, of course, higher prices realized. Messrs. Moore, cheese merchants in Buffalo, told me that for two or three years past their shipments of factory cheese had commanded the highest prices in the Liverpool market. Three of the cities of America most interesting as agricultural centres are, undoubtedly, Buffalo, Chicago, and Cincinnati. Buffalo is situated at the eastern extremity of Lake Erie, In this city, re- markable for many thiugs, grain elevators have been erected to facilitate the rapid discharge of cargoes. Up- wards of twenty of these gigantic automatic labourers have been built, which are capable of unloading vessels at the rate of 100,000 bushels per hour, and also of storing about five miUiou bushels in their capacious chambers. Watson's elevator, which I ascended, stands 260 feet above the water, worked, of course, by steam-power. Pour vessels can be brought alongside it, their cargoes token out and transhipped or stored simultaneously. By this promptitude, a whole fleet of ships has not only been cleared, but has left the port within 36 hours of its arrival. Cincinnati I did not visit, owing to the prevalence of cholera, but notwitlistanding the presence of this dire enemy in Chicago, I did venture to spend several days in that most wonderful of all the American cities. Thirty years ago this place was a mere village. So recently as 1840 the population was less than five thousand ; now it num- bers over a quarter of a million. I will not take up your time with a description of its splendid streets and public buildings, its 120 chm'ches, nor its rising manufactories, for one might write a book upon this extraordinary city. It is at Chicago that the mind first becomes impressed with the vastness of the territory which lies beyond the Ohio, Mississippi, and Wisconsin — a country which, whe- ther for area, productions, resources, or people, is becom- ing the noblest and grandest part of the republic. I will not weary you with statistics of the trade of Chicago in agricidtural produce. Suffice it to say that upwards of 30 million l)ushels of corn are annually exported — that 1,400,000 pigs and 90,000 cattle are annually slaughtered in this western metropolis. The great slaughtering esta- blishments of Chicago, the elevators, and corn stores, ai'e as perfect in their way as any of our Lancashire factories ; l)ut 1 have no time to dwell upon them. One of the most prominent agricultural featm'es is the Chicago Cattle Market ; 345 acres have been laid out ; in the centre an ample railway station built, into which nine great railway companies run their trains ; fifteen miles of sidings or branches have been laid down, water supply laid on, corn and hay barns erected ; a great hotel, a bank, and an Ex- change have been built ; in fact, every sort of convenience and accommodation for both man and beast have been well considered and pro\ided for at this great cattle mart of the West. AfjrieuUural Meefh/ffS.— Soon after my arrival at New York I heard of a great trial of reaping and mowing machines by the New York State Agricultural Society at A Aubiu-n, to which I at once set out. No less than sixty m machines were exhibited for the prizes offered, the Govern- ment of the State having liberally voted the necessary sum to cover the expenses of the trials. These trials were conducted in a very different style to those which prevail iu England. In the first place, three weeks were set apart for the purpose of testing the machines on various crops, and under varying circumstances. A long list of instructions to the judges, directing their attention to the various points deemed essential, di'awn up by a committee of makers and farmers, had been prepared and printed. The jm-y consisted of the old English nmnber of twelve, with a president, a secretaiy, and a chief marshal. These judges were subdivided into committees, some to decide on mechanical arrangements ; others, on the qtiality of the work performed. Then there wasthe "time committee," "thedyna- mometer committee," and "the committee of description." After the trials were over,the jury remained at Auburn two or three days to draw up their report, and a second and final meet ing to settle the awards was fixed to be held at New York on Sept. 1st, the prizes being subsequently declared at a meeting held at the New York State Pair at Saratoga, on September ] 3th. The pains taken in preparing the points to which the attention of the judges should be directed, the various modes in which the machines were to be tested, the subdivision of the jmy, the length of time devoted to the purpose, and the careful report, containing a record of facts rather than of opinions, seemed to me to be a long way in advance of our English mode of conduct- ing such trials. One of the exhibitors said to me that the great use of these trials was that the experience gained, and the careful record of every fact elicited, were a means of teaching manufacturers their own deficiencies. This cannot be accomplished by a society unless the same care and time be taken as is the practice on the other side of the Atlantic. T was so struck with the careful preparation of the points to which the attention of the judges was directed, and with the whole an-augement, that I at once wrote to ]Mr. Hall Dare upon it, and I hope the imple- ment committee of the R.A.S.E. will make some inquiry THE FARMER'S MAG AZOTE. 611 into the plans I have alluded to. "We had a good deal of discussion at Auburn as to which country the invention of the reaping machine really belonged. Of course, the Americans claim the honour. Our countrymen across the Border dispute the claim, maintaining that to Scotland the merit is due. Now, if it be a question simply of priority of invention, neither is right ; I must put in a claim for England: the inventor of the ;««/« elements of the reaping machine was a Bedfordshire man, Mr. Salmon, of Wol)urn. In 1807 he patented the principle of the recipro- cating action of the knife, without which none of our reapers would be of the least use. He also invented the finger guards and the dividing appliance, and, more still, he made his machine with a sell'-acting rake to deliver the corn at the side in sheaf. Notwithstanding, however, thcsejn-ior — English andScotch — inveutious.it is undoubt- edly to America that we are indebted for the reaping machine in its present practical form— indeed for a machine that can be worked economically. In America such a machine was a necessity years before any need of its as- sistance was felt in England, owing in the one case to a superabundance and the (jther to a scarcity of labour. I met with one circumstance which reflects so much honour upon the class of agricultural machine-makers in the States, that I cannot forbear mentioning it. Two large ival manufactories stand on opposite sides of a street, be-r longing to two ditferent men. The one is a sharp man, of good commercial knowledge ; the other is a clever me- chanic as well as a superior-minded man. The former had made money ; the other had, notwithstanding his immense business, got into difficulties. His rival across the road, on hearing it, generously came forward and advanced some thousands of pounds to carry him through his ditficvdties. I think that a circumstance which reflects credit not only on the individual, but on the country which produces such a man. I found the American manufacturers not only intelligent, but a high-minded class of men. There appeared to be an absence of that narrowness of feeling too often observable among rivals in trade. Perhaps the breadth of country has something to do with the breadth of their views. I was struck with one arrangement which exists in America. Owing to the number of patents, the leading builders of reaping machines some years ago found themselves constantly in collision with patentees and each other. To obviate this serious difficidty a number of the principal makers and patentees united, and made a com- mon stock of their own and a number of other patents which they bought up. \V. Allen, Escj., of Aubm-n, was appointed their attorney and agent. Under this arrange- ment the maker can have the use of any or all of the patents, but he only pays a royalty upon such portion as he may choose to use. Although such a combination may look something like a monopoly, it is not so in reality. At all events it is in this case directly in the interest of the farmer, inasmuch as he is not the victim of the dog- in-the-manger practice ; and as the patentee or man who may brhig out anything good is not shut out, it is also advantageous to him, as he can join and avail himself of the general stock of inventions. In this arrangement I am inclined to think exists the nucleus of a reform in our own Patent Laws. At Saratoga I had an opportunity of seeing one of their great State fairs, as they are termed. Here I found a grand array of agricultia'al ma- chinery, particularly of reaping and mowing machines. Large sheds were also erected in another part of the ground for the display of domestic wares and machines, such as cooking stoves, carpet sweepers, potato parers, and dairy utensils. This department was the chief centre of at- traction to crowds of ladies. Other sheds were devoted to horticultm-al products and appliances, and the separa- tion of agricultural implements from these other branches greatly facilitated (he object of the visitor who wished to sec and examine the agricultural machinery. At our Royal Agricultural Meetings, owing to the mixture of agricultu- ral, horticultural, and domestic wares, 1 have foimd it im- possible to make a thorough examination of the agricultural machinery. I think the Royal Agricultiu-al Society of England would do well to turn its attention to this subject, fori hold that these agricultural gatherings are not only marts, but great educational institutions, and every facility should be given for the acquisition of knowledge ; at least it ought not to be rendered as difficult as possible. There is one feature about the agricultural meetings of America Avhicli our meetings in England are too generally assuming— namely, they are degenerating into mere gala days, instead of sober business meetings. The trotting races at Saratoga, which took place on the show ground, were well supported and absorbed much attention, whilst on the ploughing ground not a single candidate put in an appearance, although liberal prizes were offered, so little interest was felt in this practical part of an agricultural meeting. I found the American people at their agricul- tural meetings, as elsewhere, polite to strangers. I paid for admission like any other visitor ; but as soon as the secretary heard that I was upon the ground, he came to me with a handsome rosette with the word "guest" upon it, regretting that he had not known of my visit earlier. The exhibitors, both of machinery and live stock, were also equally polite, taking great pains to explain to me the merits of their machinery and the points of their animals. I should take up too much time to speak of their show animals. The superiority of their Shorthorns is no- torious. Singidarly enough the first prize Shorthorn bull at Saratoga I found was got by my brother's bull, the 2nd Duke of Thorndale, a bull my brother imported from America, and bred by Mr. Thome, Dutchess County. The climate evidently suits our English breeds — -the Al- derncys or Jerseys, the Ayrshire, the Devon, and the Hereford, all seem to thrive, and have their respective champions ; but the Shorthorn, as here, has the lion's share. Schools. — The public schools are so prominent and dis- tinguishing a feature in America that I cannot pass this subject over without a few words. Whilst religion has been allowed, as I think wisely, to take care of itself, education has been fostered and endowed. The value set upon it by all classes throughout America — and Canada too — is something we have no idea of at home : it is not com- pulsory, but it is enforced by public opinion, so strong as to be found more stringent than any law. Take a drive into the country, and every two or three miles you pass, in places often apparently without a popula- tion, neat and commodious school buildings, whilst in the cities lai'ge schools confront you in almost every street. The plan of supporting these public schools varies in the different States. Inmost, certain portions of land are set apart, the revenues from which are devoted to the education of the people. In the older settled States the schools are supported by a rate based upon the valuation of property or business-income of the district. In the New States the Government has in the settlement invariably set apart a certain portion of the land for this object. Formerly 1 -36th of all the land in the State was thus set apart ; but such importance is attached to this question of education, that Congress has latterly increased the school lands to l-18th. The affau-s of the schools are under the direction of committees chosen by the people. I was assured that the religious differences of the people were not found to be a disturbing element ; that the Hible was the only religious book used ; that prayer was offered daily, both at the opening and close ; and that no other special religious teaching was attempted. The absence of a dominant chm'ch, and the fact of the Govern- 512 THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE. ment being in possession of sucli vast tracts of laud, have rendered the dealing with this great question compara- tively easy. The people of England will never be educated as they ought to be, without Government passes some more comprehensive scheme than we have at present. Let mc ask you not to go away with the idea that religion is not cared for, or that uothiug is done to provide for the religious wants of the people. The extent of church accommodation is everywhere far iu advance of that in this coimtry, notwithstanding the existence of our richly- endowed establishment. Coiicliisioiis. — The advantages which America offers ara so great, that, when you consider the prospects present aud future to themselves and their families, the wonder to me is that so few are willing to make a present sacrifice : that so many remain in the Old Country is most mar- vellous to one who has paid a visit to the Xew. Here we are so over-populated, that thousands of young men above the working classes are unable to obtain suitable and remunerative employment, or to embark in busi- ness with any fair prospect of success. Farmers and their sons find it equally difficult to settle. The con- sequence is, that rents in this country have been forced up to an artificial standard. "What with an increase rental, the higher rate of wages, a lower standard of prices, the greater risk from disease in stock, and un- diminished taxation, I cannot see how the present race of farmers, except a few tavourably-situated, can hope so to increase their capital as to become possessed of the means of settling their families in respectability. If wo could add a Lincolnshire or a Norfolk every year to this little island, the whole position of things would be changed : there would be room for everybody. It is just this power of expansion that makes all the difference between America and England. One fact will throw some light on this part of my subject. If the Ignited States were as thickly populated as England and "Wales, the population would amount to the enormous number of 924 millions. From the natural resources of America, from its varied soil and climate, its boundless beds of coal and iron, which are in proportion to its breadth of territory, it would be as capable of supporting this immense population as is England ot supporting its present number of inhabitants. Among the advantages offered by America to the agricul- turist, the low price of land is unquestionably the greatest. Splendid land can be purchased iu the newly-settled States at the low rate of two dollars an acre. I believe if bought direct from the Government the price is only a dollar-and-a-quarter. Of course, as the districts in- crease in population, the price of laud goes up, so that on the banks of the Hudson ami about Philadelphia I found land as dear as in England ; whilst close to Dubuke, iu Iowa, the finest land was not more than £3 per acre. By the 'Homestead Law," every head of a family Avho desires to settle iu America, and become a naturalized subject of the United States, receives from the Government 160 acres of land, substantially as a free-gift. Each of his sons, too, on coming of age has the same advantage. Surely, such munificence is enough to tempt some of our struggling industrious, but over-weighted farmers to cross the Atlan- tic in search of a country where there is so much more room for their energy. The American farmer has no rent day to haunt him ; he pays neither tithe nor church-rate ; the poor-rate is a bagatelle, and there being no game-laws, there is no fear of being eaten up. " But how about wages ?" some one will ask. Well, they are high, aud that is about the only drawback 1 know — twenty dol- lars a mouth and board, or about a dollar and a-half a day without board. The men work long hours, and the amount expended iu labour per acre, notwithstanding the high rate, is not greater than in England. Another ad- vantage the American farmer possesses is, that his horses cost him less to keep. We say, " Idle horses eat their heads oft":" over there, when not wanted, they are turned olf to grass, to grow into money. Again : Very little of the hindrance and loss we have to contend with through rainy and uncertain climate are known . I have said 1 only know one drawback which the American farmer has to en- counter, viz., wages. There is another I had well nish forgotten : An English farmer, should he desire to pur- chase an American machine, does not have to pay a shil- ling duty upon it ; not so with the Americau ; should he wish to buy an English machine he would have to pay a tax upon it of twenty-five per cent. Just for the advantage of a few wealthy manufacturers, who, be it observed, are an infinitesimal portion of the community, that great country allows itself to be taxed on its iron, on its ma- chinery, on its clothing, and iu a hundred other oppressive ways. Wheu the agricultural and consuming classes once turn theirattentionto thissubjectof Protection to the manu- facturer, those duties, 1 do not question, will go with one fell swoop : at present public attention is distracted by the great political difficulties of the country. In Canada the rate of wages is lower, being only half-a-dollar per day, and a dollar in harvest, without beer. As they are paid in gold instead of grcea-hacks the dift'crence is not so great as it appears. I found it was more common to hire land iu Canada than in the States. Some very fine land near Toronto, about 13 miles in the interior, was let at 12s. per acre. The tenant, an Englishman, seemed well satisfied with the change he had made. Barley fit for malting is grown here, and exported at good prices to the large brewers in the States. Canada to the farmer offers a fine lield, but to the trader or manufacturer it is not to be compared with the States. If I were to be asked what is the best part of the States to settle iu ? I should say one of the North-western States — Illinois, Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, or ^Michigan would be the best for corn growing and stock raising. I incline, however, to think that more money is to be made out of the vine and cot- ton, and that there is a fine field open in North Carolina, Texas, and California. Plenty of land is to be had in N^orth Carolina at 20 to 25 dollars an acre, which will produce a bale of cotton per acre. 1 should, however, recommend any one going out to America not to be iu too much of a hurry about settling down. Travelling there is cheap ■ the fare from Boston to Chicago, a dis- tance of 1,200 mUes, is only 27 dollars, less than £4 iu our money. In England we cannot be too near a rail- way : in America, out West especially, the farms imme- diately adjoining a railway are avoided, owing to the losses through the cattle getting killed by the pass- ing trains, from the lines not being fenced in. I could say much more on this head, but must draw my remarks to a conclusion. Although a better feeling is springing up than prevailed during the war, there is not that cordiality between the two countries which should exist between two such communities. America is. our natm-al, and ought to be our firmest ally : as we begin to know and understand each other better, let us hope that on both sides of the ocean there will be an absence both of acts aud words calculated to provoke or keep up irritation or ill feeling. There have been un- doubtedly faults on both sides ; 'tis to be hoped that the present Governmeut will do aU that can honourably be done to bring about a better understanding, and that without delay. In conclusion I would remark that when a man has visited England and America he has seen the two most wonderful countries the sun has ever shone upon. Never before, in the history of the world, were there ever gathered together upon so small an area such numbers, so much wealth, such a development of industrial enterprise, so well governed, 'ME i^AEMER'S MAaAZINE. 613 and such a practical aud common-sense people as are to be found in Old England. On the other hand, never be- fore, in the history of the world, has there been anything like the rapid growth of America : so vast a territory, peopled so quickly, its resources developed so speedily, its institutions so completely and well organized, and such progress made in the industrial arts. In America, you find everywhere the same activity, the same reliant enter- prise as at home, 'riiese traits of character are un- doubtedly somewhat iutensilied by the circumstances and perhaps the climate of that countrj^. When I witnessed the large amount of social prosperity throughout the States, resulting from these qualities, instead of feeling anything like national jealousy at the wonderful results everywhere visible, I was impressed more fully with the causes of the true greatness of my own country. I felt proud in the I'emembrance that America was the otf- spring of England ; that the old country had been re- produced on so grand a scale in the new ; that the character of the parent stock was so stamped upon and so apparent in the vigorous growth of its olf-shoots : not only the blood, but the ideas, the laws, the religion of England exist and llourish in the United States. The Anglo-Saxon race on American soil is asserting its supre- macy on a gigantic scale, as well as with characteristic energy and vigour. One very remarkable pheuomeuon is, that notwithstanding the immense number of immi- arants from the other nations of Europe, the English type of humanity is everywhere predominant. Like its own great river, the Mississippi, which receives num- bers of tributary streams that are blended with and be- come one great current ; so with all the races which flock to America : they feel the force of, aud become blended with the grand current of Anglo- .\merican life. In a generation or two the French, the Dutch, the Ger- man, and tlie Celt, lose everything of their foreign dis- tinctness, and nothiug is left of their national character but the name. The language, the ideas, the freedom, the enterprise, and what was so thoroughly exemplihed dur- ing the late deplorable war, the courage, the pluck of England — all live in America, and seem to be uniting to form the greatest and most powerful einpire the world has ever seen. Mr. James Thomas was sure he expressed the senti- ments of every one present when he said that they had listened with the greatest pleasure to one of the most instructive and interesting papers delivered since the for- mation of the Club (cheers). He wished, however, to make an inquiry of Mr. Howard on a rather important point. They all knew that in Lincolnshire, Leicester- shire, Yorkshire, Northumberland, and some other coun- ties, there were tirst-class farmers employing a capital of lifteen or tweuty thousand pounds in the cultivation of land. They also knew that the average profits of Eng- lisli farming during the last forty years could not be esti- mated at much above 10 per cent. ; and he would ask Mr. Howard whether he would recommend a farmer with such a capital, having three or four sons whom he could not hope to place in a similar position to his own in this country to give them live or six thousand pounds and send them to the United States ? The Rev. E. Smythies (Hathern Rectory, Lough- borough) wished first to express his great obligations to Mr. Howard for the interesting, practical, and thoroughly business-like paper which he had read. The question had, as he anticipated, resolved itself into this : What was the best country for any young farmer, a cadet of a family of five or six sons, who felt that there was little chance for him in England — -what was the best country for him to go to, whether in our own colonies or in any other part of the world, in order to obtain a prospect of tilling a position something like that of his father ? Now, though Mr. Howard had, as regarded many important points, drawn a very attractive picture of the advantages presented in the United States — and no doubt cheapness of land, and the large ])roduction there compared with the outlay, were very attractive features to all who were practically acquainted with agriculture in this country — ■ still, in dealing with " Thiugs in America, " he (Mr. Smythies) might perhaps be allowed to treat the subject in a somewhat larger point of view. And here he would venture to throw out, for the consideration of the committee of the Club, whether it would not be a very useful question for discussion next year, what was the best country a young farmer could go to from England? There must be many members of that Club who had sous whom they could not place in a similar position to their own ; and to all such persons it was an interesting question, to what country a youth having a certain amount of capital could go, in order to try his fortune? On that point he happened to have some reliable practical information. Admitting all that Mr. Howard had so well said respecting the advantages of the United States, he would observe that there were lands in South America — which was, of course, included in the words "Things in America" — which presented even a better prospect to the young farmer. There would always be a prejudice on the part of a young Englishman who emigrated, in favour of the laws and constitution of his own country ; and that state of things which was the neai'cst approach to the laws with regard to the tenure of land in the old country would be most attractive to him, when seeking for a land in which to obtain his future livelihood. He happened to know that there were por- tions of South America — he now referred especially to the Argentine Republic, a very large territory — wheregreatad- vantages were offered to young farmers. Having re- ceived, three weeks ago, a letter from a dear boy of his own, who had become a settler in that part of South America, he would read an extract from it. His son said : " 1 have now been just six months and a fortnight in this country" — that was, on the banks of the great river La Plata, or rather of its feeder, the Parana, the farm being about live hundred miles north of Buenos Ayres — ■" and already I can truly say that my hopes have been fulfilled beyond my most sanguine expectations. If we have only common luck, we shall make good fortunes in a few years. It is a poor year, in this country, which does not return thirty per cent, on your outlay." In confirmatiou of that, he (the Rev. E. Smythies) might mention that he knew that large sums of money were lent by banks in South America, for sheep-farming, at the rate of 2 per cent, per month, or 24 per cent, per annum ; and if farmers could afford to pay twenty-four per cent., it might fairly be concluded that they made thirty. As re- garded climate and other things affecting health, his son said : " I have enjoyed most perfect health in this coun- try ; 1 have been quite free frmn the coughs and colds which I constantly suffered from iu foggy England." He mentioned this to show that there were parts of America but little known, where a small capital would go a long- way. Mr. Thomas spoke of a farmer's giving his son £5,000. Well, he presumed that, if they could give their sons £5,000 apiece, they would not wish them to go a long way off for a living (Hear, hear). He would just mention two or three tigures that might be relied upon, connected with the case to which he had just alluded. In the case to which he alluded — and there were many others of the same kind — the parties had obtained the fee- simple, the tenure being equal to that by which any geu- tlenran in England held his estate, of about 14,000 acres of splendid land ; and upon that land there were at this moment above six thousand sheep, five or six hun- dred head of cattle, and about two hundred and fifty 614 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. horses. The whole of this property, together with a large amount of preliniiiiary outlay ia niakiug shecpfolds, fences, and other things of that kind, ^vas obtained for an outlay of £2,800 — a much smaller outlay than was men- tioned by Mr. Thomas. If a young farmer thought of going to Australia or to New Zealand, and made inquiries on the subject, he was perhaps met with the answer, " \ou may do very well, if you have eight or ten thou- sand pounds." If a farmer could give his sons such a sum as that, they could do very well here ; but the ques- tion was, what they could do with a thousand pounds ? and in South America there was an abundance of land where an enterprising young man might obtain all that could be reasonably desired witli that small capital. In the very last letter which he received there ivere these words : " We are perfectly well and happy ; we have plenty to do ; and what more can we wishy" That was a sensible conclusion, and one which must commend itself to the mind of every farmer in this country (cheers) . Mr. G. P. TuxFORD (Strand, London) said he believed he might take credit for being one of the oldest members of that Club, and at the same time for not having ob- truded on the Club any observations of his own during all the years of his membership, the reason of that being that when he had come there it was wiser on his part to listen and learn than to speak, especially as he had an op- portunity of repeating elsewhere what others said. He could not help alluding, however, to what Mr. Howard had said with respect to the readiug habits of the Ameri- can people. He told them that the American far)ners were a well-informed people — a reading people, and that they read agricultural publications to a very large ettent. When he thought of the enormous circulation of agricultural periodicals mentioned by Mr. Howard, and compared it with the circulation of similar publications in this coun- try, he was at a loss to understand the dift'erence. He could only account for it by the fact that the population of America was scant for the extent of territory, and that there were therefore not such means of communicat- ing ideas between man and rnan as existed in this country. Still, he thought it woidd be well if English farmers were more like the farmers of America as regarded the habit of readiug what concerned them in their calling. He had been much struck with the vast amount of attention which had been paid in America to the satisfactory ingathering of the harvest. When he heard of the place which reaping and mowing machines occupied in the manufacturesof America, he felt quite aston- ished, and in comparison it almost seemed as though such machines did not exist at all in this country. He must say that, considering the fickleness of the English climate, that subject was one which was especially deserving of the attention of the Farmers' Club ; and he thought an evening should be set apart for a discussion on the best means that could be devised for securing the safe ingather- ing of the harvest. Mr. Lloyd said he was an Englishman, but being in America this time last year, he then had a message given to him for English farmers, which he could not have a better opportunity of delivering than was presented that evening. Travelling in North and South Carolina, just after the war, he had to stay many days and nights in re- mote places, and he was then asked, if it should ever be his lot to meet any English or Scotch farmers in liis own country, to tell them that the Southern States were the places for farmers, having a little capital and deter- mined to work hard, to go to, if they were not doing well at home. There, he was told, they might buy for a very small sura land of Southerners who had died in the war or beeu ruined ; and it w-as land of excellent quality. TJie American newspapers were filled with advertisements of large tracts of such land, which were to be disposed of. Every member of a family had in some instances been killed during the war. People in the South told him that Northern people would not come there, because the Southerners would not associate with them, but that if strangers to the country came, there would not be the same difliculty, but they would be kindly received. Mr. WiLKiNS, British Consul at Chicago, said his apology for appearing in that position was that he luid been living for twelve years in tliat famous city of which they had heard so mucli that evening. He wished first to thank Mr. Howard on his own behalf and on behalf of a great number of American friends, whom he had left behind, for the spirit in which he had travelled through that country, and the manner in which he had told the meeting what he had seen. He had never had the pleasure of seeing Mr. Howard tiU that evening ; but he must say that nothing which had occurred during the twelve years he had been at Chicago was more likely to cement good feelings between the two countries than the manner in which the United States had dealt with the Eeniau question, combined with the speeches elicited by telegraphic intelligence of the fact in the British House of Commons, and the manner in which Mr. Howard had that evening referred to America, and the kind and friendly feelings expressed toward America in the speeches which followed. It had been remarked that ten Americaus came to England for one Englishman who went to America. He ventm'ed to say that fifty Americans read about England for one Englishman who read aboitt America ; and it seemed to him that JMr. Howard had hit upon a particidarly happy way of placing his views of travel before the English and American public. Almost every other writer or speaker — he referred now to professional writers — had constantly endeavoured to draw comparisous, which as school-boys we all knew to be odious, instead of illustrating the differences by pointing out the diflerence of circumstances. In Mr. Howard's paper there was an absence of that fault, and he believed it Avould produce an excellent eft'ect. He had further to say that when he first went to America he found his wife in Chicago. When he went, there were but five thousand iuhabitants; his wife was now only thirty years of age, and there were 200,000 inhabitants. Mr. Howard referred to Mr. Sullivan ; he (Mr. Wilkins) knew him well ; he also knew Mr. Emeiy Cobb, having been ac- quainted with him for ten years. Let him mention a fact in illustration of the abundance of produce. In 1860 he was shooting with an English gentleman near Mr. Cobb's farm. While they were out they received the hospitality of an American farm-house. They went into the house and asked for a cup of milk. A boy belonging to the family, the father and mother being out, im- mediately went and got a milk -jug, which was about half- full, and poured the milk out upon the ground. His (Mr. Wllkins's) companion- — a landed projirietor in this country — said to the boy, " If you were a son of one of my tenants I would give your father notice to quit," In conclusion, he would express a hope that other members of the Farmers' Club would travel in America, and when he went back there he shoitld be very glad to see them. Mr. T. B. Bring (Claxby, Spilsby) remarked that, notwithstanding what was said by Mr. Howard about the land of America being so light and so easy of draught, it was a question \vhether, looking at the produce mentioned, the light land of America could be as profitable as the heavy lauds of our own country. j\Ir. Howard said nothing about root crops. Mr. Howard observed that there were scarcely any root crops to be seen. Mr. Dring said he should be glad to know the reason of that, and whether it was possible to grow roots in THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 515 America, and to store tlicm up for winter so as to be enabled to increase the slieep production. Mr. C. S. Read, M.P., would like to know why 3Ir. Howard thought Indian corn coidd not be raised iu this country as fodder. Was it owing to the soil, or the climate, or some other cause, that Indian corn was raised as fodder in America to the height of eleven or twelve feet, while in this country it only attained three or four feet ? The Chairman said Mr. Dring had just asked a question about the capability of lands in America as re- garded the growth of root crops. If any American gentleman present could give them the reason why so few root crops were grown iu America they would feel much obliged to him. We looked upon such crops as one of the most valualile productions. Mr. Parsons, from the United States, said he could only state that that was a matter about which he had no knowledge whatever. Mr. CoussMAKER (Westwood) had risen merely to an- swer the question of Mr. Read, about the growth of Indian corn. The great Mr. Cobbett was once his neighbour, and, acting under his instructions, he obtained seed enough to grow two or three acres of that kind of corn. His seed was what was called sixty days' seed, it being sup- posed that it would have ripened sufficiently for harvest- ing within that period; but it did not fnllil that con- dition. They had a favourable autumn, and yet he did not harvest before f 'hristmas-day (laughter) . He thought, therefore, that " climate" was the answer to the question put by Mr. Read. Our climate would not aUow of the growth of Indian corn. Mr. C. S. Bead, M.P., observed that he spoke of fodder. Dr. VoELCKER (Salisbury-square) believed the growth of Indian corn was, to a great extent, a question of climate. It required a short but very hot summer. Hence it could be gi'own in the North of Germany, where they were almost certain of three weeks of hot weather, which could not .be at all i-elied upon in England. It had been tried in Gloucestershire, and had there been found not to be worth anything as fodder. In exceptional years it might, of course, be grown, but not as a rule. He had there- fore come to a conclusion that this question was alto- gether one of climate, and that it was a mistake to attempt to introduce Indian corn in this country as a fodder crop. Mr. Griffin (of the United States) said he coidd not help thanking Mi'. Howard for the very kind expressions which he had used in reference to " things in America." He was not a practical farmer himself, but he had been long acquainted with agricultural matters. With regard to roots, he apprehended that the chief reason why thejr were not cultivated to the same extent iu America as they were in England was that there was no necessity for them. There was an abundance of other fodder for cattle, and consequently they did not produce roots. As regarded the growth of Indian corn, he thought that was a question of soil rather than of climate. In the far West there was a rich black loam, from fifteen to twenty feet deep ; and there there was no difficulty in growing Indian corn. Mr. J. A. NocKOLDS (Stort Lodge, Bishop's Stort- ford) said he should like to know what kind of game the two gentlemen alluded to by Mr. Howard went fourteen hundred miles to shoot. If it were the moose-deer of Canada, he could understand the matter, because one of them would occupy two gentlemen for a month. Mr. Howard then replied. He said there had been two most important questions suggested that evening which would do well for discussion next year, one being What was the best country for an English farmer to send his son to ? and the other. Which was the best machine to harvest their crops ? He was qu.ite su.re that if the gentlemen who had named those questions on that occa- sion would undertake to introduce them next year, the committee would be very happy to place them on the card. Mr. Thomas asked him, in effect, whether he tliought large and opideut farmers wovdd do well to send their sons out to the United States to settle ? Now, in reply to that, he would say this — that one of the iirst memoranda which he made in his diary after seeing the United States was, that it was no use to send a fool to America (laughter). If a man was to succeed in Ame- I'ica he must be a thoroughly practical man — a man of business (Hear, hear). As labour was a part of the out- lay so important, the man who went there to pursue the business of farming must, he repeated, be thoroughly practical : he must know thoroughly the value of labour. It would not suHice for him to know how to ride a horse across country : that would avail him very little iu a uew land. But he could only say that if he (Mr. PI.) were a farmer, and had half-a-dozen sous to settle out, he should not hesitate for a moment, even though he were ever so weU fixed iu this country, to go with them across the Atlan- tic ; and he would add that if he were not pretty " well fixed," as the Americans said, here, he should very soon go to America himself. He could not speak as to the com- parative merits of the Argentine Republic and the United States, as he had not visited the first-named country ; but he had no doubt there were many countries where good, sharp young fellows could do better than in England, be- cause there was more elbow-room in them. He thought Mr. Smythies' remarks very valuable, and he hoped he would next year introduce the question " Which was the best country for a young English farmer to settle in?" Mr. Tuxford seemed surprised at the number of agricul- tural machines made in America. In one town, the town, or rather the city — for in America they were all cities — of Aubmm, he visited a number of factories where thousands of machines were turned out every year. In Auburn alone, he should say, from twelve to fifteen thou- sand reaping-macbines were made annually. American farmers took to new inventions much quicker than Eng- lish ones. If new things were brought out, the Ameri- cans did not, as was so much the case here, stop to ask their neighbom's how it succeeded ; they acted on their own impressions, and bought the thing, as they expressed it, "straight off." They were, in fact, more self-reliant than farmers in England. Something had been said about the desirableness of settling iu North or South Carolina, whicJi lie could quite endorse. He came home with the Presi- dent of the North Carolina Railway, and the chairman of the only bank in the South that did not fail during the war who assvu'cd him that if Englishmen did but know the advantages which presented themselves in the North- ern part of the Southern States a vast uumber ivould go out at once. They remarked that cotton crops in America were much more profitable than corn crops iu England, the produce of an acre of cotton-growing land being worth £50. As it might be supposed that he had come home with a good many Yankee notions — (laughter) — he begged to say that he had lost noue of Ids nationality. He was as much attached to the institutions of his own country now as ever (cheers). He thought the institutions of America were well adapted for that country ; and on the other hand, he thought that England would be very un- wise if she were to meditate any nreat change in her owu constitution (cheers.) There were many English travel- lers in America ; and among them were some gentlemen who, forgetting there was the letter R in the alphabet, asked you at the station, " What time will the train auwive?" (laughter), and who could see nothing to admire in America except the scenery. The American people heartily despised the class whom we called "swells" (Hear, hear.) Sucli persons were not likely to receive much 516 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. consideration from them i but if a man ol' Inisiaess and sense went among' them, he was sure to get ou well. As regarded what Mr. Dring said about horses, what he wished to state was, that ploughed laud was lighter iu America than iu England. "Where we ploughed an acre and a-half in given time, Americans ploughed two and a-halt acres ; but they took good big furrows. The ques- tion of roots was a question not only of climate but also of capital. People who farmed in America were, gene- rally speaking, like English farmers, not over-burdened with capital, and the amount of stock they could keep was restricted by that cause. If they could supply mut- ton enough for the market they had no iuducement to keep a large flock of sheep. As he had before observed, the pigs of America were much more numerous than those of England. That roots might be grown there could be no doubt. In Virginia he saw crops of sugar-beet, and iu the north crops of white turnips and swedes ; but you mighttravelhimdredsmileswithout ever seeins such things. A\ hen they remembered how few sheep, comparatively speaking, were kept iu the vast territory of the United States, they must feel that there could be no great neces- sity for growing roots. Perhaps a man farmed one-third more land than he either wanted or cropped. When his horses were idle he turned them out to grass, and he pur- sued a similar course with his sheep and cattle ; and, therefore, he did not need to raise artificial fodder. As to Indian corn, he had before remarked that he did not see why Indian corn should not be grown in this country as fodder, and nothing which he had heard tliat night had changed his opinion. It appeared to him highly desirable that it should be produced iu that way ; but he had un- derstood the use of a great deal of lime was necessary to ensure the constant growth of the crop. As regarded the question of Mr. Marsh about hops, he knew little about the matter beyond the fact that the beer was very bad (laughter). Sir James Duke said he had gi-eat pleasure in pro- posing a vote of thanks to Mr. Howard for his excellent paper. He had given such an interesting description of what he saw in America that no one who heard it could fail to be gratified. As the municipality of Loudon had been blamed for not providing better accommodation for cattle, he wished to know whether the three or fom- hun- dred acres set apart for that purpose at Chicago were pro- vided by the municipal body there, or by a joint stock company. The liev. E. Sjiythies seconded the motion, which was put and cari'ied. Mr. HowAKD, in returning thauks, said he believed the great cattle mai'ket of Chicago was provided by the co-operation of the railway companies and the munici- pality. The Corporation was one of the most spirited bodies of that kind he ever met with. As the surveyor of the Corporation of London, INIr. Haywood, had visited Chicago; he might perhaps tell Sir Jas. Duke much about municipal matters. Let him mention onefaet, which showed how enlightened Chicago was. Not content with draw- ing their water from the banks of Lake Michigan, where it was sometimes made muddy by storms, the municipality had constructed a tunnel two miles under the lake, iu order to draw thence a purer supply for the inhabitants of ('hicago. In that respect he believed the Coi-poration of the City of Chicago was far ahead of that of the City of London. ^ On a motion of Mr. Skelton, seconded by Mr. John Nash, thanks were voted to the Chairman, and this ter- minated the proceedings. The following are the Rules referred to iu Mr. Howard' Paper; — NEW YORK STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. TRIAL OF MOWERS AND REAPERS, at AUBURN, 1866.— REGULATIONS. 1st. No machines -nnll be allowed to enter after the second week preceding the time fixed for the coramencemeut of the trial. The object of this regulation is to allow ample time for the arrangement of the grounds. ~ud. The judges, the president and secretary, and a com- mittee of the ofiicers of the society will be ou the grounds at the beginning of the week preceding the trial. They will cause — (a) The grounds to be staked off into lots of exactly one acre, by stakes three feet long Ijy two and a-half inches wide ; the nimiber from No. 1 upwards wiU be placed on the top of the stake and turned inwards towards the lot ; there will be a space of two feet in width between each lot. {//) To cause a headland six rods in width to be mowed, and the hay removed from the lot before the commencement of the trials, (c) To have the following implements ready upon the grounds before the commencement of the trial : A platform scale ; a pair of small scales ; a speedometer (in case one end of the lot can- not be seen distinctly from the other, poles will be provided as guides) ; a dynamometer ; a measure for side draught ; a two- J foot rule ; a measure tape 100 feet long ; two of five feet long ; | a portable forge ; a pair of compasses ; a machine for testing the temper of knives ; a sector ; blank books and lead pencils for each of the judges ; a carriage for the conveyance of the judges to and from the grounds to their lodgings, if the tri-il fjrounds are too far from their lodgings. Dinner will be furnished on the field. A carpenter with his tools to be present. A sufficient iiumber of policemen will be provided to keep intruders off the ground. 3rd. The chairman of the board of judges will prepare a series of slips of paper numbered from one upwards. Each competitor will draw one of these, and the number so draw n will be the number of the lot to be mowed by him. 4th. The judges will be subdivided into the following committees : — 1. (>,/ Grains and Grasses. — They will report to the chair- man of tlie judges on the following points : («) The kinds of grain and grass growing in each field, (i) If there are different kinds of grain or grass growing in the field, they will give their names, and estimate the proportion which each kind bears to the whole amount, {c) State the average length of each kind of grass or grain, also thickness on the ground. {(i) Give the names of the weeds growing in the field, their proportions, average length, and their toughness of stalk. {c) Estimate the total amount of grass or grain on an acre, by measuring a small area of which an acre is an exact multiple. Weigh the grass or grain ou such area, from which weight the amotmt on an acre may be calculated. 3. On Wei;jM and Price. — This committee will ascertain ((/) The exact weight of each machine when ready for work. (Ij) The price of the machine at the shop of the maker, {c) If any extras are sold with the machine, they wiU say what they are. (rf) If there is a difference in price when extras go with them, they will state what it is. The Committee of Description will {a) give a general description of each machine, [h) They will describe minutely those portions of the machine which are peculiar to it, and which constitute its indiviiluabty. (r) They will point out any departures from established mechanical principles in its construction, giving their reasons iu full. 3. The Committee on Mechanical Arrant/emen/s viill nscer- tain and record ((/) The number of horses required for each machine. (4) The number of men, aud the capacity in which they are employed, (c) The kind of material used in the construction of each machine, and the opinion of its dura- bility, (d) Examine the workmanship of each machine, and state the nature, locality, and probable consequence of each defect, (e) The metals that are used for journal bearings. (/) Observe the machine after it has been used, and state what parts have been heated, and to what extent, (ff) Examine them •carefully after they have been used, to see if any part has been unduly rubbed or worn. (Ji) Observe the facilities for oiling each part of the machine, and for easiness of access to each bolt, screw, and nut. (z) What arrangements are made for ruttiuff stubble at diH'pront 1(mi','I1i^-. (■/) In wliat manner THE FAilMER'S MAGAZINE. .17 are the gavels deli\ered, behind or at the side. {/,) The relative portability and compactness of the machines, (l) The contrivances adopted for the security and comfort of the driver. (/«) Ascertain the temper of each knife. This com- mittee will adopt some scale of nnmbers, by wliich they may express the relative values of the machines on sucli of the above points as are relative in their scope. 4. The Committee on Quidili/ of Tfork will — {a) Assume the No. 4-0 to represent the best work that can be done. The No. 30 as representing the best work that can be done with a hand scythe. The No. 20 as inferior to any work that would be tolerated by a respectable farmer. The gradation of m ork will be expressed by numbers intermediate to these. ( ^°'j|j^ I in Second Division, £6. £3 each. lligliam '\ 1% Sargent }> in Second Division, £5. £1 each. Luxton Mortimer J 5 also passed in Third Division. ] failed. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 519 '.'.'.I Fir •3 st Class. Second Class. (■£7 0 0 •J 5 0 0 (. 5 0 0 £•2 0 0 3 0 0 3 0 0 3 0 0 Sekiors A. Pollard J. Lake . , . C. J. Lau'jjley HiU ^. Bovey Rudd Mackwood 10 iu Tiiird Class — 5 did not pass. List II.:— Juniors. Pure Mnthemalics. — 1-i entered : 3 obtained more than half marks ; 10 others passed ; 1 failed ; Chubb, £4- ; King, £4 ; Mortimer, £-i. Mechanics and MecJianism. — 3 entered : No prize. ClLemisfrif. — No entry. List II. — Seniors. Mathematics. — 21 entered : 5 obtained more than half marks ; 13 passed ; 4 failed ; *Langley, £5 ; *Pollard, £5 ; Bovey, £3 ; Lake, £3 ; Rudd, £3. Chemistry. — 3 entries : *Kiugdou, £5 ; *Pollard, £3. Physiology. — 3 entries : *Sanders, £5 ; PoUard, £3. Geology. — No entry. Expenses for printing special examination papers at the last Oxford examination, postage, &c., £1 4s. 8d. to be paid. That a grant of £5 5s. each should be made to Pro- fessors Price and Daubeny for conducting the Society's recent examinations at Oxford, accompanied by au ex- pression of thanks on the part of the Society for their attention and courtesy. 50 entries for the next Cambridge examination iu De- cember. The Committee have had before them the question of excluding from their examination those who had obtained prizes at previous examinations, aud recommend that there be no restriction, except as to those who have obtained the first prizes in their special subjects. (Mechanics aud chemistry applied to agriculture). This report was adopted. Steam Cultivation. — Lord Vernon stated that the Committee have to report that,'^in pursuance of the plan sketched out by them in a previous report, and approved by the Council, two Committees of Inspection were ap- pointed, consisting of the following gentlemen : Committee No. I. — Mr. J. Algei-non Clarke, Se- cretary and Reporter ; Mr. Robert Leeds ; Mr. J. Nicholson. Committee, No. 2. — Mr. Howard Reed, Secretary and Reporter ; Mr. J. Ilicken ; Mr. J. Hemsley. The Committee began work as soon as the state of the harvest in their respective districts would permit, aud have made satisfactory progress, notwithstanding the very unfavourable character of the season for an investigation of this kind. The Committees have visited the counties of Bedfordshire, Berkshire, Bucks, Cambridgeshire, Essex, Gloucestershire, Hampshire, Hertfordshire, Huntingdon- shire, Kent, Norfolk, Northamptonshire, Oxfordshire, Suffolk, Surrey, Sussex, Wiltshire and Warwickshire. In these counties more than 50 farms have been inspected, aud a large amount of valuable information collected, which will be embodied in reports by Mr. Clarke and Mr. Howard Reed, and published in the next No. of the Journal. If the weather should remain favourable the Committee hope that the inquiry may be completed by the end of the present month. Bury St. Edmunds' Meeting. — Colonel Challoner reported the recomiuendatious of the Committee: 1. That the preliminary prize sheets for Stock aud Implements be distributed among the Members of the respective Com- , mittees for revision, aud to be submitted to the Monthly Council in December. 2. That the Meeting ')c held iu the week commencing Monday, July 15, 1S67. This report was adopted. Committee of Selection. — The President stated that— 1. In accordance with the instructions received by the Council iu August, the Committee have to report that the six cx-oflicio Members of this Committee for 1866 will be — President. — Mr. Thompson. Chairmen of Committees. — Finance, General the Hon. A. N. Hood ; Journal, Earl Cathcart ; Chemical, Mr. Lawes ; Stock Prizes, Lord Walsingham ; Implement, Colonel Challoner ; Country Meeting, Lord Tredegar. The Committee v^rould suggest that for the short re- mainder of the year 1866, the six elected members of this Committee should be chosen from those who have up to this time acted as a Provisional Committee, and they ac- cordingly mention the names of The Earl of Powis, Lord Vernon, Mr. Druce, Mr. Randell, Mr. Torr, and Mr. Jacob Wilson. 3. The Committee recommend that the vacancy in the list of Vice-presidents caused by the death of Mr. Raymond Barker, should be fiUed up by the election of Mr. Jonas. 3. The vacancies in the Council caused by the resigna tionof Mr. Hamond aud the death of Mr. Henry Wilson,- have now to be lilled up. The name of Major Wilson, of Stowlangtoft, having been brought before the Council by ilr. Torr, previously to the appointment of the Commit- tee of Selection, the members of that Committee feel that the claims of Major Wilson are so great, more especially iu connection with the approaching Bury meeting, that they have great pleasure iu throwing their weight into the scale iu favour of his appointment. The other vacancy they recommend should be filled up by the election of Sir Henry Vane, that gentleman, in addition to his other recommendations, being a resident iu District A, in which there are 47B Subscribing Alembers of the Society. District A is at present represented by only two Members of Council. This report was adopted. The President having pro])osed that Mr. Jonas be elected a Vice-President in the room of the late Mr. Raymond Barker, the nomination was seconded by Lord Walsingham, and Mr. .lonas was unanimously elected a Vice-President of the Society. The name of Sir Henry Vane, Bart., of Ilutton Hall, Penrith, having been proposed by Mr. Jacob Wilson and seconded by Lord Tredegar, and that of Major Wilson, of Stowlangtoft Hall, Bury St. Edmunds, having been proposed by Mr. Torr, and seconded by Mr. Milward, they were unanimously elected Members of Council, in the room of Mr. Hamond, resigned, and Mr. Wilson, deceased. The Council decided that the General Meeting of the Society should be held on Wednesday the 12th of De- cember, at noon. A minute of a meeting of the Council of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society was read as follows : — That the thanks of the Society be given to the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society for the use of their dynamo- meter at the trial of implements recently held at York. The Council ordered that this be recorded in the Minute Book of the Society. The thanks of the Society having been ordered for various present books to the library, the Council ad- journed. N N 520 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE AND PROSPECTS IN SCOTLAND. At the quarterly meeting of the Morayshire Farmers' Chih, I presided over l)y tlie Duke of llichmoiid,ou Friday, November 9, the Secretary read the following, vphich was approved : — REAPING BY MACHINERY. KEPORT BY THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED AT THE QUAK- TERLY MEETING OF MEMBERS OF THE MORAYSHIRE FAR- MERS' CLUB IN AUGUST, 1866, TO EXAMINE REAPING MACHINES IN THE COUNTY. In terms of the remit made to them, your committee in- spected some twenty machines at work on fifteen different farms in the county, and beg to report as follows : — They think it unnecessary to describe the reapers examined by them in detail, as, doing so, ia many cases the description would only be a repetition. They conceived that it was not so much their duty to report on the comparative merits of the different reapers as on the general character of the work per- formed by the various classes now in use. All the macliiues cut well, almost all equally well, after making allowance for variety of soil and the difference in the preparation of fields. The great distinction in the work lay with the person who tilted the sheaves from the manual delivery ; so also in the self-delivery, as much depended on the completeness and adaptation of the delivering apparatus. The reapers ex- amined may be divided into three classes : 1st, The one-horse manual ; 2nd, The two-horse manual ; and 3rd, The two-horse self-delivery. As to the one-horse reaper, although the work done by it is equal to that of any of the others, yet, from the less breadth cut, the heavy draught, and its requiring a driver and man for tilting the same as a two-horse machine, the dif- ference in price is not sufficient to recommend its extensive use on the larger farms. As to the two-horse manual de- livery macliine, the work done was very satisfactory ; and from the care and workmanlike manner in which some of the men turned off the sheaves, the most perfect work was done by this class of reapers. We may instance Miss Paul's farm at Hattou of Kinloss. Everj'thing was done in a very neat and superior manner, and such as left nothing to be desired. One tiling recommends itseh' very strongly in the management of this macliine. A hand is exclusively employed in walking before the machine along the edge of the uncut corn to lift up any stalks which may have fallen over in a different direction from the general lay of the corn, the effect of which quite perfectly prevents any straggling of stubble. Your committee now come to the two-horse self-delivery. The cutting with this macliine is equal to the others, and the delivery into sheaves very fair, and, with a little further improvement in the de- livering arrangement, will very probably come into general use. The work done at the Home Farm of Altyre by two of these reapers was fuUy equal to the average of the whole work in- spected. From the superior work done by all the classes of reaping-machines, we do not hesitate to recommend the em- ployment of them on all farms. At the same time, to do full justice to both macliine and crop, a careful preparation of the land is necessary, broad ridges, thorough liarrowing, furrows well fdled up, large stones carted off, and the land well rolled. It is also of the utmost importance to have the knives regu- larly and properly sharpened, and the gearing of the machine frequently oUed. Your committee must not, however, omit to mention that tliis has been a favourable year for the trial of reapers, crops being generally light. Notwithstanding this advantage, we inspected several fields where machines were at work in heavy crops ; and the work done was sufficient to recommend their general use. Some disadvantage attending the use of reapers is caused by occasional breakages ; and, from the closeness and compactness with which the stalks arc put together in a sheaf, it is more difficult in a harvest like the past to get the crop into condition for stacking than when it IS cut with the scythe ; but it is more than compensated by the neat, clean, and tidy way in wjiich the crop can be lifted. Ihe sheaves should be of a small size. In many of the reapers examined, the draught was heavy ; and in others, the liorses had to go too fast, in order to get up the requisite cut- ting speed; while some, from the small breadth of travelling wheel, were liable to sink in soft soils, thereliy increasing the draught, as well as injuring the young grass. The two-horse reapers cut, in favourable circiimstauces, from eight to ten acres per day, employing eight or ten hands besides the raker and men employed about the macliine. Your committee esti- mated the expense of cutting with the machine at about 5s. Gd. per imperial acre. The machines examined were made by Samuelson, manual and self-delivery ; llalliday, manual ; Dray and Hussey, do. ; Johnston, Newmill Iron Works, Elgin, do. ; Falconer, East Grange, do. ; Brighain and Bickerton, do. ; Gardiner and Lindsay, do. ; Peter Winton, Thorn, Falkirk, self-delivery — and cost from £17 to £35 each. The machines were inspected on the following fanns, viz. : Home Farm Altyre, Grangegreen, Middlefield, Netherton, Ilillhead, West Grange, East Grange, Hatton, Coltfield, Ardgay, Kintrea, Keam, Shempston, Spynie, Linksfield, Orbliston, Mains of Ortou. While your committee hope that improvements on reaping machines may lie effected by the makers, they would urge on farmers and their servants to see as to the proper preparation and culture of the land, and the working of the machines, so that tliey may be more extensively used through- out the country. For this end, your committee would recom- mend that prizes of a fair value should lie given for com- petition to servants in charge of macliiues, who would excel in the management and keeping of them in repair, as well as in the tilting of sheaves a proper size, and that arrangements slioidd be made by another harvest for this purpose. The committee take this opportunity of conveying their thanks for the great courtesy shown by aU the gentlemen on whose farms the machines were at work, and their willingness and readiness to afford every information as to the working and expenses. Reported by George Brown, Westerton. Robert Wai.ker, Altyre. John Ferguson, Grange. STEAM CULTIVATION. Mr. Cooper, Spynie, said that he brought the subject of cultivation by steam under the notice of the committee, who asked him to bring it under the notice of the first general meeting of the club. Cultivation by steam is being rapidly in- troduced into England and the south of Scotland, and parties interested in agriculture should look to the result with interest. Mr. Yool, one of their members, had started a steam cultivator upon his own hook ; but he would propose that the club send a committee of their number to see a plough that had been brought to Kincardineshire where it was working, so that they might be able to report what it did. If this committee re- ported favourably to the club, he presumed they would be willing, as they had heretofore been, to encourage the introduc- tion of one into Morayshire, by offering a premium if they saw fit to do so. The plough in Kincardineshire was said to be a very superior and efficient one. He had some communication with Mr. Greig, the manager of it, and he was invited to go along with any of his friends to see the work that had been done by it. It had just then finished a field of ninety acres, so that the Morayshire people would get a good idea of what was done. Mr. Geddes inquired whether the object af Mr. Cooper was to form a Steam Plough Company, or to report for the advan- tage of the members. Mr. Cooper said if the committee reported favourably, then the club might take the subject up and offer similar prizes to those they gave formerly for the introduction of improved ploughs into the county. The club might in this way encour- age members to get a more complete implement, just as by giving premiums they encouraged the introduction of good stock. He had no particular object further than to bring the subject forward. He begged to move that this subject be re- mitted to the standing committee to take such action as they might think advisable. Mr. Harris, Earnhill, suggested that it might be well not THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 621 to confine the committee to visiting the plough in Kincardine- shire, hut to go to other phicos, and see where tlie hest system was carried out. In the Lotliians, there were two or three systems, wliich it would he as well to see before reporting. Tlie i)uke of Richmond suggested that the matter should he left to the committee to deal with as they thought proper. Mr. Geddes said the only difficulty those around ,lum saw was the want of money. Mr. Geddes, in proposing the health of their patron, the Duke of Richmond, said: In his Grace's presence I need not say what I coidd say ; but I can bear testimony to the just and liberal manner in wliich he acts towards his tenantry. I can ^y that he wishes no man to sit upon his land who would not be able to pay his rent and make a livelihood from his land besides. I am sure his Grace will continue to give us his as- sistance as he has hitherto done, and I hope we shall never do anything to forfeit that kindness and that attention which he has liitherto given us. The Duke of Richmond said : I can assure yon that it will he, as it has always been, my great desire to do all in my power to promote the interests of the Morayshire Farmers' Club ; because, by promoting their interests in whatever way I can, I believe I am promoting the interests of agriculture in this part of the comitry. I certainly have inherited large possessions in these parts ; and if I speak for a moment of myself, I must apologize to you, and confess that it was in consequence of the words which were used by my friend Mr. Geddes in intro- ducing my health, which has induced me to do so. I received tfrom my father, I may call it, a very loyal tenantry with the property ; and one of the many pieces of good advice which he gave me, and which I have, and which I shall always en- deavour to act np to, was — " Keep on good terms with your tenantry, and they will prove the very best friends you have, and the only way yon can keep on good terms with them is by treating them as they ought to 1)e treated. Treat them as your friends and as your equals, and not as your servants. Give them the land upon terms which they ought to have it on — terms on which they \viU be able to pay you such a rent as it ought to command, and leave them an ample margin to live in happiness, in comfort, and in prosperity." In these times, a great deal is talked of about setting the tenantry of the country at variance with their landlords ; but I myself do not believe in anything of the kind. It may be that, in some small corners of the empire, such a state of things does exist ; and if it does exist, I feel perfectly certain that the landlord is as much at fault as the tenants in those parts. I believe if the tenants are treated as they deserve to be treated — as a large and important body of the community, as a body who have it in their power to exercise a great deal both for the weal and for the woe of those who are dependent upon them, if they are made to feel the position which they do occupy and which they ought to occupy, and if they are made to feel that tlie landlord depends upon them quite as much as they depend upon tlie landlord, we shall hear few of those mischievous addresses in which it is intended to place the two classes at variance. I believe if you have a prosperous and happy and contented tenantry, it goes a great deal further than it at first sight appears to do — it permeates, if I may use the expression, down through the tenantry to the labourers of the country ; and there is nothing more certain, as may be instanced from what has taken place for many years in the coiuItry,tbau that we are all apt, I do not care in what station we are — we are very apt to ape the habits of tho^ immediately above us. If the tenants upon the property are such as I believe the tenanti-y upon the Gordon estates to be, then the labourers have a good example set before them, and one which they would do well to imitate ; and if the tenantry are such as they ought to be, the labourers wiU be found happy and comfortably, and they will strive to act up to all the good Qualities which they see in the tenantry whose servants they are. I believe by this means tlie three classes I have spoken of — the landlords, tlie tenantry, and the labourers of the country — being united together in one common bond of amity and friendsliip, we need not fear anything like a democratic revolutionary feeling getting hold of the country ; but that we liave one of the best means for the welfare and stability of the country. Mr. II/VKKis, Earnhill, said niany peojile not accpiainted with agricultural matters and regulations wondered at the re- spect shown to the landlords by the tenants. They viewed their connection as strictly commercial, the proprietor giving so much land for so much money. But the tenants themselves viewed it in a very different light. They knew that property had its duties as well as its rights, and were happy to know that in this county its duties were respected. In tliese days when leases were so strictly drawn up, there was not perhaps such good feeling between some landlords and their tenants. But when the leases were looser, when a man was actuated by a proper principle, those rights were always recognised, and he was sure they would all agree with him that on the occasion of entering a new lease between landlord and tenani;:, the feeling should be sometliing more than commercial. When a landlord had it in his power to throw a man out of his house and farm— the house, perhaps, in which he was jjorn, to which he brought his bride home, in which his children were horn, and which was perhaps more hallowed to him by some great sorrow— the feeling ought to be something more than merely commercial. Considerations like these often weighed with a tenant, who would give perhaps £50 more rent than he knew he could safely do rather than leave, and though he might go on for a time, trusting to the course of events, they knew what was the general result. The tenant farmers respected and appreciated the different conduct on the part of the landlords of Morayshire, so far as he knew, with- out exception. One thing which accounted for the respect shown by tenants to landlords was that, apart from their being owners of land, they were often the bearers of well-known names and honours for deeds done by their forefathers in the field, or for their good conduct in the Senate. Sir George Macphekson Grant said: I believe I am not speaking hastily, or speaking at random, when I say that the landed proprietors of this county are aware of the duties and rights which attach to their properties, and that it is their earnest and anxious desire to discharge these duties as freely and frequently as they wish to enjoy the rights which their land brings them. I hope that the day is far distant, and that the snn will never dawn on tlie day when the toast of the landed proprietors in this county wiU not meet with a kind and cordial reception in an assembly of the Morayshire Farmer Club. This is the first occasion I have been present, for I am sorry to say in the march of improvement railways were so long in reaching those who lived in the hiUs, that I have hitherto felt it diilicult to he so much with the Moray- sliire Farmer Club as I should be ; but it has always given me great pleasure to attend your shows. I came down from the hills anxious to meet you, an>dous to learn something, and I find I have not been disappointed. I am but a very young man, perhaps the youngest proprietor in the country, and I feel deeply the responsibility which rests upon me. But I would venture to say, as a rule, that the proprietors cannot do better than follow the example which the late Duke of Rich- mond gave to His Grace the present Duke, and which we all know he so well follows. I find the best of feeling exists be- tween the tenantry and the landed proprietary in this county, and not only in this county, but throughout the northern part of this kingdom, where laud is let in a fair and proper manner. Different systems have been adopted in different parts of the country, as different cures are prescribed for different diseases ; but Morayshire will rank well for the manner in which the land is let with any part of the British Empire. Constituted as the times are, we have to rub shoulders with our tenantry far more than we were doing. We ought to be amongst them, taklug an interest in their leases, in their stock, in their tur- nips, in their grain, and in many Uttle things in connection with their farming that they wish to let us know ; for I do not mean that we should always be going about spying what they are doing ; but fair, fi-ee, open, honest contact as prevails in this county is, I am sure, for the benefit of both. Not long ago, I heard Mr. Harris say that the tenantry had reason to be proud of their landlords. I would cap that by saying that the landed proprietors have reason to be proud of their tenantry. Talking to the tenantry, I may be allowed to con- gratulate you upon your pleasing prospect of prosperity during the winter. What with barley at i:,2, oats at I know not what, wheat rising so rapidly in value, and our worthy friend, Mr. Macdonald, unable to write the names of competitors for ))ri/,es for turnips, because they come so fast and thick upon him, I think that the winter promises well for the tenantry of the country. I may hope that, wjien the stormy blasts of winter are past, you may meet in every way satisfied with the result, N N 2 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. Mr. Geddes said Sir George had drawn a remarkably plea- sant picture of their prospects. He could tell them that this }-ear the tenantry would have enough to do to make up for the losses of the past two years. It was quite true they had a ver)- great deal to do in the last two years, and if it had not been for the energy and honesty for which they got credit, they could not have carried on their live stock and occupied their land. They did not complain, nor cry out for a reduc- tion of rent, hut on the contrary they said they had made their bed and would lie on it. Putting a stout heart to a stey hrae, they resolved to carry themselves through. But this year had come round to save them from the losses they sus- tained on the previous two, and he was sure if there were any gentlemen who would congratulate them upon tliat, it would he the landlords of Moray. They were not arrogating too much to themselves when he said they had reason to be satis- fied with their position in Morayshire, and he thought tlie landlords liad no reason to he ashamed of their tenantry, be- cause lie had travelled over the greater part of Britain and was always on the move, and had never seen a part of the country where more had been done for the fertilisation of a poor soil. They had spared no money for the fertilising, as well as bringing good stock into the country. He hoped the proprietors and tenants would always meet on the same friendly terms as they were doing now. The Duke of Richmond said : I have a toast to propose. It is to the health of the croupier this evening. It is because I have known him as a friend and as a tenant that I have the pleasure to do so. If I had any doubt on this subject, I might refer you back to what took place probably in this very room, at all events among the members of this Club not long ago, which would dispel all doubt on the subject, because in consequence of the service whicli had been rendered by him to this Club, and to the agriculture of the county, a testi- monial was presented to James Geddes, Esq., of Orbliston ; and if among your friends and neighbours you are able to re- tain a good name, you may depend upon it in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred it is deserved. I have the satisfaction of holding him as one of the oldest tenants on the Gordon estates. Gentlemen, he has told you that he has witnessed farming in all parts of the country, that he is continually on the move ; and why is this ? It is that his opinion is so good that he is perpetually asked to be referee in important cases; and I think there is no case in which a man may be prouder than when he is invited to act as a sort of middleman between disputing parties — disputing, it may be, friendly; for I do not say it is always in a hostile manner. Mr. Geddes said : It is quite true that I have had the honour of knowing his Grace for a period of thirty years, and duriug all that time I have met with nothing but a series of kindnesses — not that kindness which is seen of men, but private acts of kindness. He has shown to me in all he has said, and as his father did before him, that he was not speak- ing merely as a landlord to a tenant, but he has on every oc- casion that he had it in his power shown me the kindliest feelings, and consulted the warmest affections of my heart in all that he has done to me ; and in doing so, he was only giving expression to the high and noljle character which the Dukes of Richmond have always held in the country. ON DRYIISrG GRAIN" ARTIFICIALLY, With the recurrence of each wet harvest, such as that of this year, tliere are repeated calls for some practical method of drying grain. Jvevertheless, no process for the purpose seems to be of that general adoption which is the stamp of success. It is generally known that most organic bodies, if once well dried, can be kept in that state for an almost indefinite period. The moisture being once driven off, it no longer acts as a me- chanical furtherer of decomposition by keeping the pores open, and cheraieally by, according to Berzelius, the hydrogen exerting its affinity for the nitrogen, carbon, and the other elements. There are well ascertained instances of grain in large quantities being kept even for centuries in a dry state, and of its retaining, not merely its germinating, but also all its edible, qualities. As might be expected on reflection, the ab- solute weight of grain is diminished by the amount of moisture evaporated ; its specific gravity being, on the other hand, necessarily increased. On being made up into bread, however, this weight is recovered, as the dough re-absorbs a large pro- portion of v^ater while being kneaded up. Grain is a highly hygrosophic substance, having a strong tendency to equilibrate the moisture it contains with that of the surrounding atmo- sphere. Grain, in fact, naturaUy contains sufficient moisture to predispose it to fermentation. On the other hand, the pro- cess of drying not merely gets rid of this inherent moisture, but apparently so hardens the external epidermis that it acts as a casing for the inside. As regards storing properties, dried grain is thus even more favourably circumstanced than seasoned wood. Besides these advantages, a good process of drying would cause the destruction of the germs of the numerous animal and vegetalile parasites peculiar to wheat, and the development of which is found to follow step by step the advancing stages of fermentation. This insect life requires for its development the high temperature produced by fermentation ; and the wheat-liy, the weevil, and other insects cannot multiply in the low temperature of dried grain. These general observations apply to the grain resulting from an ordinary harvest, but they hear with tenfold forc^e on a w et crop, or wheat wetted in the transit on board ship. Thousands upon thousands of bushels of wheat are stated to be thus annually damaged and s])oiled on the American lakes and canals. As it is impossible to store wet grain, and as tolerably dry grain has a continual tendency to re-absorb moisture, the plans for storing it all resolve themselves, more or less directly, into plans for" drying and keeping grain in a state of dryness. It generally begins to ferment and decompose from the centre of a heap, the out- side being kept dry by the continual renewal of the air. Thus, the plan adopted in many foreign military granaries is to shake up and move about the grain with shovels. More economically, the same process is carried out by constructing the store-house in a peculiar way, by which, after the mass of grain has been lifted up, it is allowed to fall by gravity, or by means of mechanical stirrers. The late Mr. Bodmer, when at Manchester years ago, brought forward a plan of the latter kind, which is described in the Journal of the tiociefy of Arts for 18-tG (p. 41). Its leading idea con- sists in the use of an endless scoop, which can be traversed through tlie grain. Blany other means have been brought forward at different times as substitutes tor the employment of hand labour to stir up the grain; amongst these are plans for storing the grain in hollow columns, or in hoppers placed one above the other on revolving cylinders — all, in fact, for putting the grain in motion against the air by some more eco- nomical means than hand labour. An old idea, often revived, is to inject a blast of cold air amongst the grain, mechanically — the reverse process to a bodily stirring up of the grain. The most ancient mode of storing grain in southern climates con- sists in placing it in peculiar subterranean holes, termed silos in French and Spanish. Being under ground, the grain is kept a low and unvarying temperature throughout the jear, and beyond the reach of tlie attacks of insects. If stored in a fair state of dryness and freedom from the eggs of insects, this immemorial plan is found to keep the grain sound for ages. Amongst the chemical means brought forward in France for destroying insect life in grain may be mentioned the injection of chlorine and sulphurous acid gases (1808) ; and also (1845) carbonic acid gas. In 1852 chlorine gas was again proposed, and a patent taken out for the notion (June 18). These chemical fumigations, besides being ex- pensive and difficult to apply, must often injure the grain and att'ect the taste of the flour and bread from it. "What may be termed the mechanical means are evidently all founded on the broad principle of drying, and of keeping the grain dry, by blowing away the moist air as much as pos- sible. This renewing of the air is also in a great measure ob- tained in tlie common methods of storing the grain in separate sacks kept apart from each other, oi: by laying it in thin layers THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 523 with furrows — both plans evidently taking up a large amount of room. Returning to the numerous processes tried at dif- ferent times for drying grain artilicially, we fmd that one great difficulty must consist in the fact that a single grain is a had conductor of heat, and that this non-conductibility is neces- sarily increased in a mass by the layers of air between the grains. Heat directly applied to a heap of grain might de- stroy its germinating properties, land even char the grain in immediate contact, without driving oif the moisture or de- stroying the insect-life of the grains further off. It would appear from some experiments in France that the germinating properties of grain are destroyed at about 70 deg. Centigrade. A few degrees within this amount insect-life is destroyed ; and the heat can be carried up to within 100 deg. Centigrade, or boiling point, without injuring its bread-making quahties. Another difliculty to be met is tire getting rid of the moisture which exudes, and to an amount varying with the nature of the grain, as with hard and soft wood. As the heat is in- creased, the grains sweat in proportion, the air gets saturated to the degree proper to its temperature, and it has to be driven off, and the grain cooled down. An artificial drying apparatus of general applicability must thus satisfy the conditions of keeping the temperature at least within boiling point ; of equally heatiug the whole mass ; and of getting rid of the steam evolved from the grain itself. The IVench, with their great military and naval storehouses, seem also to have given the most attention to means for artificially drying grain. Of late years some very ingenious plans for this purpose have also been brought forward by the Americans. A great number of different machines and processes have been at least patented in this country, where it is but seldom that grain can be dried, as in southern climates, in thin furrowed layers under the rays of the sun. A general view of all these plans shows that they all come under the heads of (1), getting rid of great moisture by centrifugal force ; (2), applying a very high temperature by the use of stoves or kilns; (3), employing the desiccating action of — (a), heated air ; (b), steam, or superheated steam ; or of {('), air dried by exhausting it through either lime or chloride of lime, all in direct contact with the grain ; (4), em- ploying the drying action of a metallic surface heated by means of hot air, or steam, or superheated steam, or gas, or hot water. — 1. The centrifugal or hydro-extractor plan is rather a mode for getting rid of the water from grain that has been washed than a means of absolutely drying it. It can evidently only get rid of the surface water. Large fortunes, we may here state, have been made in England by people who have bought up cheap and dirty Egyptian grain, and, after washing and drying it, have sold it at a rate more than cover- ing their expenses. The stove, kiln, or retort process for dry- ing grain is embodied in comparatively fevv English patents. A recent modification of this mode is that of M. Dutarbe (No. 1,589, A.D. 1861) who takes four cylinders, furnished with metallic webs fixed at one end in a large platform of wood, which he causes to revolve in a brickwork drying chamber with a chimney for the escape of the vapour. Employing a kiln for this purpose involves much preliminary expense, and requires much room ; while, if the grain be not well stirred up, it is unequally heated. A mode tried some years ago in France vAas to heat the grain in sacks placed in a kiln, and afterwards emptied out in a heap. The grain thus got too much heated at the outside, and too little at the centre. The main difficulty in using a kiln seems to be that of keeping the heat given out from a furnace at a determinate point. In such processes as malting grain a kiln is generally employed ; but the re- quirements here are distinct from those in which grain is to he used for making bread. The third mode into which we have divided the numerous more or less successful attempts at arriving at a practical process for the purpose may itself be roughly divided under three heads : (a) Wherein the grain itself is moved against the desiccating agent ; (b) in which the desiccating agent is itself in action and injected into the sta- tionary grain ; [e) in which the above two principles are com- bined together. Under the first head come No. 97, a.d. 1853 ; No. 614, A.D. 1856 ; No. 3,845, a.d. 1857 ; No. 2,364, a.d. 1858. They have not been successful, and the use of heated air for the purpose is now very properly combined with a movement of the grain itself, as under the third head. In- jecting the fluid desiccatiag agent, whether air, steam, or dried air, into the stationary grain, is embodied in patents Nos. 11,947 (1847) ; 1,489 and 1,882, a.d. 1S55 ; No. 2,632, A.D. 1857 ; No. 1,530, a.d. 1858 ; and No. 2,179, A.D. 1860. The injection of steam has been patented in No. 1,436, A.D. 1861, and carbonic acid gas with heated air in No. 1,288, a.d. 1855. The injection of carbonic acid, sulphurous acid, or similar gases into grain, is rather a mode for killing the parasitic insects than a preservative measure. The use of steam is in so far absurd as, if at such a pressure as to be able to force itself through the grain, it would cook the gluten ; while, at a low pressure, it would get condensed, leaving the grain in a worse state than before. A recent patent (No. 2,127, a.d. 1865) by Mr. Bulkley, is an in- stance of the impossible, it seems to us, direct application of steam to drying grain. There is no record of its ever having been tried in France. The use of air dried by chemical sub- stances is only limited in its action ; besides being probably rather expensive to carry out. Bringing heated air into direct contact with grain has to encounter the difficulty that, its pres- sure being very slightly raised at a temperature of 212Fah.,it could not be forced into a heap by its own pressure. Amongst the recent plans in which the grain is kept almost stationary is that of M. J. Perrigault (No. 2,789, a.d. 1861), who places the grain to be dried in a case with shelves of perforated plate. At the top is a hopper, and below a shoot. A fan, placed at the upper part, exhausts the hot air into the casing from a stove. In 1863 Mr. Weems patented (No. 2,602) some im- provement in liis plan of 1855 (No. 1,489), in which the grain was laid in layers upon a perforated floor, heated air being forced through the perforations and thence through the grain. Mr. Creasy (No. 3,276 a.d. 1865) employs two fans, one to inject and the other to exhaust heated air through grain placed within a casing formed with perforated partitions. — The Engineer. PULPED ROOTS FOR STOCK.— On the value of the process for a grazing farm with but a small quantity of plough- laud, Mr. Corner, of Woodlands, Holford, Bridgewater, thus speaks : " My plan is, first commencing with the grazing beasts, to cut about an equal quantity of hay and straw, and mix with a sufficient quantity of roots (mostly mangel) to well moisten the chaff' ; and as the beasts advance in condition I lessen the straw and increase the hay, and in tlieir further progress I mix — in addition to all hay, chaff, and roots — from 6 to 101b. per day to each bullock of barley and bean-meal, according to its size — and I have them large sometimes ; I sold last week for the London market a lot of Devon oxen, of very prime quality, averaging in weight upwards of 100 stone imperial each. For my horses, cows, yearlings, and oxen — the latter to be kept in a thriving condition, and turned to grass, and kept through the summer for Christmas, 1860 — I cut nearly aU straw with a very small quantity of hay, and this the offal of the nek. These also have as many piilped roots as wiU moisten the chaff, except the horses, and to them I give, along with bruised oats, just enough roots to keep their bowels in a proper condition. To the two or three-year-old beasts I give them some long straw and a part chaff, and the offal (if any) of the food of the above lots of stock. My farm is but a small one — under 200 acres. My predecessor always mowed nearly all the pastures for hay, which is about half the farm, and with this scarcely ever grazed any beasts, and kept but very few sheep. Since my occupation I scarcely ever exceed ten acres of meadow vrA\i one field of seeds for hay. I keep from 250 to 300 large-size Leicester sheep, and graze from 20 to 25 large-size beasts a-year, with other breeding stock in proportion. I consider the pulping of roots is better for fat- ting pigs than anything else. My plan is to have a large two- hogshead vat as near the pulping machine as possible, so as to fill it with a malt-shovel as it comes from the machine ; as the same time I keep a lad sprinkling meal (either barley or Indian corn) with the roots, and this is all done in 15 or 20 minutes ; it is then ready for use to be carried to the pigs in the stalls alongside the fatting beasts. I never could fat a pig with profit until I used pulped roots." 524 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. AGRICULTURAL MATTERS IN SUFFOLK. At the auiiual diuner of the Laveuhain Eamiers' Club Mr. BiDDELL remarked : No persou could dispute that there was now a rock a-head, and, although it had proved fatal to many Governments, he hoped the present Administration would not turn from it, but face it. He hoped they would not forget the m;dt-tax, and not aggravate the pressure which this harvest was exercising upon the working classes by taxing the barley from whence should come their beer, though very often it did not come from it. Major Parker, as to the malt-tax, hoped that the period was not far distant when that question woiild receive a solution more satisfoctory than it had hitherto done. With the varied qualities of barley, though prices of the better kinds were very remunerative, it was the inferior qualities that sorely pressed upon those who had not had the good fortune to harvest their crops in so good a condition as others. As to the cattle-plague, noticing its ravages, ho said it might now be considered to have disappeared. Mr. E. Greene said if he took the liberty of speaking upon the subject of practical agriculture, he hoped they would consider he had some right to do so when he told them that he was himself a farmer of 600 acres of land. In the present day it required the utmost attention, the greatest vigilance, and the wisest possible way of laying out their capital, to make farming remunerative. It was quite true that they were at pre- sent receiving very remunerative prices ; and he might say that once iu every seven or eight years there was a turn of that kind that helped one over a bad year. It was impossible to say what the price might be a few weeks hence, and it would not do to farm upon the basis of liigh prices. How then were moderate prices to be met ? First he would say, " Grow no grass." There was nothing so expensive as growing grass ou their arable land. They must make up for any deficiency in manure, and it would pay to use a portion of an artificial fertilizer in order that they might grow a full and proper crop, because there was very little more expense in harvesting five quarters of wheat per acre than three or four. He was quite aware that steam cultivation was not practicable in small fields, and from ^vllat he had seen in that neighbourhood he thought the fields \vere too small. He had seen both systems of cultivat- ing the soU by steam. The one employing two engines was, he thought, the best ; but of course the objection to it was the large outlay of capital it involved ; but stiU he was of opinion that that was the principle for heavy land. He would tell them what he was aljle to do witii his engine, adopting the system of ropes and porters. This year, treacherous a season as they had had, he had been able to cultivate and plough more than 100 acres of land, which he could not have done with horses. Having the power to do it quickly he did it when the weather was dry. Calculating the interest upon capital, the wear and tear, and all the expense, he could cultivate cheaper by steam than he could by horses, and he had the advantage of being able to do it when other work was going on. There need be no fear that ordinary labourers were unable to do it. If he gave the order to his men to cultivate 40 acres of land, and went out for three or four days, when he returned he found it was done, as they did 10 acres a-day. The way to do it was to put the work out to the men. They had heard a great deal of talk about the labouring man, but he contended that labour was a marketable article. They had got into a very different state of things to that which existed wheu the population was overburdened. The demand was now for labourers, and not for labour, and the man who had labour to sell could gene- rally find a market for it. But he believed there was one thing of more importance than any other to the labouring man, and that was a proper cottage to live in. He said it was a burning shame that such wretched dwellings as they had in this county should be permitted to continue. He .also said a fanner must liave a liorse to ride to market or a mare to drive, and now and then he would breed from lier, and for tliis purpose they would use any brute of a horse that came round, with neitlier action nor family to recommend him, and they availed themselves oi lum just because he passed their gate. He wanted them to remember that a good horse eats no more corn than a bad one. A good stable of horses ought to cost them no money — indeed a farmer who hunted ought to make a hun- dred pounds a-year of his horses ; and he might tell them that he had himself in his younger days had many a stable of liorses that never cost him 2d. Mr. Biddell had touched upon the subject of reform. He did not agree with those men who induced the working man to think that some great boon was to come to him in the possession of the franchise, and that when the Reform Bill is passed he need work no more (Hear, hear) . They might depend upon it, there was no royal road to success in anything. Without industry, perseverance, and uprightness of character it was impossiljle to succeed. No man desired more heartily than himself to see it settled, and the electoral franchise enlarged if need be ; but let it be done on constitutional principles. It was his belief that agriculture would rise out of its difficulties, but depend upon it it could only be done by a thorough cultivation of the soil. They could not be expected to farm against losses, but they all knew that a weU-drained and deeply-cultivated field would stand against bad seasons better than one that was not so well culti- vated. Mr. MuMFORD said he supposed Mr. Greene's allusion was to twitch or spear grass. He did not see any proljability of getting rid of that, because good cultivation would not pay without close cropping, and they never could get time to eradicate this grass. It was, however, very certain that it never could be got out of the soil without some powerful imple- ment, and they must also have a powerful machine to draw it. As to their fields being too small for llie use of the steam- cultivator, it might be done by a little cuntrivauce, in the same way as Mr. Wright had recently been euabled to drain several fields by steam power without removing the engine. He was certain they would be in a better position to grow corn in competition with the foreigner if they could get the advantage of this implement. He had suggested to those who supplied them with steam-power for thrashing that they should procure the apparatus and let it out iu the same way, but they seemed to think it was a speculation that would not answer their pur- pose. That might be a very good reason for their declining to do it, but it was no reason why the farmers should not en- deavour to apply steam-power to the cultivation of their farms ; and he thought if five or sLx men living in a neighbourhood would combine together they might purchase the apparatus without any ruinous expense. He believed the time would come when steam-ploughing would be as general as steam- thrashing. Mr. Greene, as to spear grass, knew of no man iu the county who was a better farmer than Mr. Kersey Cooper, and he would venture to forfeit £20 if on the wliole of Mr. Cooper's occupation of 800 acres a tumbril-full of spear grass could be found. He believed it might be eradicated by steam culti- vation. Major Parker said the subject had been uppermost in the minds of the Club for years past ; whereupon Mr. Greene said. Then they had talked about it long enough, and now he would advise them to act. Mr. R. Hawkins referred to the course taken by the Earl of Leicester for improving the cottages upon liis estate in Norfolk. His Lordship stated at a recent meeting at Docking that 900 men were required to cultivate the land under his tenantry, but he had dwellings for only 400 — well-built and excellent cottages — the remaining 500 being men who could not be depended upon, who were here to-day and gone to- morrow, and it was difficult to provide accommodation for them. His Lordship had established dwellings on a great part of his estate at a cost of about £110 each, the tenant I)aying the cartage. Why they had not better house accommoda- tion for the poor was that 50 years ago the landlords were glad to get the poor out of their parishes, and, accommodation being restricted, they went where they could. In some cases small plots of ground had b(!en built upon by speculators, but the rents demanded had converted tliem into pest-houses THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 625 rather thau cottages, there being in many cases a wliole family living in one room. He was glad to see Lord Leicester had taken tlie matter up, and, if other landlords would buUd upon the same system, tenants would gladly pay £5 per cent, upon the outlay, provided they were allowed to chose the occu- pants of the cottages. Mr. J. Gardiner spoke at considerable length in favour of the repeal of the malt-tas. With regard to the argument that the money could not be spared, he said it was not for the advocates of malt-tax repeal to point out the means of making up the deficiency iu the revenue, but he suggested that a tax of 2d. a gallon on beer would bring in an amount equal to the malt-tax. He also alluded to the (juestion of steam-ploughing, and observed that Mr. Greene was at present but a young hand, and he should not be surprised if in the course of a year or two the expenses of wear and tear and repairs were found to be so heavy that he would be a good deal less sanguine upon the subject of cultivating by steam. He (Mr. Gardiner) had not yet seen the system of steam-cultivation that could be economically applied to the tillage of the soil. BRAXY IN SHEER As we have recently had various letters of inquiries re- garding braxy, or the sickness in sheep, instead of replying to these individuals, we devote the following article to a short notice of the disease. Braxy, from brae or hroc, meaning a sickness or distemper, is sometimes loosely applied to any rapidly fatal ailment of sheep. Thus geuerically used, it in- cludes many various disorders, such as inflammation of the bowels, diarrhrea and dysentery. But, in a more limited and correct sense, the term braxy is applied to a congestive febrile disorder, analogous to blackleg, anthrax, or splenic apoplexy in cattle. It is essentially a blood disorder, consisting, like these analogues amongst cattle, in impaired circulation, in congestion, and in outpourings of the serous and colouring portions of the blood. As iu quarter-evil, the congestions and subsequent extravasation of blood are sometimes located about the head and neck, or the back and loins, or are mainly confined to the internal organs : hence in great part arise the variety iu the symptoms, and the confusion regarding the nature of the complaint. Causes. — The causes of braxy are somewhat numerous and diversified ; but all appear to act prejudicially by producing stagnation of the circulation, over-distension and rupture of the capUlary blood-vessels, with consequent escape of their contents. Amongst upland flocks, cold wet weather and ex- posed pasturages are notorious for bringing on braxy. It pre- vails especially in hard winters. The surface of the body is chiUed ; secretion is impaired ; blood imperfectly purified thus accumulates internally, and is outjioured within the bowels or chest. In like manner, the old-fashioned practice of al- lowing sheep to gorge themselves with as many roots as they can devour, lowers the animal temperature and vitality', and is apt to induce braxy, especially when such a wasteful amount of cold watery food is given iu winter weather and to weakly sheep. The eating of dry, hard, indigestible food, the scarcity of water, or other such causes, developes constipation, which is very prone, especially in a weakened frame, to interfere with the elaboration of healthy blood and with its regular circulation. Lambs, perhaps thriving well enough throughout the summer, frequently suifer as autumn advances, from the grass becoming deficient in nutriment ; their progress is often further checked by their transfer to roots or other winter food, and in this weakened condition cold, constipation, or an attack of scouring seriously disturbs the circulation, and gives rise to stagnation. Lowland flocks sometimes suffer from braxy when food is most abundant, and the sheep are being forced with rick feeding stufi's. Blood, probably imperfectly elaborated, is thus manufactured more rapidly than is necessary for the requirements of the system ; and if the animal has been growing rapidly, or its structures are otherwise weakened by any previous check to thriving, impaired circulation is apt to lead to fatal extravasation. It is popularly beheved that the moon has much influence in the development of braxy. In an excellent article on the subject in " Our Do- mestic Animals in Health and Disease," Professor Ganigee thus rationally explains this lunar influence : " The shepherd well knows that, with a fuU moon, he always has a lot of trouble with the sheep. They rove about and stray ; and they do not, as on dark nights, lie down, rest, rimiinate, and digest the food they have collected during the day : the reverse hap- pens ; tor with greed peculiar to it the sheep gorges itself to repletion, and when morning arrives is found struck down by the most fatal braxy" (p. 394). Although often suddenly seizing many individuals of the same flock, the disease is not contagious, neither does it appear to be producible by inocula- tiou. The flesh of sheep sull'ering from and even dying from braxy is eaten with perfect impimity ; indeed, " braxy hams" are much prized for their tenderness. Symptoms. — The animal is duU and languid, but very feverish ; the eye is bloodshot ; the mouth hot ; the pulse full and strong, afterwards becoming oppressed and indistinct ; the breathing hurried and laboured ; the bowels constipated ; the urine scanty and high coloured ; the fleece dry and clapped ; the gait unsteady, as if the limbs were partially paralysed. In a later stage the animal lies panting and pulseless, a frothy bloody discharge issuing from the mouth and nostrils. Occa- sionally there is abdominal pain, tympanitis, and symptoms of colic. Invariably the blood, if drawn, is found to be dark coloured and thick, being aptly likened to tar. Sometimes the stagnation and extravasation, in wliich, as already stated, the disease consists, is located, as in many cases of quarter-evU in young cattle, in the loins and extremities. In such cases, tenderness and a crackling swelling are discoverable along the back and sides, and the sheep do not die so rapidly as when the internal organs are more particularly implicated. A sheep apparently in good health is seized and dies sometimes within three or four hours ; more frequently he lives for ten or twelve hours, and if he survives twenty -four hours there is reasonable hope of recovery. The carcase passes very rapidly into a state of puti'efaction, speediiy emitting foetid gases. The blood is dark coloured, thick, and forms only very slowly a soft friable clot. The skin is dark coloured, and its bloodvessels are turgid with black blood ; the subcutaneous cellular tissue is usually filled with gas and a little serum. The stomachs are distended with gas, and the third stomach in particular contains dry, hard, imper- fectly digested food. The stomachs, and still more notably the bowels, are congested, without and within, their bloodves- sels standing out distinctly injected with purple blood ; under- neath and within the mucous membrane of the intestines are patches of extravasation sometimes of a few inches in extent, sometimes covering several feet of the gut, and exactly like the extravasations occurring in inflammation of the bowels amongst heavy horses. The liver and spleen are congested ; the lungs are likewise discoloured aud spotted with stag- nated blood, and even the heart itself is similarly mottled. Except in cases that have survived for several days, there is no appearance whatever of inflammation ; neither in the bowels nor elsewhere are there any traces of exudation of lymph. Treatment. — So sudden is the onset, aud so rapid the pro- gress of braxy, that there is seldom time for treatment. Be- fore there is the suspicion of anything amiss, the sheep is often dead, or dying. But even where the earliest symptoms are detected, treatment is of little avail, probably because the blood is already iu a hopelessly faulty state. Even under- favourable circumstances as to the early detection and prompt treatment of the disorder fuUy five-sixths of the sheep affected die. If the pulse can be felt, and the animal is still able to stand, a few ounces of blood should be drawn from the vessels of the tail, the ears, or perhaps most conveniently from the vein of the face. Often, however, the blood is so thick and inspissated that it will not flow. Wlien the animal is pulse- less, prostrate, or unconscious, the over-loaded vessels have been already relieved by internal bleeding, and any further abstraction only hastens a fatal termination. The torpid bowels must, if possible, be acted on. A few ounces of Glau- ber's, Epsom, or common salt, or a mixture of any two of them 626 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. should he given iu water ; or two or three ounces of castor-oil substituted ; whilst with either the salts or oil should be ad- ministered an ounce of Mindererus spirit, which will help to act ou the skin aud kidneys, and perhaps also exercise a solvent action on the blood. The Mindererus spirit in half- ounce doses may be repeated every two hours, and given in water \rith ten grains of the sulphite of soda. If the animal is exhausted and dull, a little warm ale, spirits and water, or small doses of liquor or of carbonate of ammonia, may prove serviceable. The sheep, if possible, should be made to move about every two or three liours, and ought to be placed in a comfortable shed or box. Prevention is more important and fortunately more attainable than cure. The flock should always be kept thriving steadily. Any check to progress is not only a wasteful loss of time, but likewise affords great liability to braxy, aud, indeed, to many other diseases. During weaning, during the autumn months, when the grass is less nutritive, and whilst changes are being made in the food of the sheep, especial care is required to keep the animals thriving ; and at all such times a little cake or other such concentrated food is a most valuable sustainer of health. On the pastures and in the turnip-folds, rock salt should be supplied in small covered troughs. When a few cases of braxy have occurred in a flock, a careful examination should be made of the feeding and general management, any shortcomings and errors avoided, liberal supplies of roots con- siderably limited, dry food used more freely, a little cake (if possible) allowed, aud a mess of bran, brewers' grains, or other such food given twice or three times a week with a little salt, nitre aud sulphite of soda mixed with it, the nitre and sulphite of soda being iu the proportion of a scruple each to every sheep. — iVo?-/A British Agriculturist . MANUAL LABOUR AND ITS RELATIONS TO AGRICULTURE. On Tuesday, Nov. 6, Mr. Charles Belcher, of Little Cox- well, delivered a lecture at the Faringdon Agricultural Library, on the above subject. The chair was occupied by Mr. G. 1\ Crowdy. Mr. Belchek said: Manual labour in relation to agriculture is the subject we have met to discuss to- day. It is one that is closely connected with the business of every farmer — whether his occupation be confined to a few acres or extended to many thousands ; therefore I hope we shall all dispel ideas of a formal lecture on tliis occasion, and determine to off'er freely to this meeting the opinions we have formed, as the result of our thought, oljscrvation, and experi- ence, on the matter in question. It has fallen to my lot to begin ; and I purpose, in the few brief remarks that I shall make, to refer to the past, the present, and tlie future ; and I think it will not be out of place if I add a few words on the much-debated subject of hiring and hiring-fairs. The Past : I am old enough to remember the times gone by, when agri- cultural labourers were greatly in excess of the demand for them — when the words, " surplus population" were frequently heard — when plaDs for emigration were made, to draw to other couutries the strong and sturdy labourers that could not ob- tain employment on their native soil — times when spade hus- bandry was recommended, and allotment gardens were planned and set on foot, for the purpose of employing the strength, the bone and sinew of the men who were frequently seen in the market places of the towns, and in the streets and lanes of our villages, " standing all the day idle" because " no man had hired them." Those were days when arrangements were made in parishes for some of the men who had no regular work to go from farm to farm, to be paid at a low price, and put to any work the farmers thought proper, that the parish rates might be kept down, and something had in return for the mainte- nance the law compelled us to give. Men at that time were sent in gangs, and told to work on the roads where there was no one to superintend tliem, and where their time was frequently worse than wasted. Their weekly pay was then gradually doled out to them, and received without thanks or gratitude. Those were times when a man received at the end of a week's work scarcely enough to keep body and soul together ; and the labourers' children had few schools to go to, but spent their time in petty pilfering and pulling the hedges for fire- wood; their clothing, too, consisted chiefly of the left- oft garments of their richer neighbours, regardless of mate- rial, colour, shape, or fitness. Picturesque, animated scare- crows they were, but at the same time objects of pity to all who had hearts that could be pained at the signs of want and misery. In tliose days an unmarried man usually received lower pay than one who had a wife ; and the man who had a large family could go on a Saturday night to the overseer, make a report of the number of his children, aud demand of the parish officers a certain sum per head, to add to his wages and make the total amount equal to vvliat the district magis- trates considered enough tu keep them all above starving point, i hey were hmes when a horse-power thrashing machine was looked on by the labouring man as a formidable rival in the labour market, and their dislike to machinery at last grew so strong that they banded themselves together, committed acts of violence, smashed some of the thrashing machines to atoms, and in many places lighted up the flames of the incendiary in the stack-yards of their employers. Those were times when agriculture had not advanced so far as to show that heatlis and commons could be profitably cultivated by a judicious applica- tion of labour ; or if it was known to the few, still there were impediments in the way, such as the tithes, the game, and the teuaut-at-will system ; there were also many other obstacles in the path of improvement, but time will not allow us to par- ticularize them ; enough for the purpose to say those days are gone, and with that thought we may couple the hope that " we may never see tlieir like again." The Present : As a contrast to the past, we know that in the present time no honest, steady man, who is able and willing to work, need be long without employment. Year after year there is an increasing demand for farm labourers ; in fact, in nearly every department of labour the general remark is. More work-people are needed. I do not say that in the dead time of winter, men who prefer chance piece-work to steady regular employment do not some- times find ditficulty in obtaining a new contract ; but the con- trary is generally the case. I suppose that in no time past was the expenditure for manual labour in connection with agri- culture so great as now ; and although much has been said and written about the low rate at which farm labourers are paid, I believe it might with truth be asserted that farmers, after deducting rent and taxes, give their work-people a greater share of the net returns of their business than manufacturers, or any other employers of labour. As I remarked just now, there is an increasing demand for labourers : the clearing of woods and forests, the removal of hedge-rows, reclamation of heaths and commons, the culture of land that formerly was considered worthless, extensive works of drainage and irriga- tion, additional care in the cultivation of green crops, all com- bine to increase the demand for labourers, while at the same time many are drawn away to employment elsewhere. In the cities and towns building is rapidly progressing — works for sewage are being carried on — roads are improved — manufactories are extended and multiplied — the railways absorb thousands and thousands of work-people — mining operations are pushed forward — commerce increases — ships are multiplied — the tide of emigration grows stronger and stronger, and the true working man is now in a far diiferent position to that he formerly occupied ; for now he may, from many would-be masters, select the one that suits his inclina- tion, instead of, as formerly, anxiously wait to be selected from the many seeking work to do. All this is experienced at the same time that machinery of all kinds to economise labour is iu free use. Let me ask in what state would agriculture now be, without the steam thrashing machines— without the horse- rakes, the horsc-hoc's, the scarifiers, aiul root -pulpcrs, the cliaff- cutters ? In what state would agriculture ho, without the grass-mowing machines, and without the reaping-machines? And yet, with all^these means and appliances in operation, what THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 527 was the true state of many districts during the recent hay- time and liarvest ? Wl}y, grass on thousands of acres was standing uncut in the fields long after it might have been safe under the thatch, had it not been for the lack of labourers. Thousand of acres of barley and other grain lay rotting and spoiling on the land long after it miglit have been in the bams, if labourers enough could have been engaged to gather it together. I will mention an instance — I doubt not all of you could tell of somewhat similar cases. I have a friend — a Hampslure farmer — a liberal paymaster ; he told me that last year he had one thirty-acre piece of oats fit to cut, and he could only spare one man for the work ; that one man mowed sixteen acres before he could have another to help him. The con- sequence was, tlmt the estimated loss of corn that fell out on the land and was wasted was one quarter per acre — probably in value equal to the rent of that piece. Let me ask another question ; your answer will perhaps prove the correctness of much that I have stated. Is there a farmer in tliis room who would not gladly have employed more labourers and paid them well during part of the present year, if he could have obtained them ? Further — is tliere a farmer in this room who was not ; obliged to leave undone, or postponed, some work on his farm simply because he could not, at the proper time, obtain a sufficient number of " hands" to do it ? The Future : What remedy can be brought to bear ; what means can be adopted to enable us to do more farm work at the proper time, and thus prevent loss, waste, and disappointment ! My opmion is summed up in a few words : " The more extensive use of machinery ;" and should the case be met in that way, what effect wUl he produced ? I answer, to the country generally, a saving of much that at present is wasted in the field. If wo by the aid of machinery increase the quantity of grain and hay secured in good condition, it will show itself again in increased supplies of beef, bacon, and mutton ; common material things though they be, they are not altogether unpalatable to Eng- lishmen ; and if our supplies of these good things can be in- creased, who wiU be benefited ? All, but more particularly agricultural labourers, and tliose W'ho at present get but a limited and meagre supply. I once heard of a gentleman of this neighbourhood who told the members of a benefit club, just before they commenced their annual dinner, that it was fortunate that rich men could not eat more than poor ones ; for if their powers of consumption were not limited, they would eat up all, and there would be none left for poor men. I do not agree with him, in thinking that the upper classes would if they could prove themselves to be like Egyptian locusts ; but I repeat my opinion that a more extensive use of ma- chinery win be more beneficial to the so-called lower classes, than to those who at present have abundauce and to spare. Again, the labour market, like all other markets, is regulated by supply and demand — a brisk demand, coupled with a small supply, must result in a higher price, and so it has been proved; all manual labour costs more than it did formerly. Will not a good result also show itself in the following way ? — that in the future, a good, steady, sober, skUfnl labourer, will be more likely to have a snitable and comfortable habitation provided and offered to him, near to his work, that his home comforts may help to make him more inclined to retain a good situa- tion ? and if so, cottage improvement must go on as a work of necessity. I trust that the future time wiU show to us, not only here and there decent habitations springing up, the work of benevolent and philanthropic individuals, for if we depend alone on such good people for cottage improvement, the work wiU progress at a comparatively slow and dragging pace ; but let the title once arrive when a labourer can afford to reject a situation, unless a suitable place of abode can be obtained near to his work (not as a gift, but to be rented by himself), then, and not till theu, will the miserable hovels we frequently see be swept away, and decent houses erected in their stead. An extension of the use of machinery has, I believe, always been sooner or later coupled with an increased demand for labourers, and a proportionate advance in the workmen's earn- ings. We cannot enforce thrift and providence on those who have the power of laying by for a rainy day, but we can re- commend temperance and carefulness ; and I trust th:it, in the future, drunkenness and its consequence, pauperism, wiU de- cline ; that young working men will provide for sickness and old age ; tliat, when affliction comes on them, they will not, as at present, be so wiUing to lean on the relieving officer and the parish for support, but, instead, will be able to turn on their own savings which they collected, " Not for to liide them in a bank, Nor for a train attendant, But for the glorious privilege Of being independent." And now, if I shall not be trespassing too much on your time, I will add a few words on hiring and hiriug-fairs. I have always considered the system of hiring, or yearly-work con- tracts, to be good, both for employers and employed, more par- ticularly so in the case of young immarried servants, for by it is prevented the roving and rambling about from place to place for work. It prevents the uncertainty of the amount of the weekly pay ; and surely a regidar moderate sum every week is better than occasionally more, or frequently less ; and I think if you test the two systems by the results, you will generally find tliat the hired servant is more steady, careful, and orderly than the wanderer. The hired servant has respect- able lodgings to which he retires at night, whUe the other too often spends his time and his money in those vile, debasing places, the beershops ! And when Michaelmas comes, the hired servant receives a few pounds as wages, when tlie wan- derer has often empty pockets and a damaged character. Hiring Fairs : Hiring-fairs have been by many persons con- demned in the strongest manner as productive of nearly aU the evils that press on the labouring classes ; and they almost say that no good can possibly result from these annual gatherings. I do not liold such an opinion ; and I have never heard of any proposal likely to work well, and effect the true intent and meaning of a hiring fair. I think that a better plan should be laid down, before we break up that at present in use. I am aware that much evil exists in connection with these fairs ; but I woidd ask. Are there any large gatherings of people, whether the crowds consist of the upper, middle, or lower classes, where unmixed good is found ? Registration aud advertise- ments will not answer instead of hiring-fairs. There must be personal interviews between masters and thftse they wish to engage for their service. Imagine a case. You advertise for a carter or shepherd. Perchance, five or six persons seeking situations appear at your house on the stated day for applica- tion. They have walked, some four, some five, some six miles. Yon engage one ; aud all the others must walk home again, weary with travelling, and disappointed with the loss of time, perhaps to repeat a similar round, again and again. My opinion is, that a weU-conducted hiring-fair alfords the only machinery that can possibly work well. I have been informed that at Cirencester, on the fair day, the Corn Exchange is open for all female servants seeking employment, aud all persons wishing to engage servants. A small charge is made for ad- mission ; and there is none of that crowding and incon- venience, that noise and uproar that is experienced where the market-place is the only place of meeting, and where bawling ballad-singers and shouting showmen make it almost impossible to hear anything but their hideous noises. At some hiring fairs — Wootten JSasset, for instance — a committee is formed, and the members meet in the town-hall, or some other con- venient place ; and there, with book and printed forms, they make an entry of every hiring. These records can at any future time lie referred to, by master or servant, should any misunderstanding of the terms take place. Could not similar plans be adopted here with advantage, in connection with our Agricultural Library P I regret that our worthy honorary secretary is unavoidably absent to-day ; for I believe his present opinion is against the fairs. If he were here we should have the benefit of his views in lull ; and if I am in the wrong, I might be put right by his arguments on the other side. Some persons wind up their ob- jections to hiring-fairs by saying they are like slave markets. I see no similitude, except in the numlicrs ; for with us the contract is entered into voluntarily by both parties, but in the c;use of tlie poor slave, he is not allowed to say Yea or Nay to any plan of work his purchaser might propose. No, the slave was bought and sold in bondage. Fortunately, Eng- lishmen are free ! I come no*v to other points objected to by many, viz. : the noise of the so-caUed music, the songs of the ballad singers, the dancing of the lads and lasses, the shouts and laughter of the children, aud the irregularity that occurs in going to and returning from the fair. But let me ask again, are there any large meetings of the rich or middle classes of society where there is unmixed purity of thought, word, and deed ? Is not poor human nature such that unmixed good is not to be found associated with it ? Doubtless much takes 528 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. place in counesion with hiring fairs that is deplorable, aud also much that might be prevented, if fathers and mothers of the young people who go to fairs would go with them, and not leave their children to go where they please, with whom they please, and return home when they please. Before we attempt to put it down, let us remember that the country fair is at present almost the only place, and affords almost the only time, for agricultural labourers to meet their cluldreu collectively, and their relatives and friends who reside at a distance. The coimtry fair aifords almost the only place where the poor have amusement and recreation, and I would say let us not too hastily rob them of that little. Imagine the case of a poor boy : At a very early age he leaves his home as a hired servant, and goes to a distant farm that is to be the scene of his yearly labours; unlike the sons of men in higher stations, Mid- summer comes to him, but for him it brings no jMidsummer vacation. Christmas time also comes round, but there are no merry Christmas holidays for him. No, from week to week, from the beginning of the year to the end of it, it is work ! work ! wor'i ! As in that beautiful poem, Blomfield's " Farmer's Boy," the master " never lacks a job for Giles to do." Let us not forget the truth in the old saying, " All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy." Until something better is provided, let him once a year unbend, let him enjoy the amusement of the fair, when it is innocent though rough — everything is not bad at a fair. Could not something to amuse, to gratify, aud instruct, be arranged ? Some innocent rustic games be introduced, some interesting lectures, exhibitions, or pleasant readings be given, to draw him from the debasing enjoyments that he too often flies to, partly because there is a lack of better things ? If the rich have their balls and concerts, their picture galleries, their fox-hounds, and field sports, shall the agricultural poor have nothing of the kind ? For my part I should regret to see the abolition of hiring-fairs, unless some well-considered practical plan for the business part could be devised ; and I should regret the putting down of the astonishing shows, the shooting gaUeries, the swings, the throwing at snuff-boxes, the fine-shaped wooden race- horses of the roundabouts, that now cause laughter and merri- ment, unless sometliing different, as harmless as attractive, could be established on their ruius. I shall now leave the subject to be carried on by others. I am sure you wiU give me credit for not having advanced anything tliat is not in accordance with my present convictions ; and I will merely add the wish, that where my opinions do not rest on common sense and reason, the foundation may be cut away, and that I and all of you may quit this room with sound and correct views of " Manual Labour and Hiring Fairs in relation to Agricul- ture." The CnAiRMAN said that, before he asked the meeting to give the customary vote of thanks to Mr. Belcher for his very interesting paper, it would be desirable that there should be some discussion upon the subject. Mr. Belcher, in speaking upon the question of labour, rather suggested that the way to increase the supply was by the introduction of new machinery. He (the Chairman) confessed he could not quite see that ; and he should Like to hear the opinion of others present upon that point. If they were to secure an increased supply of labour by the introduction of fresh machinery, it would necessarily involve an increased amount of capital Ijeing employed for tlie cultivation of the soil ; and, again, it would involve an in- crease of wages. It was, therefore, for practical men to say how far these tilings could be accomplished, in the present state of tlungs, such as the cattle-plague, a bad season, bad times, and occasionally bad prices. The liev. H. Bakxe then said that on the first part of his friend Mr. Belcher's paper he was not competent to oifer any remarks, for he felt that he was not acquainted with the sub- ject so ably discussed ; but in regard to hiring-fairs, he would endeavour to put the matter before them as it presented itself to liim, as the incunil)ent of a large parish. He felt himself, when every hiring-fair came round, that on that one day he got the home-work of the year almost entirely undone. The evil produced amongst his parishioners was of tiie most fearful character ; and the drunkenness in the course of the day, the immorality at eventide, when darkness enveloped the earth, and the immorality from the nieeling together of the two sexes, was of such a cliaraeter that he eoidd not adequately put the matter before them. Mr. Belcher had said they never got an unmixed good ; Ijut the question was, whether they were not putting a direct temptation before those who were young ? Tl*ere was no doubt that many a young person who had been entirely ruined could trace the Ijcginniug of a vicious aud proiligate life to the hiring-fair in that place ; and he was persuaded in his own mind that the plan of hiring servants in this way was very undesirable. He quite felt with Mr. Belcher, that he should like to see the poor have their times of enjoyment ; and he (Mr. Barne) woidd be pleased to see them have their summer-holiday and their Christmas-vaca- tion, as well as others ; but, in the nature of things, that was not possible, he supposed. What he (Mr. Barne) suggested was, that they should have two hiring-days ; and would it not be possible for one day to be set apart for all male labourers to be hired, and make the second the day for hiruig females ? By so doing, they would avoid drawing together a mixed multitude, and thereby get rid of a great temptation. If hiring-fairs were to be continued, it became the duty of employers to see that the parents of those who visited the fairs should accompany their young daughters and sons, and watch over them while at the fail', training them up so fiir as they could in the way that they shoiUd go. He could (juite understand that these fairs were found to be generally convenient as regarded the liiring^of servants ; but what he felt was tills, that the evil connected with them was so enormously great that it more than counterbalanced the advantages which might be otherwise derived. It was on this ground that he de- sired to see the hiring-fairs supplanted by some improved sys- tem. The registration plan might perhaps be carried out more effectually than it had been ; but with all due respect, and with his experience of thirty years in the ministry, he would make his appeal, his respectful appeal, to the employers, that if these liiring fairs were judged by them to be necessary they would use ■ all their efforts to remedy if they could the evil, and that they fl would take care and endeavour to impress upon those whom •;. they hired the desirabihty of retiring at a proper time to their homes, and give them an affectionate warning of the evils into which they were likely to lie led. They should also use their j best efforts to induce the parents to accompany their children, and in that way much evil and wrong doLug ^^ould be avoided. In conclusion he thanked Mr. Belcher for the spirit and intel- ligence he had displayed in the paper that he had prepared and read. Mr. W. C. Isaac remarked that when manufacturers in our lorge towns required an increased number of hands they found no difficulty in getting them ; and he threw out tliis hint, that if agriculturists would pay a rather higher rate of wages, and also see that their labourers were provided witli coiufortable dwellings, they would draw back into the country those who were now attracted to the towns in search of employment. Mr. Humphrey felt with regard to hiring feirs that they gave the labourers an opportunity of asking each other what sort of places they were going to, and he did not believe they would like to be deprived of that opjiortunity. Mr. Peacock had no doubt that the residt of a short supply of labourers would be an increase of machinery. He did not have recourse to hiring-fairs for labourers, as he hired married men in his own neighbourhood. He found that the young single fellows were unsettled, and quitted their service when- ever they got any Little crotchet in their heads. He thought Mr. Isaac's remark was not applicable to agriculture, for manu- facturers, when they took a contract for work, knew what would be the profit of their labour ; but agriculturists could not tell what would be the result of their labour in tilling the soil. A great difficidty they experienced was to get men to come to harvest work for a month, knowing that at the end of that time they would be sent away. He considered the condi- tion of agricultural labourers was much better than was repre- sented by many persons, and furnished several illustrations in support of his view of the subject. llev. H. Bakne mentioned several counties in wliich no hiring fairs were held, showing that they were not an absolute necessity. Mr. Belciier briefly replied ; and the proceedings termi- nated witli a vote of thanks to him for his interesting lecture. THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 529 THE USE OF ARTIFICIAL FOOD. The Inverness Farmers' Clul), at their annual meeting, took for discussion the question, " Cau stock be fed on artificial food so as to pay, and if so, to what extent ?" Mr. Kemp, Belnaglack, who opened the discussion, maintained that stock could be fed profitably on artificial food ; and in support of his view, adduced the foUowftig instances: 1*/, Calves — Before attempting to prove my opinion, it will be necessary to bear in mind that my remarks can oiJy apply to the ease of the owner who starts with a well-bred animal. If the animal be not well-bred and healthy, then any effort to make money will not succeed. As a general rule in this part of the country, tbe calves are fed from the pail ; but to me it appears that this is not the best course to pursue. My opinion is that sucking from the cow ensures a stronger animal, and one that will bring most money in the end. And what is remarkable in connection with this plan is the fact that one-third less milk than that which is necessary from the pail will suffice. I can- not explain this ; but may it not arise from the milk passing direct into tlie stomach, and not coming in contact with the atmosphere P "Wlien the calf fed from tire pail is between four and six weeks old, it will be well to commence artificial feeding. Farmers are not agreed as to the best kind of arti- ficial food, but, as far as my experience goes, nothing is safer or more nourishing than a mixture of ground linseed and rye- meal. But before they are weaned, a small quantity, say a pound and a-half, of dry oilcake should be given, and continued until they are turned out to grass the following spring. At tliis rate, and assuming tliat tlie animal was now fourteen months old, the expense of artificial food woidd he £1 13s. This sum does not include the value of ground linseed and rye-meal. Here I would remark that the plan I have men- tioned, of continuing to give oilcake from the time of weaning until sent out to grass, would be tbe means of strengthening the constitution, ensuring a rapid growth, and rendering the animal less liable to many diseases prevalent in tliis country, such as quarter-ill, &c. If to be fed oflF at tbe end of two years, one and a-half pound of oilcake and four pounds of grain (oats or rye) should be given during the last three months. If the animal be not fed off until the end of his third year, he should receive no oilcake or grain diu-iug his second winter. But every farmer knows that the animal fed off in his third year wUl, on account of his bones liaving come nearly to their full size, take on fat more readily, and at less expense, than in liis second year, and less artificial food wiU do. I have known cows fed on hay and five pounds of cake daily, thrive and milk well. %ndly, Sheep — Except in the cases of some unfortunate ones, the lambs are all allowed to foUow their dams. And what is remarkable in connection with the milk taken by the lamb direct from the udder is that the one-half is found more nutritious than double the quantity of cow's miUc given from a paU or keg. I have seen hoggs fat- ten rapidly on cut turnips and half a pound of oats and half a pound of cake ; but tliis feeding was not profitable, inasmuch as it was too forcing for the constitution, and, in conspqnence, the mortality was very great. These remarks only apply m 'lere there is plenty of other keep on the farm. But where the tur- nips are scarce, or consumed before grass comes in the spring, then the owner will be consulting his best interest by provid- ing several tons of cake, and giving it before sending out to grass. In such cases, a greater quantity should be given, both to slieep and cattle. Zrdly, Swine — These arc animals to which we pay toQ little attention, but were we to bestow more trouble on them, we should find them quite as remunerative as either cattle or sheep. Wliat tlie farmer makes out of the pigs on his farm is like found money ; and why ? because poor Mr. Pig generally looks after and provides for himself. When kept in the fold and fed on Swedisli turnips and a small quan- tity of oats before selling or killing, they will pay any farmer. Mr. Gentle, Dell, thought that even if they got their own price itwoidd hardly jiay to rear cattle on artificial food. Nothing kept cattle so thriftily as turni])s; without fhcm or the staple, it was impossible that much profit could be made ))y feeding cattle fat. Six pounds of oilcake cost 7d. or 8d. — but what would that do to fill up a large ox, even if you added 10 lbs, of oats P Mr. Scott, Dahnorc, thought the right proportion for fat- tening was one-third artificial and two parts turnips. Mr. Gentle — How would you part them — weight for weight ? Mr. Scott — He would say, for instance, 3 lbs. oilcake to a cwt. of Swedish turnips.* Mr. Henurie said he was but a young fanner, but he had spent as much on feeding cattle as many now present. His experience was, that his greatest labour was to get them fat. That was always the best tiling to do, and the cheapest and readiest method of doing it was always the best. With re- gard to artificial feeding, he agreed very much with Mr. Scott : he would not go altogether into artificial feeding, but would give enough of food grown on the farm — that is, he would give artificial food in the morning, or in the evening, or at the fat- tening— wliichever was thought best in the circumstances. But some was necessary for stiff cattle, that had not good breeding, to try to put them fast into condition. He would certainly give something extra for feeding, but though he was using a good deal of artificial food just now, he would not veu- tiire to fix on any quantity as a rule — or say how much might be necessary. If there was to be a profit at all, the sooner it was made the better ; and if there was to be a loss, the sooner it was over the better. Mr. Gentle did not reject the artificial food altbgether. He would give double the oUcake that Mr. Scott mentioned for a fuU-sized ox. Mr. W^ehster agreed witli Mr. Gentle that turnips must ever be the staple of feeding. But it ought to pay to give a fat ox G lbs. or 7 lbs. of oUcakc. OUcake could never be lietter used for calves than as recommended by Mr. Kemp — that is, giving it dry. Mr. GiVUDEN was more in the way of dairy farming than feeding, but his idea was that Mr. Kemp was right — that arti- ficial feeding was most necessary. For calves about Is. 6d. a day, between milk and artificial food, was necessary for most ; but when they were riglit calves, less than that would do. Mr. Frasek, Balloch, agreed with Mr. Kemp. To give calves half artificial feeding was absolutely necessary for a few months. But he was not at aU sure that it would pay to feed them artificially tiU near the time for selling them off. (iive your beasts a good start first, and then fair feeding out. Wlien you are going to sell them off, give them artificial food again. That was necessary, or at least it was all that would pay. Mr. Kemp said liis remarks had been partly misunderstood. j\Ir. Gentle seemed to think he meant to feed cattle wholly on artificial food, but this was not his meaning. His young beasts got no more after the first fourteen months till they were fat- tened up, either at two or three years old, with two or tliree months of artificial food. They had always plenty of turnips and farm produce. The Chairman (Mr. MacEwen, Moyhall) summed up. The general opinion seemed to be that 3 lbs. to "t lbs. of artificial food to a cwt. of turnips was good feeding, and would pay. It gave a fine finish to a beast that turuips idouc could not do. While given to calves, it was a very great assistance indeed, better than tiirnips altogether, or any other food yon can give them, for it was different from the usual feeding, and prevented calves from scouring so much as they were liable to. The conclusion come to, therefore, was that it was profitable to use artificial food to a moderate extent. THE WAY THE WIND BLOW^S.— At tlic meeting of the North-East Hants Agricultural Association, Mr. Beach, one of the Conservative members for North Hants, and for the last year or two a very active member of the AntiMalt-tax Association, was present. In the course of a tolerably long speech the hon. gentleman touched upon the inlluenee of agri- cultural societies, the wet harvest, the decline of the cattle disease, the cholera, the Continental war, the clergy, and the condition of the labouring classes, but curiously enough he omitted all mention of the Malt Tax ! Is not this, again, sug- gestive of the shelving system ? 530 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. THE FAVERSHAM PLOUGH TRIALS, The annual field-day of the Faversham Agricultural Association, on Wednesday, Nov. 14, embraced a novel movement that may be advisedly imitated, if the advocates of steam cultivation intend to have their influence duly appreciated. The novelty of the day was a match with steam ploughs, between seven practical farmers. The ma- chinery here worked has in most cases been as constantly in use as necessary, for years; and some of the engines, tackle, aud ploughs have been instrumental in ploughing Up hundreds, and, it may be, in some cases, thousands of acres of land. In some instances also, it appears, the ploughmen were only put to this work from the ordinary horse-plough peculiar to the county of Kent, and received one or two days' instruction from the maker or agent, who supplied the implement. In the case, for example, of Messrs. Neame and Abbot's man — for whose work the first prize was awarded — he had only one day's instruc- tion from a mechanic sent by Messrs. Aveling and Porter. Thus it would appear that, if an interest can be raised in this kind of work, and fair confidence established in the minds of farmers and husbandmen, there is not so much difficulty as is generally supposed in finding, among our agricultural labourers, men with the amount of natural ability and intelligence which is required to practise this modern form of husbandry with every requisite success. This match, it transpired during the speechifying after dinner, did not oi'iginate with the leading men in con- nection with the local horse-ploughing match, but with the farmers who consider that they have superseded tlie power of animals in this particular work by the employ- ment of steam. The expenses attending the contest, too, were not, except to a small extent, taken out of the limited funds of the Paversham Society, but were sub- scribed by the farmers in the locality. There is at pre- sent no rule in the Faversham Society's byelaws that admit of its subscriptions being appi'opriated to the en- couragement of steam ploughing. If, however, it is de- sirable that this system should be extended, the sooner a rule to the required effect is adopted by this, as well as other societies, the better it will be for everyone interested in agriculture. The exception referred to above, was the amount of prizes in money given to the men who worked the successful machinery. These consisted of £7 for the first in merit, £5 for the second, and £3 for the third, with £1 extra for the driver whose engine was in the best condition. As the main object of the association is, or should be, the encouragement of skilled workmanship in every branch of husbandry, although no prizes could con- sistently be offered to the owners of tackle, it was per- fectly in accordance with the spirit of the society to offer the above awards to the men. This precedent, as we be- lieve it is, other societies may advisedly follow, not only on the above ground, but because their flagging spirits, which have become more and moi"e depressed in many in- stances of late years, will be materially revived by the be- ginning of what may be termed a new start in their exis- tence. The substantial honours competed for were three sUver cups, varying in value from £5 to £10. As a farther in- ducement for farmers to leave their work at home, and spend two or three days' time inmaking this public demon- stration, the promoters of this meeting appropriated a portion of the sum subscribed, about £70, to pay 5s. per mile to reimburse the traveUing expenses for men and machinery ; and when it is considered that one set came thirty -two miles across country, another twenty-eight miles, and some others over twenty miles, it is clear that this was not only a fair, but a most judicious expenditure of resources. The number of entries*was ten, but from some unforeseen causes only the seven above mentioned came to the field. Their names will appear in the few notes Ave have to make on the work done by each set of tackle and men. The ])loughing took place in a field in the occu- pation of Mr. Robert Neame, that was admirably- adapted for such a match ; for, independent of its good form, it was, like the rest of the Lady Dane Farm, of which it formed a part, perfectly free h'om bulbous plants, and the only living vegetation there was upon it was com- posed of the few small annuals that had sprung up since the last crop of corn had been harvested. The space drawn out for each competitor was fom- acres, but a pre- liminary turn or two were allowed before starting in the contest. This being the plan adopted, the land was after- wards measured, as well as the time taken. It was the intention of the committee to have made the time of set- ting down the tackle an clement for consideration by the judges, but the ti'cmendous faU of rain on the Tuesday between nine a.m. and noon made this desirable estima- tion impracticable. Indeed, so heavy was the rain, and so wet the soil in consequence, that it was at one time feared the match would have to be deferred. But by the resources placed at the disposal of the men by Mr. Neame, and the practised generalship and well-known energy of Mr. Aveling, into whose hands the management of the field had been placed, the engines and tackle were got to their allotted places. Not, however, with the best effect, as may be judged; for, to be prepared for the next day's ploughing, the leading principle of steam-ploughing had to be violated, inasmuch as the main advantage of this system is to place its pati'ons in a position to be so far in- dependent of the weather as to be able to stir the soil when it is dry enough to be benefited by the process, and to set their machines by, without cost for food or fuel, when there is too much wet to move without causing in- jury instead of good. The following notes will convey a good impression of the quality of the work and the skill and care of each set of men. The time of stai^ting was 9.50 a.m. The honour of having done the best work clearly lay between Messrs. Neame and Abbot (No. 5) and Mr. Mansfield (No. 7), and the judges had un- doubtedly considerable difficulty in coming to a satisfactory decision. The latter work would, off- hand, have accorded to it a decided preference, as it was beautifully straight and well turned ; in fact, in these I'cspects, nothing could be better done. But there were other points which were comparatively less perfect and equal. The ends were neither evenly begun nor carried far enough out, therefore an unnecessarily large headland was left. The time, too, in which Mr. Mans- field's work was done was greater than that Messrs. N. and A. took. This is an important element in this deep- furrow work for fallowing. It was no doubt owing to the steady way in which this plough proceeded that the furrows of plot 7 were more even than those of plot 5. On these grounds the judges, very properly as we think, awarded the first cup to Messrs. Neame and Abbot, and the second to Mr. Mansfield. The amount of land ploughed, and the time taken, we will give in the form of a table below. THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZHSTE. S31 Captaia Gillows, of Sandwioli, took the third cup, with some exceUeut work ; but his mau began uuder consider- able disadvantages, from his opening furrows coming in some deep tracks left by some of the tackle which passed in that direction the day before. The fun-ows of this work were admirably tiu'ned. Mr. Henry Pye, of St. Mary's, Kent, ploughed plot 3, and his work was regularly, evenly, and straightly done ; but he had to turn his fun-ows up-hiU, while the other six turned theirs down. This made a great difference ; audit arose from the fact that the engine he used was the first one that was made for the late Mr. John Fowler by Messrs. Ransome and Sims. It was first used at the meeting of the Royal Society at Salisbury, and after having gone through all the improvements from that time up to the application of the clip-drum, it is now left with arrange- ments for working the rope from one side only. This would have been of no consequence if the work could have been left till the weather was suitable ; for then the engine could have been taken to the other side of the field, and the work done accordingly in the more suitable direction. Here it may be remarked, too, the anchor used was the first one that was adapted to the employment of a drum under the engine. It is of wood, excepting the wheels for propeDing it, and the discs for holding it in its place. On this we may say, we were informed that Mr. Pye has had sufficient enterprise and spirit to have all the inter- vening alterations, from the first 8 -sided drum to its pre- sent clip-drum, made to this engine at his own expense. It is of 14-horse power, which enabled 4 furrows to be carried, and accounts for the difference in Mr. Pye's time and quantity, as shown in the subjoined table. Mr. Jas. Lake had plot 2. This work was begun with four furrows, but the heavy draught required for a depth of eight inches, and the sopped state of the subsoil where his windlass stood, caused it to be so shifty that ouc furrow had to be dropped, and three only carried at once. This of course caused much delay, and knocked Mr. Lake out of time. The work done, however, was soundly cut, and otherwise creditably performed. Messrs. Blaxland and Marten, of Paversham, had plot 1, and did some good work; but from the "pitch" of the shares or coulters not being quite regular, the furrows were what is locally termed " conpled" — that is, from some being a trifle larger than the others, two were heavily and the adjoining ones lightly pressed. This gave an unsightly appearance, as well as a marked differ- ence in the consistency of the ploughed soil. Mr. Thomas Lake, of Tonge, Sittingbourne, did his work with one of the original wooden ploughs, made for Mr. Fowler by Messrs. Ransome; it was fitted, too, with the Kentish mouldboards, or " reists." The work was turned, and the wide furrow formed, just as it is done by the old " turn-reist." So far as the turning went we cannot but admit tliere was no more perfect specimen of thoroughly ploughing the soil than was here presented. But the shares, or coulters, were here at fault in the way above-mentioned, and the "coupled" furrows were like- wise similarly laid. We now classify the time and work done : NA.ME OF Owner. Lajntd Ploughed. Time Occupied. No. 1. Messrs. Blaxland A. u. r. u. m. and Marten ... 3 1 15 3 05 2. Mr. James Lake 2 0 19 4 25 3. Mr. Henry Pye 3 0 37 3 30 4. Capt. W. Gillow 3 0 20 4 0 5. Messrs. Neame and Abbot... 3 0 15 3 50 6. Mr.T.Lake 3 3 5 4 25 7. Mr. J. Mansfield 3 3 23 4 25 A few general remarks in conclusion will show how singularly the choice of machinery runs in diircrcnt localities. All the ploughs used were after the late Mr. Fowler's patent, although they were varied in material and construction ; whUe five of the windlasses out of the six were after Messrs. Howard's patent, and all the anchors, snatch-blocks, and stationary-porters were also made by the Bedford firm. All the engines, too, excepting Mr. Pye's, as above described, were from Rochester, and made by Messrs. Aveling and Porter, the well-known firm in connection with locomotives. It is almost needless to say these were all traction engines. In each case, also, excepting Mr. Pye's self-acting anchor and drum system, Mr. Avehng's running-porters were used to carry the rope before and behind the plough ; and it is but fair to add, these running-anchois did their work admirably, and most effectually, not only as regards carrying the rope, but also iu respect to the relief which they afforded to the boys who otherwise would have had to pursue the exhaustive labour of going backwards and forwards with the plough to remove the anchors as the plough approached, or place them as the rope became slack and trailed on the ground. The easy way in which the running-anchors were attached and detached by these boys left nothing better to be de- sii'ed. In respect to the condition of the tackle, we may re- mark that Mr. T. Lake's mau was awarded the £1 for his machinery being in the best condition. He fully deserved it. In this management of the machinery there were several instances where this was anything but com- mendable ; while such incapability, if so it can be called, must have occurred from carelessness, rather than from any want of knowledge or skill. The winding of the rope, too, was very badly done iu five, cases out of the six, where an accumulation of coil necessarily oc- curred on the drum. In one case this became dangerous. Mr. Lake (No. 2) has one of Fowler's compensating breaks ; and, except with the greatest care, the rope would have overshot the flange of the drum, and become entan- gled iu the gearing, or the cogs of wheels or rope would have yielded to the obstruction or biting of the machinery. This compensating-break is most ingenious in conception and cleverly made ; but there are too many pieces about it for hauling across country, and using for field purposes. These complications may be highly serviceable where ma- chinery is fixed ; but where engines have to be taken to their work, as they do in agricultural operations, the greatest possible simplicity in arrangements must be observed. THE SALE OP EXMOOR PONIES.— No less than 78 of Mr. F. W. Knight's ponies were sold at Reading Ly Mr. Tomkins, in September, but the average was not a high one, many of the lots going for less than a mau might pick and choose from a way-side drove. Only tliree reached to a score eacb. Sir Rowland going for 27 gs.. King Tom for 26 gs., and Idler for 20 gs. Mr. Robert Smith did better with his 32 ponies, cobs, and hacks at Bristol on Wednesday, although the business was not so good as that of last year, while tlie higher prices included Sextus by Sextus, 33 j gs. ; Negress by Sextus, 33^ gs. ; King of tlie Moor by the Baldfaced Stag, 31 gs. ; Queeu of the Moor by the Baldfaced Stag, 40 gs. ; Sir George by tlie Baldfaced Stag, 372 gs. ; Brunette by Artist, 30 gs. ; Keepsake by Master Bobby, 23 gs. ; Rhoda by the Baldfaced Stag, 24 gs. ; Dr. Syntax by Artist, 27 gs. ; Jla- zeppa by Sextus, 27 gs. ; The Sweep by Artist, 35 gs. ; Lemon- ade by Sea King, 33 gs. • Samson by Trotting Wonder, 40 gs.; Edgar by Trotting Woiider (15 h. 1 in.), G3 gs. ; The C/.ar by Leo, 31 gs. ; The Amazon by Leo, 52 gs. ; Punch by Suffolk Punch, 21 gs. We see that some other breeders, hitherto quite unknown, are announcing their sales of Exmoors, and the tiling threatens to be overdone. 532 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. ON HARVESTING CORN, Cereals are harvested in a manner different from that in which we collect the other fruits of the earth. The reason is that tlie crop has a double value. It consists of two distinct porrious — one less hulky and more precious, destined for the food of man and of beast ; the other, more bulky and less pre- cious, used for litter, for thatch, and for similar purposes. The unthrifty economy of the farmer seeks to grasp tliis double harvest at the same operation, and, in so doing, causes a double loss. He loses on his straw, because he cannot mow it so close to the ground as he does lus hay, for fear of the loss of grain by tlie fall, particularly in wheat, and if the ear be fully ripe. He loses on his grain because he handles the plant in bulk, shaking the ri])e ears at every operation, and, more than all, because the ditliculty of dealing with the crop in unfavourable weather is so much increased hy its weight. Now if the farmer would be content to deal with his grain as he does with his other fruit, to take the trouble of a double ingathering, to crop ears of corn as he would basket cherries or bin hops, and then to mow his straw as he mows his hay, he would incur a first expense perhaps double of his present. If, when tlie corn arrived at the proper stage of maturity, irre- spective of barometer or weathercock, he were to turn aU available hands, women and children more profitaby than men, on his well-eared fields, each provided with a basket such as that in which seed corn is carried, slung round the neck, and a small knife, or a triangular piece of iron, worn ike a tailor's thimble on the fore finger, the whole of the corn would be rapidly secured, being plucked or rather bent over the knife immediately beneath the ear, dropped at once into the basket, and never suffered to touch the ground, nor knocked about to the loss of a single grain, Ijefore it was safely deposited in the granary ; then, if wet, it could be readily and inexpensively subjected to a single process of drying, a process which, if once adopted, would be likely to become universal, wliether tlie corn were ingathered wet or dry, as it would en- tirely obviate the painful and clumsy process of thrashing. If the ears of corn were placed in baskets or wire trays, tier above tier, so tliat a strong and sustained blast of air were driven through them, whether set in motion by a fan or by the draft, of a lofty cliimney — the great power of which is well known to those who have had to deal -ndth really high stacks — not only would aU superfluous moisture be rapidly absorbed, but the ear would become so dry as to cease to retain the grain, which would faU from the basket as from a sieve on the slightest motion. The precious part of the crop thus secured, the farmer would take his own time for mowing the straw, or cut- ting it by machinery ; at least he would so do until practice in drying the wheat itself should teach him that it was a false economy to lose either straw or hay in unfavourable weatlier for want of proper arrangements for drying these valualjlc crops. If the cost of reaping were, as we said, doubled, without making any allowance for the increased quantity of straw, or for the saving in grain by the hand-picking, and setting the expense of drying against that of thrashing, we can admit that 3d. or 4d. a bushel would be added to the cost price of wheat. Against this what has the farmer to set ? The deterioration of the crop )jy bad weather, and the risk of almost total loss. The prejient harvest, so promising a few weeks since, is esti- mated to have lost a tenth of its quantity, besides deterioration in its (juality, by the not u^nusual l)ad weatlier. Would 3d. or 4d. a bushel be a price at which the eounti-y would hesitate to ensure its crops of cereals. If a crop could be under-written at that price, wlien just beginning to ripen, would a merchant hesitate so to cover himself against loss. But this additional cost would not be loss, but fairly remunerative expenditure; and when we consider the manner in which inexpensive labour would be available in the fu-st instance, the saving of bulk, which would diminish the cost of all subsequent operations, the saving of grain from jienmssioft at every stage of its storing, the avoidance of risk and of subsequent piuccsscs, by carrying a thoroughly dried sanqde of corn instead of a damp or partially dried sample to store, and the increase in quan- tity of straw, it is a question whether the increase of cost would be really sensible, apart from the vital question of assurance against total loss. The Austrian Government are known to have adopted com- plete and satisfactory methods for the drying and preserving of store corn in the great fortresses of the Quadrilateral. Those familiar with Southern Europe will bear in mind the constant occupation of the roofs of the houses in some districts in diying and re-drying grain, and in exposing the precious seed to the vertical rays of the sun. It is incredible that in our climate we shoidd yet have to learn such a lesson. Wlio will believe hereafter that a people so ready to forge blades and to cast cannon for the defence of their coasts against any human enemy could be content to let their poor fast three days in the month — for to that at least is the actual rise in the price of bread equivalent, whenever such a rainy summer as may be expected to recur everj' third or fourth year takes place — and then to solace themselves by the assertion that the weather is beyond human control ? We«peak with all respect of the farmer. We hold that no persons deserve the more emphatic reprobation of all good citizens, and of all honest men, than those who endeavour to divide our common weal by setting class against class, whether it be the poor against the rich, the labourer against the em- ployer, the manufacturer against the agriculturist, or the idle and prating in any rank of life, against the industrious and the contented ; and if there be any caUiug in life that would seem to demand the respect of aU other members of the body politic more than another, it would certainly seem to be that » wliieh provides the bread we eat. In that ancient law which the criticism of the day holds to be inspired by justice alone, and to some extent wanting in the gentler attribute of mercy, it was forbidden to muzzle the ox that performed the duty of thrashing in a mode even ruder than our own. But it is not as grudging a fair, or even an ample return for the labour and the capital of the farmer, that we remark that he has been, to i)) a considerable extent, deprived of that wholesome stimulus of competition which has urged the labourers in other depart- ments of production to such vigorous and successful effort. We must eat. There is, as yet, no substitute for bread and meat, for cheese and milk, and butter, for oats, for barley, or for hops. That chemistry wUl hereafter supply us with food, unelaborated by the slow process of vegetation, is our firm expectation ; hut the time is not yet come. The farmer, there- fore, possesses in some sort a monopoly — and a monopoly of a peculiar kind. At times the variation of the seasons is such that a bad harvest in this country coincides with a fruitful i season in the other corn-growing districts which partly supply our markets. In such cases, while the general productive result may be undisturbed, the English producer will, for the year in question, be a loser, and the foreign producer will pocket a share of the natural average profit of the English fanner. But it is, perhaps, more frequently the case, as in the present year, that the distribution of weather over the corn- grownsr latitudes of our northern hemisphere is more impartial, and that the harvest suffers ;ilike in England and in America, in Belgium, and the fields bordering on the Danube. It is cal- culated, or rather estimated, that a tenth of our harvest has been lost owing to the wetness of the sxunmer. But the foreign harvest is no better than our own. The food produced for the supply of the coming year has fallen short, to a greater or less extent, aU over the world ; and every farmer, let us assume, has sent nine, or even fewer, sacks of corn to market, instead of the ten on which he counted in July. But the loss does not altogether, if at all, fall on the farmer. It looks as if it were the other way. Nine quarters, or even eight quarters of wheat, at GOs. a quarter, represent a higher money return than ten quarters at 40s. ; and, without making more than a rough approximation to quantity and to price, the result to the larmer of a bad harvest may be thought not unfrcquently to take this fonn. If corn were paid for, like coal, by its food- producing power, the onus of the seasons would fall upon tlie farmer. While corn is paid for in inverse proportion to its abundance, the loss arising from bad weather, and from a quiet submission to all the ill-effects of jjad weather on tlie supply of THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 533 food, falls chiefly or altogether on the consumer. It is not, therefore, a farmer's question that we are now attempting to solve ; it is a question that comes straiglit homo to every man who knows what it is to look at the loaf on his tahle, and to wish that it were larger or cheaper. It is, above all, to the poor tliat we give the counsel so to gather up the fragments of the store offered hy the hountiful hand of Nature that nothing be wanting. To gather up the fragments ! to leave nothing then for the gleaner ! to leave no room for that picturesque and affecting industry, of which we can trace the history for nearly four thousand years ! to substitute the iron grasp of scientific thrift for the time-honoured common law of humanity, older than the Twelve Tables of Roman law, and passing from an unwritten to a written form, at the same date as the Decalogue itself, that law which forbade to " whoUy reap the corners" of the field, or to " gather the gleanings of tlie harvest" ! We would deal reverently with this vested right of the poor and the feeble. Yet does not its very existence speak loudly as to tlie wasteful character of our present mode of harvesting ? The more pre- cious to the poor is the right of gleaning, the larger is the waste which the gleaner prevents from being total. But the true reply is that we would raise the dignity and would raise the emolument of the gleaner. It is those who now glean scattered and fallen ears whom we would send out with knife and basket to gather corn. We would suljstituto a fair day's work for the public, fairly paid, and well worth a fair payment, for a desultory day's work for the individual, the hazardous remuneration of which depends on the largeness of the fanner's heart or the looseness of the reaper's grip. We would hid the gleaner to sit down, an equal guest, at the harvest-home dinner, not to gather up the scraps beneath the table and to dine on what she can save from the rooks. Great and advantageous changes have been made since we, years ago, urged the necessity for improvements in our fann buUdings, and showed the wastefulness and injuriousness of parts of our farmyard management. It is to be hoped it will not be long before we may be able to say the same thing in respect of our present protest against the existing helplessness in the face of bad weather. — The Builder. ONE PECK OF WHEAT PER ACRE SrR, — Yesterday, the 26th Oct., I supervised the puttmg-in of half-a-peek of wheat on half-an-acre in my eleven-acre chapel land. The rest of the field was drilled to-day with 4 pecks per acre (my usual heavy-land quantity), but half-an- acre on one side of the thin-sown was drilled with 3 pecks an acre. It is on a clover-lea, mown for hay and then manured and fed, according to my usual custom. The dibbling of the half-acre employed one man to dibble and five women to drop a whole day — that is, from half-past 6 to 5 p.m. The cost is — one man, 2s. 6d. ; five women, at lOd., 4s. 2d. ; or at the rate of 13s. 4d. per acre. Li ordinary dibbling it only requires two women or girls to drop for each dibbler ; but then the seed is hurriedly and carelessly dropped into the dibble holes, in quantities varying from five grains to a dozen. In my case one kernel only was dropped in each hole, although occasionally two would slip in, and sometimes one would drop outside. The total quantity delivered to the women was three- quarters of a peck, and when their bags were emptied in the evening, and the contents accurately measured, more than a quarter of a peck was returned ; so that, as on former occa- sions, rather less than one peck per acre was disposed of. The wheat was white club-headed rough chaff, weighing 631bs. per bushel. I sold 30 quarters of it yesterday, at 67s. per qr. The field on which it grew produced a fi-aetion over 4^ quart- ers per acre ; and as a peck an acre was grown in that field, it yielded quite as much as the average of the field, although somewhat less than its adjoining half-acre. Yesterday tlie dibble-holes were aU left open until they had finished, and then one stroke of the light harrows covered them. As a certain friend of mine doubted whether one peck of seed per acre would allow one kernel to so many holes as 6 inches by 4-|-, T sat down quietly in the evening, weighed half-an-ounce of the seed we had been putting in, and then counted the kernels. The result is as follows : Weight of seed per bushel, 63 lbs. ; half-an-ounce gave 424 kernels, therefore 1 peck would give about 213,690 grains, and as tliere are 43,560 superficial feet in an acre, 1 peck would give almost five kernels to each square foot. The dibble-holes, 6 inches by 5, would give about 5 dibble-holes to each square foot, so that in fact one nuan in the course of a day made 108,900 dibble-holes. Tills is done by walking backwards, and working vrith an iron dibble in each hand. On looking at these dibble-holes (five to each square foot), before they are covered up, every impartial ob- server must feel that the plants of wheat will be fuUy thick enough. Liebig says, justly, that the greatest enemy to a wheat plant is another wheat plant, for they both require tlie same kind of food, and fight for it when too closely packed. The result is then the same as with an over-crowded plantation of young trees : they are crippled and stunted. Now if one peck per acre gives five plants on every square foot, one bushel per acre will give 20 plants for every square foot, and two bushels per acre would give 40 plants for every square foot : one fine plant of tUlered wheat will require at least half a square foot to itself. In order to get 5 quarters per acre from one peck of seed, each kernel should produce four average ears, or 40 ker- nels to each ear. The power to do this does not depend upon the seed, but on the condition of the soil, both as to tillage and food for the plant. If these are ample, instead of four ears we shall probably get an average of sis ears, or 240 for one ; that is, 240 pecks for one, or 72 quarters of wheat per acre. I hope to get nearly as much as this next year, if a fine season. I lately heard that one of the women droppers was last year fractious and captious, and neglected her work ou my peck an acre, so that the plant was not so regular as it ought to have been. Let me advise my brother-farmers always to sow the very best seed, well dressed, and then passed through the blower, to get rid of the light or imperfect grains. I know that in too many instances tail or inferior corn is sown as a matter of economy — a ruinous and false economy. Whenever a farmer desires to get a large return of seed from some parti- cular sort of wheat, he carefully plants it in his garden, one kernel in a hole, gives it ample space, and gets an enormous increase. Having thus accumulated a stock, he pursues an entirely opposite course in his fields. This is inconsistent and iUogieal, and we must draw the inference that his field-cultiva- tion is so imperfect and inferior to his garden that he has no faith in its power of producing a great crop. A^liy should not our land be gardened ? It can only be done by an additional investment of labour and capital, and a diminution in tenable area. I once said to a farmer, " T^liy don't yon farm your garden the same as you do your land ?" " Oh," said he, " it would not pay ; we should not grow enough." I never heard a stronger reason for gardening the land. There can he no doubt but that thick sowing causes immense loss to the farmer and to the country. As soon as by high feeding and ricli manuring the land becomes forcing, we hear it said, " I get my crops laid and spoiled." I lay down for a principle that land can hardly be too rich for wheat. Put your kernels in at a proper distance, in a rich garden, and what a crop you wiU get ! but crowd the grain in as on an ordinary field, and it will be destroyed. Some folks are aft'aid to sow early, because they will sow so much seed. Thin sowing, like sewage, has had many warm opponents, but the truth wUl ultimately prevail ; and we shall probably live to see experiments and calculations overcoming mere ideas and strong prejudices arising from old customs under different conditions from those of the present day. My hope, therefore, is in the future. Tiptree, Oct. 27f/i. J. J. Meohi. P.S. Thin sowing won't do with bad unclean farming and imperfect tillage. In weedy undraincd land, where the furrow- slice presents an unbroken, twitch-bound, and almost insepar- able slice, over which common wood harrows (rakes), with teeth worn down to a stump, dance over the clods, but make no tillage, it would be absurd to expect a great crop, even with abundant seed. On drained and deeply cultivated lands, worked by perfect implements — good iron liarrows, with steel teeth — you get a perfect comminution and friable inter- mixing of the seed-bed, in which the drill can comfortably and .safely deposit its seeds. Really, in loo many instances, the old imperfect rolls and implements arc in antiquated uniform correspondence with the tumble-down dilapidated sheds and buildings. 634 THE FARMER'S IMAGAZINE. AGRICULTURAL REPORTS. GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT FOR OCTOBER. Although we have liad a. humid atmosphere duriug the greater part of the month, the whole of the outstanding crops in tlie north have heeu secured, but in very poor condition. In Ireland and Scotland scarcely any grain is now in the fields ; so that harvest work generally may be considered closed. The wheat crop is certainly a fair average as to quantity ; but a large portion of it will not be tit for millers' purposes for seve- ral mouths. In the mearitime we shall be compelled to pur- chase increased quantities of wheat abroad to meet our enor- mous consumption. Barley is turning out a good crop, though much weathered. Fine barleys are, therefore, very scarce, and liigh in price. Wheat and barley are likely to command ex- treme quotations during the remainder of the year. Oats have sold at unusually high quotations, notwithstanding tl>at we have imported very large supplies from the coutinent. In the value of beans and peas scarcely any change has taken place. The quotations are very high, considering the extent of tlie new crops. The iiour trade has been active, at 4s. to 5s. per 2801bs. more money. The pastures are full of grass for the time of year. De- pastured stock has, therefore, fared remarkably well. The crops of swedes, turnips, and mangolds being very large, there is now a good quantity of food on hand for winter use. Hay and straw have given way in price, so tliattlie outlay for cakes during the winter months is likely to be very small when com- pared with several previous seasons. We regret to state that the potato disease has extended itself to most of our best districts, and it is calculated that, at least, one-third of the potato crop has been lost. At present, how- ever, potatoes are offering in the London market at from 70s. to I20s. per ton. Meadow hay has sold at from £3 lOs. to £4 10s. ; clover, £4 10s. to £5 10s. ; and straw, £1 10s. to £2 4s. per load. Advices from most of the continental markets state that wheat has been in active request on English account, and that prices have rapidly advanced. AU kinds of spring corn liave moved off freely, at extreme quotations. In America both wheat and flour have realized prices far above the views of shippers to this country. The exports have, therefore, been trifling, and we can hardly venture to sujiposethat even current rates in England will attract supplies from the United States. In Scotland there has been some activity in tlie grain trade generally. Wheat has risen 3s. to 5s., barley 2s., and oats fully Is. per quarter. Very few shipments have been made to the south. Evidently, however, the crops have been carried in better order than in the north of England. The Irish markets have been scantily supplied with produce, for which the inquiry has ruled steady, at enhanced quota- tions. A large portion of the crops was carried during har- vest time in good condition. REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TR/VDE DURING THE PAST MONTH. Notwithstanding that the imports of live stock from the continent have exhibited a falling off Vhen compared with the corresponding period in 1865, and that the aggregate supplies of beasts brought forward in the Metropolitan Market have exhibited a deficiency, the beef trade has been in a sluggish state, and prices have had a drooping tendency. The decline in the arrivals of live stock from continental ports has been fully made good by increased supplies of dead meat. During the month they have amounted to about 2,500 tons, chiefly car- cases of mutton, and tended greatly, although they have mostly arrived in fair saleable condition, to depress the trade for Eng- lish meat. In some few instances, the best Scots, &c., have realised 5s. 2d. to 5s. 4d. per 8 lbs. ; but the more general figure has been 5s. per Slbs. The supplies of sheep brought forward have been only mode- rate, both as to number and quality. Prices have given way about 4d. per 8 lbs., at which clearances liave been effected. Prime small calves have sold steadily at full quotations ; but inferior veal has sold slowly. In prices, however, very little change has taken place. Pigs have met a slow sale for the time of year, and prices have not been supported. The top figure has been 5s. 2d. per 8 lbs. Evidently the supply of pigs in the country has con- siderably increased this year. The arrivals from France, Hol- land, &c., have been in good condition. It is gratifying to observe that the disease amongst live stock is rapidly on the decrease. Depastured stock, from the great abundance of grass, is doing remarkably well, and there is a great abundance of food on hand for winter use. The imports of foreign stock into London have been as under : — Head. Beasts 15,876 Sheep 30,108 Lambs ... ... ... ... 543 Calves 1,378 Pigs 4,859 Total 52,764 Comparison or Imports. Oct. Beasts. Sheep. Calves. Pigs. 1865 15,344 69,611 1,952 9,135 1804 16,074 38,715 3,339 5,537 1863 11,560 37,521 1,129 3,965 1862 7,900 28,109 1,327 1,600 1861 5,577 42,538 1,207 5,315 1860 6,750 24,980 1,663 2,074 1859 6,020 24,323 784 878 1858 4,600 24,145 1,581 553 1857 5,819 24,102 1,998 1,233 1856 8,871 10,503 1,280 895 1855 8,136 21,137 1,358 ],501 18.54 6,894 16,328 1,009 1,063 The total supplies of stock exhibited in the Great Metro- J politan Market have been as foUovvs : — Head. Beasts 27,600 Cows 200 Sheep 99,200 Calves ... ... ... ... 1,666 Pigs 4,340 Comparison of Supplies. Oct. Beasts. Cows. Sheep. Calves. Pigs. 1865 30,210 133 157,840 2,932 2,478 1864 33,840 519 137,424 3,671 3,820 1863 30,512 535 110,800 2,029 3,439 1863 28,975 526 118,780 1,855 3,286 1861 28,220 539 121,390 1,626 3,650 1860 26,240 525 128,250 2,289 2,020 The supplies of English, Scotch, and Irish beasts thus com- pare with the two previous years : — Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. From— 1803, 1864. 1865. 1866. Lincolnshire, Leicester- shire, and Northamp- tonshire 11,660 10,000 8,450 6,000 Other parts of England. 3,650 3,500 3,700 3,000 Scotland 28 123 53 16 Ireland 2,780 2,070 990 580 Beef has sold at from 3s. 6d. to 5s. 4d. ; mutton, 3s. 8d. to 6s. 4d. ; veal, 4s. 2d. to 5s. Od. ; pork, 4s. to 5s. 2d. per Slbs. to sink the offal. Comparison op Prices. Oct., 1862. Oct., 1803. Oct., 1864. Oct., 1805. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Beef from 3 0to4 8 3 4to5 0 3 2 to 5 4 3 4to5 4 Mutton.. 3 4 to 5 4 3 6 to 5 6 3 8 to 5 6 4 4to6 8 Veal 3 10to5 4 3 4to4 8 4 0to5 4 4 4to5 G Pork 4 Oto5 0 3 4to4 0 3 Oto4 10 4 4to5 10 Newgate and Leadeuhall have been heavily supplied with meat, which has moved off slowly, on lower terms. Beef, from 3s. 2d. to 4s. 8d. ; mutton, 3s. 4s. to 5s. ; veal, 4s. to 5s. 4d. ; pork, 3s, 10s. to 5s. 4d. per Slbs. by the carcase. THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 536 GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT TOR Large quantities of rain having fallen 'in various parts of the country, serious damage has been sustained b}- floods, es- pecially in the north of England. Ploughing in that quarter has been greatly interfered witli, and the land has become much saturated with moisture. In the southern, western, and eastern counties, however, outdoor labours are in a forward state, and the young wheats have come up with great regu- larity. Altliougli the importations of foreign and Colonial produce have been on a fair average scale, and although about 750,000 quarters of wheat are known to be on passage from tlie Black Sea ports, tlie grain trade lias been in a very ex- cited state, and prices, almost generally, liave rapidly advanced. In the last week in the month, however, there was a pause in the operations of miUers, and wheat could only be disposed of at a reduction of from Is. to 2s. per quarter. The leading holders of produce, liowever, seem disposed to think that the quotations have not yet seen their higliest point, and that the importations during the winter months wiU he on a very limited scale. Our impression is, notwithstanding that money is very abundant and low in price, that there is scarcely room for rising markets. On tlie other hand, wlieat is not likely to fall rapidly, because a large portion of the new crop of English will not be lit for millers' purposes until quite the spring. The inferior condition in which the bulk of the crop was secured has led to a great scarcity of barley fit for malting purposes. Prices as a consequence have ruled high, and some of the brewers are now purcliasing low qualities of sugar for brewing purposes. Nevertheless, the malt trade lias continued in a healthy state. The finest malt is now worth SOs. per quarter, a price which has compelled the brewers to advance their quotations for beer and ale. Oats have risen fully 3s. per quarter. Even the large arrivals from the Continent li;ive failed to keep prices in clieck. No cliange of importance lias taken place in the value of either beans or peas ; but flour has advanced 2s. to 4s. per 2801bs. The public sales of colonial wool liave been commenced in London. They have gone oft" heavily, at, compared with the previous series, a decline in tlie quotations of 0|d. to fully Id. per lb. English wool has commanded very little attention, either for home use or export. The quantities brought for- ward, liowever, have been only moderate. The supplies of potatoes on oft'er have been moderately ex- tensive. Selected samples have realized £7 per ton, other kinds in proportion. Most accounts agree in stating that lieavy losses have been sustained by disease this year. In No- vember, last year, the highest price for potatoes was £5 10s. per ton. The hop trade has been very quiet, owing to the high prices demanded by the growers of hops. Tiie quotations, however, liave been well supported, notwithstanding that nearly 5,000 bales of foreign hops have arrived in London only. Hops are now from 25s. to SOs. per cwt. higher in price than they were at this time last year. The root-crops have turned out unusually abundant ; and the pastures have yielded a full average quantity of grass. As the outlay for food for cattle purposes will be very small for some time, hay and straw have met a heavy sale, on lower terms. Li London, meadow-hay has sold at from £.3 5s. to £i 5s., clover £4 5s. to £5 15s., and straw £1 16s. to £2 4s. per load. Although the importations of foreign provisions have been only moderate, the cattle trade has been in a sluggish state, on rather lower terms ; and it is stated in various quarters that meat has seen its highest range in value for the present. The Scotch markets have been scantily supplied with pro- duce, which has moved oft' freely, on higher terms. The ship- ments of potatoes to the South have been rather extensive. In Ireland very little wheat has been brought forvifard. The sale for it has, consequently, been active, at enhanced quota- tions. AU kinds of spring corn, as well as maize, have risen considerably in price. Tlie shipments to England have slightly increased! REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE. Notwithstanding tliat the Metropolitan Cattle Market has been but moderately supplied with beasts during the greater portion of the month, the demand for most breeds has been inactive, and inferior stock has ruled somewhat lower in price. The quality of the shorthorns from Lincolnshire, Leicester- shire, and Northamptonshire has shown signs of improve- ment ; but from our other districts the supplies have come to hand in very middling condition. The arrivals from Scotland have been fully equal to most former seasons ; but those from Ireland have shown a great want of quality. The average range in the value of Scots and crosses has been from 5s. to 5s. 4d. per 81bs. The supplies of English sheep have been small ; of foreign, only moderate. In the early part of the month, prime sheep commanded extreme currencies ; hut, towards the close, prices gave 2d. to 4d. per Slbs. ; the latest figure for the best Downs and half-breds being 6s. per Slbs. There has been a steady demand for calves at, compara- tively speaking, high quotations, viz., from 4s. 4d. to 5s. Sd. per Slbs. The sale for pigs has continued heavy, and the currencies have had a drooping tendency. The top figure lias been 5s. 2d. per Slbs. The inactivity in the trade in the live market must be attri- buted to the large supplies of Scotch and couutry-killed meat on sale in Newgate and Leadenhall. Besides those supplies, about 10,000 tons of meat, chiefly beef and mutton, have been imported from the continent, and which have been mostly disposed of at very low prices. The imports of foreign stock into London have been as under : — Head. Beasts 13,278 Sheep 38,389 Calves 1,290 Pigs 1,187 Total 54,024 Comparison of Imports. Nov. Beasts. Sheep. Calves. Pigs. 1865 16,254 52,517 2,526 7,770 1864 17,137 34,792 2,970 3,947 1863 11,020 30,347 1,770 2,202 1862 6,839 28,577 1,659 633 1861 5,295 27,833 946 1,241 1860 6,961 22,723 1,604 828 1859 5,927 21,907 997 159 1858 4,787 18,258 1,174 156 1857 4,409 17,8.30 2,687 136 1856 6,102 16,380 1,152 309 1855 7,367 17,094 1,127 454 1854 7,120 16,604 1,10S 369 The restrictive measures still in force respecting the impor- tations of live stock from some parts of the Continent have led to a falling oft' in the arrivals during the past month ; but the have been made good by the increased supplies of foreign meat consigned to London. The total supplies of stock exhibited have been : — Head. Beasts 24,660 Sheep 95,890 Calves 1,190 Pigs 3,090 Comparison or Supplies. Nov. Beasts. Cows. Sheep. Calves. Pigs. 1865 36,820 295 167,230 2,858 2,811 1864 32,600 542 114,300 2,587 2,900 1863 27,704 506 99,130 2,156 3,170 1862 , 30,139 532 110,020 2,313 3,173 1861 26,590 560 109,370 1,370 3,430 1860 25,400 500 103,600 2,112 2,920 1859 26,492 522 120,840 1,299 2,800 1858 24,856 534 114,643 1,437 2,970 1857 25,383 504 103,120 3,002 3,037 1856 .. 25,444 515 105,750 2,096 3,415 1855 27,411 457 97,460 1,585 3,535 1854 23,443 512 121,031 1,848 2,736 O 0 536 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. The district arrival of beasts thu$ compare with the three previous years : — Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. From— 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. Lincolnshire, Leicester- shire, and Northamp- tonshire 9,200 9,300 9,600 7,200 Other parts of England. 2,800 2,700 3,550 2,450 Scotland 309 654 448 154 Ireland 2,800 2,000 1,000 880 The ranffc in the prices of heef has been from 3s. 6d. to 5s. 4d. ; mutton, 3s. 8d. to 6s. 4d. ; veal, 4s. 4d. to 5s. lOd. ; pork, 3s. lOd. to 5s. 2d. per Slbs. to sink the offal. Comparison of Prices. Nov., 1862. Nov., 1863. Nov., 1864. Nov., 1865. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Beef from 3 4 to 5 0 3 4to5 0 3 4to5 8 3 4to5 6 Mutton.. 3 8 to 5 8 3 8to5 8 3]Gto6 0 4 0 to 6 8 Veal 3 4to5 0 3 4to4 8 4 0to5 3 4 4to5 4 Pork 4 0to5 0 3 4to4 6 3 6to4 8 4 0 to 5 8 Newgate and Leadenhall have been heavily supplied with meat, in which a good business has been passing. The aver- age top price for beef has been 4s. 6d. ; mutton, 4s. lOd; veal, 5s. lOd. ; pork, 58. per Slbs. by the carcase. AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS3 &c. ALYTH SHEEP MAHKET.— The reductions, as com- pared with prices given at the same marketof last year, ranged from 5s., 8s., and 10s. per head. There were few fat present, and these went at 7d. to 8d. per lb. ; inferior kinds gave less. Black-faced ewes sold at from 18s. to 24s., wedders 28s. to 33s. ; cross ewes gave a little more ; wedders 36s. to 41s. ; Leicester ewes 25s., 30s., and 40s. ANDOVEE, FAIR. — The supply of sheep was equal to the average, being about 18,000 head. Trade ruled dull, and prices bad a downward tendency. The general quotations were as foDow : Lambs, 35s. to 45s. ; ewes, 46s. to 58s. ; wethers, 50s. to 56s. Fat lambs made up to 52s. A large flock of breeding ewes realized an average price of 63s. the head. ANDOVER FAIR (Another Report).— The number of sheep penned, about 18,000, was larger than the average of the past seven or eight years. The quality of the stock was very indifterent, and there was a large proportion of culls, some of which were but small and poor. Trade opened very dull, and exceedingly high prices were asked. Sales were in consequence slow, and sellers held back, expecting an increase in the number of dealers on the arrival of the early trains ; but as the morning wore on, no improvement was shown, and the fair continued dull to the last, with a slight decline in prices. Lambs from 35s. to 45s., superior quality fat from 46s. to 52s. ; ewes from 46s. to 58s. ; wethers from 50s. to 56s. Messrs. Downs and Awbery sold by auction 350 ewes, divided into lots of twenty each. The iirst lot made the high price of 70s. The other lots quickly followed, at prices varying from 58s. to 66s. The average of the flock was 63s. BAR-NET FAIR. — Horses of high stamp for harness and riding purposes sold at 35 to 45 guineas, and horses for farmers' work 16 to 24 guineas ; cart and nag colts 20 to 30 guineas, and aged horses and ponies were offered at low figures. There was an active demand for store pigs. Good hogs made 32s. to 40s., small stores 18s. to 25s., and breeding sows 3 to 4 guineas each. BOSTON SHEEP MARKET.— There was a moderate supply of fat sheep, which met with a brisk demand at from 7id. to 8d. per lb. BURGH I'^AT STOCK MARKET.— There was a good supply of sheep, most of which were ready for the butcher. Business was not quite so brisk as at some of the recent mar- kets, and a slight reduction in prices had to be submitted to by the graziers, when a good clearance was effected. CREWE FAIR. — There was a good supply of store pigs, chiefly young ones, and the business was slow and prices lower. GUILDFORD FAIR.— There was a fine display of sheep, and, notwithstanding the high prices demanded by dealers, the sheep-pens were quickly sold out at the following prices: Southdown and cross-bred store wethers, 55s, to 60s, a head ; tegs, 44s. to 53s. ; and lambs of last season, 33s. to 378. per do. Young ewes forward in lamb, 46s. to 50s. ; aged ewes, 32s. to 38s. ; and ewe lambs for stock, 30s. to 40s. a head. Bams and tup lambs, 3 to 7 guineas. Handsome cart-horses sold at 30 to 40 guineas, and aged do. 12 to 20 guineas ; handsome cart and nag colts, 20 to 35 guineas ; horses for single harness and riding purposes, 30 to 40 guineas ; do. for van, omnibus, and heavy draught, 35 to 45 guineas ; and pony colts, 4 to 8 guineas. MARLBOROUGH FAIR.— The supply showed a faUing- off, and trade was very dull, prices being Is. to 2s. the head under those of Andover. The following were the average quo- tations : Wethers, 45s. to 58s. ; ewes, 45s. to 55s. ; lambs, 35s. to 50s. ; but some made 60s. The horse trade was brisk, especially horse colts. MORETONHAMPSTEAD GREAT MARKET. — There were about 600 sheep, in general remarkable for their good condition. Prices from £2 to £3 2s., wethers from £2 3s. to £2 5s. Sale rather dull. NEWARK FAT STOCK MARKET.— A fair show of sheep. Best wether mutton realized from 8d. to 8|d., ewes 7d. per lb. Buyers were plentiful. NEWTON-STEWART HORSE FAIR.— There was about an average number, but business was slack, and prices low where sales were effected, which caused no small grumbling amongst sellers. There was a fair inquiry for good animals, but very few were shown. OSWESTRY FORTNIGHTLY FAIR.— There was about an average supply of sheep and pigs. Mutton 8d. to SJd., and in some extreme cases 9d. per lb. ; pigs 5d. to 55d. SALISBURY FORTNIGHTLY MARKET.— The number of sheep of prime quality was short, the offer principally con- sisting of secondary descriptions, the demand for which ruled very inactive, prices being in favour of buyers. The best, however, readily realized late figures, Bd. to 9d. per lb. SETTLE FORTNIGHTLY FAIR. — There was a very good show of sheep, but the demand was duU, and prices a little lower than last fair. SPILSBY SHEEP MARKET.— There was a good show of both fat and store sheep, most of which were sold. Prices were the turn in favour of the buyer. TRURO FAIR.— There was but a small number of fat sheep ; but of store ewes there was a pretty fair supply. The sale was but slow : fat sheep fetched Irom 7d. to 73d. per lb. ; store ewes 40s. and above. WELSHPOOL FAIR.— There was a small attendance of buyers and sellers, the weather proving most unpropitious. There were very few horses, and all of inferior quality. Few, if any, fetched more than £30 to £35. There was a fair sup- ply of sheep and pigs, at rather reduced rates, compared with recent fairs : indeed, very little business was transacted. Fa sheep fetched about 7i-d. per lb. Bacon pigs were a drug a^ 4fd. to 5^d. per lb. Trade was generally sluggish. YEOVIL FAIR.— About 3,000 sheep were penned. Alto- gether trade was not very brisk. Down ewes sold at from 46s. to 50s. each, horn ewes 48s. to 55s. each, lambs 40s. to 55s, Wether mutton made 8d. per lb. Pigs, where sales were effected, realized slightly advanced prices. YORK FAIR. — There was a brisk demand for good, active, and strong dray and agricultural horses, which obtained high prices, as did also a few useful ponies. Any other horses pos- sessing quality were bought up, but there was a large number of worthless animals, in which the trade was a drug. IRISH FAIRS.— Castlebah : Milkers and in-calf cows met with ready purchasers, averaging from £8 8s. to £16 ; store heifers from £8 to £12 ; bullocks a little less, as they were not in demand. The show of sheep was small ; fat sheep went off at from 40s. to 45s. ; other kinds from 25s. to 35s. Lambs from 20s. to 30s. — Camlotjgh : Beef cattle were fairly supplied, and the prices demanded were high ; they were from £12 to £20 — average, £17. There was a fair business transacted with the Newry victuallers. Springers were in good supply, but not greater than the demand. The prices were from £12 to £18 10s. for four and five year olds ; and for aged cattle in the same condition from ^9 to £12 — average about £10 10s. Milch cows were also well supplied, and the prices paid were high for winter's milk : they were from £8 to £14 10s., according to size, age, and quality — average price £11. Strippers were very plenty, and a great number of strong beasts were quickly bought up for stall-feeding at from THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 537 £8 10s. to £13— average, £10. The fair was very full of strog heifers aud bullocks of two, three, and four years old, and prices for three and four year olds were from £13 to £16 ; two year olds £7 to £10. Yearlings were also plenty, and the demand was considerably improved ; prices, £4' 10s. to £6 for heifers, and £3 IDs. to £5 5s. for bullocks. — Carlanstown : Fat bullocks rated from £20 to £25 each, and finished heifers from £17 10s. to £22 generally. Beef appeared to remain fully 63s. per c^vt. for prime beasts, while second-class rated about 5Gs.,' aud inferior from 48s. to 50s. ; store bullocks fetched full prices, three-year-olds realising from £14< to £17 each ; two-year-olds, £9 to £11 ; and yearlings, £4< to £6 10s. per head ; three-year-old superior store heifers £14 to £16 ; inferior, £13 IDs. to £14 a-piece ; yearlings (off), £4 to £8. The extreme rates for dairy cows were fi'om £10 to £22 per head. In the sheep department the demand was somewhat improved, and weather mutton for top lots readily commanded lii. per lb. ; inferior aud ewe from G^d. to 6^d. There was a thronged fair of pigs, with tolerably brisk buying of stores and bonnives. The former brought £3 to £3 15s. a-piece, aud the latter from 20s. to 30s. per couple ; slips from 28s. to 35s. each. Bacon was unchanged in value, selHug about 8s. 6d. per 20 lb. — Ballinakil : Bullocks were in great request, and sold fi'om 10s. to 30s. advance on late prices. Heifers were much sought after, and never reahzed higher prices. Milch cows were eagerly bought up, both for home and export. The following are the quotations : three-year-olds ranged from £13 to £20 ; two-aud-a-half-years-old, £8 to £15 ; one-and-a-half- years old, £3 to £9. Sheep were quiet, no advance being made on late prices. — NajVS: Fat cattle and beeves were least re- presented ; those present brought good prices, ranging from £18 to £37, or about 58s. per cwt., sinking offal ; second quality a shade lower. Milch cows and forward springers as usaal sold well, prices varying from £14 to £32, but £17 was the price at which most sales took place. Store cattle, an immense supply ; and heifers were much more looked for than bullocks. The consequence was that some of the latter, wliich were bought last September at £13 10s., would have been sold i for £13 15s. Store buUocks from £10 to £13 17s. 6d. ; heifers £10 15s. to £14 ; second-class bullocks, £7 to £9 10s. ; third-class, or yearling bullocks, £3 5s. to £5 5s. ; heifers, same class, £3 10s. to £6 6s. Strippers and Aij cows were not in good demand ; the former were sold at £9 5s., and the latter a shade higher. Fat sheep sold at 6f d. per lb., or about 47s. 6d. to 58s. each ; hoggets, 38s. 6d. to 36s. each, and some minor lots at still more reduced prices. — Dundalk : Fat cattle seem to be rather scarce. There were only some half-dozen lots exhibited for sale. They sold for £13 10s. each. Store cattle, comprising yearlmgs, two-year and three-year-olds, were in large supply, Init mostly of an inferior quality. Large numbers were, however, brought up for export aud fattening purposes at prices ranging from £6 10s. to £9. — Cailan : Ewes and wedders of top quality fetched from £3 17s. 6d. to £3 3s., hoggets £1 18s. 6d. to £3 7s. 6d., and lambs £1 5s. to£l 16s. 6d. per head ; three -year-old bullocks brought from £11 10s. to £14 5s. each, two-year-olds £7 15s. to £10 5s., and yearlings £3 17s. 6d. to £6. Two-year-old heifers scarce and dear, £13 to £14; yearlings £5 15s. to £8 IDs., and weanling calves £3 15s. to £3 7s. 6d. Strippers and missers £8 15s. to £13, and half-fat cows £14 10s. to £16 each. First- class beef 60s. per cwt., and mutton about 7id. per lb. in sink. Top railching cows £15 to £18 10s., second-class £9 to £13. Strong store pigs 46s. to 53s. each, slips 25s. to 38s., aud bonhams 35s. to 43s. per couple. — Dromagu : Store cattle were in good demand. Prirae beef sold: 50s. to at 56s. per cwt. Dr. Edward Foott, Gortmore, sold a three-year-old bullock for £14. The pig market was large ; pork went from 40s. to 46s. per cwt. — GoRESBEiDGE : A few milch cows were on the ground, and sold from £15 to £18. Of fat beasts the principal were five heifers, which were sold at £16 each. There was a very large show of young pigs, which sold at high prices. On the fair eve there were 100 bacou pigs sold at 48s. to 56s. per cwt. — KiLLiiiORE : Three-year-old and two-year-old ewes and wed- ders sold well from the great demand, as a large number of purchasers in this class presented themselves from an early hour, the former realizing prices varying from 40s. to 55s., and the latter from 40s. to 50s. — Newmarket : The supply of store cattle was large, and changed owners at from ig6 to ;S13 ; prime beef realized 56s, per cwt, The milch cattle department was scant in supply, and demaud dull. Bacou pigs were sold at from 42s. to 48s. per cwt. — Rathkeale : Sheep brought 45s. to 55s. for half finished, and 50s. to 65s. for fully finished. Fat cows rated at 60s. per cwt., springers £14 to £18 each, calves £4 10s. to £6 16s. each, two-and-a-half-year-olds £8 to £11. Andrew Griffin, of New- castle West, bought 43 cows at £14 to £18 each, and his bro- ther James paid an average of £16 each for 24 heifers. The show of horses was of the strong working class, at £8 to £15 each. The pig fair was the largest within the recollection of the oldest inhabitant, there being 5,000 at the lowest calcula- tion ; the average prices being, for heavy bacon pigs 38s. to 40s., Berwicks 40s. to 43s.— Stradbaily : Fat cattle £18 to £27, milch cows and forward springers £14 to £20, average £16 : store bullocks £10 to £13 5s., heifers £10 15s. to £14, second class bullocks £7 to £9, yearling bullocks £3 to £5, yearling heifers £3 10s. to £6, strippers £8 to £8 5s.— TuL- LOW : A small supply of sheep, and not much doing. Prices may be quoted as follows : Three-year-old buUocks £10 to £13, two-year-old ditto £8 to £10, three-year-old heifers £10 to £14, two-year-old ditto £9 to £11, yearlings £4 to £6, springers £13 to £18. Pork 50s., and bacon 63s. per cwt. — Virginia : Beef, best quality, 56s. per 113 lbs., or 6d. per lb., and for inferior from 44s. per cwt. to 47s. 6d. Dry cows sold from £9 to £12 a-piece, aud strippers from £9 to £11 each. Tiiree-year-old heifers for stall-feeding rated from £11 10s. to £14 each. Two-year-old heifers from £7 15s. to £9 15s. each ; yearlings from £4 to £7 a-piece ; two-year-old bullocks fetched from £8 to £9 15s. each for those in best condition ; one-year- old heifers fetched from £3 15s. to £5 15s. each. In the sheep fair the buying was pretty good for the best-looking wethers, which brought from 55s. to 56s. a-piece. Best wether mutton quoted at 6d. per lb. There was a small supply of lambs, and those of an attractive character brought fuUy 40s. each: general run of prices from 30s. to 35s. each. The swine fair was characterized by much spirited buying during the day. Bacon on foot varied in price from 43s. to 45s. per cwt. Pork about 48s. per ditto, sinking the offal. Store pigs from 40s. to 60s. each ; bonnives, 6s, to 10s, each- SALE OF THE DUKE OF HAMILTON'S STOCK. The whole of this stock, which was sold at the Home Farm, at Merryton, on Tuesday, Nov. 6, made up by far the largest sale of its kind that ever has taken place in Scotland, and it is below the estimate to s.ay that 3,000 people were congregated together. There were 320 pigs, comprising large, middle, and small breeds, from the stocks of Messrs. Wainman, Ducker- ing, Sterne, and Finlay, which realised in all upwards of £500. In sheep there were some very superior animals, comprising four pure-bred Leicester shearling rams, which have obtained first prizes this season at Edinburgh and Alnwick, the best one, bred by Rev. W. Bosanquet, being knocked down to Mr. Drew (who managed the Home Farm for the Duke, and who has taken a lease of it now on liis own account) for £23. The nest best one was secured by Mr. Bruce, Aberdeen, for £13, and the other two, which realized £12 10s. and £9 re- spectively, went to Mr Fleming, Kilkerran, and Mr. Drew. The whole of the 77 Leicester ewes were secured by Mr. Drew at prices varying from £S 10s. to £3, the majority of them being £6 and over. Cross-bred lambs, of which there were 103, fetched from 23s. to 24s. each. The famous Ayrshire stock of cows, which lias always been a prominent feature at the Home Farm, had eager buyers, especially those of them that were at all " well come." Such of them as did not fetch a price over £20 had no formal pedigree, and did not impress practical buyers, who study the desirable points of excellence of the cow kind. The largest sum realised for Ayrshires was £50 for Black Cow, who had gained first as a two-year-old in milk at Hamilton in 1863, first at Kilbride for the best cow in milk, and silver medal for best of all the prize cows in 1866 at Kilbride — a place where many good animals of the kind are brought forward. The cow is a five-year-old, and was bought by Mr. Flemiug, Kilkerran. Blackhouse, now four years old, was the first prize heifer at the Royal Agricul- cultural Society's Show, Newcastle, in 1864, and was knocked down to Major Hamilton, Dalzell, at £37. The dam of the Q Q 2 538 THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE. former, ultliougb twelve years now, obtained the premier prize at the Highland Society's Show, Glasgow, ks " best cow in calf," and fetched £30 from Mr. Fleming. The Duke of Buc- cleuch purchased a verj- fine three-year-old, Airblacs, a prize- taker too, for £35. The Duchess of Athole secured Mary at £23, Kilbride at £20, and Castletou at £31, all very good cows. Mr. Fleming, in addition to Black Cow, obtained Dandy at £35, one of the very best three-year-olds in the herd, although never exhibited ; and Stranger, also a capital three-year-old, at £3-i. Sir Edward Colebrooke, Mr. Lyall, (Old Montrose), Sir Alexander Maitland, and Mr. Drew were purchasers of some of the best of the herd at prices varying from £-0 to £30. Botli one and two-year-old heifers, and even calves, realized considerable sums, varying from £5 to £25, one black and white calf of considerable form and feature realising £15. BuUs were by no means much sought after, being comparatively less meritorious than the cows. Dreg- horn, a four-year-old of good form, fetched £21, and Brockie and Stranger each realized £19 10s. and £10, by no means large prices. A very promising one-year-old, named Petti- grew, fetched £13, after some spirited bidding. In all they comprised 143 lots, and although some of them were well sold, many of them did not realise the prices anticipated. There were thirty-nine horses of the Clydesdale breed ; many of them, the mares especially, of first-rate excellence. The sale, which had been kept up with unflagging animation throughout the day, seemed to have culminated at this point, and it re- quired all the efforts of the posse of police to maintain order, all seemed so eager to be immediate spectators of the respective lots. The first one exhibited was a brown mare, Jess, five j'ears old, bred by Mr. Buchanan, Coldroch ; sire Sir Walter Scott, gained second prize at Highland Society's Show at Kelso as a two- year-old in 1863, and first in Hamilton as a three-year-old in 1864 ; this fell to Mr. Drew at £57. Jane, six years old, which gained first prize both at Hamilton and Glasgow in 1863, fell to Mr. Drew at £35. Another six-year-old black mare, named Missie, caused considerable excitement, owing to her fine form and condition, and was eventually knocked down to Mr. J. Hunter, Aldhouseburn, at £73. A fine three-year-old bay mare. Mall, fell to the Duke of Buccleuch, at £65 ; and a very good one of the same colour was secured by I\Ir. James Bell, Woodhouselee, Dumfries, at £48. A four-year-old bay mare. Darling, was bought for Lieut-Col. Lund, Woodford Park, Lancashire, at £44 ; and Bess, a three-year-old of the same colour, wliich was first as a two-year-old at the Highland Society's Sliow in Inverness in 1865, and first in Kilbride a year later, was bought for Major Stapleton, Myton Hall, York- shire, at £47. A tine-formed brown mare, Kate, fell to the bidding of Mr. Drew, at £69. Maggie, of tlie same colour, an eight-year-old, which gained first prize at Hamilton, and first at Glasgovr in 1862, second at Battersea in the same year, and first at Kelso in 1853, after some brisk bidding fell to Mr. Drew, at £75. The next lot was a beautiful bay mare, called Kosie, the gem among the Clydesdales at Merryton, four years old, bred by Mrs. Barr, Barrangray, sire Garibaldi, gained first prize as a one-year-old at Kelso in 1863, first as a two-year-old a; Royal Society's Show, Newcastle, and also at Stirling in 1864, first at Higliland Society's Show in Inverness in 1865, and first at Kilbride in 1866. The first olfer made was £80, and then £90 and £100, in £10 bids, not the least faltering or vacilla- tion up to £200. The battle now remained between Mr. Drew, the enterprising tenant, and Mr. M'Inlay, the horse-dealer in Glasgow, who was evidently working on commission, and there was scarcely a murmur until the hammer fell at Mr. Drew's bidding of £220 — a large sum certainly for a drauyht mare. The same buyer also secured a two-year-old filly, bred by Mr. Pollock, sire Champion, at £73 ; and another one nearly as good for £66. Mr. Balfour, Balbirnie, Mr. Blanc Kerr, of Castlehill, and Mr. Kirkwood, Killermont, also obtained good horses at prices varying from £35 to £47. " The total result of the sale was £4,286. GREAT CHEESE SHOW AT KILMAR- NOCK. The entries of cheese for the last four shows were succes- sively 470, 531, 636, and 647. This year they amount to 754. It IS a magnificent display on the tables, and a great credit to the four counties— Ayr, Wigtown, Kirkcudbright, and Dumfries — which contribute to it. The general quality of the cheese is eciual, if not rather superior, to any previous show ; and the prize-list shows that the circle of first-rate makers is widening year after year. Mr. James Cowper, Midkclton, Castle Douglas, is the famous man this year. He is first in the gold-medal class for Cheddar cheese ; first in the great open class for the four counties and Cantyre, in which there are 100 entries ; first in the sweep- stake class ; and woidd have been placed first for imitation- Wiltshire, if his cheeses had not been too large. And his cheeses were thus placed by two sets of judges, without com- munication with each other. This concordance of opinion, though remarkable to people unaccustomed to such work, is very usual at our shows. It is astonishing to see how exactly the notes of the judges correspond, though separately made, in going over hundreds of lots. Mr. Cowper was very closely pressed, in the gold-medal class, by a veteran maker — Mr. James M'Adam. The judges were so well pleased with Mr. M'Adam's cheese, that they re- commended the awarding of a silver medal to him. In the sweepstakes, Mr. White's dairyman, who was the great winner last year, came in second. It was a very near thing between him and Mr. Clark. In this class only one-fourth of the en- tries v^ere from Ayrshire ; and three of the twelve who are named by the judges are Ayrshire competitors. As usual, the greatest degree of interest is felt in the great class — No. 3 — open to all the contributing counties. Ayr- shire has made a good appearance in it, by carrying off seven out of ten prizes. AVe trust it may be taken as an indication of this county coming abreast of Galloway, after having fallen behind for several years. Dumfriesshire has not done much at this show ; but if the makers in that county persevere, we doubt not they will benefit by the successful rivalry which has raised so highly the character of the dairies of Wigtown and the Stewartry. In the classes which are open for cheese of other kinds than Cheddar, the judges remark that the Cheddar character evi- dently predominates in a great number of the best lots. This is hardly right ; but it is not easy to guard against it. The Cheddar practice is more or less adopted by most of the far- mers who pride themselves in the idea of adhering to old cus- toms. Some of the so-called Dunlop exhibitors are candid enough to admit this ; and they say that many of their com- peting friends might make similar admissions. There is every degree of crossing, up to the verge of being thoroughbred. These classes add somewhat to the interest which is felt in the show ; but we do not see very clearly the propriety of giv- ing prizes in this way for Cheddar cheese, which would not be placed in the regular classes. Great quantities of cheese have come forward for the cheese fair. There are probably about 250 tons in the sheds. Mr. Templeton, Kilmarnock, has nearly CO tons in the market. Although the cheese trade has been dull of late, business has begun with animation ; and a number of sales have been made before we send olf our express. The highest we h.ive heard mentioned is 74s. 8d. per cwt. There are cheese-merchants in attendance from London, Bath, Manchester, Preston, Edin- burgh, Glasgow, and other great centres of business. — Ayr Advertiser. SALE OF THE STOAVE HEREFORDS.— This sale on Friday, Oct. 19, drew togetlier one of the largest companies ever seen in Herefordshire, there being present not only our county breeders, but many from all parts of the kingdom. The prices obtained, however, for the cows were only moderate, the highest being 30 guineas for Young Bronith, 33 each for Cornflower and Kitty, and 42 for Elegance (Chieftain — Stately). Some of the calves sold well. A Cinderella bull- calf by Chieftain fetched 32 guineas ; another Chieftain calf from Catherine, 20 guineas ; a Sir Thomas bull-calf from Mistake, 25 guineas; anotherSir Thomas bull-calf from Kitty, 31 guineas. Old Chieftain, by Bedstone, fetched 51 guineas. For Sir Thomas (Sir Benjamin — Lady Ann) there was some competition between Mr. Pitt, of Chadnor, and Mr. Rogers, of the Grove, the latter ultimately securing him at the very high figure of 390 guineas ! Clansman (Chieftain — Cinderella) went to Mr. Meredith, of Yatton, for 29 guineas ; Grandee (Chieftain— Grand Duchess) to Mr. Tomkyns Dew for 85 guineas; andAVhitney (Sir Thomas — Elegance) to Mr. Good- win for 100 guineas. The other stock fetched fair prices, and the total result of the sale was satisfactory. The FARMER'S MAaAzmE. 53d SALE OF ME. G. M. ALLENDER'S STOCK. — This Sale of well-bred Shorthorns and Berkshire pigs took place on Tuesday, Oct. 30, at Aylesbury. The cattle did not make high prices, but the pigs sold very well, notwithstanding the unfa- vourable weather and the late hour at wliich the business com- menced. Eifteen sows averaged £10 each, and of the boars the two ready for use brouglit respectively 9 guineas and 5 guineas, but the latter was a purchased animal, as was also a sow that only went up to 5 guineas ; the home-bred lots hav- ing all the call. Mr. AUender is leaving Buckinghamsliire, and, as it is rumoured, will now try his hand at farming in America, one of the earliest results of Mr. James Howard's Club paper. ANNUAL SALE OF FAT STOCK AT MENTMORE.— A sale of 552 fat sheep, by direction of Baron Meyer de Rothschild, took place on Wednesday, Oct. 19, on the premises at Mentmore. The highest prices given were 8Cs. per head for fine half-bred ewes, and 76s. ditto for Hampshire Down ewes, other fine sheep going at from 70s. to 74s. each. The total amount realised was £1,603 15s., averaging £3 19s. 6d. each. Baron Rothschild was present during the sale. Those who attended the sale noticed that the meadows around the man- sion at Mentmore are being covered with Welsh cattle, chiefly for grazing and fattening. During the past year the Baron lost nearly 300 head of cattle at Jlentmore and Clieddington by the rinderpest, only 21 cows having been spared. THE AGRICULTURAL CUSTOMS COMMITTEE OF 1848. — It may occur to a reader who does not know much of farmers that if they want these compensations they should stipulate for them when they take their farms. But a perusal of this report will show that what appears simple and obvious is very difficult. A farmer who went to a landlord's agent to prescribe the new conditions on which he would take a farm would be told that, if he did not choose to take it upon the old conditions, some other farmer would. Improvement must ori- ginate with landlords wl\o have intgUigence to see what is wanted, and pecuniary means to accomplish it. Notwithstand- ing the great advance which English agriculture has made since 1848, there are probably many districts which might be benefited by adopting the methods of improvement de- scribed in this report, which is also valuable as showing the most hopeful remedy for the ills of Ireland. Both countries want landlords like Lord Yarborough, who transplanted the Lincolnshire tenant-right, with modifications, to the Isle of Wight. E.Kperieuce has justified the opinion expressed by the committee, that a liberal system of compensation to the out- going tenant is beneficial to agriculture, to the landlord, and to the farmer ; that it leads to great increase in the productive- ness of the soil, and to extended employment of the rural popu- lation. But any attempt to make the general adoption of such a system compulsory would be met by great practical difficulties, and the committee could do no more than express their hope that it would be adopted by voluntary arrangement between landlords and tenants. This is the only reasonable answer that can be given to the demand for statutory tenant-right, whether in England or in Ireland. — The Salnrday Review. THE HEREFORD CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE.— The first meeting of this society was held at Hereford on Wed- nesday, Oct. 31, with the object of considering the regulations regarding the cattle traffic. Mr. Duckham, however, who had undertaken to opeu the subject, was not present, but wrote a letter proposing to adjourn the meeting for a week. Some dissent being expressed to the adoption of this course, it was suggested that, as there were present some members from a distance, it might be convenient to hear the opinions enter- tained by Mr. Duckham. The meeting, by the narrow ma- jority of one — the numbers being 5 to 4 — decided that Mr. Duckham's paper need not be read until the adjourned meeting ; and the chairman thereupon handed it to a dissentient to read it for himself if he thought proper to do so. This concluded the business ! THE SCARCITY OF LABOUR.— It is now a quarter of a century since we were aU complaining of a redundant popu- lation, and crying out for some mode of reducing a plethora which seemed to outgrow all available means of subsistence. Emigration was the remedy most frequently prescribed and most favourably received. And emigration has now been going on until it carries off annually a number of people nearly equal to the annual excess of births over deaths. In Qther words, the aggregate population of the United Kingdom remains very nearly stationary. Of course this result is mainly due to the absolute decrease in the amount of the Irish popu- lation. But this IS not irrelevant to the question, which is one of the supply of labour, generally, throughout Great Britain and Ireland. Since 1850 an impetus has been given to every kind of production and every kind of manufactory. New kinds of manufacture have been introduced, and old kinds extended. The demand everywhere is for hands, more hands. Strike after strike attests the insufficient numbers and the compact organization of the operatives. The army shares this want. The recruiting sergeant complains as much as the capitalist. Nor is it only in mills and large establishments, or in the army, that this inadequacy of the labouring population shows itself. The want of domestic servants is more sensibly felt every day. Higher wages are paid than formerly, and less effective service is given. Emigration tells too upon this class. New fields of employment open out for men in the colonies no less than at home. The men, too, who return home, after making some money, for the purpose of marrying, not unfrequently select English maid-servants as their wives. All this tells upon the supply of labour in England. And it will tell far more sensi- bly in the course of a few years. Emigration begets emigra- tion, and one kind of employment or investment necessitates another. So far from finding our population redundant, we shall soon regard it as stinted. — The Saturday Eevieto. THE SMITHFIELD CLUB. At a meeting of the Council, held November 7th, 1866, present. Lord Feversham (in the chair). Lord Walsingham (V.P.), Lord Tredegar (V.P.), Major-General the Hon. A.N. Hood, Messrs. J. Clayden, Samuel Druce, Josh. Druce, Thos. Duckham, W. Farthing, Jno. Giblett, C. Howard, R. Leeds, R. Milward, R. Overman, E. Pope, W. Rigden, Henry Smith, Robt. Smith, T. Twitchell, O. Wallis, and B. T. Brandreth Gibbs, Hon. Sec. — The Council came to the resolution that no steps be taken by the Council of the Smithfield Club to obtain a relaxation of the Orders of P;-ivy Council in reference to the Cattle Plague. The Council appointed the Judges for the ensuing show. Mr. John Painter, of Forest Road, Nottingham, was elected a Member of the Council, to fill the vacancy caused by the death of the late Mr. W. Fisher Hobbs. The Council, in conformity with the bye-laws, prepared the " House-list " of eight members of the Club, whom they re- commend for election on the Council to succeed those who will retire by rotation in December next. The following were elected members of the Club : Joseph Beach, Flour Mills, Dudley ; Edmund Beck, Oswick, Fakeu- ham, Norfolk ; Jno. H. Cassvvell, Laughton, Folkingham ; Jas. S. Cocksedge, Stowmarket ; Thos. Horley, jiin., The Fosse, near Leamington ; Alfred R. Howland, Ludesdon House, near Thame ; F. C. Matthews, Driflield ; W. Wells, llolmewood, Peterborough ; Edmund F\ Woods, Stowmarket. REVIEW THE FARMERS' ALMANAC AND CALENDAR FOR 1867, being the Third after Bissextile or Leap Year. By CuTHBERT W. JoHiMSON, Esq., F.R.S., and William Shaw, Esq. London : Ridgway, 169, Piccadilly. This well-known, useful, and amusing almanac needs but little recommendation with those who have been in the habit of nsiug it in past seasons. Everything requisite in a book of tlie kind will be found here, and, in addition, much valuable information on subjects connected with husbandry, which if attended to and adopted would lead to satisfactory results. Every operation on the farm has its proper time for its per- formance, and an unnecessari/ delay is inexcusable. We can- not command the weather or regulate the seasons, but we can " seize Time by the forelock" instead of hanging on behind ; and the difference at the end of the season is sure to show itself in the result. The Farmers' Almanac reminds the far- mer of the proper time to perform all and any of the work on the farm, and is therefore of great value as an assistant to that numerous class who possess short memories, and are apt to allow their opportunities to pass by unimproved. The general information on matters of rural economy is also v;iluable, and the whole work is written in a lively and pleasing style, which adds much to its acceptability with the pulilic. 540 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE, FOREIGN AGRICULTURAL GOSSIP. Some revy interesting statistics have been prepared in France to show the progress made in the production of wheat iu that country. In 1815, the number of hectares (a hectare is about two acres English) sown with wheat was 4,591,677, and the number of hectolitres secured was 39,460,971, givmg an ave- rage of 8.59 hectolitres per hectare. In 1858, the number of hectares sown with wheat was 6,639,688, and the number of hectolitres secured was 109,989,747, giving aa average of 16.56 hectoHtres per hectare (a hectolitre, it may be observed, is 198 lbs. Enghsh). It is right to add that 1858 seems to have been an exceptionally good year. Be this as it may, the cultivation of wheat in France appears to have increased during the 43 years ending 1858 to the extent of about 2,000,000 hectares, while the crop secured was three times as large as formerly. Taking a review of four periods of 10 or 11 years each, we find the following average returns : From 1815 to 1825, 10.95 hectoHtres per hectare ; from 1826 to 1836, 12.35 hectolitres per liectare ; from 1836 to 1846, 13 hectolitres per hectare ; and from 1846 to 1857, 13.70 liectolitres per hectare. We may add the following data with reference to more recent years : Year. Hectares sown. Hectolitres obtained. 1861 6,754,227 75,116,287 1862 6,881,613 99,292,224 1863 6,918,768 116,781,794 1864 6,839,073 111,274,018 1865 6,891,440 95,431,028 The average yield per hectare was thus: In 1861, 11.22 hec- tolitres; in 1862, 14.43 hects. ; in 1863, 16.88 hects.; in 1864, 16.15 hects. ; and in 1865, 13,85 hects. There is thus a continued evident progression, and even if we had not a robust faith in statistics it would be very easy to arrive at a similar conviction, from the thousand-and-one facts of which every one is an eye-witness in the country districts of France. Thus every one admits that the French have increased their artificial meadows, their roots, and their cattle. Every one admits also that the price and rent of land have been increasing in France — at least until recently ; and it would be contrary to all elementary notions of rural economy that these facts should not be some the cause and the others the efiect of heavier crops of cereals. M. de Lavergne is without contra- diction one of those economists who have the most deeply studied tliese questions, and we may be permitted to be of his opinion when he writes, after having compared the economic situation of 1855 with that of 1865 : " A new order of ques- tions seems to open. This time it is no longer production which fails consumption, but rather consumption which does not suf- fice for production." It has been remarked that the population of France has ceased to increase in the proportions of the period comprised between 1815 and 1858. This is possible. But however it may be, one fact seems established, viz., that in the present state of a French population which is neither rich nor numerous enough to consume every year crops of wheat frequently attaining 100,000,000 hectolitres per annum at the least, it is necessary for France to guard itseli' against crises of superabundance. Evidently but for the export trade, these crises would be attended with very sad results for agriculture, especially in districts in which, from a want of sufficient capital, cultivators are obliged to sell their crops in order to provide for the most rigorous payments. Commercial liberty seems to have been secured to France as a consequence of the increase in her agricultural production. — We have received some particulars as to the annual shows of fat stock which will take place in France in 1867. These meetings will be held April 9 at Lille, Nancy, Chateauroux, and Nimes, and April 10 at Nantes, Bordeaux, and Lyons. As regards the general meeting at Poissy, it will be held April 17. No important modification has been introduced mto the programmes, but it will be re- marked that the exhibition of Chateauroux is of recent founda- tion ; 80 that there vfill be in 1867 seven state district shows of fat stock instead of six. The amount of the prizes which will be awarded at these meetings is as foDows : Beasts, £4,560 ; cows, £577 : calves, £49^ sheep, £827 and pigs, £398 ; making a total of £6,411. The total sum which will be awarded at each meeting will be as follows : LiUe, £475 ; Nancy, £407 ; Chateauroux, £548 ; Nimes, £573 ; Nantes, £575 ; Lyons, £484 ; and Poissy, £3,014. This year the total amount of the prizes awarded in French exhibitions of fat stock amounted to £5,879 ; so that the sum proposed to be awarded in prizes next year shows an increase of £532, as compared with 1866. At Chateauroux, as at the other exhibitions of fat stock in France, there will be a special competition for young beasts, whatever may be their race, aad also a competioiou for young sheep, without distinction of breed. In order to be admitted to the Poissy show, breeders and graziers must address their declarations to the Minister of Agriculture, at the latest, March 15, 1867.— The cattle plague, which has committed great ravages in the centre of Europe, appears to be in course of diminution. Thanks to the vigour displayed by the superior authorities of the province of Antwerp, the Belgian territories have been almost entirely spared ; and, since the commencement of the disease in Holland, the number of centres of typhus, which this authority has stamped out, is estimated at twenty. The epidemic has declared itself in several localities immediately adjoining the Grand Duchy of Baden ; and the college of the canton of Bale, in order to protect the Swiss territory from the contagion, decided that cattle coming from Baden could only enter by railway, and having been submitted to a serious examination. The same disease, which had committed some ravages in Lower Austria and in the Vorarlberg, has dimin- ished at several points, and at others it has entirely disap- peared.— We learn with regret the death of Baron d'Herhn- court, Deputy to the Corps Legislatif, and Vice-president of the Agricultural Society of the Pas-de-Calais. We have also to record the death of M. Coutanceau, one of the dozens of agriculture in the departement of the Charente Ink'rieure. The Agricultural Society of the Dordogne has awarded its first prize of honour for 1866 to MM. Vallade Freres, who, adapting their cultivation to the general position of the dis- trict, have improved their workings by means of Metayage, M. Coignet, in a report presented to the society on the sub- ject, states that the Ch&tenet estate, belonging to MM. Valade, produced its proprietors a profit of £115 in 1865, as com- pared with £59 in 1846. Here, then, is a metayage \\\i\^ has doubled its profits in 20 years, and that without great immo- bilizations of capital, and almost entirely by the extension of forage well adapted to the soil. The metayer excels in breed- ing stock, and to profit from this aptitude is the great secret of rural improvements by metayage. — The Journal of Agricul- ture Pratique gives an engraving of an Algerian cow and a Tuscan beast exhibited by M. Foacier de Ruze and Sanson, breeders at the Kroub, in the province of Constantino (Algeria), at the Poissy meeting of 1866, and which received prizes on that occasion. In 1865, MM. de Euze and Samson also sent beasts for exhibition at Poissy. They possess in the province of Constantiue a great working, in which they graze every year 3,500 to 3,000 beasts, and nearly 10,000 sheep, which supply a large butcher's establish- ment at Constantine, the animals which are not consumed on the spot being forwarded to Marseilles. In thus improving the management of animals, MM. de Ruz^ and Samson have succeeded rapidly in improving the Algerian breed of cattle, and in rendering the grazing of cattle a very lucrative in- dustry. It is doubtful, however, whether they can by cross- ings with the Aubrac and Pyrennean breeds, as M. Sambuc has proposed, obtain equally satisfactory results. M. Chazeley, sul)-director of the Grand-Jouan School of Agriculture, has collected some interesting statistical data in illustration of the wool-producing power of Southdown sheep. Thus he states as follows the ratio of the weight of fleeces to the weight of several animals : — Jonas Webb ram, aged 27 months, 3.647 per cent.; Jonas Webb rams, aged 15 months, 6.937 per cent. ; Jonas Webb sheep, aged 15 months, 7.101 per cent. ; crossed sheep, aged 15 months, 11.271 per cent. ; ordinary Southdown sheep, aged 16 months, 7.638 per cent.; Jonas THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 641 Webb ewes, aged from 27 mouths to 7 years, 5.121 per ceut. ; Jonas Webb ewes, aged 15 months, 6.676 per cent.; South- down ordinary ewes, aged from 27 months to 6 years, 5.822 per cent. ; Southdown ewes, aged 15 months, 7.491 per cent. ; crossed ewes, aged 27 months to 8 years, 6.557 per cent. ; and crossed ewes, aged 15 months, 9.877 per cent. M. Cha^ely considers that a great accumulation of fat is unfavourable to the production of wool. He also argues that the Southdown is not a good wool-producing race, and that mixed-bred animals are better in this respect than pure-bred animals. The important question of the prevention of future inunda- tions in France continues to occupy the attention of the Em- peror's Government, as well as of the Emperor himself. M. Behic, Minister of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works, announces, in a report addressed to tlie Emperor, that tvro great barrages have been established — one at Annonay, in the basin of the Rhone, and the other at St, Etienne, or rather at Rochetaillee, in the basin of the Loire. CALENDAR OF AGRICULTURE* Plough stubble lands for next year's fallows, in fresh weather. Repah' old fences, and make new ones. Continue the cutting of drains so long as the weather allows. Mend roads. Cast up earths for making composts ; and collect for manure all earthy and vegetable substances that can be got. Flood meadows, and lay dry occasionally. Cut underwoods, and fill up vacancies by planting and layering. Plant all kinds of forest trees, especially ash and oak. Keep all fences in g,ood repair, to prevent trespassing, which is a sure sign of slovenly management. Raise turnips, and store the bulbs in dry weather. Give the tops to young cattle in the yards, and to the store sheep in the fields. Early lambs will be dropped during this month, and sooner in some places. Feed the ewes very liberally, and provide good shelter. Durmg frosty weather, thrash often by machine, and htter the yards evenly and thinly in frequent applications of straw, and best cut into shoit lengths by the power of the thrashing machinery. Bring lime to be mi.Ked with the earths in compost, and carry stones or tiles where wanted for drains. Carry fuel, timber, and faggots. The live stock require a constant and vigilant attention, in getting the food regularly in time and quantity, and in having a dry bed and com- fortable in the sheds and yards. The steamer must be constantly employed in cooking hays, straws, and roots, for horses, cows, pigs, and poultry, in a fresh, and not in a sour, condition. Give the cattle the turnips from the store pits in stormy weather, but from the fields daily when the season permits. The drains and culverts must all be in open order, to conduct the hquids of the farmery to the tank. The cattle in the yards will eat most comfortably under cover, chiefly in stormy latitudes, through spout-holes in the wall of the outer shed, and in cribs placed longitudinally ; or the whole area of the yards may be covered over, hke the terminus of a railway. The farm buildings must be yearly insured by the proprietor; and the crops, animals, and all moveable articles by the farmer. The neglect is most culpable, and an injustice committed, not only against the parties themselves, but to the public at large. The farmers have got an insurance-office, at 3, Norfolk-street, Strand, for their own purposes, and also for general benefit. CALENDAR OF GARDENING. KitCHEN Garden. Frost may set-in early; and therefore every means of defence for plants in frames, under glasses, and on warm borders, such as matting, littery straw, and fern, ought to be at hand. In this way, late-sown radishes are preserved under straw, which, however, should be raked off in open, sunny weather. Little can be added to the directions of last month. All is contingent ; and if the weather be open, there is every probability that it will be wet; and then to trample in, and work ground saturated with water, is only to do mischief. Sea-kale : Pot and excite a second set of plants. Brick pits and darkened frames, with good linings, would be a great convenience, and prevent much litter. Asparagus is easily forced upon deep beds of leaves raked from woods and parks, avoiding those of laurels and evergreens generally. The plants should be prepared in proper beds, and selected from the best two or three-year-old stock. Brick pits are the best erections; but good frames set upon leaves, with warm hnings, will do well. Flower Garden. Cover the ground with half-decayed leaves, of lay cakes of moss among the shrubs, with edginga of small stones ; and brush snow from evergreens before the sun shines hot upon them — alternate meltings and freezings ruin foliage. 642 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH. November has passed, as it generally does, with variable and fo^p;y weather ; but there have been desolating floods in the northern counties, doing a mischief unknown for thirty years, and leading to some loss of life ; while on the night of the '20th there was a frost of 6 degrees, leading to the im- pression that the weatherwise who had predicted a hard winter were about to see the fulfilment of their predictions. On the week of the floods it was remarkable that the extraordinary meteoro- logical display occurred, suggesting the idea that it had something to do with the violent storms. Though field labours were occasionally suspended, a general progress in sowing has been made where- ever practicable ; and the plants that were up early have made favourable progress, and there is no fear this season that much ground will be un- occupied. The course of prices has been upwards, especially in the third week ; but there were reac- tionary symptoms on the last Monday, leaving a previous gain of about 3s. quite uncertain as to its permanency, though in the long run we still have the impression that should it be lost for a time— say, up to Christmas — it will eventually be more than recovered. An average season of home- growth, it has been proved, by the course of half a century, is not enough for this country's wants ; but who, after the short markets we have had for months, after a material rise, can believe that this year's harvest reaches so far ? Nothing has oc- curred in France to invalidate the reiterated re- ports that her yield is one-fourth below the usual amount; and, what is more confirmatory as to the failure of liberal foreign supplies for the future, is the late important announcement in credible quarters that the teeming alluvial soils of America this season v^ill scarcely exceed half an average growth. Such reports, if true, would have been suflSciently alarming, but for the fact that maize has been more than usually abundant; yet a rise in this grain of 4s. per qr. at New York, at a time when it was thought every available vessel would be taken up for its export to Europe, confirms the bad account of the wheat crop, and so maize must be extensively used as its substitute. Besides this, it appears this Indian corn has been seriously les- sened in bulk by heavy rains and sharp frosts. To the Baltic therefore and Southern Russia we must look for the future, as the cultivation of cot- ton in Egypt has cut off this source, v/hich was the former dependence of Imperial Rome in times of dearth. But in the appropriation of these sources we must throughout the entire season meet the competition of France; and it is a mo- mentous question whether the supplies of this year's produce (for there is scarcely any old corn left) will be equal to the demand, and be it remem- bered, moreover, that all corn has followed in the wake of wheat. The following were the recent quotations of the several places named : White native wheat at Paris was worth 68s. per qr., red to 66s., red in Belgium 62s., Polish in Amsterdam 70s., Zealand white at Rotterdam 62s., good red at Hambro' 62s., the same at Stettin 56s., Rostock 38s., for the best high-mixed at Dantzic 70s., cost and freight included. In parts of Spain it was more moderate — say, 53s. at Valladohd for white. At Odessa PoHsh red 43s., at Galatz 42s. ; at New York middling red spring — say, Chicago and Mil- waukie No. 2 — 55s. per 480lbs., amber fine 74s. 6d., extra fine white Michigan 80s. The first Monday in Mark Lane commenced on fair supplies of English wheat, with liberal arrivals from abroad. The show of samples from Kent and Essex during the morning was moderate, and the general condition not very prime. Millers then seemed to entertain the notion that the mar- ket was under their power, and very low bids were made in the early part of the day, which were instantly declined by factors ; but as time wore on, some sales at the Kentish stands were made at a reduction of 2s. per qr., and this seemed to set the price of the day, being generally accepted by Essex factors. Holders of foreign, notwith- standing good arrivals from Russia, were in no disposition to give way, as the ports were expected soon to close, so very little business was trans- acted. In cargoes afloat no diflference was noted. The country markets this week were very little disposed to follow London, though a general dul- ness was observable, with some reduction in low qualities; while several places accepted Is. per qr. decline on good samples, as was the case at Bury St. Edmunds, Salisbury, Rugby, Leighton Buz- zard, and Wolverhampton, and in a few instances the reduction was 2s. per qr. At Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen business was dull, but prices not lower. With deliveries short at most of the Irish markets, there was no quotable change. On the second Monday the English supplies were less, and the foreign were unusually small. The show of samples this morning at the Essex and Kentish stands was extremely limited, and seemed to express the dissatisfaction of farmers at the previous week's decline. A reaction then ensued to the full extent of Is. per qr. ; but busi- ness was by no means lively. The principal busi- ness was in foreign, and in several instances rather more money was made of Russian and Baltic de- scriptions. Cargoes afloat also were the turn dearer, with fair sales. This was a very peculiar week. The earlier country markets were many of them heavy, or, at most, only reported an advance of Is. : but, before the week had ended, a brisk trade sprung up, with an advance 2s. to 3s. per qr., in which London participated on Friday, with a still larger proportionate advance on maize, in con- sequence of advices from New York. At Glasgow, THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE. 543 the rise was not over Is. ; but at Edinburgh it was Is. to 2s. Wheat at Dublin was Is. per barrel dearer ; but at Cork, only more firmness was noted ; and this was the case at Waterford. The third Monday commenced on a moderate English supply, with a fair quantity of foreign. The number of samples exhibited on the Kentish and Essex stands was limited ; and Friday's ex- traordinary advance was more than confirmed, sales being freely made at 3s. to 4s. per qr. beyond the quotations of the previous Monday. There was a large attendance from the country, and a similar advance was realized on foreign; but the sale of the higher qualities was limited, and slow. An enormous business was transacted in floating cargoes, 2s. per qr. more money being very freely paid. The country markets this week in very few instances came up to the London advance. Some were only Is. dearer, more were fully 2s., and very many were fully 2s. ; but the numbers lessened as the advance was greater, say 3s., and but few came up to 4s. per qr. Liverpool was 6d. per cental dearer on Tuesday, and fully as dear on Friday. At Glasgow, wheat rose Is. to Is. 6d.per boll, and at Edinburgh 2s. per qr. The movement was not so rapid or decided in Ireland : at Cork, it did not exceed 6d. to Is, per barrel of 280ll)s. The fourth Monday commenced on a fair Eng- lish, and very liberal foreign, arrivals. The morning show from Kent and Essex was better than of late, especially from the latter county. This, together v/ith the free supplies of foreign and the near approach of Christmas, when pay- ments must be made for this day's purchases, was quite against the trade. Millers for a long time held quite aloof, but eventually made some offers of 2s. reduction on the previous rates, which not being accepted, the bulk was held over. Some sales of Russian were made at Is. decline; but Baltic qualities were not offered lower. The imports into London for four weeks were 25,262 qrs. English wheat, 73,090 qrs. foreign ; against 23,207 qrs. English, 48,195 qrs. foreign for the same period in 1865. The London exports were 2,400 qrs. wheat, 156 cwts. flour. The im- ports into the kingdom for four weeks ending 17th November were 1,524,573 cwts. wheat, 263,657 cwts. flour. The London averages com- menced at 59s. 2d., and closed at 62s. id. : the general average commenced at 52s. 6d., and closed at 56s. 7d. The flour trade has fluctuated as to values in the course of the month, but, on the whole, has gained to the extent of 4s, per sack, both in country, town-made, and foreign qualities. The improvement in American barrels has not been to the same extent, say, 2s. per barrel, as they were held relatively high previously, from the great scarcity of good samples and the improbability of further supplies from the high rates paid at New York. Norfolks have passed from 42s. to 46s., town qualities from 53s. to 57s. ; fine barrels are quoted 34s., and anything extra might bring 35s. or more in retail. For extra States quality, white extra Missouri were worth 53s. at home. The im- ports into London for four weeks were 77,573 sacks country sorts, 45,737 sacks 11,824 barrels foreign ; against 80,982 sacks English, 1,524 sacks 3,838 barrels foreign, in 1S65. The barley trade, commencing at very high rates, has about maintained the value of malting qualities all through the month, 56s. being demanded for any- thing very extra, though such a price could not be quoted, but medium and low sorts have rather given way, say Is. to 2s. per qr., more especially on the last Monday, when the foreign supplies were largest. There are signs that prices have already reached their highest, and had it not been for the sudden advance in maize, we believe that rates ere this would have declined more decidedly. The imports into London for four months have been 21,109 qrs. British, 58,929 qrs. foreign, against 27,503 qrs. British and 11,870 qrs. foreign in 1865. Malt has fully maintained the price at which it commenced, old stocks being small, and some of the new samples very fine. The largest supplies of oats were on the first and fourth Mondays. On the first, new qualities rather gave way; on the second, with small supplies, they were stationary, buyers waiting for further arrivals, but these not coming, the third Monday was re- markable for a rise of Is. to Is, 6d. per qr. This advance was, however, scarcely sustained on the last Monday, and future rates must very much de- pend on the character of the winter. If early and severe enough to shut out Russian and Baltic sup- plies, oats may advance further; but should quanti- ties be pushed oft" in mild weather, we may see a reaction tiownwards, but the lateness of the har- vest in Scotland and its unsatisfactory character as to the quality and condition of the corn, indicates a dear season all through the winter months. The imports into London for four weeks were 9,146 qrs, English, 455 qrs. Scotch, 2,370 qrs. Irish, and 133,607 qrs. foreign, against 10,221 qrs. English, 1,630 qrs. Scotch, 2,958 qrs. Irish, and 138,629 qrs. foreign in 1865. All good hard beans have been in demand through the mouth, scarcely any new coming up to the requirements of buyers, prices have therefore further improved Is. to 2s. per qr. ; but as some this year have been grown in Egypt, all will de- pend on our supplies thence, which, very probably, will fall far short of former years, as cotton has continued to be extensively grown in that country, and has paid well. The imports into London for four weeks, were 4,275 qrs. English, 8,713 qrs. foreign, half of which were received in the last week, against 5,399 qrs. English and 2,088 qrs. foreign in 1865. Peas during the month have very little altered in value, but the tendency has been upward, to the ex- tent of Is. per qr., more perhaps in consequence of the advance m maize than anything else, this latter article being now extensively used for feeding horses, as well as old white peas. The rates of fine boilers are relatively the lowest, and have the best chance of improvement in consequence, espe- cially should the winter prove severe, and occa- sion a large demand for soup. The imports into London for four weeks were 3,643 qrs. English, 1,641 qrs. foreign, against 3,886 qrs. English and 5,677 qrs. foreign for the same period in 1865. Linseed, with a continuance of short supplies. 644 THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE. has maintained its high price, but as is usual, un- der such circumstances, the demand has been less- ened, and the exports have been small. English cakes hav^e been in constant demand at fully pre- vious rates, but foreign have not sold so freely. The seed trade has generally been pointing up- wards, more especially red cloverseed, the crop being very deficient here, and under an average in France. White seed has also hardened in value, fine qualities being scarce. Trefoil has been steady. Canary rather dearer. Winter tares have remained dull, and but in limited demand. Ditto, black 21 BEANS, Mazagan ...42 Harrow 45 PEAS, white, boilers..41 CUEF.ENT PRICES OF BRITISH GRAIN AND FLOUR IN lilARK LANE. Shillings per Quarter. WHEAT, Essex and Kent, white... old 58 72...new 52to67 „ ,, ,, red „ 56 67... „ 50 64 Norfolk, Lincoln, and Yorkshire, red 50 BARLEY 35 to 40 Chevalier, new 42 Grinding 33 36 Distilling 40 MALT, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk new 72 Kingston, Ware, and town-made ,, 72 Brown ,, 58 RYE 31 OATS, EngUsh, feed 24 to 31 Potato 28 Scotch, feed 24 ' 31 Potato 30 Irish, feed, white22 26 Pine 26 25 Potato 27 45 Ticks 42 50 Pigeon 48 45 Maple 40 to 43 Grey,new38 FLOUR, per sack of 2801bs., Town, Households 52 Country, on shore 44 to 47 ,, 47 Norfolk and Suffolk, on shore 44 FOREIGN GRAIN. Shillings per Quarter. WHEAT, Dantzic, mixed 61 to 65 old, extra 66 to 73 Konigsberg 60 61 extra 66 68 Rostock 57 66 fine 66 68 Silesian, red 56 62 white.... 60 Pomera., Meckberg., and Uckermrk. ...red old... 59 Russian, hard, 52 to 57... St. Petersburg and Riga 56 Danish and Holstein, red 55 French, none Rhine and Belgium 59 American, white 00, red winter 00 to 00, sprmg 00 BARLEY, grinding 30 to 32 ....distilling and malting 37 OATS, Dutch, brewing and Polands 23 to 33 feed 21 Danish and Swedish, feed 24 to 30.... Stralsund... 24 Canada22to25, Riga24to27,Arch.23to26, P'sbg. 24 TARES, Spring, per qr small 00 large ... 00 BEANS, Friesland and Holstein 40 Konigsberg 42 to 46... Egyptian' 42 PEAS, feeding and maple. ..38 40. ..fine boilers 40 INDIAN CORN, white 36 FLOUR, per sack, French.. 45 American, per brl 27 40...yeUow 36 50... Spanish, p. sack 46 30, ..extra and d'ble. 31 IMPERIAL AYEEAGES For the week ended Nov. 17, 1866. Wheat 69,649 qrs. 56s. 7d. Barley 78,677i „ 458. 3d. Oats 5,3021 „ 23s. 6d. COMPAEATIVE AYEEAGES. WHEAT. Years. Qrs. s. d. 1862... 65,47oi ... 49 4 1863... 87,492|- ... 39 10 1864... 71,616* ... 38 9 1865... 71,570| ... 46 11 1866... 69,619 ... 56 7 BARLEY. Qrs. s. d. 75,247i ... 36 4 83,522J ... 34 0 77,4991 ... 30 1 63,8161 ... 33 7 7S,C77i ... 45 3 OATS. Qrs. e. d. 12,6721 ... 21 5 8,017J ... 18 9 5,023f ... 19 11 5,240^ ... 22 9 5,3021 ... 23 6 AYEEAGES Foe thb last Six Weeks : Oct. 13, 1866 Oct. 20, 1866 Oct. 27, 1866 Nov. 3, 1866 Nov. 10, 1866 Nov. 17, 1866 Aggregate Average Averages last year Wheat. 8. d. 52 52 52 54 57 56 54 Barley. 8. d. 42 1 42 11 41 8 43 10 44 9 45 3 43 5 33 7 Oats, s. d. 23 0 22 11 22 10 23 3 LONDON AYEEAGES. Wheat 3118 qrs. 62s. Id. Barley 739 „ 438. od. 0»t9„,„„„.„„„. — „ QOs, Od. FLUCTUATIONS iu the AVERAGE PRICE of WHEAT. Price. 57s. 2d. 56s. 7d. 54s. 9d. 62s. 7d. 52s. 6d. 52s. 2d. Oct. 13. Oct. 20. Oct. 27. Nov. 3. Nov. 10. Nov. 17. ... r _ii :::f ... ::: L PRICES OF SEEDS. BRITISH [SEEDS. MusTAED, per bush., brown 15s. to 17s. white 128. to 158. Canary, per qr 68s. 688. Cloverseed, red 00s. 00s. Coriander, per cwt 18s. 208. Tabes, winter, new, per bushel 5s. Od. 5s. 6d. Trefoil 228. 25s. Ryegrass, per qr 22s. 248. Linseed, per qr., sowing 68s. to]72s., crushing 668. 708. Rapeseed, per qr 68s. 60s. Linseed Cakes, per ton £10 10s. to £12 Oa. Rape Cake, per ton £5 Os. to £5 10s. FOREIGN SEEDS. Coriander, per cwt 188.to20s. Cloverseed, red 52s. to 65s., white 72s. 84s. Trefoil 19s. 22s. Ryegrass, per qr 18s. 20s. Hempseed, small 38s. per qr., Dutch 40s. 42s. Linseed, per qr., Baltic 64s. to 68s. ..Bombay 69s. 708. Linseed Cakes, per ton £10 Os. to £12 Os. Rape Cake, per ton £5 Os. to £5 10s. Rapeseed, Dutch 58s. BOs. Caeraway ,, 40s. 42s. HOP MARKETS. BOROUGH, Monday, November 26.— The upward move- ment in the foreign markets has materially influenced our trade during the past week, hy increasing the demand for all Hops of the last growth, quotations of which are generally from 'is. to 6s. higher, and as the stock on hand is now very light another advance in prices appear inevitable. Reports from Bavaria and Bohemia speak of a further improvement in prices, and it is evident that from the exhaustion of the growth very few orders can now be executed for this market. The Belgian market is firm. New York advices to tlie 13th inst. state thai the Hop market is very firm, and without change, 62c. to 65c. being the value of prime and choice samples of tlie new crop. Yearlings and olds are not in request. Sussex Weald of Kent Mid and East Kent Farnham and Country Yearlings Olds 150s. to 168s. 150s. to 180s. 168s. to 231s. 170s. to 225s. 105s. to 150s. 50s. to 80s. WORCESTER HOP JIARKET, (Saturday last.)— With a better feeHug on this market to-day, and a very short supply of new hops on off'er by planters, rather improved prices are ob- tained, everything ofiFering finding buyers. Since our last re- port the public scale marks 117 pockets new and 38 pockets yearling as having been weighed. Choice golden and clean Mathon sorts £10 to £11, fine Coopers and best mixed white bine sorts £9 to £10 5s., fine Mayfield grapes £8 8s. to £9 ; red bines and mismanaged samples at irregular prices — all per cwt., cash at the scale. FOREIGN HOP INTELLIGENCE.— The last iuteUi- gence from Nuremberg is of the date of the 20th inst., and is to the effect that hut short supplies were at market. Higher prices ruled for this reason, and because the stores in the va- rious villages are nearly cleared out. An active tone prevailed, as it was considered that the market could not be influenced by importations of foreign liops. The quotations were from 100 to 145 florins (£8 6s. 8d. to £11 18s. 4d.), the last price being for Spalt hops. In the week preceding the 18th inst. there was much briskness in the Spalt market, as producers had yielded somewhat from their liigh pretensions, and the buyers had become convinced that stocks were low. Prices in the country have remained much the same. In some places as much as 180 florins have been paid. Many places are nearly cleared out. At the Munich market on the 17th 1,216 cwts. were on sale, but only 458 were disposed of. There were symptoms of a disposition to purchase, but the large arrivali had the tendency to lower prices. Hops from Upper or Lower THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 54£ Bavaria realized from 134. to 152 florins (11 3s. 4d. to £13 13s. 4i].) As the brewers around Prague have not yet laid in all their stocks, and as visits are still being paid by dealers to the hop-growing districts, high prices still prevail ; nothing less than 110 florins (£12) being paid. At Saatz, in Bohemia, there was no change in the markets ; for the finest light sam- ples as high as 200 florins, Austrian currency, equal to £20, have been paid, for red sorts 155 florins (£15 10s.) , and for green 100 to 115 florins (£10 to £13). But few hops had been brought to market at Bischweeier up to the latest date, and consequently but but few transactions are to be recorded; prices were firm. At Alost, in Belgium, on the 17th inst., a large quantity was disposed of at 14^0 to 150 francs (£5 16s. 8d. to £6 5s.) POTATO MARKETS. SOUTHWARK WATERSIDE. LONDON, Monday, Nov. 26.— During the past week the arrivals, both coastwise and by rail, have been liberal, and a fair supply from France. The trade rather dull towards the end of the week, at the following quotations ; Yorkshire Flukes per ton 100s. to 130s. „ Regents 90s. to 120s. Lincolnshire Regents 90s. to 110s. Dunbar and East Lothian Regents 100s. to 130s. Kent and Essex Regents Perth, Eorfar, and Fife Regents .. „ Rocks French wliites BOROUGH AND SPITALFIELDS. ' LONDON, Monday, Nov. 26. — Coastwise, as well as by rail, the arrivals of potatoes have been on a liberal scale. The trade, generally, presents the same appearance as at the date of our last report, fine parcels being readily disposed of at fuU quotations, whilst in inferior qualities next to nothing is doing. Last week's import amounted to 234 bags, 1,140 sacks from Dunkirk ; 10 bags Hamburgh ; 4 sacks Brussels ; 15 baskets Rotterdam ; 50 tons St. Brieux ; 498 sacks Dieppe ; 8 casks Bremen ; 94 tons Dahouet ; 5 packages Harhngen ; and 43 tons from Jersey. Yorkshire Regents 100s. to 130s. per ton. Flukes 110s. to 130s. „ Kent and Essex Regents 100s. to 130s. „ Scotch Regents 110s. to 140s. „ PERTH POTATO MARKET.— Tlie inquiry was not so brisk last week, and prices were rather in favour of buyers. Best sorts fetched 15s. 6d. to 16s. 6d. per boll of 3 cwt. Rocks and other inferior kinds 13s. to 13s. Retail prices lid. to Is. per peck of 281bs. PRICES of BUTTER, CHEESE, HAMS, &c. 90s. to 120s. 100s. to 110s. 90s. to 95s. 80s. to 85s. BUTTER, p. cwt.— B. s. Friesland 112 to 114 Jersey 94 110 Dorset 128 132 Carlow — — Waterford — — Cork — — liimerick — — Sligo — — Febsh, per doz., 12s. Od. to 168. Od. CHEESE, per cwt.— s. Cheshire 72 to i Dble. Gloucester 74 ' Cheddar 76 : American 66 HAMS: York 90 Cumberland 90 Irish — BACON :— Wiltshire 64 Irish, green 66 60 ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET. LONDON, Monday, Nov. 26.— The character of our trade is slow, especially for the lower qualities. Dorset, fine 130s. to 133s. per cwt. Devon 110s. to 112s. „ Fresh 13s. to 17s. per dozen lbs. CORK BUTTER EXCHANGE, (Saturday last.)- The supplies this week amounted to 10,313 firkins salt and 500 mild, showing an excess of 1,000 over last week. The milcbiess of the weather and the heaviness of the English markets will operate against an advance in prices. The demand was languid here during the week, although the tendency of prices was upwards. Since Monday first rose from Ills, to 113s., seconds from 103s. to 104s. ; but fifths fell from 73s. to 683.; mild- cured quotes to-day from 103s, to 134?, CREWE CHEESE FAIR.— There was a large pitch. The demand was rather dull, and prices were slightly lower. Fair qualities ranged from 65s. to 70s., and better kinds from 75s. to 80s. GLASGOW, (Wednesday last.) — The supply of cheese was good, and the market largely stocked. Business , was very slow, only about sis tons having passed the weigh-house scales. High prices asked for fine, but so little doing, prices may be called nominal. We give former quotations : Dunlop, prime 65s. to 6Ss., secondary 56s. to 63s. ; Cheddars, prime 7Us. to 74s., secondary, 65s. to 68s. ; skim milk 36s. to 39s. NEWGATE AND LEADENHALL POULTRY MAR- KETS.— Turkeys 3s. 6d. to 8s., Geese 5s. to 7s. 6d., ducks 38. to 3s., tame rabbits Is. 3d. to Is. lOd., wild ditto Is. to Is. 4d., pigeoDs 7d. to 9d., hares 3s. 9d. to 3s. 6d. each, pheasants 3s. 6d. to 4s. 6d., partridges 3s. 6d. to 3s. 6d., grouse 3s. to 3s. 6d. per brace, Surrey fowls 5s. to 9s., ditto chickens 4s. to Gs., barn-door fowls 4s. to 6s. per couple ; English eggs 14s, French lOs, per 100, fresh butter Is. Id. to Is. 5d. per lb. COVENT GARDEiY MARKET. LONDON, Satdkdat, Nov. 24. Autumnal produce of most kinds continues plentiful. Pine- apples are still abundant. The usual varieties of pears in season are also sufficient for the demand. Grapes, both hot- house and Spanish, are still arriving in large quantities, as are likewise new oranges which are selling at from 4s. to 8s. per 100. Prickly pears and Pomegranates may also be had ; the former fetch 2s. 6d. per dozen, and the latter from 3s. to 6s. per dozen. Kent cob nuts maintain last week's prices. Vegetables continue abundant. Portugal onions realize from 6s. to 12s. per 100. flowers chiefly consist of orchids, chrysanthemirms, dahlias, pelargoniums, fuchsias, mignonette, and m^ps. FRUIT, s. d. s. d. Apples, ^ bushel 4 0 to 8 0 Figs, 18 dozen 0 0 0 0 Grapes, It* lb 2 0 6 0 Lemons, "# 100 6 0 10 0 Nuts.Cob.perlOOlbs. 65 0 70 0 VEGETABLES Artichokes, per dozen 2 0 to •! 0, Mushrooms, 18 pottle 1 6 to 2 s. d. s. d Chestnuts, "^ bush. 14 0 to 20 C Walnuts, '■ii bushel 12 0 20 ( Melons, each 3 0 6 ( Pears, li) dozen 2 0 6 ( Pine Apples, per lb. 3 0 6 1 Asparagus, p. bundle. 0 0 Beans, Scar., ^ i sieve 0 0 Beet, per dozen 1 0 Broooii, per bundle ... 0 0 Cabbages, per dozen... 1 0 Carrots, per bunch ... 0 4 French, per bunch, 0 0 Cauliflowers, per doz. 2 0 Celery, per bundle ... 0 9 Cucumbers, each 0 9 Endive, per score 1 0 Gar) ic& Shallots,^ lb. 0 8 Herbs, per bunch 0 6 Horseradish,13 bundle 2 6 Leeks, per bunch 0 3 Lettuces, per score ... 1 0 Mint, per bunch 0 3 0 0iMust.& Cress, l^punn. 0 2 0 0 0 0 Onions, •# bushel 3 0 3 6 2 0 Pickling, per quart 0 0 0 0 Parsley, per 1^ sieve... 16 2 0 2 0 Parsnips, per dozen... 0 0 0 o 0 6 Peas, per quart 0 0 0 0 0 0 „ per bushel 0 0 0 0 6 0 Potatoes, York Ee- gents,perton 90 0 130 0 Rocks, per ton 80 0 100 0 Flukes, per ton 110 0 140 0 Kidneys, per cwt 6 0 10 0 Radishes, per 12 bund. 10 10 Savoys, per dozen 0 0 0 0 Sea Kale, per punn. ... 3 0 3 6 Spinach, per bushel... 2 0 3 0 Turnips, per bunch ... 0 3 0 0 HAY MARKETS LONDON, Satttbdat, Nov. 24. SMITHFIBLD.— A moderate demand. CUMBERLAND.— Trade steady. WHITECHAPEL.— Trade quiet. Smithfleld. Cumberland. I s. d. s. d. fi.T 0 HK (1 fio 0 11,5 0 38 0 45 0 Whitechapel. s. d. 8. d. 60 0 85 0 90 0 116 0 36 0 44 0 MEADOWHAY, ... 65 0 85 0 CLOVER 90 0 115 0 STRAW I 36 0 44 0 BRISTOL, Fbidat, Nov. 23.— Hay from 90s. to 95s. per ton. Straw from 2s. 4d. to 2s. lOd. per doz. BIRMINGHAISI, Mondat, Nov. 19.— Hay, old, £3 10s. to £4 10s. per ton. Straw, 3s. to 3s. 4d. per cwt. OILS. Olive, Florence, Vs chests £1 Lucca 1 Gallipoli, per 252 gallons 62 Spanish 58 Linseed, per owt. 1 Rape, pale 2 Brown 2 Cod, per tun 49 Seal, pale 48 Brown, yel., &o. 0 Sperm 126 Head Matter 126 Southern 45 CocoaNut.perowt 2 Palm 2 OIL MARKET. PITCH. British, per cwt.... £0 8 6 to 0 0 0 4 0 to 0 0 0 Archangel 0 10 0 n nn 0 0 0 0 0 Stockholm 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 60 17 9 0 3 6 2 10 2 0 0 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 127 0 0 127 0 0 0 8 0 3 2 0 2 RESIN, French £0 8 0 American ..., ,.. 0 7 0 15 0 1^10 0 0 0 0 0 TURPENTINE. French £2 2 6 0 00 American 2 0 6 2 16 Rough 0 90 0 99 TAR. American £0 0 0 0 0 0 Archangel 0 15 0 0 00 Stockholm 0 14 0 0 00 WHALEBONE. Greenland, full size, ton £625 £0 South S«a ,„„ 410 0 546 THE FAKMEE'S MAGAZINE. £ s. Archangel & Onega 12 0 Seconds 9 0 Petersburg 10 0 Wyburg 8 10 Finland and hand- sawn Swedish 7 0 Petersburg & Riga white deals 8 0 Memel and Dantzic, Crown red deals... 12 0 Brack K 0 14 0 £ s. £ B. TIMBER. LONDON, SAT0EDAT, Nov. 24. The market is well supplied with timber. The trade is dull, at about late rates. BALTIC FIK TIMBEK. Per load 50 cubic feet. s. d. s. d. Elga 57 0 to BO 0 Dantzic and Memel, Crown 73 0 83 0 Best middling 05 0 73 0 Good middling & second 53 0 65 0 Common middling <5 0 50 0 SmaU, short, and irregular 40 0 SO 0 Stettin 45 0 55 0 Swedish 37 0 42 0 Small 35 0 37 0 Swedish & Norway balks 30 0 38 0 AMERICAN PITCH PINE. United States 0 0 0 0 BALTIC OAK TIMBER. Memel, crown 110 0 130 0 Brack 80 0 100 0 Dantzic and Stettin, Crown 90 0 120 0 Brack Jitunsquar'd 50 0 70 0 WAINSCOT. Per log 18 cubic feet. Elga, crown 90 0 105 0 Brack 70 0 80 0 Memel and Dantzic, Crown 75 0 95 0 Brack 55 0 C5 0 DEALS AND BATTENS. Per Petersburg standard hundred. Christiana & Sanne- sund deals, white andyeUow 12 t Second do 9 0 Dram & Frederick- stadt battens, do. 8 10 Dram BVi-inch do. ... 7 0 Gothenb'g.gd stocks 9 10 Common 8 10 Gefle and Swedish 14-feet deals 9 10 Swedish deals and battens, long miU- sawn 9 0 Dantzic, cr'wn deck, per 40-feet 3-inch 1 0 Brack 0 12 LATHWOOD. Per cubic fathom. Petersburg 6 0 Riga, Dant., Memel, and Swedish 5 0 FIREWOOD. Per cubic fathom. Swedish, red deal ends 3 15 Norway, red & white boards 3 0 Rounds and sl.abs 2 15 OAK STAVES Per mille pipe. Memel, crown 150 0 First brack 130 0 Dantzic, Stettin, & Hambro' full-siz'd crown 150 0 Canada, stand, pipe 85 0 Puncheon, %J 1,200 pieces 24 0 Bosnia, single brl., ^1,200 pieces 25 0 United States, pipe 30 0 Hogshead, heavy and extra 30 0 Slight 22 0 0 l8 FLAX, HEMP, COIR, &c. LONDON, Saturday, Nov. 24. There is a ^ood demand for flax, at fully late prices. Hemp is firm, at full currencies. Jute and ,Coii' goods are firm, at full quotations. £ B. £ B. ■ £ B. £ 8. Hemp, Petersburgh Coiryarn.. 28 0 65 0 clean, per ton 33 0to33 10l Junk 27 0 31 0 Outshot 31 0 0 Ol Fibre 32 0 48 L Half-clean 29 0 0 0 Flax, Riga 0 0 0 0 Riga. Rhine 35 0 0 0 St. Petersburgh, 12 -- - - - 55 OJ head 40 0 43 0 21 0 1 9 head 30 0 35 0 21 01 Egj'ptian 0 0 0 0 Manilla 45 0 East Indian, Sunn 14 0 Jute 7 5 BARK, &c. English, per load of 45 cwt. delivered in London 15 10tol7 Coppice 16 0 17 Dutch, perton 5 0 Hambro' 5 0 Antwerp Tree C 10 Do. Coppice 7 0 French 0 0 Mimosa Chopped 8 0 Do. Ground 9 0 Do. Long V 0 LONDON, Satuedat, Nov. 24. £ Cork Tree, Barbary 6 Do. Sardinian 10 Valonia, Smyrna 16 Do. Camata 16 6 0 Do. Morea 15 6 0 Terra Japonica: — 7 0 Gambler in bales 23 7 10 Ditto free cubes 30 0 0 Cutch 28 8 10 Divi Divi 12 9 IO:Myrabolams 10 8 0 Sicily, Sumach, p. cwt. 18 s. £ s. 0 to 6 10 0 10 10 0 9 0 0 23 5 0 30 10 0 32 0 0 13 10 0 15 0 0 26 0 ENGLISH WOOL MARKET. CITY, MoND.4.y, Nov 26. — The transactions in all kinds of English wool, both for home use and export, have been very moderate since our last report : in prices, however, we have no change to notice. The public sales of colonial wool were progressing slowly, on easier terras. CuEBENT Prices of English 'Wool. s. d. e. d. Flbkces— Southdown hoggets perlb. 1 7itol 8J Half-bred ditto ,, 1 9^ 1 10^ Kent fleeces , 18 19 Southdown evres and wethers ,, 17 18 Leicester ditto ,, 17 19 SOETS— Clothing ,,161 104 Combing „ 1 6^ 2 0 BRADFORD WOOL MARKET, (Thursday last.)— There is at length, for the first time for two months, an improved feeling in the market. Staplers have had inquiries from spin- ners, who arc testing prices with a view of determining whe- tlier they can accept certain low offers that are made to them. A little more wool has changed hands, but only a little. The chief improvement is a matter of feeling. Some men who have been perniciously influencing the market by forcing cheap wool upon it have terminated their career for the present, and honest traders breathe more freely. Prices, too, at last are not lower than they were the previous market day. It is hoped there is something like a basis established. The following are about the rates current for good average Lincoln wool : Hoggs Is. lO^d., wethers Is. 8d. per lb. — Bradford Observer. LEEDS (English and EoRiiGN) WOOL MARKETS.— There is not any important change either in price or demand for English wool. The fall in combing wool has been consi- derable during the last two months, and it can iiardly be ex- pected to go much lower, unless the mills should run shorter time. Colonial and other clothing wools are in moderate de- mand without change of price, except in very inferior sorts. GLASGOW WOOL JIARKET, (Saturday last.)— There is very little change in this wool market. The tone is rather lietter, but little actual business is doing. Buyers only operate for immediate wants, and to the most limited extent. — F. H. McLeod. BRESLAU WOOL REPORT, Nov. 22.— We had again a fair attendance of home and foreign manufacturers anil combers, who have been actively buying of all descriptions at very remunerative prices. The chief demand was exhibited for the fine and superfine (jualities of Posen and Silesian clothing wools at from 85 to 100 thalers per cwt., which con- tinued in their rising tendency. Transactions, however, in these kinds were only limited, owing to the scantiness of pro- visions. Sales of middle fine qualities of Volhyuian, Polish, and Hungarian wool were on a larger scale, and composed the bulk of the quantity disposed of. The latter have been real- ising at from 65 to 73 thalers per cwt. The general opinion lor our article is a very favourable one, as manufacturers con- tinue to be well employed, and provisions in all staple places are very moderate, a further improvement may therefore be looked for. Fresh arrivals duri-ng the last fortnight arose to about 3,000 cwts., whereas about 4',500 cwts. have been sold. — GUNSBVRG ]5R0TIIERS. MANURES. PRICE CURRENT OF GUANO, &o, Peruvian Guano direct from the importers' stores, £12 5s. to £12 10a. per ton. Bones, £6 Ditto Crushed, £6 10s. per ton. Animal Charcoal (70 per cent. Phosphate) £5 per ton. Coprolite, Cambridge, whole £2 10s., gi-ound £3 to £3 2a. 6d. per ton. Suffolk, whole £2 to £2 10s., ground £2 10s. Nitrate of Soda, £12 5s. to £12 10s. per ton. Gypsum, £1 10s. Superphosphates of Lime, £5 5s. to £G 5s. perton. Sulphuric Acid, concentrated 1'845 Id. per lb., brown 1'712 0%d. Blood Manure, £6 5s. to £7 10s. Dissolved Bones, £6 15s. per ton. Lin.seed Cakes, best American barrel £11 5s. to £11 15s., bag £10 5s. to Cotton Seed Cake, .C5 to £5 15s. per ton. E. Purser, London Manure Company, 116, Fenchurch Street, E.G. Guano, Peruvian £12 76to£0 00 Linseed Cake, per ton — Upper do. 6 15 Maiden Island 0 0 0 Bone Ash 0 0 0 Brimstone, 2d&3rd 0 0 0 Saltpetre, Bengal, 2 per cent 0 0 0 Nitr. of Soda, p. ct.O 10 6 Cloverseed, N.Am. red, new per cwt. 2 5 0 0 0;Americ.,thin,bgs.£1010 0to£1015 0 0 00 Do. inbrls 0 0 0 0 00 0 00 Enghsh 11 0 0 1110 0 0 0 o!Cotsd.Cake,decort. 0 0 0 0 00 Linsd.Bomby,p.qr.3 10 0 0 00 0 0 OiRapeseed, Guzerat 2 17 0 2 18 0 0 11 OlNiger 2 12 0 2 13 0 1 Tallow, 1st P.Y.C. 2 6 0 0 0 0 2 10 0 ,, super. Norths 2 5 0 2 56 SAMUEL DOWNES and CO., General Brokers, Exchange Court, Liverpool. Agricultural Chemical Works, Stowmarket, Suffolk. Prentice's Cereal Manuie for Corn Crops per ton £8 10 0 Mangold Manure „ 8 0 0 Prentice's Turnip Manure „ 6 10 0 Pi-entice's Superphosphate of Lime 0 0 0 END OF VOLUME LX. Printed by Rogerson and IHixford, 246, Strand, London, W.C. THE ROYAL FARMERS' INSURANCE COMPANY, 3, NORFOLK STREET, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. PERSONS Insured by this Company have the security of an extensive and wealthy Proprietary, as well as of an ample capital, always applicable to the payment of claims. f*IR£ DSPAlIVJflEWT. First Class... Second Class . Third Class.. Not Hazardous Is. 6d. per cent. Hazardous ..•• 2s. 6d. ,, Doubly Hazardous >.. 4s. 6d. ,, BlJIIiDIIVO- A]V» MERCAWTIIiE PUOPEItTY of every description in Public or Private Warehouses — Distilleries, Steam Engines, Goods in Boats or Canals, Ships in Port or Harbour, &c., &c., are insured in this Office at moderate rates. (iPECIAli RISK.S. — At such rates as may be considered reasonable. f ARMIirO STOCK.— 5s. per cent. ; and Portable Steam Thrashing^ Machines allowed to be used, without extra charge Nearly Five Millions insured in this Office on this description of property alone. I COIIIVPI^CSXIOIV. IS UNEQUALLED FOR ITS RARE AND INESTIMABLE QUALITIES, THE RADIANT BLOOM IT IMPARTS TO THE CHEEK, THE SOFTNESS AND DELICACY WHICH IT INDUCES OF THE HANDS AND ARMS, Its capability of soothing irritation, and removing cutaneous defects, discolorations, and all unsightly appearances, render it ZNSZSFENSABZ.Z: TO EVERV T0IZ.X;T. Price 4s. 6d. and 8s. 6d. per Bottle. ROWLANDS' ODONTO, OR PEARL DENTIFRI CE, CompouHded of the choicest and most recherche ingredients of the ORIENTAL HERBAL, and of inestimable value in PRE^XIK^IIVG^ AW© BflAIJTIFYIMO THE TEJETH, STRISIVOTHSIVIIV O THX: C} u in §, and in giving a PXiliASZNG FKA.GRANCIi TO TBS BREATH. It eradicates Tartar from the Teeth, removes spots of incipient decay, and polishes and preserves the enamel, to which it imparts a P£AlftX,-I.IKX: ISTHITEl^ESS. Price 2s. 9d. per Box. Sold by Chemists and Perfumers. Ask for '' Rowlands* " Articles. ROGERSON & TUXFORD,] [PRINTERS, 246, STRAND.