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MASSACHUSETTS
STATE COLLEGE
I i~^^-~J — ' 4
THE EAEMEE'S MAGAZINE.
VOLUME THE EORTY-EIFTH.
THIRD SERIES.
JANUARY TO JUNE, MDCCCLXXIV.
LONDON
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INDEX.
Agricultural Associations: —
Formantine, 27
Kincardineshire, 495
Kingscote, 311, 357
Vale of Alford, 305
West Suffolk, 501, 517
Agricultural Chemistry, 526
Agricultural Children Act, 246
Agricultural Hall Company, 323
Agricultural Reports, 516, 539
Agricultural Returns, 100
Agricultural Societies: —
Bath and West of England, 211, 312, 410
Boroughbridge, 177, 388
Highland, 11, 140, 346, 411, 504
New South Wales, 354
Royal Agricultural Society of England, 81, 121,
221, 323, 407, 476, 505, 552
Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, 77
Agriculture in South Australia, 124
A Model Farm and Agreement, 387
Arbitration and Farmers, 433
A Shorthorn Ox (Description of Plate), 91
Ayrshire Cattle, 490
B.
Ball and Sons' Prizs Plough (Description of
Plate), 91
Barley : Its Cultivation and Taxation, 226
Beer-tax v. Malt-tax, 317, 321
Beet as a Farm Crop, 145
Bengal and its Census, 402
Blood-poisoning, 490
Breaking-up Muir Land, 302
Brewers' Licence Duties, 291
C.
Capital and I^abour, 154
Cattle-breeding, 354, 439
Cattle Trade Reviews, 86, 182, 276, 467
Chambers of Agriculture : —
Banbury, 236
Cambridgeshire and Isle of E4y, 368
Central, 75, 313, 447. 508
Cheshire, 37, 207, 321
Devonshire, 181, 390
East Suffolk, 1 1 7
Essex, 104
Gloucestershire, 42
Hampshire, 233, 487
Herefordshire, 418
Lancashire, 390
Leicestershire, 3 6
Norfolk, 80
Nottinghamshire,
Scottish, 31
Shropshire, 212
South Wilts, 201
Staffordshire, 181
Surrey, 128, 345
390
Warwickshire, 139
Worcestershire, 181
Yorkshire, 390, 401
Christmas Club Meetings, 13
Cirencester College Club, 85
Comedy in Agriculture, 37
Commerce and Agriculture, 186
Compensation in Ireland, 172
Cornish Farming, 79
Corn Trade Case, 332
Cora Trade Reviews, 87, 182, 277, 373, 467, 533
Cottage Homes of England, 562
County Financial Boards, 260
County Franchise Extension, 103
Course of Cropping, 445
Critics at the Smithfield, 15
Crops of 1873, 95
D.
Dairies in America, 144, 254, 324
Development of Agriculture, 364
Diseases of Lambs, 450
Diseases of Cattle, 531, 555
E.
Emancipated Negroes, 341
English Labourers in Canada, 338
Experiments in Corn-growing, 426
F.
Fairs, 276, 465
Farm Buildings, 21
Farmers' Clubs . —
Ayrshire, 497
Ballarat, Victoria, 137
Blandford, 5 21
Botley, 246, 298, 359
Carmarthenshire, 197, 561
Central, 1-13, 186-196, 281, 370, 4G9
Cork, 453
Croydon, 23, 526
Dorchester, 153,240, 426
East Lothian, 25
Framlingham, 105, 229
Hexham, 172, 364
Inverness, 34
Ixworth, 133, 226
Kelso, 253
Lavenham, 216
Maidstone, 450, 523
Manchester, 559
Midland, 107, 243, 519
Morayshire, 38, 56 1
Newcastle, 302, 412
Penrith, 410, 439
Smithfield, 225
Staindrop, 21, 557
Stowmarket, 245, 348, 4S1
West Cumberlant), 443
Wester Ross, 445
Winfrith, 17, 351, 540
n
Field Experiments, 157-167
Food Adulteration, 23, 305
Foxes and Farmers, 454
French Trade since the War, 16
Friendly Societies, 532
Future of Farming, 167
G.
Game-Laws, 128, 430, 537
Gardeners, 52o
Geology in Agriculture, 109
Grain Currencies, 88, 184, 27S
Grasses and Fodder Plants in Australia, 419
Green Crop and Fallow, 257
Guano, 553
Guardians' Duties, 132
H.
Haras Institutions, 289
Herds and Flocks of South Devon, 98
Highway Legislation, 429
Hop-pickers, 140
Hornchurch Sewage Farms, 399
Horse Breeding, 27
Horses, 240
Horses' Feet, 245
Household Suffrage, 554
I.
Improvement of Land, 395
Impurities in Cattle Food, 481
Indian Corn, 92
Irish Shorthorns, 436
Irrigation, 443
J.
Japanese Agriculture, 274
John Smith's Shanty, 333
INDEX,
Kentish Farming, 538
K.
L,
Labourers, 1,416, 497, 500, 536
Labourers' Homes, 375, 386
Lady Flora, 279
Land Laws and Lawyers, 91
Landlord and Tenant, 34, 116, 207, 358
Land Questions, 216, 469, 476
Land Transfer in Ireland, 120
Law of Farm Buildings, 424
Leases v. Tenant-Right, 38
Le Bon (Description of Plate), 409
List of Shows, 275
Local Business and Government Officers ,487
Local Taxation, 201, 412
Lock-out in Cambridgeshire, 434
Lock-out in Lincolnshire, 553
London Cattle Markets, 480
Lord Bateman's Agreement, 250
Lord Shaftesbury on the Labourers, 1 19
M.
Malt-Tax Repeal, 368
Malt Trade Case, 372
Management of Stock, 348
Meetings of the Half-year: —
Abingdon, 71
Biggai', 345
Birmingham, 65, 342
Dublin, 455
Falkirk, 345
Glasgow, 345
Manchester, 542
Oakham, 70
Perth, 367
Rugby, 74
Smithfield Club, 50, 65
Stirling, 345
York, 72
Michigan Farming, 263
Milk Analysis, 49 1
Milk — Its Supply and its Adulteration, 280
Modern Farmers, 466
Moles, 97
Monday's Market, 125
Murray's Plough (Description of Plate), 279
National Grange in the United States, 327
Nitrogen, 523
O.
Obituary : — Mr, Robert Overman, 356
Occasional Notes, 152, 200, 239, 264, 294, 304,
504,514
Old Smithfield, 432
" On Mark-Lane," 104
Ordinaries for Farmers, 274
Organic Matters and the Soil, 391
Owners of Land in Scotland, 496
P.
Parasites, 17
Parliament and the Farmers, 250
Peruvian Gnano, 14
Picturesque Cottages, 541
Policy of Farmers, 92
Politics and Farmers' Clubs, 0^\ 376
Porcine Intelligence, 115
Poultry at the Crystal Palace, 26
Poultry Breeding, 107
Potato Culture, 243, 403, 519
Potatoes for Exhibition, 1 96
Potatoes — Their Diseases, 259, 295
Presentations : —
Mr. Hope, 85
Mr. Lovell, l7l
Mr. Mechi, 136
Price of Horses, 559
Prizes for Labourers, 180
Progress in Agriculture, 232
R.
Rabbits and Farmers, 454, 484, 539
Rates and Rents, 151
Restrictive Clauses in Leases, 253
Eoyal Agricultura. Benevolent Institution, 16
Saddlery and Harness, 572 .
Sale of Cows on Warranty, 370
INDEX.
Ill
Sale of Scotch Polled Stock, 549
Sainfaiii and Clover, 54 0
Scarcity of Horses, 359
Science and Agriculture, 557
Seed Corn, 133
Sensation (Description of Plate), 1
Sheep Mauapement : B3' the Northern Farmer,
336, 394, 485
Sheep Rearing, 299, 351, 529
Sheep Sales; 273
Shorthorn Breeding, 3S8
Shorthorn Breeding in the United States, 32S
Shorthorn Sales: —
Aylesbury, 543
Beaumont Grange, 4G3
Beckintrbam Hall, 54G
Bingley Hall, 342
Brampton, 459
Bran.isby, 461
Burghley Park, 45S
Churchill Heath, 543
Coleby Hall, 54 4
Eastwick Park, 550
EiJenhani, 4Gl
Hargrave, 547
Langton, 462
Ledbury, 273
Little Barton, 551
Middle Farm, 460
Northern Sale List, 464
Sittyton, 462
"West Wiatting, 545
Shorthorns at Siddington, 2u3
Shorthorns in America, 142
Sidney on the Horse, 258, 337
Smithfield of Old, 432
Smithfield Shon- Champion Pen of Sheep
(Description of Plate), 185
Smithfield Shovr Cup Pen of Pigs (Description
of Plate), 375
Soils — Light and Heavy, 105
State of Agriculture, 45
" Summer Leaze" and "After Grass," 200
Sutton and Sons' Seed Establishment (Descrip-
tion of Plate), 1
T.
Taxes on Food, 293
Temperature of England, 535
Tenant-RiKht, 42, 118, 137, 177, 197, 212,232,
239, 259, 311, 393, 401, 521, 561
Thrashing Machine Accidents, SO
Thrift as^the Out-door Relief Test, 26-3
Turf as Manure, 126
Turkish Farming, 404
Two Rabbits, or Two Pounds per Acre, 288
Two-year-old Beef, 357
V.
Victoria : Government Prize Farms, 330
Votes of Censure, 515
W.
War and the Farmer, 401
Waste Lands in Ireland, 41
Weather-wise, 486
Weeds and their Extirpation, 229
i
THE EMBELLISHMENTS
Sensation : A Prize Carfc Mare
Sutton and Sons' Seed Establishment
A Shorthoin Ox
Ball and Sons' Prize Plough
Sunithfield Show Champion Pen of Sheep
Lady Flora
Murray and Co.'s Double Plough .
Smithfitld Show Cup Pen of Pigs .
Le Bon . , .
Page
1
1
91
91
135
279
279
375
469
y :
No. 1, Vol. XLV.] JANUARY, 1874. [Third SmuEs.
THE
FARMER'S MAGAZINE,
AND
MONTHLY JOURNAL J
Of
THE ACIEICULTUEAL INTEEEST.
IBelruatetr
TO THE
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X
■.^h%VM
were hoeing out turnips, and they did it very well, and with a cer-
tain amount of dexterity and manly pride, thus setting a most
excellent example. But m'c found at the end of the field a
large jug of beer, which we were told had bad to be replenished
several times in the course of the day (laugliter). We may
do with less labour. 1 have myself, witli 400 acres of land
this year, notwithstanding the advance of wages, manage to
shorten my labour account by £100,* and those who have tried
agricultural labour find that it is not the excessive toil that
many would make us believe. Before I depart from this sub-
ject, I would enter my protest against the conduct of certain
* I have been asked to state publicly how I saved tlie
£100. Simply, by not doing the work. Hedpres are un-
ti iminod, roads unscraped, stones ungatherwl, aod^H sorts
of neat fai-ni .loljs arc leff und'inc,
A3
THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE.
landlords wlio liave come down to our agricultural meetings in
our rural districts and given the farmers what they call a bit of
their mind. Now I will give them a bit of my mind (laughter).
From what a safe and elevated position do these
gentlemen look on this question ? They have let their
farms at full rents, probably on long leases. They or
their ancestors have pulled down the cottages on the
farms and driven the labourers into the adjoining parishes.
They do not seem to realise the fact, that if we make an ad-
vance of no more than a shilling a-week, that would be equal to
an increased rent of some 2s. or 2s. 6d. an acre. They say
" Oh, look cheerful ! pay your men better." Well, it is uncom-
monly easy to be generous with other people's money (laugh-
ter). It is all very well to curry popularity vv'ith a class who may
liave the franchise soon ; and I would say further, that it is an
easy way of playing the part of the good Samaritan without the
expenditure of the oil and of the two-pence (cheers and laughter).
We now come to the poor-law, and I contend that the re-
lations of the agricultural labourer with the poor-laws re-
quire revision. I am obliged to trouble you with a little bit
of history, not for the purpose of trying to weary you, but many
people seem to think that what has been must be for ever,
and they fancy that the present administration of the poor-
law as we have it, is a thing that cannot be improved. Now,
previous to the Reformation the poor were supported entirely
by charity and by the church, and as the church then pos-
sessed one-third of the land I think they were in a position
to support the poor. But on the abolition of the laonasteries
the revenues passed into private hands ; the poor then began
to beg, and the clergy were instructed to collect alms and to
incite their parishioners to the giving of alms. But the alms
did not come in, and they passed a compulsory Alms Act.
You will say that is a contradiction, but I do not think it is
more contradictory than a celebrated bill we have before Par-
liament called the Permissive Prohibitory Bill. Well, in the
year 1600, the celebrated Act of Elizabeth was passed, on
which our poor-law is founded. That Act enacted that every
man was to contribute in the parish according to his ability.
This Act lasted 122 years, I believe without any amendment,
and under it out-door relief might be given, but every one
was to work for it. Then we had a system which lasted 73
years, when a bill brought in by Sir Edward KnatchbuU was
passed authorising the purchase or hire of workhouses to keep,
maintain, and employ every poor person, those who refused to
go there having no relief at all. We then came to the disas-
trous period of our poor-law, which lasted 39 years. In 1795, Sir
William Young's Act was passed. This was followed by
Gilbert's and by East's Acts in subsequent years, by which it
was provided that the justices and the parishioners should
give relief to poor persons in their houses. Forty years
afterward we had what was termed then and is now termed
still, the New Poor-law, by which relief to able-bodied la-
bourers was abolished. Now, just mark the peculiar effect
these Acts had on the expenditure for the relief of the poor.
A hundred years ago the poor-rates amounted to £700,000 a-
year. Thirty years afterwards, when they began to give out-
door relief it wss i'2,000,000. In fifteen years afterwards it had
risen to £8,000,000. In 1831:, you passed the New poor-
Jaw and abolished out-door relief, and it dropped in three years
to £4,000,000. You then began your lax and indiscriminate
administration of the law, and what was the result ? Why,
in 1868 the expenditure had risen to £7,500,000 (Hear, hear).
Now the case of the peasant under the old poor-law was
certainly a most wretched and degraded one. They were all
paupers. A man had really to sell all he had before he could
get employment, because the labourer generally had his wages
supplemented by the rates. He w*s bound to his parish ; he
seldom had continuous work ; his wages were very low, and
if he had any idea of saving, why he could not, for everything
was against him. Young unmarried men were not paid iu
the same ratio as married men, and the more children a la-
bourer had the more relief would he or his master get from
the parish. I am quite ready to admit that the case of the
manufacturing operative was not much better, for the weaver
then did not get more than nine shillings a week, and there
were many iu my district who I am told did not earn more than
seven shillings or eight shillings a week, and they were often
out of employment. Now, contrast that with the present
condition of the labourer. The law of settlement is abol-
ished ; he may go wherever he pleases ; he may emigrate to
foreign countries, or he may go to large towns in the North
and find two or three masters begging him to take
employment. But still the indiscriminate administration of
out-door relief has kept him in a state of semi-pauperism, and
he looks upon the union as a sort of benefit club, and when
he is sick he goes there. Almost the last time I was at our
board of guardians a man who was the local secretary of one
of these unions hurt his leg on the Monday and he applied to
the relieving officer on the Tuesday, and the case came before
the board. I ventured respectfully to suggest that I thought
it was a premature application, and the case was passed over.
On the following Saturday night there was a meeting of the
labourers' union, and the guardians were one and all con-
demned for depriving the poor man of his rights, and
they unanimously voted this poor sufferer the sum
of twelve shillings as compensation for the bad
treatment of the board (laughter). Then a good many la-
bourers fancy that when they are sixty years old they can look
to the Poor-law Union for a pension. And I must say that
the way in which we administer the poor-law does not do much
for the providence of the people, but most certainly favours the
improvident. The consequence is that the wages, of the
young men especially, are all spent, and you have improvident
early marriages, and 1 do not doubt that even at the present
moment, notwithstanding the comparatively large amount of
wages which he receives, the labourer with a large young
family is not very well off. Neither is a curate at £100 a
year, nor a clerk at £50. When you have your quiver full your
pocket is generally empty (Hear, hear, and laughter). We can-
not go on paying higher wages and higher rates. You must
apply the house test ; and you may do it with very great advantage
not only to yourselves but to the labourers. See what is done in
the Atcham Union ! And I have here the report of the
Brixworth Union, published in the last report of the Poor-law
Board. I see my lion, friend the member for Leicestershire here,
and I will give you one or two of the recommendations they
put forth as the principles to guide the guardians in the ad-
ministration of relief. And here I would say that I think it
a very good idea indeed to have some fixed principles to go
upon, and not to let your private interest or your charity or
your Christian benevolence come into play so much wlu-n
you are at the board of guardians. They recommend that u"
outdoor relief be granted in any of the following cases : To
non-residents ; to wives deserted by their husbands ; to wives
or families of convicted prisoners ; to single women with ilk-
gitimate childien ; to able-bodied widows with one child oniy ;
THE FAEMERS MAGAZINE.
to wives or families of militia men doing duty ; to persons
having relatives capable of maintaining them (I should like
to liiid out who those persons are ; I could never lind them) ;
and their last recomniciulation is, that you should not give relief
to persons living in cottages or premises reported by the sanitary
officer as unfavourable to health. And the report goes on to say :
" As to the argument wiiich, perhaps, may be urged that they
are recommending a very hard course for the board to adopt,
they would reply (in the words of Mr. Wodehouse, one of
tile poor-law inspectors), that guardians should remember
that tliey are not dispensers of charity, but trustees of a fund
compulsorily levied and falling very heavily upon those per.
sons whose condition is but little removed above those to
whose relief they are compelled to contribute, that a prodigal
system of out-door relief will in the long run defeat the
object which they have in view, and increase the misery they
wish to alleviate. And further, that every case in which out-
door relief is granted destroys the last feeling of independence
which may yet remain in the mind of the applicant, whilst it
lias a direct tendency to encourage others to apply." The
poor-law is no doubt a very good thing indeed to prevent a
revolution. It is a great English charter that no man in
England need starve ; but I think it is a still sounder maxim,
and one for which we have a higher authority, " if a man
work not, neither should he eat." By work I mean not
only providing for the wants of the day, but also for those
changes and chances in this mortal life to which we may be
subject. I am told that in Germany labourers are bound to
provide for sickness and old age, and that a certain amount of
their wages are stopped for this purpose, and in this country
that applies to the police, railway servants, and a portion of
the Government officials who are mulcted in the same way, and
I hope that in an indirect manner the agricultural labourer
will in the course of years be forced to do the same. Now,
with regard to emigration, I will not run over the different
schemes which have failed. Those to foreign countries, and
particularly to South America, have been most disastrous.
There were two families who went from my neighbourhood ;
one of them has never been heard of since they went, but the
wife of the other labourer has written home in the greatest
poverty and distress, hoping and wishing that they might have
the means of returning to this country. She adds, in a post-
script, " rum is a penny a glass, and there is enough for all"
(laughter). My idea is that New Zealand and Australia are
the best countries for a man to emigrate to, but it is a long
bit of water that separates us from those colonies. When
Mr. Arch went to Canada I was glad to hear it, because
I have said for years that it is desirable to stem the
tide of emigration that pours into the United States ; but as
three-fourths of the people who go there from this country
are Irishmen, that is the way of accounting for it, for wiien
you consider that some of the necessaries of life are 100 per
cent, dearer there than they are here, and that the commer-
cial panic they have just got rid of is attributed to the extra-
ordinary wages they have been paying there (the wages are
much lower now), I cannot understand why the tide of emi-
gration still flows to the United States. But Mr. Arch went
to Canada. You know that in America they have line au"
tumus. You have heard of the Indian summers : lie wa**
there then ; but he saw nothing of the five months' winter
He talked when he was there as if he did not like the coun-
try, and now that he has come back he seems as if he were
desirous of returning. Mr. Clayden, his secretary, thinks
emigration should be made easy, and that people should go to
Canada as to the promised land, where they are to inhabit
houses that they did not build. But I should like to recal to the
meeting what Mr. Clayden wrote home when he was there. Of
course, I cannot understand how it is these gentlemen tell two
different tales. Here is one of the impressions he had
of the labourers : " Anything more desolate than tha''
wild tract through the forest, I cannot conceive- The
hundred acres of land given to settlers are a sort of white
elephant to the unfortunate recipients. The donation drags
them down to the very verge of barbarism. The truth
Is none but the hardiest and most persevering men can do any
good in these wild regions, and tiiey must lay their account
for years of ' roughing it.' I am driven to the conclusion
that if men in England were to work as hard, and to live as
hard, and to abstain from strong drink, as they do, and must
do, to get on abroad, very few of them would need to leave
their old homes. Those poor villagers of my acquaintance
in Berkshire, Oxfordshire, and Wiltshire are rich by com-
parison with many of these hundreds of acres. They have
social comforts and advantages which I look in vain for among
the scattered shanties of these Canadian forests. The truth
is that the voluntary hardships of Canadian settlers are far
greater than any of the voluntary ones that are imposed on
the English labourer." Then he says : " The comfortable,
jolly-faced farmers of old England need not grudge these Cana-
dian farmers their rent-free domains. Verily, there are worse
things than rent-audits. I have seen more haggard-faced
farmers since I have been in Canada than I have during a
forty years' residence in rural districts at home. And never
have I seen during the same period such miserable-looking,
lank and hopeless labourers as the few whom I have seen i^
the service of these terrible taskmasters." There is no doubt
that in new countries there are many natural advantages
enabling the labourer to rise. Some may become, as you see,
landowners, which is a very grand sounding thing in this old
country, but perhaps there is not so highly appreciated. But
I am told that when he becomes a landowner he has to work
harder than he did when he was a labourer ; and perhaps it
is there just what Mr. Charles Howard said of a small farmer
in England, that if he wishes to get on he must do the work
of two labourers, and live on the expenditure of one. But
there are in England many ways of investing. You have
your Post-office savings' banks and your friendly societies,
and building societies, and I contend that any young
labourer in the present day may, if he likes, have
his own cottage. Take a young man from seventeen
years of age to twenty-seven. You will say, I am
(juite sure that, at the present rate of wages, any young man
could save three shillings a week, which, in ten years and
three months, at four per cent, compound interest, would come
to £100, and there are a good many sonud societies
that would give him a bonus of ten per cent, upon
that. And with that capital, he could buy a cottage or
two acres of arable laud, if he thought proper. Then
if you come to talk of benefit societies and clubs,
surely it is the duty of every farmer now to take more
interest in them, and see that they are sound and reliable.
They are often constituted on the idea that the sick pay
will bo supplemented by parisii relief. 1 say to the farmers,
join them, not for the purpose of meddling with their fun and
frolic wliicli they have oucc a year, but to see that they are
founded on just and rational principles. And I say, do not
let the societies become too large. We are suffering iu agri-
cultural districts by these societies being extended to great
towns. The sick clubs are perfectly sound in principle, but
the rate of payment in the towns is not sullicient to compen-
sate for the continued amount of sick pay in cities and great
towns. 1 say this most advisedly, that you should not have a
6
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
Society larger than your county. And then tlicre is just one
other point on the subject of these frieuilly societies from
which T tliink there is a great national danger, and
that is, some of these trades' unions being also
^reat friendly societies. What are they doing? They put the
whole of your contributions into hodge podge. You do not
say what portion of it should.go to the sick society, and what
portion is for tlie purpose of defending the interests of the
trade, and the consequence is that you may have the whole of
the money expended in promoting strikes, and leave
the members in their old age thoroughly destitute. Friendly
societies have not formed yet a portion of the programme of
the Agricultural Labourers' Union, but we are promised that
they shall be so in a very short time. There is one point that
I would glance at brielly, and this is the Education Question.
It may be timt in former days the labourers have been under-
educated. In years to come we may be quite sure that they
will be over educated ; at all events, that is my opinion. You
may, perhaps, say to me, " Why, then, did you help to pass
the Agricultural Cliildren's Act?" I will tell you : Parlia-
ment had said that the children of the country should be edu-
cated, and I wished it to be done in the agricultural districts
in the cheapest and best way, and at the least possible incon-
venience to the farmers. I also wished to protect them from
that bugbear of mine, the Education Rate. For the farmer to
pay a rate for education is exactly the reverse of his income.
You demand your sharp boys not for the farm but for the towns,
and if a boy on a farm is a clever boy, in a short time he goes
otf to augment the class of poor clerks — people who live by
their heads instead of their hands. I say that it is our duty
— we of the middle class — to bring up some of onr sons as
skilled artisans rather than lean so much to poor gentility
(cheers), and making them miserably paid clerks, and people
of that sort — I say we ouglit to try and restore the balance
somehow (Hear, hear). Tliere is one other question which
I will, with the permission of the meeting, touch upon. It
is a dangerous one, but I do not think I should be doing right
unless I said something about it — I mean tlie franchise. I am
not going to talk about it politically, I am not 'going to say
whether every seven years this constitution of ours wants to
be reformed or amended, but I put it to you as a not improbable
thing that the agricultural labourer Mill receive the franchise.
We farmers have had the franchise forty years, and I am the
only English tenant farmer in the House of Commons now.
For these forty years, I do not hesitate to say, no act of Par-
liament has been passed in favour of the farmers (Hear, hear).
We have now a householders' parliament. Tlie householders
have sent representatives there who have increased the rates
considerably, and they have not yet sent one working man
there. Suppose the agricultural labourer has a vote, and sends
representatives of his special interest ? Well, they may, per-
haps, alter the Master and Servants Act, they may alter the
legislation in reference to trades' unions ; but, aa farmers, we
are told that they will help us to get a Tenant-Right Act, and
that they will abolish the Game-laws for us. I do not doubt
but that they will get rid of the Malt-tax (laughter) ; but, I
would ask youthis. Is it atall likely that the material prosperity
of the labourer will be improved, that his condition will be
elevated, and that additionsjwill be made to his'horae comforts ?
And when Mr. Arch says that he, with his 600,000 labourers,
will take possession of Palace Yard, and knock for admission
at the door of Parliament, I do not think that such tall talk
is at all likely to advance his cause (Hear, hear). I am not
one of those who think that higher wages will in the ^eud be
spent badly. I believe it is a common thing that when people
have had short commons, and then obtain plenty, they will in-
dulge themselves a little. ] was told by the keeper of a beershop
in an adjoining parishthatsincethedaysof strikes and unions he
had drawn one barrel of beer extra in a week. But I do not
believe that the working classes — especially those of a rural po-
pulation— are either "venal, drunken or corrupt." They are not
at all more drunken than the upper and middle classes were 50
years ago. We do not consume now more than two bushels
of malt to the population per annum, and 100 years ago we
consumed four bushels and a-half. And when we have paid
for the whole of the drink consumed by the population it is
only 2d. per head per day for the population. I believe on
the other hand tliat the sound sense of the agricultural
labourer will lead him in the end to spend his money well,
and to increase liis substantial comforts. He may ask for
better cottages, and he has a right to have them (Hear, hear),
and in ray opinion he will become fairly provident ; but you
must not expect the English labourer to save money like the
French peasant (Hear, hear). It is as easy for the Celtic or
the Gallic peasant to save money as for a fish to swim, but it
is exactly the contrary in the case of an Anglo-Saxon. Either
here or in America if he earns good wages he is sure to spend
them liberally, lie is a capital customer to the merchant and
trader, and above all to the farmer, I cannot, however, go
quite to tlie length of the excellent writer of this little book —
" The Agricultural Labourer, by a Farmer's Sou," when lie
says, " Farmers have nothing to fear in a pecuniary point of
view from the movement now going on among the agricultural
labourers. Tiiey cannot be losers by it. They may be the
first sufferers, and some of them may be ruined. They may
suffer for a time, but in the long run they cannot suffer from
it. If labour is made more costly other people must pay
for it." That is exactly the same argument as that which was
put forward in the time of the cattle plague, but the fact that
some persons are now getting lOd. a pound for their becl
is no consolation to the Cheshire farmers who were ruined
by that visitation (Hear, hear). Allow me to testify most
heartily to the good conduct of the men on strike (cheers).
I must say that, if I contrast that conduct with that of the
Luddites, in 1830, when, as I am told, they went to the
farms and broke machines, or contrast it with the conduct of
the Sheffield trades' unionists. They may be a little disagree-
able to an unpopular farmer ; some may write silly letters to
newspapers, and a few women may make foolish menaces — ■
women will talk foolishly ; but these are isolated cases,
and, taken as a rule, though their conduct has been
defiant and sulky, on the other hand, it has been quiet,
orderly, and peaceful. And this is the more to be won-
dered at when we consider the advice their leaders have
given them. I have read articles in the newspapers
which were revolutionary, incendiary, and infidel, and the
abuse they have heaped upon the poor unfortunate farmers, if
one-tenth of it was true, would crush them to earth. But tliey
have overdone it, and it reminds one of a certain angry old
Pope :
He cursed him living, he cursed him dying !
Never was heard such a terrible curse !
But what gave rise to no little surprise,
Nobody seem'd one penny the worse.
The agitators will not seek reason, they will not hear argument ;
and when there was a conference proposed in the West of Eng-
land the first question they decided that should be discussed was
"To whom does tfee land of England really belong?" Well
now the miners are tolerably advanced in their views, but I
never heard that the first question they discussed at their
meeting! was " To whom does the mines of England belong P"
and considering the enormous prices we have had to pay for
coal in the last few months I think they would have been
rather more excusable in putting such a question. It is
wonderful the amount of outside assistance this movement
has evoked. Why there is that great and kind man, Mr.
Samuel Morley, who gave them £500, and he told me that lie
gave it for the purpose of assisting poor labourers to mi-
grate to places where they might better their condition.
Whether the money was so expended he is the best judge. I
agree with a writer who says " No man of sense tliinks the
peasant a criminal because he asks for higher wages ; but, on
the other hand, I cannot see why he should be praised for the
demand as if he were doing something specially heroic. A
wish for more pay is common and legitimate, but not meri-
torious or holy. There is no sacred, natural, or ordained
rate ot wages. The question is one of business, not of senti-
ment. The price of labour is as much a purely economical
question as the price of eggs." Everybody thinks that strikes
are all very well unless they happen to interfere with their
3wn business. The press of Loudon who supported tlie
abourers' movement the moment tiiere was a threatened
.strike among the bakers and the gas-stokers were the first to
denounce it. They did not care two straws whether the corn
rotted in the fields and the bread was spoiled there, but they
said a combination existing which would starve London, and
deprive it of its bread, and put it in darkness for even a few
hours must be resisted if necessary by some new enactment.
And now I have really done. I thank you most cordially for
the kind and patient attention you have given to my longa 1 1
rambling address. You may say to me, " What definite con-
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
elusion have jou arrived at ?" Well, we do not pass resolu-
tions in this room — I beg your pardon, we do not pass resolu-
tions of this Club, happily ; therefore, I do not want to put my
sentiments, my experience, and my feelings in the shape of a
resolution. But I have tried honestly to put the case fairly
before you, and to balance interests as well as I could.
I leave you to draw your own conclusions. Tliere are some
gentlemen who fondly fancy that the worst is past. I thought
so a little time ago, but I do not now. I find that the or-
ganization is so great, and that the leaders of it are so ex-
ceedingly irate, that I fear mischief must eventually come of
it. But on tlie other hand, I say to you, that if there should
be a return of confidence on the part of the agricultural la-
bourers, do not in any way repel it, but be considerate and
kind. Maice allowances for men who have been so wrongly
advised and so cruelly deceived. I am confident on this point,
that with the great majority of agricultural labourers a treat-
ment that shall be courteous, and at the same time firm ;
friendly, but not fa niliar, charitable without cant and con-
descension, will command their trust and respect (cheers).
But there is a minority, an increasing minority, but still I am
happy to say only a fraction of the agricultural labourers to
whom this old adage will apply :
Tender handed stroke a nettle,
And it stings you for your pains ;
Grasp it like a man of mettle,
And it soft as silk remains.
'Tis the case with common natures,
Treat them kindly, they rebel ;
But be rough as nutmeg-graters,
And the rogues obey you well,
i— (loud cheers).
Mr. Pell, M.P., said he rose to say a few words on the sub-
ject which had been so ably introduced by his friend Mr. Read.
He would first allude to what his friend had said about the
condition of the agricultural labourer during the last ten or
twelve years. He could fully endorse what fell from him on
that point. Speaking from his own experience as an occupier
of land in the Midland district, he said without hesitation
that the rise of wages before this agitation commenced
was as remarkable as, if not more remarkable than that
wliich had occurred since (Hear, hear). He agreed with Mr.
Read that the increase was not to be attributed solely to the
dictation or advice of those who thought it their duty to try
and better, as they phrased it, the condition of the agricultural
labourers. He also agreed with Mr. Read in regard to the
early proceedings of the Labourers' Union. Having been
present at the meeting at St. James's Hall to which Mr. Read
alluded, lie testified from observation that the men who were
then taking a leading part in the organization of the Union had
departed very materially from the principles which they enun-
ciated at that time. A friend of his, who was then in London,
had told him that not long ago a number of labourers were
obtained by him from the South for some ironworks in the
North of England, the increase of wages being much more
than equivalent to the increased cost of living. Last spring,
there being a strike among the people of his district, he sent
an agent down to the West of England, to the district with
which Canon Brereton was connected, to obtain men. The
wages of labourers there being ten or eleven shillings a week, he
uaturally expected to obtain men from that over-peopled district ;
but he found himself anticipated by the emissaries of the
Union, who persuailed the agricultural labourers not to go to
the North, where they were wanted, and where wages were
double what they were receiving (Hear, hear). That was cer-
tainly contrary to the principles which were laid down when
the organization was started. He was sure that none of those
present were so unreasonable as to wish to check the free in-
terchange of labour between one part of England and another,
or to oppose the somewhat speculative ambition of the labourer
who wished to be better otT. He believed he had Union men
on his own farm, indeed lie knew he had, but lie did not concern
himself very much as to who were Union men and who were
not, provided they adliered to the ordinary rules whicli were
laid down, with decent civility and in a fair manner, and were
willing to assist when they were wanted, instead of following
tliat nonsensical rubbish which assumed that cows would al-
ways calve at a certain time and corn would always ripen at
the same period, matters which of course farmers could not
control. As to the rate of wages, if labourers lived in a district
where within two hours they could transport themselves by
railway to a place where they could get five or six shillings a
week more than they were receiving, no combination of
farmers could keep them where they were, nor was any induce-
ment on the part of a Union necessary to make them remove.
What farmers ought to do was, he tliought, to show their
labourers that if they were to be independent, they must be
independent at all points,aud that it was vain for them to expect
as a matter of right all that they had been receiving in the
form of indiscriminate charity and assistance, whieh would
not be good either for the community or for themselves. Mr.
Read had referred to his (Mr. Pell's) experience as a member
of the Board of Guardians of the Brixworth Union. He had
before expressed the opinion that in districts were charity was
very freely given, labourers, instead of being better off, were
much worse olf than in other districts. The effect of that
state of things was to attract the poor to the neighbourhood.
There were great houses, perliaps, which were in the habit of
pensioning off the old, the result was that the old stuck to
the spot in the hope of obtaining such assistance ; while the
young, whom farmers did not want to leave, went away. An
unusual number of old, imbecile, and half-worn-out people
who were not fit to cultivate the land remained in such places.
Wages were in consequence lower than in other places, and it
often happened that the recipients of the wages discounted
them long before they received them. And what was true
with regard to voluntary charity was also true with regard to
enforced and regulated charity — in other words, the relief
administered under the poor-law. He would like to tell the
employers of labour, whom he was glad to see present in such
large numbers, the result of the application of the principles
as set forth in the report quoted by Mr. Read, which
he advocated in his own union. He would not dwell on
the money part of the question, because that was really not to
be thought of so much as the improvement of the people,
which was sure indeed to be followed by economy. They had
reduced the pauperism exactly one-third in seven months. The
effect of the course pursued was in fact most striking. The
greatest cures had been wrought. Palpitations of the heart,
which had resisted all the skill of tlie physician, backed by
the care of the squire and his wife, had suddenly ceased, and
some of the sufferers had been able to earn 2s. 6d. a-day in
getting iron stone (laughter). The comparatively blind had
been able to see much better than they used to do. And old
people, finding that they would otherwise have to go to their
relatives and children, were getting good wages (Hear, hear).
As regarded benefit clubs, many persons seemed to think that
they were the things to help the labourer out of all his
difticulties. He did not believe they would, unless they were
very good. No club would be really efticient if it made only
a half-provision for its members. One of the first rules of
some clubs was that when a man became ill an application
should first be made to the poor-law guardians, and that
if he could not get anything from them he should come
to.the club. That was a positive inducement to the managers
of clubs not to make an adequate provision for the members,
and so long as clubs were subsidised out of the poor-rates
they were not likely to be eflicient. Then,'with regard to medical
assistance, he had found that the indiscriminate giving of medi-
cal orders from the union had produced a most injurious effect
upon the club and upon individual members requiring assis-
tance. He thought Blr. Read was quite riglit in linking toge-
ther the agricultural labourer and tlie poor-law. He (Mr.
Pell) did not wish to see any harsh administration of the
poor-law, but he felt certain lliat upon a wise and proper ad
ministration of it depended in a great degree the future of the
agricultural labourers (Hear, hear).
Canon BKERJiTON (Norfolk) wished first to correct a
mistake made by Mr. Pell, who had mentioned liis name in
speaking of the West of England.
Jlr. Pell said he begged the reverend gentleman's pardon,
he meant Canon Girdlestone (laughter).
Canon Breueton said he should be very sorry if any gen-
tleman in that room went away with a wrong impression on
that point. He had been much longer resident in North
Devon than Canon Girdlestone had, having been tliere nearly
twenty years, and though he knew very well that there was a
great deal there which admitted of improvement in the con-
dition of the labourer as well as in that of the farmer, yet he
had found that an offer of 12s. a-week did not draw away many
I labourers while he lived tliere, the real value of the wages
8
THE FAEMEK'S MAGAZINE.
and of what was received m addition being at least tliat
amount (Hear, hear). In his opinion the farmers of that part
of the country were very much maligned by the supposition
that tliey paid only 7s. (Hear, hear). In the parish where he
resided, and for some distance round, a large part of the farm
labour was done by relatives of the occupier, who had a
family interest in tlie matter, and the average amount of
weekly wages did not at all represent the real value of labour
in that district. In the census of 18(51 it was remarked by the
Registrar-General that the great diminution of the population
observable in the parish of Ilalberton before Canon Girdlestone
resided there, was owing to the fact that there had been a con-
siderable emigration, and that being the case it was clear that
the farmers there must have been unable to tyrannise over
labourers or force their own prices upon them in the manner
represented (Hear, hear). With regard to the administration
of the poor- law and beuelit clubs, it seemed to him that they
ouglit to reflect upon what Mr. Pell had said about a stricter
administration of the poor-law having in his union reduced the
cost by one- third.
Mr. Pell : I said it would reduce the pauperism by one-
third.
Canon Breretox continued : Mr. Read lemarked that,
owing partly to a lax administration of poor-law relief the rates
amounted to something like eight millions. Now, supposing
that by a strict administration of the law the permament rates
were reduced by three millions, the question would arise, Who
was to receive that? If £3,000,000 of the permanent poor-
rate should ever cease to be paid, the landlords would thus
gain three millions a-year, which represented a capital of
£100,000,000, and the labourers were aware of that. The
labourers believed that they had a claim upon their parishes,
and he should like to see whether some of that claim
could not be converted into something for tlie benefit clubs.
If those clubs had £100,000,000 at their back, they might
become all that could be wished ; and he for one did not see
how anyone could suffer from that. Of course no one should
receive assistance from a club who was not really sick or aged ;
but he thought that if a labourer were provident he should
also receive the value of what was in one sense his inheritance
in this great country, viz., a reserve fund for the sick and
destitute. The property of this country had been charged from
time immemorial with provision for the sick, the aged, and tlie
destitute, and what he desired was, that it should be received
by such persons as club pensioners and not as paupers.
Mr. J. Trask (Orcheston, Devizes) said he should not
have risen but for the question just raised by Canon
Brereton. The reverend gentleman seemed to think that
the £3,000,000 which might be saved by an improved
administration of the poor-law, would belong not to those
who paid it, but to the poor; and that this £3,000,000
a year should be capitalised for their benefit. That was a
most extraordinary view of the matter (Hear, hear). Previous
to 1834< the expenditure was £8,000,000, and threatened to
swallow up the wliole rental in some districts (Hear, hear).
In many parishes the rates amounted to 16s. in the pound, or
more, and he believed that in a few isolated cases the burden
exceeded 20s. By improved administration the gross amount
was reduced to about £4',000,000, or by something like 4-0 per
cent. ; and did the Canon really mean to say that in point of
honesty and fair dealing, the poor of this rountry were entitled
to all that? (Hear, hear). For some years past there liad
been great complaints of the burden of the poor-rates, and in
his opinion those complaints were well founded. He could
point to many parishes where great impositions were practised,
and the question had arisen, whether such things were to
continue. If they had got into a rotten system, were they
never to adopt a better ? If any saving was made, those who
have been, and are still paying a great deal too much, should
have the benefit. He maintained that the poor of this
country had no right to anything out of the rates except when
they were suffering from destitution.
Canon Brereto>' : I say they have no right to it unless
they are destitute ; but the question is whether in destitution
they are to have relief from their unions or from their clubs.
Mr. J. Traisk said he contended that, when the guardians
had relieved the destitute poor they had done all that they were
legally called en to do. On the otiier hand jiersons who
were not destitute ought not to liave relief. Some years
ago an old woman in a union with which he was acquainted
died after having received relief year after year. The relieving
odicer asked (he l)oaid of guardians tor the ubual order for
burial. It was granted, and the friends of the dead then had
a grand funeral for her, hiring coaches aud issuing printed
cards announcing her death. In fact, it was clear that her
friends were well able to support her; and it was a scandal
that such a person should have been receiving relief. Of
course no poor-law administration could be perfection, but lie
believed that at present for one case of extreme hardship there
were forty cases of imposition. Agreeing as he did with Mr.
Read, that labourers had a right to combine for their own ad-
vantage, he must say that if they have a right to leave their
work without giving proper notice, so that the crops which
are growu for the food of the people are spoilt or injured, they
exercised a power that is not possessed by any other class of
the community. Farmers could not all at once throw up their
farms and stop their business (Hear, hear). Friendly societies
would be much more useful if established on a better basis, and
he hoped the Royal commission appointed to deal with the
matter would make a report which would lead to some legis-
lation for their improvement.
Mr. H. Neild (The Grange, Worsley, Manchester) said he
was much impressed with Mr. Read's remarks about the
great increase of material wealth in this nation, as one great
cause of the rise in the wages of the agricultural labourer.
How was it that the increase of the wealth of occupiers of
laud did not keep pace with the general increase ? (laughter).
He would advise all occupiers to adopt the practice of paying
by task or piecework. That would be one good mode of
checking the evils of unions, of which they had had consider-
able experience in Lancashire. Another mode of doing that
was to get past-emigrant labourers, who had been fortunate
enough to get back to England, to relate to labourers their
experience abroad. He had in his employ a clear-headed
Irishman who once had a fit of emigration. That man,
having landed at New York, examined thoroughly into the
prospects of emigrants, and, having spent twelve days there,
he returned to England, and he was now in his service. When
any man talked about emigrating they always referred him to
" Old Jemmy," as that man was called, and he (Mr. Neild)
had not had a single emigrant from his farm for some years.
As to the suggestion of Canon Brereton respecting the
reputed three millions as saved by an improved administration
of the poor-law, being appropriated as a benefit fund for the
labourers, he hoped that that generous idea would now receive
its quietus for ever (laughter).
Mr. R. II. Masfen (Pendeford, Wolverhampton) said he
should not have occupied any of the time of that meeting
but for the remarks of the rev. gentleman on his left (Canon
Brereton), at which he for one felt considerable surprise. If
the Canon wanted to know what was to be done with the
£3,000,000, he begged to tell him that he for one wanted £25
a-year out of it, the poor-rate having since he entered upoii
his farm increased by that amount. The rev. gentleman seemed
to forget that such was the state of things in 1834, that it
was necessary to pass the present poor-law, to ameliorate the
condition of the agricultural body and of the rate-payers
generally. He apparently considered that the labourers had
a right to have the £3,000,000 per annum capitalised or in-
vested for their benefit. Men of moderate education were
unable to fathom the depths of such ideas as that (laughter).
For his own part he must say he was completely dum-
founded at the suggestion ; and when he heard gentlemen of
high station propounding such views, he was not surprised
that persons of inferior station were so often misled. As to the
views of Mr. Read, speaking generally, he thought they would
be endorsed by all present. As to the principle of supply
and demand, there was one great ditt'erence between the posi-
tion of commercial men and that of farmers. It was impossible
to shut up farms for six or twelve months because they were
unremunerative ; but when great pressure was put upon
manufacturers or upon ironmasters, the former could shut up
their mills aud the latter could blow out their furnaces, and by
so doing they could briug to reason men who by demanding
an extortionate rate of wages tended to briug about such an
unfortunate state of things as now existed on the other side of
the Atlantic. Anotlier important question was what position
the agricultural labourer was likely to occupy at liome in cou-
.sequence of his becoming better educated and better able to
form an opinion as to the position in which he was placed.
There was nothing, he beheved, which had so great a hold on the
mind of the labourer as the possession of a comfortable cottage.
T^HE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
it was essential tliat landowneis bUouid provide the necessary
cottage accommodation for labourers where it did not exist, so
that men need not be compelled to go a considerable distance,
as many had been compelled to do, to obtain a dwelling for
themselves and their families. He trusted that Mr. Read had
taken a darker view than need be taken of the general position
of the Labourers' Unions. Let them all pay their labourers a
fair remuneration for their work. He agreed with Mr. Neild
that task-work was preferable to day-work. He also thought
that that consideration which was always due from one man
to another, would produce good results, and that in proportion
as labourers became better educated would they better appre-
ciate any good feelings which were manifested towards them.
He felt sure that neither Mr. Read nor those who acted with
him wished to crush agricultural labourers (Hear, hear). On
the contrary, they wished to see them in a better position, and
for that reason tliey asked tliem to reflect before taking any
steps which might tend to their injury instead of their advan-
tage (Hear, hear).
Mr. G. Street (Mauldeu, Ampthill) said he was one of
those who thought that the altered circumstances of the times
justified a demand for a fresh incidence of taxation and an
altered basis of rating. There was a time when the poor of
this country looked upon their parish as their liome, and
scarcely ever went outside it to seek for employment ; but in
times of railway communication, increased intelligence, and an
increased demand for labour, the youths of their|village3> instead
of lingering about the village green or some frequented corner,
or instead of meeting together in a public-house to plan some
poaching affair, were found at a railway station taking a ticket
for some place where they could get better remuneration for
their labour. The question naturally arose whether, under
these altered circumstances, industries which competed with
agriculture for labour ought not to pay a share of the rates
levied for the support of the poor. When the poor-law sys-
tem was established no one cuuld foresee that altered state of
things. Moreover, additional burdens in the form of rates
liad been imposed on farmers within the last few years. It
was quite right that men should be called upon to keep their
premises in a decent state, and in such a state that they would
not be a nuisance to their neighbours ; but all that involved
expense. The same remark applied to the new Education Act ;
and he wanted to know whether the present system of rating
was fair (cries of " Question"). With regard to the spread of
education he rather differed from Mr. Read as to its probable
effect upon the poor. At present the most intelligent youths
in the rural districts migrated from them, but when all had
been raised to one standard of education there would not be
so much inducement to a few picked boys to go out as clerks
and take situations on railways and elsewhere away from their
native place, and that those would come to the conclusion that
the healthy and pleasant homes of the village were preferable
to the close dwellings of large towns (Hear, hear). One word
iu reference to Mr. Arch's idea of Irelandising this country.
He found that since he returned from Canada Mr. Arch had
recommended that in order to keep agricultural labourers
among them they should let each man have about five acres of
land — iu other words, that the land of this country should be
cut up into a second Ireland. He (Mr. Street) wanted to know
of what use the labourer would then be to the farmer (Hear,
hear). It was found already that when a man had more than
a rood, or at all events half an acre, of land he wanted raoie
time for it than could be spared.
Mr. J. Tii\SK (Northington Down, Alresford), thought they
were much indebted to Mr. Read for pointing out as he had
done in his able introduction that the fact tliat agricultural
labourers were in the receipt of such high wages was an
additional reason for a careful administration of the poor-law,
the funds raised by poor-rates not being intended for those
whose wages enabled them to provide against times of need.
He was glad to hear from Mr. I'ell, speaking as Chairman of
the Brixwortii Union, that the pauperism of that union had
been so much dimiuisiied ; and he believed that a similar result
would follow in most other unions if the guardians attended
more to the duties of their office and were less influenced by
their feelings. As regarded Labourers' Unions, he did not
wish to be iiard against anybody, but someliow or other he
could not feel kindly towards many who belonged to them.
Farming, as he did, pretty largely, lie had a good many
labourers. Before last Michaelmas some of tiiem were union
men, and finding that iu an adjoining parish the labourers
were acting under the order:, of the great leaders of strikes, he
told his men that they must decide whether they would serve
him or the secretary of the National Labourers' Union. One
of them elected to serve the secretary, after having been in his
employment for 7 or 8 years, during which time he had re-
ceived at least a pound a-week. Having received 7s. to take
him and his family a distance of 70 miles, he stayed where he
was, and was now employed iu stone-breaking. They hardly
knew who were and vvlio were not Union men among those
whom they employed. During the heavy periods of the hay
and corn harvest, the Union leaders might choose to order
that men should cease working at 2 o'clock on Saturday and
not begin again before 7 o'clock on Monday morning, and it
was necessary for them to set their faces against that, as men of
business, and men who had a great deal at stake. Mr. Read
justly said that in some districts farmers had more to fear
from their brother farmers than from labourers. They had also
much to fear from little squires and chattering parsons
and he might add that he had known cases in which
after men had left a farm they had gone to the neighbouring
mansion and obtained employment at higher wages than they
received before. He did not know how farmers were to meet
things of that kind, or how they were to combine ; but, at all
events, let them be true to themselves (cheers). He entirely
concurred in the opinion that the poor-law reatdrtd a much
stricter administration. He could not helpJPrerharking that
he had known cases in which when the servant of an ex-oflicio
gnardian became ill, there was an immediate application to the
Board for relief ; and he hoped that aU Boards, while dealing
tenderly with proper cases, would be careful to discriminate far
more than had been customary.
Mr. J. Treadwell (Upper Winchendon, Aylesbury) said
Mr. Read alluded in his admirable address to the necessity of
benefit societies being established on a good sound basis.
That question had in his opinion a good deal to do with the
solution of the vexed poor-law problem ; and what was espe-
cially wanted was, lie thought, benefit societies which would
be'able to secure to the labourer in return for what he sub-
scribed a sufficient amount for his support if any sickness or
accident befell him, without having to come upon the rates.
He was one of those who thought that if societies could not
get a sufficient guarantee fund without that the Government
ought to come in to enable the poor man to provide for him-
self in times of adversity (Hear, hear). As to Canon Brere-
ton's remarks he thougnt the reverend sjentleman made a mis-
take, and that what he meant to say was that the £3,000,000
of w liicli he spoke should be given to the farmers ; in which
case they might perhaps all agree with hira (laughter). He
fully concurred iu all that had been said about the administra-
tiou of the poor-law. Mr. Duncan, the chairman of the New-
port Pagnell Union, could state that in that union the expenses
had been reduced by nearly one-half.
Mr. J. Nash as an employer of labour for upwards of
forty years wished to observe that in his neighbourhood the
masters and men had formed a sort of benefit club between
them, and during the whole period he had mentioned there had
not, he beheved, been an instance of a member of the club
applying for poor relief. He felt certain that if benefit clubs
were properly managed that would give an immense relief to
the rates.
The Chaiuman then said : Gentlemen, in closing this very
interesting discussion I will only observe that after the very
exhaustive address of Mr. Read and the many excellent
speeches which have followed, you can hardly expect lue to do
ijiore than tender my meed of praise to Mr. Read for the able
manner iu which he introduced the subject (cheers). Mr.
Read will now say a few words in reply.
Mr. Read then replied. Alluding to the remark of Mr,
Street that the spread of education was likely to raise all la-
bourers to the same high level, he said that gentleman seemed
to forget that at the school where lie was himself educated
there were dunces and dolts who benefited very little and who
probably did not make much use of their education afterwards
(Hear, hear). The greater part of the criticism in tiie discus-
sion was, happily for himself, directed not against his remarks,
but against those of Canon Brereton ; and he must say that that
criticism seemed to liiiu perfertly just. He, like Mr. ^lasfen,
thouglit that farmers ought to have some of the money that
was saved. He had occupied his present farm only about
eight years, and whether it was owing to the improvements
10
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
wliichJiad been made in the neighbourhood, or whatever might
be the cause, he paid considerably more in the form of rates
tlian wlien he entered upon his occupation. If anyone ought
to benefit by reduction it was surely the tenant (Hear, hear).
On the motion of Jlr. Br.ujshaw, seconded by Mr. T.
HoRLEY, a cordial vote of thanks was given to Mr. Read for
his introduction of the subject.
Mr. Newton said that as that was the last occasion on
which they could have the pleasure of seeing Mr. Thompson
in the chair he wished to propose a vote of thanks to him for
the admirable manner in which he had discharged the duties
of his office (cheers).
Mr. James Wood seconded the motion, which was carried
by acclamation, and this terminated the proceedings.
THE LABOURER'S CASE ATTHE FARMERS' CLUB
TO THE EDITOR OP THE MARK lANE EXPRESS.
Sir, — The rules of the Farmers' Club did not allow me
an opportunity of remonstrating against the mistaken
view which some of the speakers had somewhat impa-
tiently taken of my remarks on capitalising for the security
of benefit clubs some portion of the present permanent
poor-rate. ]\Ir. Pell had made a statement that in a cer-
tain union the pauperism had been reduced within a few
months one-third of its ordinary amount by a stricter ap-
plication of the workhouse test. I ventured to use Mr.
Pell's statement as an illustration of what would be the
eflfect if a real improvement in the labourer's condition by
higher permanent wages should prove to be established,
and if, for instance, one-third of the amount he has
hitherto depended on as poor-rate should uo longer be re-
quired for his sustenance. It is clear that the charge-
able property would be relieved to the extent of the capi-
talised value of that reduction. If in all England it
should amount to £3,000,000 annual reduction, the capital
value of that reduction would be about £100,000,000.
And I put it to the meeting to reflect whether, if anything
approaching that capital could be transferred from pau-
perism to provident clubs, the result would not be to
place the English labourer in a position which uo country
in the world could rival, and this without injury to any
one or confiscation of a single individual's property. The
speakers who followed me jumped at the conclusion that I
meant to claim for the labourer their property, and said
plainly, " Oh, we mean to put any savings we can effect
on the poor-rates into our own pockets ; and you, chat-
tering parson, are making it difficult for us to do so by
putting in a claim on the labourer's part." Now I quite
acknowledge that there is an economy to be very beneficially
exercised, the savings of which very properly should go
to the ratepayers ; and I doubt whether there was one
man in the room who, in proportion to his income, would
derive more real relief from such economy than myself.
But I was not thinking about this margin of extravagance
and superfluity, within which the ratepayers have a right
to expect relief, as they undoubtedly do sufi'er severely
from carelessness. But I was going to the point to which
it seemed to me both Mr. Read's subject and his excellent
address must have brought all our minds, viz., the future
relationship between the agricultural labourer and the
poor-law. And I maintain that as soon as you can see
your way to effect a reduction of the permanent charge,
yeu are bound, as protectors of public property, to see
that one class alone — the owners of charged property — do
not reap all the benefit. Not that I would grudge it
them if they were really in a position to claim it,
and there were no alternative. I heartily wish to see
the land and houses of England not deteriorated but im-
proved as the best and most substantial investment for
that valuable class of Englishmen— the permanent
residents. I should be delighted if such a time should
come that the landlords of England were able to say, " We
held our lands subject to the condition that uo one should
starve. This condition deteriorated the value of our pro-
perty for two or three centuries from 10 tc 20 per cent.
At last, by the prosperity of the whole community, desti-
tution has been so reduced that the charge upon our pro-
perty is, and is likely to be for the future, only 5 per cent.
We claim the full benefit of this happy state of things."
But such a time will never come. The English labourer
will not forego his claim. The more spirited and inde-
pendent will rise out of the class or emigrate ; but the
breed of paupers will continue, unless with the consent of
their own class by degrees some portion of this pauper
fund, which has obtained in the popular feeling, if not
legally, all the essence of a public fund, is transferred to
the support of sickness and old age, on the principle of
mutual insurance and common contribution of those who
are to participate in the benefit.
With your permission I will on a future occasion re-
sume this subject. My unpremeditated remarks were
misunderstood, and, I must add, misrepresented, though
perhaps I was the chief offender against myself. But I
feel sure that the object of these remarks, being nothing
else than the permanent improved position of the honest
agricultural labourers who wish to stay in their English
homes, will be appreciated by no class so generously as the
English farmer.
I have the honour to be, sir, yours faithfully,
J. L. Brereton.
Halted Uiiwersiti/ Club, Pall Mall East.
THE ANNUAL DINNER.
The annual dinner took place on the Tuesday evening in
the Show week, at the Salisbury Hotel, and was attended by
upwards of 100 gentlemen. The chair was taken by the pre-
sident of the Club for the present year, Mr. John Thompson,
of Badminton, Chippenham, the vice-chair being filled by the
president-elect, Mr. Major-Lucas. The dinner itself was of
the best kind, and its substantial attractions were increased
by the present of a stag heavier from his Grace the Duke of
Beaufort.
After tlie toast ot " The Queen," the Chairman proposed
" His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, the Princess of
Wales, and the rest of the Royal Family," and in doing so
reminded the company that the Prince of Wales was a constant
exhibitor of stock at the Smithfield Show and other agricul-
tural meetings.
In proposing " The Army, the Navy, the Militia, and the
Volunteers," the Chairman said he felt confident that our
soldiers on the Coast of Africa would show the indomitable
pluck that British soldiers engaged in active service always
had shown, adding that the English army led by gentlemen
would go anywhere (cheers).
Sir G. Jenkinson, M.P., in responding as a former officer
of the army, said if ever there were a moment when a com-
pany of Enghshmeu were bound to pay sucli a tribute as that
to the army the present was such a moment, seeing that
part of our gallant troops were now employed in a service
which could produce neither honour, emolument, nor profit,
when they had to wage war against a set of savages who knew
not the arts which regulated warfare between civilised nations,
and, what was worse, were exposed to the most deadly climate
in the world (Hear, hear). Whatever might be the result of
the deliberations of the Royal Commission on the purchase
system, the officers of the army might always be relied upon to
do their duty to their Queen and country (cheers).
The Chairmai^ then proposed " Success to the Farmers'
Club, and thanks to those gentlemen who have read paper*
THE FARMER*S MAGAZINE.
11
during the past year" (clieers). He said it was a matter of
great gnitilitatiou to liim to be able to slate that at no former
period had the Club been in so prosperous a condition as now.
Fifty-nine new members had been elected in the course of the
year, and the financial position of the Club had also consider-
ably improved. Still, it often struck hiia as remarkable
that comparatively so few of their own class of agriculturists
availed themselves of the obvious advantages of the in-
stitution. He feared, indeed, that tenant-farmers were rather
too exclusive in their habits, though it was a fault which he
hoped was becoming gradually less apparent than formerly, for
he felt sure that people, whatever their occupation, who con-
fined themselves to one locality, acijuired contracted ideas; in
other words, their minds did not expand with the advance of
the times wc live in. The discussions during ths past twelve
months had been important. They had embraced the educa-
tion of the farmer, the large and the small-farm system, the
progress of steam cultivation, the storage of water, the diseases
ol cattle, and the condition of the labourer. All these ques-
tions had been introduced by gentlemen who had paid a great
deal nf attention and devoted a large measure of ability to their
consideration. The advantages of the Club, however, were
not confined merely to its discussions ; for the social inter-
course and the intercommunication of so many minds collected
from different parts of the country must also have been pro-
ductive of valuable results. The advantages were such, indeed,
as they could not obtain by confining themselves to their local
clubs, howevsr good they might be ; and he himself, after
eighteen years' membership, was willing to bear his testimony
to the kindness with which he had always been received, and
the valuable information he had accumulated by associating
with the members of the Club (loud cheers).
The toast having been drunk with great cordiality,
Mr. C. S. Read, M.P., rose, amid cheering, to respond. He
said, on behalf of those members of the Clnb who had read
papers during the past year he returned their sincere and
hearty thanks for the kind manner in which their services
had been acknowledged. He supposed he had also to return
thanks to them for their drinking their own health (laughter)
— tliat was to say, " Prosperity to the Farmers' Club." He
was very glad indeed to hear so good a report from the chair-
man. It was pleasant to be informed that the finances were
in such a good state, and to be reminded how useful the Club
was. He fully sympathised in the wish of the chairman that
there were more tenant-farmers in the Club, and he would
also desire to see a more general attendance of members in
that building, as he often found his breakfast there rather soli-
tary. At previous annual dinners he had taken the liberty of
alluding to one or two prominent subjects which had occupied
the attention of Parliament relating to agriculture, and, with
their kind permission and indulgence, he would do so on that
occasion (cheers). He would just glance at one or two
topics. And first, he would mention the abortive and unfor-
tunate result of the inquiry into the operation of the Con-
tagious Diseases (Animals) Act. He was quite sure they
would all agree with him that although the committee made one
or two good recommendations in their report, yet, in its main
features, that document was adverse to the agricultural interest,
and it appeared to him that instead of what was suggested keep-
ing foreign diseases from their stock, those diseases would still
come into the country as they had hitherto done. The recent
Order for the slaughtering of cattle affected with pleuro-
pneumonia seemed to him most one-sided and unjust. The
Government still admitted stock from countries on the Conti-
nent where disease was raging ; and, moreover, they admitted
cattle from Ireland, and they in England hai the pleasure of
slaughtering them when they had come over (Hear, hear). In
the county of Norfolk they had recently had a quantity of
Irish cattle affected after having been in Norfolk a few weeks,
clearly proving that they did not catch the disorder in tliat
county, but contracted it at their homes in Ireland. The
Privy Council ought to have been aware that it was impossible
to levy rates in Ireland to compensate owners of stock before
they thought proper to issue an Order which must prove very
costly to the ratepayers of England, and which, till it was made
universal over the whole of the United Kingdom, could
not be made beneficial to agriculture (Hear, Jiear). Anotiier
matter which he wished to mention was the strange fate that
be fel their Tenant-Right Bill. He had been ronghly handled
in the press and by some very kind writers, who thought that
on that occasion he shirked his duty. He had the authority
of his friend, Mr. James Howard, who had generously backed
him up as regarded his conduct, for saying that on the occa-
sion when the bill was withdrawn he did all that he could be
expected to do, and he hoped that the members of the Farmers'
Club would endorse that opinion (cheers). They were aware that
the bill was put down for a second reading on a Wednesday.
Two bills preceded it. It was not till the night before that
he knew that one of those bills was to be withdrawn. Then
he received from his friend, Mr. Howard, a telegram stating
that he was so unwell that he could not possibly be in his
place in Parliament to move the second reading of their bill.
Now, what was he to do? He was not prepared with a good
long speech to introduce the bill ; but he held himself in re-
serve to answer any objection that might be urged against it.
It was said that he could not have seconded the motion for the
second reading of the bill, and replied to objections. That
was easily done. After the proposer had made a speech, the
member who seconded had nothing to do but take off his hat,
which was not a very difficult operation, and if he did not say
anything at that time he might make a speech in the course of
the debate. That was what he intended to do, and he hoped
that he should prove equal to the occasion. But replying to
objections to the weak points of the bill was a totally different
thing from advocating its main provisions and setting forth
its good points (Hear, hear). They might rely upon it that
he had plenty of courage, but discretion was sometimes the
better part of valour. There was on the paper a most insi-
dious amendment, which, not being well up in Parliamentary
tactics, he should not have known exactly how to meet. Had
it been simply a proposal that the bill be read a seconi time
that day six months he would, notwithstanding the imperfect
manner in which he had prepared himself, have gone on ; but
when there was a rigmarole sort of amendment, setting forth
the advantages of freedom of contract and matters of that
kind, he felt that he had need of the tact of a Tallyrand to
deal with such a proposal as that of Lord Elcho. He should
like to know what amount of obloquy he would have had to
endure if he had proceeded and failed. As it was he had
suffered rather sharply, but if he had faced that amendment
and been defeated he would have deserved all the censure that
could be heaped upon him. He must say he was not sorry
that the bill had to be put off, for he was not very well
pleased with the sort of outside influence which was brought
to bear upon it. He should much prefer landlords, land-
agents, and farmers managing a matter of that kind among
themselves, without the interference of people who would
perhaps do the thing in a different way from that in which
they desired to have it done, and who would, he was quite sure,
in the end make a muddle of it (Hear, hear). Before free-
trade we were continually being told by people that it would
not signify a straw if we did not grow a bushel of wheat.
Now they were going on a totally different tack, and saying
we did not produce half enough. In his opinion they were
right now in a certain degree, but they had taken too visionary
a view of the subject. He felt bound to enter his protest
against the idea which prevailed in this country outside the
agricultural interest, and which appeared to be shared by some
of the political leaders of the nation, that the land of England
might be made to double its present amount of produce (Hear,
hear). It was a much easier matter, he said, to produce fer-
tility than to maintain it ; and his serious conviction was that
it was much easier to get a farm into a good state of cultiva-
tion than to maintain its fertility afterwards. It was the first
pound of manure that paid best, and the last shilling that often
spoiled the lot. Land would not always answer to the whip
the second or third time as on the tirst. He was astonished,
therefore, to hear so painstaking, careful, and thoughtful a
statesman as the Earl of Derby saying that it was liis delibe-
rate opinion that the laud of J'lngland might be made to double
its present produce, and, still more, that Lord Leicester should
back up that opinion. He (Mr. Read) would not say anything
uncomphmentary to the Holkham tenantry, but he was pre-
pared to assert tliat on three-fourths of the estate no more corn
was grown now than twenty years ago. It was farmed really
well then, and had been farmed right well since, but there was
no increase in the produce. The other fourth, which had
been indifferently farmed, might liave been brought up to a
higher yield ; but he contended that, after reaching a certain
point of perfection, witii their limited knowledge of chemistry
and science generally, all their science failed them, and when
they had passed a certain limit they could go no further. Then
12
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
it was constantly said, "See what your landlords' laws have
done for you ! Vou do not grow one-half tlic wheat that you
ouglit." Well, it was not for him to defend either the laud-
lords or the landlords' laws ; but it so happened that, notwith-
standing they were so exceptionally bad, this country was
growing more corn than any other under heaven. We raised
double per acre the corn that was grown in Trance, and as a
rule we were ahead of the most productive portions of Europe
(Hear, hear). Before sitting down he had a very pleasing
task to perform — he had to propose the health of the chair-
man (cheers). They had in tliat case the right man in the
right place. He was an excellent judge of stock, having just
recently acted at Birmingham and Islington, as he was also
one of the judges of farms for the Royal Agricultural Society
at Hull; while he was well known in the district where lie lived
as a just, intelligent, and liberal land-agent, and he served a
right good master in the noble duke (the Duke of Beaufort).
Tlie chairman expressed a wish that there were more tenant-
farmers in that Club. He (Mr. Read) was sorry that there
were not juore land-agents. As a class they wanted educating
quite as much as tenant-farmers (laughter and cheers) ; and if
they came tliere, besides hearing something to their disadvan-
tage, they might also hear something to their advantage
(cheers). He now asked them to drink — and he was sure they
would do it with great cordiality — the health of their chairman,
31 r. Thompson (loud cheers).
The toast having been drunk very heartily,
The CNA.IRMAN brielly returned thanks, thanking the Com-
mittee and the Secretary for the able assistance he had received
from tliem in the discharge of his duties, and adding that he
sliould always remember with pleasure the time when lie pre-
sided over that Club.
Mr. Pell, M.P., in proposing " The Royal Agricultural
Society of England, the Highland Society of Scotland, and
the Koyal Agricultural Society of Ireland," said no one there
could doubt that those societies were beneficial in uniting to-
gether the agriculturists of the three kingdoms, and were
doing a great deal of good.
Mr. Treadavell, in responding, said while they occasionally
saw a very good Shorthorn from Ireland they also saw a great
deal of disease from that country which they could very well
dispense with. This country obtained a large quantity of good
beef from Scotland, but he did not think very much of Scotch
sheep, and he thought that if |Scotchmen came to England for
sheep they might effect considerable improvement. With re-
gard to the Royal Agricultural Society of England he wished
to express his opinion that with the funds at their command
the Council miglit do a little more good (cheers).
Mr. II. Tretiiewy had great pleasure in proposing the
health of the vice-chairman on that occasion, and the chairman
elect, Mr. Major-Lucas, of Aylesbury (cheers). That gentle-
man was known to most of them, and held a very high position
in the neighbourhood in which he resided. He was a large
occupier of land, and was placed in the happy position of
occupying his own land. Mr. Reid remarked, in effect, that
that Club was as good a school for land-agents as for tenant-
farmers. As a land-agent himself, and as one who had been a
member of the Club from within three years after its formation
(cheers), he cordially endorsed that opinion ; and he believed
it would be better for all — for agents, for tenants, and also for
landlords — if there were more general and frequent communi-
cation between them in that Club (clieers). He now proposed
the health of Mr. Major-Lucas (cheers).
After a cordial response to the toast,
Mr. Major-Lucas, in returning thanks, said, like his pre-
decessors in office, he should, when he had entered in the
duties of the chair, rely on the support of the committee
and members of the Club, and on the excellent advice and
assistance of their Secretary, Mr. Corbet ; and remembering
what able men had passed the chair, he was sensible how
necessary those aids would be to him. He had now to propose
" The Smithfield Club," an institution which had forcibly
illustrated some of the chief characteristics of the people of
this country ; and he had great pleasure in coupling with tlie
toast the name of Mr. T, L. Senior.
Mr. T. L. Sekior, in returning thanks, was quite sure they
would all agree with him, that the present show was one of the
most successful shows that they had had for many years
(cheers). The system of giving £100 prizes at Birmingham
to_ tlie first four breeds in the catalogue, which was tried
this year for the first time, had worked admirably, and he
ihought the Smithfield Club should adopt it. Though defeated
himself this year, he was not extinguished ; but as regarded
the champion prize, he now saw that a Lttle bullock had no
more chance than that black bottle.
Mr. Crouch proposed " The Committee of Management."
The higli position to which those gentlemen had raised the
Club in the estimation of the country entitled them to the
gra*^itude of the members, and everyone who had watched the
proceedings of the Club must feel that it had a most efficient
body of men at the head of its affairs (cheers).
After a hearty response,
Mr. H. CiiEFiiNS, in returning thanks, observed that the
members of the Club had that ^day shown their confidence in
the committee, by re-electing all who were eligible ; and it
was a great satisfaction to them to know that the members
felt that they had done their best (cheers).
The Chairman said, the next toast was one which he felt
sure would have a hearty reception from all of them — the se-
cretary, Mr. Corbet (cheers). The Club was particularly for-
tunate in having as good a secretary as was possessed by any
society ; but perhaps only those who held the position which
he then occupied, as chairman of the Club, could fully appre-
ciate Mr. Corbet's merits (Hear, hear). He was very glad
that it was during his own chairmanship that the committee
had been able to show their appreciation of his services in a
substantial manner, and he hoped the Club would have the
benefit of those services for many years to come (cheers).
They all esteemed him not only in connection with his duties,
but also for his warm-hearted friendship, and they all
knew his honesty and integrity (cheers).
The toast having been drunk with three cheers,
Mr. H. Corbet, in returning thanks, said there once lived
in a remote part of France a worthy priest who, amongst the
arduous duties which he performed in the course of each
year, had to deliver an address on the merits of the
patron saint of the district. But as each anniversary came
round that good man found, alas ! that neither his genius nor
his inventive powers increased with the occasion ; and so,
when another came, he addressed his congregation some-
what in this fashion : " My brethren, since we last met I
have not been able to discover anything very novel or strange
in the history of him whom we are met to-day to honour
You know as well as I do how deservedly he occupies a high
place in the calendar ; you know as well as I do how his earthly
career was attended with every good and every useful quality,
and you know as well as I do that we are exceedingly happy
in coming here to do honour to him. If I were to say more
I miglit only weary you, or, as the day is very warm, and
your seats are very comfortable, I might send you to sleep."
And so he concluded his discourse. If tiiey would allow their
imaginations to travel for a moment so far, he would ask them
to suppose him (Mr. Corbet) to be that holy man (laughter).
Since they last met, he had not been able to discover anything
very novel or strange in the history of the Society which they
were all there to honour. They knew as well as he did how
useful and meritorious its career had been, and they, he was
sure, liad had equal pleasure with iiimself in coming there to do
honour to it. If he were to say anything more, as the room
was rather warm, and as he hoped tiieir seats were very com-
fortable, he might not only weary them, but perjiaps send them
to sleep (laughter). Tiierc he might very becomingly stop ; but
he would, with their permission, say a few words more, as,
unlike his rev. prototype, he could not expect to have all the
talking to himself, lie had the honour to sit at the council
table of two or three other societies, where, wJien the annual
dinner was in prospect, there was always immense difficulty in
selecting a chairman outside the society — a prince or a duke,
a lord or some great man ; but in the Farmers' Club there was
no such difficulty. Following tlie example of a well-known
comedian, they took the chair themselves (laughter) ; and the
chief recommendation of the man who presided at their annual
dinner was that lie was essentially a farmer (cheers). They
happened on one occasion to have a member of Parliament in
the chair, but he was, if possible, far more appreciated as a
tenant-farmer than as a member of Parliament ; as the great
object of that Club was to teach men farming. There was
once a Prime Minister of this country who, being a Scotchman,
would not patronise any man unless he were also a Scotchman.
It happened, however, that somebody had done something so
very meritorious that the great man in return was obliged to
do something for him, when he said, " Weel, what shall I
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
13
niak' you ?" to which the reply was, " I think you had
better try uuj make me a Scotehmau " (hiughter). lu like |
inauuer, they tried iu the lirst iustauce to make a uiau a '
farmer ; and he believed that more good iu the way of farming
was taught in that very room than on the tented field of the
Koyal Agricultural Society, iu the fatted stalls of Smithfield, or
in the studios of Cirencester (cheers). It was recorded in the
chronicles of the Pickwick Club, that Mr. Weller, when called
as a witness, was found to say as little as possible about the
case and as much as possible about everything else. He
would follow that illustrious example, and, beyond thanking
them for the manner in which they had received his nauie, and
for the attention with which they had listened to his remarks,
would sit down, after saying as little as possible about the
Secretary, and as much as possible about anybody else (cheers).
The toast of " Tlie Visitors " followed, and w:-is responded
to by Mr. Head, of the firm of Ransoraes, Sims, and Head,
who bore witness, from his own experience, to the superiority
of English over foreign farming.
The company then separated.
THE GENERAL MEETING.
This annual meeting was also held on tlie Tuesday, Mr. John
Thompson iu the chair, when the following report from the
Committee was received and adopted :
The Balance-sheet for the past year is altogether
one of the most satisfactory which the Committee of the
Farmers' Club has ever been enabled to offer. Tested by such
main points as the acquisition of strength and the possession
of funds, the result is alike encouraging. I'ifty-nine new
members have been elected ; the amount of subscriptions re-
ceived exceeds that for many years previously ; there is a larger
available balance iu the bank, and the general assets of tlie
Club show as favourably in comparison. Under these cir-
cumstances the Committee has been enabled to make an in-
crease in the salary of the secretary ; while one item on the
expenditure side of the account is rather beyond the customary
charges appearing iu such a place. This stands as a grant of
£20 to tlie [loyal Agricultural Society of England, a vote ac-
corded as couveyiug some tangible approval of the course
adopted by the Council of the Society iu promoting tlie analysis
of manures and feeding stuffs, and upholding the acts of its
ollicers. Iu the Report for the year 1872 it was stated that a
Special Committee had been appointed to consider and report
on the Tenant-Right Bill, which Mr. James Howard, M.P„
backed by Mr. Sewell Read, M.P., proposed to bring before
Parliament ; the progress of the principle with which the
Farmers' Club has so long been identified being thus very be-
comingly left in the care of two members of the Club. This
Special Committee had subsequently several sittings, and a
copy of the bill, as ultimately approved by the Special Com-
mittee, together with the report adopted by the General Com-
mittee of the Club, appeared in the CIpIj Jour mil for March.
It is much to be regretted that Mr. Howard from illness was
unable to proceed with the bill, but the many discussions over
its several clauses have done much to extend information and
remove prejudice as to the iuteutions of the measure. The
Committee cannot but think that the subjects standing on the
card for the year have been very well timed for consideration ;
as the Education of the Farmer, the Relative Size of Farms,
the Progress of Steam Cultivation, the Management of our
Water Supplies, the Losses of Stock, and the lease of the
Labourer probably never commanded more attentiou than at
the time when they came in turn before the Farmers' Club.
The Committee has only to hape that it may be as fortunate
in the arrangement of the next card ; as with so much new-
blood recently introduced it is very desirable that the younger
members of the Club should take their part in suggesting sub-
lects or preparing papers. Mr. E. M. Major-Lucas, of
Mercer's House, Aylesbury, has been elected Chairman of the
Club for the year IS?-!'.
The following members of Committee, who went out by
rotation, were re-elected : Messrs. G. M. Allender ; T. Browu
(Elwyn) ; W. Brown (Triug) ; H. Cheffius ; L. A. Couss-
maker ; VV. Eve ; J. K. Fowler ; E. Little ; R. Marsh ; G.
Martin ; B. P. Siiearer ; J. Thomas, (Beds) ; and J. Trask ;
and Mr. Owen AVallis was elected a member of the Com-
mittee in the place of Mr. M. Reynolds, who was ineligible for
re-election from not having attended two meetings of the
Committee during the year.
Messrs. T. Willsou, N. llix, and the Reverend E. Smythies
were re-elected auditors, and a vote of thanks passed to them
for their services.
The proceedings closed with a vote of thanks to the Chair-
man.
THE SMITHFIELD SHOW WEEK.
The sad story of the Smithfield Club is told out in
another part o f our Paper, while nothing could have
worked better than the opening day. The miserable
wrangle of last year over the adjudication of the Champion
prizes was avoided by the adoption of the system which
immediately after the close of the show in 1873 we
insisted on as the only means by which the recurrence
of so unseemly a squabble could be guarded against.
This was, that each set of judges should bring into the
ring for the final issues only the Champion animals of
their own classes, although, strange to say, one of the
stewards strongly resisted so manifest an amendment!
The result, however, will no doubt quietly settle him into
a minority of one. Beyond the nomination of His Royal
Highness the Prince of Wales as President of the Club for
1875, the chief feature at the General Meetiug was the
election by vote of eight new members of Council
from some nineteen or twenty nominated, the final state
of the poll showing Mr. Sewell Read to be the most
popular man here, as he probably would be if tried by
such a test at any other Agricultm-al Society iu England.
The number of votes polled, however, were not declared,
the names of the successful candidates being merely given
iu the order iu which they stood on the list, and against
this omission Mr. Wilmore has entered his protest; as
there can be no question but that in an eleeitiou determined
by votes, the numbers mvM be given before the return can
be regarded as complete. Only imagine the " row" which
would ensue if at a county, a borough, or a school board
contest, the successful candidates took their seats on the
mere word of the returning officer !
The phalanx of reporters which faced the " popular
member" of the Smithfield Club, when on the preceding
evening bespoke at the Farmers' Club on the agricultural
labourer, told of how much interest is now taken iu this
question beyond the class ranks of master and man. Iu
a speech as admirably studied as etiectively delivered j\Ir.
Read exhibited a grasp of very statesman-like character.
If wages become permanently higher as they promise to
do, the landowner must look to this as a home question
in the way of rents and cottages. If the men combine
it were better that the farmers should not combine
against them hy refusing to employ I'liion men, or
" nursing their wrath" in other ways ; while the labourers
themselves must be prepared to do more work for more
money, or iu other words to have their value estimated
by the piece and not by the day. The address itself
should set men of all grades a-thiukiug of how they may
helj) each other, but the subsequent discussion was hardly
worthy of it, and some attempted personalities singularly
out of tone with the calm, comprehensive, and ever
genial manner of the introducer of the subject. It is
very noticeable that no agricultural dinner has ever really
succeeded in London but that, of the Farmers' Club, and
14
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,
this was a greater success thaa ever, what with a large
company, a prosperous year, and a chairman quite in his
place. Indeed, as Mr. Sew ell Read (again) showed, the
Club or its committee has been very happy in developing
merit in this way, for INIr. Thompson has, during his
year of office, been also distinguished by kindred societies
of similar standing. Thus, at the instance of the Royal
Agricultural Society he acted as one of the judges over
the Yorkshire farms, and on the day preceding the dis-
charge of his duties in Salisbury Square was one of the
judges for our most fashionable breed of stock at the
Smithfield Club.
As at that of the Farmers' Club there was nothing of
much moment going on at the general meeting of the
Royal Agricultural Society, where the attendance was
small and the proceedings for the most part formal. As,
however, we suggested at Hull, a Temple of Victory is to
be erected at Bedford, an advertisement in itself which
may possibly bring many a firm again into competition,
a sentence in the report running thus : " The experiment
of a parade of the prize implements on the first two days
of the show was made at Hull ; and as it appeared to
give wide-spread satisfaction, it is proposed next year to
erect a special exhibition shed for this purpose in a pro-
minent part of the show-yard." If the Council will
only, further, set the judging at Bedford for nine instead
of eight o'clock, then people will have time to come
in on the opening morning from the " adjacent" towns,
about the handiest of which would appear to be London.
A very lengthy report of the Council meeting on Wed-
nesday, embracing a number of sub-reports from the
several committees, necessarily stands over. It is with
much regret, however, that we notice the withdrawal
from all active duties of Mr. H. S. Thompson, con-
sequent on declining health. No man ever worked harder
in Hanover-square than Mr. Thompson, and it was
purely an omission at the general meeting on Thursday
when his name was not associated with Mr. Pusey, Mr.
Handley, and Mr. Holland, as commoners who had filled
the President's chair with so much honour to themselves
and so much advantage to the Society.
Far among the most important information which came
out at the meeting on Wednesday of the Central Chamber
of Agriculture centred over the auditor's report, which
went to show that the Chamber was virtually in a state of
insolvency, members and local Chambers being alike
heavily in arrear of subscription. Our reports of the meet-
ings must be here left to tell out the story of a remarkable
rather than an eventful week.
THE SUPPLY OF GUANO.
What is to be done to supply the place of Peruvian
guano, the source of which appears to be fast working
out ? " Find other deposits, of which there are plenty
in many parts of the world," is the reply that would be
made to the question. But the quality of the Peruvian
article, which rendei'S it so exceptionally valuable to the
farmer, is due to the almost entire absence of rain in
that country. A shower fell a few yeai's ago to the
amazement of the inhabitants, those under seventeen
years of age having never seen such a phenomenon in
their lives, an interval of that extent having elapsed
since the previous shower. Copious night-dews are
the substitutes provided by Providence to supply the
j)lace of rain ; but it must be evident to any one that the
absence of rain must have a powerfully conservative
effect upon the materials or elements of which Peruvian
guano is composed, and which are peculiarly liable to the
deteriorating influence of water in the shape of rain
falling upon it from time to time. This alone causes the
difference existing between the properties and, conse-
quently, the increased value of one — the Peruvian — over
all other kinds which have hitherto been discovered ; no
other possessing the amount of azote or of phosphates of
llie Peruvian, and we believe there is no hope of discovering
any country in which the absence of rain is coupled with the
immense and marvellous clouds of sea birds which are the
immediate producers of the guano. However the stock
is so reduced in the Chincha Islands that the pur-
chaser must now be satisfied with a simple guarantee
that the guano is delivered pure and unadulterated.
Such is the present condition of the Peruvian
guano trade, which during the few years that it
has lasted has produced almost a revolution in the
application of manure to the laud, and helped, by
the collateral operations arising from it, to spread a
general knowledge of agricultural chemistry and of \he
application of its principles in the management of the
land.
It will be evident |that any scarcity of the more valuable
article, will leave a wide opening for practices, which, in
fact, are known both in the United Kingdom and
QR the European contiueat, specially in France, where
there are numerous manufactories of guauo, as so called.
Several articles on the subject have appeared in the
Echo Af/ricole, from which we learn that certain
manufacturers are taking advantage of the dear-
ness of guano to foist upon the public spurious
compounds under the same form, or as near it as they can
produce it, for which twice, thrice, or four times the in-
trinsic value is charged. M. Corenwinder, the founder
and president of the Agricultural Committee of Lisle, has,
with other members of that body, thoroughly investi-
gated this subject, aud been the means of exposing
the frauds that have been palmed upon the agriculturists.
Some of the sellers of worthless articles declare that J,hey
have improved upon the real Peruvian guano, by taking
from it the volatile azotes and the phosphates,
which they allege are dissipated immediately they
are spread upon the land, and have substituted fixed sub-
stances which, in fact, are fixed enough to do neither good
nor harm, being quite unavailable to any crop whatever.
A colouring matter is given to this mixture similar to the
colour of genuine Peruvian guano, so that without an
analysis it is impossible for an ordinary purchaser to de-
tect the fraud except by its results upon the crops, or by
a previous close analysis, which the purchaser has not
always the opportunity of employing. The Echo Jr/ricole
gives the analysis of several samples containing various
proportions of azote. Thus, an artificial guano containing
2.17 per cent, of azote is sold at 25f. per 100 kilos, (or
£11 per ton), worth only 6f. 25c. (or one-fourth) per Ion.
Another containing only 2.43 per cent, of azote is sold at
20f. (or 16s.) per 100 kilogrammes (or £3 Ss.) per ton,
worth 7f. per 100 kilogrammes, or less than £3 per ton.
We give one more — American guano. This is composed
of 4.74 azote, 7.27 phosphate of lime, 11.43 water, and
the rest per cent, of various auimal matters. The price
of this compound is 31f. (or £1 4s. lOd.) per 100 kilos.,
worth 14f., or £6 3s. per ton.
Such are the frauds upon the French farmers, who,
generally speaking, are but little qualified to detect
them, nor disposed to expend any money in analyses,
which they do not understand sufficiently to have
aug coulidence ia, Jt is otherwise with the Euglisl^
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
15
farmers, who have for many years beeu in-
doctrinated in the value of chemistry and its appliances
in the analysis of matters employed in the fertilisation of
the soil, and have moreover reliable men of science
within reach to undertake the operation. The
exposure of sundry frauds attempted here has put
the farmers upon the alert in their pnrchases,
and few of them would now buy the article without
having previously a sample for the purpose of an
analysis to ascertain its intrinsic value. The sample given,
as offered in France, was sold at 33f. 15c.," and
sent to M. Corewinder direct from the cargo im-
ported, without passing through the hands of any
agent or purchaser who could adulterate it before the
analysis was made. This will be some guide to the buyer ;
but it is to be hoped that other deposits
will yet be discovered, and that the supply will not
be absolutely cut off by the exhaustion of
the present stores ; as it is, indeed, understood that
immense quantities have been found in the mountains that
bound the Chilian and Peruvian States on the East ;
and a list of 4G diflerent islands and places on the
mainland has beeu published by the Peruvian authorities
as containing deposits more or less in amount, and of
different qualities. Whether the climatic conditions of
those mountains are as favourable to the properties of
the guauo is a question we cannot speak to ; but we hope
it will be thrown open to the access of the European
traders, so that the farmers who have learned its value
may not be wholly deprived of its aid iu the renovation
of the soil.
THE CENTRAL CHAMBER AND ITS ORGAN.
Notwithstanding the untoward circumstances under
which the great Carnival of Agriculture has just been
celebrated, it is satisfactory to see that the Societies asso-
ciated with, and, as it were, the mouthpieces of the pur-
suit, flourish exceedingly. Try them as we may, by ths
meetings they held or the reports they offered, the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, the Smithfield Club, and
the Farmers' Club were never more prosperous than they
are just at present. To this rule there is of course one
remarkable exception : the most pretentious of all these
bodies, the Central Chamber of Agriculture, has, accord-
ing to its auditor, £40 in hand wherewith to meet some
£70 of liabilities ; or, in other words, the Central Cham-
ber was last week in a position to pay a little more than
ten shillings in the pound. And the auditor went on to
say, naturally enough, that " it was disgraceful such a
Society should stand in such a position," as he dwelt on
the heavy arrear list which he found. Here, it is
manifest, the point of the story centres ; not only do in-
dividual subscribers decline to go on subscribing, but
some of " the Local Chambers throughout Great Britain,"
of which the Central Chamber calls itself the head, have
neglected to send any further tribute. This is the more
noticeable as, if the executive of the Central Chamber has
displayed any particular energy in doing anything, it has
been in asking for money. Under some excuse the hat
has always been going round, or the begging-letter circu-
lated, until one begins to think the renowned i\Ir. Joseph
Ady must have taken the financial department nuder his
control. People may have very possibly got sick o»f this sort
of thing ; but in any case the actual facts are so damaging
that a copy of the auditor's report was not to be obtained
at the meeting, while, although it is stated in a kind of
preface to the pamphlet of reports issued that " the
statement of the financial sub-committee, with the report
of the auditor, is appended," neither of these otrR-ial
papers are to be found in the copies with which our
representative was supplied !
The falling away of the Local Chambers could only have
beeu expected from all that has been occurring for some
time past. One Chamber protests against the irrelevant
nonsense talked at the Central Chamber ; another asks
when they are going to work iu earnest at head quarters
at questions which really affect agriculture ; expression
is given at a third to a hope that rejjorts over whicli the
Central committees are busied may never be finished ;
and a fourth, at Gloucester, only the other day, declares
that these Central Reports (on Tenant-Right) give very
little information, as that which they do give about
Gloucestershire is not to be trusted. Six weeks or so
pjune we yeatured to charaeterisQ this said report, so far
as it went, as " a melancholy rigmarole proclaiming
failure in every line of it." The plain truth is that the
Central Chamber of Agriculture has from the fli-st beeu
a mere job, worked with little ability and proportionate
success ; as it has now arrived at this grand epoch iu its
career : — it is bound hand and foot to the landlords over
Local-Taxation ; it is shirking instead of organizing any
movement against the Malt Tax at the coming election ,
and it has shelved, so far as it had any power to do so,
the Tenant-Right cry by the stale trick of appointing a
committee, which was never wanted, and which has failed
miserably in the outset. "With such a glorious consum-
mation can we wonder at its actual possessions reaching
to as much as ten shillings in the pound, or at one of its
own officers characterising this as a disgraceful position?
From the fu-st, when almost altogether unsupported,
we never hesitated to express our opinion as to the con-
duct of the Chamber of Agriculture, and we have suf-
fered accordingly whenever a broken link in our armour
was thought to oft'er an opening. Thus, only a fortnight
since the Organ actually devoted a leader of more than
two columns to the merits of the Birmingham Champion
Ox of the previous week, quoting with peculiar compla-
cency Tlie Times, and itself on " the grandest beast
in the show," and with little mercy gibbeting us after
this fashion : " Tlie Mark Lane Kcpress turns up its nose
at such a specimen of prize oxship. It says : ' The very
winner hardly looks like a tlioroughbred one, but is simply
a great mountain of beef of not very prime quality, while
lie begins with a poor, plain, mean head, and has as little
style about him as any beast which ever took so high a
place'." And then the Organ, although it jjrotests against
our "off-hand manner," proceeds iu a very olf-haud man-
ner to settle the question in this way: " Of course, the
beast is a grand one, or else all the dilFercnt sets of judges
must have beeu woefully wrong, and Tin; Mark Lane
Krpress right."
Still our critic would " like to know who is
wrong and who is right," and by the next Monday
he is thus answered by " A Midland Judge" iu his own
columns : " Having h&d the privilege of viewing the four
animals w-hich were by their previous triumphs in their
several classes selected to compete for the further honour
of the best iu the bovine classes exhibited, I had a better
opportunity of judging them as they were led up and down
the avenue than those who merely saw them tied up, and
I then thought that he was the least worthy of the high
distinction — an ojiinion in which I was, upon a closer in-
spection, fully confirmed. That he had a great carcase,
moderately evenly covered with Hesh, is beyond question.
He had a fine tpble back, good spring of rib, and con9e»
16
THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE.
queiitly a good middle piece ; but I failed to distinguish
that tine rich touch which all Shorthorn breeders so much
aim at — in fact, my opinion is he lacked quality. His
character, too, was anything but that which my eye recog-
nises as that of the pure-bred Shorthorn, and I fully en-
dorse the following words of one of your contemporaries :
' lie begins with a poor, plain, mean head, and has as little
style about him as any beast which ever took so high a
place.' His neck was mean and weak in the extreme, his
shoulders badly covered, his brisket by no means what it
should have been ; his flank, purse, and rounds w'ere the
worst I ever touched for an animal of such pretensions, to
say nothing of a badly set-ou tail and patchy rump."
This very moderate beast, according to a man who ex-
presses himself like a judge, the u-orst of the four was
Mr. Wortley's champion ox, which commanded the "high
praise of The Times, and was by the Organ " the grandest
beast of the show ;" whilst the contemporary whose de-
scription the Midland Judge " fully endorses" is The
Mark Lane Express. How thoroughly do the Dogberry
of The Times and the Verges of the Organ in the cha-
racters of muddle-headed watchmen observe the behest
to write each other dowu an ass. At Leeds this " grand
beast" was beaten by ^Ir. Reid's heifer, in turn since
beaten by another Birmingham entry, so that the Here-
ford ox, for which we went in the outset and which " A
Midland Judge" also prefers, was, probably alike for looks
aud quality the best animal this year in Bingley Hall. It
is only right to add that we knew nothing of the Midland
Judge's letter until it was published, nor do we now
know the name of the author.
With one sentence, however, in this suicidal leader we
heartily agree : " Clearly there are some editors or re-
porters who either do not examine the beasts they are
going to write about, or, if they do, are imcompeteut to
perceive and appreciate the merits and deficiencies in
form, quality, and character in the specimens before them."
Clearly there are, and with permission we will illustrate
this by " the leading Journal," or, in other words, by the
practice olThe Tunes reporter — who before now has given
very complimentary descriptions of animals, which unfortu-
nately were not present at the meeting he was writing
about — who only at Hull proclaimed, with all the " high
praise" at his command, a young Shorthorn to be the first
prize bull, though his chief merit was in standing in the
next stall to the first prize — and who, at Birmingham, two
or three years since, wrote up a " superb" Devon as the best
beast in Bingley Hall, which never took any prize what-
ever at Islington iu the following week. Clearly " there
are some editors or reporters who either do not examine
the beasts they are going to write about," or very possi-
bly never see them at all ; and who are " competent" for
little better than being crammed by a butcher or a very
disinterested owner. The Organ must have had some
such an editor or reporter iu his eye when he passed this
severe sentence.
THE KOYAL AGRICULTURAL BENEVO-
LENT INSTITUTION.
At the December meeting of the Council, Mr. C. S.
Cantrell in the chair, it was announced that Mr. Donald
Nicoll had withdrawn his name from the Council of the
Institution.
The receipt of a legacy of £100 was reported.
The deaths of two pensioners were reported.
It was decided that in the case of candidates perma-
nently disabled the qualification age should be reduced
from 45 to 40 years of age.
Some complaints advanced against the quality of the
food supplied to the children at the schools ^ere con-
sidered unreasonable.
It was resolved iu future to hold the December meeting
of the Council in the Smithfield Club show-week, as sug-
gested in Tl^e Mark Lane Express.
FRENCH TRADE SINCE THE WAR.— la the recent de-
bate on the Budget of the Minister of Agriculture and Com-
merce in the French Assembly, the minister made an interesting
statement as to tlie development of the French export trade
since the war. The fact to which he called attention is one
which has justly attracted some previous notice, viz., that
the exports of France iu the present year exceed by
£20,000,000 the exports in 1869, which, as the minister puts
it, was the most flourishing of the ref/ime which preceded the
present. The minister recognises that much of the iucrease
is due merely to a rise of price ; but there is, nevertheless, he
asserts, aa enormous progress, on which the French people
have a right to cougratulate themselves. The minister also
draws attention to the fact tliat the increase takes place under
regime of competition, and is in no way m protected indus-
tries, the only new advantage which French industry enjoys,
as compared with former periods, being the absence of taxes
on raw materials. The following is a list of the more impor-
tant items in which the iucrease has taken place : —
Tissues of silk £3,000,000
wool 2,680,000
cotton 400,000
Works in Leather, \c 2,400,000
Jewellery and Gold work 880,000
Watch raakiug 160,000
Tools and other works in metals 3,000,000
The principal increase is thus in articles of manufacture in
which France has had a pre-eminence, that is, France has
been able to develop her characteristic industries, hut the
minister remarks as to the last item, that it is customary now
in France to purchase articles for which recourse was formerly
had to England. Such is the account of the French minister,
and it is certainly a remarkable one considering the shock
which must have been given to France trade by the uuhappy
war of 1870-71, the fact that tiiis has been a year of crisis iu
several countries with which France deals, and the additional
circumstance that the France of 1873 is smaller by two manu-
facturing provinces witli a population of more than two
millions than the France of 1869. There are only two
possible qualifications to the account, to which we think at-
tention may be drawn, without questioning that the account,
should be substantially satisfactory to the French people.
One is that to some extent the apparent exports of France
may have been increased by the loss of two provinces — what
was formerly a home trade between one part of France and
another becoming a foreign trade, aud so swelling the totals
of the latter. Is there any means of telling how much the
diminished France of to-day exported to the lost povinces, as
the amount, if it can be stated or guessed at, clearly falls to
be deducted in a comparison with the former period, a con-
trary rectification being also made iu the former accouut in
respect of the share which the lost provinces contributed to
the former exports of France ? Tlie other (lualification is
that some of the increased exports may indicate no real iu-
crease of the industry of France, but may be a sign merely
of diminished wealth. France must export more because of
the large debt which she has contracted abroad as the result
of the last war, and the interest of which she must pay. I)oes
she pay the amount without any diminution of liome cun-
sumptiou, or does the new debt abroad actually take some-
thing from the people which they formerly enjoyed ? Tliere
is a suspicion that the latter may be the case, as the imports
have certainly not increased as well as the exports, and it
would be desirable to have the statistics of French trade aud
industry carefully analysed to see whether any weight is to be
given to this qualification of the miuistei's account — Economist.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
17
WINFRITH FARMERS' CLUB.
PARASITES.
The opening meeting of the winter session took place at
Wool. Mr. O. W. Farrer, the Recorder of Wareham.was set
down in the programme for a lecture on the Sanitary Act, but
his place was taken by Mr. George Bennett, of Winfrith,
whose indisposition had prevented his presence at a meeting
fixed for October. Mr. J. J. Bates, of Lulworth, occupied the
chair.
Mr. J. Bennett then read the following paper " On Para-
sites." "When asked a twelvemonth since to take this subject
little thought that it was one of such extent, interest, or im-
portance. Unfortunately for me, I have not been able to ob-
tain a vast amount of information that I had wished to have
access to, as I am unable to read the German language, and
this particular subject seems to me to have been treated i/i
extenso by our German sacans. Such being the case, I hope
you will pardon me if I fail to set before you this evening a
very learned and wise discourse upon a subject that at first
sight does not commend itself to people generally, but it only
requires to be slightly investigated and I am sure an interest
will soon arise. I saw some very good advice a short time
siuce, which I mean to adopt as far as I can. I have had to
do with a lot of hard names and long scientific words ; these
I mean to leave out and expunge as far as possible. The ad-
vice was simply this — " In particular arts beware of that affec-
tation of speaking technically, by which ignorance is often
disguised and knowledge disgraced." In the first place I think
it will be as well to come to some understanding as to wliat a
parasite is, and what is meant by the terra. I shall simply de-
fine it as a plant or animal which attaches itself to and lives in
or upon another. We find them in the animal and vegetable
kingdoms. These creatures are found to exist in almost every
living being ; and, not only so, but in all parts of their bodies,
such as the viscera, muscles, brain, skin, and even eye. Some
appear to have no appreciable efi'ect upon the organisation or
on the subject, whose body they may occupy for years without
giving rise to a suspicion of their existence, whilst others cause
death in a short period. Again, in the vegetable world almost
every plant has its own special parasite in the form of either
a vegetable or animal, and that to such an extent that some-
times whole fields of grain, tubers, or hops are nearly destroyed
by them. It can hardly be supposed that these creatures are
altogether created to be a pest to the world ; it seems rather
more probable that where they exist in due limitation they
have a beneficial effect in cleansing and purifying those parts
of the animal and vegetable bodies on which they feed ; and
tliat they only become specially injurious when they become
extremely numerous, and suck away the very life-blood of the
creatures that sustain them. Por of their numbers in
special cases, such for instance as in what is some-
times called the cotton worm, or disease of sheep,
where the whole mass of flesh becomes white the
cotton with an infinite number of little thread-like worms
— in this and other cases, I say, their numbers are beyond all
calculation. And, indeed, we may say of parasites in general,
the law with them is to increase rapidly. Of animal parasites
we may say their varieties are incalculable, some being very
conspicuous and large, while others on the contrary are so
small that it requires a powerful microscope to see them at
all. If it be true that nearly all animals, small and grear, are
more or less infectected with parasitical companions, it
naturally follows that they must be of all sizes — a truth which
Dean Swift has beautifully, though humorously, expressed in
his well known lines : —
The little flees that do so tease.
Have smaller fleas tliat bite 'era ;
And these again have lesser fleas,
And so ad bijlnifiim.
Let me draw your attention to the disease in sheep, caused by
a parasite called a flute or liver fluke. On wet lands there is
perhaps no parasite from which the farmer suffers more than
from the liver fluke. Dr. Cobbold says that the ravages
of this disease have been of the most disastrous and
extensive character, A writer in the Edinburgh Velerinarij
Review says, that in the season of 1831 and 1832 the esti-
mated deaths of sheep from rot was between one and two
millions. Supposing the number to have been one-and-a-half
millions, this would represent a sum of something like four
millions sterling. Scores of cases have occurred where far-
mers have lost from three to eight hundred sheep in a single
season, in many casesjcausing their complete ruin. The number
of flukes inhabiting a sheep's liver is sometimes very consider-
able. The eggs of a fluke may be numbered by thousands,
as found in tlie bile contained in the liver ducts. Though of
comparatively rare occurrence in the human subject, it is in
an indirect manner extremely injurious to man. By its pre-
valence in the lower animals it cuts off a large supply of
healthy food, at the same time producing a quantity of meat
unfit for the market, but which, nevertheless, is largely eateu
by our poorer inhabitants. The liver fluke is not ouly ex-
tremely destructive by carrying off thousands of our sheep,
but it also affects our larger cattle. The disease therefore is
of great importance, as it cannot fail to prove highly preju-
dicial to our social interests. Outbreaks occurred in the years
1809, 1816, 18ii4., 1830, 1853, and 18(J0. A wet season seems
to further the multiplication of parasites, and on the other
hand a fine, dry, open season tends to check the growtli and
wanderings of the larvfe, thus rendering the flocks compara-
tively secure. Long continued wet. and a succession of wet
seasons, seem particularly favourable to this disease. Slieep
feeding in salt-water marshes seem to be exempt. The
mixing of salt with our sheep and cattle food serves as a
preventive and curative agent. Moisture being essential to
the growth and development of the fluke larvae, sheep cannot
be infected as long as they remain on high and dry grounds,
and even in low pasture they can scarcely take the disease as
long as they are folded and fed on hay, turnips, and fodder
procured from drier situations. Por rot-affected sheep my
opinion is that the only way to treat them is by the free use
of salt, transference of the rot-affected animals to dry ground,
good shelter, supplying them with beans or peas, and the
fodder constantly changed. Prom this ravaging disorder in
sheep caused by parasites, allow me to direct your attention to
other disorders in domestic animals that have their origin in
the presence of parasitical creatures. Pirst, as to giddiness in
sheep. This disorder is caused by the presence of hydatids
on the brain, and their presence there may be recognised by
the restless and wandering habits of the sheep so afl'ected.
The parasites causing this disorder are supposed to be produced
from eggs taken in the food, and afterwards reaching the brain
through the channel of the blood. When they become large
or are numerous they are the means of gradually absorbing
the braiu,thus causing very alarming symptoms. The disease
is diflicult of cure. Trepanning has been tried, and also passing
a wire up the nostril, but probably it is the wisest thing to
kill tiie animal. Allow me in passing to refer to a less im-
portant disorder than the one last spoken of — namely, the gape
disease in fowls. This is caused by a particular kind of worm
belonging to the order of Sclerostoma. The remedy adopted
by some is to strip a feather and remove the worm by pushing
the same down the throat. Some people apply turpentine
externally. In the case of partridges bciug afl'ected change of
food and place is recommended, with an infusion of rue and
garlic, instead of plain water to drink. I will now pass on to
the subject of tape-worms. The human subject is affected by
no less than ten distinct species. Tiie tape-worm inhabitiug
fish exhibits very distinct characteristics from those of birds
or mammals, inasmuch as tiiey are furnished with special
hook appendages employed as supplementary organs of boring
and anchorage. Though dogs and many of our domestic
animals are often passing tape-worms, they do not seem to
suffer severely from their doing so. It is only when the
length of the parasite becomes very great, and requires a
corresponding quantity of nourishment to support it, that
it begins to sap the constitution of the animal in which
it is lodged. Though lookiug like a worm of many
yards in length, when more closely examined it is found
to 1)6 a compound animal, resembling very much a chain,
18
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
where every liuk is a distinct creature, but so united togetlier
as to look like one lengtliened-out worm. Cestoid jwrasites
are found in the ox, althougli to no great extent. The larv;e
of tape-worms abound in cattle, while the cestoids in their
adult condition are of less frequent occurrence. The beef
raearie, although unknown in England, is frequently found in
India whilst serving out the meat rations to the troops. It is
a larval parasite or tape- worm in an immature state, like that
which infests tlie human body. Experiments have proved
that the ox is equally as liable as the pig to certain
tape-worm larvtc within the substance of their flesli. If a calf
be induced to swallow ripe eggs of tlie humau tape-worm, the
ova there introduced will in time transform into measles.
Swine will undergo a large amount of parasitism wishout ap-
parently exhibiting so much sutferiug as other animals. Measly
pork is more often detected than measly cattle, the reason
being that in the latter the appearances are few and far
between. The measle disorder (called cestode tuberculosis
with equal propriety) occurs in the sheep, pig, ox, or other
animals. To discover this disease a microscope, or at all
events a strong magnifying glass, is required. When properly
developed the beef measle is \ incli in diameter, this being
much smaller than the cystercus of the pig. But there are
other diagnostic signs of greater value. We may justly say
that of all the forms of animal life parasites are possibly the
lowest. They are deficicut of many of the organs that are
possessed by those that are above them. Thus we say of
internal worms, or eiitozoa in general, the organs of sense,
&c., seem to be limited to that of feeling. In some the diges-
tive organs are altogether wanting, the nutriment penetrating
the tissue as in a fungus or confervte. No breathing ap-
paratus is required, living as they frequently live, in cells and
cavities. These worms are produced by budding, spontaneous
division, or by eggs. The embryo developed from the egg
does not always grow up immediately into an animal similar
to its parent. It transforms itself into a larva, capable of
giving birth without fecundation to other larvae, which are
alone capable of becoming animals similar to the parent worm.
Tiiese larvre are generally found in the tissue of animals very
dilTereut from the one iu which the perfect worm exists, so
that before one of them can complete its development it must
be transported into another animal's body. Thus the white
cell or vesicle, causing a fearful disease in pigs, developing
very rapidly in the muscular tissue, transforms itself into
tape-worm iu the humau intestines. One kind of worm,
liaving five mouths, lives in the pulmouary cavities of the
rattlesnake, another iu the bladder of frogs, and another in
the skin of a common worm ; tlius we have "A worm upon a
worm." Among the parasitical creatures that are a great
annoyance to our farm stock may be also noticed here flesh
Hies on sheep. They deposit their eggs on some damp place in
the wool, which soon arrives at the maggot state, causing
great inconvenience and loss. Ticks, too, are very trouble-
some to the flock, yet they tend to cleanse away impurities
from the skin. And the maggots of the lot, residing iu the
frontal sinus, are also friglitlul enemies to the sheep. Causing
them to sneeze has been known to bring the maggot from the
nose. If sheep could be induced to become snuff-takers they
would never sutler from the hot. What shall I say of bugs ?
No doubt they are fierce parasites,
Without respect for person ;
If one a tender thin skin bites,
Another bites a coarse one.
Yet, independent of their evil propensities for biting, I read iu
the Saiiird:i'j Majazine that they used to be a favourite medi-
cine with doctors for colic. An old writer says : " Truly it
is a remedy not to be despised, but it is no new remedy ; it is
a certain cure, inasmuch as a governor of Zurich was so
helped by tlieiruse that he would have liked to have written a
commendition in their favour." If I try to soften down their
bad prop,;rties, and to bring into prominence their good ones,
I am only following the example of a great authority ; 'or
Shakespeare, in speaking of parasitical men, calls them
Most smiling, smooth, detested parasites.
Courteous destroyers, atTable wolves, meek liars.
I now bring before your notice another parasite. Think of
our blood vessels, and the blood vessels of other animals,
being the channels through which insect parasites are flowing
in countless numbers, like fish iu great rivers and all tlieir
smaller branches. Tlic hematazqon, a blood parasite, infests
the hura.tn blood, and this lias been now proved by Dr.
Lewis. It is l-6tli of an inch in length, and as broad as one
of the red blood discs. Nothing as yet is kuown of its
organs. As our knowledge of eutozoa extends we may find
other at present obscure diseases associated with the presence
of some such parasite as this. The discovery of its dwelliug-
place is of course the first step to its removal. For the sake
of variation in our subject, I would here briefly refer to the
beneficial uses of parasitical life. In the fertilisation of the
yucca plant there has been found a great ditficulty to obtain
seed in this country. This arises from the fact that the
yucca, being an insect loving plant, a certain small moth
collects the pollen and inserts it into the proper receptacle,
and with the pollen deposits a few eggs ; the larvae of the
insect feed upon tlie seeds when matured. And, indeed, it
almost seems that the plant and the insect are inseparable.
Not having this particular insect in this country, we are
unable to procure the seed of this particular plant. Para-
sites, if not deriving nutriment from the animals on which
they are found, must be a great annoyance, and must cer-
tainly retard the flight of birds and insects. We owe a debt
of gratitude to a large and important class of flies of the
ichneumon family that are true parasites, and that live on
other insects, enemies both in the ovum, worm, and clirysalis
state. Parasites, as a rule, begin life in the egg form, passing
from that into the larvte or caterpillar state, and then into
the third or proper state ; but sometimes this arrangement is
somewhat altered, and, as a French naturalist named Faber
has noticed, some insects have to pass through what may be
termed intermediate states ; that is to say, not only eggs
larvEe, and pupa, but modifications of their states ; this he
terms hypometamorphosis (this is the case with one of the
bee parasites — the oil beetle). Bees are afflicted with a
parasitical worm inducing disease. These creatures feed oa
the fatty tissue, pass through their usual change, and then
exchange their living quarters for the water, where they lay
millions of eggs, which are again ready to be taken up by
any animal frequenting the moist localities in which they are
found. And, whilst speaking of bees, there is a uiicroseopic
fungus called raucor mellitophorus that infests bees, filling
the stomach with an immense number of microscopic spores,
that greatly weaken the insect. The tachiuaj, an insect that
causes immense damage to bees, is the means of a disease
called the foul brood, analogous to typhus fever in the human
subject. It lays its eggs in the larvte of the bee, and tlie
perfect insect shortly comes to maturity ; the young bee is
killed, and its decaying body causes a poison similar to typhus
fever to arise in its immediate neighbourhood or brood.
There are two facts that I had almost forgotten to mention ;
the first is that dogs, when troubled with a certain kind of
fleas, by biting and gribbing at them, the fleas find their way
into the stomach, from hence the embryos are set forth by
the gastric juice, giving rise to parasitical worms. Secondly,
Dr. Cobbold nientious the curious fact that he calculates that
about 4,000 people are affected with tapeworm in the metro-
polis ; and, supposing that eacli day one of the two segments
of the living worm pass into the sewers, causing 40,000 eggs,
the sewerage is then placed over the land, and these eggs
may be swallowed by cattle, the covering of the eggs pre-
serving them from atmospheric influence. As the crea-
tures of the parasitical animal are so numerous, I might
have drawn your attentiuu to more than I have done ;
but as there is still a further branch of our subject un-
touched — namely, vegetable parasites, I must hurry on
to that, concluding my remarks on animal parasites with some
brief information regarding their development. The science of
helminthology or eulozoology, makes us acquainted with the
forms, habits, structure, development, distribution, and classi-
fications of a large number of invertebrate organisms which
take up their above at one or more periods of their life-time
in or on bodies of man or other animals. Dr. Cobbold says
that the happiest and perhaps after all the most truly philo-
sophic way of studying the entozoa is to regard them as a
particular fauna, destined to occupy an equally particular
territory — that territory is the wide-spread domain of the
interior of the bodies of man and other animals. Each animal
or host may be regarded as a continent, and each part or viscus
of his body may be noted as a district. Each district has its
special attractions for particular parasitic forms ; yet at .the
same time neither the district nor the continent are suitable
localities as a permanent resting place for the invader. No^e
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
19
of the internal parasites continue in one state; all have
a tendency to roam ; migration is the soul of their prosperity,
change ot residence the sine qadnon of their existence ; whilst
a blockade ia the interior, prolonged beyond the proper
period, terminates only in critilieatiou and death. I now
venture to draw your notice to various disorders iullicted on
the higher lornis of animal life, as also upon various trees
and plants, and dilfereut sorts of crops, by parasitical fungi
and other forms of vegetable life, as well as the ravages
created in crops by worms, Hies, and so forth, members of the
parasitical family. The bean parasite, the Aphis i'aba or the
Black Doiphin, arrives with an east wind, and is most
destructive to the beau crop. It is supposed to derive its
nourishment from the sap of the plant. Its powers of re-
production are enormous. KoUar states that it multiplies
after the rate of 7^9 millions in one season. This blight (so
called) is arrested by topping the plants ; and some persons
assume that by this means the poda of the bean become
enlarged and more fully developed. A check to this parasite
is the larvre of the ladybird, ichneumon, and maggots of
other insects. And here I may notice that the larvre
of certain parasitical flies feed upon some ol our insect
enemies, and thus destroy them, as seen in the case of
of the bugs and beetles found amongst tlie beans. A plan
sometimes adopted is to grow beans and peas together ; this is
done for more than one reason, firstly, the bean serves as a
support to the pea, keeping it off the ground, and giving it
air and light. Secondly, in case of an affection of the green
or black aphis, one stands a chance of saving one of the two
crops, the black affecting the bean being especially favoured
by an east wind, and the green aphis by the south-west wind.
Why this should be I cannot venture a reason ; and on this
point I should wish for information from any member of the
club. Mouldiness in bread is frequently developed. It arises
not from germs in the atmosphere, but from inferior flour
kept under wrong conditions. It is stated that excess of salt
added to the bread prevents the production of this parasitical
fungi. The potato disease, the Perouospora infestans, no
doubt arises from a parasitical fungoid. It cannot be traced
back to its beginning, nor can the first appearance of typhus or
any other malignant fever. The fungus that produces such
dire results amongst this most valuable vegetable is not only
found on the potato, but also on the night shade of our hedges,
and very commonly on the fruit of the tomato; nor does it
confine itself to the same natural order as the potato, but is
found on plants of other orders, to wit, the Sciophulariaciie.
A curious fact may be here mentioned — that the mycelium of
a fungus is a great incentive to the production of the green
colouring matter of the leaves, thus accounting for the extreme
healthy appearance immediately preceding tiie attack or after
the germination of the spores. The parasite never appears on
the upper side of the leaf, but always on the under surface.
In perfecting itself it destroys the matrix on which it grows,
and causes the leaves to dry up and putrefy. The fungus
really stops the breathing apparatus of the leaves by filling up
file stomachs or mouths; by this means the stem and leaves
become surcharged with moisture, producing rot and decay
The spores when ripe are given off by the fungus, and, by
means of the wind and showers, the disease is spread with
alarming rapidity over large districts. Besides the germ or
spores other bodies are also found called oospores, or a
secondary sort of fruit of the potato fungus, which do not
germinate or perish at once, hut remain for a whole season,
until circumstances of a favourable character occur, when they
reproduce their parent forms. The fungus of the potato fruit
affects the leaves, then the stem, and lastly the tuber. It ap-
jiears that the fungus penetrates from the exterior or cuticle
to the interior, the eyes being the last to succumb; audi
ipiestion very much ifplauting tiie eyes is not a sure way of
spreading the disease. Destroying tiie liaulra immediately
h 13 sometimes been recommended to stop it, but if delayed the
fungus soon gets to the tuber. Wiiei the disease occurs in a
field where the resting spores have been developed it docs
so from beneath upwards ; these plants soon affect tiie
lujalthy ones in an opposite direction, that is from the
haves downwards, and so the crop perishes. Early planting of
early sorts, I opine, is the best preventive. Amongst animals
that suffer from vegetable fungi in the shape of parasites we
may name the horne. Thus we read in The Timrs newspaper,
April 3, 1873 : "The vegetable origin of the horse disease is
the subject of a paper in The American Na/ura/kt, by Mr.
Moorhouse, of New York. He examined the matter exuding
from the nostrils of the affected animals, and, besides the
regular pus, found no less than three kinds of vegetable or-
ganisms, all in states of vigorous development. Ocs was a
species of minute lichen, known as Urceolario scruposu. These
were in every form of development, there being hundreds of
fragments in a single drop. Another was an unknown species
of Aspci'jillus, also giving evidence of propagation and growtli.
The third form was an unknown species, not hitherto described.
In order to prove that these spores were floating in the atmos-
phere, they were caught on moistened glass in the atmos-
phere in the vicinity of the disease. This is regarded as
bringing the atmospheric and vegetable origin of this disease
nearer to demonstration, but yet not as proving it, as the at-
mospheric vegetable spores may have simply found a favour-
able nidus in which to germinate in the mucous matter given
off by the disease." Parasites in plants are most numerous in
tiie tropical regions. Sometimes a tree may present various
kinds of foliage, arising from the different kinds of parasitic
intruders. In Britain only a few species are known. I will
here mention the dodder. It has been described " as a non-
pareil, having no leaves, but red tlueads, and after it has
fastened its claspers or small tendrils on the lime, thyme,
nettle, madder, or such like, it quits the root, and, like a
cohering parasite, lives upon anotiier's trencher, and, like an
ungrateful guest, first starves and then kills its entertainer,
for which reason indigenous clowns curse it by the name of
' hell-weed,' and in Sussex by the name of ' JJevil's Guts' "
Gnrarde also describes it as a strange herb altogether, without
leaves or root, like unto threads very much snarled or wrapped
together, confusedly winding itself about bushes and hedges,
and sundry kinds of herbs. Dodder, when first produced,
lives as an ordinary plant in the soil, the roots deriving nutri-
ment from the same. It then puts out a tendril, and, if fortu-
nate enough to attach itself to a becoming plant, it soon pro-
duces more tendrils, v^hich continually wind themselves round
the plant, piercing its texture and deriving nutriment from it.
Its own roots after a time wither, and from this time it is
entirely independent of the soil. One peculiarity of the
dodder is that it can mature its seed in the capsule, and Ijy so
doing, it becomes a parasite at once. Dodder germinates
from seeds like our ordinary plants, and must be sown with
the clover seed ; but it has the power of remaining in the
soil without germinating for a longer period than the clover.
The dodder soon becomes like the polype, so that if cut up
into many fragments, each one becomes a separate plant, so
that harrowing or tearing abroad is of no nse to rid the plant.
The only eU'ectual way is to dig up the soil and burn
thoroughly. Some people have recommended a weak solution
of sulphate of iron to be applied with a watering-pot, but this
remedy can only be adopted wlieu tiie plant has not made muck
havoc. De Candolle recommends the way to get rid ot this
troublesome pest is to mow sucli portions of tlie crop as are
infested before the seed is fallen, and, if this has taken place,
to replace the crop by some sort of grass that has not tlie,
privilege of being affected by tliis plant. Flax is soiuetimes
affucted with it. Brown rape is again another parasite which
attaches itself to the clover roots, and is most probably sown
with the cloverseed. It is a leafless plant tiiat attaches itscl f
to the ends of the roots, causing thein to swell, and from this
swelling they derive their nutriment. In some countries tliis
parasite is often found, and the mode adopted for its extirpation
is to steep the seed in an alkaline solution. It is supposed
that the seeds attach themselves by a kind of oil which floats
to the surface, and are then poured ofT with the water. 1 am
inclined to tliink that lichens do not procure their sustenance
from the essential juices of the plant or tree on which they
are found, but from decaying portions of tlie bark and from the
atmosphere, although they add very much to the pieturesque
appearance of the aged monarchs of the forest glen. Mistletoe
in severe winters is cut from llie apple-tree and given to siieei)-,
wliich eat it readily ; it is said to preserve them from r jt. This
plant is found on the oak. lime, black poplar, willow, pear, and
almond tree in Trance and Spain, and sometimes on the olive
tree about Jerusalem. The old Druids used to consider this
plant most sacred, probably from its scarcity. The seeds have
a peculiar way of germination. They send out a rootlet that
bends over uutil it reaches the body of the substance to wliich
the seed has been attached; having reached this the root
swells out and extends between the inner bark and the soft
wood. As growth advances the roots become embedded iu
20
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
the solid wood, but do not by their own account penetrate.
When several plants are nourished from one branch it often
causes not only the death of the particular brauch but also
their own death from want of nourishment. It is therefore
expedient to free orchards from this undesirable pest. Smut
is a paiasitical fungus that destroys the centre of the flower,
feeding on the ileshy mass that it produces, and materially
interferes with the yield of wheat, although it does not so
much interfere with the quality as the quantity. Bunt, on
tlie other hand, confines itself to the mature wheat grain, and
may be recognised by the offensive smell when crushed. Tlie
diseased grain remaining in the crop of wheat spoils a large
bulk, as, unlike the smut, it remains until harvest, and does
not get dispersed previously. It will not here be probably
out of place to mention the reason that we adopt a solution
of bhie vitriol to steep our seed wheat in, or the use of lime.
It is simply this — that the germ of the bunt fungus is covered
with au oleaginous substance which, when mixed with an
alkaline body, as lime, becomes saponified, or, on the other
hand, mixed with a styptic metallic salt solution, it destroys
the germ, which, being deprived of its covering, ceases to ger-
minate, and rots in the soil, and thus prevents the occurrence,
of the disease. For ray own part I prefer the use of vitriol.
Oii tills point I should like the opinion of those present. Steep,
iug grain in a metallic solution serves also to destroy the ger
minatiug power of sickly wheat grains, which are only a fit
receptacle for some of our numerous insect and fungoid ene-
mies. With regard to lichens a diversity of opinion exists.
Some contend that they are the means of attracting moisture
to the trees on which they grow, and thus assist in their nu-
triment and growth ; others, on the contrary, contend that
they are detrimentul to all timber trees. My own impression
is that to a certain extent they are injurious, inasmuch as
they derive for the support of their thallus an amount of in-
organic substances from the bark on which they are found,
these substances not being contributed by the atmosphere.
I may here mention the new vine disease, the Phyloxera vas-
tatrix. This peculiar parasite in all its threefold states,
whether covering the roof, clinging to the branches, under
side of the leaf, or when flying, is a particularly obnoxious
and dangerous enemy. It seems to prefer the vine to other
plants, although it is by no means certain that others are
not similarly affected. Although the insect is not of itself
difficult to kill, the best plan as yet found out is to
buru both vine and soil, not forgetting to destroy the
roots of the vine, which may become affected if allowed to
remain. Even at the risk of being tedious I will bring before
your notice a very remarkable way in which parasites make
themselves of use in beautifying the ladies. If they sometimes
create great ravages among the silkworms, and in this way
make the ladies' silk dresses all the more expensive, they seem
to try to make up for it by assisting the mussels and oysters
ill the structure of those beautiful pearls that add so much to
the charms of the female sex. I will read to you an extract
from the Lancet on this subject : " In a late number of the
journal of the Linnaan Society there will be found some in-
terestiug remarks by Mr. Garner, F.L.S., ' On the lormatiou
of British Pearls and their possible Improvemuet.' Every one
is aw.ire that an oyster or a niusst'l, as tiie case may be, when
irritated by a foreign body, not liaving the means of scratching
itself, is reduced to the necessity of toning down the annoy-
ance of the inevitable presence of the intruder by shedding
around it, through the agency of its ' mantle,' layer after layer
of lovely ' nacre,' or mother-of-pearl. Such is the origin of
those pearly concretions which may be found adherent to the
inside of the shells of the above-named molluscs. The rounder
and more valued pearls are said to be formed in the soft parts
only of the animal, of which a good example may be seen in
the educational series in the Museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons, in the shape of a round pearl embedded in the foot of a
nnio, or a fresh-water pearl mussel. Mr. Garner has found rea-
son to abandon the generally received idea of the grain of sand
which plays the part of the crumbled rose-leaf to the muUus-
cous sybarite, and concludes, from observations made on the
marine mussel {iinjlilns) — his conclusions being supported by
tlie independent researches of Signor Antonio Villa, in Italy —
that the exciting cause is no inorganic particle, but is actually
a minute parasitical entozoon (a species of dis(oma) in the
mytliliis ; while in the ««0(/6i«, or fresh- water mussel, it is a
minute mite, acarus {Atax) — in fact, an itch insect. The
presence of such parasites as a nucleus he has proved by treat-
ing the pearls with a dilute acid. Mr. Garner then hints at the
possibility of setting on foot a king of pearl-nursery, so to
speak, where the cultivation of this precious ornament may
be carried on, citing the Chinese as an example, who, as is well
known, not only introduce metallic figures of ]3uddha between
the shell and mantle (there to be pearl-washed by the mollusc for
the ultimate benefit of the faithful), but even go so far as to
bring about what may be termed a ' margaritiferous' diathesis,
by contaminating the water inhabited by the mussel. With
regard to such diathesis, it may be interesting to mention a
theory of a celebrated French zoologist, M. Lacaze Duthiers,
put forward some years ago by the 'Annates des Sciences
Naturelles' — that a mollusc so affected is in the condition of
a calculous or gouty subject, its blood being highly charged
with the material which goes towards the secretion of pearly
substances; the excess of which over and above what is re-
quired for the nacreous lining of the shell is precipitated in
the form of a pearl, much as in the analogous case of a mau a
calculus is formed in the kidney or bladder, or a concretion of
urate of soda above the nuckles. The reader of Sheridan's
' Critic' may remember how that the raving 'Tilburuia' cries
' Can an oyster fall in love ?' But an aldermanic mussel is
well-nigh as ludicrous in conception as an amorous oyster,
especially when it simulates humanity, as far as to be actually
laid up with gout in the foot." I am afraid, Mr. Chairman
and gentlemen, that iu this discourse I have been prosy and
tedious, but please to bear with my imperfections, for I liave
laboured under various difficulties in gathering together a
simple repast to gratify your scientific appetites. If I ha\6
done nothing else, I hope I may have spurred up some to look
into natural history more than they have liitherto done, for it
is a large, a wide, and an interesting field to labour in. I have
drsvvn your attention to a few parasitical forms, such as most
concern us ; but the few I have referred to bear no more com-
parison to the whole army of these creatures than a handful
of sand bears to all the sand banks in all the seas. Wherever
the Great Creator has laid up a store of food, in all parts of
the vegetable and animal kingdom, as well on dry land as in
the sea, in the chill regions of the north as in the sunny south,
there He has created some animals to feed upon it There are
decay and waste going on in every created being, and there
are other created beings formed to pick up and turn to use
that waste, so that no crumbs of feeding matter may be lost.
As some of these strange parasites are liable to increase and
multiply to a pestiferous extent, it is our advantage and our
duty, as lords of creation, to seek out for the ways and means
of keeping them under control, of bringing them into the sub-
jection of man. As we have been able to bring the wild beasts
of the forest under our sway and to tame them, so may we
hope, by sifting into the causes of the ravages of parasites,
looking out for counterbalancing influences, if we do not
entirely eradicate them, we shall at least greatly diminish their
injurious tendencies.
The lecture was illustrated with microscopic parasites
mounted on small glass slides.
The President asked whether it was definitely settled
amongst scientific men that the disease in sheep originated ia
the feeding of the animal or from internal causes ?
Mr. Bennett answered that it was from feeding — that was
the latest theory. There must exist the larva ; the germ
must be taken into the body.
Mr. Marke mentioned a case of some sheep which were
sold on the understanding that they were free from the malady ;
it turned out, however, that they had it and were therefore
unsound. They were driven from seller to buyer, a distance
of three or four miles. The business men, called in as arbi-
trators in the matter, said, " You must find oat who drove
those sheep, and the road over which they were driven." This
was done, and it was proved beyond doubt that they were
driven over a certain road where other sheep had taken the
same disease. Mr. Bennett had referred to the blight in peas
and beans, recommending the two to be sown together. Some
five or six years ago he (Mr. Marke) was induced to adopt that
plan. The beans came up in beautiful bloom, but a bligbt
took them, the flowers falling oil', and what few under-pods
that were formed coming to nothing at all. He had not a
yield of as many beans as he had sown, but he considered that
the fact of his growing them with the peas saved the latter to
d very great extent.
Mr. Bennett asked Mr. Marke whether he used lime or
vitriol for steeping wheat before seeding.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
21
Mr. Maiuce rc[)lieJ that he used vitriol for some years ;
but there was a certain amount of smut one season, and then
lie went back to the old-fashioned system of lime and salt ; he
added salt to the water until it floated an egg and tlieu he
applied the lime.
Mr. T. Kaxu.vli, supposed the lime was to dry the wheat.
Mr. Marke said " yes ;" it dried wheat as much as any-
thing.
In acknowledging a vole of thanks, Mr. Bennett said he
was convinced that farmers, as a rnle, were not sufficiently in
the habit of making observations on natnral history and
carrying out investigations in that science. He was sure that
the babit was not only interesting but also pecuniarily profit-
able. They should know more of these things than tliey did
at present. If they devoted a little time to going round their
fields and investigating, if for even only live minutes each day,
they would be increasing their store of knowledge and benelit-
ing the community at large.
STAINDROP FARMERS' CLUB.
FARM BUILDINGS,
At the last meeting, Mr. W. T. Scarth in the chair,
Mr. R. S. Baini'.ridge read the following paper : Farm
buildings, as best suited for economy of space, food, manure,
and construction may be divided into four classes. 1st, tlie
old-fasliioned fold yard witli its covered lair at one end. 2iul,
the byre system. 3rd, tlie box system, which, however, I
will consider in connection with tlie 4th class ; and 4th, tlie
the modern, and as yet seldom met with, covered homstead,
under a series of roofs, and witli but four ouler main walls.
Before treating of the different classes, with tiieir several advan-
tages and disadvantages, I would wish to lay down tlie follow-
iug axiom, viz., Tliat a beast is here treated as a meat-pro-
ducing machine, and that warmth and comfort are food saveis.
Folds (open), 1st class: The fold-yard system with its eating-
tronghs, generally ranged around the sides, present the
following advantages and disadvantages : Advantages —
On a large straw-producing farm it offers a ready means
of treading down a large amount of straw into manure,
and should the stables, byres, and piggeries adjoin, it forms an
easy vehicle for mixing the cold manures with those of a more
lieating character, and if properly spouted, so that no more
water mixes with the manure than wliat falls directly on to it,
no great deterioration accrues to such manure, and if of not
too large a size, say to hold half-a-dozen beasts and with a
south aspect, the animals will thrive and do well in tiiem,
more especially in the spring, and if water is then supplied to
them in properly-constructed troughs. The disadvantages of
the fold system : Straw, we know by chemical analysis, con-
tains a portion of feeding matter, and tlie fold system is waste-
ful in the extreme as regards straw — too much trodden under
foot, and too little passing through the animal. 2nd, in how-
ever well sorted a lot of cattle some will be the masters, and
deprive the otliers of their fair share of food, and this, in a
fold containing a large number of animals, is a serious draw-
back, more especially in the present day, when a much larger
proportion of artificial food is used than was ever dreamt of
in the olden times, and not seldom is a beast actually laniea by
the knocking about it incurs from its stronger mates, and no
more dismal a sight is to be seen on a cold wet morning than a
lot of beasts standing with their backs up, in an open fold, de-
vouring lialf-frozen turnips, chilling their bodies, and disturb-
ing their te.Tipers by the process, to the no small detriment of
their weaker brethren. I raay here remark that the sharp
edges of all folds should be rounded off. Class 2, Bjrcs : The
byre is greatly in use in this neighbourhood. Its advantages are
many. Ibt, a great saving of straw, easy food attendance, a
constant dry lair, and each animal receiving its fair share of
food, and the largest number of animals housed in a given
space. Disadvantages : The manure must be constantly re-
moved, entailing labour, and when this manure is thrown to
the door, into unspouted yards (as far too large a percentage of
tlie yards in this neighbourhood are), a large jirojiortion of
valuable and costly properties are washed out of it ; and, in
passing, I would remark tliat when one sees these dropinng
eaves on a wet day, washing the manure, and rotting the
foundation* of the buildings themselves, one is reminded of
tlie old adage of the ship lost for the want of a lialf-penny
wortli of tar. 2nd, the animal cannot lick itself, and tliis non-
use of nature's brush and comb is no small loss to the health
and well-being of the animal (I am here speaking of feeding
cattle never released from the stall). Many feeders use both
brush and curry-comb to their tied-up animals, but this entails
labour — a costly item. 3rd, standing in one position is unna-
tural, and iu the case of bullocks the stall is apt to get wet and
uncomfortable, unless with a very good fall, but this requires
tlie animal to stand unlevel. Boxes : These raay be treated
in connection with the next class, but as far as b3xes are in-
dividually concerned, they are the best of all for comfort to the
animal. Covered buildings : Advantages— 1st, economy of
space : The largest number of animals can be accommodated
for the least outlay per head, owing to less walling_ being
needed, and easy subdivision, the greatest cost being iu the
roofs. 2nd, food : No waste need, or ought ever to occur in a
covered homestei>d, in either straw, food, or manure. We
know tliat to keep up the heat of the body a certain proportion
of food is consumed as fuel ; if, therefore, we can provide a
proportion of heat, artificially so to speak, to the animal, less
food will be needed for fuel, and thereby go to produce beef
instead. If on the contrary, the animal be kept too warm, we
waste its food in the opposite w ay by sweating, and the system
that will hit the happy medium (all other things being borne
in mind as well) must, and ought to be the proper one to fol-
low. Straw: No more is needed for bedding than that
required for absorbing the actual excrement of the ani-
mal. Manure: Tiie valuable salts contained in well-
made manure are all retained. Disadvantages of
covered homesteads : Liability of infectious diseases going
thiough the wliole herd. Lung disease might easily
be transmitted throughout, as also foot-and-mouth
disease, and the above diseases actually occurred to the writer
of this paper iu such a building, though the diseased animals
were at once removed to the infirmary boxes that were care-
fully walled oil' from, the rest of the buildings. The diseases
were, liowever, of a very mild kind, and in tlie case of foot-
and-mouth disease many of the animals were not olf their
food for more than three days, or even less, which may be
attributed to the comfort the animals enjoyed. Another draw-
back is in the ease of fire, as the whole of the cattle might
perish from tlieir being all together, so to speak. This,
however, is mainly a matter of extra insurance. Draughts :
Some covered steadings have been constructed without a due
regard to avoid draughts. This, however, is an error in con-
struction, and not the fault of the system. I will now pro-
ceed to describe a covered farm-steading which contains the
fold (but covered in), the byre, but without its water-washed
yard for the manure to go into, and the box system all in one.
The steading stands on a natural slope, and tlie ground work
of the building consists of two terraces, a divisional wall
separating them, the lowest being a large fold-yard for
store cattle ; and the full width of the building under a series
of four roofs. These are supported on metal pillars, which
are hollow, to convey the water from the gutters of the roofs
into the drain below. The fold is capable of holding 40 head
of cattle, and easily divided by rails fitting into grooves in the
pillars, which are some 10 feet apart. Ou one side of this
fold, and comninnicating by small doors, are the pi^'geries,
which are two or three feet above tlie level of the fold. By
means of these floors the manure is thrown out. Along the
top of this large fold, and raised some four feet, runs a pas-
sago, and in*o this passage open the stables and byres, whence
the manure is conveyed into the lower fold and spread about,
and by this means the several kinds of manure are well mixed.
The boxes (both single and double) are langed iu three
parallel lines in the north side of the upper terrace, liaviag
feeding passages between them, and are sunk four feet below
the level of tlie passages. The byres come next, a passage di-
viding them from the yard boxes, containing four or five lieasts
each, iu the intermediate state of wintering and feeding. All
22
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
this upper terrace is open, only iliviJed by rails, except in the
case of the byres, where therein a light wooden hoarding, six
feet high, before their heads, to preveuirthem seeing the cattle
feeding iu the boxes. At the head of the boxes and byres, and
running parallel with them, stand tiie barns and turnip-house,
from the latter of which runs a line of rails, comraunicating
witli all the feeding passages by turn-tables. These turnip-
truck rails being simply T-iron, nailed on to horizontal
wooden sleepers, are cheap, and easily repaired. The stable
is merely partitioned off from the raid-feeding boxes by a
wooden lattice work, between the roof-supporting pillars. A
liarness room rurs the full length of the stable, and coramuni-
cntes by three doors, also through a wooden lattice, and in front
of the horses runs a passage for feeding, the hay-house being
midway down this passage, and corn-bin as well ; this latter
being connected with the granaries by a spout to convey the
corn without needing to be carried. The slates, both in the
stable and rest of the building (except the granaries), are un-
poiiited, and this, together with the opening in tlie roofs
hereafter described, makes the stable very cool, not to say
cold ; but the horses were always healthy, though apt to be
rough in their coats. The whole building is watered from a
raised tank, into which the water from the higher roofs is
conducted. The roofs are slated with blue slate (into which
are inserted glass slabs in sufficient numbers to give plenty of
light), and are unpointed. Three-fourths of the way up,
there is an overlapping roof, pitched three inches above the
lower, and giving ventilation along the entire range, and so
pure and cool is the air in the whole building from this mode
of ventilation, that the difference of temperature between the
inner and outer air was found to be only about three degrees,
as taken by thermometer on several occasions, at a height of
eight feet from tlie ground ; and the ventilation being so far
above the level of the animals, prevents tliat m©st undesirable
drawback, a drauglit ; and this cool temperature does away
with the objection sometimes raised against covered steadings
for store cattle, viz., that of making the animals' coats too
fine for grazing. The pig-sties, cart-sheds, and implement
houses are under a fifth roof, the granaries being above, and
are walled off from the rest of the building by a single-brick-
tiiick wnll. AVe have here economy of food, from the cattle
being kept dry and comfortable. Economy of straw : Tlie
animals need no more bedding than their own excrement
recpiires to keep all dry and clean ; and in the case of the
lower folds, the straw that comes from the stable is found
nearly suthcient to keep them supplied. Economy of manure"
None washed away, all preserved, and from the undeteriorated
salts of ammonia, &c., preserved thereby, it was found to be
positively iajurious to turn the manure, as it heated to such
an extent, and this saved all that extra labour, and was quite
short enough from so little bedding being used. Existing
buildings can never be altered to equal a well considered and
properly constructed covered steading, but still given the old
fold- yard, with its surroundings of barns, and stables, &c., by
roofing in the open space with a series of roofs, supported
simply on metal pillars, the number being according to the
size of the yard, we have then a dry comfortable lair, easily
converted into anything desired, be it loose box, calf crip,
pens for ewes and lambs at lambing times, or anything else,
by simply dividing the covered space with a few hurdles, or
rails ; and no one who has ever tried the covered system for
one year, I believe, ever disliked it, thus proving tliat preju-
dice against it arises only from inexperience. Cost : All depends
on the locality, but from the absence of expensive divisional
walls, it need not exceed ordinary farm buildings, and if the
manure is one-fourth better than that made under the old
system, and I believe it to be more, we have here an estate
improver, well worthy the consideration of all land-o\iners.
But in building all farm steadings it should be remembered
that the expense of the buildings should be in proportion to,
and not exceed, the requirements and size oj the farm, and
should always be placed as nearly as possible In the centre of
the farm, as the loss of time to the draughts on a farm ill-
planned as regards position of buildings, would, if put together
at the year's end, amount to something enormous, and in
the present state of the labour market, a serious drawback
to the value of such a farm. In conclusion, it may be
fearlessly stated that an efficient, and labour economising
steading is the handmaid to high farming ; without it, both
food, manure, and labour, are wasted daily throughout the
ye.ar, and no landlord can now either plead poyerty, or having
but a life interest in his property, as any excuse for not having
good buildings on his estate, as tlie Lands Improvement Com-
pany are now always ready to advance the requisite capital,
which becomes a rent charge on the estate itself for a certain
number of years. If that man may be said to be a benefactor
to his country who makes two blades of grass grow where (Tne
grew before, how much more that landlord who provides effi-
cient and economical farm buildings, instead ot the ill-con-
structed homesteads too often to be met with, whereby
thousands of pounds are yearly, nay, daily wasted ! The time
is at hand when the nation will demand that no longer shall
its natural resources be wasted, and the price of bread and
meat thereby increased, either by crops being devoured by an
undue quantity of game, or by insecurity for tenants' capital,
from the want of a broad based common-sense Tenant-Right,
encouraging the free investment of capital in the land, and
for the economical use of such capital the farm-steading must
be so constructed as to become a meat and manure making
manufactory.
The Presidknt thanked Mr. Bainbridge for his good paper,
and thought farms must have good steadings, as the loss was
great in time, labour and food without proper buildings for the
stock ; he himself had experience of good buildings, although
belaboured under tlie disadvantage of their being made out of
old buildings. II there are draughts, (hat is the fault of the
architect having constructed them badly, as the cattle should
be free from wet or draughts ; a great economy of food is
made, as cattle are spoiled in open sheds, so also is the
manure which water deteriorates, and he considered manure
made in covered places worth more than twice that of open
yards, as from the beginning of November to that of March,
the rainfall lessened the value of the manure considerably, and
left little more than rotted straw. Landowners could resort
to the Loan Companiei for money to erect buildings, the
tenants paying interest, which they would be willing to do ;
of course the buildings should be made suitable to the size and
food producing powers of the occupation. Covered buildings
will pay anyone, and they can be built at a less cost than open
ones, and they give a good supply of water Irom the roots if
collected into tanks.
Mr. R. Kay, jun., thought bullocks should be in boxes, and
the beasts tied up in stalls; young cattle he would not put
into covered places, nor could all the straw be consumed in
them.
Mr. J. Hawdon was quite of opinion that young animals
should not be kept in covered sheds, as they retained their coats
much better in open ones. In covered houses the manure
heated under the beasts. Perhaps the manure was better
under covered buildings, but all should be spouted. The
labour in cleaning out covered places was greater, and he had
often found bullocks that had open courts to go to lying out-
side in the curtain.
Mr. Sutton observed that farms ouglit to have suitable
buildings. Open ones consumed too much straw, whereas the
covered ones economised it.
]\lr. Bruxskill thought the paper would by goinj to the
public do good, and induce the landlords to erect new, and im-
prove the present buildings. Covered buildings must enhance
the value of the manure, as rains wash out the various salts.
The lieaitn of the animals will be better, and they will never
look behind them. He thought there had teen great improve-
ments in this neighbourhood.
Mr. J. Harrison thought that large farms were for
covered in buildings, as the expense was too great for small
ones.
Mr. S. Powell testified that he had listened to a very
practical paper. He quite agreed with Mr. llawdon and Mr.
Kay about young cattle being in open folds. As for tlie ob-
servation of the previous speaker he thought it was only
necessary to make smaller buildings for smaller farms.
Mr. T. Jackson agreed with what had been said. He
liked covering in all stock, old or young. Calves when
starved turned out very lousey. Their own breed of cattle
would not do when turned out, although perhaps Irish
animals might ; but aU were better in than out, as they had
no comfort.
Mr. MuLVEY observed that stabling had not been taken up
so far. He was of opinion that it wanted looking after. He
saw the bad effects of unroofed ventilation every day, that being
the cause of much disease, and had often seen the poll evil
caused by the doors being too low.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
23
Mr. K\\ thonglit the subject had boen brought before tlicm
in ;i very able manner. Tlie point with him was wliicli
description of buildings would pay the best. In cattle feeding
this country would compete agaiust tlie world. They had the
best cattle and accommodation, whereby the most meat could
be made from the food given. He knew a farm at Kall'erton
where the onstead covered 7,i acres of ground, which was
carrying things to an extent. Good ventilation was very
necessary, and he liked open courts for young cattle, as they
exercised themselves and kept all right. Manure was all very
well, but the health of the animal was more so. Economy of
food was a great point, but he thought bought food the best
as to economy. Standing on the manure was a disadvantage.
Wlien animals were tied up the manure was taken away, and
the food given at regular times, and each beast got what was
for it. lie considered draughts were bad, but there should be
plenty of ventilation. Places were enclosed without sufficient
attention being paid thereto, and the giving the food with the
least labour. The straw and turnips should be in the centre
of the building, and the roads outside. Warmth is food, and
open courts give ventilation. Extra water falling upon the
manure is bad, all should be properly spouted.
Mr. Bmnbriuge, in commenting on the remarks made,
said Mr. Scarth tiionght the manure made in open yards only
rotted straw, but that was going too far. He could not agree
witli Mr. Kay and Mr. Hawdon in tlieir ideas of managing
young cattle. He quite agreed with Mr. Brunskill that cattle
were kept liealthy under covered buildings, and the food was
economised. In the stables he mentioned tliey were as light as
any house, having glass slabs in the roof, there was no disease,
and though the coats of the horses were rough, there were no
veterinary bills.
The President maintained that young cattle did best when
kept from winds and rains, than otherwise. Open yards were
bad for cattle, young or old. He was of opinion that covered
buildings properly built were the best, as food was economised,
and beasts gained weight the fastest. The ventilation should
be both in tlie ridge and also the roof.
CROYDON FARMERS' CLUB.
THE ADULTEUATION OF EOOD.
At the last meeting, Mr. Robt. W. Fuller, the president,
in the chair, reminded the members that the show of the Bath
and West of England Society in 1S75 might be held at
Croydon. He alluded to the liberal response which had been
made by the gentry and tradesmen to the appeal for subscrip-
tions for defraying the necessary preliminary expenses. He
did not wish it to be thought that there was any lukewarm-
ne'ES, F.C.S., then iiroceeded to deliver the first
of a series of three lectures on Tlie Adulteration ot the Food
of Man and Beast. The lecturer's table was improvised as a
small laboratory, and his remarks throughout were illustrated
by experiment. He commenced by saying that the adulteration
of food was a question which at tliis particular time was of the
utmost importance to all classes, and he should treat the
matter more particularly with regard to substances connected
more or less with agriculture. The Adulteration Act of 1873
placed in our hands the power of remedying existing evils,
and he hoped the time was not far distant when the means
of carrying out tlie Act would be more fully and satisfactorily
developed. At present the district analysts were fettered for
the want of proper remuneration, and men of solely medical
attainments were in many instances appointed, instead of
those whose whole time was devoted to the study and practice
of analytical chemistry. The demand for some of tlie articles
of daily consumption, more particularly milk, was often far
greater than tlie supply, and that was one of the principal
causes of adulteration, not because there was any direct extra
profit attending it, but because the vendors were thus enabled
to secure a greater number of customers. The adulteration
of food was more extensively carried on in the poorer districts,
where tlie rates would not admit of proper remuneration for
the labours of analysts and others concerned in the detection
ol eases. The fee of 3s. 6d., 5s., or at most lOs. Od. was fear-
fully inadequate remuneration for careful scientific labour, un-
less accompanied by a compensating annual stipend. Those
who framed the Act could not have had the smallest conception
of the labour and care necessary for the detection of adulte-
ration, even in its simplest forms. Adulteration nowadays
was not of the dangerous character it used to bo, but con-
sisted principally ot the substitution of ciieaper ingredients
for a portion — often the greater jioition — of the genuine
arVicle. Perhaps no snbttance was more adulterated than
rail k,but the adulteration was gi m rally confined to the harm-
less ingredient, water. A great revolution had lately been
ell'ected in this matter, and the late numerous prosecutions
had bad a most salutary elfcct, at all events on the Jjoudon
supply. Milk might b(! regarded as a compound cd' every
su.bject necessary (for the young especially) for the develop-
ment of the human frame. The lecturer produced a tabulated
statement, showing the elements of which milk was composed,
and the percentage of the several elements in the milk of
difl'erent auimals, from which it appeared that the quantity of
fatty, caseine, and albuminous matter was the greatest from a
bitch. In mares' milk there were only traces of fatty matter,
and only 1.7 of caseine and albumen, as compared with 16.8 in
bitches' milk. It might be inferred, therefore, that if foals
were fed on bitches' milk they would become extraordinary
animals. The nourishing properties ot women's milk were so
nearly related to those of cows' milk that the latter was gene-
rally given when the natural food of the mother failed. The
composition and quality of milk were, of course, subject to
variation from difi'erent causes, such as age and condition of
animal, nature of the food, &c. In lecturing the Club last
year upon the composition of wheat and cereals generally,
it would be remcmbrred that he arranged their constituents
in the same order as he had shown in the table before them in
the case of milk — namely, fat producers, and muscle andboue-
formers. lu the cereals we met with oil, sugar, and starch
as the fat-forming substances ; then gluten, Jcc, as muscle-
forming ; then phosphate of lime, magnesia, &c., as bone-
forming ; and one could not but be struck with the similarity in
the composition of all these aud the composition of manures.
In manures we have three groups jf substances — first, the
mineral port'on, consisting chiefly of phosphate of lime and
magnesia, or bonvearth ; these contributed to the solid struc-
ture of the plant, and formed its backbone. Next came the
organic portion, which might be subdivided into, first, the
nitrogen, composed of 6uch substances as ammonia, salts, and
mineral matter, corresponding to the nitrogenous portion of
food ; and, second, the carbonaceous portion, or that which is
deficient in nitrogen— this part corresponding to the starch,
gum, sugar, and oil, or fat-f6rmiug substances of food. Tliua
there was a wonderful relationship between the composition
of manures, food, aud animals. And why sV)uld there not
be? fordid tliey not contribute to one another? and were
they not convertible, the one into the other? All scientifi.;
farming was based upon this relationship. For example, a
farmerWislied to grow wheat. He required, first, Wu: sub-
stances which form tlie principal ingretlienis of wheat, viz.,
the nitrogenous, the carbonaeeoiix, and the mineral ; secondly,
the proportion in which tiiey exist in wheat, vi/., water, I. "i
parts ; husk or fibre, 15 ; starch, gum, and sugar, 55 ; fat, li ;
gluten and other nitrogenous or muscle-forming substauees,
10 ; mineral matter (piiospliatcs), 2. Thus it would be seen lliai
phosphates would be required, and nitrogenous manures (such
as ammonia salts), to form the gluten ; and the soil .should
therefore contain these substances in large quantity. Suppose;
a farmer wishes to produce clieese from his milk. Mow,
cheese i-s pre-eminently a nitrogenous substance, and is made
from the coagulum or caseine of the milk. It is therefore
necessary that a nitrogenous kind of food should be supplied
1 to his cows, such as beans, peas, vetches, aud clover, with oil.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
cake. Beans aud peas give large quantities of legumin, a
substance almost analogous to caseine. If a person wished to
produce butler from the milk instead of cheese, then a purely
carbonaceous and oily food should be employed. Mr. Jones
having shown the difference iu the composition of the milk of
a cow when fed with different kinds of food, he proceeded to
consider the means of testing the purity of milk. When milk
was examined under tlie microscope, it presented itself as a
clear liquid, with myriads of tiny globules floating about in
it. The globules were thin-skinned balloons, filled with oil,
and, when the milk was left at rest, the greater portion of
these globules, being much lighter than the rest of the milk,
rose to the surface and constituted the cream. In the process
of churning, the globules or balloons were burst, and then
the oil flowed out, the whole settling into a solid, oily mass,
called butter. Much had been said about the lactometer as a
means of detecting adulterations in milk, but he had not
much faith in it. He produced one of these instruments, and
showed the method of using it, but he considered it was a
fallacious test, which it would be extremely dangerous to
depend upon, for a dishonest tradesman would soon find a
method of making up the density of milk that had been over-
dosed with water. He then exhibited his own metJiod of
testing milk, which was to evaporate it to perfect dryness in
a porcelain or platinum dish, and weigh the residue. Good
milk ought not to yield less than 5 per cent, of cream, which
was a fair average, and a cow fed upon oilcake would often
give milk with 25 per cent, of cream. The lecturer went on
to demonstrate that caseine was separated from milk which
had been previously skimmed by the addition of an acid, and
he explained that the peculiar action of rennet upon milk was
supposed to be due to the pepsing contained in the rennet.
The sugar of milk, or lactose, was made from milk in
Switzerland in large quantities during the manufacture of a
certain kind of cheese ; and this sugar, like other sugars, was
capable of being converted into alcohol by fermentation. In-
deed, this process was carried on in Tartary to a considerable
extent with mares' milk. It seemed rather an extraodinary
idea that a man might be enabled to get intoxicated from
milk, but the thing might thus easily be done. Milk was
sometimes adulterated with chalk, but this was probably only
to neutralise the acid when the milk was on the turn. Flour
was also sometimes added to milk, but its presence could be
detected by a very simple test. In the analysis of milk, the
amount of bone-forming matter must be ascertained by simply
incinerating the dried residue from the evaporation, and
wtighing tlia ash, which consisted chiefly of phosphates and
other bone-forming matter. In the s>ame manner the amount
of the mineral portion of any organic substance could be as-
cpitained. He pointed out that milk yields on an average
about a half per cent of mineral matter. Ten gallons of milk
would therefore yield about half a pound of bone phosphates ;
and if a cow gave twenty quarts of milk a day she must take
about 21bs. of bone phosphate from the soil each week, which
must be returned to the land in order to reproduce a like
quantity. Thus we seemed to be at work in a circle ; ''or there
was no more bone phosphate in the world now than there was
i'l tlie time of Noah, but as there was more need of it so was
1 litre a wider circulation of it. Like all other laws of nature,
it \ras a law of mutual reciprocity ; for we returned to tlie
earth that wliich we took from her, and what we sowed we
reaped. The lecturer next referred to bread, and congratu-
lated his hearers on the fact that the staff of life was now so
little subject to adulteration. Formerly ground bone-dust
was freely used, and possibly that fact had some connection
With the old nursery rhyme, " I'll grind his bones to make me
bread." This form of adulteration, however, was easily de-
t 'cted by tlie same process as he iiad shown with regard to
milk. He believed, however, that bread was rarely adulterated
except by the addition of alum, water, potatoes, and rice or
otiicr grain. The bakers said the alum caused the loaves to
separate better, and certainly it made inferior flour appear
whiter, for which reason adulteration with alum was made
puni.sliable. The metliod of detecting the presence of alum
iu Ijread was to extract it Ijy letting water soak through the
bread, and then test the liquid and examine the crystals under
the microscope. Some analysts professed to rely upon the
ri'Mctiun tliat alum would give with tincture of logwood, but
lie dfinonstrated that the test was unreliable, and said he had
seen bread entirely free from alum give the same reaction.
Tlie addition of potatoes to bread was harmless, except that
they did not contain so much nutiitious matter as flour. The
presence of potatoes was easily defected under the microscope,
owing to the difference between the globules of potato starch,
and those of flour. Whilst on the question of starch he would
briefly allude to mustard, which was adulterated to a frightful
extent, witli starch, turmeric, &c. Some mustard that had been
sent to him for analysis had contained no mustard proper
whatever, but simply turmeric and starch, the pungency being
given by a little Cayenne pepper. He showed simple tests
for detecting the presence of turmeric and starch, the princi-
pal ingredients used in adulteration, and analysed a packet
of " pure mustard" he had that day bought in Croydon. It
turned out to contain no turmeric, but a large quantity of
starch. The test applied in ascertaining the purity of mustard
was potash. If turmeric was present the potash would turn
the mixture to a deep orange colour, but it would have no effect
on pure mustard. Mustard was like the Glenfieid starch,
" If you want it pure, you must see that you get it." Refer-
ring next to the food of the lower animals, he said tliey were
better off than man. Inmost cases they got their food fresh
from the hand of nature, and it was only when oilcake and
other artificial foods were introduced that they shared man's
misfortunes. The principal adulterating ingredient was starch ;
it was so cheap that it was used in almost all artificial foods.
He had found it in large quantities in oil cake, though pure
oilcake should contain none at all Locust beans were also
ground up and mixed with oilcake. He did not object to
them as injurious to health, but when one asked for pure
oilcake and paid the price for it, one had a right to have it.
Tlie useless husk of cocoa was also used for adulteration.
Pure oilcake was made from flat seeds. The oil was pressed
from those seeds, and then the cake was sent to England.
Rape seed, cotton seed, and even mustard seed, were also used
in large quantities for purposes of adulteration, and he had
known a cow die from the mustard so introduced to its sto-
mach. Oilcake should contain 10 per cent, of oil and 6 per
cent, of albuminous matter, and unless obtained from a respect-
able house it should always be subjected to a chemical analysis,
for, like mustard, it was nearly always adulterated. Starch was
largely used, and indeed some starch vvas an advantage, but
too much of it produced excessive fat, and was windy sort of
food. Carbon was the chief element of sucli food, and the
excess of it was given ofi' from the lungs in the form of car-
bonic acid gas. Tlie bodies of animals are continually under-
going a change ; all animals share alike in this universal
l;iw. We are coustautly consuming, and our former selves
pass away. Although we retain the same outline and the same
features, yet we are gradually decaying. The decayed portions
pass away, and their places are supplied by fresh elemcits.
We are like some specimens of ancient architecture ; first one
piece falls away, and then another, till nothing but the outline
of the original is left. We are nothing but passing shadows,
dissolving views, one substance melting into another, and the
carbon, hydrogen, or other element of to-day becomes the
food for the structure of to-morrow's plant. It is well that
we have now a recognised system for the suppression of adul-
teration of food. We have no more food-forming elements in
the world now than we had when the world rose fresh from
the diluvian waters, but those elements are now more freely
circulated. The world now teems with life, aud the consump-
tion of food has increased. Adulteration of food and nutri-
tious food with inferior matter is calculated to degenerate the
race. It is like tobacco and alcohol, as partial substitutes
for food, stimulating, but not strengthening. The world is
getting wiser as it grows older, suid science must some day be
the universal study.
Dr. Coles, as a vistor, alluded to the adulteration of milk,
and said it was quite right that before a man got into ihe
witness-box to swear milk was adulterated he should apply the
tests spoken of by the lecturer, but those tests would be too
long and too difficult to be carried out in private households.
For private purposes he thought the lactometer and the test-
tube combined were a sufiiciently reliable test. The lecturer
had said 5 per cent, of cream was a fair average, but he (Dr.
Coles) thought it rather low.
Dr. Jones : I have found the cream in good milk as low
as 3j per cent.
Dr. Coi.es : I have tested specimens of Croydon milk and
found the cream to vary from 10 to 3^ per cent. I thought
the man who sold me the latter must be a rogue, but after what
the lecturer has said it is possible I may have done him _ia-
Me FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
justice in tliinkiiigf so. There is milk sold in Croydon which
only gives 3| per cent, of cream, but if the Adulteration Act is
put in force I iiope and believe there will be less of it. In
regard to the large amount of muscle and bone-forming matter
intlie milk of the bitch, as compared with larger animals, Dr.
Coles suggested it was due to the fact that a bitch gave birth
to and iiad to feed so many more young at a time than other
animals, and therefore refj[uired a greater amount of nourish-
ment in the milk. That was only another proof of the omnis-
cience of the Creator.
Dr. Jones: I am much obliged to Dr. Coles for that ex-
planation. It had never occurred to me before, but I think it
is conclusive.
Dr. SnoRTiiousEsaid the milk varied iu quality according
to the time of year, and the nature of the cow. The milk, he
believed, was generally poorest in May and best in August.
He agreed witli the lecturer that cflicient analysts coiiM not
be secured for the money offered by public authorities, and he
ridiculed the iuconipeteucy of some men who had been ap-
pointed public analysts.
Mr. Walkeu, differing from Dr. Shorthouse, said the cows
never gave better milk, and more butter was never churned
than in the mouth of May.
Dr. SuoRTiiOUSE : I was only alluding to cows fed ou
grass.
Mr. Walker siid his experience of cows went to show tha''
if fed on poor food the milk would not yield more than 3^ per
cent, of cream, but if fed on more nutritious food a much
larger per centage of cream would be obtained.
A vote of thanks to the lecturer having been passed, the
meeting terminated.
THE EAST LOTHIAN" AGRICULTURAL CLUB.
At the last monthly meeting at Haddington, Mr. R. Scot-
Skirving, Campton, in the ciiair, the subject for discussion
was, " Whether a tenant who has a right to grow potatoes
during the last years of his lease has a right, where the straw
is entirely steelbow, to take straw ad liLilum for the storage
tiiereaf."
The Chaikman said that before introducing the subject for
discussion he wished to say a word about a matter in which
the county was very much interested. There was to be a
meeting of the road trustees on the 21st of this month, and he
was sorry that he could not attend it, as he had an engagement
in London on that day. At that meeting a proposition was to
be made, and he had no doubt it would be strongly supported,
to borrow a considerable sum of money to put the roads in
better order, and all the officials wished to have that money
borrowed. Mr. M'Connell strongly advocated it, and he (the
Chairman) rose to say that he hoped the whole of their repre-
sentatives would be in their places at that meeting to oppose
this proposal with their utmost power. Who was to pay that
money were it borrowed ? Tliey knew who paid the last. It
came on the trading community. The money that was bor-
rowed was paid ultimately by the tolls or by private subscrip-
tion. If they borrowed money just now, the farmer would
have to pay two-thirds, to begin with, on the assessment ; and
as the proposed plan was to pay off the borrowed money iu a
given number of years, it would follow that a man with a few
years of his lease to run would have to pay about two-thirds,
or perhaps three-fourths, more than the owner of the land
whicli was to be permanently benefited. One lionourable
baronet talked loudly of the patriotism and generosity of the
farmers ; but he wished to see gererosity, like charity, begiu
at home, and he thought the proprietors should pay an equal
sliare with the farmers. If they did that, they would have
sullicient funds to keep all the roads in proper order. At pre-
sent the roads were certainly not what they should be, parti-
cularly iu the west. This arose from the increase of mineral
trafiic, and he thought the farmers should petition Parliament
to bring in a bill for Scotland on this subject. A bill was in-
troduced last year by the member for Eife, which contained a
wise provision, to the effect that the owners of mines and
minerals should be put in this position, that when a petition
was made to the sheriff of the county they could be charged
twice, thrice, or even up to four times. It would not be fair
to charge all mines at the same rate, for there were some
which did not cut up the roads at all ; but he tiiought it
would be fair to lead evidence regarding each particular mine,
and that the proprietor of a mine who cut up the roads ex-
cessively should pay at a greater rate than a mere agricultural
subject. lie had just to say, in closing, that he thought the
borrowing powers under existing circumstances should be
opposing, and that they should petition the Government to
bring iu a bill to deal with the subjects, because he was afraid
no private member would be able to carry tiirough the bill.
Mr. DURIE (Barveymains) said there would be plenty of
money to keep the roads in proper order if the landlords paid
in the same proportion as the tenants.
Mr. lloBERTSO>f (Newmains) said there seemed to he some-
thing radically wrong with tliis business, for while they col-
lected £3,000 of assessment, fully £1,100 were swallowed by
the expenses of maaagement.
The Chairman then introduced the subject which had been
chosen for discussion at the present meeting. He did not
think it could he doubted that the tenant had a right to take
straw to cover any legitimate amount of potatoes. Whea*',
barley, oats, and beans were in the same position. They must
have straw to cover them from the weather, just tlie same as
for potatoes, and, as nobody ever questioned the covering of
their barnyard with the straw of the previous crop, he did
not see why they should not cover their potatoes with
straw also.
Mr. Smilh (Stevenson Mains) said that if a tenant had
liberty to grow potatoes, the:e was no doubt he was eutitleU
to protect that crop until such time as he could dispose of it
in the market. He had been called upon to act as arbiter in
such cases, and he had always decided that the waygoing
tenant was entitled to protect his crop in the usual manner,
and could therefore take the steelbow straw.
Mr. Wylie (Bolton), while agreeing with the previous
speakers, said that if the straw were taken to cover jiotatoes
in a field at the extreme end of a farm it was but reasonable
to say that the tenant should cart it back to the barnyard.
Mr. Douglas (Atiielstaneford) said it was manifest that if
a tenant had a right to grow potatoes during the last years of
his lease, he had just as good a right to protect his potato
crop as to protect his grain crop by thatching. Although a
tenant drove the straw to protect the potato crop in the field
where they had grown, he did not think it followed that he
was bound to drive back that straw to the barn.
Mr. Wylie took exception to Mr. Douglas's statement, and
said the rule was that the tenant should leave the straw at
the barn,
Mr. Harvey (Whittingham Blains) said that if a tenant
had a right ta grovv a reasonable quantity of potatoes, he
should get a reasonable quantity of straw to cover them, and
he thought the outgoing tenant might be well pleased to cart
the straw to the barnyard or some depot. He would not allow
a tenant, if he had a very large quantity of potatoes, to say,
" You must give me straw." lie would say to sucli a one,
" No ; you are getting a certain quantity ot straw, but you
will not get any amount you may ask." In regard to the
quantity to be used, he thought il required about a stone of
straw to cover a boll of potatoes.
Mr. lloiiERTSON (Newmains) did not think an outgoing
tenant had the right to demand straw to cover his potatoes
from the incoming tenant. He ought to make provision out
of a former crop, and not to take advantage of the straw be-
longing to the incoming tenant. It would be well, he said, to
have any right of tliis kind properly defined in their leases.
Mr. KiciiAUDSON (Mainshill) was of opinion that the straw
of a previous crop ought to be preserved to cover the potatoes.
By his lease, he had a right to the straw, and a corner of the
field for pitting his potatoes, but he was bound to drive the
straw back to the barn.
After some further remarks.
The Chairman said he thoui^ht the mind of the meeting
was embodied in the following resolution, which he begged to
propose: "That an outgoing tenant, liaving power to grow a
given amount of potatoes during tiie last year of his lease,
has also a right, from use and wont, to protect the crop witli
straw."
26
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
Mr. DuKiE seconded the motion, wliich was carried.
Mr. Hakper (Snawdon) said their chairinan had recently
visited Kansas, iu coujunction with otiier agiicultiirists from
Scotland and England, at the request of Mr. Grant, who had
bonght a large tract of territory in that State, and he was cer-
tain the members of the Club would esteem it a privilege if
Mr. Scot-Skirvinjf would state his opinion of the value of that
land for agricultural purposes.
The Chairman said he was not prepared at this time to
make more than a few desultory remarks about the agriculture
of Central America, but he hoped by-and-b3-e to brtng before
the public in various ways some of the strange and beautiful
and exciting scenes which he witnessed iu America. He had
always been fond of travelling, and it had been his goud for-
tune to have this propensity gratified. He had travelled a
great deal in Europe, Asia, and in Africa, and he gladly em-
braced the proposal to travel over a great part of America.
It was perhaps necessary that he should say something about
the origin of this expedition. Mr. Grant was a native of
Aberdeenshire. He was born in humble circumstances, but
he went to London and made a large fortune, lletiriug in
great measure from business, he travelled for pleasure in
America, and it was while passing over the vast regions in
Central America that the thought struck him, although he
was not an agriculturalist, that this was the most wonllerful
country he had ever seen. He accordingly bought a piece of
this land, in size about as large as tbe couuty of Mid-Lothian.
It was purchased not for the purpose of farming it, but as a
speculation. Mr. Grant wished to cut it up into square miles,
and sell it to other people, and iu order to advertise it, as they
might say, he invited half-a-dozen gentlemen from Scotland,
England, and America to visit his great estate, which had
been named Victoria, in honour of iler Majesty the Queen.
To these gentlemen Mr. Grant said, " I have picked you gen-
tlemen out as persons who know something of agriculture
Come and look at this country, and tell the people what you
think about it. If it is a bad couutry, say so. You are not
to say one word that you do not thoroughly believe." Ee
(the chairman) went on tliese terras, along with two other
gentlemen from Scotland, two from England, and one from
America — six in all. In travelling over America one could
not help being struck with the enormous extent and also the
ilatness of that country. Although tiie United States had a
Dopulation exceeding that of Grenl Britain and Ireland, the
people were so scattered, that after one proceeded a short dis-
tance from the Atlantic he got into a virgin country. The
fertility of the soil was shown by the gigantic vegetation
which everywhere met the eye. Wheu the deputation visited
Kansas, it was in the worst time of the year — the middle of
August. He was told that in sprinsc the plains were covered
with the most glorious verdure; but when they arrived the
grass was burned up, and his first impression was that it was
tlie most wretclied place iu the world, where neither man nor
beast could exist. He found, however, that on this dry prairie
grass, cattle, sheep, horses, and other animals grew perfectly
fat, A report was drawn up by tlie deputation, in which they
stated that Mr. Grant's property was possessed of extraordinary
resources, and offered a very inviting field for agricultural pur-
poses ; and that the land might be most profitably cultivated,
and was capable of producing almost every kind of crop. He
confessed that it went against the grain with him to do any-
thing to aggrandise the Yankees. He would rather like to
see people go to the British colonies. In Shetland he be-
lieved a young sheep-farmer would make money. Canada had
its buffalo grounds to compete with Kansas; but it was his
candid opinion that a young man who went to Canada should
not be a farmer, for the ground there contained multitudes of
tree roots, and was covered to such an extent with boulders
that the labour of working tlie soil was perfectly overwhelm-
ing; In Kansas, on the contrary, the plough went through
the prairie lands as smoothly as iu the best cultivated fields of
East Lothian. In Victoria there were two East Lothian far-
mers ; and lie would recommend young men with a capital of
from £1,000 to £2,000 to go out to that country. Eor his
own part he would not go out there, for he would not live
under a Ilepublican Government like that of the United
States; but there were other men with less strong prejudices
and feelings ; and besides they might go out and " spoil the
Egyptians." They should go out and make money, and then
come back to spend it in this country. It was useless for a
young farmer to pay £3 per acre for a farm in this country
when he could get a whole farm to himself for ever for £1 an
acre in Victoria. A farmer whom he " interviewed" gave him
the following as his experience : " Laud costs from 5 to 10
dollars per acre. To build a house and dig a well costs from
£80 to £150, the house being a good dwelling, witii four
rooms, a kitchen, and other conveniences. Taxes ;ire nominal.
If a slieep stock is kejit, Missouri ewes cost about 4- dollars ;
but while I was at Victoria I saw a letter offering good young
ewes at 2^ dollars. The produce cannot be taken at more
than one lamb a year, and the clip averages olbs. all over.
Deaths are variously estimated at from 10 to 15 per cent.
There are no insect pests which attack sheep (so I was as-
sured), but scab is not unknown. English rams should cer-
tainly be introduced, which would greatly improve the breed.
Cows can also be had in any number, and breeders should get
bulls of English breeds." The account given by another far-
mer was as follows : "He ploughed his land by hiring men,
who provided everything necessary, and did the work, the first
ploughing of prairie grass costing three dollars per acre. The
ground is then sown with Indian corn, the only crop suitable
for the first year, and if the farmer chose he may go on sowing
corn after corn for many years witiiout manure, only going a
little deeper each year to turn up new soil. The following are
the statistics of the first year's crop — Ploughing, 1st year, 3
dollars ; Indian corn seed, 15 cents ; putting in seed, 1 dollar ;
harvesting, 1 dollar; cobbing and carting, 1 dollar — total cost,
6 dollars 15 cents, lleturn — Average crop, iO bushels (though
there might be 70 bushels). The produce sells readily on the
spot at CO cents per bushel, which, at 40 bushels per acre, is
2i dollars. If we deduct the 6 dollars 15 cents, or say 7 dol-
lars, there is a clear profit of 17 dollars per acre, which, tak-
ing the greenback at 3s. 6d., is 59s. Gd. Wheat, oats, or bar-
ley may follow the Indian corn tlie second year. The wheat
is sown either in autumn or spring. Millet can also be grown.
Wheat costs about the same to produce as Indian corn, only
the seed costs a little more. A crop of wheat not far from
Victoria yielded 37 bushels this year. It was trodden out by
oxen, the old, wasteful plan of the East. Flails should be got
while the place is in its infancy. Barley averages 30 bushels,
oats from 50 to 80. I should have said a common herd can
be got for 20 dollars a month, hut 40 dollars would require to
be paid for a shepherd, with a lodging." The chairman went
on to say that Victoria was one of the healthiest places on the
face of the globe. It was a liabitable country, altiiough it
was too hot in summer and too cold iu winter, just as other
parts of America. In New York he saw the barometer at
104 degrees in the shade in summer, and he was told that in
winter the frost penetrated four and a-half or five feet into the
soil. He concluded by saying that Victoria offered a capital
field for healthy young men with a capital of from £1,000 to
£2,000.
At the close of the address a vote of thanks was passed to
Mr.Scot-Skirving.
THE CRYSTAL PiVLACE POULTRY SHOW.— There
is no such place for a poultry show as the Palace at Syden-
ham, and the entries here of fowls ran up to 2,200 peus, with
1,200 of pigeous, and 150 of rabbits. Some of the better
sorts like the Dorkings, Braraahs, and Ilaraburgs were very
generally good, while many of the Game were still light and
leggy — a more perfect bird being the Game Bantam, a very
model of compact framing and liandsome appearance. The
geese are getting more and more extraordinary for size and
weight, and Mr. J. K. Fowler's champion gander is a very
wonder in this way. There can surely be nothing much more
nasty in the shape of sight-seeing than a cat show, and next
to that we should put a rabbit show, although the Palace is
so lofty, and its avenues so wide, that even a collection of
rabbits is not a nuisance ; but these fancy articles like rabbits
and pigeons should form a separate section, where they would
no doubt attract " the nice young men," who, according to
the old definition, " keep tame rabbits and kiss their sisters."
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
27
THE BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURAL HORSES.
At the annual meeting of the Forraartiue Agricultural As-
sociation Mr. Cassie, V.S. and farmer at Woodeud, Straloch,
read a paper on the above subject.
jMr. Cassie said good horses cannot, as some would seem
to think, be bred by chance, and to produce tbera every breeder
must see to it that all the qualities tliat go to constitute good-
ness are present in botli sire and dam. Many farmers seem
to think that if they can secure a good stallion it matters little
whether the mare he is put to be so or not. Tliis is a great
mistake ; for if tlie one be not as nearly perfect as tlie other,
disappointment is almost sure to follow, it being quite common
for either sire or dam to transmit defects to their offspring.
On the other hand, a sire aad dam may themselves be all that
could be wished, and yet tiieir stock will often show numerous
imperfections. Instances of this sort are generally set down
to the inscrutable action of some mysterious law in nature, but
if they were more closely studied their mystery would often
vanish when it was seen that, though absent in immediate
parents, these imperfections could be traced to similar ones
possessed by more ancient ancestors. What class of horses
ought we to breed, which, when reared, will always command
a ready sale and a good price ? At present, anything of the
horse kind that can decently move on four legs will sell, and
sell well too ; but the tide may soon turn when the demand
will cease, except for certain classes, and one of these is saddle
or harness horses. Now, a good hoise of this class (for such
we should always aim at) should have a nice small head, witli
a fine mouth, bright eyes, and active sharp-pointed ear, neither
too small nor too far apart. He should also have a longish
neck, fine at the throat, full and crest-shaped above, but not
too fleshy below. His withers should be high, his back not
loo short, bis loins broad, and liis quarters long. His hind
limbs should be strong in tlie thighs, but fiue as they approach
the hocks. His hocks should have well-developed bones, and
be free from all puffiuess, curbs, and spavins. Below the hocks
his legs should be clean, and broad when seen on tlie sides.
His pasterns should be rather long, and his feet not too big,
but well-formed and strong. The lltinks of such a horse should
be light, but also plump and round. His chest should be deep
and full behind theshonlders. From the withers his shoulder-
blades should incline forward, and be well covered with muscle.
His fore-legs should not be too far apart, nor too far under his
body. They should be full on leaving the trunk, but go
tapering towards the knees. His knees should be broad when
looked at in front, with the tendons " untied" behind. Like
the hind, his fore-pasterns should be long, and his hoofs sound,
well-shaped, and strong. Tiiey should be wider in the soles
than those of the hind, and be placed so that a line running
from the centres of their toi's, through the middle of tlieir
heels, would lie parallel with tie length of liis body. In a
horse of this class, a good form is not the only good quality
required ; he must also be a good goer — good as regards both
speed and action, and when these are all combined in one of a
good colour a nd a fair size, they will generally force a long
price out of him when he appears in a market. Now, many
farmers could breed horses of this stamp. By putting nice,
rather under-sized, light-made cart mares, when they possessrd
such, to thoroughbred stallions, they could do it. From such
a union, judiciously made, a valuable, and at all times much
sought for, lialf-bred, which, by-and-by, might come to form
one of a two-hundred-guinea pair in some gentleman's
carriage, might fairly be expected. Among sires, there
may be but few a breeder can get to choose from ; but among
dams lie must reject all with big ugly heads, long listless
ears, thick fleshy necks, short heavy bodies, busby manes
and tails, thick iiairy ill-formed legs, or large flat feet. He
should also avoid all that are not sound, or at least they
should be free from all hereditary disease, such as splints,
spavins, and others that are apt to produce incurable
lameness, or otherwise unfit them for duty. Again, those
who attempt to breed running horses Irom mares that
want spirit, or have bad tempers or bad action, will must
likely be disappointed with the result. Another class of horses
which might be profitably bred by farmers are those used for
lorries and heavy vans. No special race is reared for them,
but good strong animals with a "tip of breeding iu lliem"
would suit well. In describing such animals, it might be said
that they are rather light-bodied, long-backed, and leggy ; hut
the fact that they are such will not make them bad beasts, if
their legs are good, their back strong, and tiieir bodies round.
Besides having a good carcase, back, and legs, a good horse
of this sort should also have a nice head, bright eyes, and active
ears, or he will want spirit. He should also have deep shoul-
ders, strong loins, and fleshy quarters, or he wUl be devoid of
strength. To these must be added sound limbs and good feet,
with the ability and will to move them, nr action will be
wanting with him. Besides being useful for the machine
spoken of, horses of this sort would also do well for farm work.
Many of the horses presently used on farms are too heavy
for the nature of the work required on them. When the soil
is wet, their own weight so sinks them in it that tliey cannot
get along with that ease and activity which those with larger
legs and ligliter bodies would. Active horses are of great im-
portance to farrrters iu a bad harvest or a late spring, and ani-
mals with this quality should never be wanting for them. This
class of animals would be obtained from strong, active, clean-
limbed cart mares and large-sized, half-bred stallions. Well-
bred horses of this stamp would not only be handsome to locjk
at, but there would be found combined in them a more
than ordinary amount of activity, strength, and endurance.
Heavy draught horses are a third class which farmers might
profitably breed, and they are the class which the major. ty of
Aberdeenshire farmers do breed. At present, it cannot be said
that their doing so does not pay, for it is nothing uncommon to
hear of £100 and upwards being received for good heavy one.-, of
this variety. These long prices might have been more general
had greater attention in the past been given to the breeding of
them. Any fanner knows a strong horse, but many (tho^e of
this company, of course, excepted) do not know a good one.
As applied to horses of this class, the term has respect solely
to form, size, and soundness. A good one should be at least
IG^ hands high, with a pretty large head, a pleasant face, a
thick neck, a wide breast, and heavy upright shoulders. He
should also liave a broal and short back, strong loins, deep
chest, round and i'ull flanks, broad and well-rounded quarters,
muscular thighs and forearms, large and clean hock and knee-
joints, stout leg bones, with full tendons behind, short strorg
pasterns, and deep sound feet. His forelegs should be v.ell
apart, and well under his body, from which they should descend
in a perpendicular direction when he stands at ease. This diss
of horses are in this district generally bred from what is said
to be pure Clydesdale stallions and strong mares of, I may say,
any and every breed. Wiiatever they are bred, the parents
of such should be selected with care, and it should especially
be seen th^.t both have healthy constitutions, good tempers ,
and sound limbs. Side bones are particularly to be guarded
against in breeding animals of this class — they are the great
bane of the race, and it must never be forgotten that a dispo-
sition to them is transmissible from parents to progeny. Side
bones and ring bones, which are analogous iu nature, often
produce lameness that will reduce an animal iu value to li't'o
more than half what he would have brought without tliem. The
high condition in which many stallions are kept, makes it
often dilficult to detect weak points in them, but an effort
should always be made to use stallions full on the points the
mares they are put to may be defective in. In choosing sires,
farmers should specially avoid those that have Roman noses,
dull eyes, and drooping ears, as tlin stock by such are often
sulky, sleepy, large brutes. Colour is a quality that should
not be altogether overlooked in breeding horses. Bays, blacks,
browns, and chesnuts are, by dealers at least, (irefcrred to light
greys and whites. The latter will not with them so long re-
tain their youth, while the former are often kuowu to regain it
in their hands, and hence they will give a better price for
them when advanced in years. It is always well when the
time of a foal's birth is at hand to commit its mother to the
care of some faithful and experienced person, and also to place
her in a box by lierself when not at work. Till the foal is
born, it is best when in the box, to have the mare tied to a
lorner of it, which will prevent her from lying down in an
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
Hwkward position, as she might if untied wlien labour comes
on lier. A uevv-burn toal requires some atteutiou till I'airly
mounted on its legs, after which, wlien it is seen to be well, it
may generally be left to the care of its mother. When ihe
weather is mild, and grass to be had, tiie pair will do besi in
the fields, where, alter a time, they may be left entirely to
themselves. Wheii foals are being weaned, whicli should not
be done under five months old, they should never be puc into a
field where wire is used for a fence, or where dangerous
ditches surround, as ill tlieir desperate efforts to get at i heir
mothers they frequently dash themselves agaill^t such a fence
or into such a ditch, and thereby inflict upon themselves in-
juries tJiat may last with their lives, or, it mny be, entirely
destroy them. If when being weaned, foals are shut up in a
liouse, they should be supplied witii soft green food, such as
clover and tares, otherwise they may cram themselves witli dry
ood, and thereby produce complaints of a serious and often
fatal nature. Weaned foals, if they have not been accustomed
to corn before taken often their mothers, should now be in-
duced to eat it, otherwise they will speedily fall off in condition,
which at this period of tlieir lives should be specially guarded
against. Our forefather farmers used to tliink it undesirable
to let the " foal beet" off their young liorses, and that idea
might with profit be ac'ed upon in the present day. Some
farmers say tliat young horses are none the worse to
lose condition in winter, tbey soon make it up again in spring
and summer. This to appearance maybe true; but if a sys-
tem of coinc-and-go wiili the condition of young horses lie in
this way established, their owners will perlia[)s Audit continue
to work in the winters of tlieir alter years, when its operation
would rather not be seen. With colts that are starved in
winter, it is often seen that in addition to their being stunted
in size, they also turn out to be " soft," or as it is sometimes ex-
jiresse.'l, to be beasts with no " bottom" ia them. A few
handfuls of corn and a wisp of hay or straw given to young
liorses in the morning before they are turned to the field,
in winter the same when they are housed at night, will
always be found a safe investment. It is good for them
to have freedom in a field for some time daily during
good winter weather ; but it is a bad practice, when
tliey have no shelter, to keep them out all day, as some do,
when it is cold and wet and stormy. Their shaggy coats in wet
days get filled with rain, and when they are so they have
mucli tlie same effect on tbem as a drenched suit would have
upon their master, some of whom would do well to conceive
what they would do were they as tlieir colts often are, forced
to stand ;i wliole winter night in a filtiiy hovel, through
which tbe wind could blow in all directions. Cold and dirt
are conditions in which horses, young or old, do not thrive,
and as tliis seems to be a law iu nature with them, their
owners must comply with it or reap the consequences. When
rising three years, before it can be said that they are fully
reared, horses bred on farms are usually made to work upon
them. There would be nothing wrong in this if too much of
it were not demanded of them. It happens, liowever, tliat
before they are six years old many horses are ruined by hard
work, and have got so dispirited, crushed, and broken as to
render them prematurely stiff and old. Apart from their
frames being naturally raw and flabby, and unfit for work
while in a growing state, this unfitness is increased by the
fact that at this time horses often do not feed well from the
soreness of thtir moutlis during the shedding of their teeth,
which alsvO happens at this period. A horse begins to shed
his teeth at about t.\o and three-quarters years old, at which
period lie drops the middle nippers above and below, and also
tlie first and second grinders in each side of each jaw, and by
the time be is little more than three years he has 10 new
teeth up and in wear. At a year after this he sheds the next
pair of nippers and also the third pair of grinders in each jaw,
whicli, in about three months after, are replaced by new ones.
About this time the sixth pairs of grinders, which, like the
fourth and fifth pairs, are never shed, appear. Iu the course
of tli2 following year he gets the corner nippers renewed, after
which the horse is said to have a full mouth. It will thus be
seen that for two whole years a young horse has trouble in
his mouth from teeth, and often feeds but indilTerently in con-
sequence. This should be remembered by those who own
liorses of this age, and should induce them to deal as gently
witli them in regard to work as possible. liorses on farms
may be said to consist of two classes, a supplementary and a
working — the latter forming part of the working plant of the
farm. As regards the first-class, it is to the farmers' Interest
that they lie managed so as to bring tliein to tbe greatest
value possible, at tbe least possible expense ; and as regards
the second, to make them serve his ends as long and as
cheaply as he can spare theiu, and dispose of them to the best
advantage. The value of young horses, in addition to their
size, quality, and soundness, is determined by their quietness
at work. To aid in effecting this last, they should be early
handled, and when foals made handy to halter, lead, and bind,
and as they advance in years their acquaintance with these
should be kept up. When tiiey are to be trained for work
they should be committed to the care of men in whom the
" bumps " of patience are well developed, and even witli such
it may be enjoined ttiat tlieir whips be left at home during
not a few of their early " yokings." If they cannot be saved
from hard work it will be best to do it on the principle of
" gang aft and load light," for one extra pull may do damage
that can never be repaired. The state of their harness has
often to be looked after. Ill fitting collars often spoil the
slioulders of young horses, and make them more rebellious
when at work than otherwise they would be. In spring time,
when liorses get thin, what was once well-fitting collars got
t JO big for them, the draught gets too low, and they roll about
upon their shoulders, often causing painful sores, which lay
tliem aside from work for weeks. Grooming cannot with im-
punity be neglected. Wlien the grass season gets late and the
weather cold working horses should be housed at night, for
exposure then is olten the cause of tlieir heavy coats. Grooms
should have good implements sup]>lied, and at this season
should use tiiem well. Clipping is of much value to running
horses, and so is a half-clip to many farm ones. Their work
is done with far more comfort to tliemselves afterwards, and
tliey thrive better. Wiien horses come wit into their stable
they should be well rubbed down ; and if the stabl", is a liigh-
rool'cd one they should be covered with a rug alter. Stables
should be well ventilated, and should also have plenty of light
in tbem ; the latter prevents the accumulation of filth by
urging to its removal. The feeding of horses is another im-
portant point in the management of horses. Many farmers
would be great gainers by paying more attention to this
matter. Some servants wlien they have access to the corn
bin give the horses they have in charge too much corn.
Many of them have tbe erroneous notion that the more corn
their horses get the fatter tliey must be, and instances are not
uncommon where more th»n six bushels a week are given to
a single pair. Too much corn indisposes liorses for eating
other provender, and occasionally subjects them to serious
disease. Four bushels of good sound oats weekly, along witli
a few Swedish tuiuiiis or other roots, and plenty of good
straw, will keep a pair of healthy farm horses in good order
through the winter, even thougli they be pretty hard wrought.
If, then, such an allowance be sullicient for a pair, it is folly
and waste to give them more. Hay may have to be substi-
tuted for straw, but no more corn will be necessary to sustain
tbem, even when they have to go " their ten hours " in the
busy spring season, if sound and healthy horses that are
doing only fair work do not keep in good condition with these
supplies the master may inquire whether the carelessness of
the groom be not to blame for it. Servants that carefully
feed their horses would be a gain to many masters, even
though they paid them £1 a half-year of extra wages. Some
horses are nice feeders, and need to be coaxed to eat. A
careful horseman will keep his eye on such, and will, by giving
small and oft-repeated handfuls, constrain them to eat enough
to keep themselves in good order, whereas a careless one, by
inattention, would soon let them be run down " to skin and
bone." Horses that are greedy feeders, or tliat swallow their
corn wliole, should have it bruised or ground. A little chaff
mixed with corn helps to make horses chew it — and well-
chewed corn is of far more importance than many think.
Unless it be well ground and mixed witli saliva in their
mouths it is but imperfectly digested in their stomachs, and
without perfect digestion there its full benefit is not obtained.
A full drink of water immediately after being fed should never
be allowed to horses. When water is drunk by them the bulk
of it goes directly to their large intestines, and little of it is
retained in their stomachs. In passing through them, how-
ever, the water carries considerable quantities of their contents
to where it lodges in the intestines. If, then, the contents of
horses' stomachs are washed out of them before they are di-
gested, they are in a manner lost, no nourishment being de-
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
29
rived from thera. Colics in horses frequently arise from ll, if they
did not give tliem water too early after feeding. AVhen they
gave liay to the liorses, a great deal of it wasted, being seut to
the dunghill. To avoid that, he cut his hay and mixed it
with straw, putting it iu a close manger. As to travelling
horses, he thought they should be sent out a fortnight or
three weeks later, so that the foal might be weaned by the
middle of September, when they generally began to lead an
ordinary crop. He was of opinion that a good deal more de-
pended upon having a good mare than horse, for obtaining a
good foal. He had bred a good many horses, and had seen
a mare tliat never had a bad foal, while he had seen a good
liorse that never had a good foal. A great deal depended upon
the mare, especially in breeding cart horses. He did not
think it paid farmers to breed shells. Tliey were so liable to
so many tilings that they were not worth the trouble or risk.
And unless they were trained well, they were comparatively
worthless. With a farm horse it was different, and a farmer
had a good chance of making a job of it. The farmer should
breed the horses that pay, and not fancy animals. If they
could make good heavy horses p;iy better than light ones,
there was no use keeping the light horse. If they had a
heavy horse and a light one, if they kept the heavy animal
tliey had more money on their farm. Some farms were
better to have light horses, but so far as he was concerned,
he would never breed one, and, if he could avoid it, he would
never buy one.
Mr. C.\ssiE briefly noticed some of the 'remarks that had
been made. Ue did not mean that a farmer should breed
light horses in preference to heavy ones. What he meant
was only to suggest the best tiling to do iu case a farmer
found himself vvith a light mare — have a foal after a bred
horse, and it would likely prove profltable. He never meant
farmers should train these half-breds. If they were handled a
good deal by some cauuie laddie, it would go a good way to
assist in their management. lie did not advocate light horses
on the farm ; he would have three parts of the cart horse, and
a part of breeding, just to get smartness. Mr. Manson spoke
of tliem getting thick in the legs, but he did not anticipate
that. He did not approve of Mr. Stephen's plan of dividing
the feed. If he wanted to prevent hasty eating, whicli was
promoted by a deep trough, he would put the feed into a
broad bottomed trough and spread it, so that the animal had
to take it up in small quantities. It was tiien mixed well with
saliva, which was necessary for digestion. As to Mr. Coch-
rane's remark about horses being ill on Mondays, one way to
avoid that was not to give anything during the houra in which
the animal was at work on week days.
Mr. CocHiiA>'E followed with some remarks about the
practice of sending stallions out too early. Farmers had
themselves to blame. The shows were held at an early date,
and the horses being put in condition for tlieiu were sent out
immediately after. He referred to the practice in Ayrshire
and Lanarkshire, where the foals were not dropped till the
spring work was done, and were only suckled for four months.
He would never serve mares till about the end of April,
and the horses would be sent out whenever they were wanted.
Mr. Walker (Tillymauld) directed attention to the inti-
mation by owners of stallions as to an intended increase of
rates, and the discontinuance of the practice of paying a re-
duced rate when no foal was left. Tliere was some little dis-
cussion on the subject, and the opinion of the meeting seemed
to be that, as the farmers had one side of th.e bargain to make,
they could make it to suit their views.
THE SCOTTISH CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE.
At the general meeting in the hall of the Chamber,
India Buildings, Edinburgh, Mr. J. C. Shepherd, President,
in tlie chair.
The Secretary, Mr. D. Curror, submitted to the Counties'
Committees — which met an hour before the Chamber to pre-
pare the business — reports from the various affiliated county
meetings : " At the Kincardineshire meeting a motion had
been adopted condemning past and prospective legislation upon
such a paltry subject as small birds as unnecessary, uncalled-
for, and contemptible. While Parliament coulJ find no time
to deal with the very important measure alfecting the law of
conveyancing introduced by the Lord Advocate, they had mis-
spent tlieir time in legislating about sparrows and pigeons.
Ayr. — That in the opinion or this meeting, the land of this
country will never be cultivated in such a way as to make it
produce all that it is capable of doing, until a law is passed
giving fair and reasonable compensation to the tenant when
he leaves his farm, for all unexhausted improvements and
manures as will add to the value of the farm. And, on the
other hand, when a tenant, through his negligence and bad
farming, deteriorates the natural fertility of tiie soil, let him
be compelled to pay his landlord for all such deteriorations.
Dumfries. — Calls ' attention of the general meeting to the
mustering of the Scottish Borderers — a regiment drawn from
Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, lloxburgh, and Selkirk — during the
harvest montlis, and the consequent hardships entailed upon
employers of labour ; and remits to the general meeting the
consideration of the advisability of the Chamber memorialising
the Government on the subject, in order, if possible, to pre-
vent iu future tlie calling out of any Scotch regiment of militia
during harvest.' Forfar. — The meeting regrets to see tliat
there is so large an amount of arrears, and recommends that
defaulters be struck olF the roll of membership, and that a
corrected list of members be published for the year lS7-i.
With regard to Mr. L)uu's motion, this meeting entertains
great doubts wiiether the principle of voting by proxy is ap-
plicable to a deliberative society like the Chamber of Agricul-
ture, but syiupalhising with the oiqect which Mr. Hun evi
deutly has in view of ascertaining the I'celui^ of the whole
members on special questions, they consider that that object
would be better attained by the Chamber sending down such
questions for the opinion of the counties' committee."
In accordance with the recommendation of the Counties'
Committee, Mr. M'Neel Caird, Stranraer, was elected presi-
dent for the ensuing year ; and Mr. A. Dickson, Hermiston,
and Mr. R. M. Cunningham, Shields, Moukton, Ayr, vice-
presidents. The new directors appointed were Mr. Johu Wil-
son, Cockburnspath, Chapel Hill, Berwick ; Mr. M'Cracken,
C'-aiglemine, Whithorn, Wigtown ; Mr. D. ]M. Nicoll, Little-
ton, Kirriemuir ; Mr. George Hope, of Bowlands ; Mr. J. C.
Shepherd, Cleghoruie. Mr. D. Curror, S.S.C, was re-elected
secretary.
The Chairman then delivered his retiring address. He said
the question of a public road bill was daily assuming more
threatening importance, and it was one in which they were all
seriously interested. The meeting held at Edinburgh the
other day approved unanimously to all appearance of the bill
introduced last session by Sir Robert Austruther, which liid
the burden of upholding the public roads on the landward
districts and parishes, and by which the tcfwns were to have
the free use of those roads without any expense whatever.
They proposed generally to keep up the bit of street — each
opposite liis own door ; and seemed to think that if they did
so much they had done enough to entitle them to the free use
of all country roads whatever immediately around Edinburgh
and Lcitli. Mr. M'Lareu alluded to the vast population of
these towns coinpired to the rural division, and stated how,
within a short jieriod, the town population of this county liad
increased 100,000. And who knew what it miglit soon ex-
tend to? Did it not occur to Mr. M'Lareu, who took the
lead in pleading for this bill, that he proposed laying a very
serious burden on the shoulders of the small county popula-
tion, by compelling them to keep up and maintain roads for
all the enlarginij city hosts he spoke of? Three-fourtiis of the
assessment for tlic county, they were told, was collected at the
toll-bars near the city, and in all the other country districts
only oue-fiiurth. The needs of the county places tor the use
of the roads were comparatively a small matter — the towns
32
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
needed the roads a great deal more tliaa the thialy-peopled
landward districts. Yet, Mr. M'Laren would lay the whole
expense of road repairs on those lonely localities. Edinburgh
and Glasgow might grow as large as London, still no help or
hope was held out for the country places. In time this tax
might eat up the half of the rental by the tear and wear of
such nations of people rushing forth. In short, a more in-
sane, unjust demand was never made. They all knew and
acknowledged that nothing was more strictly national pro-
perty than the public roads, and the question was who ought
to maintain these ? The answer surely ought to be those who
were benefited by them. There was not a town nor hamlet in
the laud where the property was not increased in value by
them ; where the trade was not more or less sustained by
them ; where the means of livelihood was not cheapened and
facilitated by them. Good roads were essential not only to
the comfort, but to the very life of the nation. If the towns
expected to make progress with the question, they musl begin
equitably. Let them all say that they were willing to be
assessed in common with the nation generally, and they would
not need to wait long for a road bill. He left it to Mr.
M'Laren to tell them whether a penny or twopence added to
the income-tax would be sufficient to give us all free roads.
But that their maintenance must be provided for by some such
universal impost if they wanted to get altogether quit of the
toll system there could be no rational doubt. The proposal to
burden oppressively a particular class for the benefit of tlie
great and wealthy majority ought to be frankly and at once
abandoned. Speaking to the point who ought to have the
management of the roads, he said the county in which he lived
liad got quit of tolls ; but the roads could not be said to have
been improved. There were complaints of all kinds, and par-
ticularly there was a constant squabble as to what divisions of
the county stood most in need of the .assessment being spent
on them. He had long had the impression that instead ot the
power being lodged in competing local interests, there ought
to be a much wider and more impartial trust. There were
many reasons which might easily be adduced to prove that
Government could manage the public roads with greatly more
enlightened plans and at far less expense than was required
by the preseut fragmentary mode of working. Following the
example of India and some other countries, much of the ne-
cessary work might be done by convict labour, and the military
might do a good deal of it. Mr. Shepherd then referred to
the Game-law8, and said that the farmers had been told by
certain wriiers that they had themselves to blame, for they had
the power by union to protect themselves, and to prescribe
conditions to their landlords. It was easy to reply that there
ought to be no enactments conferring on landlords the power
of ruining the tenant, and that not by individual acts of
cruelty, but simply by a little negligence. He often wondered
at landlords subjecting themselves to so ugly a suspicion as
this retention of power implied. It was needless for landlords
to insist that they meant nothing bad. Although they were
sincere, how did they know what their successors might do ?
AVhy retain in force laws which went directly to create two
opposing and inconsistent rights to the same crops — that of
the tenant to grow them and save them for sale and livelihood,
and that of the landlord to eat them up and devour them ? It
was sad to think that any person was found persistently to
defend them. Wearisome nonsense was reiterated ad nauseam
about possible trespass. Where there was no game there
was no need for fearing wanton and destructive tres-
pass. He saw no middle road to relief; that could only be
secured by total repeal. He need not say that he had read
with pleasure the announcement by a Minister of the Crown,
that the change of these cruel laws was acknowledged to be
both necessary and urgent ; and he hoped that the Ministry
whicli liad already carried through so many and great reforms
would also have the honour of relieving the long-vexed and
burdened trade of the farmers of England and Scotland. In
conclusion, he referred to the loss which agricultural literature
had sustained in the death of Mr. Charles Stevenson, who
had long attacked the wicked Game-laws. In tliose days the
present editor of the Scotsman was one of their strorgest and
most influential friends. It was needless to say that they re-
gretted his change of opinion.
Mr. M'Laren, M.P., said he had listened to the address
with great interest. In regard to the Game-laws, he would
say only one sentence. He iiad been one of the few who had
always voted with his friend Mr. Peter Taylor for the total
repeal of these laws. In regard to road reform, he thought
their chairman had made some mistakes as to matters of fact
and a good many in matters of argument and analogy. The
opinion he had arrived at was one that would not be very
generally accepted in this room or in any other room in Scot-
land— that Government would he the best and the most
economical managers of all the roads in the United Kingdom.
Every man that he (Mr. M'Laren) had heard speak of Govern-
ment management — who was entitled to any attention at all,
had declared it to be the most wasteful and improvident mode
of management that could be devised. His impression was
that if the Government were to take the roads into their own
hands in place of sending down skilled men like their present
inspectors whom they chose themselves, it would be a question
of who had most influence with the Government to get an
appointment with a big salary. And they would, perhaps,
find in the county of Edinburgh an ex-colonel of Dragoons, and
in another county, perhaps, a half-pay admiral, and in others
men who had aristocratic influence, but who had no knowledge
whatever of the subject. In fact, they would not even do the
work ; they would depend altogether on their assistants ; they
would be big men, too big men for their place, but drawing
big salaries. It seemed, however, that the chairman was en-
titled to the compliment of great patriotism, because, as a
large tenant and ratepayer in Haddington, he had been a
party to the abolition of tolls in that county ; and if any
Edinburgh people wished to visit that county, they might do
so without paying any tolls, Tiiey wanted to return the
courtesy, and allow the chairman to drive over the county of
Edinburgh free from tolls, but he would not have it. This
might be patriotic, but it was not wise nor logical. He (the
chairman) had assumed that all that was asked of the people
in towns was to keep up the bit of road opposite their own
doors. Now,'if the whole of the roads in the city of Edinburgh
Leith, Portobello, and Musselburgh were placed, as the lawyers
said, hotch-potch, along with the roads in the county, Edin-
burgh would save money by the transaction. At present the
city of Edinburgh paid 5d. per £ on the rack-rent of every
house witliin jthe city, and a lower rate on shops. About
£20,000 was spent last year in keeping up the streets, of whicli
£1,500 was contributed by the county for the keeping up of
twenty miles of roads within the toll-bars. The same remark
applied to Leith, whose Parliamentary boundaries extended
from Granton on the one hand, and to near Portobello on the
other. He found from the accounts of the Road Trustees for
the last two years that they were divided into two sections,
— one called the ordinary repairs and maintenance, and the
other extraordinary payments. If they deducted from the
ordinary maintenance of the roads in the county of Mid-
Lothian — first, the cost of collecting the money and keeping
up the toll-houses, and second, the salaries of surveyors, and
the interest of money on debt — which, however, was now
practically cleared off — and then if they deducted the £1,500
paid to the city of Edinburgh for the maintenance of the
twenty miles of roads within the toll-bars, the result would be
that the whole ordinary expense of keeping up all the roads
of the county of Mid-Lothian — which extended to about GOO
miles — was £8,500. Look at the wasteful expenditure tiiat
was required to collect and pay this £8,500. Wages to toll-
keepers and for repairs on toll-houses amounted to £1,9G0, and
the expense of the surveyors and clerk was £l,G60, or £3,600.
He ttiougiit no one would say that that was not a most waste-
ful expenditure. Then by the proposed plan all the tolls
levied at the entrance to the towns, such as the causeway mail
of 2d. on each cart with certain kinds of goods, and the com-
mutation duty of Id. per cart on every kind of goods, were
proposed to be abolished. Who got the benefit of these tolls
just now? The Iload Trustees got the causeway mail and
the Town Council received the commutation duty ; both
amounted to something under £4,000, but thd expense of col-
lecting was £1,007. They might as well throw that £1,007
and the £1,960 of the expense of tolls into the sea. About
the great question of making the 70,000 people in the county
pay the rates for the roads which were used by the inhabitants
of the city, he might mention that on looking over the printed
valuation roll of the county he found 4d. in the £ of rental
in Mid-Lothian would give £9,600; and the whole ordinary
expenditure for each of the last two years was only to the
extent of £8,600. He found very large sums appearing in
that valuation roll that had nothing to do with landed pro-
perty. One wcrk near Mid-Calder. for instance, was assessed
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
33
at £4,000 a-year, and there were paper- works aad works of (ill
kinds assessed for large sums of money. Then it included the
towns of Dalkeith, Penicuik, Bonnyrigg, and West Calder,
all of which would have to pay the 4d. per £.
The Chairman said that by the,bill it was only tlie landward
districts that were to pay.
Mr. M'Laren said that was a mistake, and the Chairman
had misread the bill. It never was proposed to do anything
so unjust. The several Parliamentary burghs had by the bill to
keep up the whole roads within its boundaries, and all towns
that were not Parliamentary burglis would be assessed
as part and parcel of the county. If they were to put on
another penny for extraordinary expenditure, that would get
an additional £3,000 a-year to spend. Even then they would
not be paying so much as Edinburgh, in which the rate at
present was od. ; but when they abolished causeway mail they
must have a substitute for it, and that would be in another
penny added to the rate, which would then be 6d. for tlie or-
dinary keeping up of tlie streets. His friend had talked of
the injustice of the county keeping up the roads for the towns ;
but he seemed to forget that when he came to Edinburgh in
liis conveyance that the toll he paid did not go to maintain the
streets over whicii he was going to ride, but it went backwards
into tlie county, and he could use the streets both for the con-
veyance of himself and his produce and never in his life ,pay
a farthing for all the benefits be had received. He held that
there never was a greater mistake than to suppose that the
abolition of tolls would be a hardship to agricultural interests ;
and he spoke not without book that the general opinion of
the agricultural interests throughout Scotland was strongly and
decidedly in favour of the abolition.
Mr. George Hope (Bordlands) said |,that this Chamber
Lad petitioned again and again in favour of the principle of
abolition of toll-bars. The Chairman had thrown out peculiar
opinions upon it ; but he did not think that they were likely
to be shared in by the members of the Chamber, and he was
glad Mr. M'Laren had answered him so well.
Mr. Melvin (Bonnington) supported the views of the Chair-
man. He thought it was a very hard thing that the tenant-
farmers of Mid-Lothian should be made to pay for the build-
ing of the city of Edinburgh, seeing that nearly all the stones
were quarried in the county.
Mr. David Dun (Baldinnies) brought forward his motion
that Rule XX. should be altered to the effect of permitting
voting by proxy at meetings specially called for special pur-
poses. This excited a good deal of discussion, several amend-
ments being proposed, but ultimately, on the suggestion of Mr.
Harper, Snawdon, the subject was left to the directors to con.
sider and report.
The remit from Perth meeting as to Mr. Barclay's bill and
game legislation generally was laid on the table.
Mr. William Goodlet (Bolshan, Arbroath) said he was
sorry he was obliged to differ from his friend Mr. Barclay on
this question. His first impression on reading his bill was
rather favourable than otherwise to it, but on further consi-
deration he had come to the conclusion that it was not a bill
that should receive their support, and he was justified in saying
that even Mr. Barclay himself had not now the same confi-
dence in its satisfying the requirements of moderate and rea-
sonable men that he once had. The clauses in his bill against
trespass in pursuit of wild animals were, in his opinion, tan-
tamount to a new Game-law. It had been said that the late
John Stuart Mill's views on the game question were substan-
tially the same as those embodied in Mr. Barclay's bill. He
thought Mr. Mill's dictum, rightly understood, was that all
wild animals really should belong to the consuming public, at
whose expense, indirectly indeed, they were fed ; but assuming
that Mr. Mill was right when he said that practically the
game belonged to the occupier of the land on which it was
taken and killed, that afforded no support to Mr. Barclay's
bill, the principle of which was that it ought to belong to the
occupier and owner of the soil. Mr. Mill was of opinion
that it was not necessary to enact a new law of trespass ; the
more rigid enforcement of the existing trespass laws, he said,
would sutiice. But Mr. Barclay's bill contained a new tres-
pass law, and in this respect also it was at variance with Mr.
Mill's views. He was satisfied that the Chamber should not
commit itself by approving of it. There was very little
chance of Mr. Barclay being able to carry it though Parlia-
ment in its present shape ; indeed, if they might judge from
what he had said at the Muir of Ord and other meetings, it
was doubtful if he would even attempt it. In short, Mr.
Barclay's bill was yet to make, and he did not think the
Chamber ought to give itself much trouble about it. They
ought to still adhere to their resolution in favour of total
repeal. Any bill, to be effective, must be brought in by the
Government, and he would much prefer to wait its advent
than to countenance Mr. Barclay in his present compromise.
He moved that the bill be not approved of.
Mr. W. RiDDF.LL (Ilundalee, Jedburgh) seconded the mo-
tion. It would be a stultification of the Chamber to recede
from their former position ; and he trusted there would not
be a division on the question at .all.
Mr. Betuune (Blebo) thought Mr. Barclay's bill was a
bad one. There was a large minority in the Chamber who
did not agree with the total abolition of the Game-laws, and
he was one of those who believed that the total abolitionists
were playing a baa game ; but as they had waited for so many
years, let them wait a little longer, in the hope that Govern-
ment would bring in a good bill dealing with the question.
Mr. Barclay's hill was just their old friend Mr. Loch's bill in
a dill'erent shape, and it he strongly opposed from the first.
Mr. Melvin thought the Game-laws were totally opposed
to the reciuirements of the time, and that there never would
be a settlement of the question until they were abolished.
Mr, T. M. NicoLL (Littleton, Kirriemuir) objected to Mr.
Goodlet's motion, because it committed them before the
country to a policy of "no comprimise." Mr. Goodlet's
views might unquestionably be sound, but at the present, and
for many 'years ,to come, they would be impracticable ; and
their wisest course was to accept as much as they could get in
the meantime, on the principle that half a loaf was better
than no bread.
IMr. George Miln (Rosehill, Arbroath) said that the
policy of total abolition was a most mistaken one, and he
objected to it on two grounds. First, because it went too far,
for it interfered not only witii animals on cultivated grounds
which caused mischief, but with grouse in highland districts,
where the grouse moors formed valuable property. Second,
because the policy of total abolition would not be an effectual
protection against game, inasmuch as preservation by those
who were determined to have game would necessarily take a
much more irritating form than at present, and the result
would be that landlords would set themselves keenly to turn
off their properties even the most harmless tourists in common
with poachers. The general public would not endorse such
action, and most likely there would be a return to aggravated
Game-law legislation. Covert preservation, if the laws were
totally abolished, would also likely lead to more bloodshed
than at present. Assuming, therefore, total abolition out of
the question, did Mr. Barclay's bill not contain the principles
of a sound measure, which they would be well advised in
adopting ? It gave the tenant equal power with the landlord
to destroy all animals which injured the crops; and if they
thus got half what they wanted, that would not prevent them
from perhaps getting the whole afterwards. He moved
" That, without committing ourselves to all the details of Mr.
Barclay's bill, we recognise it as a measure embodying general
principles on which legislation may proceed, and that w«
agree to petition Parliament in its favour."
Mr. Wm. Smith (Balzendie) said that the principle of Mr.
Barclay's bill was simply that of the present law of England,
with the practical difference that it made tiie right of the
tenant inalienable. Mr. Barclay did not interfere with game
in coverts ; he said to the farmers, " You can kill game on
your farm, but your laird can keep as much as he chooses
next door." Mr. Barclay had been sent to Parliament as a
farmer's representative, and therefore he insisted it was in-
cumbent on tiie farmers to protest against his bill.
Mr. Andrew Potts (Lewinshope) moved that the bill lie
on tiie table, because it was said that ]Mr. Barclay intended
to modify it, and before pronouncing decisively upon it they
should see the modified bill.
Mr. George Dun said that Mr. Miln's remarks were just
a thrashing out of a large quantity of old straw with little
result. He approved of total abolition.
Mr. George Horn seconded Mr. Pott's motion,
Mr. MiLN withdrew his motion in favour of Mr. Potts',
and a vote was then taken as between it and Mr. Goodlet's
resolution disapproving of ]\Ir. Barclay's bill. The latter was
carried by a majority of 14 to 12.
Mr. George Hope said he quite agreed with the county
3t
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
repoit from Kiucardiucsiliirc that the recent small bird legis-
lation was uDnecess;iry, uncalled for, and contemptible. He
liad seen on n field of turnips in Enst Lothian from 1,100 to
1,200 linnets killed in one day without apparently diminishint;
the nuiiiber.
Tiie CiiAiUMAN said that legislation was not only con-
tcmptil.'le, but pernicious.
Jlr. H. Morris Alexaj;t)ER (Denoou, Glamis) thought
the Chamber should work unceasingly to get the repeal of
the Act. If the small birds of the country were to be pro-
tected, they would sulfer more real damage fiom tlieai than
IVom game. No matter what happened, he would kill all the
birds and de>-troy all the nests which he could. He would
soouer have seen the Act passed for the cultivation of rats
tlian the Small EirJs Preservation Act. He moved that the
Chamber should not cease agitating till they had secured the
repeal not only of the Small Birds Act, but of the Act im-
po.siug the Gun-tax.
Mr. Wm. SjiiTir seconded the motion. Small birds were
already very well protected without a special Act. The Gun-
tax, the present .system of game preserving, and the destruc-
tion of birds of prey all protected them. Indeed they received
more protection than \yas given to mankind.
The motion was unanimously adopted.
Tiie resolution from the Ayr county meeting and Mr.
Howard's bill aneut the Laud Teuaucy Laws were remitted
to tiie directors to consider and report.
It was remitted to the directors to petition Parliament that
no militia force should be called out for drill iu agricultural
districts during corn harvest.
It was also remitted to the directors to purge and revise
the roll of membership.
'J'he Secretauy read the following letter, received from
Mr. Mat'iie, M.l'., which was remitted to tlie directors i'or
onsideration :
University Club, Edinburgh, 11th Nov., 1873.
My dear Sir, — I gladly avail myself of the encourage-
ment you have given me, and now jiut in writing tiie tvio
subjects I mentioned as probably deserving and claiming the
attention of the Chamber.
1. The Partnersilif Laws. — Do they not, as now con-
stituted, offer opportunities altogether and injuriously neg-
lected for the finding of capital by farmers, and the securing
desirable tenants and terms by landlords?
2. Colonial Lajids. — Western Australia. That colony
has an area of nearly two-fifths of the whole of the inland
continent of New Holland. Unless the Government reverse
the thoughtless policy of late years, that area, the merest
fraction of wliicli is now occupied, will be transferred to the
actual residents, 21,000 to 25,000 only in number, \vithout a
consideration — without conditions ami obligations — uithout
reasonable prospect of its being utilised. The land is the
inheritance and property of the British people at home as
well as of the handful who are on the spot. It presents a
noble field for the future residence aud labour of our teeming
population, who ought to be encouraged ijy a wise adminis-
tration of our jiublic lands to settle within the empire. What
better for tenant-farmers aud farm labourers than to have that
grand reserve available (vihicli it would not be if transferred).
At present, if a farmer has sons, tlicy must either cease to
larm, or pay rents higher than tlieir neiglibours to "out"
them, or emigrate. The last is the best for them and for the
empire, as well as for present tenants. Far better give away
sucli lands to ourselves, to our sons, than to the handful wlio
occupy Western Australia. At any rate, let the lands be sur-
veyed and reported on, that we may know what we have.
Tiiere has beeu no survey. The accounts I get from many
quarters, however, show it is a colouy with noble harbours,
fisheries, forests, and fertile soil. Yours faithfully,
11. A. Maceie.
P.S. — I call attention to Western Australia for two reason.'.
1. Almost nil our other waste lands have already beeu preci-
pitately alienated. 2. Alienation uf these is on the cards.
If (Ustrlhidcd., then each colonist would get a present of about
25 or near 30 square miles of land. The sales would go to
lessen the balance, or more than extinguish taxes iu the
colony.
TENANT FARMERS' GRIEVANCES.
At the diuuer of the Inverness Parmcrs' club — Mr.
Mundell, Gollanueld, in the chair. — Mr. Mundell
read a paper on the grievances affecting tenant farmers,
aud the best means to be adopted for their removnl.
He said the form of lease would be very short and distinct.
Tlie proprietor sliould engage to let the tenant, his h-irs and
assignees, the particular lands in question with the houses and
fences thereon, aud the roads leading thereto, for nineteen
years at a fixed sura of yearly rent payable out of the frui's at
the first term after they are gathered — the condition of the
land aud erections to he reported on by men mutually cho.sen
at entry, and again at issue, aud the difference in their state
from wiiut tliey were at entry, ordinary decay excepted, to be
paid by the landlord or tenant according as tiiey are better or
worse. Eurther, if there were any subletting I would hold
the original tenant still liable, except when the landlord
expressly consented to accept the substitute. He adhered to
his well known opinion respectiug the total abolition of the
Game-laws and of the Law of Hypothec, and argued strongly
in favour of tenants receiving compensation for unexhausted
improvements on the principle embodied in the bill brought in
last year by Mr. Howard and Mr. Read. He said the recep-
tion given to Mr. Fordyce's bill relating to farm servants'
cottages was a great mistake, the bill being a step iu the right
direction, though it did not go far enough.
Mr. Eraser, Balloch, secretary of tlie Society, also read a
paper deprecating political agitation by farmers as likely to
j)roToke unnecessary ill-feeling in society. He argued that
the Game-laws required modification, so as to preserve the
advantage they gave to the monied classes for obtaining recre-
ation with as little injury as possible to others. He did not
think that the abolition of tlie Law of Hypothec, or of the
Law of Entail, would improv* the jiosition of the tenaut-
farmer or of tlie country. Scotland, -.is a nation, may have
suffered some loss from quiet subscription to political injuries,
but we iuive gained much more by attention to our business,
and we have made a comparatively poor country rich, and an
example to our richer neighbours. Let us look at Ireland,
where a political grievance is never wanting, and we will see
a fine rich country, comparatively a great waste, its people iu
poverty, and their time lost in listening to political agitators,
while too many of its inhabitants are obliged to leave their
country for others not half as good. Tlie high price of land
in this country resulted from fair competition. He thought
landlords should employ their gamekeepers in destroying crows
and other birds ; and touched on the necessity for compensation
being given for unexliausted improvements.
Mr. Anderson of Lociidhu tiiought tenants' grievances
were a good deal iu tenants themselves. They took tlieir
farms at a great deal too high rents. That was their own
fault. If they were proprietors themselves, they would take
the highest rout they could fro:u good nieu. No doubt labour
was much higher now than it was ten or twelve years ago,
when leases were entered upon ; hut as they liked their servants
to make out their twelvemonths' engagements, so tiiey ought
to make out their own engagements. Earmers, he thought,
should have the ground game, and as for the winged game,
they had no time to take up their heads with it. As Balloch
had mentioned, sport brought down many people from the
south, perhaps with more money than wit — and the money
came to many of them indirectly. He thought if they
abolished the Law of Hypothec they would have harder lines
to come against. Its abolition, perhaps, would be a very
good thing for tlie ricli tenant, but industrious, hard-working
tenants would have no chance if they had to provide a fore-
hand rent, and find security for nineteen years. If one could
find security in i)r.".sent circumstances that he would stock his
farm, tiiat was all tliat was wanted. The proprietor looked
alter hi;uself — but he did not want long security nor a fore-
hand rent. As regards buildings, it was very hard tiiat pro-
prietors should take buildings erected by tenants without com-
pensation. Eew of the proprietors would do so. (" Oh, they
all do it.") No, they all did not, but some did, and it w,i->
perfect robbery when they did. The proprietor should pay
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
35
for tliera at valuation, or if tliey were not required for the
farm the tenant should be allowed to remove them. As re-
gards unexhausted improvements, it was a very hard thing
that a tenant should make tlie most of the land, lime it, and
manure it heavily, and at the end be turned out of it without
eompensation. Still he kuew some proprietors who acted
fairly. Not long ago a tenant on Cantray failed, a large
amount of money liad been laid out in improving the farm,
and the proprietor said, " 1 am not entitled to the surplus
rent. I will give it to the parties whose money went to
make the improvement." (Mr. Mundell — "Give another
case," and laughter.) I'he landlord was just entitled to get
his money to the end of the lease, and the rest ou^ht to go to
the man's heir or his ereditors, whoever they might be. He
might, just as a little bit of fun, tell them an anecdote. He
liimself once went into a farm — a very poor place— and paid
£180 for it. He brought it into good condition, and his
friend, Mr. Mundell, said to anotlicr friend— " That's a capital
firm yonder ; you should go and take it ; it will suit you well."
He had no feeling against Mr. Mundell on the subject; but
the man look the farm, paying £350 for it, and he (Lochdhu)
lost part of tlic £2000 or £3000 he had laid out in fencing,
draining, &c. He Miould have been remunerated in some way
for that — which he was not. He advised them all to go into
llie contracts with their eyes open — "make your bed well
before you go into it."
The C'li.viRMAN said Mr. Anderson had mentioned one
gentleman who gave up liis privileges to the creditors, but he
had failed to mention another.
Mr. Macandrew- — I can tell you another case that I
settled.
The CiiAiK.MAN would just quote the poet in an altered
form : —
Hypothec, oh for mercy spare it ;
The landlord's robe, oh dinna tear it.
He had no objection to the Law of Hypothec, provided the
landlord was his tenant's banker ; but if any other person had
given that tenant money, the thing was in the land.
LociiDiiu mentioned Lord Cawdor and Lord Moray as
having done acts similar to that of Cantray.
Mr. Macandkew said the remarks of Mr. Eraser and Mr.
Anderson appeared to him to contain what was the common
sense of this question. There were two classes of grievances,
those caused by legislation, and those arising out of the customs
of the country. It was quite right that tlie Legislature should
be asked to remove grievances which its own measures had
caused; but they would require to make out a very strong
case before asking the Legislature to interfere in reference to
customs and matters in wiiich the remedy lay in their own
liands. Nothing had hitherto been brought forward in rela-
tion to 'game, so far as it had to do with agreements or
customs in letting land, which Parhament could be asked to
remedy without sometliing amounting to a revolution. He
pointed out that the Game-laws, so far as enforced in this
country, were trespass laws. They dealt with trespass in
pursuit of game ; and if they were abolished, some trespass
law would require to be enacted, and what law ? People
would not submit to a penalty for simply walking over a field
or moor. The practical question was really this — how shall
we arrange so as to protect both the game and the agricultural
tenant ? Mr. Mundell admitted that there were different kinds
of property in land — minerals, woods, and such like — which
the landlord had a right to reserve; things that were not a
matter of agriculture, and to which tlie agricultural tenant had
no claim. Mr. Eraser had mentioned another kind of pro-
perty— sporting property — which brought in £50,000 a year
in tliis county. By the law of the country the property be-
longed to tlie landlord. It had been bought and sol I, liundrcds
of thousands of pounds paid for it, and purely for the value of
the game. Nobody could seriously propose to destroy that
property witliout compensation ; no Legislature, unless carried
away by revolutionary fanaticism, would think of such a
tiling. Were the tenant farmers prepared to compensate the
landlords? He did not tiiink they were. The question then
resolved itself into a very small matter. There were two kinds
of property in game and agriculture, and the tenant took the
land with his eyes open. The law was perfectly just. If
gauie increased during the currency of a lease, the tenant was
entitled to compensation for damages. But the diliiculty lay
iu proving the increase. He had tried his hand at proving it,
and found its dillicully from experience. (A Voice—" A Held
of turnips would soon prove what damage game can do.")
Mr. Eraser, Eaillie — Mr. Macaudrcw is a young farmer
yet he will feel the difference next year.
Mr, Macandrew said he had taken more trouble to prove
damage by game than perhaps any man in the room, and there-
fore knew the difficulty. He did not mean that farmers had
no grievance ; they certainly had a gricfance, and what they
wanted was a practical remedy. In a great degree the matter
was in their own hands. If they made bad bargains, he did
not think they were entitled to call on the Legislature to Jielp
them ; but he did think the law could give a speedy
remedy in the absence of express stipulation. Say that the
lease contained only the ordinary reservation of game, without
any express stipulations; then the law sliould hold the teuart
entitled to compensation for any excess of damage, sny beyond
5 per cent, on the rental. That would give them a fixed point
from which to start in trying to ascertain damage ; and though
the valuation might be difficult, practice iu such investigations
Would soon overcome it. He agreed with Mr. Mundell that
deer forests should be fenced. This was an exceptional use
of property ; and he thought there could be no objection to
imposing a special tax upon forests. There was as much
justice iu that as in taxing a man for a carriage or a pony, or
keeping a dog. As to the succession in leases, the law there
simply was that the farm went to the eldest son, like other
heritable property ; but it was a common stipulation, and
quite in the power of the tenant, to provide that this lease
should fall to any other member of the family. As to unex-
hausted improvements, that was a matter for which he thought
tenants should stipulate ; and iu the absence of such stipula-
tion, it might be quite reasonable that the landlord should
pay compensation. He mentioned a case that came txnder his
notice in Nottinghamshire where the tenants were small, none
having over 150 acres, or perhaps not so much ; and by the
leases the teuani was entitled to receive on outgoing the first
year after applying manure four-fifths, the second yearthree-
ftftlis, and so on. With regard to artificial feeding supplied
to cattle, the tenant received one-half of that for the year
preceding the removal. That was a custom w^hicli he
thought would satisfy Mr. Mundell. (Mr. Muudell—
" Quite so.") Tliose farmers were not nearly
equal in intelligence and wealth to those whom
he saw around him there; yet it did not require a law to bring
this about — it was a matter of adjustment betv.een landlord
and tenant. As to huildings, it was most unjust tliat any-
thing should be taken from the tenant without payment. But
the erection of buildings was also a matter of contract; only,
he would say, if the tenant erected buildings for which the
landlord would not pay, then he should be allowed to remove
them. But the far better plan would be to refuse to take a
farm unless all the buildings, and fences, and ditches were
provided for. He agreed with Lochdhu that tenants had no
special ground for complaint against the law of hypothec : if
they got longer credit from the landlord they personally had
no leason to consider the claims of the manure mereliant.
The question was a public question, and it came to this— Bid
the law conduce to the successful cultivation of the land, and
the advancement of people skilled in that, who might want
capital? He thought it desirable that there should be en
opening for men of skill rising to be tenant-farnu rs. Many
persons had risen iu that way, and, to a considerable extent,
this was due to the existence of the Law of Hypothec. In
this aspect, farmers were interested in mainliining the law.
It was a great matter that there sliould be a ladder lying be-
tween the tenant-farmer and the labourer, by which the lower
class might rise. It tended to diminish those broad dis-
tinctions between class and class, of which there were too many
already, and which were doing ninch more injury to tenant
farms than the Law of l]y[)olhec, or even game. If they could
increase the possibility ol these men rising, they would be
doing more good than by abolishing Hypothec, perhaps
lowering the rent of land a little, shutting those people out
from conipctition, snd enabling the man of capital to get the
land on his own terms.
Mr. Eraser (Eaillie) said the last speaker had given, as lie
always gave, a very able speech, but it was the speecli of a
special pleader. It was quite evident to him, and must liavc
been to everyone acquainted with the laws allVcting the
tenancy of land, that Mr. Maeandn^w really knew very little
upon the subject (" Oh," and laughter).
c2
36
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
Mr. ]\Iaca.ndeew : Tliat is polite at all events.
Mr. Phaser said EaDoch had also given them a very ahle
disquisition, but he really could not find out what he would be
at, and Lochdhu seemed to liini to be looking both ways.
There were without doubt grievances affecting the tenancy of
I-iud, and the principal one, to his mind, was the Law of
Hypothec. He had heard some curious arguments in its de-
fence ; and he was surprised to find so acute a man as Mr.
Macandrew arguing that the law enabled landlords who were
incliued to be generous to aid their weaker and smaller tenants.
Mr. Maca:\-drew : I did not say anything of the kind.
Mr. Fkaser : That was my view of it.
Mr. Macandrew : Yes ; but it was not what I said.
Mr. Trasek : Will Mr. Macandrew allow me ? We listened
to him patiently.
Mr. ilACANDREW : Well, leave me personally, and deal with
the subject.
Mr. f RASER said that generally when people wanted to be-
friend poor and weak men they did it at their own expense.
The landlords gave all the risk to the other creditors, and were
themselves perfectly safe. He believed hypothec was very
hurtful to farmers. It had no Parliamentary sanction until
very lately, and it arose when rents were paid in kind — when
landlords and tenants were in a sense co-partners, and pro-
perly enough, neither could dispose of the subject until his
partner's share was delivered. In course of time rents came
to be paid in money, and the right of landlords to interfere
with the produce ought to have ceased. Now it must be
plain to every one who studied the operation of the law, that
it operated much more severely against the smaller and
weaker tenants than against the larger and wealthier. There
was, he believed, more competition for small farms, and the
smaller tenants paid in proportion bigger rents, mainly owing
to the law of hypothec. They were generally hard-working
and industrious men, aud commencing poor and back-rented,
they went on from hand-to-mouth, barely able to keep soul
and body together, to the end of the chapter. Occasionally
perhaps, from favourable circumstances, a poor industrious
tenant did become comparatively wealthy, and then, of course,
the law of hypothec must get the credit of it. As to forehand
rents, he had no objection if landlords preferred them. A
good many adopted them at present ; he had been paying
forehand rents for the last twenty years. But as to security,
it humbly appeared to him tliat, apart form hypothec, the law
afforded landlords ample protection, for it enabled them, if a
tenant ran into arrear for a year's rent, to compel him to find
security not only for the arrears, but for the rent of five future
years, or else to remove. That security, though objectionable
on several grounds, he would leave them ; only he thought
security for the past year and for a year to come should be
sufficient. Nest, considering the way that farms were
let to the highest bidder, the power of landlords
to turn out tenants who fell into arrear, or com-
pelling them to give security, it was liard to see
why leases should not be assignable like other property.
Tlie result of their not being so, in cases of death and bank-
ruptcy, was often painful and uujust. Some proprietors, to
their honour, refused to take the advantage the law allowed
them, bat the change was required for others who acted with
less justice. The law of entail had always been a dead weight
upon the nation. It had been brought in nearly 200 years ago
by Lord Stair, a man whom it was the fashion to laud as the
greatest of Scottish lawyers ; but in this he liad done more in-
j ury to Scotchmen and more to retard progress in Scotland than
any Scotchman that ever lived. His labours were now being
abrogated, and perhaps by 1885 they would entirely disappear.
He was not in favour of the total abolition of the Game-laws —
but he would have some very serious changes. The red deer
of the Highlands were noble animals, but they were never in-
tended to be of much use to the people as food. The afforesting
of large portions of tlie country, which were well fitted for pro-
ducing good blackfaced sheep and black cattle, was more a na-
tional than a farmer's grievance ; and if proprietors of the soil
wished to dispose of their land in that way, and it was the will
of the nation that a few of the wealthy should have sport ratlier
than that the people's food should be increased, so be it.
Farmers as such would have little ground to complain, pro-
viding always their crops and swck were protected from destruc-
tion and damage. Hares aud rabbits wlien not elfoctually en-
closed should be treated as vermin. Winged game was also in
some places a .'giievance. When they took to eating
corn it was extraordinary the damage they did in a short time*
Some wise people told them corn was easily protected, and that
a little boy with a tin rattle was aU that was required. [The
Chairman : " He was a rattle-skull who proposed it."]. The
birds in his part of the country were a good deal wiser than
that. He tried a boy with a tin rattle, and they simply flew to
one part of the field and flew back again as he approached
them. Nothing would effectually drive them off but the smell
of powder, and that tenants were not entitled to give them. In
connection with the game grievance, he might mention the dog
and gun taxes, which were fit to be put on a par with the great
lucifer match tax ; and if not intended to be, they certainly
were very effective aids to the Game-law system which culmi-
nated in the notorious Poaching Prevention Act of 186 1.
Mr. Inkson took the same view as Mr. Macandrew, Balloch
and Lochdhu.
Mr. Macpiiail (Cnlaird) had notintendsd saying anything,
but he could not help making a few remarks. Mr. Fraser, of
Balloch, told them that they heard of nothing but decay, aud
saw nothing but growth, and Lochdliu spoke of the scarcity
of farm labour. Now, lie would j ust put it to the secretary
whether there was not a decay of labour ? Were not the
cottages getting demolished on the hill-sides, and the people
driven away, thus causing a scarcity ? That was certainly a
sign of national decay — men getting scarce — even if wealth
did accumulate. He had lieard au extraordinary remark from
Mr. Macandrew — with whom he was certainly not going to
measure swords —that they could not tell when gamelincreased.
Mr. Macandrew : I said it was very difficult to prove the
increase.
Mr. Macphail said when they saw twice the amount of
damage done to their turnips this year over last [A Voice :
" Four times "], it was surely clear that game was increasing.
The Law of Hypothec was constantly brought forward as in
the interest of the skilled labourer or poor farmer. But if a
labourer had nothing but his skill— if he had no money —
what was he going to do with a farm ? How was he to get a
horse to pull his plough, or a cow io give milk, or seed to sow
his land, or manure to help him ? He obtained them at the
expense of other people to make the landlord's interest secure.
Was that fair ? Did that show any generosity in landlords at
all ? There should be no law for the protection of landlords
that was not applicable to others.
The Chairman said there were too many lawyers against
him, but he wanted a word about the Law of Hypothec.
Under that law a man with £100 could enter into a farm of
£500. He meant not £500 of rent, but a farm it would take
£500 to stock, and a man had usually some friends to assist
iiim. These friends signed a bill for £100 or £200. He had
to pay 5 per cent, on that to the bank, and went on renewing
it till he was obliged to succumb. The bank had its security,
the landlord took the rent, the poor man might have nothing
to pay the manures, and he walked out without a penny. It
was stated that there were 4,000 tenants in Invernessshire
under £50 rent. Did the landlords care for hypothec on their
account? No, it was on account of big tenants; and these
big tenants did more to support poor tenants than the pro-
prietors. He was not sure but they were as independent as a
heap of the proprietors who were so big and bragging. He
did not see bow he was going to sum up this when they were
so much divided.
THE CONTAGIOUS DISEASES (ANIMALS) ACT.—
At a meeting of the Leicestershire Chamber of Agriculture of
Saturday the report of the Select Committee of the House on
Commons on the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act was
generally approved, but the meeting strongly recommended the
adoption of the two rejected resolutions by Mr. C. S. Read,
M.P., first, " That should stringent measures be taken in the
United Kingdom for stamping out pleuro-pneumonia, foreign
cattle coming from all countries in which that fatal disease
exists shall also be slaughtered at the port of landing, as the
meeting is satisfied that no inspection can guard against the
introduction of a disease which lias so long and uncertain a
jjcriod of incubation ; secondly, that all Irish cattle be rested
six hours and fed and watered before they are sent inland by
rail." A committee was also appointed to fill up returns as to
the late custom of tenant-right in |Leicestershire, the present
custom of tenant-right being in a transition state through the
formation of a tenant-right associ.ttiou, who were determined to
alter the injustice which prevails.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
37
CHESHIRE CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE.
THE COMEDY OF AGRICULTURE.
At tliR aunual t^pneral meeting nt Crewe,
Sir IIakry MArNWAUiNG referred to the fith clause oi'tlie
sclieiiie fur compensation to tenants by landlords, passed in
April last, concerning ths eradicating of old hedges. The
tenants were to have full power to eradicate old hedges and
cut down trees, and the landlords were to have the privilege
of paying the costs. He remembered a farm in Gloucester-
shire where the liedges were all new, and tliere were no
trees. In one field there was a lot of large Shorthorn
Imllocks looking thin and ill, all sutfering more or less from
(iphthaimia, caused by the absence of shade and exjiosure to
tlie dust. Some of them were quite blind, several had lost
one eye, and the eyes of all were streaming down with
water. Having cut down the trees the owner was putting up
sheds, that the cattle might creep into them out of the heat
of the sun. He mentioned this to a friend, who suggested a
very valuable contrivance, that each cow should carry a
jiarasol, and if the parasols were of different colours the
elleet would be very pretty. As his friend, Mr. Fair, had
destroyed a larger number of beautiful trees and hedges tlian
any other man, and had consequently exposed his cows to the
heat of the sun, he (Sir Harry) ventured to present him with
a model for the parasols for his cows. (Amid much laughter
Sir Harry carefully unfolded a parasol ot a light drab colour,
together with a piece of wood about a foot long, in the mid-
dle of which the parasol was to be stuck, and there was
a hole at each end for the tijis of the animal's horns.) lie
hoped, when he nfxt saw Mr. Fair's farm, to see all the
animals carrying parasols. They might think that silly, but it
was not half so silly as pulling up hedges and cutting down
trees. He therefore hoped that clause 6 would be eradicated,
and if all the clauses were eradicated there would be no great
cause for lamentation. lie had read letters on draining, and
the very men who had so successfully drained farms were
now recommending the building of rain-water tanks at every
farm house. The old Cheshire farmers liad been laughed at
and ridiculed, but those men who had taken large farms into
their own hands, and farmed according to their own theories,
liad given up farming. He had read speeches by eminent
theoretical agriculturists of the modern school, who would
recommend that the old Cheshire pastures should be ploughed
up — that parks like Windsor Park, Tattou Park, Dodding-
toa Park, and Cholmondeley Park should be brojieu up, so
that more food might be produced for the people. Others
recommended the extermination of hares and rabbits in
order, as he [supposed, thatjraeat might be raised from Is. to
2s. per pound. He liad read speeches and pamphlets by
those furious men who said that a man's land was not his
own property — and that had been said in that room — and he
liad read the evidence of those men who sought to lead or
mislead the House of Commons — the Government who in-
tended to legislate for them. These speeches, reports, and
evidence to which he referred, were to be the groundwork of
compulsory legislation, to effect what was called agiicultural
improvements ; and all were to be bound by one compulsory
lease, whether they held ten acres or ten thousand acres —
■whether the land was dry and chalkey, or wet and clayey —
whether they grew corn or milked cows. He remem-
bered a valuer from Surrey coming to value a farm
of strong undrained land, aud his report was to the effect
that the tillage laud was excellent, but as to the
grass land he never saw such bad land in his life. At
that time forty cows were kept on the farm, and each cow
was producing milk making upwards of five cwt. of cheese,
said to be the best in Cheshire. Since then the farm had
been drained, and the milk of each cow now made only two
cwt. of cheese. These were the valuers, who were to draw up
leases to teach them to farm. Modern agriculturists were
like the projectors described by Dean Swift in Oul/iver's
Travels, cue of whom had a scheme in hand for extracting
sunbeams out of cucumbers, another for converting sewage
into food, another for dispensing with ploughing on a very
ingenious plan, viz., planting acorus and chesnuts six or
eight inches deep, and then letting loose a drove of pigs into
the field where tiiey were planted, to root them up. In
short, tiiere was not a town in the country visited by Gul-
liver where there was not a chamber of agriculture, with
professors, who were contriving new methods of agriculture,
very much like our times, when there were new implements
being continually invented so as to enable one man to do the
work often, the only inconvenience being that none of them
were brought to perfection. He regretted his friend Mr.
Latham was not present, and recommended him, aud other
gentlemen like those to whom he had referred, to take a
lesson from Gulliver and plough with pigs instead of horses.
If they were wise, however, they would not be taken in by
clever Scotchmen, who were anxiois to persuade weak Eng-
lishmen that they could sow the Grampian hills with wheat,
nor would they be deceived by sewage farmers who fed their
cows on sewage-grown grass, and sent the poisonous milk to
Manchester aud other towns. As to agreements between
tenant-farmers and their landlords in Cheshire, he thought
that where a tenant-farmer took a large farm of 400 acres,
and was prepared with a capital of £10 per acre, he might
ask for a long lease ; but that in cases where the farm was
small and the tenant had not above £5 per acre, he was
entitled only to an agreement from year to year. Leases
were very numerous and very various, and he did not know
that he ever saw two alike. It was very desirable, however,
if practicable, that a form should be drawn up which would
be suitable to the \a hole of the county. In all he had seen
there were generally two omissions : Power should be given
to the incoming tenant to enter upon the land on the 2nd of
February, and to the landlord to enter the house and building
on the 1st of May. To remedy this three suggestions had
been made : First, that Parliament should legislate ; second,
that that chamber, having already arbitrated between land-
lord and tenant, so far as regarded compensation for unex-
hausted improvements, should arbitrate on this matter ; and,
thirdly, that the landlord should require of the tenant two
bondsmen, who should be answerable for the fulfiiment of the
agreement in every particular. As to legislation by Parlia-
ment, he objected to it ; but upon the other points he would
like to hear discussion, as he wished to know whether the
chamber were willing, if they had tlie power, to arbitrate ;
because if they were, and would draw up a lease or agreement
that would work well between the parties, they would deserve
the thanks of tiie whole of the county. The present system in
the Ducklow Hundred was this. A man took a farm of 200
acres, and brought forty cows and seven horses ; ploughed
107 acres, and sold all the saleable hay and straw, and mixed
the rubbish with turnip pulp for his cattle. The manure
from that was poor, and so it had to be supplemented by bone
dust and guano, which the landlord was asked to jiay for if
the tenant had to leave. Surely the money obtained for the
hay and straw ought to go against that ! Surely the rules
required amendment on that point ! Sir Henry Holland, in
1808, published a valuable work entitled, " A general view of
the Agriculture of Cheshire," which he (Sir Harry) strongly
recommended them to read.
THE FAMINE IN BENGAL.— Calcutta, Dec. 7.-
The Press, especially the native papers, warmly thanks T/ie
Times for its articles upon the subject of the famine. Tho
Viceroy urges husbanding fodder. Advances are offered for
preserving cattle. Sir G. Campbell is encouraging vegetable
cultivation, and offers advances for the constrnction of wells
and storehouse buildings. Steamers are to ply with emi-
grants to, and rice from, Rangoon. The Tirhoot peasants are
storing their grain. Prices in the interior are higher than iii
1865. In Calcutta they aree([ual to those rates. Insects are
attacking the spring crops. Tiiere are 1,000 labourers cm-
ployed on the relief works ; but few peasants will offer them-
selves while harvesting proceeds. Tlie Viceroy leaves for Oucjr
to-morrow, to visit the relief works.
THE FAllMEE'S MAGAZINE.
MORAYSHIRE FARMERS'
LEASES VERSUS TENANT-IUGIIT.
OLUB.
At the Quarterly Meeting, Mr. Walker, Altyre, in the chair,
Mr. MACDOJf-VLD, secretary, read the following letter :
Gordon Castle, Fochabers, iNov. 6, 1873.
My Dear Sir, — I had hoped to have attended the meeting
of the Morayshire Earmers' Club to-raorrow, but regret I am
unable to do so, as I Hud it is proposed to discuss a question
intimately connected with tlie relations between landlord and
tenant, and upon which great dillereuce of opinion may pre-
vail. The subject of Tenaut-Kight, as it is called, is one which
to my mind cannot be discussed at a social meeting such as the
dinners of the Morayshire Earmers' Club used to be. I am
aware that a resolution was come to in the early part of the
year, allowing members of the Club to discuss matters of politi-
cal interest at their meetings. I regret extremely that such a
step should have been taken, as 1 consider it to be wholly at
variance with the objects of the Club, and the principles upon
which it has hitherto been conducted. I should be quite pre-
pared, on a fitting occasion, to state my views upon unex-
hausted improvements, labourers' cottages, forms of lease, and
other matters of this kind, but I venture to think that the
dinner of the Morayshire Farmers' Club is not a convenient
time to enter upon such discussions. May I ask you to read
this letter to the members of the Clnb at their meeting to-
morrow ? — Yours faithfully, Riciiiio:cD.
The Chairman said that, on hearing of the letter
from the Duke of llichii'ond, he called upon the Secretaries
for the resolution of tlic Club, and found tliat his Grace was
under a slight misapprelieusiou as to tlie terms of the minute
referred to. A draft minute had been prepared anent the sub-
ject as follows : " The meeting instruct the Secretaries to en-
gross his Grace's letter in to- day's minutes, and to acknow-
ledge receipt of the letter, thanking his Grace for his courtesy
in so candidly stating his views to the Club. At the same
time, they think it proper and necessary that an extract from
the report of the Committee adopted at the anniversary meet-
ing of members in February last, should be sent to his Grace,
from which it will be seen that it was simply subjects bearing
on agricultural questions of the day which this Club had in
view for discussion — questions of purely party politics being
altogethei excluded."
Tlie draft minute was approved.
The subject annjuuced for discussion was: "What is the
opinion of members as to compensation to be given by proprie-
tors for unexhausted improvements in agricultural subjects,
especially as regards building, draining, and enclosing ?"
The Chairman opened the discussion, and said : I regret
that I cannot congratulate the Committee of Manase-
ment of this Club on their selection of a subject of discussion
to-night. The subject, if not identical, is, in its principal fea-
tures, a repetition of the question which was nuder considera-
tion, and in which the members of this Club gave a deliverance
at tiieir meeting in May last. Although I think it of the ut-
most importance that at our meetings questions affecting the
interests of agriculturists should be discussed in a straightfor-
ward, independent manner, I consider it equally prejudicial to
our interests wlien we persist in the reproductiou of a subject
— more particularly when it was the very last question discussed
by this Club — hinting at a tendency to overreach on tlie part
of our landlords, and at the inaptitude of tenants when adjust-
ing their leases or contracts. Such insinuations, in so far as
the majority of landlords and tenants are concerned, appear to
me to be the phantoms of fertile imaginations. The subject
for discussion points especially to buildings, draining, and en-
closing. These I shall deal with separately and in order.
The question of buildings was so fully and fairly discussed at
our May meeting, that I will not trespass on your time respect-
ing the arguments then brought forward, but hold that point
as settled by the deliverance of the Club thereanent. Then as
to draiuing. The argument that, during the currency of a
lease, circumstances may crop up vvliich, fcr the proper de-
velopment of the resources of a farm, would render a ciiange
on the agreed-on system of management necessary, which
could not be forseen when the lease was being negotiated,
cannot be broi^'it to bear on this case, as the merest tyro in
agricultural matters can surely estimate when looking over a
farm, with a view to rent the same, what portion thereof is
dry land, and what is wet, and requiring drainage. This,
therefore, I hold, can be made without difficulty or doubt a
matter of contract under the lease. In regard to fencing, it
also can without difliculty be forseen and agreed on l)y tiie
contracting parties. But, presuming that a tenant, during the
currency of a lease, irrespective of the landlord, should fence a
farm at his own expense, in many c^ses it would be unfair to
compel a landlord to pay for such fences at the termination of
a lease. Tt may happen that the latter, when reletting, would
find it for his own interest to straighten marches with or add
the farm to an adjoining one. Tiie fields fenced off for the
smaller holding would be totally unsuited for the proper culti-
vation of the larger, and the proprietor would be thus forced
to pay for what was of little value to him. Now tliat wire
fencing is so largely used, a tenant, if not compensated, can
remove and sell it. The question is therefore reduced to very
narrow limits, viz., the compensation to be given by proprie-
tors for unexhausted improvements in agricultural subjects.
This is such a vague and indefinite subject that T may safely
predict that whoever endeavours to frame a legislative mea-
sure which will provide satisfactorily for all the claims that
can be raised by an out-going tenant, and that in the face of
a written lease, \\\\\ be himself exhausted most tiioroughly
before the matter is brought to a successful issue. In cases
where leases are not granted, I admit that an improving and
generous tenant should be protected against summary eviction,
and compensated for unexhausted improvements ; but where
leases exist, I hold that any attempt at legislation which
would override existing contracts would render confusion
worse confounded. As middleman, occasionally acting between
outgoing tenants and the landlord or incoming tenants, I have
found it the most difficult and disagreeable part of my business
to adjust equitably claims which were not provided for in the
lease, and to keep clear of litigation. Indeed, the negotiating
parties' interests are so diametrically opposite that, if legisla-
tion wliere attempted where a lease existed, in the m;ijority of
cases the outgoing tenant would find himself the possessor of
one shell, the landlord or incoming tenant of the other shell,
and our friends the lawyers the possessors of the oyster. In
theory it is often argued that, in the absence of compensation
for unexhausted manures, the outgoing tenant of a farm has
iuducemeuts to exhaust his land, and the community suffer
along with him from diminution of produce ; but in practice,
the result should lead to a very difi"erent conclusion, for the
most profitable course an outgoiug tenant can follow is to en-
deavour to raise the heaviest way-going crop possible, and thus
reap increased proceeds, not only from extra quantity and qual-
ity, but from tlie increased rate which his neighbours — willing
to assist him — would be induced to give for a full crop of
straw or grain, as compared with a meagre one. At the same
time, the outgoing tenant can now-a-days attain this end by
tlie use of manufactured fertilizers, which will riise the crop,
but will leave little in the land to benefit the next crop.
Viewing, therefore, the negotiation for the lease of a farm as a
purely commercial transaction, I cannot see how legislation
can be brought to bear to overrule written contracts ; and I
see little necessity for such in so far as this county is con-
cerned, of which my knowledge and experience are pretty ex-
tensive. I feel satisfied that, if tenants, when adjusting their
leases, would state in a straightforward and fair manner their
requirements, stipulating for the deletion of objectionable
clauses, they will be and have been readily met by their land-
lords ; and thus little doubt need arise at the issue of a lease
on such subjects as are embraced in the question for discussion
to-night.
Major CuLBAKD : This subject was partly taken up at last
meeting, when we had under consideration Mr. Eordyce's Bill
anent Labourers' Cottages, That having been a political
question, I took the liberty of expressing an opinion upon it.
As the subject is brought before us to-night, it is more of au
agricultural question, and I have not that experience which
would enable me to give an opinion. But I think that any
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
39
iKgislatioii which interferes with contracts must lie erroneous
At the same time, we have heard many farmers complain ; but
ihcy liad no right to erect any buildings which tlicy could not
j:-! comi)ensation for.
Mr. Hunter (Dipple) : I tjuitc agree with the Cliairmau's
remarks on tlie question.
Mr. Macbey, land surveyor : I shall be very glad to give
you my experience as a tenant farmer during the last nineteen
years. When I entered Woodside nineteen years ago, the
steading of houses on the farm were in a rather dilapidated
state, and it was arranged that, within a very short time after
I entered, the proprietor was to put them in a proper state of
repair. When they came to be dealt with, however, the factor,
then Mr. Walker, considered the houses so far gone that it
would be far more profitable, both for landlord and tenant, to
put up an entirely new steading. It was agreed that this
should be done, I paying 5 per cent, interest on the amount
expended, and doing all the carriages gratis. During the lease,
entirely at my own expense, I fenced the whole farm with wire
thorough drained about one-fourth of the farm, and trenched
some land then under wood. My lease has now expired, and
the proprietor, wishing to have a resident tenant, I did not get
a renewal of lease. In that case, I applied to the proprietor,
through the factor, Mr. Lawson, for some compensation for
tlic improvements I had done upon the farm, having expended
between five and six years' rent upon these permanent im-
provements. The matter having been considered, it was inti-
mated to me that all I requested was to be granted — namely,
the wire fences should be taken off ray hands at valuation, and
that 1 should get payment to the extent of one-half of ray out-
lays in draining and trenching, but the whole amount for these
not to exceed a year's rent. I consider that I was in tint way
liberally dealt \Titli, seeing that I was not entitled to any com-
pensation for the permanent improvements, except at the pro-
prietor's pleasure. I think if tenants would have the same
confidence in the proprietors as I had, and go on with their
improvements in a proper way, they would be treated as well
as I have been. My own opinion is, however, that it is not a
good thing to tie up a tenant's capital in these permanent im-
provements during nineteen years, when it can be spent more
profitably on the farm otherwise, and seeing tliat proprietors
can get money eitiier upon entailed or unentailed properties to
advance to the tenants with which fo carry out improvements.
I happen to act as one of Her Majesty's Inspectors under the
Drainage Act, the Improvement of Land Act, and also as one
of the Inspectors of the Lauds Improvement Company, the
Scottish Drainage Company, and the Landa Loan Enfranchise-
ment Company. These all advance money to projirietors at
6j per cent, on loan for 25 years : that is the proprietor pays
4 per cent, of interest, and 2| per cent, to wipe olf the loan
during that period. At present I have inspections in Aber-
deen, Eanfl', Mora}', Nairn, Inverness, Argyll, lloss, and
Caithness-shires, and I think in connection with liiese I have
acquired a pretty good idea of how tlie matter of permanent
improvements can be dealt with as between landlord and ten-
ant. These Companies advance money for building, trench-
ing, draining, enclosing, road-making, and in fact for all sorts
of permanent improvements. In some cases the tenants pay
4, 5, 6, or 7 per cent., but as a general rule I lind that
5 per cent, is a sura most willingly paid by tenants, who
also undertake to do the necessary cartages free, which
may be stated to bo generally worth from one to two
per cent, on the amount expended. It is far better, I
consider, to carry on improvements in that v/ay, when they
are are not specially stipulated for in the leases, than to tie up
the tenant's capital, even though he would be entitled to
remuneration at the end of the lease. While it is a good
enough bargain for the tenant, it is also profitable enough
for the proprietor, seeing he gets the money he lends at 4 per
cent.
The Chairman : You would make it a matter of contract ?
Mr. Macbey : Yes ; you can make it a matter of contract
when the necessity for tlie improvements is seen on entering
upon a lease ; but they are often found to be necessary during
the currency of a lease, such, for instance, as in the case of a
tenant starting with half worn houses, which during the lease
fall into decay and require to be renewed. The tenant then
must cither expend his money in patchfng up tlie houses or
have them rebuilt, and it is tiettcr in all interests that the pro-
prietor, if he has not the capital to expend, should get it ad-
vanced, and that the tenant should pay a reasonable interest.
Where, however, the tenant does spend money, he should be
repaid for what he leaves at tlie end of the lease, that is to say
if the improvements ujion which the money has been expended
have been sanctioned by the proprietor. I certainly would
not have tenants to spend money simply to suit themselves, and
then make a claim, but if the proprietor agrees that the im-
provements are desirable, then there should be compensation
given to the extent of from one to five years' rents, according
to the circumstances.
Mr. Brown (Westertown) : I quite agree with the remarks
made by Mr. Walker, on the subject. Compensation entirely
depends upon the matter of contract.
JMr. Geddes (Oiblibton) said he was rather at a loss to
understand the question, being, like others to whom he had
spoken, of opinion that their leases afforded the best security
for the return of money laid out on the land. There ought to
be a good feeling ana understanding between landlord and
tenant before the expiry of a lease, but, in any circumstances,
he thought any tenant would be a fool and unfit for his busi-
ness who could nor protect himself by preparing for the end
of his lease, lie tliought their leases were their guide, and by
their leases they should march, more particularly in that county
where they found a class of men as their landlords, who were
ever ready to meet them with very good feeling, and who weie
ever inclined to give full advantage to the tenant. He was of
opinion that, in eases of insolvency, leases should be available
to the creditors to get what benefit they could under them ;
and that in the case of the decease of a tenant, his family
should be entitled to compensation for any unexhausted im-
provements which may have been made. They were aware
that had not been the presumption hitherto. So far as re-
gards the claims of creditors, he had liad little to do with them ;
but, so far as regards families of deceased tenants, he had
known a great many cases where they had been treated with
the utmost liberality by the landlords.
Mr. Harrls (Earnhill) said some of the remarks that had
been made hinted a great deal at legislation, but in the ques-
tion before them there was no mention of legislation. They
might as well say they were to legislate upon the growing of
turnips, because they discussed the question of how best to
grow turnips. He looked upon the question as a means of
eliciting opinion as to the best terms for a contract between a
landlord and tenant. He never could believe that they would
legislate about paying people for unexhausted manures. He
pointed to England, where leases were not the rule, and where
Tenant-Right was almost universal. There custom had made
it law, and it was quite understood ; and he did not see why
that should not be the ease in Scotland. He thought it very
unjust, at the termination of a lease, that a man should go out
of a farm and leave any considerable portion of unexhausted
improvements in it. He thoughtjit still worse that a man's
creditors should lose the money tlicy had put into the farm ;
and equally unjust that the children of a deceased tenant
should not get his means out of the farm. But as to legislat-
ing upon the subject, he did not understand that there was any
necessity for that.
Mr. MuNRO (Covesea) thought that question was not at all
suitable for discussion. Every man had lo make his bed, and
he could just lie upon it.
Mr. Bruce (Newton of Struthers) quite agreed with the
chairman that a lease — and they all sat under leases as farmers
in that county — was sufficient as a guarantee or obligation
during a nineteen years' tenancy. To speak of unexhausted
improvements in these circumstances was to speak of a myth.
A man had to make a contract on entering a farm. If tliore
was to be a contract, it must be stuck to ; for if it was departed
from, it was no longer a contract. During the currency of the
contract certain exigencies might arise. A tenant might come
to think he shouhl have a certain amount or description of
accommodation for his stock, or upon his farm, and might
build according to his ideas. But at the end of his lease a
great many people might not see that he ever needed the ac-
commodation he had provided. Where was the coiupensation
in such a case to begin and end? How could they make any
arrangement at all in sucli a case P If they were to go in for
becoming tenants at will, then it might be right and proper to
make some provision to meet cirumstances which would inevit-
ably arise ; but so long as they had leases, and made conditions
for nineteen years' occupancy, it was improper to speak of
sucli a thing as compensation for unexhausted improvements.
Mr. llu.\X0N (Inchbroom) said the question had not altoge-
40
THE FAHMEK'S MAGAZINE.
ther been properly looked at. Without any reference to legis-
lation, he thouglit tlie opinion of the members of the Club
were asked as to improvements wliich might be necessary to
liave ill leases. He quite agreed with some of the speakers.
Mr. Macbey had painted a very fair picture, a picture which
spoke very well for the landlords of that county. But there
was sometimes an opposite view. He had known cases
were tenants had spent large sums of money, and had gone
away without receiving one penny in return. He thought the
present presumption was wrong, and that if changes came
about that were required, farmers generally could keep larger
stocks of cattle. It was ratlier an extraordinary thing that a
tenant should be obliged, for his own convenience, and for the
good of the farm, to build accommodation for his stock, and in
the event of there being no arrangement, he should get no
compensation at the end of the lease. He thought the pre-
sumption should be that the subject belonged to the tenant.
Farming was rather ditferent now from what it; was some years
ago. It was quite understood that a tenant had a very much
larger capital to expend than formerly. Before a person could
stock and manage a farm efficiently and well, the capital re-
quired was double what it would have been some years ago ;
and he thought the tenant had some right to be heard on these
subjects. He was sure the proprietors of that county would
be very willing to hear their opinions ; and he was only sorry
that the question had been misapprehended.
Mr. YooL (Coulard Bank) : The subject set down for dis-
cussion is one which has been much under notice at the va-
rious iarmers' clubs throughout the country, and in my humble
opinion is one, the proper solution of which is of no little im-
portance to the future of agriculture. The Land Tenancy
Laws, more especially those by which all improrements made
by the occupier of laud become the property of the landlord at
the termination of the lease, are in my views injurious to good
husbandry, as well as very much against the interest of both
landlords and tenants and the welfare of the public. Every-
thing that tends to stop the flow of capital into farming pur-
suits, and to check the enterprise of tenants, necessarily mili-
tates against the general prosperity. That the present state
of the law with reference to unexhausted improvements has
that effect requires, I think, very little demonstration. Before
a man really embarks his capital, he must have some certainty
that what he sows that shall he also reap. Capital is a coy,
shy maiden, and only to be moved through the medium of
good security. How stands the case with a t(nant-farmer
who embarks his capital in improving another man's land by
building, improving, &c. ? Has he any certainty that he will
get his capital back at the end of the lease? The very reverse.
Under the present law, the whole of the improvements he has
made become the property of the landlord, and that without
compensation. This, on the face of it, is unfair. The legal
presumption should be that the buildings and other permanent
improvements should belong to the man whose capital has
created them, and at the end of his occupation he should be
entitled to fair value for all improvements created by his
capital, which is calculated to add to the value of the subject
he is about to quit. At the very least, as regards buildings
and fences, he should be entitled to remove them in the event
of the proprietor or incoming tenant being unwilling to take
them at valuation. That is one side of the question. On the
other side I would say that if the tenant is to have a legal
claim for unexhausted improvements, the landlord should also
have a claim against the tenant where deterioration has taken
place through his neglect or bad management. Compensation
lor unexhausted manures is another branch of the subject
which is daily becoming of more importance, and at this we need
not be surprised, when we take into consideration the enor-
mous increase in the use of artificial manures and feeding
stuffs which have taken place of late years. The amount spent
on manures and feeding stuffs exceeds in many cases the an-
nual rent of the land, and to maintain production they cannot
be dispensed with. It they are dispensed witli, it is only at
the expense of the food supply, and a diminution in that sup-
ply cannot, I think, be contemplated with satisfaction by any
one, considering the fact that, of our teeming millions, nearly one-
half are supported on foreign corn, and that yearly the num-
bers so supported are rapidly increasing. Under the present
arrangement the tenant, when he approaches the termination
of his lease, attempts to save himself to a certain extent, by
withholding the supplies of manures and feeding stuffs, and
endeavours to extract as much as he can of the capital which
he had previously put into the soil. This is a raiseraLle,
wasteful system, opposed to the interest of the tenant in the
event of a renewal, injurious also to the interests of the land-
lord, and by causing a diminished production of food for seve-
ral years before, and for several years after the termination of
the lease, injurious to the public welfare. All this can be ob-
viated by giving outgoing tenants compensation for unex-
hausted manures. They would thus be encouraged to keep
up the fertility of their farms to the last, much to the benefit
of all concerned. Who, let me ask, would be tlie loser?
Would the landlord lose by having the productiveness of his
land increased ? If its productiveness is increased, the tenant
will be able and willing to pay more rent. The increase of
produce will benefit the country at large. And when were the
tenants and the country prosperous that landlords did not amply
share in that prosperity ? The great question of the future
seems to me to be the providing of food for our rapidly in-
creasing population. That the soil of this country does not
produce anything like the amount of food that it is capable of
doing must be patent to all who know anything of the subject.
It must also be patent to everyone that the more we have to
depend on foreign countries for our food supply, the greater
the danger of this country in the event of any national disaster.
Therefore, I think it behoves everybody concerned to do what
in them lies to remove the impediments which stand in the way
of an increased supply of home-grown food. It seems to me
that the more effectual way to do so is to endeavour to attract
capital, to^the cultivation of the soil, by offering it security
through a reasonable measure of compensation for unex-
hausted improvements. Some may say that it would be diHi-
cult to estimate the value of these improvements. There
never was anv change proposed to which difficulties could not
be started, but it they are fairly faced I have no doubt they
will be overcome, as they have been overcome in many other
cases. Where work has to be done, you may depend upon it
you will find men capable of doing it, and I see no more diffi-
culty in estimating the value of unexhausted improvements
than in estimating the other matters between outgoing and in-
coming tenants, which are at present generally settled by ar-
bitration. If there is the will to do it, I have no fear but that
the way will be found.
Mr. Mackessack (Ardgye) said that what was for the good
of the tenant was lor the good of the proprietor. There was
a very great difference between taking a lease now and nine-
teen years ago, because he must be able to keep a much larger
stock of cattle, an i consequently must have good houses and
fences. It was a very hard thing for a tenant to provide these
necessary works, and at the end of the lease not to reap a penny
for them. He said it was for the benefit of the proprietor as
well as of the tenant that the latter should be paid for such
improvements. As to unexhausted manures, that was a very
difficult question. One man might put in ammonia and soda,
and another man bones and dissolved bones, and how could
they distinguish so as to compensate the person who put in
the right and durable stuff.
The Hon. T. C. Bruce said : I must excuse myself for not
having answered when my name was first called upon, but the
fact was that I had come to this meeting with the
view of being instructed, not with the ^view of in-
structing others, and I was much more anxious to hear what
you, gentlemen, had to say on this subject than to trouble you
with any observations I had to make myself. I may also say
that you are perfectly aware that my presence in this assembly
is not owing to any persoual interest 1 have in the agricul-
ture of Morayshire, but to the fact that I represent a noble
lord who is one of the largest proprietors in this county. 1
wish myself specially to say that any remarks I may make,
however valueless they are, are entirely my own, and do not in
the least degree involve the responsibility of any other gentle-
man with whom I may happen to be connected. The question
which has bean raised to-night has been raised in a form that
appears to me rather objectionable. It enters on a branch of
a very large question, and confines it to only one feature of it,
so that we are not able in the form in which the discussion is
raised perhaps to go so fully into it as we might have done in
other circumstances. The question as to the right of the
tenant to improvements and to unexhausted manures is one
which touches the whole question of the relations between
landlord and tenant, which is very much larger than that which
is put down in this paper, and it is a little difficult to treat
the one without at all encroaching on the other. Now, my
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
41
own feeling — I speak merely my own personal opinion, and
of what I liave heard from those gentlemen who liave spoken
here — my own feeling is that the olijcclious to these condi-
tions, the compensation for perniaueut improvements, and the
compensation for things which tiie tenants iiave to do on their
farms — the really strong objection is tiuit I do not think these
are things that the tenant ought to do at all. 1 think tliat,
as between landlord and tenant, permanent improvement, and
those things whicii are to increase permanently the value of
the estate, ought properly to be done by the landlord and not
by tlie tenant. I tliink that legislation tending to give the
tenants rights of compensation, or to encourage the practice
of their laying out their capital upon permanent improvements
of that description, is in itself objectionable, because 1 tiiink
it is against the tlieory of the principle of the position in
which tenants ought to stand towards the owners of land.
The fact is, if 1 may use a simile whicli is perhaps more
familiar to me than it may be to some others here, I tliink tiie
landlord and the tenant stand in the same relation which in
our railway language we would call the capital account to
revenue. That is to say, those works which are adding per-
manently to the value of the estate ought to be carried out by
the person who has the permanent ultimate ownership of tlie
estate ; and that the tenant's capital is the trading capital, is
the capital whicli ought to be turned over every year, or nc;irly
every year, and ought to be available for the stocking of the
farm, for tiie working of it, and that these are the leading
purposes for which he is to use it. I think, therefore, that
so far from it being desirable to encourage tlie tenants in
laying out money on permanent improvements, I think their
laying out money in that way is a mistake and loss to them,
and ought not To be done ; and tiiat those improvements
which are necessary should come from the landlords, and not
from them. Of course, all these general principles are subject
to modification in individual contracts, in dealing with indi-
vidual cases. It is impossible to lay down general rules whicli
will be applicable to all cases ; but 1 think the tendency of
these claims, or whatever you choose to call them — these
arguments in favour of the tenants having a right or power
to lay out money are in themselves a mistake, because it is
encouraging tenants to do that which should not be done by
them at all, but done by the landlords. Then, with reference
to the question of unexliausfced manures, really I am not com-
petent to give an opinion, and I must leave it to the resolu-
tion of this meeting, in which we have one or two agricultu-
rists of experience who say that you cannot estimate unex-
hausted manures, and we have one or two others who say that
you can. I am not at all in a position to say which is right,
or which is wrong. I think in any case the tenants who are
obliged to give up their leases during their currency — I think
it is only fair to them, and so far as my own experience goes,
it is the practice in this part of the country — that when a man
gives up a lease for any reason which is not his own cause, he
should assign the lease, or get such compensation as will recoup
him for what money he has spent, and of which he has not got
the advantage. That I think is but fair. A.S to the question
of the tenants getting compensation at the end of the lease,
that appears to me to be as much a matter for the tenant as for
the landlord, because we all know that the tenant who has a
nineteen years' lease can recoup himself for his manures at
the end of the lease; and if he knows his business, he will take
care not to spend money which he cannot get payment for.
But it is a question if, in the event of farms falling out of
lease, having to be renewed, the tenant who is leaving should
be placed in such a position as to make it his interest to run his
farm out, and make it of less value. The form of this discus-
sion does not tend to any legislative interference in the rela-
tions of landlords and tenants, and I am glad to hear from
those gentlemen of knowledge and experience on the subject
that sucli interference would be nndesirhljle- 1 think tiie
proper management of the laud, both on the ])art of tiie
tenants and on the part of the proprietors, is a thing that is
constantly changing. We all think we can manage land very
well now, but 1 have no doubt that in a few years we siiall
think we could not manage at all now, and wonder how wc
got on at all. Therefore, I do not tiiink we should tie our-
selves down to rigid rules of any kind, but it is very desirable
that we should understand each other ; that I, as representing
one of the proprietors, and you, representing the tenants, should
understand each other, and say what we wish, and see what
we can do for our mutual advantage. It is your advantage
that the land should be brought to the highest slate of cultiva-
tion. So is it ours. Our object should be the same, cvcu
alllu)u;;li wedilfer now and again as to the way in which we
are to carry it out. I tliink it extremely satisfactory that we
should now and again have discussions, and that we should
bear each other's o)iinions as to what we can do, and what
would be for the uomraou good. I think the tendency of the
age is to show tiiat in order that the land of this country shall
be brought into a proper state of cultivation, there would re-
quire to be a considerably larger capital laid out upon it. I
think that the capital in all cases of perniaueut improvement,
should come rather from the landlord than from the tenant,
and i( from circumstances the landlords are not able or not
willing to do the part which i.s assigned to them, they should
make arrangements with their tenants which would be satis-
factory to both parties in carrying out the cultivation of their
farms to the highest possible pitcli. That is the way, I think,
in which the question stands, audi think the discussion of
this question, and the ventilation of it in meetings and by the
press, and by otiier means, is very benelicial in bringing both
parties to an understanding of what is desired, and what it is
necessary for them to do. I do not tiiink our position will be
in the least improved by any legislation, but I think it will
be very much improved by an understanding betweea ourselves
as to what both of us wish to do. If tliat niulerstanding is
come to we can carry it out
The Chairman very mncli feared he would fail at ar-
riving at a proper finding as to the result of their discussion,
but he would submit what seemed to him to be tlie
general opinion of the meeting, utiniely, that the question
ought to torni a matter of contract, but where by unforsern
circumstances the lease may lapse, the representatives or
creditors ouglit to be put in possession to recoup themselves
foi' the outlays of the tenant.
Mr. Harris (Earnhill) begged to move an addition to the
effect that it would be beneficial to the agriculture of tlie
country if these coiitracts ensured remuueratiou to the tenant
for permanent or uuexliausted improvements upon the expiry
of his lease.
Mr. Walker said he did not think that was the general
opinion.
The Secretary then read the following, which was accepted
as the finding of the meeting — " That any legislation in this
matter would be nnadvisable ; that tlie question ought to be
matter of agreement between landlord and tenant ; that in any
contract or lease provision should be made to ensure the tenants
payment for unexhausted iinprovenipnts."
WASTE LANDS IN IRELAND.-Tlie Saumhri, Fm -
man Belfast Newslelter, and other Irish temporaries, liberal
and conservative, advocate the improvement of the wiste lands
of Ireland by the Government purchasing, diaining, road-
makiug, and then selling or leasing in lots. They say that
out of four and a half millions of acres of waste lands — bogs^
moors, swamps, and heather, at least two millions would be
improveable, and that the average annual value of these would
be one shilling per acre, or if purchased by the State the cost
would be about thirty shillings. The reasons they giTc for
State interference and purchase are that the estates are very
large ; that since ISI'5 Government have offered loans, repay-
able in twenty-two years, principal and interest, at G^ per
cent., and in thirty-live years at 5 per cent., to induce the pro-
prietors to improve, which they have not done ; that when
Acts of rarliaments enable railways to acquire land when
wanted for the ]iublic interest, so should they with waste lands
wlien the owners are unwilling to do their duty. We still
think many would be willing to sell to the State. Tlie sur-
plus church funds would be suflicient for these and other Irish
reproductive works. If our (Jovernment requires an example,
the Netherlands has set it in the drainage, reclamation, and im-
provement of Haarlem Mecr, which they afterwards sold in es-
tates of 40 up to COO acres.
42
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
T II E
TENANT-RIGHT
BILL.
At a nieetiug of the Gloucestershire Clianiber of Agricul-
ture, at Gloucester, Mr. D. Long, presiJent, in the chair, snid
tliey had deputed Mr. Clement Cadlo to represent the Chauiher
on the Teii.int-llight question, and a report was to have been
sent them to-day from the Central Cliamber as to the result
of their investigation in connection with compensation for
unexhausted improvements, but the Secretary had written to
say that the report had not as yet been drawn up.
Mr. Caule said he attended a meeting of the Central
Chamber in the early part of October, but there v.as a small
attendance, and only a few reports had been sent iu from the
district chambers, to whom u set of questions had been sent
to be filled up, with answers. The explanation was that the
papers had been sent out just btfore harvest, and therefore
there had not been time to fill them up. lie believed, how-
ever, that a large number of reports had since been sent in,
and that the committee of the Central Council would make a
short report on Tuesday, and ask to be allowed to send in
their formal report at a future time. It certainly would have
been ridiculous to have attempted to have drawn up a report
from the forms sent in, for the simple reason that they did
not represent onc-ten(h of the different chambers.
The P^^,ESIDE^■T was rather surprised that the business com-
mittee should have put tlie subject on the agenda for discus-
sion, because he hardly saw how they were to discuss a report
which did not exist. However, every one must admit that
the question of compensation for unexhausted improvements,
or security for tenants' capital, required legislating upon, and
as there was ample room for discussion he proposed that they
proceed.
Mr. J. E. YoracE, M.P. : It certainly is to be deplored
that we should be called upon to discuss a report which lias
not yet been issued, because the discussion will have to be
conducted without being directed to any specific poiut ; and
no doubt the question as to what are tlie customs of the
different counties is a very impoitaiit item in the «hole
matter, and v.ithcut having the rejiort we are not in a posi-
tion to do iiuch good. I had an opportunity the oilier day,
when many gentlemen here were present, of stating some of
my views on the question of compensation for unexhausted
improvements. It is obviously uufair^and this is the broad
principle upon whicli we are all agreed — that any teuaut wiio
lias invested capital iu his landlord's land should be exposed
— wliether he leave his farm for reasons of hid own, or be-
cause he is turned out by his landlord — to the liability of
losing the value of the improvements he has made, whether
they be temporary, durable, or permanent, according to the
classification of the bill introduced last session. The question
is, How far can we provide by legislation agaiast occasional
liardships of this kind — for occaiioiial only I believe them to
he — without, on the other hand, going too far in the way of
interfering between landlord and tenant in the arrangements
they may choose to make as independent men on both sides ?
No doubt there is a danger in the present day — a danger
which many ot us in the House of Commons have had oc-
casion to observe very frequently — of attempting to do too
much by legis^lation. If we are to be always calling in the
law to interfere between labourers and their masters, between
landlords and tenants, and between man and man, in every
relation of life, we are iu danger of making the position in-
tolerable ; and the only people who will benefit Irom such a
system in the long run will be the lawyers, because we sii.all
be continually int"roducing litigation into all the daily ailiairs
of life, which when conducted between sensible men are very
much better treated without the interference of the law. In the
present day, too, when we hear so much about the difficulties
between labourers and their employers, we ought to be par-
ticularly careful how we introduce principles of this kind,
because it is quite possible if we are to prescribe by law to
landlords and tenants the exact terms on which they are to
conduct the business in which they, and they only, are con-
cerned, hereafter we shall have attempts made to introduce a
similar state of things between the tenant-farmers and the
labourers. And I suppose every one will agree that it would
be very disagreeable if it were proposed to dictate, by legisla-
tion, to the tenant-farmer as to what amov.nt and kind of
labour he should employ on his farm, as to what machines he
should be allowed to introduce, as to what shall be the rota-
tion of liis cropping, or what shall be the character of the
accommodation he sliall provide for his labourers, desirable as
it is in many counties that that accommodation should be
ample and suificient. All these things are very much better
managed, as far as possible, between man and man, without
bringing in the Legislature at every step to dictate the exact
terms and the particular manner iu which their arrangements
sliall be carried out. I have been very much convinced since
I have been retumed to the ilouss of Commons as a member
for this county that we are in danger of going too far iu thnl
direction, and I observe that that impression is not only very
prevalent on the side of the House on which I sit, hut that
many other members independent of party organisation, such
as Blr. Vernon llarcourt, and otiier men of distinguished
abilities, have made strong remarks iu the same sense. There-
fore, I think we should be careful — nnd I repeat it because I
feel very strongly on the matter — not to push legislation too
far. At the same time there is no doubt that under the
present state of things occasional hardships are suffered ; and
even wliere hardships are not suffered, it is, I think, an un-
sound state of things that gentlemen who have invested their
money in the improvement of the land they hire should ae in-
debted only to the forbearance of their landlords that they are
not unfairly dealt with. It is all very well, of course, to say
that in the great majority of instances men of sense and intel-
ligence and men of liberal minds, such as most of the land-
lords of this country I hope are, would shrink from pushing
their rights to an extreme, but a state of dependence and the
goodwill of others is not a proper business position for the
tenants of this country to be in. It is much better that a
definite principle should be laid down, and that a distinct rule
should be established ; then the relationship between landlord
and tenant would be put on a sound business footing, and
there would be no danger when there is a change of landlord,
v.liether owing to the land descending from father to son or
to a collateral lieir, or from its being put into the market and
sold, of the tenant suddenly finding himself in a very different
position from what lie had hoped to be. ¥or instance, a
man may take a farm under a liberal and intelligent landlord,
but the person who succeeds him may be of a different ciia-
racter, and then the tenant does not know the position in
which he may find himself, so long as the law continues as it
is at present. Therefore I think that in all cases, as has been
laid down by the Central Chamber, where there is no written
lease or agreement, snd where the custom of the country is
not sulhciently defined as to give the tenant such protection
as he is entitled to, tlie law should step in and say, " Th(f
tenant shall have a definite claim for tlie value of the improve-
ments he has made in the land." Then the question arises
with relereuce to Messrs. Howard and Read's Bill — How far
does that carry out the intention of the resolution passed by
the Central Chamber P And how far does it carry out the
intention of the promoters of the bill, who always professed to
have drawn it up with the view of carrying out the resolution
of the Chamber, without overstepping its limit. Well, we
liad not the opportunity iu the House of Commons last session
of hearing that bill discussed on the second reading, and thus
we have lost a w liole year in the consideration of the question.
I had hoped we should have had that opportunity of discuss- •
ing it, and that the bill would then have been referred to a
Select Committee, who would, before the end of the session,
have considered the whole question in that thorough manner
in which committees of the House of Commons are in the
habit of sifting such questions. Unfortunately, however, we
are now hardly more advanced than we were this time last
year. So far as I know the only discussion of importance
which has taken place on the subject, with the exception of
those at the local chambers who have gone into it in some degree,
was that which took place at the Central Chamber last year,
when many excellent speeches were delivered ; and in the end,
although a difference of opinion p^-evailed, a resolution was
adopted with some degree of unanimity. A day or two ago I
was looking over those speeches, and it appeared to me that
it was considered that the custom which now prevailed in
THE FARMER'S MAGAZmE.
Lincolnshire was on the whole thn best to bo aJopted. I do
not, however, pledge myself to that opinion, because until we
have the materials for comparing the dilferent customs in the
dilfereut counties wo are not in a position to (nrin an exact
judifment; but there seems to be a good deal of evidence iu
favour of the Lincolnsliire custom, and everyone who farms
under it appears to be satisfied with its operation. I observe,
too, that it is mentioned in Messrs. Howard and Read's bill
as tlie typical mode, if I may so call it, of adjusting such mat-
ters between landlord and tenant ; and another of the condi-
tions of that bill is that any landlord who let-i a farm under
llie Lincolushire eustom shall be exempted from the operation
of tiie 12tli clause, as shall also the landlord who lets his farm
for twenty years. That clause was a groat bone of contention,
for it is provided that, with the two exceptious I have men-
tioned, everyoie else wlien he lots a farm shall come under the
operation of the bill. That excite! a ijood deal of discussion,
aud it was considered by tlie promoters of the bill that the
12th clause was somewhat harshly worded, and they said they
were ready to re-consider the phraseoloory which they had
adopted. Until we have the draft of the new bill as it is to
be presented next year, I do not know thnt we can go any
further into the matter, because by that time the proniDters
will have collected the opinions of those best qualified to judge
of the subject, and then the bill will appear iu a fresh shape,
with probably some of the cruicial clauses withdrawn or
amended so as to meet the objections urged against them. I
would suggest that as soon as the draft report of the new bill
appears in its amended shape we should have a oiscnssion on
the subject in this Chamber ; but, until that is the case, we
cannot well do more than what I liave attempted to do on the
present occasion — discuss the general bearings of the question,
leaving for discussion the specific remedies to be adopted when
we have before us the suggestions tlie new hill may contain.
I will only reiterate the hope that we shall err, if we are to
err at all, on the side of leaving details to be settled between
the contracting parties rather tliau on the side of prescribing
too minutely the conditions which shall be binding on those
contracting parties, because I think we ought, so far as in us
lies, tn endeavour to keep up the present system, which, in the
arge majority of cases, has worked so well, aud that we
should not introduce into it more alterations than are absolutely
necessary to protect the tenant against what we are all agreed
is the liability to undeserved miscliief.
The CUiViK.MA^^ then drew the attention of the Chamber
to the fact that they had already passed the two following
resolutions on this subject : '• That this Chamber considers it
necessary for the proper security of tenants' capital engaged
in husbandry (as well as for the encouragement of the pro-
•duction of the greatest amount of home-grown food) that
'the outgoing tenant should be entitled by legislative enactment
to compensatiou from the landloid or incoming tenant
for the value of ids unexhausted improvements, such value to
be ascertained by valuation in the usual way." And : " That
the above resolution, and auy legislation that may take place
thereon, shall be subject to previous cousent ol the owner in
the case of buildings, drainage, reclamation, and other im-
provements of a permanent character, and that at the same
time the landlord should be paid by such outgoing tenant for
dilapidation and deteriorations, the amount respectively due to
be determined by valuation."
Sir George Jenkixson, M.P., said : It is always edifying
aud agreeable to me to see a county member going through
his facings before his constituents, especially when I can sit by
as a listener. The subject we are called upon to discuss is
one in which we are ail learners, and from so able a repre-
sentative as you have present we may all learn a great deal.
Speaking generally, I agree with liim that at the presei.t mo-
■ment it is not advantageous that we should go into details,
■because they must depend iu a great measure on auy bill
which may be brought before tlie House of Commons next
session. I cannot conceive that any man of sense or honesty
can doubt the justice of the broad principle that whatever
capital a man puts into the soil of another person he is en-
titled to reap the full benefit of; and that if from any accident,
■ design, or intention on the part of either of the contracting
parties tlie tenant is turned out of his farm, he, or his repre-
sentative, is entitled to the full benefit of any capital he may
have invested in it. But I have always felt very strongly that
it will be quite impossible to pass one measure which will apply
■to the varying conditions of every county, so different are tiic
circumstances and condltiaus which prevail iu each county
throughout this large kingdom. To attempt to make one
measure to meet every case could only end in failure and dis-
content, because that whicli would suit Lincolnshire, Norfolk,
and SulTolk, vast plough counties, would not suit a great
dairy county like Gloucester. The capital required for a farm
of a thousaud acres in Norfolk, Suffolk, or Lincolnshire, would
not be required for the small dairy farms of this county.
Here a man is not called upon to lay out so much capital : he
merely has his grass land on which he keeps his dairy cows,
and when he goes out of iiia farm he takes his dairy cows with
him, and there is an end of the matter. 1 am now putting
an extreme case, and do not mean to say that it is 8o with all
the farms in this county. I merely mention it to show that
one measure cannot be made to apply to every individual case
in each county. I myself have heard of such a case of hard-
ship as this : A man occupied a farui several years, and then
when the owner died it was sold for a great deal more money
than when the tenant took possession. The cousequeuce was
that he had to turn out, and the executors of the late landlord
reaped the benefit of the tenant's improvements. ^ No one can
doubt tliat was wrong, aud that such cases of injustice ought
to be remedied by legislation ; but that might be done, and
still leave the parties freedom of contract. If Messrs. Howard
and Read's bill could be qualified by such words as those in-
troduced into the resolution of the Central Chamber pro-
viding for tlie security of the tenant's capital, no one could
then object to its being made as stringent as possible ; but
when an agreemeut, or the custom of the country, does make
the tenant secure, I think it is of vital importance, in the in-
terests of agriculture as well as for the good of both tenant
and landlord, tliat you should leave the field open to them to
make a fair contract between themselves. We know that such
things occur as landlords not being flush of cash, and that
whe-i that is llie case they let their farms upon what is called
an improving lease. For instance, a landlord will say to a
tenant, " Yon shall have such and such a farm for so many
years, and you shall make such and such outlay upon it," and
at the end of that term the benefit which has accrued to the
tenant is supposed, as in Scotland, to indemnify him for the
outlay. You see if you prevent the possibility of any fair
agreement being made between the two parties for the outlay
of capital by each of tiiera on certain stated and stipulated
terms, you shut the door to a great many improvements which
might otherwise be made, and you weaken the hands of men^
who may have capital and wish to lay it out with the view of
recouping themselves by the long possession of a farm upon
what is called an improving lease. I think practical men will
see the truth aud justice of what I have said. But in making
any alteration in the law, I only hope, as your v/orthy member
has said, that iu so doing we shall not overstep the mark,
and, by stringent legislation, prevent the outfiow of capital in
those cases to which I have alluded. When the measure
which, no doubt, will be presented to Parliament conies to be
debated by the House, the party with which your member and
myself are connected will be quite as anxious as any member
on the opposite side of the House to treat it in the most fair
and liberal spirit ; and I am perfectly sure, from what I heard
last year when we expected the measure was to be discussed,
that no spirit of captiousuess or unfairness will come from
our side of the House ; and I sincerely hope the question may
be treated entirely apart from any party feeling or party spirit,
and that all those interested in agriculture will wish to see a
measure passed which shall bouA fide be for the benefit alike
of the tenant-fanner and the landlord, because you cannot do
anything which would be liberal to the one and unfair to the
other without its rebounding and doing injury instead of good.
What you want is that the tenant should be recouped for the
capital he puts into the laud, and that the landlord should be
recouped if a bad tenant Icivcs his farm iu a bad state, either
from the want of proper cultivation or froui preventihlc
dilapidations. I believe both those points were kept in view
by the bill of last session ; and if you allow any two men to
make agreements for their mutual advantage, giving to each
of them that protection you think they are eutitlol to, such a
measure will be for the good of agriculture ani for the good
of landlord and tenant. I hope to see such a measure passed
next year; aud, if there is notiiing before the meeting, you
cannot do better than confirm the resolutions already passed
by the Chamber.
Mr. Lawrence was of opinion that if they had a new bill
u
THE FARMEE'S MAGAZINE.
without the 13th clause in Messrs. Howard and Read's bill
they had better have none at all.
Mr. Woodward said it seemed strange that in these days
landlords and tenants could not be trusted to make their owu
bargains. There was already in existence a law which made
tlie landlord the first creditor, and tiiat, in his opinion, pro-
duced an unnatural competition for farms, by bringing men
with small capital into the market, aud who had not much to
lose, while, if all went well, they liad everything to gain. He
did not know if it would be better to go back to the natural
state of things and make their own bargains for the future.
That would involve the abolition of the law whicli made tlie
landlord the first creditor, and he was not prepared to say
that that would produce a desirable stats of things ; but it
was quite certain that something must be done to secure to
the tenant the value of his outlay.
Mr. Lawrence read the 12th clause of Messrs. Howard
and Read's bill, as follows : " Any contract made by a tenant
after the passing of tliis Act, by virtue of which he is de-
prived of his right to make any claim which lie would other-
wise be entitled to make uuder this Act, shall, so far as re-
lates to such claim, be void both at law and in equity."
Sir GEOur.E Jenkinsox : I should like to ask Mr. Law-
rence this question — Would lie prevent by law any tenant
taking a farm for twenty years on what is called an improving
rent if the landlord said to him, " My dear friend, I have no
money ; I consider the land is wortli 40s. an acre, but as it is
out of condition, wants drainiug, and other improvements, you
sliall have it at 20s. an acre, instead of £3, its real value.
You may do what you like with it, and recoup yourself?" I
want to know if you would prevent two respectable and sen-
sible men making such a bargain as that ?
Mr. L:VWREXCE pointed out that under Messrs. Howard and
Read's bill the tenant would be bouud to give up his holding
before he had actually received the compensation to wliicli he
was entitled, and might thus be compelled to undergo an ex-
pensive process of law to recover. With regard to the 12th
clause, lie said that without it the bill would be absolutely
useless, because it would be easy for either landlord or tenant
to contract himself out of it, and the great thiug to be secured
was that no one shouhl have power to do that. In reply to
the question put by Sir George Jenkiuson, as to the man with
au improving lease recouping himself, the bill did not require
that that should not be done.
Sii George Jenkinsox: But under the 12th clause a man
could not enter into such a contract.
Mr. Chance submitted that the 16th clause answered Sir
George Jenkinson's question.
Sir George Jenkinson, however, maintained that the
12th clause was absolute, and overrode all the other clauses
of the bill, aud pointed out that it would entitle attorneys
to bring any number of very pretty actions ; indeed, the
lawyers were tlie class of people who would be chiefly bene-
fited by it.
Mr. Lawrence was still of opinion that if tliey liad a bill
which gave landlords or tenants power to contract themselves
out of it they had better be without it. The law sliould be
made quite as severe against bad landlords as against bad
tenants. They all kuew that what was wanted was exactly
what Messrs. Howard and Read's bill prescribed ; and why
should they be afraid to do it ?
Mr. YoRKE : We are afraid of tying our own hands beyond
what is absolutely necessary, and thereby preventing the free
circulation of capital for agricultural purposes.
Mr. Curtis Hayward remarked that where an agreement
was made between two parties who knew one another they
were not likely to quarrel, nor would any great difficulty arise ;
but the evil they had to meet was this : when a tenant hired
a farm of a good landlord he was not very particular about an
agreement because he knew his man, and so a sort of personal
contract was entered into, which, between two honourable
men, were perfectly binding; but when the good landlord
died and the farm was sold, perhaps a person of a very different
character would succeed him. The proposed bill would meet
such cases, but he did not see why the landlord and tenant
should be put in the difficulty of having to move in the exact
groove prescribed for them by the law, and tlius be prevented
maiung such agreements as would be most advantageous to
both. With regard to the presumed hardship of the landlord
having a prior claim for the payment of his rent, that arose
from the lien which all people had over their property, while
being used by other persons. For instance, if a man turned
out his beasts to feed on another man's land, the owner of the
land had a lien on the beasts, and could prevent the person to
whom they belonged taking them away until he had paid the
cost of their keep. The same thing happened if a man sent
a cart to be mended ; if the owner did not pay the tradesman
need not let the cart be taken away ; that was to say, he had
a lienu pon it until the mouey was paid. Every tradesman
had the same remedy as the landowner ; but there should be a
limit to the time over which the landowner had a prior claim
for rent, or injustice might be done to those tradesmen who
had trusted the tenant not knowing that the landlord had a
prior claim for a large sura. Twelve months was quite long
enough, aud he was not sure that six months would not be
liettcr ; but without violating a vital principle of law they
could not reduce the landlord's prior right to claim rent for a
less period than six months.
Mr. S. Priday said that at present the landlord's prior
claim was limited to twelve months' rent.
The PuEsident thought Mr. Hayward had misappre-
hended the purport of Mr. Woodward's remarks. He did not
speak against landlords as creditors, but against the competi-
tion for land. Supposing a man sought to take a farm re-
quiring £2,000, and had only got £1,000, that would increase
the competition for land.
Sir George Jenkinson: Then how would you provide
security for the landlords ?
Mr. Woodward : I should provide that the landlord take
his chance with other creditors, and then the competition for
farms would be so much reduced that we should be able to
make our own bargains.
Mr. Curtis Hayward : I am afraid that if you took away
the landlords' right as first creditors, you would find they would
bind you down very tightly.
Sir George Jenkinson : If Mr. Woodward's proposition
were carried out it would operate most unfairly towards a very
deserving class of men, who, although not able to compete
with very large capitalists, can take small farms and work
them to advantage, both for themselves and the landlord.
Such men would be entirely driven out of the market.
Mr. Woodward said that might be so, but it should be
borne in mind that if large capitalists worked the land better
results were likely to be produced.
Sir George Jenkinson pointed out that according to the
present law a man could take off the whole of his crops at the
end of the harvest half-year, and if he were dishonest he could
go off with the proceeds, leaving the landlord to whistle for
his money ; but the tradesman iu selling his goods had the
option of sayiug " You shall not have them unless you pay."
Ou the other hand, the landowner's tenant was entitled to
have six montlis' occupation and benefit before the landlord
could demand his rent; aud then, just before the time came
for doing so, what he had described might happen. There-
fore the landlord and the tradesman could not be put on the
same footing.
After several resolutions and counter resolutions had been
proposed and withdrawn, it was decided, on the motion of Mr.
YoRKE, seconded by Mr. Lawrence, that the debate be ad-
journed until after the presentation of the report by the com-
mittee of the Central Chamber.
Captain De Winton reiterated liis strong conviction
that the tenant should be compensated for the unexhausted
improvements he had made. The other alternative was no-
thing more nor less than a simple robbery.
Mr. Butt said that Mr. Howard had told him, when talk-
ing about the land producing enough to support the popula-
tion of the country, that he had made inquiries of several
farmers as to the customs in various counties, and one of
them said that the custom in his county was to crop the laud
as hard as they could and leave it as foul as they could.
Sir George Jenkinson : In what county was that?
Mr. Butt : I think it was Buckinghamshire.
Sir George Jenkinson: I should call that a system of
pludering and blundering.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
i5
THE PRESENT CONDITION OE AGRICULTURE.
At an adjourned quarterly meeting of the Notts Chamber of
Agriculture held at Nottingham, the Duke of St. Albans,
President of the Chamber, in the chair, said :
Tlie business before the Chamber to-day is the adjourned
debate on a paper read at Retford some weeks ago by Mr.
llemsley, on the present position and prospects of the tenant-
farmer. I telegraphed on tliat occasion a request that the dis-
cussion might he adjourned, and [ believe that suggestion was
generally agreed upon, in order that this part of the county
sliould liave an opportunity of expressing their opinion on this
important subject. I feel sure, although I had not the plea-
sure of hearing Mr. llenisley's iiaper, hut 1 liave since read a
report of it, that all members of the Chamber will agree with
the vote of thanks passed to him for the interesting and prac-
tical paper he read on that occasion. I feel certain that any
criticisms that may he passed on the statements or suggestions
he made for the improvement of the condition of the tenant-
farmer will not be received as antagonistic on our part to his
paper, but that in so doing Mr. llemsley will feel that we are
carrying out his own view, which is to ventilate the subject.
I have always thought that the farmer, in reviewing his posi-
tion, should remember that though he may not expect those
great profits which may attach to the more risky speculations
belonging to commerce, yet liis occupation is a healthy and
agreeable one, and he must not expect from such a healthy and
agreeable occupation those larger profits which attach to those
who engage in a less healthy and more risky trade. I need not
say that it must be so. It was indicated, I think, that there
must be a fall in rents, but 1 scarcely think that the rents on
ourNottinghamshire larms can fairly he expected to be lowered.
I will take a farm of from i5U acres of light land, at £300 a
year, and will recall to your mind its original state, and sug-
gest to you the outlay it required first to uuilil farm-houses
and buildiugs, which can he scarcely less than £2,000. Tut-
ting that at seven per cent, you have fl-iO a year, and taking
the fencing and roads at two shillings per yard, and taking the
year that the land must have been unproductive, I ask
you fairly to consider whether there is a large margin left after
those considerations for the original surface of tlie land. In
alluding to rent of farms in England, I may mention that al-
though in bad years English farmers may consider that rents
in this country press heavily upon them, yet in Scotland the
rents are much greater. If you will compare Scotch land with
English you will find it rented at least double if not quadruple.
I think Mr. llemsley is also wrong when he lays down the
broad fact that farms are at a discount. I was told the other
day by a friend of mine who has 50,000 acres to let in the
year, that there was a perfect scramble for it when any question
of letting it took place. In passing I may say, however, that
I think English farmers are not behind their Scotch neigh-
bours, and in proof of the statement that England is pre-
eminent in agriculture, I may remind you that the foreigner
comes to us to buy his stock, whether in horses, cattle, or
sheep. Still, I think the farmers of England will do wrong if
they pride themselves on having got to the pinnacle of the
tree. I was referred to the quotation the other day from an
ancient author, which I commend to the attention of those
who think that we have got to the pinnacle of the tree, or that
farming has reached an excess of excellence in these days that
it never came to before. I was most surprised to find, and I
have no doubt most of you will be surprised when I read to
you this quotation, which was brought uuder my notice the
other day, from an old Iloman author. I find that Pliny, in
liis" Natural History," written in the year of the Christian
era, says ; " As touching the manner of cutting down and
reaping corn, there are diverse and sundry devices. In b'rance,
where the fields are large, they use a jade into the tail of a
mighty wheelbarrow or cart, made after the van, and the same
set with knives and trenchant teeth sticking out on both sides
(otherwise stakes or palisades on wheels). Now, is the same
driven forward before the said beast upon two wheels into the
standing ripe corn, contrary to the manner of other carts that
are drawn after them. The said teeth and sharp knives fas-
tened to the side of the wheelbarrow or car catch hold of the
corn ears and cut thcni olf, yet so as they fall presently inlo
the body of the wheelbarrow." I must express my regret,
continued the noble duke, that the farmers of this country
have not a more permanent interest in the persuit in which
they are engaged. I tliink they should search by their indus-
try and iutelligence bow they may advance their interests. I
need not, perhaps, again draw your attention to those breeds
of cattle which, by the intelligence of some agriculturists, have
been so very considerably improved, and lately have made such
enormous prices. I would, however, draw the attention of
farmers to the care which they ought to bestow on all kinds of
seeds, and on improved methods of cultivation. On this point
I will read you an extract Irom Professor Owen, who says :
" Experience aud analogy justify the hope and expectation that
grasses may liave their nutritive qualities increased by methods
of cultivation, and feeding in a degree analogous to the acqui-
sition of the ])otato from the poisoiious So/irn/m tiibcrorum, or
of the yams from the wild ' dioscoraea.' " I shall leave it to
others to point out how improvements in practical farming may
be carried out, I have not suHicient practical knowledge to
touch upon tliat subject. 1 will now express my great pleasure
at the liigh compliment Blr. llemsley paid to tlie agricultural
labourers of this country. I agree tliat it is the interest of the
landlords to attach this class to their occupation by building
them good houses. It is, however, ruinous work building
them, nor do 1 see why a farmer should be expected to house
his men well, whilst no such moral claim is made on the
manufacturer. We have the " friends of the clergy" and the
" sons of the clergy," both rich corporations, but which had
very small beginnings. Now I should be glad to see those
energies which are directed to alienate and emigrate our agri-
cultural labourers form themselves into societies, to enable
them to settle permanently here. I should like to see them
organise "The Friend of the Agiicultural Labourers' Society,"
so as to enable the labourer to benefit himself and better the
future of his children. There is no reason why a moderate
assistance should not enable a thrifty labourer to erect him-
self a cottage on a good building lease, and if landowners,
from a love of exclusiveness, are so blind to their own inte-
rests and so deaf to public opinion, why some means must be
found to force it from them. I think if anything is wanting
to prove that the agricultural population of this country wish
to improve their condition it must be the mission of Mr. Arch
to Canada, and the reception he has met with at the hands of
the distinguished nobleman who represents sovereignty in
that dominion as well as his government. Let the agricul-
tural labourer consider that, whilst trusting Mr. Arch, that
Mr. Arch may have looked at the State which has welcomed
him through the coulcur dc rose glasses the Canadians expect
him to use. It has occurred to me that the labourer may be
unwisely induced to undertake an uncleared piece of land of
200 acres, but let him consider how he is to live the first year,
how he is to buy seed ard implements, aud how he is to exist
generally till that seed and implements have produced their
fruits. I shall now pass through the measures which Mr.
llemsley has suggested as likely to benefit the tenant-farmer.
I understand him to recommend a Minister of Agriculture,
more Government attention, the abolition of the Malt-tax,
and an exercise of the infiuence of Chambers of Agriculture.
I am sorry to say 1 cannot agree with hira on the first point.
I have never heard it said what good a Minister of Agricultsre
will do. Is he to dictate to you the crops you are to grow, or
what manure you are to use in growing them ? It is true
that some continental countries have such a department, but
1 do not think those countries are better or even so well cul-
tivated as our own. I do not suppose that political leaders
would object to this extra patronage. There are occasions
when an extra place is found not so very inconvenient. Eor
ray part, however, I hope these chambers of agriculture will
hesitate before they take up the appointment of a minister of
agriculture. I think it is scarcely necessary to have a direct
re()resentation ol land in the Government. If you look at the
composition of any government, or cabinet, or parliament,
there is every reason to suppose from the inca who compose
them that the landed interests are very well looked after. We
must not disguise from ourselves why successive governments
seem to favour commercial interests. It is that they repre-
sent greater wealth, a larger population, a more perfect com-
46
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
biaatiou, and perhaps a quicker iutelligence to piisli their own
interest. I believe there is anotlicr reason which ouglit not
to bo overlooked, and that is tiie general feeling that land and
not agricultural interests are represented in Parliament. Wh.at
would you think if the commercial interest of this country
were entirely represented iu the Uouse of Commons by
bankers with one exception in Ei'gland, and another iji Scot-
laud ? Do you think Parliament and public opinion would
look at thera as representing that internit ? Ye'i, it is so in
agriculture. There are only two tenant-farmers in the House,
Mr. Read, representing England, vnd Mi. McUombie from
Scotland. I should be very sorry .0 see the landlord interest
not largely represented. 'J'lia' would b(; equally imperfect,
but there is plenty of room foi that, and yet to have more
tenant-farmers as representative?. J am opposed to Mr. Read
iu politic.", and can, therefore, witiiout bringing politics into
([ueslion, point to his case as to the usefulness of what I urge.
I think no one can deny tlic weight he carries on agricultural
subjects, both with the Government and every section of the
House of Commons. Well, if the farmers are thus directly
represented in Parliament, I tiiink they cannot object that
agricultural labourers should be represented in the franchise.
Hat here I will stop, because I fear I shall be treading on
dangerous ground. As to the Malt-tax, I am very strongly
opposed to its repeal. I have heard the opinion expressed by
one of the largest and most successful agriculturists in this
county that it is a sentimal rather than a real grievance. The
answer to the cry for its repeal is that we cannot afford to
lose twenty millions of revenue, and that if you untax beer in
England you must untax whisky in Scotland, while the aboli-
tion of import duties would leave farmers no better off. Now
I am informed that the Malt-tax comes to about twopence a
gallon on beer. How much is that of a glass, and who is
likely to gain by that being taken olf ? I do not think that
the consumer will get his glass cheaper, and I doubt whether
the farmer will get more for bis barley.
Mr. GouBER (Balderton) said his apology for rising at that
early stage of the discussion must be the fact of his having
moved its adjournment on the occasion of its introduction by
Mr. Helrasley, at Retford. Concurring as he did in the views
expressed by that gentleman on the occasion referred to, he
was not about to criticise in au adverse manner his excellent
paper, but rather to offer a few remarks by way of expressing
his own views on that very important subject. They were all
aware that there was a time in the history of their country,
and that at no very remote date, when the treatment of the
soil and the development of its productive powers excited but
little interest amongst the community at large, but since the
discovery and extraordinary development of our vast mineral
resources, together with the gigantic growth of our manu-
factures, the question of producing food for the people had
become one of the great questions of the day. The gold fields
of California and Australia had done much to enrich the
nations, but it was th.eir coal and their iron that had revolu-
tionised tlie world, contributing much to the advancement of
civilisation and the development of science. They had now
interests of such magnitude, mining, manufacturing, mercan-
tile, railway, and others, that their agricultural one, although
the most ancient, and they might say everlasting, had bccoiue
dwarfed in the eyes of the people, and during the conilict that
had been raging of late between labour and capital, some
things bad been said and heavy blows iiad been aimed at the
very b isis of their food-producing system. Men had not liesi-
tatfd to declare, and that even through the public press, that
tlio annihilation of the tenant-farmer would be a boon to the
nation, but it sometimes happened that men, with whose
opinions in general they did not all agree, uttered sentiments
worthy of tlieir highest admiration. It was thus with JMr.
Bright when that motley clique of Republicans sought his
aid and influence. Mr. Rrighl's answer was, " Before you
destroy one system it will be well to know that you have a
better to put in its place." Those words would apply with
force to those gentlemen who hold absurd and ridiculous
notions such as those to wliich lie referred. He remembered,
about twelve months ago, having a conversation with a
German corn-merchant. In replying to his inquiries as to
their system of farming, he said in Germany they were all
small holdings, except a few estaies owned by counts, who
also farmed them; but, said he, the land in Germany does not
produce anythiug like the quantity produced by tlie laud in
England, the laud in England being so much better farmed.
But, notwithstanding the wild theories and absurd crotchets,
of which we have heard so much of late, he (the speaker)
would venture to predict that the day was distant when the
principle and basis' of English farming, that of letting out the
land, would be superseded by a system better adapted to meet
the wants and necessities of the consuming population of this
country. That system combines within itself a considerable
amount of outlay and oversight on the part of the owner,
together with a large amount of capital, skill, energy, in-
dustry, and frugality on the part of the occupier. But tiiere
was one fact of a most singular character, which was to him
a great puzzle ; it was this, that notwithstanding the great
prosperity and increased wealth of the country, land was year
by year being called upon to bear some new burden. Solomon
said there were three things that were ever crying " Give,
give," but he should think Solomon was never a farmer, or he
would have added a fourth, for such was the constant cry of
the land. So numerous had become the takers away that to
give back to the laud what was absolutely necessary to ensure
its productiveness in the shape of labour, manure, &c., after
this increasing number and enlarged character of the demands
made upon it had been duly discharged, was a problem which
that, or any other chamber, would find luo^t difficult of solu-
tion. He quite concurred in the remarks made by Mr.
Hemsley, in his excellent paper, that although deprecating
discussing that question iu a grumbling spirit, and that not-
withstanding the high prices which had prevailed of late, yet
from some cause or other tenant-farmers were not iu a posi-
tion to congratulate themselves at the present time. Farming
had of late been passing through a trying ordeal. The cost
of labour, manure, machinery, coals, Src, had greatly in-
creased, seasons had been most unpropitious, extreme wet or
extreme dry, much disease amongst cattle, &c. Although it
was to be regretted that such was his position at the present
time, regretted not only on his own account, but as a disad-
vantage to the consuming public, inasmuch that his ability to
develope the capabilities of the soil was thereby crippled, yet
he felt bound to say that this state of things had arisen in
part from causes beyond human control. But at the same
time there were causes of a widely different nature, which
affected in no small degree the position of the tenant-farmer.
First, the bearing of the Legislature towards the land had not
been of a character to encourage and facilitate the most per-
fect development of the soil ; both the positive and negative
action of the Legislature had been of such a character as to
discourage and retard such development — charged vi-itli the
maintenance of the highways, the relief of the poor, police
expenses, the administration of justxe, builcTing of gaols,
police stations, workhouses, lunatic asylums, bridges, educa-
tion, and sanitary expenses — all these under the head of local
taxation. Coming to imperial, they had land-tax, income-
tax, house-tax, man, horse, ca.''t, gun, and dog-tax — taxes
local and inqjerial iu every conceivable fashion and shape.
Tiiat not being enough, the Legislature, as the guardians of
the preat interests of the State, must perpetuate a tax of a
prohibitory character upon one of the farmer's most impor-
tant crops, so that he might not manufacture and give to his
household, his labourer, or his cattle, au article of his own
production until he had paid more than one half of its value
in tax. On this question he was sorry to find that his opinion
and that of the noble Duke were not in harmony ; but as the
farmer was both a producer and a large consumer of malt, or
beer, he thought that were that obnoxious tax repealed it would
be a great boon to the farmer. He had now a word or two to say
upon the negative action of the Legislature, and here again
he was sory to find that, upon one point, his opinions vvere at
variance with those of the noble Duke. They bad in this
country no Minister of Agriculture, whose special preroga-
tive it was to watch over so important an interest. Had they
had such a minister, would the cattle plague have been per-
mitted to sweep the country, as in 1866, of so many thousand
head of cattle ? What had the supineness and inaction of
the Government on that occasion cost the people of this
country the last few years in dear meat, butter, and cheese ?
Was it not also remarkable, that whilst agriculture v.-as left
out in the cold, large sums v.ere given for the encouragement
of horse-raeiiig, for the support of museums, picture galleries,
parks, ornamental waters, and exploring expeditions from the
wilds of Africa to the ice-bound regions of the north? But
not a solitary thousand was olfered to induce men of scientific
research to solve the grand problem of rescuing from waste
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
47
and miscliief iiiilliuiis of tons of highly fertilising miilter
that was anaufilly fiUiug up and polhitiug our rivers aud
streams. Was it not possible for that vast mine of wealth
wliish, up to the present time was doing positive mischief, to
be utilised and turned to the highest and besfaccount, that of
euriching their lands aud increasing the food supply of the
country ? Much more might be said upon that point of the
subject, but he must pass on to notice the position of the
tenaot-farmer with regard to his landlord, and upon this point
he was bound to say that although rents had riseu consider-
abl y during the last fifteen or twenty years, the majority of
landlords had not taken undue advantage of that severe com-
petition for hrad which had been the natural result of an in-
creasing agricultural population upon a very limited area ; and
from the fact of laud being so poor an investment, not on the
average paying more than about 3 percent., and with so large
a population upon so limited an area, there was little to expect
in the shape of reduced rents. Upon that point he thought
they would concur in the remarks made by Mr. Hemsley, at
Retford, but there were ways in wliich the landlord miglit
assist aud benefit his tenant ; first by giving greater security
of tenure, with a guarantee that he should be compensated
for unexhausted improvements. Second, by supplying him
with a proper amount of cottage accommodation, and \ritli
suitable farm buildings. Third, by relaxing some of those old
restrictions as to the rotation of crops, chemical science hav-
ing done much to render sucli relaxations both necessary and
advantageous. Fourth, by the removal of all old and useless
fences, trees, and banks upon arable land, the relics of crude
aud bygone notions. Much as they heard about waste and
destruction by game, it was nothing tj tlie loss occasioned by
these old cumber ground fences. A short time ago he saw in
the papers a letter by Mr. Mechi, in whicli he said he had
had some conversation with a Devonshire land improver, who
told him he had been throwing six fields into one ; in reply
to the question as to the size of the field when thus enlarged
he said it was six acres. And, said Mr. Mechi, the gent was
quite offended because he laughed, saying there was a small
parish near him which had 170 miles of hedges. There is no
labour so unreraunerative as the keeping in decent repair
those old and useless fences. They had lately been favoured
through the press with some remarkable and ridiculous letters,
recommending the grassing flown of arable lands. It was
possible those spasmodic recojumendatious might inllnence a
certain class of landowners of a non-practical cliaracter, but
all men of practical experience knew full well tliat all weak
and ordinary land that was not too tenacious in its working,
would produce mucli mure food by corn, seed, and root crops,
than it ever would in its natural state. They tlierefore could
not fall in with those recommendations. Having touched
upon the position of the State and of the owner, in relation
to the land, he could not leave the subject without saying a
lew words upon the labour question. Aud here he would have
it understood tliat he was not an advocate for a low rate of
wages as being advantageous to the fanner, but he believed
tiiat during the recent agitatation they in this district iiad
been called to account for the sins of other districts, where
the rate of wages had for a long time been ranch too low.
The recent agitation had done little in their district to advance
wages, but it had done much to estrange aud dissipate tlie
mind of tiic labourer. Upon the farmer, the landlord, the
parson, the Legislature, and even the Sovereign, these reck-
less agitators had heaped mountains of abuse, whilst they and
the favoured publican fattened on the spoil. It would ulti-
mately be found that those men had done incalculable mischief
to the labouring class by teaching them to annoy and make
themselves obnoxious to their employers. The fruit of such
conduct was already appi^ariiig. Having an eye to tlie future,
the farmer had gone in for a largo amount of machinery, so
as to economise labour. Tliat had entailed upon him aJieavy
cost for the present, which he would ccrt:iinly take back, in
the shape of a reduced labour account. There was also an-
other feature of the case bearing in tlie same direction. Many
men of large capital and independent means had ceased tho
occupation in conse([Ucnce of these i)erpetual annoyances.
Their places would be filled by men of siiuiUcr means and
with less ability to employ libour and produce food for the
million ; but he hoped aud thuu-ht Ihere were signs of a better
state of things. The labouring class were many of tlnwii
waking up to the delusion; but, l.ikcn us a whole, the in-
creased cost of labour through higlicr wages aud less amount
of work performed, forcing the farmer as a protection for the
future to expend considerable sums in additional macliiHcry,
had forced upon him a crisis which it was desirable should
not often be repeated. They were threatened with a whole-
sale system of emigration. He was not opposed to emigra-
tion ; it was a natural, a necessary, and a healthy outlet to
every densely populated country. It was a natural safety-
valve — a channel through which that elTervescing element
whicli ever and *anon disturbs the surface of society might
pass qtff. Mr. Arch, with all his enthusiasm, had not been
favourably impressed with the appearance of those long-
faced, long-houred Canadian farmers in their miserable shan-
ties. They ajipear by his description to be men of the old
league type — wliat their agitating friends in this country would
call blood-suckers, They were told by some that they were
their best men who emigrated. That was not his opinion.
Many were led away with the idea of finding a country where
they would not have to work, ilian which there could be no
greater mistake. Looking, then, bot'i at the present and the
future, the necessity for the tenant-farmer to rely upon his own
exertions was as great as ever, and he would do well to prac-
tice, in this age of extravagance, that frugality, industry, aud
steady perseverance for which he had long been proverbial.
True, modern science had strewn many advantages in his path.
The steam thrasliing, and corn and grass cutting machines had
been a great boon ; the steam cultivator bids fair to do good
service, but was yet too costly for the small holder either to
purchase or hire, in the latter case amounting to a second
rent. Landlords would do good service to their tenants by
purchasing and letting them out at a more moderate rate.
But the great need of the tenant-farmer was more capital
and, amongst other things, a better knowledge of chemical
science, so as to temper the soil according to the particular
requirements of the crop ; and further, a speedy relief from
those unjust burdens which press so injuriously upon his occu-
pation.
Mr. Geo. Storer said when the subject was first put down
for discussion it seemed to a great many as though it would
be concerning all things, and a few more besides. They must
all be aware, however, that Mr. Hemsley had treated the
subject in the best possible manner. He had opened up many
tilings for discussion, and he had made some sensible and per-
tinent remarks, which they all felt they could more or less
agree with. There might be a diversity of opinion on some
minior points of detail, but the opinions expressed were, gene-
rally speaking, such as would meet with the approbation of
most tenant-larmers. The position of the teuant-farraer
might be looked at from several points of view. In addessing
them on the subject he would consider first the advantages
which th?y possessed, and there could be no doubt they had
several important advantages in the present day. They had
increased education, a.id tlie advantage of greater science ap-
plied to farming than was the case in former days. They had
the benefit, also, of excellent machinery, although they had
heard from the noble i)uke that the machinery was not new.
Solomon told them there was nothing new under the sun, and
it certainly seemed that the reaping machine was iu use in
the time of the llonians. He rather doubtecl, however,
whether their reaping machine was quite equal to one of
Horusby's, or whether their agriculture was quite as well
performed as that of the present tenant-farmer. Virgil in his
Georgics gave them some excellent hints as to tho
way of dealing with land, aud they must always
allows that the farming of the present day was a
lineal descendant of that wliich was practised by the Romans
in this cuniitry. Tlicy were indebted to Cato and to other
noble ilomaus for some useful maxims on agriculture, and the
one which some farmers applied very much, was where he said
the first thing in farming was to sell everything and buy no-
tliing. H(! would not go further into the advantage of the
present position of the tenant-farmer, but he miglit say that
generally speaking they had had liberal and euliglitened land-
lords, and perhaps a great amount of capital which had been
accumulating in their families. \Mienever any gcntliMnan had
accumulated a great deal of capital in any commercial pursuit,
what did he do P If he made r^izors he wanted to farm ; if he
made a fortune anywhere in the town he wanted to try if lie
could not make a little more by farming, lie did not think
such people generally succeeded — but at all events it kept
bringing capital into the science and practice of agriculture.
T'hcsc were some of the advanlaLres under which tenant-
4.8
THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE.
farmers flourislied iu this country ; but there were also disad-
vautages, and it would be a most singular occupation if such
was not the case. He thought they should have had greater
competition for farms than they had now if there had not been
many disadvantages, but still they seemed to him to be only
such as might, generally speaking, be overcome by frugality
and care. One of the disadvantages was said to be the Game-
laws. Tbey^knew very well what were the furrent complaints
and grievances whicli farmers were told they suffered under.
There could be no doubt iu certain localities the Game-laws
were a gieat disadvantage, and where the wretched battue
system was carried on to such an extent that the crops were
sacrificed to tlie game it was a great injury to the tenant-
farmer. On the other hand, people should not blind tlieir
eyes to the fact that a gentleman who is going to take a farm
must be aware whetlier it is likely to be overrun with game
or not, and if he did take it under these conditions it was en-
tirely his own fault. I'arming was doubtless a healtliy occu-
l)alion, but it had never been considered very profitable ; and
now-?-duys foreign competition had reached such a pitch, that
an occupation which was once supposed to yield 15 or 20 per
cent., now barely yielded on an average more than from 5 to 10
percent. Of late years they had lost protection, and they did not
ask for it back again. They only asked for even-handed jus-
tice. Another great disadvantage that had arisen witiiin tlie
last year, and which iiad been already alluded to by Mr. God-
ber, was tiie increased price of labour, and the unfortunate
agitation wliic'u had encouraged a war of capital against la-
bour, lie thought, taking into consideration everything the
farmer had to pay, few would oppose him when he stated that
lie believed this was one of the most serious considerations of
modern times which a farmer liad to take into liis calculation.
They all hoped that the false, the specious, and the foolish
liopes and estimates held out by the agitators to the labourers
of tiiis country would be proved to be so utterly ridiculous that
the labourers would in [time grow weary of contemplating
them, and would retire from the position which some of them
had taken up. At the present time the agitation was confined
in a great measure to labourers of the worst class, and perhaps
of the worst position ; but unfortunately the words said at the
meetings, tlie treasonable and seditious language used by some
of the agitators, was apt, starling at the beginning with the
worst, to contaminate even tlie best, and to make a great deal
of ill feeling between master and servant. I te cert-iinly could not
see tliat Mr. Arch's exploration in Canada would lead to any
great or gratifying result, lie had doubtless received a great
ovation, but lie (the speaker) was not so hopeful as the noble
Duke appeared to be.
The Duke of Sr. Albans: My remarks were by wa of
warning to the agricultural labourer not to look too much
to the cotilcur dc rose statements which Mr. Arch might offer
them.
Mr. Storer quite agreed with such an observation, and he
thought everyone who read the papers written iu Canada by
the correspondent of the i^rt/Zy Affiw, who had accompanied
Mr. Arch, must) be aware that unless some very great advan-
tages were held out to him more than one could naturally ex-
pect he would not be benefited, or at all better his position by
going across the water. They were told the other day that of
all the farmers in the world the most wretched and haggard
looking men were the farwers of Canada, who worked from
sunrise to sunset without any intermission, and expected tlieir
labourers to do the same. Most people who studied the subject
at all must be aware that unless very enormous sums of inouey
were subscribed to aid this system of emigration, which Mr. Arch
proposed, the labourers could not do at all. It was generally
supposed that a man iu order to emigrate to Canada must pos-
sess at least £100 before he started, in order to make himself
comfortable and to pay his expenses there until he could re-
coup himself, lie knew a gentleman who had been in Canada,
and he told him that there was little work during the winter
months, and the unfortunate Irish and other people who had
gone in search of employment were huddled together in the
large towns, and many actually died of starvation. Unless
something could remedy this tlie labourers would And they were
leaning on a broken reed, if they thought they were going to
better their condition by going to Canada. With regard to
other topics, that for instance "of the position of the farmer
with respect to the probable increase or decrease of rent, he
was not suflicieutly endowed with a prophetic spirit to say
what might be the future of this country, but he thought these
things wonld always find their own level. He had very great
faith that if farming was found to be a much more expensive
and diflicult science than it was now, if it was found that the
remuneration was less and the expenses were larger the rents
of course must naturally fall, and the landlord would be a
loser as well as the tenant. He did not know whether this
was going to be the case, but they certainly were aware that in
some seasons, like those they had lately had, the production of
corn left very little profit. The attention of the farmer liad
consequently to be directed to the production of meat and
wool. As to laying down land for grass, he agreed with Mr.
Godber that it took a great many years to make a good grass
field, and few farmers would be so ridiculous as to endeavour
to lay down any great portion of their farms. I' it did
happen that owing to emigration or to combination labour
was to become very scarce or veiy dear, and they were to suf-
fer also from bad seasons and the low price of corn, land would
have to be cultivated — as he was afraid itwaseveunow in certain
districts — in a worse manner than it had been for some years
previously, and a good deal of it would then come rapidly into
the ^hauds of the landlords. These were, however, purely
commercial considerations, so long as there were young men
rising up and seeking to be farmers it was not likely tlie land
would be let below its real value, and the whole question
therefore might be left to the great law of supply and demand,
which must always rule the subject. Something.had been said
about a Minister of Agriculture, and he agreed with Mr.
Uerasley that a Board of Agriculture would be of immense
advantage to the farmers and to the landed^interest generally.
If trade required special representation in the ministry of this
country, why not agriculture? He would remind the noble
Duke that there was a Board of Agricalture in this
country in the time of Arthur Young, and if there was one
now they should not see such ridiculous conduct pursued
by the Privy Council with regard to bringing foreign disease
into this country. As it had been well said, great sums of
money were lavished on other things to which the rate-payers
had to contribute, but little indeed had been done by the Go-
vernment for many years past to advance agriculture in any
way or shape. The schools of design which had been insti-
tuted were entirely for the advantage of trade and for the im-
provement of manufactures. Many thonsands a year were
annually voted for these purposes, and yet not one single penny
was given towards any prize or any other matter that would
t»nd to foster or to benefit agriculture. He did not know
whether the noble Duke advocated the representation of agri-
culture in Parliament by tenant-farmers, but be might men-
tion the names of Mr. Pell, Mr. Head, and Mr. Howard, who
were authorised champions of agriculture. Matters iu this
respect were very different now to what they were a few years
ago. At one time the landed interest had nearly the whole of
the powers in Parliament, and they were often reproached with
the stigma that the laws of the country were made by the
landlords on behalf of the landed interests. This, however,
could not he said at the present time, because there was in the
House of Lords every interest represented. The banking
interest, the nionied interest, and the coal interest were
fully represented, but until lately there was very little re-
presentation of agriculture in the House specially. He
did not think it could be said now that agriculture had
too much representation, and it would be for its benefit
generally if some of those who went to the House liad a
little more special knowledge on the subject. They could
not consider the elder sons of noblemen who went into the
House as a nice lounge, and as an agreeable club, and who
always voted as they were told, could have much special
knowledge on any agricultural question that might come
before them. He was rather sorry to have heard some ad-
verse remarks regarding the Blalt-tax. He had always taken
a good deal of interest in that subject, and he did believe that
if that tax was repealed it would be immensely to the benefit
— not only of the tenant-farmers, but of the great body of
consumers in this country. He did not consider this was the
time and place to debate the subject, but generally speaking
the more they could encourage home brewing of pure beer
tlie better. It was a beverage that had been drunk by Eng-
lishmen from the earliest times, and the noble Duke would
recollect in the " Saxon Chronicle" where the boy was asked
what was his usual drink, he replied, " Beer when I
I can get it, and water when I can't." Unless they were
virulent teetotallers none of them would deny the labourer
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
49
wliat lie very seldom got, uaiuely, liis quart per day of
liouest home- brewed Ijoer. To abolisli the Malt-tux wouhl
be K great step towards that eud. It migfTt be very well to
say, as the uoblc Duke had doue, that it would be ouly 2d. a
gallon cheaper, but he begged to mention that the beer whielL
he brewed at home at present cost him 9d. a gallon, whilst if
the Malt-tax was abolished he believed he could brew it for
about 5d. ; not only that, he could atford to give his labourers
malt to brew far themselves, for this reason that a great deal
of barley which at present was hardly saleable for the produc-
tion of fine Burton ales would make excellent malt at which
no agricultural labourer would turn his nose up. Ho allowed
his men five bushels of malt in a year, and he had always told
them that when the tax was doue away with they should
have eight. A farmer was a large consumer of malt, and
also a forced consumer, because as tea, coffee, and cold water
had not come into general use in the liarvest-lield, the
raeu would drink beer. They could not grow corn without
using so much malt, and they must either give beer or money.
Farmers, therefore, in order to produce their crops, had to pay
the Malt-tax, which amounted on a fair computation to some-
thing like an Income-tax of 6d. in the £. This they had to
pay in order to produce their corn, that corn at the same time
coming into competition with corn grown on the Continent,
the produce of whicli had no Malt-tax to ]iay. Those who
advocated the repeal of the Malt-lax thought it would be to
the interest of the labouring classes, and so did not think the
arguments as regarded spirits was a good one, believing that
a great deal of the misery existing in this country arose from
a too free use of ardent spirits. They owed a deep debt to Mr.
Ilemsley for the masterly way in which he had introduced
the subject , and they were also indebted to his grace for having
brought out other points for discussion.
Mr. H. ¥. Walter, referring to the proposal to have a
Minister of Agriculture, thought they had ministers enough
already, who cost us a great deal of money, and he did not think
they ought to add to tlieir number. lie considered the Board
of Trade amply suilicient for agriculture, which was a branch
of that department, inasmuch as they made tlieir return to it.
He did not see what good a Minister of Agriculture would
do, because he would not be able to give any further informa-
tion than at present, unless they furnished him with the quan-
tities they grew on their farms, to which he believed they ob-
jected. As to the Malt- tax, Mr. Storer had said that the
farmer was a forced consumer, but so was a manufacturer of
the articles he manufactured. With regard to the importance
of beer as a drink for the labourer he thought it was one ot
the worst things he could work on in summer. He was speak-
ing of such beer as the labourers got, but if landlords and
farmers would provide really good sound bfer instead of the
stuff poor people got in the country it would be different.
Mr. Stoker : We want to find them malt.
Mr. Walter asked what a labourer knew about turning
inalt into beer ? lie mentioned a case of a farmer near Mans-
field who allowed his men tea and coffee, and went on to say
that his honest opinion was that this cry of the abolition of the
Malt-tax was a piece of rubbish. If barley fetched a higher
price the landlords would raise their rents. At present the
Malt-tax was paid by the whole of the people of this country.
If they were in Nottingham that niglit they would find the
poor people paying the Malt-tax with the greatest readiness,
and spending the only money whicli many of them paid to the
national revenue of the country. If they gave up the Malt-
tax they gave up the only tax the drunkard paid to the police
and other rates. He recommended the tenant-farmers of this
county to go in for a representative of their own class. Mr.
Head represented him in Norfolk, and although he was opposed
to Mr. Read in politics be should vote for him, because ho
believed he represented the interests of agriculture in every
way. He advised them to urge on their landlords a better
system of compensation for unexhausted improvements, the
destruction of hedges, and the bringing of game within-
reasonable quantities, but not to such an extent as to deprive
those living in the country of amusement, as was the case in
France. He was botli a manufacturer as well as a tenant-
farmer, and he could therefore speak from both points of view.
He told them a year or two ago that the labourers would have
to be paid better wages in all parts of the country, and this
had proved to be the case, though he was glad to say the
wages in this county had always been better than in some
parts. He did not see how they could stop these men going
about until there was a better rate of wages paid generally.
Mr. Storeu said the Mall-tax was e(iual to an Income-tax
of 6d. in the pound. With respect to the farmer who gave
men tea and coffee he understood that he had since given up
farming, and he (Mr. Storer) was not surprised to hear of it.
They liad the authority of Mr. W. Sanduy and other eminent
breeders for stating that malt might be used to a great extent
in the feeding of cattle, and that therefore the use of it would
tend to the production of more meat. As to the labourers
not knowing how to brow, all his labourers did, or at least
their wives did. Again, the fact of men not being able to
get good beer at home made them go elsewhere for the horri-
ble and poisonous kind of drink which intoxicated them and
added to the police sheet. Mr. Walter had said the people
who went out and drank at night paid this tax. Now he con-
sidered that an objectionable way of paying a tax, but he
might add that drunkards did contribute by the fines they
paid. lie reminded Mr.'Hemsley thatTenant-Right and com-
pensation for unexhausted improvements were things they
went in for in this district.
Mr. GODISER said, one great reason why they required a
Minister of Agriculture was bec'iuse they oljjected to a divided
responsibility, as was the case now in regard to the Board of
Trade and the Vice-president of the Education Department.
If there had been a responsible mi^jster the cattle plague would
not have reached the dimensions il'had done.
^Ir. Hemsley then replied. With reference to what the
Duke of St. Albans had said on farming being an agreeable
and healthy occupation as compared with otlier avocations, he
would remark that a little too much stress had been laid on
that point. lie saw near to every manufacturing town delightful
suburban villas, and he did not consider, under all the circum-
stances, that farming was more healthy and agreeable than
the life of a merchant and others having the same amount of
capital. [Mr. Walter : The Duke said it was a life of amuse-
ment]. Well, he (Mr. Hemsley) had not found it so lately.
Farmers had had enough to do to keep their banking account
square. If the farmer's was a healthy occupatiou, then the
labourer's must be so— a point which some seemed to overlook.
He thought it would be a very important point to find out
what was the difference between the wear-and-tear of an agri-
cultural labourer's life and that of a worker in a mill. He
had heard it stated that the wear-and-tear of twelve hours on
the part of an agricultural labourer was ouly equal to eight
hours in a mill, where a man was in a confined atmosphere.
He repeated that these things got overlooked, but what was
sauce for the goose was sauce for the gander. As to rents,
he stated in his paper that they could not expect a large
amount of reduction as relief, but he put it forward as a
matter for consideration whether they were not in many cases
relatively too high. His grace had said there was a small
amount of land unlet, but he had heard only that week tliat
in the West of England there were whole parishes to let.
He also knew that in this part of the country there was a
great deal of land to let, and it was because it had been let
relatively too high. With regard to the Malt-tax, they ex-
pected under free trade to grow their corn on free trade prin-
ciples, but this tax was ono of 5U per cent, on one of the
farmer's chict products. A large amount was spent in condi-
ments, owing to diseases in stock, which had not been known
in former times ; and it was this malt (made from inferior
barley), freed from this prohibitory duty, that he wanted as
food to a very large extent for cattle food and condiment, and
which would save the lives of many thousand lambs at this
season of the year. lie said they were entitled to free trade,
and it was the business of the Legislature to provide liow the
revenue should be raised. He maintained that it was most
unfair to the farmer to make an exception of him in this
matter, and to tax one of his chief products. ^\'ith reference
to the appointment of a minister of agriculture, there were
innumerable subjects connected with agriculture entirely over-
looked by the Board of Trade. There were fifty subjects
which they could put forward had they the channc Suggested.
[Mr. Walter: You are represented in Parliament. J But
it was the executive to whom they ought to look. Ho wished
them to refer to a statement made by the chairman at the last
meeting (Mr- Foljambo) to the effect that the same thing ope-
rated with a house and shop in the matter of local taxation as
operated with the land. Now lie contended that if a trades-
man of that description wanted to put £1 000 into his busi-
D
60
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
ness, lie did so witliout paying a fartliiug more to the local
rate, but if a fanner put the same additional aiiioimt of capital
into his farm he was charged to the poor-rate to the whole
amount, because he could not extend his business upon a given
area. The same things might occur in towns. As he came
through Nottingham he saw a large raft-yard. Now, the
man who made, say £200 a-year out of that yard, paid much
more largely to local taxation than the man who made £2,000
a-year out of a bank. It was such matters as these, great
glaring auoraalies, that they wished to bring before a miuister
of agriculture. The noble duke, however, seemed to ignore
that the farmers were in any difficulties at all, and that they
were not of that nature they, as farmers, found them to be.
He reminded the noble duke that capital was going out of
agricultural pursuits, and it was simply because they were uu-
remuuerative. If a farmer had surplus capital beyond what
was required for carrying on his business in an ordinary way,
he would not put it to the land, but would invest it in the
funds. The 10 per cent, to which he had alluded will, upon
closer examination, be found to be nearer 12. And the reason
he would not put the additional capital into his laud was because
he had not sufficient security on the one hand, and was too,
heavily rated on the otlser. " He wished to say, in conclusion
that he commenced writinj^ his paper with every feeling of his
inadequacy to grapple with the subject in a satisfactory
manner. The difficulties were undoubtedly great at this mo-
ment which arrested the progress of English agriculture, sur-
rounded and threatened with great uncertainty. From a
variety of circumstances, he had liad opportunities of knowing
more about the difficulties of farming than many. These
difficulties, and the conditiou of agriculture generally, were
important to a high degree to probably two or three thousand
men in this county, most of whom, by their individual
exertions, are depending for their livelihood and that of their
families upon the cultivation of laud — important to every
owner and occupier of land in tliis once contented and merry
England ; important to those who love, and who do not wish
to be driren from, the quiet homesteads of their forefathers ;
important to the teeming thousands of our populous districts ;
important to manufacturers and traders in products which
have to compete with other nations' products in almost every
comer of the world, and who are greatly interested iu cheap
food. Tliese interested parties, aad a powerful press, are con-
tinually reminding us of increasing responsibilities with in-
creasing populations. But, gentlemen, I ask you, do not
these sentiments fall sadly upon our ears? And are we not
tempted to treat all such as mere twaddle, so long as ours con-
tinues an unremunerating business ? And are we not tempted
to echo that cry of " Cultivation, increase of cultivation," by
" Remuneration increased ?"
Mr. Pate thought the noble duke did not sympathise with
farmers so much as he ought to do. Now, they as farmers
did symputhise with the labourers, and the same feeling ought
to be shown by landlords to farmers. Look at the losses far-
mers had sustained of late years, and especially by the foot-
and-mouth disease, a friend of his having lost 1,000 of his
flock last year. Landlords ought to sympathise with them,
and that was all ihey required.
Mr. Hall (Sibthorpe) said although they could breed far-
mers they could not breed farms. The fact that farmers' sons
were anxious to adopt tlie j)ursuit of tlieir forefathers
accounted for the great competition there was for the land,
whether worth the money or not.
Mr. TiLLOTSox said that the first duty and responsibility
of any good government, no matter of what politics, was t^*
provide necessary food for the people ; and if they could b)'
any means increase our productive power, it was the duty o'
the government of a country like this to do so.
Mr. Hemsley then moved a vote of thanks to the Duke of
St. Albans for his services in the chair, and referred to the
unbiassed view he took on the questions raised.
Mr. GODBEK seconded the motion, and thought the Duke
had sympathy with the teuaut-farmers.
The motion was adopted unanimously.
The following resolution was passed at this meeting : " That
the Council of the Nottingham Chamber of Agriculture desires
to expresss its deep regret at the melancholy and untimely
demise of one of its most useful and active members, Mr.
Michael Coltou, of South Scarle Hall, a gentleman whose ex-
cellent personal qualities, affability of manners, and business
habits, made him a very valuble member of this association.
The meeting further desires to acknowledge the services ren-
dered to the Chamber since its establishment by Mr. Coltou,
both as a member of the Council and as a vice-chairman of
that body, a position he held at the time of his death, and tlie
members of this Council hereby record their sympathy with
the widow and relatives of the deceased in their affliction."
THE SMITHFIELD CLUB CATTLE SHOW.
THE OPENING MORNING.
The entries this season exceed those of last year by sixlr,
the show being numerically the largest held for many years.
It is, moreover, one of the best, therebeiuga really beautiful
exhibition of Devous, which, for some reason or other, are
ahvays better represented in Loudon than elsewhere;
while the Shorthorns are also iu much force both for
numbers and merits, there being close upon tn'enty more
beasts of this breed than were sent in 1S7."3. The Sussex,
again, are in most respects good, it being probably the
largest show of the sort ever seen at Islington ; and the
four prize Crosses standing all iu a row are all admirable ;
as the Extra Stock is headed by two already- famous ani-
mals, both " firsts " here iu 1872. The Herefords, save
here and there, are not so remarkable, uor is there auy
great difference iu the entry over that of last year, when
whitefaces ran up to the shortest show known for some
time. The most marked falling-off, however, is iu
the Scotch classes, which, including Highlanders aud
Polls, only reach iu all, to sixteen. The sheep show
looks to be about an average for numbers ; but
amongst the pigs the competition is very limited, with the
llrst class of white pigs generally commended, and Mr,
JIcNiven's champion pen of Dorsets wonderfully good ;
but otherwise there is not much merit, aud two or three
entries were " referred " on a question of age.
The Devons were almost too good for the Judges^ or at
any rate there was a deal, of discussion over some of the
awards. Thus, in the first, a generally commended class,
while every one went for her ^Majesty's clever llrst, it
was dillicult to uuderstand how Mr. Taylor's broader
aud apparently altogether better beast was put below
the animals preferred as second best by the Judges
— the more especially as they are precisely of the
same age. The winner in the next class, also from
the Royal farms, does credit to the judgment of Lord
Bridport, who bought himhere'at thelast show, when also
first iu the younger class ; while he has gone on capitally
iu the interim, and, as we said last year, had always the
makings of a good one about him. In the class of Devon
oxen, Mr. Senior won with a capital beast, as, no question,
he was at all points the best of his bread, and some
soon talked of him as " the Champion," but ho was only
second at Birmingham in 1873. ^Vith the Devon heifers
many maintained that Mr, Senior should also have been
first, but it was something of a question between beef and
breed, Mr. Buller's home-bred one being the more blood-
like. Mr. Kent's best cow is a very sweet one, but for
the butcher Mr. Farthiug looked to have a better cow
than the one bred in North Devon and fed in Sussex ;
while the famous Flitton Lavender was for once nowhere
iu her class.
The Herefords, as we have intimated, do not make up
a gregt show .; but Mr, Senior, who is trying his liau4
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,
all rouud, sent a very admirable ox into the old class,
which was far away the best for fashiou, quality, and
true characteristics of the breed. He was really grand
to meet and good all through ; while Mr. Heath's second is
a useful beast, but rather patchy, and the short, flat-sided
third never near the other two. In fact, the competition
amongst the Herefords was but indift'ereut, al-
though Lord Daruley won in another class, with a nice
highly-bred steer. The best cow is the renowned Iving-
ton Rose, thrice first at the Royal Society's meetings,
and here, as it is to be hoped, terminating a glorious career
at over nine years old ; Mr. James' best heifer, too, has
been known about as possessing much merit, but with
one calf to her credit, it would seem her fate is sealed.
There were sixty-five Shorthorns entered beyond
those sent into the extra classes, and from the time
he first came out many good judges outside
went for Mr. Bult's really grand ox as the best in the
Yard, uniting as he does size and weight with a frame
very levelly covered, and presenting altogether a very
handsome appearance. His weight is something over
24 ewt., and his breed gives a cross from a bull of Mr.
Rich's with a bit of Knightley. Mr. Heath Harris's
second, bad in his rib and mean in his character, was a
moderate second ; and the prize Shorthorn of last
year sent away without notice. We intimated
his fate some mouths back, but his story is
worth telling over again, if only as a caution against the
continuance of a practice now becoming but too common.
There was, then, dropped at Ridlington, some five or
six years since, a Shorthorn bull-calf, which its owuer,
Mr. Edward Wortley, thought to possess the promise of
a prize ox. Accordingly he was put up, and in the winter
of 1871 took a prize at Oakham, and another in the
Tenant Farmers' class at Birmingham. The steer, how-
ever, was pronounced good enough to " go on with,"
and instead of being sold to the butcher was sent back to
Uppingham for another year's high feeding. In 1873 he
had a very successful career about the country, again
winding up at Birmingham, where he was the first
of his class and the best of the Shorthorns,
when we thus wrote of him : " This well-known ox has
not gone on in the way of making up, and we fancied him
less than we saw him at Lynn in the slimmer." In fact,
he looked to have had enough of it. His hour, however,
was not yet come, for at four years and seven months old
Tiie Count was purchased for it is said 100 gs. by Mr.
Senior, a Buckinghamshire grazier, still to go on with ;
and exhibited once more at Kettering last week, where
he was merely commended, that is to say, as many as
three other beasts were placed above the 100 gs. ox.
According to one of our best judges, " he strikes
you as being tired of rich living, and has lost that
nice blooming appearance he once had. He has
gi'own patchy, and not put on his flesh at all level, par-
ticularly on his back and shoulders." Can anything tell
a plainer story than this ? At five years and a-half old
the Shorthorn is not by any means so good as he was at
four off, as he has been declining for the last year and
a-half, sick and surfeited with over-feeding. Of course,
tlie only reason for his being kept on furtlicr was with a
view to some of the champion premiums of the year ;
and at the Smithfield Club show he will probably be ex-
hibited— age 5 years and 7 months — a very marvel cer-
tainly of earli/ maturity and clieap meat, of inofitahle
and not ^.r(?(?M/ri? feeding.
The two best beasts among the extra stock Lad
also been kept over, but they have done well in
the interim, and now went specially for the Champion
plate as they were alike at the head of their respective
classes in 1872. These are Sir William De Capelle
Brof'ke's ox. beaten at Kettering in the aiituoitt by the
Birmingham Champion of last week, and Mr. Kennard's
white Oxford heifer, which was the next best cow or
heifer in 1872, since when she has been purchased by
Mr. Upson, and the pair were again early in the day de-
clared superior to all their competitors. There were
two well-filled classes of Shorthorn steers ; and Mr.
Walter's first heifer would be quite a picture, but for her
big knee, and altogether gouty looks ; while the best cow,
and a sweet cow she is, also from (he same herd. There
was no challenging the places of either, but some de-
murred to Mr. Torr's white being put out for second
place. Wiien the Judges had got so far, the pretty
general opinion was that the Shorthorns would, at
least produce one of the champion beasts.
The Sussex looked to be a good " sorty " lot, but we
did not see them out ; while Mr. M'Combie's black polled
ox, the champion beast at Birmingham in 1872, has not
ripened into anything extraordinary, as it was early ap-
parent that the marked successes of last season were not
to be repeated. The entries of Scotch, Irish, and Welsh
were everywhere very short ; and the Scotch really made
their mark with the three admirable crosses of the Short-
horn with the Aberdeen cow, which stood, as we have said,
together, and stood first, second, and third, with a son of
the Noi'folk Devon, Old Wellington, fourth.
The sheep were not equal in merit to the cattle, but
Lord Walsingham has recovered his lead with the South-
downs witii a beautiful pen, good alike for heads, necks,
backs, and character ; as these, moreover, beat one of
the best pens ever sent up from Goodwood, and of which
the duke thought great things. Lord Sondes' winning pen
of light weights were stylish, as well as cleverly sorted,
and Mr. Rigden's next " all " Southdown in their looks
and style. The Duke of Marlborough again furnished
the best Oxfords in the face of very strong competition ;
and Lord Chesham's good Shropshires were still the best
of the class, but the entry against them was weak ;
neither were the Leieesters, Cotswolds, uor Liucolns in
much force. In a word, the show is a good one for the
leading breeds of cattle, but not so remarkable for sheep,
as decidedly inferior for pigs.
DURING THE WEEK.
"Few monarchs ever ascended the throne under more
apparent advantages, and none ever encountered more
real difficulties" — so writes the historian of Cliarles the
First, and so may we write of the Smithfield Club, a very
king of shows in its way. As already stated for
legitimate attractions, as tested by numbers and merits, it
was alike one of the best gatherings ever got together,
while the very Hall itself has been so "lightened" and
improved that the direction naturally enough counted
upon a higher dividend from the week's results than had
ever yet been attained. We may prove from our own
tables that this was by no means au uni'easonable expecta-
tion. Thus, for the last half-dozen years the entries have
stood thus :
1SG&
LSG9
41
24
50
23
23
219
172
55
446
1870
~^
43
45
20
28
237
182
55
474
1871
46
36
41
28
26
236
149
60
444
1872
33
28
43
21
24
201
167
56
426
1873
40
34
G6
25
ly
251
183
43
477
46
33
63
Sussex
33
Scots
16
Total entry of cattle ...
Sheep,
249
188
Pigs
49
Total entry
486
[The other entries of cattle not euunierated were made up
of otbev breed*, crosses wi,^ extra stock.]
D 3
52
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
AVheti we have said agalu how there is a- really
beautiful cxhibitiou of Devons; how the Sussex is
not only the largest show ever seeu at Isliugton,
but also iu most respects good ; how the prize
crosses are all admirable ; how there were sixty-five Short-
horns, agaiu one of the largest entries ever known, and
that from the first it was seeu that at least one of the
champion beasts must come from this section — and when
we have supplemented such points by the fact which our
tables demonstrate, that it was the largest, though not the
best sheep show of the Club's experience, we have said all
that can be said for the meeting. Some years since the
members of the Club, who otherwise get as little for
their money as the subscribers to even a charitable
Institution, were after much pressure and with manifest
reluctance admitted to an early or private view of their
own show. Had this "concession," as we suppose it
must be called, not been in force on Mouday, we shall
be bold enough to say that they never could have seeu
the show at all. From ^londay night up to the morning
of the closing day London, and more especially that part
of London in which the show was held, was in a state of
miserable obscurity, as suffering from the effects of a fog,
which, foi" endurance and intensity, is declared to be the
worst ever known since the year 1814. We ourselves
have known it to be as black for an hour or so, but we
remember none so severe of anything like so long dura-
tion. On Tuesday it was almost impossible to reach the
Agricultural Hall, for the further you went only the
deeper did you drive into the fog, as our cabman de-
clined to go on ; while the chairman-elect of The Farmers'
Club made two ineffectual efforts from Salisbury-square
between ten o'clock and noon. Nevertheless, other
people did find or grope their way to Islington, and the
receipts for the day were but some £150 below the
Tuesday of 1872. On Wednesday, however, despite the
capital ventilation of the Hall, and the healthy condition
in which Professor Browne found the stock generally on
their admission, the atmospheric influences of fog and
gas quickly told their tale, and before night over ninety
beasts had been removed, killed, or died, as the list of
victims was headed by the Champion Cup heifer and the
best ox, both Shorthorns. Indeed, so soon as Professor
Simonds arrived he unhesitatingly declared that the
Shorthorns would suffer more than any other beasts ; and
imquestionably they have, as the gaps through their
lines were far more frequent than elsewhere, a better
proof than any mere enumeration of numbers, the entry
of this breed being so much larger than of any other.
Still, a theory was started that animals like the Devons,
which faced the door-way through which the condemned
cattle passed, and so liad the benefit of a strong current
of air, bore up better than any other sort ; while it is said
that sixteen Loudon cow-houses, which are stocked chiefly
with Shorthorn or Yorkshire cows, were suffering, if not
so severely as the Hall itself. On Thursday the fog was
not so dense, nor the atteudauce so large, and a few
beasts which had been oi'dered out were brought back
agaiu, but animals were still falling, and by the close of
the doors, above one hundred had left ; the loss in re-
ceipts to the Hall Company, so far as compared with last
year's " take," being put at near upon £2,000.
Noticeably enough, although badly placed under the
galleries, but one sheep was invalided, and not a single
pig quitted his pen. Some of the visitors, however,
suffered, although Mr. Jacob Wilson, a stock steward,
never deserted his post during the most trying time,
but remained in the Hall throughout the whole of
Wednesday night.
With the beasts mostly down, and not caring to
be put up, and with an atmosphere trying alike to
the eyes and energies, we are not disposed to
elaborate our last report, which gives the main
points aud character of the show. Writing,
as we then did, under the exigencies of the press and the
post, before the Cups and Champion Plate were awarded,
we see no reason to alter a word of all we then said. We
went, certainly, "for JNIr. Bult's really grand ox as the best
in the yard, uniting as he does size and weight, with a frame
very levelly covered, aud presenting altogether a very hand-
some appearance. His weight is something over 24 cwt.
— the table since published puts him 21bs. over — and his
breed gives a cross from a bull of Mr. Rich's, with a bit
of Kuightley." Aud subsequently the nine judges declared
this to be the best ox or steer iu the show, as he was the best
of all at Plymouth last Christmas, although they would not
go quite so far at Islington, " the glorious nine" determin-
ing by vote that the Champion was ^Ir. Walter's Short-
horn heifer, " quite a picture," as we wrote of her last
week, " but for her big knee aud altogether gouty looks."
Still the Shorthorn judges backed our opinion, for the
three went for the ox, but had to give way on a poll being
demanded. A particularly promising Shorthorn, to
which we did not give a word iu our last number, is Mr.
Sowerby's two-year-old steer, the youngest and best beast
in his class, and one who may do better should he live
to furnish and ripen.
"The Devons" we reported as "too good for tht
judges," and the more some of the awards over th«
steers, cows, aud heifers were looked into the less wer«
they liked ; but the Devon ox was " a very admirable one
at all points the best of his breed, and some soon
talked of him as the champion," the more especially his
owner, both before aud, with questionable taste, after the
award for the Plate was made. But the Devon, ouly a
second best at Birmingham iu 1872, good beef as he is
all over, rather lacks style, while he pulls down but a
little more than Italf the weight of the Shorthoru pre-
ferred to him as the best ox, and as his owner, un-
wittingly but very truly said, stood about as much chance
of winning the plate "as a black bottle." Indeed,
for weight as well as appearance, jNIr, Bult's ox beat Mr.
Wortley's "Brumagem" champion, which has just
been beaten at Leeds by Mr. Reid's polled heifer, herself
by no means a perfect animal, the award coming as a fine
commentary upon all the fustian The Times' reporter has
been saying when writing up his own writings iu another
place. In fact, as we wrote of the Birmingham decision
" any other set of Judges would very possibly put the
awards about again," and many have gone for the Hereford,
And this discomfiture of the llidlington beast
reminds us that when giving the history of Mr.
Wortley's other ox, two or three months since,
we said : " Let us assume that his breeder resolved to get
the steer up for show when he was somewhere about two
years, or two years and a half old, and he will so have
been more than three years iu the stalls. Let us assume,
further, that his keep and attendance during that time
have cost somewhere about a sovereign a week. It might
not be quite so much at first, but it would be mor«
towards the last ; and there is not ouly the food to be
considei'ed but the constant attention demanded ; and it
requires the services of a really smart man to ripen a
show beast. And so by the time The Count comes to
Islington he will, what with his early rearing, have cost
the country some £200, aud be exhibited, as very possibly
complimented, by a Society whose declared object is the
supply of the cheapest aud best meat. There can be no
doubt but that a grave question arises here, and one
which will ask the careful consideration of the Smithfield
Club." And now, that is during the past week. The Times
reporter dilutes an attack on this abuse after the following
fashion : ," What advantage is there in holding over for a
second annual Show an animal already ripe enough to
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
stand well ou tbe prize list? It mny lie ii.teiesliiit; to
know to what pitch au ox may he ialleil 11 ymi ;^ive him
time and spare no expense; but should the slow feeding
in the latter stages be encouraged, and might not judges
well pay more attention to youthful attainments than is
commonly assigned to them when balancing eomparativt
merits in the ring '-" And then lie goes on to qualify all
this by saying, "of course there is no pretcLice that the
loni; fattening pays for the process, and, indeed, tin
whole business is experimental and not eommereial."
AVas there ever such nonsense ? as if everybody did not
know that " the long fattening process" was continued
with a view only to winning the Champion Plates and Cups
at any cost ! Does anyone suppose that ]Mr. Senior gave
lOOgs. for his magniticent failure when live years old
with the idea of trying any other " experiment" than
iinishing first with him at the Smithtield Club r
There were one or two nice Hereford steers, but no
glut in this way ; just half a dozen Norfolk Polls, and
just as many entries of Irish and Welsh beasts, backed by
a few " prime Scots," such as !Mr. ^I'Combie's blacks and
Sir AV. Trevelyn's Highland heifer.
The sheep show was mostly but moderate, although
we have already spoken to the merits of the Southdowus,
which very generally betrayed less "alloy" than we
sometimes see ; and no question Lord Walsingham's pen,
bred from rams reserved at the Merton sale, were
rightly enough the Champion lot. The Oxfords were
again strongly represeuted ; but only here and there,
in the other breeds, as with Lord Chesham's
Shropshires and some of the Lincolns, was
the sample really superior. Leicester-Liucolas or Lin-
coln-Leicesters, as we saw a few years back, are occasion-
ally taken from the same Hock ; while, prized as they are
by the butcher, the old joke declares that the Ilomney
Marsh sheep have never been improved on since they
came out of the Ark ; but they certainly never showed
better than during last week. The small entry of pigs was
still further thinned down by certain queries, which we
believe led ou to disqualification, but surely the names
of offenders should be published, both by the Smithtield
Club and the Royal Agricultural Society, or the punish-
ment is so purely nominal that exhibitors come to try the
trick on again.
LIST
OF JUDGES,
CATTLE.
DEVOXS, IIEUEl'ORBt), AND SUSSEX.
L. Groves, Binghams, Melcome, Dorchester.
S. P. Newbery, Plymptou St. Mary.
K. Woodman, Kingston, Lewes.
SHORTHORNS, IRISH, AND CROSS.
J. Thompson, Badminton, Chippenham.
II. Lowe, Camberford, Tamworth.
E. Paddison, Ingleby, Lincoln.
NORFOLK AND SUFFOLK, SCOTCH, WELSH.
T. Gibbons, Burnfoot, Carlisle.
C Randell, Chadbnry, Evesham.
T. Brown, !Marham, Downham, Norfolk.
SHEEP.
LEICESTERS, COTSWOLDS, LINCOLNS, KENTISH, CROSS-
BRED LONG-WOOLS.
II. Aylmer, West Dereham, Norfolk.
T. Marris, The Chase, Ulceby.
R. J. Newton, Caropsfield, Woodstock.
SOUTHDOWN, HAMPSHIRE, RYELAND, MOUNTAIN.
T. Cooper, Norton, liishopstone, Lewes.
H. Ford, Gussagc, Cranbonrnc, Dorset.
E. Little, Lanhill, Chippenham.
SHUOl'SHIKE, OXFORDSHIRE, CROSSBEJED LONG AND
SlIOin-WOOL.
C. R. Keeling, Congreve, Penkridge.
C. llobbs, Maisey Hampton, Cricklade.
J. Evans, L'tlington, Shrewsbury.
PIGS.
II. Garland, Wargate, Wareham, Dorset.
.T. S. Turner, Chington, Seaford, Sussex.
J. Smith, Henley -in- Arden, Warwick.
CATTLE.
DEVONS.
Steers, not exceeding i years and 6 months old.
First prize of 120 to Her Majesty the Queen, Prince
Consort's Norfolk Farm, AViudsor.
Second of il5 to J. Ford, lUishton, Blandford.
Third of £10 to W. Taylor, Glynleigh, Eastbourne.
Reserved. — C. ^lacNiven, Perryslield, Oxted.
The class generally commended.
Steers, not exceeding 3 years and 3 months old.
First prize of £30 to Her JMajesty the Queen.
Second of £20 to T. L. Senior, BroH'T lARMERS' CLASSES.
Shorthorn ox of any age. — First prize, £5, and the York
Licensed Victuallers' silver cup, value 10 gs., W. W. Wilber-
force, Fishergate, York ; second, £3, G. Kettlewell ; third, £1,
M. and W. Boville, Walk Mill, Northallerton.
Shorthorn cow of any age, or lieifer, not exceeding four
years old. — First prize, £5, AV. Clarksou, Syke Farm, Nevvbald,
Brough ; second, £3, H. Richardson, Cherry Hill, York.
Ox of any other breed or cross, of any age.— First prize,
£5, J. 11. Scoletield, Tadcaster; second, £3, J. D. Gowlaud,
WidJ.ington Manor, Nun Monkton, York.
Cow or heifer of any other breed or cross, tlie cow of any
age, and heifer not exceeding four years old. — First prize, £5,
J. Catt'ey, Stearsby, Easingwold; second, £3, J. D. Gow-
land.
SCOTCH BREEDS.
Polled ox.— -Prize, £5 and Mr. Roper's silver challenge cup,
value £20, W. and J. Lawson, Lessendrura, by Huntley,
Aberdeenshire.
Polled cow or heifer. — Prize, £5, J. Reid, Greystone, Alford,
N.B.
Horned Highland ox. — Prize, £5, Sir W. C. Trevelyan,
Bart,
Horned Highland cow or heifer. — First prize, £5,T. Francis,
Skipton Bridge, Thirsk ; second, £3, J. Oiithwaite, Bainesse,
Catterick.
district PRIZES
For tenant farmers residing within twenty miles of the City
of York.
Ox of any breed not exceeding four years old. — First prize,
£5, T. Eastau, Newburgh Grange, Easingwold ; second, £3,
11. Kilby, Loudesborough Market Weigliton.
Cow or heifer of auy breed, the cow of any age and the
heifer not exceeding four years old. — First prize, £5, W. II.
Woodward, Baxby, Easingwold ; second, £3, \V. and G. Lovel,
Norton, Alalton ; third, £1, F. Rowntrte, 13randsby, Easing,
wold.
SHEEP.
Three Leicester wethers, uuder twenty-two months old. —
First prize, £5 and Silver Plate, given by tbe York Chamber
of Agriculture, E. Usher, Water Wold, Pocklingfon ; second,
£2, E. Usher.
Three South or other Down wethers, under twenty-two
months old. — First prize, £3, Earl of Zetland ; second, £1
10s., Earl of Zetland.
Three horned Scotch or Moutain wethers. — First prize, £3,
T. Lund, Monk Bar, York ; second, £1 10s , T. Lund.
Three wethers, of any cross breed, of any age. — First prize,
T. llobson, Crockey Hill, York ; second, £1 10s., iUrs. Agar,
Brockfield, York.
Sheep of any age and breed, not a rani. — First prize, £2,
W. White, Full Sutton, Stamford Bridge; second, £1,E.
Tindall, Knapton Hall, Rillington.
PIGS.
Pig, small breed, exceeding twelvemonths old. — First prize,
£3, J. Bramlitt, Manor Street, Sheepscar, Leeds ; second, £1,
Mrs. Agar, Brock lield, York; third, 10s., J. Morrcll, Rusby
Place, Hungate, York.
Pig, small breep, not exceeding twelve months old. — First
prize, £3 and Society's Plate, Mr. Graliam, Blackburn's
Buildings, York Road, Leeds ; second, £ I, C. Edwards, Collier-
gate, York ; liiird, lOs., J. Dixon, Waliugate, York.
Pig, middle breed, exceeding twelve months old. — First
prize, £3, J. Cundale, Sycamore Grange, Copt, Hewiek, Ripon ;
second, £1, J. Blake, Wartbill, York ; third, 10s , Lord AVeu-
lock, Escrick I'ark, York.
Pig, middle lireed, not exceeding twelve montiis old. — First
prize, £3, J. Krainlilt ; second, £1, \V. Coiinell, llesiington,
York; third, 10s., \V. Coates, Pavement, York.
Three pork pigs, under twenty weeks old.— First prize, £3,
Blrs. Agar; second, £1, Mrs. Agar; third, 10s., J. Cua-
dde.
u
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
Extra "Stock. — First prize, 5s., C. Edwards, juu. ;
second, 2s. 6d., II. Ealkingham, Barker Hill, York ; third, 3s.
6d., J. Cundale.
HOOTS.
Si.\ specimeus of long mangold wurzel, any variety. — First
prize, £15s., Hon. E. Lascelles, Middletliorpe Manor, York ;
second, 7s. 6d., J. Naltou, Copraanthorpe, York.
Six specimens of globe mangold wurzel, any variety. — First
prize, 15s., Hon. E. Lascelles ; second, 7s. 6d., J. Dickinson,
Holme Hill, West Rasen.
Six specimens of Swede turnips, any variety. — First prize,
15s., T. Dickson, Langwith, York ; second, 7s. 6d., J. Snow-
ball, Stockton Forest, York.
Six specimens of common turnips, any variety. — F'irst prize,
15s., G. Harrison,iNewton-on-Derwent, York; second, 7s. 6d,,
W. Kipley, Kirk Ilammerton.
Twelve specimens of carrots, white or red. — First prize,
15s., F'. Thompson, Poppleton Hall, York ; second, 7s. 6d., F-
Thompson.
Twenty specimens of round potatoes. — First prize, 15s., R.
Whitehead, Ileslington, York ; second, 7s. 6d., W. Kendall,
Heslington.
Twenty specimens of kidney potatoes. — First prize, 15s., J.
Blake, Warthill, York ; second, 7s. Gd., H. E,. W. Hart, Dun-
nington Lodge, York.
Six specimens of ox cabbage. — First prize, 15s., not
awarded ; second, 7s. 6d„ J. Milner, Skirpeubeck.
BUTTER.
Three rolls of butter. — First prize, £1, Mrs. Balderson,
Bielby ; second, 10s., Mrs. M. Merrall, Burneston, Bedale ;
third, 5s., Mrs. S. Robson, Deighton, York.
Fancy butter. — First prize, £1, Mrs. M. Merrall (cow and
calf) ; second, 10s., Mrs. M. Merrall (horse and foal) ; third,
5s., Mrs. S. Robson.
RUGBY AND DUNCHURCH FAT STOCK SHOW.
ppjr^Ti TTST
JUDGES.— W. r. Bridford, Wyken Hoiise, Coventry ; H.
Lowe, Curaberford ; J. Rooke, Welford Grange, Wansford.
CATTLE.
Fat steer under four years old. — First prize, T. and U.
Major, Hillmorton ; second, R. Bolton, Flecknoe.
F'at cow that has had a calf in 1872. — First and second
prizes, H. J. Bromlield, Cawston.
Bull of pure breed, above a year old. — Prize, M. W. Fur-
ness, Clifton.
Pure Shorthorned bull, above one and nndcr three years old,
the property of a tenant-farmer. — Prize, T. and J. Major.
Cow in milk at the time of the Show. — Prize, J. Beale,
Wolvey.
Pure-bred breeding cow, which has had a calf in 1873, and
in milk at the Sliow, and bred by the exhibitor. — First prize,
M. W. Furness ; second, C. Marriott, Cotesbatch.
Heifer in milk, under four years old. — Prize, C. Marriott.
Heifer in calf or in milk, under three years old. — Prize, M.
W. Furness.
Yearling heifer.—" Prize, C. Marriott.
Pair of yearling steers. — Prize, J. Beale. Commended: J.
Haswell, Rugby.
HORSES.
Hunter, under nine years old, the property of a farmer,
wliich has never run in any Open Handicap Steeple or Hurdle
Race. — First prize, J. Gilbert, Swinford Lodge ; second, Mr.
Montgomery, Bourton.
Mare for agricultural purposes, in foal, or with a foal at its
foot. — Prize, J. Beale. Commended: T. J. Johnson,
Willoughby.
Cart colt, or filly, for agricultural purposes, uuder two years
old. — Prize, Mr. Major.
SHEEP AND LAMBS.
Three fat shearlings, of the long- wool breed. — Prize, H.
and J. Brierley, King's Newnhara Hall.
Three cross-bred shearlings. — First prize, Messrs. Brierly ;
second, Mr. Major.
Three long-wool breeding ewes, which have suckled their
Iamb or lambs up to the 1st July, 1873, and are in a fair state.
— Prize, W. Cowley, Watford.
Three short-wool breeding ewes, which have suckled their
lamb or lambs up to the 1st July, 1873, and are in a fair
breeding state. — Prize, S. C. Pilgrim, Wantage.
Three long-wool theaves, in a fair breeding state. — Prize,
W. Cowley.
Three Shropshire breeding theaves.— Prize, S. C. Pil-
grim.
Pure-bred long-wool tup lamb, bred by the exhibitor.—
Prize, W. Cowley.
Pure-bred short-wool tup lamb, bred by the exhibitor,—
Prize, S. C. Pilgrim.
Three long-wool wether or ewe lambs, bred by the exhibi-
tor.— J. A. Beale, Brokhurst.
Three short-wool wether or ewe lambs, bred by the exhibitor.
—Prize, S. C. Pilgrim.
PIGS.
Sow or yelt, of large breed, with its farrow of pigs under
twelve weeks old. — Prize, J. Downing, Cawston Grange.
Three breeding pigs under six months old. — Prize, J. Crofts,
Lawford Hill.
EXTRA STOCK.
Best beast, as extra stock, which has been the property of
the exhibitor sis months preceding the show. — Prize, Mr.
Cropper, Rugby. Commended : H. J. Bromlield.
THE CHIPPENHAM AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION.
PRIZE LIST.
JUDGES.— R. J. Newton, Woodstock ; T. Horley, jun.,
Leamington ; T. Morris, Gloucester.
CATTLE.
Bull, cow, and offspring. — First prize, J. Stratton, Alton
Priors, Marlborough ; second, R. Stratton, The Duffryn, New-
port. Highly commended : J. A. Muiuford, Brill House,
Thame. Commended : I. Cox, Whatley, I'rome.
F'at steers, above three years old. — First prize, J. Stratton,
Manniugford ; second, J. Stratton, Alton Priors.
Fat steers, uuder three years old. — First prize, T. li. Ferris,
Mauningford Bohune ; second, J. A. Mumford.
Fat cows. — First prize, F. H. Baker, Foxley ; second, T.
H. I'erris.
Dairy cows of any age.— First prize, U. White, Stanley ;
second, J. Smith, Bynoll.
Dairy cows under four years old. — First prize, J. Stratton,
Alton Priors ; second, J. Smith.
Heifers under thirty-six months old.— First prize, J. Strat"
ton, Alton Priors ; second, R. Stratton, The Duffryn, New-
port.
Heifers under twenty-four months old. — First prize, J. A.
Mumford ; second, O. Viveash, Strensham, Tewkesbury.
Commended : R. Stratton.
Heifer calves under twelve months old. — First prize, R.
Stratton, The Duffryn ; second, J. Stratton, Alton Priors.
Bull calves under twelve months old. — First prize, T. Hewer,
Inglesham ; second, O. Viveash.
Bulls under two years old. — Prize, J. Stratton, Alton
Priors.
Bulls above two and under three years old. — Prize, R.
Stratton, The Duffryn.
SHEEP.
Four fat short- wool wethers. — Prize, C. Rich, Sutton
Benger.
Long-wool breeding ewes. — Prize, W. Limbrick, Horton.
THE FAEMEH'S MAGAZINE.
75
tight cross-bred breeding ewes. — First prize, Mrs. 1',
Blanche, Iron Acton; second, J. C. Fry, Oldfield, Marsh-
field.
HORSES.
Two years old cart gelding or filly. — A. Gregory, Forest
Gate Farm.
Mares and foals. — rrize, \V. Archer, Wotton Bassett .
Weight-carrying hunter.— Prize, J. Keevil, Shaw, Melk-
sham.
PIGS.
Boars. — First prize, J. Downing, Stanton, St. Quiutiu ;
second; H. Brinkworth, Stowell, Corsham.
Breeding sows. — First prize, W. Spencer, Chalfield ; second,
11. Spackman, Broughtou Gifford.
Two fat pigs of one litter. — First prize, W. Spencer, Chal-
field ; second, II. Spackman, Broughton Gifford. Highly com-
mended: E. Little, Lanhill.
Pat pigs of any age, — Prize, E. Little.
EXTRA STOCK.
Four fat short-wool wethers. — Prize, C. Rich, Sutton
Benger.
Heifer. — Prize, \V. Redman, Coulstone
Filly.— Prize, I. Clark, Heddington.
CENTEAL CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE.
On Wednesday, December 10, a Council meeting and the an-
nual meeting of the Central Chamber of Agriculture were held
at the Salisbury Hotel, Sir H. M. Beach, M.P., in the chair.
The Council meeting commenced at two o'clock. After the
usual preliminary business,
Mr. WiLLSON, in presenting the auditor's report, said
he wished to call attention to the fact tliat the arrears of
members' subscriptions had very mucli increased during the
last year, and at the same time to observe that the 30th rule
of the Ciiainber suggested the remedy for that evil. That
rule said that no members should be entitled to vote, or to hold
office, if liis subscription were unpaid, and that tlie Council
sliould have power to strike off the list of members persons
whose subscriptions were in awear two years, and that no
member should be readmitted till the arrears had been paid.
He would suggest tliat the secretary should be instructed to
make au application for immediate payment of the arrears, and
to call their atteution to Rule 30. At the present time the
liabilities amouuted to £67 4s. 3d., and they had only £40 to
meet them. It was really disgraceful that a Society like that
should stand in such a position, when so much money was
owing, viz., £189.
Mr. Neild: What is the amount of the deficiency of the
cliarabers ?
Tiie SECRKTARy : £74, £63 of it being for this year.
On the motion of Mr. Willso:\, seconded by Mr. Clay, it
was resolved unanimously that the secretary should make ap-
plication for the immediate payment of ihe arrears, and at the
same time call attention to Rule 30.
The Secretauy, after reading some communications from
Associated Chambers, read the reply of the Chancellor of the
Exchc([uer (Mr. Gladstone) to tiie letter, asking him to re-
ceive a deputation respecting the Malt-tax, before the meeting
of Parliament. In this reply, which has been previously pub-
lished, the right hon. gentleman consented to receive a depu-
tation after the opening of the next Session.
Mr. Jasper More in(j[uired whether any arrangement had
been made for ensuring a discussion of the tjuestiou in the
House of Commons in the next session. Unless some mem-
bers were pledged m the matter the Chamber might be placed
in the ridiculous position of having sent a deputation to the
Chancellor of the Exchequer and of that not being followed
up by any discussion in Parliament.
The Chairman said if Mr. More had been present at the
last meeting of the Council he would have heard the question
fully discussed (Hear, hear).
Mr. Jasper More observed that every one knew that
unless a day for introducing a subject were balloted for when
Parliament first met there was no chance of introducing it.
He thought they should know who would undertake to in-
troduce it before they went to the Ciiancellor of tiie Ex-
checjuer ; otherwise the interview might be fruitless.
Mr. Arki:ll said tiierc were three members of Parliament
who were supposed especially to represent the farmers, and he
thought it should be arranged that one of them sliould ballot
on the first night.
Mr. J5IDDELL concurred in this view.
Mr. C. S. Read, M.P., said some misapprehension appeared
to prevail with regard to tlie rules of tiie House of Com-
mons respecting notices of motion. A notice of motion could
not be kept on the paper for more than a montii ; and lie did
not think it at all desirable that tiiere sliould be a discussion
and division on the Malt-tax in the first month ot the session.
when probably many of their friends would not have arrived
in town. The case was quite different witli regard to bills.
There was a general wish on the first night of the session to
put them down in order to secure some Wednesday during the
session. lie cordially "agreed with Mr, Jasper More that
Parliament ought not to be dissolved without a discussion and
a division on the Malt-tax, so that previously to the general
election they might know who were their friends on that
question (cheers).
Ultimately it was resolved, with only one dissentient, on
the motion of Mr. Jasper More, seconded by Mr. T. Orton,
that before the deputation waited upon Mr. Gladstone the
chairman of the Central Council should take steps to ascer-
tain whether Colonel Barttelot, or, if not Colonel Barttelot,
any other member of Parliament, would engage to bring the
question of the Malt-tax under the notice of the House of
Commons next session.
On the motion of Mr. G. F. Mui^TZ, seconded by Mr. D.
Long, it was resolved " That in lieu of the present practice
of supplying Parliamentary Blue Books and Papers, the Sec-
retary be instructed to forward to all chairmen and secretaries
of Associated Chambers in future a copy of the bill or bills
before Parliament which concern the agricultural interest as
soon as printed ; and that he be instructed to enclose with
the circulars announcing the ordinary Council meetings a list
of all Bills and Blue Books published in the month preceding,
with the information printed thereon that he will forward
these if requested at the published prices, and that a copy of
this resolution be sent to all the associated chambers."
The Council then agreed to the annual report to the Cham-
ber.
The next business being the selection of subjects for future
meetings of the Council,
Mr, Neild observed that in his opinion it was very desir-
able that they should confine themselves to questions that
were especially interesting to tenant-iarmers, especially as
they were very deficient in the support of tliat class, p.irtly,
he believed, because they had directed their attention to legis-
lative matter instead of matters whicli had a direct bearing on
agricuture. He had honed that the Business Committee
would recommend that their atteution should first be directed to
the question of compensation for unexhausted improvements.
While almost every industry in the country was progressing,
and there was a great increase of national wealth, the tenant-
farmers seemed to be rather retrograding in their position,
owing to the heavy burdens which were imposed upon tiiem.
What the patriarch said about Issachar being " a strong ass
couching down between two burdens" seemed to liiin to be
most applicable to the present position of the tenant-farmer
(laughter).
The CiiAiujiA?) : Do you propose that subject tlieu ? (great
laughter),
Mr. Neilu : 1 propose liie subject of compensation for
unexhausted improvements.
Mr. Read, J\i.P., suggested tiie subject of thrashing ma-
chines.
j Tiic Chairman then laid before the meeting, and moved
the adoption of, the cightli annual repart of the Council,
I whicii described tlie progress made in strengthening the or-
ganisation, whicli for seven years had endeavoured to provide
the owners and occupiers of land with centres for conference
I and discussion, witii means for securing a uniform and simul-
taneous [expression of opinion, and with a ready agency lor
76
THU FARMER'S MAGAZINli.
combination and concertect action ttirougliout tlin kingdom
upon questions aflectiug agricnltural interests. It also re-
corded tlie proceedings of the Council with regard to Local-
taxation, compensation lor unexhausted improvements, con-
tagious diseases of aniiuals, Malt-tax (respecting wliich Mr.
Gladstone has promised to receive a depatation from the
Chamber early after the opening of the Session of Parliament
in i'cbruar}), the Agricultural Children's Act, poor-law relief,
aud middle-class education in rural districts. In conclusion
it es[iresscd satisfaction that although few great victories
had yet been won, though the ratal grievance was still unre- .
dressed, improvement of land still discouraged by oppressive
and exceptional taxation, the Malt-tax still an exceptional
burden on industry, the property of the farmer in live stock
still left a prey to prevcntible diseases, his crops still insecure
from the ravages of ground game, and (»ave in exceptional
instances) his capital invested in high cultivation still without
the security of law or custom, progress was being made to-
wards a settlement of some of these leading questions now
before the associated ciiambers. The combination of owners
and occupiers to promote and defend their common interests
and to rectify their mutural relations was gathering strength,
and the importance assigned both in the legislature and the
public press to the expressions of opinion m the chambers of
agriculture, and especially to the ultimate decisions of tlic
representatives of those chambers in the Central Council,
proved that the organisation had become a power in the state,
and encouraged members of the chambers to earnest and stre-
nuous exertions in the future.
After some discussion it was determined that the first sub-
ject discussed by the (Council should be Compensation for
Unexhausted Improvements, and that the three following
should succeed in such order as the Council might thereafter
decide upon — Thrashing Machines, Highway Dristricts, and
Local-taxation.
The business of the Council meeting being coucluded, the
annual meeting was then held.
The annual report of the Council was then presented, and
on the motioa of the Chairman, was adopted, being taken
as read.
Mr. WiLisoN, having presented the auditor's report, and it
having been adopted,
On the motion of Mr. Neilb, seconded by Mr, Fokd,
tiianks were voted to Mr. Willson, and he was reappointed
auditor.
Mr. Thomas Rigby, of Wiusford, Cheshire ; Mr. Thomas
Willson, of Biggen Grange, Oundle, Northamptonshire ; Mr.
Thomas Horley, of The Fosse, Leamington, Warwickshire ;
Mr. James Webb, of Spring Hill, Fladbury, Pershore, Wor-
cestershire; Mr. Thomas Arkell, of Peniiill, Swindon, Wilts;
and Mr. C. M. Caldecott, of Ilolbroek Grange, Rugby, War-
wickshire (six of the eiglit retiring members of the Council),
were re-elected; Sir J. Pakington, M.P., and Mr. Bowen
Jones being ciiosen to fill the places of Colonel Tomline,M. P.,
and Mr. Genge Andrews, the other two.
The report of the Select Committee of the House of Com-
mons on the operation of the Contagious Diseases (Animals)
Act, 1869, together with tiie existing orders of the Privy
Council for the regulation of the cattle traffic in Great Bri-
tain and Ireland, was next brought under the notice of the
Chamber, at a special general meeting appointed to consider
the subject.
Mr. Stratto:n moved a series of resolutions recording the
profound disappointment of the Chamber that the commitfee
had come to a decision adverse to any stringent aud systematic
attempt to deal with foot-and-mouth disease ; also reiterating
the conviction of the Chamber that it was most desirable, in
the interest of both producers and consumers of meat, that
foot and-raouth disease should be adequately dealt with ;
further, pointing out that at a time like the present, when the
disease had from natural causes readied a low ebb, it would
be easy to adopt adequate restrictive measures without seriously
interfering with the cattle trade ; claiming, too, for the Cham-
ber, as a representative body, the right of expressing on behalf
of the agricultural interest a perfect readiness to submit to snch
restrictions as niigiit be necessary to eirectually keeping foot
and-mouth and otiier diseases in check ; and, whilst recognis-
ing the efforts which are being made to enlarge the supply of
foreign dead meat, declaring that for the safety of home stock
it was desirable that the importation of foreign live animals
should beconyerted into a dead meat trade.
Professor Gamgee, who seconded the motion, spoke at
some length in support of these resolutions. He criticised
the action of the Veterinary Department which he censured
as equally ignorant and incfhcicnt. He also observed that
since wu had had foreign importations of live stock aud a
Veterinary Department there had been a great increase of
disease whilst there was no augmentation in the amount of
supplies. If meat were brought into this country dead there
would be no foot-and-mouth disease. The farmers of Aber-
deenshire had voluntarily adopted the system of carrying their
meat dead. The most distant port from which supplies were
obtained, Cuxhaven, was not so distant from London as Aber-
deen, and arrangements were being made there by which, in
the course of a year or two, the German cattle might be brought
dead to Londun, rin Harwich, in 24 hours. By the surround-
ing of dead meat with an atmosphere of 45 degrees only, it
might be preserved for three weeks.
The SECRETAra' read communications on the subject from
associated chambers, which were in general accordance with
the resolutions moved by Mr. Stratton.
Mr. WiiiTAKER believed that farmers generally would be
willing to submit to almost any restrictions for the prevention
of disease, provided only such restrictions were not more strin-
gent than tiiose which were placed upon foreign cattle.
Mr. T. Dui KiiAM thought some allusion should be made to
those parts of the Report of the Parliamentary Committee of
which they approved. It recommended the adoption of a
uniform system throughout the United Kingdom, and it also
recommended that there should be a more hberal rate of com-
pensation in cases of compulsory slaughter (Hear, hear).
Mr. Pell, M.P., observed that a laore liberal compensation
depended very muih on the view of the local authorities (Hear,
hear). Under the Act and the Orders in Council it was possi-
ble to give the full value of the animal. There was nothing
to prevent the local authority from allo:ving the owner to take
the whole of the salvage, besides which, the Act permitted
the magistrates to give him half the value of the animal ; and
the two would perhaps make up more than the value of the
animal before it was taken ill. Of course in practice that was
not done.
Mr. Storer believed that extended compensation would do
more than anything else to stamp out the disease.
Mr. Neilu said the law required to be definitely settled.
There was great jealousy of any interference with free trade,
but justice must be done to the owners of cattle compulsorily
slaughtered.
,. Mr. EGERTO^|concurrcd_in the opinion that slaughtering was
the only efTectual method of stamping out disease.
Mr. KiELE, from China, who was invited by the chairman
to address the meeting, read a paper tending to show that rin-
derpest is as truly endemic in the Chinese empire as in the
steppes of Russia. After entering into minute details respect-
ing the slaughter of animals at Shanghai aud other oriental
ports, he suggested that Her Majesty's Government should be
requested to enter into communication with the Chinese Go-
vernment on the subject, in order that they might at all events
be induced to prohibit dead meat being thrown overboard in
Chinese ports and harbours.
After a few remarks from Mr. Waller in support of the
motion, the resolutions were adopted.
The business havingjterminated, Mr. W'illso:n said, as that
was the last occasion on which the chairman would preside
he begged to move a vote of thanks to him ; and he was sure
they would all agree with him that Sir Michael had been a
most excellent chairman during his year of ofiice (cheers).
After being seconded by ^Ir. Adkins, the motion was carried
by acclamation.
The Chairman, iu returning thanks, said when he took of-
fice he expressed his determination to do all he could to ensure
that the Council should not lose in position or influence
during his presidency, and that it had not lost in those respects
was shown by the power it had exercised both in the country
and in Parliameut in reference to such important questions as
local taxation and compeusation for unexhausted improvements.
It was a very dillicult task to preside over the deliberations of
such a body, and if anyone had any ground of personal com-
plaint against him he tendered him his best apologies, as-
suring all of them at the same time that whatever he had
done in his capacity as chairman was done with the best in-
tention (cheers). He was to be succeeded in the chair by a
gentleman who was thoroughly competent through his know-
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
77"
ledge, experieuce, and ubility to fill it, aud he was confident
that the Cliatnber would continue to progress under that gen-
tleman's guidance. For himself, he would only add that, it he
lived, he should cherish for many years to como pleasureablc
reminiscences of the period during- which he acted as their chair-
man and of the many friends that he made in that position ; aud
it would ever be his wish to attempt to forward, whether in
public or in private, the interests of tlie Central Chamber of
Agriculture (cheers).
The meeting then separated.
HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND.
At the monthly meeting of the directors, held on Wednes-
day io Edinburgh, Mr. Mitchell in the chair.
The anniversary general meeting was iixed for the 21st of
January, IST-t, being tiie third Wednesday of the month, aud
the usual day for holding the meeting.
The Secretary, in submitting a statement of the funds ;it
tlie close of the linaneial year on the 2t)t!i ult., reported that
the books and voucliers had been placed in the hands of the
auditor, Mr. Kenneth Mackenzie, C.A.
Tlie report by the committee on office-bearers for 1874; was
given in, and the secretary was instructed to communicate
with the noblemen and gentlemen suggested to fill the
vacancies which occur in January next before publishiug their
names.
Inveness Show-, 1874'. — At the last meeting of the board
it was remitted to the Committee on General Shows to con-
sider and revise the increased scale of premiums, as formerly
arranged. The committee held meetings on the 19tli Novem-
ber and ~iid December, and have suggested premiums to the
amount of £2,022, being an increase over what was olfered at
Inverness iu 1865 of £722, and about £250 more than what
was awarded at Stirling this year. The list was approved of,
and will be submitted to a meeting of members to be held in
the Caledonian Hotel, luverncss, ou Friday the IDtli current,
at one o'clock.
Glasgow Show, 1875. — The classes for the proposed show
at Glasgow in 1875, as suggested by the Committee ou
General Sliows, was submitted to the board previous to being
laid before a meeting of members to be held in the Queen's
Hotel, Glasgow, on Wednesday, the 10th current, at one
o'clock.
Tiie committee in charge of the district shows held a
meeting on the 26th of November, when it was reported that
the Society's premiums and medals had been in operation iu
Sl-i districts of Scotland during the past year. The com-
mittee, taking into consideration the suggestion made at the
general meeting in Jauuary last, by Sir Tliomas Gladstone,
that the grants to local sliows nhould be extended, recom-
mended that for 187-1 the number of cattle districts should be
increased from 8 to 10; of the districts for horse premiums
from i to 6 ; and of sheep districts from S to 10, adding a
medium silver medal to the first prize, aud giving a money
premium, in place of a minor silver medal, as a third prize.
This, with some additional districts for medals, will make the
amount to be olfered about £1,100, or nearly £315 in excess
of what it was this year.
The report was approved of.
Tiie Committee ou Cottages held its meeting on the 2Cth
of November, when it was reported that the Society's money
premiums aud medals had been offered in forty-six parishes,
and that reports had been received from upwards of tiiirty.
A number of new applications were added to the list tor 1875,
making the sum to be olfered upwards of £130, being an in-
crease ou the sum olfered this year.
The report was adopted.
Stirling Show, 1873. — Ti-'uil of lieupcis : The board, on
a report by the Local Committee at Stirling, awarded a me-
dium gold medal to J. and F. Howard, Bedford, for their
European reaper; a minor gold medal to Samuelson and Co.,
Banbury, for their lloyal self-raking reaper; and a similar
medal to W. A. Wood, London, for his combined reaper aud
mower.
IWal of Pulalo Uhjcjcrs : The Local Committee having
selected three potato diggers invented by Mr. Corbett, and
made by Corbett and Peele, I'er-ieverance Ironworks, Shrews-
bury, and exhibited by A. and J. Main, Edinburgh and Glas-
gow ; Kemp, Murray, and Nicholson, Stirling ; and J. P.
Cathcart, Ayr, the board awarded the Society's medium gold
medal to Corbett and Feele.
Tfiii/ of Mj'-Bdlccrii Reapers : On a report by the Local
Committee, the directors awarded a medium gold medal to J. and
F. Howard, Bedford, for their International reaper ; a minor
gold medal to Samuelson aud Co., Banbury, for their Royal
self-raking reaper ; and a silver medal to W. A. Wood, Lon-
don, for Ilia Champion reaper; a silver medal to J. Bisset
and Sons, Blairgowrie ; aud a medium silver medal to J. D.
Allan and Sons, Culthill, Dunkeld, for their back-delivery
machines.
A letter was submitted from Messrs. Macgregor and Ross,
S.S.C., sending copy of the warrant for the affiliation of tlie
new Veterinary College of Edinburgh with the Royal College
of Veterinary Surgeons.
The Special Committee on an inquiry into the Potato Dis-
ease having considered the memorial to the Board of Trade
and their reply, recommended that no further proceedings iu
the matter should take place until the result of the premium
offered by the President of the English Society was made
kuown, which was approved of.
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF IRELAND.
At the last monthly meeting of the council of this Society,
held at tlie oHice, U|iper Sackville-street, Dublin, Sir George
Hodson, Bart., iu the chair, it was agreed to request Earl
Fitxwilliam to allow himself to be appointed president of the
Society for the ensuing year.
The CiiAiKMAN said the first matter to be disposed of was
the notice of motion of JSlajor Borrowes, which was as follows:
" It shall be a fundamental rule of the Society that no (jues-
tiou shall be introduced or discussed at any of its meetiugs
of a political tendency, or which shall refer to auy matter
to be brought forward or pending in either House of Parlia-
ment, which is not />///v7y (hk/ aiw///// (iijririilliirdl, and spoken
to from an (lyricnllnrnl poiut of view alone." In reference
to the rules, he ascertained that matters of this kind required
to be discussed, and decided a month previous to the stated
meeting, aud as the next general meeting of the Society
would be held in December, he took it for granted that they
could not take the motion into consideration that day.
Mr. Owen said the subject hud been already very fully dis-
cussed, and it was the unanimous wish of the council that
Major Borrowes should give the notice of motion which then
appeared on the paper.
The Chairman believed the (lue.slion was. Could they then
taki! the matter into consideration, and discuss the rule bearing
on it ?
IMr. Owen remarked that the matter had been fully dis-
cussed on the last day of meeting; but if the chairman ruled
that it was irregular to bring it forward in the absence of
Major Borrowes be would move the adoption of the resolu-
tion.
The Chairman said, as the matter was of great import-
ance, he would like to take the sense of the meeting ou it.
j\lr. Owen intimated that, if necessary, he would move the
adoption of the resolution, b,'can:*e its terms had met with the
approval of a very large meeting of the council. At the re-
(|uest of the council, Major Bonowes liad framed the rt solu-
tion according to their views.
Lord Talhot LIE JMalahiue thought it was very desirable
that they should make the proposed change. With reference
to stopping people's mouths, it was an exceedingly dlfficultthing
78
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
to prevent politics from being touclied upon at public raeelings.
The fully expressed resolution of the council and of the Society
showing tlie course that was intended to be pursued, would,
lie believed, have a great effect in future ou most gentlemen
who got up to speak at the meetings of the Society. There
were many questions of a non-political character which it
was most desirable the Society should have the power of
discussing.
Lord POWERSCOURT then moved, in the absence of Major
Borrowes, that the resolution which the last-named gentleman
liad placed on the notice paper should be substituted for rule
twenty-two.
Mr. OwEX seconded the motion, which, on being put from
the chair, was unanimously adopted.
The Chairman announced that tlie next matter for con-
sideration was the notice of Mr. Charles Cannon, to the effect
that he would call attention of the council to tlie report of
the select committee of the House of Lords appointed to inquire
into the condition of the country with regard to horses, and
its capabilities of supplying any present or future demand for
them ; and, further, that he would move that a committee of
the council should be nominated to consider the same, and to
advise the council thereon at tlieir subsequent monthly
meeting.
Mr. Cannon said lie would have been very diffident in in-
troducing this subject, but that he was under the impression,
when tlie report was made by the committee of the llouse of
Lords, that it was not absolutely before the llouse at all. He
was bound to express bis own view, lest it might be supposed
that he desired to thro'ft' an apple of discord into the council.
Before he went into the subject, he wished to observe that he
felt, as a junior member, the matter should liave been intro-
duced by an old member of the council. In bringing this
matter forward he would leave the report of the committee of
tlie House of Lords to the consideration of the members.
He would offer no suggestions upon it ; and although in the
words of his notice of motion he proposed moving the nomi-
nation of a committee to advise tlie council, lie would leave it
to them to say whether or not this course should be carried
out. He held in his hand the blue book which contained
the evidence taken and the report of the committee. It was a
large and weighty document, but every point contained in it
would be found to be grave, and worthy of deep considera-
tion. He desired in the first instance to call attention to some
of the evidence and several paragraphs in the report, in
order to make out a case as to whether or not the committee
should be appointed. The House of Lords seemed to think,
from the scarcity of horses in this country, that a committee
should be appointed to inquire into the causes which led to
this, and accordingly the Prince of Wales and other distin
guished personages were nominated ou the committee. Thirty
eight witnesses were examined. Mr. East, a job master iu
London, deposed that he employed a thousand horses, and
that he found those procured from Ireland worked longer and
paid best. Lord Stradbroke, in his evidence, thought the
best thing would be for the Government to encourage the
keeping in every county good thorough-bred sires ; and Cap-
tain Stack, another authority in this respect, threw out some
vahiable suggestions on tlie same subject. Major-General
Wardlaw likewise recommended that the Government ought to
put good stallions in different parts of the country, the result
of which would be to improve the breed generally, and that
the offering of prizes by.agricultural societies would be desira-
ble, with certain advantages attached. No less valuable sug-
gestions were thrown out by Colonel Price and Colonel Baker.
Earl Spjncer, who was also examined before the committee,
tliouglit it would be very desirable that stallions should be
kept in Ireland by the Government, and let them out, as was
done in England. His Excellency also recommended that
prizes should be given at the different agricultural sliows in
the country. He was asked — " Do you think it would be
very advisable to encouiage agricultural societies, by giving
prizes for good stallions P" to which his Excellency replied,
" I do." Witli regard to the report made by tlie committee,
the third suggestion approximated to the only recomraenda
tion made by them, and was as follows : " It seems practica-
ble that the Government should give or add to tlie prizes of
agrieultnral shows for stallions." He felt it to be his duty
to bring this matter before their notice. He would be sorry
that it should be suppoRcd that he wished to alienate tlie at-
tiBtiou of the agrieultiui^tsof ifelftfidiftom theit \mf\i pur-
suits in husbandry, because he did not think it was the pro-
vince of the Society to seek to induce the occupiers of land to
sow where they could not reap : it was desirable that tliis pur-
suit should be carried out in the most scientific and best in-
formed manner. Knowing, as they did, from the report which
lie held in his hand, that nineteen cavalry regiments in the
British army were; remounted solely in Ireland, it was the
province of the Society to ventilate this subject, and discuss
every matter which tended to advance the material interests
of the country. In conclusion, he submitted that this was a
matter for the consideration of the council, as to whether
they would appoint a committee to go into more carefully the
ample report, and see in what way they could sustain the ob-
servations that iiad been made by Earl Spencer, as head of the
Irish government. Erora his Excellency's remarks as to giving
tlie agricultural societies some assistance, it might be desirable
if they could devise means to fortify his view, if it was likely
to conduce to the benefiting of the interests of the country.
Mr. Owen observed that the subject brought forward by
Mr. Cannon was a most important one, for which he deserved
the thanks of the council. In the evidence given there was a
suggestion thrown out in the way of aiding agricultural
societies in offering prizes for the improved breed of horses.
If Mr. Cannon concluded his proposition with these words —
" That the attention of the premium-sheet committee and
showyard committee be requested to this pressing and import-
ant matter" — he would second the resolution. The proposer
of the resolution was himself a member of the premium-sheet
committee ; and they could not better comply with his request,
which had at present a strong claim on their attention, than
by referring it to that body to which he (Mr. Cannon) belonged.
Mr. Cannon said he merely brought the matter forward in
the interests of the Society, and he would be very glad, in-
deed, to receive any suggestions from Mr. Owen or any otiier
member of the council. He had liimself some experience
arising from tlie vicissitudes of horse breeding, so that he was
enabled to say that it would be desirable that gentlemen should
be selected to act on the committee wlio had their attention
directed to the breeding of horses.
Mr. MacEarlane said he would second Mr. Cannon's
resolution, in order to bring it regularly under discussion.
There was no doubt but that the subject was a most important
one, and he would mention what the Society had been doing,
which would assist the council in deciding what steps they should
take in the matter. Having been the chairman of the horse-
breeding committee, appointed some years ago, he was in
possession of what occurred. In 1863 there was a committee
formed to consider the whole question, before the committee
of the House of Lords was appointed, and they piit before the
country the matters referred to in the report. In 186-t a re-
port was brought up and adopted, when it was agreed tiiat
tliey should, at the request of tlie Society, continue to act as
a committee. Tiiat committee adjourned until they should be
again called together by summons. Tliey had never since me
so that this fact might solve the difficulty which Mr. Cann
appreliended presented itself.
Lord Talbot de Malaiiide asked if that was not a joint
committee ?
Mr. MacFarlane said not. It was a committee of the
Royal Agricultural Society. Tiie next step taken was to make
preparations for holding a horse show, which took place on
the premises of the Koyal Dublin Society, This was the
origin of the horse shows now being held under the auspices
of the lloyal Dublin Society. Subsequently some communi-
cation took place with the Government, which terminated in
the appointment of the committee whose report Mr. Cannon
had brought tiiat day before the council. In his opinion,
it would be well to appoint the old committee, or so many
of the members of it as were alive, and add others who
would be selected for their well known experience in the breed-
ing of horses.
Mr. Young tliouglit, before any further prizes were offered
by tlie Society, as the Government wanted remounts for their
cavalry, they should call upon them to assist them.
Mr. MacFarlane replied that tliat would be a matter for
future consideration. When the Society offered prizes for
thorough-bred stallions, he was aware that the members had
to subscribe out of their own pockets, and not out of the funds
of the Society.
Mr. Cannon then proposed the appoiatment of g coramitte?
to eousider and report oft the question;
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
79
Mr. MacFarlane suggested that tlie committee should be
selected out of the entire members of the Society.
Mr. Cannon replied that a committee so selected would be
too large aud unwieldy. The council had iu itself huihcient
capacity to take tlie whole question into consideration.
The reiiolutiou was then put from the chair, and accepted
unanimously.
The following noblemen and gentlemen were placed on the
committee : Lord Talbot de Malahide, Lord Mouck, Baron de
Robeck, Sir Percy Nugent, Bart., G. A. Rochford-Boyd, Hans
H. Woods, J. L. Naper, N. M. Archdall, W. L. Burton, R.
Cosby, W. O'Malley, Thomas Franks, John La Touche, Major
Borrowes, Charles Cannon, H. J. MacFarlane, the Rev. R.
W. Bagot, Richard Chalouer, Sir Allan Walsh, Bart., William
Owen, James Robertson, Dawson A. Milward, Edward Pur-
don, J. M. Royse, Phineas Riall, Sir Robert Paul, Bart.,
Charle Uniacke Townshend, Lieutenant-Colonel C. C. Vesey,
Seymour Mowbray, and Leopold Cust.
The Chairman submitted the draft half-yearly report, which
was, after some discussion, adopted.
Mr. Robertson, in pursuance of notice wliich he had
given, moved that tlie Society's show at Wexford be held at a
convenient date between the Bath and West of England and
Royal of England's meetings. He said he had been induced
to give this notice of motion by many members of the Society,
and persons who intended to be exhibitors. There was no
doubt.that it was desirable to hold the Society's shows at an
earlier period than heretofore. Owing to the late period at
which the shows were held, most of the local gentry had left the
country ; the farmers were too busy in getting in their crops ;
judges could with difficulty be got over from England ; and
manufacturers from the sister country would not send over
their implements in time. For his own part, he did not see
any reason why their shows should not be held at an earlier
period than usual. From communications which he had re-
ceived from judges, exhibitors, and others who generally at-
tended the shows, he ascertained that the great majority of
them were in favour of his proposition. Having regard to
the English fixtures, he was decidedly of opinion that the
most desirable time to hold the Wexford show was from the
24tli to the 30th of June, and he concluded by moving a reso-
lution to that effect.
Mr. Bagot, in seconding the resolution, observed that if
tlie holding of the next show was an inconvenience to any
one, he believed it would be a great convenience to the far-
mers who usually attended such displays. The Waterford
show of last year prevented the farmers, as well as the imple-
ment manufacturers, from attending in as large numbers as
could be desired, and it would be more convenient for all of
them to have the gathering next year somewhat earlier. At
all events, it could do no great harm if they tried it for one
year, if it suited the Wexford people. By holding it in the
last week in June, they would have it come off between the
two great shows of England. The locjl shows were rising
very fast in Great Britain, so that it made it the more difficult,
once they commenced, to get implement manufacturers to
come over to this country. Unless some strong arguments
weie put forward, he hoped the council would give their
sanction to have the next show held earlier than usual, especi-
ally as, he understood, Mr. Robertson had been in communi-
cation with various parties in Wexford, who intimated that
the period named by him would suit them.
The Chairman said before auy definite conclusion was
rrived at, there should be some direct communication with
he people of Wexford.
Sir Allan Walsh thought it was a serious thing to jump
back from August to June. If the proposition were carried
out, there was one class of exhibitors which it would knock
on the head altogether, and that was the sheep breeders, a
great many of whom brought their rams to the annual shows
in order to dispose of them, which they could not do if the
meeting was held so early in June. The sheep were not in a
condition to bo exhibited so early, and he would suggest that
the show should be held on the week commencing tlie 22iid
July.
INlr. Bagot said that would practically exclude every Eng-
lish exhibitor from attending.
Sir Allan Walsh, from conversations which he had with
various leading persons connected with W^exford, believed
that tlie people of thu eouuly were in favour of iiaving the
9h9\r \\i\i AbQut tli^ 9(((l of July qt tbf) l)egi[taiu(i; ol' August,
Alderman Purdon remarked that when attending shows in
England he had repeated conversations with various persons,
who complained that the annual gatherings here clashed with
those on the other side of the channel, and that it was highly
desirable that some alteration should take place — that they
should be held at an earlier or a later period than usual, so as
not to clash with the Highland, the great Yorkshire, and
other shows. The last meeting of the Yorkshire was, he
believed, as large and as important as that of the Royal
Society itself.
Mr. Owen was opposed to holding the show so early as
June, iu which opinion many persons with whom he had been
in communication concurred. July was early enough, and in
the minds of not a few individuals too early.
Alderman Purdon observed that whatever conclusion was
arrived at by the council, the people of Wexford should be
informed as to tlie days on which the different shows in Eng-
land were held.
Mr. Bagot, perceiving so much diversity of opinion on the
subject amongst the members of the council, moved that the
secretary be directed to write to the local committee and iu- ,
tending exhibitors, asking them for their opinion as to the
period on which the Wexford show should be held, and iu the
meantime hold over the resolution to the next meeting of the
council.
The resolution, having been seconded, was adopted.
Sir Allan Walsh hrought up a report from the premium
sheet committee, the only feature of importance connected
with it being a recommendation that the 14th section of the
rules, as regards the entrance fee required for sheep entered
for competition, should be omitted.
The report was adopted, Mr. Owen dissenting.
Sir Allan Walsh reported that the committee — after
having had an interview with Mr. Barlow Smythe, Dr. Came-
ron, and Mr. Sproule, in reference to the offer of Mr. Smythe,
as chairman of the Beet-root Sugar Company, to place one
hundred guineas at the disposal of the Society, to be given in
prizes for beet-root grown in the vicinity ot their works — had
come to the conclusion that there was not sufficient informa-
tion before them to justify them in recommending the council
to accept the offer contained in that gentleman's letter.
The following gentlemen were balloted for, and unaui-
mously admitted members of the Society : The Hon. Gerald
Normanby Fitzgibbon, Mount Shannon, Lisnagry ; Captain
E. R. Bailey, J. P., Mount Talbot, Roscommou ; Arthur W.
Shirley Ball, (High Sheriff Co. Longford), Geraldstown,
Navan; and John Talbot Power, M.P., D.L., Ederraine,
Enniscorthy.
The council, having disposed of some ordinary business,
adjourned.
SPEAKING OUT.— At Bodmin Mr. R. Olver said that though
they had spoken against pampering, the judges had given the
first prize to a pampered animal. Having tried both plans,
he was convinced that high feeding was neither profitable to a
farmer or to a butcher. A wonderful change had come over
farming in the last ten years. It now took £2,000 where
£1,000 would have done. The price of horses had doubled,
rents had increased, and whereas labourers could be had for Os.
a-week when he first engaged in farming, they now had to
pay I3s. for inferior men, with every probability of having to
pay more. Then, farmers had to farm more highly because of
the larger sum they had to raise. They had to grow heavier
crops, use rather more artificial manure, consume the corn
with oilcake on the farm, and turn out a greater lot of good
stock. With these extra expenses, and with taxation increas-
ing, they had a right to ask the landlords to give them en-
couragement by acceding Tenant-Riglit. There were hundreds
of farmers in Cornwall that could keep half again as many
cattle if only (he tenants had security for the outlay. People
were talking of getting meat from America and Australia, but
English agriculturists could grow it all. If landlords would
only give proper facilities, farmers could produce enough
mutton and beef and corn to feed half as many people again
as there were in England. The fault was with the landlords,
and not with the tenant-farmers, who could not do as they
would like. Often the landlord took the highest rent and go
the worst man, whereas if he would be content with a little
less rent be would have his farm improved, and much more
food would be prodiieinl. They wanted legislation on this
jpoiut, au4 if faruiera did not get it front the TurieR the^ vfo\\\i
80
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
from the Liberals, as tlie townsmen seemed to be waking up I owner's interest would be to get tlie best and most respectable
on the subject. They could beat the A.niericans in corn- | fanner, instead of the one who would promise to pay the
growing, but it could only be done by growing heavier crops. I highest rent. Unless this were done iu a very few years land-
Mixed up with the Tenant-llight they must have the present lords would have great difficulty in keeping the best farmers,
law of distraint, which should be so reformed that the laud- | The present leases were altogether out of date.
ACCIDENTS FROM THRASHING MACHINES.
At a meeting of the members of the Norfolk
Chamber of Agriculture held in Norwich, for the purpose
of considering the provisions of a bill introduced into I'arlia-
ment last session, for fencing drums of thrashing machines ;
and also the question of compulsory highway districts, Mr. C.
S. Read, the President, was in the chair.
Tiie Peesibe^'t explained that the Bill iu question was
introduced on July 38th, 1873, and he moved that it should
be considered tliat day three months. He did this because
he was sure tiiat legislation iu the harum-scarum way which
must have taken place in August would iu all probability have
done a great deal more harm that good. The bill provided
that the drum of every thrashing machine intended to be
driveu by any other power than manual labour should be pro-
vided with a fence sullicient to ])revent accidents when such
machine was in use. Messrs. Clayton and Shuttle worth had
sent him a design of a " self-acting safety slide." When a
man was not feeding the machine, a slide covered up the drum.
But that was no fence. The fence wanted was something to
prevent the people slipping into tlie drum. Another design
sent liim by Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth was " Wilder's
patent self-acting feeder for thrashing machines." This was
something like the straw shakers at the other end of the
machine. It was driveu by power. The man instead of
delivering the corn into the machine, threw it upon the feeders
which conveyed it into the drum. No doubt such a raachiue
would prevent many accidents, still it did not fence the drum.
Sometliing iu addition to that would consequently be wanted.
But though this seemed the most reasonable way of getting
over the difficulty, in another way it was unreasonable, for it
could not be applied at all to small raaciiines, while to make it
applicable to others would cost something like tweuty guineas,
which was more than the majority of macliine owners would
like to spend upon it. He had also received a simple design
from Mr. C. Burrell. It was to put a small eight-inch board
round three sides of the drum. No doubt this would effectually
prevent persons falling off the board into the drum ; but it
was not so pleasant to have to hft 100 quarters of corn in a
day over a board though it migiit only be eight inches in
height. Mr. Burrell wrote to him to the effect that some years
ago he was struck witli the dangerous appearance of the
drum being quite open and unprotected. Since then
he liad a simple board six or eight inches deep, just
round the feeding mouth, which was quite sufficient to prevent
accidents whicli might occur from a man's foot slipping. The
board could be lifted up for a few minutes while sweeping out
the machine, and then again dropped into its place. Unfor-
tunately the bill provided that the person in charge of every
thra.shing machine should, while it was in use, take care that
the fence provided for the drum was fixed, and not removed at
any such time as the machine was in motion. He proposed
the following resolution : " The Norfolk Chamber of Agricul-
ture considers the language of the principal clauses of the
Thrashing Machine Bill to be vague and undefined, and is of
opinion that before any law is passed upon the subject of
agricultural machines, an inquiry into the question of the
number and circumstances of accidents arising from the use of
all farm machinery should be instituted, with a view of ascer-
taining whether any legislation is necessary." He had tried in
vain to obtain a return ot accidents caased from thrashing
machines. But his experience was that there were only few.
Other machines in use in agriculture were more dangerous ;
for instance, the horse-gears of chaff-cutters, of which a boy
often slipped among the wheels and had his toes bitten off.
Mr. Howard, M.P., was of opinion that no chaff-cutter that
went by power ought to be allowed to be used unless it had
a spring clutch to take it out of gear. This could be easily
adapted to all cliatf-eutters, and it was now generally used.
Mr. J.Everett seconded the motion.
Mr. G. Hoi.iiES (of the firm of Holmes and Son) said the
arrangements that would, he thought, meet the case was mainly
a circular hood covering the front of the feeder, extending
t\'. elve inches on each side of the feeding hole. This would
prevent any man slipping his foot in, or if he slipped a little
liis side would catch against the lop of the cover, and liis
going into the machine would be prevented. It would not
prevent his feeding barley or wheat sheaves. This could be
added to the machine at a cost of 30s. or £3. Accidents could
not be entirely prevented, but if what he had suggested were
added to a macliine it would be found to be a great safeguard
and au arrangement which would ratiier be accepted than any
elaborate self-feeding apparatus.
JMr. CuAMUERS tliought that Mr. Holmes' plan, if it would
not fence the machine completely, would go a great way to-
wards it. It was the careless boys who walked about the drum
rather than the feeder who were iu danger. Mr. Cozens-
Hakdv asked Mr. Holmes what was his real objection to
Wilder's plan. Mr. Holmes said he had really no objection
to it. What was wanted was something simple, that could be
applied at once. Tliough self-feeders would eventually come
in, yet it should not be made compulsory upon maclr'ne owners
to have Wilder's patent apparatus. He entered at length
upon what could and coull not be done witii the self- feeder ;
and Mr. G. Day said he considered that what Mr. Holmes
had said as to the self-feeder proved the uselessuess of the bill.
At the conclusion of the discussion.
The PiiESiDEjiT said the conversation which had taken
place showed that a fair sort of guard to prevent avoidable
accidents might be applied to machines at a trifiing cost. If
tiiat were so he was sure the agriculturists of England would
be glad to have it provided, if it did not interfere with the
efficiency and ready working of the machine. This was a
question that might engage the attention of agricnitural
societies. Prizes were oft'ered for many implements tliat
wanted no encouragement ; and he asked Mr. Chambers of
the Norfolk Agricultural Society, and Mr. Aldous of the
Hoyal Society, when they considered the prizes for the imple-
ments for the coming year, to see whether it would not be
possible for them to offer prizes for the best, cheapest, and
most efficient guard for a thrashing machine.
The resolution was adopted.
The subject next taken was Compulsory Highway Districts.
The PuESiDE^T said it had been discussed on several pre-
vious occasions. The resolution passed on the 39lh of Juu",
1870, the Council suggested should be again submitted to the
Ciiamber. It was : " Tiiat the compulsory extension of the
new Highway Act would fail to secure better roads iu Nor-
folk without a considerable increase iu the present highway
rates ; but should the Act be made general, tliis {Chamber
suggests that the cost of repairing the roads should be borne
by the common fund of the district, and not as at present by
separate parishes."
In the discussion which followed Mr. Lombe mentioned
that in the Mildenhall district, where the Act had been
adopted, the roads were excellent, while the rates were not
more tiian two-thirds what they were formerly. Mr. R.
Smith said Norfolk was rather difierent to Suffolk ; where
highway districts had been formed in Norfolk they had been
dissolved. The Norfolk roads were generally in a very good
state. Mr. R. T. Gurdon said the Act had been carried out
in Somersetshire and Gloucestershire, and Sir William Miles
had over and over again told him that it worked there per-
fectly well. Mr. G. W. Lely said in Leicestershire the rates
were positively 8 per cent, less than they were previously to
the system being introduced. Mr. J. Hill remarked that in
Dorset the Act was adopted, and tiie result was au enormous
increase in tiie expenditure ; and Mr. Everett, formerly diair-
man of the Docking Highway Board, added that the adoption.
THE FAKMEil'S MAGAZINE.
81
of the Act was followed by an increase in the expenses. The
President having commented on the varions points raised, Mr.
Gurdon suggested tiiat the motion had better be split up into
two, for while some could not agree with the first clause, all
would support the second.
The resolution was then divided, as suggested ; but both
clauses were adopted, there being to the first only four dis-
sentients.
The Cliamber then adjourned.
EOYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.
Monthly Council: Wednesday, Becemher 10. —
Present: Earl .Cathcart, Vice-President, in the chair;
the Duke of Bedford, the Duke of Richmond, K.G. ; the
Earl of Lichfield, the Earl of Powis, \'iscouut
Bridport, Lord Chesham, Lord Kestcven, the
Hon. Wilbraham E^ertou, M.P. ; Sir Watkiu
Wynn, Bart., :NLP. ; Sir. Barthropp, Mr. Booth, ]Mr.
Bowly, Mr. Cantre]l,Mr. Dent, M.P. ; :Nrr. Edmonds, Mr.
Evans, JNIr. Braudreth Gibbs, Mr. Horley, !Mr . Hornsby,
Mr. J. Bovven Jones, Colonel Kingscote, M.P. ; Mr.
Masfen, Mr. jNIilward, Mr. Pain, ^Ir. Randell, Mr.
Rigden, Mr. Shuttleworth, Mr. Geor2;e Turner, Mr.
Jabez Turner, :Mr. Wakefield, Mr. Webb, :Mr. Wells,
M.P., Mr. Jacob Wilson, Professor Simonds, and Dr.
Voelcker.
The following members were elected : —
Blackwell, Richard, Gold Hill Farm, Southwell.
Boustead, John, Armathwaite Hall, Cockermouth.
Burd, Henry, The Laurels, Shrewsbury.
Cheavin, George, Boston.
Cobb, H. M., Higham, Rochester.
Colegrave T. E., Gosforth Grove, jN'ewcastle-on-Tyne.
De Trafford, John Randolphus, Croston Hall, Croston, Lan-
cashire.
Haifenden, Rev. John Wilson, Homewood, Tenterden,
Ashford.
Herbert, Hon. Auberon, M.P., Ashley Armwood, Lymington.
Marshall, William, Gaston House, Bedford.
Peach, Edward, Oundle.
Pochiu, Henry D., Barn Elms, Barnes.
Rincon, Manuel Ceferino, Espiritu Santo 4-7, Madrid.
Robinson, Tiiomas, Westoning, Woburn.
Samuda, Joseph D'A., ]\LP., 7, Gloucester Square, W.
Sapwell, Benjamin Beckham, Aylsham, Norfolk.
Sharpe, William Taylor, Baumber Park, Horncastle.
Smith, William, the Laurels, Olfeuham, Evesham.
Snowden, J. I)., Doncaster.
Southern, John, Culclieth, Warrington.
Start, C. W., Pobmarsh, 13ures, Essex.
Tattersall, William, Charlton Place, Bishopsbourne, Kent.
Thackwell, John, Witten Place, Uymock.
Watts, George James, Monkhams Hall, Waltham Abbey.
AVilliams, Captain George Griffiths, Wallog, Aberystwith.
Yeld, Edward, Moss Hill, Leominster.
Yorkshire Agricultural Society, Secretary, of York.
Finances. — Lieul. -General Viscount Bridport (chair-
man) presented the report, from which it appeared that
the secretary's receipts during the past month had been
examined by the committee, and by Slessrs. Quilter,
Ball, and Co., the Society's accountants, and found
correct. The balance in the hands of the bankers on
November 30 was £1,111 2s. 6d. The committee re-
commended that the names of ten members in arrear of
their subscriptions be erased from the list of members,
and that instructions be given to the solicitors of the
Society to take legal proceedings against those members
whose subscriptions arc four yeavs and upwards in arrear.
— This report was adopted.
The following letter was then read :
Kirby Hall, York, Dec. G.
My lords and gentlemen, — It is with great regret that I
have to recpiest that at the reconstitution of committees, wliich
takes place next week, you will not place my name on the list
of members then appointed, as my health will not permit me
to attend any business meetings at present.
After taking an active part in the afl'airs of the Society
for 35 years this sudden severance causes me deep disappoint-
ment, but my illness is too serious to be trifled with, and I
take tills opportunity of oftering my best thanks to all my col-
leagues on the Council for the kindness and courtesy which I
have received from them from the original formation of the
Society to the present time.
I am, my lords and gentlemen.
Your faithful servant,
H. S. TiioJiPsON.
To the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society.
The following resolution was thereupon moved by
^lajor- General Viscount Bridport, who testified to the
great value which he had always attached to Mr. Thomp-
son's services to the Society : —
The Council cannot accept the resignation of Mr. Thomp-
son as a member of its committees without expressing their
sincere appreciation of the valuable assistance he has rendered
not only to this Society, but to agriculture in general. The
regret which the Council feel at the loss of his valuable
services is deepened by the cause of his retirement ; and, in
accepting his resignation, the Council beg to assure him of
their sympathy with him in his illness, and of the grateful
recollection that those who have worked with him will always
entertain of his earnest and eminent labours in the service of
the Royal Agricultural Society."
The resolution was seconded by Mr. Randell with the
greatest possible cordiality, who expressed his appreciation
of ^Ir. Thompson's services as President of the Society,
Chaii'man of the Journal Committee, and writer of essays
of the highest and most practical value. His regret at
the prospect of the cessation of such services was much
increased by the cause of Mr. Thompson's retirement.
Mr. Dent Dent, M.P., who had been acting as Chairman
of the Journal Committee during Mr. Thompson's illness,
expressed his complete sympathy with Mr. Thompson
and his concurrence with the resolution. Ho i-eferred to
xMr. Thompson's services in connection with the Jonnuil
since Mr. Pusey's death in 1855, and to his great interest
in all questions connected with agriculture, even now when
weakened by illness. The Duke of Richmond, Earl
Cathcart, and other members of the Council having
similarly expressed their views, the resolution was carried
unanimously.
JouRNAJj. — Mr. J. Dent Dent reported that the com-
mittee had met ten times and made eight reports to the
Council. They had received a letter from the Colonial
Office, enclosing one from the Governor of Victoria, ask-
ing that the publications of the Royal Agricultural
Society may be forwarded to the Department of Agricul-
ture at Melbourne in exchange for the papers of that
Department. The committee recommended that the
volumes included in the Second Series of the Joarnal
and all future numbers be forwarded to the Department.
In accordance with a previous vote of the Council, the
committee recommended that the secretary expend a sum
not exceeding £25 in the purchase of books of i-cfcreuce
for the library. A letter was read from Jlr. Thompson,
resigning his seat on the committee; and the committee,
accepting with regret the resignation of their chairman,
proposed that Mr. Bowcn Jones and Mr. Rawlcucebe new
members of the committee, and that the other members
be re-elected. — T'his report was adopted.
Che.mkal. — Mr. W. Wells, M.P. (chairman), reported
82
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
that the committee had met seven times and made seven
reports to the Council. He also presented the annual
report of the Consulting Chemist, of which the following
is an abstract :
A marked improvement has taken place in cake transactions,
tlie greater number of the 181 samples analysed having been
found pure. The practice, however, of selling as genuine
linseed cakes which are made from badly-screened linseed still
continues ; the committee, therefore, recommend to purchasers
that they should insist upon a written guarantee that the cake
is pure linseed cake, in good condition, and made from well-
screened ground linseed only, containing not more than 1|-
per cent, of sand.
Rapeseed cake of good quality is becoming scarce, and all
he samples made from Indian seed being found to contain too
much wild mustard to be a safe food for stock, it is advisable
for purchasers to buy none but green German rape, or Rubsen
cake, this being generally free from pungent and injurious
seeds.
Attention is directed to cocoa-nut and olive cakes, two com-
paratively new feeding materials, which, though useful for
feeding purposes, are neither of them equal in value to the
best Euglish palm-nut meal.
Reference is made to the analysis of locust-meal, which,
containing about half its weight in sugar, is a very fattening
fold, of which good use can be made if it be blended with
decorticated cotton-cake or other food rich in albuminous
compounds, in which locust-meal is rather deficient.
A larger number of artificial manures, belonging to the
class of piiosphate manure, represented by superphosphate,
were analysed than in any preceding year, and most were found
to be of good qualities, and worth the money at which they
were sold.
The term dissolved bones appears to be no longer applied,
as it ought to be, to a manure composed of bone-dust and
acid, but to mixtures of mineral superpliosphate with small
quantities of bone-dust, rarely exceeding 30 per cent. Dr.
Voelcker therefore recommends farmers to buy mineral super-
phosphate and bone-dust separately, to wet the bone-dust, and
to mis it in the proportion of one to two of superphosphate, to
put the mixture in as compact a heap as possible, and to turn
it over after a lapse of three or four weeks.
The samples of nitrate of soda, sulphate of ainmouia, bone-
dust, and guano sent for analysis by members of Society in
1873 were all genuine.
The quality of Peruvian Government -guano has not im-
proved since last year.
Dr. Voelcker directs attention to the injurious effects which
brown-coloured sulphate of ammonia produced in gasworks is
found to produce when applied as a top-dressing to cereal
crops, or to grass land, and points out that the injury is due to
the presence of extremely poisonous cyanogen compounds. He
recommends that all gas refuse materials whicli are employed
occasionally for manuring purposes should be carefully tested
for cyanogen compounds before use.
Reference is made to the communication from the Consul at
Leghorn to Lord Grenville on the subject of the application to
the laud of nigiit soil in Italy.
Dr. Voelcker reports that he has lately visited the sewage
works at Boudy, near Paris, where the solid contents of the
cesspools of Paris are converted into " poudrette," a portable
artificial manure ; and arrangements are now in progress to
extract ammonia by distillation from the liquid portion, and to
convert it into sulphate of ammonia.
A large number of drinking waters have again been sub-
mitted for examination. Amongst them several have been
found contaminated with drainage products, and unfit for use.
Dr. Voelcker reports on the occurrcuce of ergot in the case
of grass which has beeu allowed to run to seed— his attention
having been directed to certain instances of injury to marea
in foal, kept in pastures where the grass had been allowed to
run to seed, the grass, on examination, being found to be
attacked by ergot.
In accordance with the resolution passed at the last meeting
of Council, Dr. Voelcker made an analysis of a specimen of
iron slag, produced by a new process, aud brought under the
notice of tile Chemical Committee by Lord Cathcart. Tiie
result of his examination shows that it may be usefully apphed
to moorland and peaty soils, as a cheap and eflicacious substi-
tute for lime.
The quarterly report of the Chemical C!omraittee was re-
ceived, and the Committee were authorised to prepare it for
publication in the usual agricultural newpapers.
Joint Botanical and Journal Cojijiitxee. — Mr.
J. Dent Dent, M.P., reported that the committee had
received, and to lay upon the table the report of the
judges who were appointed to award the prize offered by
Earl Cathcart for the best essay on the potato disease
and its prevention, and after considering the recommenda-
tions made in that report, they begged to give notice that
at the next Council they would ask for a grant of £100
to carry out the first recommendation of the judges. They
proposed that a special committee consisting of Lord
Cathcart, Mr. Whitehead, Mr. Jabez Turner, IMr. Wake-
field, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Boweu Jones, Mr. Al-
gernon Clarke, and Mr. Carruthers, be appointed to con-
sider suggestions 2 aud 3, and, if they think it desirable,
to draw out in detail a scheme for farther investigation
into the growth of the Potato, and the incidence of the
potato disease, and to submit such scheme to the Coun-
cil. The committee further recommended that the Royal
Agricultural Society of England should carry out its own
independent investigation, but as far as possible in con-
cert with the other national societies. — This report was
adopted.
The following is the report of the judges on the com-
peting essays :
The judges appointed by the Council of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society to examine the essay competing for the prize of
£100, offered by Earl Cathcart, for the best essays on the po-
tato disease and its prevention, have the honour to report as
follows :
They have examined ninety-four competing essays, and have
carefully re-examined twenty-three selected from the total
number.
They are desirous of expressing their recognition of the
great pains bestowed upon the preparation of some of these
essays, especially in the collection of facts relating to the
history of the potato disease, and to the various theories that
have been promulgated as to its cause and prevention.
The theories most frequently advanced by the essayists,
either for atfirmation or contradiction may be stated as follows :
CAUSE. I PREVENriON.
1. Degeneration of the tu- Use of new sorts for plaut-
ber. I ing.
2. Fungus on the tuber.
3. Wet i weather, and gene-
rally superabundant moisture.
4. Peronospora infestans at-
tacking the foliage.
5. Electricity.
Steeping, or kiln-drying the
tuber previous to planting.
Use of lime as manure.
Clumping, tumping, or hil-
lock-growing. Bending haulm
downwards, clear of the tubers.
Tying haulm upright to stakes,
or growth of sorts having erect
stalks.
Dressing hauhn with sul-
phur, chlorine, &c.
Cutting off tops on appear-
ance of disease.
Sowing disease-proof sorts
(either specially mentioned, or
generally, as very early and
very late vigorous sorts).
Use of lightning-conductors
of various modes of constrction.
Avoidance of the use of cer-
6. Plethoric, or succulent,
or diseased condition of the , tain manures,
plant caused, by the use of j
specific manures. '■
A number of other theories are also advanced, but it is not
necessary to particularise them. Like the foregoing they
have, probaly without exception, been for many years familiar
to those acquainted with the practice of potato growers, or with
the literature of the subject. Amongst the 9i essays abun-
dant evidence may be collected, both in support and in contra-
diction of any of the foregoing theories ; and it is especially
noticeable tliat the essayists generally consider it sufficient to
assign a cause and a mode of prevention of the potato disease,
without giving any scientificaUy accurate theory of their pro-
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
83
posed remedy, or sufficient experimental proof of the accuracy
of their statements. The judges are, therefore, unable to admit
that any essayist has established the truth of his theory, par-
ticularly as the first coudition attached to the offer of the prize
IS, that " all information contained in prize essays shall be
founded on experience or observation."
Like the theories of the cause of disease, the practical sug-
gestions made with a view to its preveutiou do not go beyond
those with wliich agriculturists and horticulturists were pre-
viously familiar ; and, as regards the botanical part of the
subject, it must be confessed that all the essayists appear to be
in arrear of the present condition of scientific knowledge.
The judges have, therefore, but with much regret, come to
the conclusion that, in accordance with one of the conditions
(the judges are not bound to award a prize, unless they consi-
der one of tiie essays deserving of it), on wiiich the prize was
offered, they must recommend the Council not to award it to
the writer of any one of the essays that have come before
them.
The judges have autiiority to say that Lord Cathcart hopes
the Council will apply the amount of his intended prize in any
manner that in the interests of agriculture may seem most ad-
yautageous.
Power having been given to the judges to report as to the
advis.\bility of a grant being made for further investigations
into the incidence and prevention of the potato disease,
they have carefully considered this question. They are
much impressed with the national importance, as well
as with the difficulties, of the subject. Therefore, while
considering the Society might, and probably would, confer a
great benefit on the community by inaugurating a sufficiently
extensive inquiry, they feel it tlieir duty before recommendiug
a course of proceeding, to specially call the attention of the
Council to the fact that no reliable results can be expected un-
less experiments are made simultaneously at many different
/places, aud continued for some years in succession.
Presuming that the Council is willing to grant the
funds necessary for sucli aa investigation, the judges have
drawn up a scheme, which they have based ou the follow-
ing facts :
(1.) The natural history of the potato fungus, from the
time it attacks the foliage until the potatoes are harvested, is
now well known ; but the history of the fungus Irom the
potato harvest until its reappearance the following year is at
I'resent entirely unknown, and therefore ofl'ers a suitable field
for investigation.
(3.) The potato fungus does not usually attack the foliage
of the potato until an advanced period in the growth of the
plant ; and it has been confidently asserted by several essayists,
as well as previously in the public press, that certain sorts of
potatoes are what may be termed " disease proof," on one or
other of the following grounds : («.) That the haulm dies
down (aud the potatoes arrive at maturity) before the period
at which the potato fungus commonly 'makes its appearance.
(b.) That certain late kinds also are, as the result of ex-
perience, beheved capable of resisting the attacks of the
potato fungus, (c.) That certain new varieties are also able
to resist the attack of the fungus.
The judges therefore recommend :
(1.) That a sura of money (say £100) be granted for the
purpose of inducing a competent mycologist to undertake the
investigation of the life-history of the potato fungus (I'erou-
ospora iufestans) in the interval between the iujury to the
Ijotato plant and the re-appearance of the fungus in the
following year.
(3.) Tiiat valuable prizes be offered for («.) The best
disease-proof early potato. (4.) The best disease-proof late
jiotato. The judges appointed to award these pri/(^s should he
allowed three years to experiment witli the competing potatoes,
and with the produce of those kinds wliich may be found to
resist disease, in reference to their cropping, keeping, and
cooking qualities.
(3.) That in order to encourage in the meantime the pro-
duction of new varieties, which may have the qualities
already indicated, the Council should offer prizes for disease-
proof potatoes of new varieties, to be sent in for competition
in the year 187S, on terms aud conditions similar to those
already recommended.
The judges are of opiuiou that although all the experi-
mental trials with the competing potatoei should be under the
supervision and control of one and the same committee, yet
that the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, the
Royal Dublin Society, aud the Royal Agricultural Society of
Ireland, might be invited to aid in an investigation of such
magnitude, on the ground that the interest of Scotland and
Ireland in the prevention of the potato pisease does not
yield in gravity to that of England and Wales.
(Signed) Charles Whitehead,
John Algernon Clarke,
William Carruthers,
n. M. Jenkins.
Botanical. — Mr. J. Dent Dent, ISLP., reported that
tiie committee had met twice, and made two reports.
He also presented the following report of the cousulting
botanist for 1873 :
The principal work of the Consulting Botanist during the
past year has consisted in the examinatiou of seeds, chiefly
with the view of determining their gfirmiuating qualities, and
their freedom from impurities. By his advice, some members
of the Society have been prevented from introducing the bane-
ful dodder into their fields.
The report on the present state of scientific knowledge in
regard to the potato disease was published in the JuKrnal for
the year, as well as an account of the nature of dodder, and of
its injurious action on plants, in connection with its attacking
a crop of Swedish turnips.
The Consulting Botanist is at present engaged in inves-
tigaJng, in its botanical aspects, the injurious effects produced
by grasses aft'ected by ergot on brood-mares belonging to a
member of the Society, and he proposes to publish the results
in the next volume of the Journal.
(Signed) William Carruthers.
This report was adopted.
House. — Major-General Viscount Bridport reported
that the committee had met twice aud made two re-
ports. They recommend that the front of the house
should be re-painted in the spring. — This] report wa3
adopted.
Ijiplement. — Mr. T. C. Booth reported that the
committee had met seven times and made six reports.
He also presented the following recommendations of the
committee : 1. That tines for the uou-exhibitiou of im-
plements be abolished, as the exhibitors are now charged
for all show-yard accommodation aud for the entries iu
the catalogue. 2. That a hue of 2s. 6d. per reference
card be imposed on exhibitors who do not comply with
the general regulations concerning them. 3. That the
trials of implements at Bedford commence on Monday,
July 6, 1874. 4. That roots, hay, and straw be pro-
vided for the trial of carts aud waggons at Bedford. 5.
That 50 acres of old sward and 15 acres of clover be
requested for the trials of 1875. — This report was
adopted.
Stock Prizes. — Mr. Milward (chairman) reported
that the committee had revised the Bedford prize sheet,
and made several alterations. They had met twice and
made two reports to the Council. — This report was
adopted, and the following alterations were made in the
rules printed in the prize-sheet :
To be omitted. — No 3rd prize will be given unless at least
six animals be exhibited, and no 2ud prize will be given
unless at least three animals be exhibited, aud in Sliortliorn
classes no 4'th prize will be given unless at least ten auiraals
be exhibited, except on the special recommendation of the
judges.
To be added. — The Council reserves to itself the right of
determining all disputed cases as to qualification, S:c., and
the decision of the Council shall be final in all respects.
The exhibitor of any animal at the Society's country meeting
shall be required to prove the correctness of his certificate to
the satisfaction of the stewards, if called upon by them to do
so. L^^ntil the required proof has been furnished, the prize
may be withheld, and the exiiibitor may, on the recommenda-
tion of the stewards, be prohibited by the Council from ex-
iiibifiug at the Society's country meetings.
A letter was read from Mr. Edward Pease, otfcriug for
84
THE farmi:r's magazine.
the shows of 1874 aud 1875 prizes for mules and asses
to the same amouut aud iu the same classes as those
offered by the same j^eutlemau at the Hull country uieet-
iug. Alter the Earl of Fowls aud the Hon. Wilbriiham
Egerton had advocated the expediency of offering prizes
for these animals, it was decided to accept Mr. Pease's
offer with thanks.
Genekal Bedford. — Lord Kesteveu reported that
the committee recommended that the agreement with
the mayor and town clerk of Bedford be signed and
sealed by the secretary ; that the special prizes offered by
the Bedford local committee be added to the stock prize-
sheet ; and that Lord Charles llussell's offer of a cup,
value £50 with a purse of £50, as a prize for the best
farm in the county of Bedford, be accepted, with thanks
to his lordship. — This report was adopted, and the
Council decided to offer a second prize of £50 to bear the
expenses of adjudication, and to arrange the conditions of
competition. The Journal Committee were also in-
structed to appoint the judges aud arrange for a report
on the competition.
Selectiox. — Colonel Kingscote (Chairman) reported
that the committee had met five times and made four
reports to the Council.
Educatiox.— Colonel Kingscote reported that the
committee had met six times, "and made six reports. A
letter from the head-master of the Bedfordshire county
school, suggesting alterations in the educational scheme,
had been laid before the committee, and they had directed
the secretary to communicate with .Mr. Morris, in order
that the subject may be brought before the congress of
head-masters of county aud other middle-class schools,
to be shortly held in London.— This report was adopted.
Showyard Contracts- Mr. Randell (chairman)
reported that the surveyor had the authority of the local
committee for saying that the levelling, draining, and
removal of fences would be completed by the end of the
present month, aud that there is no probability of any
difficulty with regard to railway sidings. The Showyard
Contracts Committee had met eight times, aud made as
many reports to the Council.— This report was adopted.
Veterinary.— Mr. W. AVells, M.P., reported that the
committee recommended that the grant of £150 to the
Royal Veterinary College be paid for the current year in
two instalments, as usual. During the year they had
met twice, and made two reports to the Council. They
had received from Professor Simouds two reports, one
on the parasitic lung disease of lambs, and the other on
the health of the animals of the farm, iu addition to a
previous report on the latter subject already published iu
the last number of the Journal.— Tln^ report was
adopted.
The following is a summary of Professor Simond's
report :
Health or Animals of the Farm.- The chief occur-
rence o( importance since the date of the last report has been
the outbreak of some remarkable cases of blood-poisoning in
the western counties. Iu tlie first case, some sheep died from
blood-poisoning as far back as last August. The carcases
were skinned and opened in a field adjacent to the premises,
and a considerable portion of the flesh, wliicli was preserved
tor the dogs, was subsequently eaten in the same pasture. In
close proximity to this field and also to the farmstead is a pond
0. stagnant water, which receives the drainage of the stables
and yards, and also the surface-water from the field in question,
-Eleven horses were on the farm at this time ; and on Aug. 23
a four-year-old, which was at pasture iu the field already men-
tioned, was taken suddenly ill, and died in about 24- hours.
Ihe carcase was opened in the straw-yard, about 10 yards
irom the pond, and the viscera were buried in close proximity
to it. On October 3 a five-year-old horse was attacked, and
died in about three hours, the carcase being similarly dealt
with as in the preceding case. This death was followed by
others; so that by October 27— the day on which the matter
was brought to the notice of the College — four horses were
dead, and others reported to be rapidly sinking. Two pigs, a
dog, a cat, aud two ferrets, which liad eaten of the same flesh,
were also dead ; aud a labourer, who had removed the carcase
of the horse which died on October 3 to an adjacent village,
to be boiled down for pigs' food, died under circumstances so
peculiar as to lead his medical attendant to
believe that his death was a consequence of that proceeding.
By November 1 seven horses had died, and it was shown un-
mistakably that death, in the last case, had resulted from
blood-poisoning. All the horses which had died had drunk
regularly of the pond watf^r, but only one of the four which
escaped. The facts of the case all pointed to the pond water
as the source of the mischief, and steps were at once taken to
prevent any further injury being done. Professor Simonds
also describes three other cases (one of which is still under
investigation) and a number of experiments ; but at present
no conclusions can be safely arrived at, beyond the deadly
nature and easy transmissibility of blood diseases from animal
to animal of different species.
Parasitic Lung Disease of Lambs. — A list of questions
was issued last year to members of the Lincolnshire Agricul-
tural Society, with a view of ascertainiug uuder what con-
ditions this disease is most prevalent, aud various experiments
have been had recourse to for the purpose of throwing further
light on the development of the worm or worms which are
tlie cause of the malady. These experiments cannot be said
to have been very successful. It is, however, now satis-
factorily ascertained that more than one variety of thread-
worm finds its way into the air-passages of the lungs of sheep .
Of the " long-strongle" of Dr. Cobbold (Gordius of Dr. Crisp)
even less is known, with reference to its natural history aud
development, than of the Strongylus filaria, or common
lung- worm. Both species are believed to undergo imporant
developmental stages out of the body of the sheep during this
time in the soil, or in the plants of ordinary pasturage, or in
artificially-cultivated clovers and grasses. On farms on which
the disease exists the greatest care ought to be exercised to
keep lambs from pastures, and from clover and other layers
which had been fed with sheep at an earlier part of the year.
Experience lias shown that lambs dropped on turnips aud
allowed to run before tiie ewes, aud later on fed on tares and
similar green food, and on cabbages specially cultivated to
come iu about weaning time, are comparatively free from
attacks of the lung-worm. It lias also been observed that tiie
disease is kept active when the system of renewing the flock
of ewes from lambs bred and reared on the farm is adopted
In Lincolnshire during the summer the ewes are fed on per-
manent pasture and new seeds, after harvest on the stubbles
and clover and other eddishes until they are broken up (or
wheat, when they go on turnips, following the hoggets ; in
many instances the tups are put to the ewes while they are
feeding on new seeds. Ewes and lambs are soon removed
from turnips to the new seeds and pastures, where they remain
until weaning time, when tlie lambs are put on the pastures
" until they become settled," when they are removed to the
clover eddishes, or to the clovers grazed previously witli the
ewes and lambs, or occasionally to white clovers grazed two
years in succession. The young animals are thus, during tlie
most dangerous periods of their lives, kept ou land and on
food the most likely to infest them with the parasites, which
having, in the form of ova or embryonic worms, been coughed
up by infected sheep, have undergone a further development
fitting them for dwelling within the respiratory organs, the
habitat in which they become sexually mature, and give rise
to organic diseases of the lungs by their enormous multipli-
cations. It also appears that the lambs, which are diseased
to a serious extent, are changed about from pasture to pasture,
both natural and artificial, and thus distribute broadcast
myriads of ova and immature worms over the whole farm, to
become iu due time the cause of disease in lambs which are
yet unborn.
The standing committees for the year 1874 were
appointed. A letter was read from the editor of the
Norfolk and Sufolk Red-polled Herdbook, asking the
Council to adopt a " standard description" of that breed ;
and the secretary was instructed to reply that it was a
question for the judges at the country meetings to decide
whether the animals exhibited were duly qualified for
competition iu the classes in which they were entered.
.THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
A letter was read from the Belgian Minister, enclosing
a copy of the prize-sheet of the International Exhibition
of Breeding Animals and Agricullnral Implements to be
held next year at Brussels, eommeuciujj; on June 27.
Communications from intending exhibitors should be
addressed to the secretary, M. Parisel, Hue Verte, No.
66, Brnxelles.
The report of the Council to the general meeting was
prepared.
On the motion of Mr. Wells, M.P., the usual Christ-
mas holidays were granted to the secretary and clerks,
aiid (he Council adjourned until Wednesday, February 4,
1874.
At a special Council meeting, licKl at liie rising of the
monthly Council, in accordance with the bye-laws, the
report of the Stock prizes Committee was received and
the prize-sheet for the Bedford meeting was adopted and
ordered to be printed.
THb: ROYAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE CLUB.
Tlie annual dinner was held at " Tlie London," on Tuesday
in the show week, vvl\ea a large party of old Cirencester
collegians assembled under the presidency of Mr. Jacob Wilson,
the vice-chair being occupied by the honorary secretary,
Mr. C. G. iloberts. The same subject, " What are the con-
ditions which render it desirable to lay down Arable Land to
Gass ?" wliioh had been partially discussed at the meeting of
the Club in Hull last July, was now resumed. In his opeuine;
remarks the Chairman dwelt upon the increasing demand for
animal food and the scarcity of labour in this country as rea-
sons for converting from arable to pasture much of our poorer
clay land.
Sir. T. Arkell spoke of the subject as connected with the
increased use of steam cultivation. Mr. Randkll held that
light land should never be laid down, that a greater amount
of meat would be obtained by a proper succession of greeu
crops even on heavy land, and tliat in the midland counties of
England the laying down land to grass is often an unprofit-
able work. Mr. EiNi.AV UuiVN pointed out that although the
cost of labour might be reduced from 40s. to 5s. an acre by
tlie substitution of grass for arable laud, yet with energetic
management the return of prolit would be greater on well-
farmed land under the plough. Mr. J. Coleman considered
high fanning as much more common upon arable than ou
grass laud ; that in the comparison of protits the latter often is
unfairly depreciated. The aspects of the question as affected
by temperature, latitude, and rainfall were next considered
by Messrs. Bootii, Jenkins, and others.
After the customary loyal toasts, the Chairman proposed
Prosperity to the Royal Agricultural College Club, and
gave a short sketch of its first formation at the Warwick
meeting in 1858. Since that time it had seen some vicissi-
tudes, but was now in a very llonrishiug condition. Its mem-
bers, by their associated and individual ell'orts, had been able to
much for the advancement of agricultural science.
In replying to the toast Mr. Roberts referred to the plea-
sures ot maintaining college friendships in after-life, and hoped
that the younger members would carry on with vigour the
series of tield experiments that have now been conducted by
a succession of members for many years.
Mr. J. CoLEJiAN proposed The Royal Agricultural So-
ciety, and Mr. Randell replied ; Mr. EI^aAT Dunn, The
Royal Agricultural College, and Mr. E. Bowly replied for
the College, and gave t!ie health of the Chairman, a most
valuable member of the Council- of the Royal Agricultural
Society, and an illustrious example of the value of the college
system of mental culture.
Mr. Edward Holland's health was proposed by the C'ifaik-
MAN, with much regret aud sympathy for the domestic tri;il
that caused bis absence from the board.
The health of the visitors was proposed by Mr. Bowstbad,
and responded to by Mr. Jabe/ Turner and Mr. Jenkins,
who acknowledged the many contributions to the Journal of
the lloval Agricultural Society received from members of the
Club.
Professor Wrightson was appointed President of the Club
for the year 1874.
MR.
GEORGE HOPE'S PORTRAIT.
A number of gentlemen connected with East Lothian as-
sembled last week in the Corn Exchange, Haddington, for the
purpose of presenting Mr. George Hope, late of Fentonbarns,
with his portrait, as a testimony of their appreciation of the
services which he has rendered to the cause of agriculture
throngbout the countr\. It will be remembered that in May
last, when it became known that Mr. Hope was ([uitting Fen-
tonbarns, a feeling was generally expressed in tlic county that
some practical proof should be given of the admiration which
the gentlemen and farmers of tlie district felt for Mr. Hope's
iiigh qualities, as well as of sympathy for him in the circum-
stances in which he was placed. A committee was formed,
consisting of the leading proprietors and farmers in East
Lothian, and steps were taken for Ibe purpose of presenting
Mr. Hope with bis portrait, and also of inviting him to a
public dinner, at which the presentation could be made. Jlr.
George Reid, of Aberdeen, was the artist into whose hands
the commission was placed, whose prior engagements, however
prevented him from completing the painting until the end of
the year, and acoordiugly, at a public banquet to which Mr.
Hope was iuvitcd in April last, the chairman — Mr. A. Kin-
loch, of Gilmerton — intimated that it was tlie intention ot the
gentlemen of the conuty to present him witii ids portrait as
soon as it was executed. A few weeks ago Mr- Rcid com-
pleted the painting, and tlie subscribers accordingly met for
tlie purpose of formally presenting it to Mr. Hope As the
meeting took place immediately after the market had been
held, there was a very large attendance of the farmers of the
district.
Mr. George Hauvey, Wbittingbame Mains, the chairman
said : They had met to do honour to an agricultural friend,
who for many a day was one of the most respected gentlemen
in the county, and one who had added honour and dignity to
the profession of farming. When he presided at the displen-
ishing sale at Fentonbarns, — one of the largest and most un-
precedented that had ever taken place in East Lothian — be
said about all he had to say regarding Mr. Hope; and they
would perhaps excuse him for not making another speech at
this time. He would only, therefore, express the very great
pleasure it gave him to be the instrument in conveying to Mr.
Hope the presentation portrait which had been subscribed
for by his friends and neighbours of the county. Mr. Hope
was as well known te the most of them as he was to himself.
He was glad to see such a most respectable body of the sub-
scribers present, and he hoped they would consider the por-
trait a faithful likeness, which would do credit alike to the
artist and the gentlemen who bad selected the artist to exe-
cute the work. The portrait having been unveiled, the chair-
man said be thought it looked remarkably well, aud they
might congratulate Mr. Hope upon the striking likeness which
the artist bad succeeded in providing. He hoped Mr. Hope
and his fmuily would be long spared to each other. He
begged to propose "Long life, health, and happiness to Mr.
Hope." The toast was cordially responded to.
Mr. Hoi-E, who on rising to respond, was loudly applauded,
said he could assure them that it was not a mere figure of
speech when he said that he was at a loss for words adequately
to express his great sense of their kindness. For a private
person to receive a portrait of himself from bis friends aud
neighbours was a very great honour indeed ; aud to be in that
86
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
position was very pleasiug to him at this time, when he was
leaving East Lothian. His friends assured him that it was
a very faithful likeness, and he had been informed by gentle-
men well capable of judging that it was an excellent piece of
art altogether. He should take it with him as a certificate of
character from them, and it was known that such was coming,
he believed it had had some influence in making his reception
by his friends and neighbours in Peebleshire remarkably kind.
He need not tell them how sorry he was to leave this county.
He believed it was in human nature to cling to places and to
associate places with persons ; and that was peculiarly the
case with himself. He admired East- Lothian more than any
other county in Scotland, and he liked the parish of Drem and
Eentonbarns in particular. He should long retain a warm
interest in this district. Notwithstanding this, he was daily
acquiring a liking for his new home. It had, to be sure, a
different soil and climate from East-Lothian, and wheat could
not be grown there so thoroughly as it could here ; but they
were to be engaged in rearing stock, which promised to pay
tolerably well. After a rather cold and sunless summer tliey
had a very fair harvest last season. It might not have been
altogether up to the mark, but it was very much superior in-
deed to the harvest of 1872, which was the worst in all his
experience. He trusted there were better times in store for
them as well as for others. If tenants did not thrive in East-
Lothian, he did not know where they would. The labour
question was generally considered to be a rock a-head, and
that might be so to a certain extent ; but if adequately luet,
he for one would not be at all frighted about it. A very
great deal could yet be done in the way of farming ; but in
the first place the tenants required to get greater freedom.
He believed, if they had the privilege of cropping their laud
pretty much as they might find it to be their interest to do so,
it would be the better for both landlords and tenants. It re-
quired a large amount of capital to farm well so as to make
it pay at all ; and they must have security for their capital.
He trusted they would speedily obtain that ; and if they did
so, it would perhaps enable them to meet the increased rate of
wageswhich they might be called up^onto pay. He was glad that
his friend Mr. Harvey was in the chair on this occasion ; he
had been a friend in need ; and such a one as they knew was
a friend indeed. He begged again to thank them most kindly
for such a valuable portrait ; and he could assure them it would
be highly treasured by himself and his family.
The CiiATRMAN then proposed the "Health of Mrs. Hope
and Family," a toast which was cordially pledged.
Mr. Peterkin Hope thanked them most sincerely for the
kind manner in which they had remembered his mother on
this occasion. The great kindness which had been shown to
the family to-day vvould long be remembered by her and by
them all. It was, perhaps, not for him to criticise the por-
trait, but he could not help saying that Mr. Reid had not only
given Ithera a faithful likeness, but it seemed as if he had
taken his father's very soul out of his body and put it upon
the canvas.
Mr. Hope proposed the health of the artist, and Mr. Jas.
Douglas, Athelstaneford New Mains, the health .of the
Chairman.
The cost of the portrait has been over £120. Along with
it Mr. Hope receives a gift of silver plate, which was not,
however, presented in public. We believe that upwards of
£200 was subscribed towards the testimonial.
REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH.
The feature of the month, so far as the cattle trade has
been concerned, has beeu the holding of the Annual Cliristmas
Market for the sale of fat stock. Considering the numerous
advantages that graziers and breeders have en-
joyed during tiie season, the show cannot be said to have
exceeded anticipations, if indeed it came up to them ; never-
theless, a full average supply of stock was exhibited, including
some good useful animals, the receipts from Scotland being
especially fine in quality and condition. In the general
course of the trade nothing of interest has transpired. Busi-
ness has not been brisk, but a fair amount of steadiness has
prevailed, and prices have been maintained. Eor the best
Scots and crosses 6s. 8d. per 8 lbs. has been the extreme
quotation, Gs. 'td. to 6s. 6d. being the general top quotation.
Tiie receipts of foreign stock, now that the Tonning season is
closed, have been extremely small, and have been confined
to a few arrivals from Spain and Holland, which although
they have not attracted active competition, have been disposed
of at full prices. Ireland has contributed a rather large
supply, but a considerable proportion has consisted of old
cov^'s. From onr own grazing districts a moderate supply
has come to hand, but the general condition can hardly be
said to have come up to the average. This is a matter of some
surprise as the abundant hay crop, the plentiful supply of
grass in the pastures, and the large yield of roots have been
of great benefit to the breeder and grazier in rearing and
fattening liis stock.
The sheep market has been only moderately supplied. The
show of choice home breeds has been limited, but the condition
of the Downs has been very good. Form abroad a fair number
of German animals has come to hand. The trade has not been
active, but it has been tolerably steady, and the best Downs
and Half-breds have occasionally made 7s., the general top
quotations being 63, 8d, to 6s, lOd, per 81bs,
Calves, of which a moderate supply has been on offer, have
changed hands to a fair extent, but prices have been irregular.
The pig trade has been dull, and prices have been without
change of importance.
The following table shows the imports of cattle into London
during December, 1872 and 1873 :
1872. 1873.
Beasts 2,24.8 2,590
Sheep 22,970 19,111
Calves 1,284 1,551
Pigs 175 1,405
The following table shows|the_arrival of beasts from our own
grazing districts, as well as from Scotland and Ireland, during
December :
1872 1873
Norfolk and Suffolk 1,800 800
Lincolnshi>-e, Leicestershire, and
Northamptonshire 4-,100 7,5G0
Other parts of England 6,000 3,960
Scotland 1,700 1,441
Ireland 2,500 2,100
The annexed figures show the total supplies of stock ex-
hibited and disposed of at the Metropolitan Cattle Market
during the month;
1872. 1873.
Beasts 24,185 22,340
Sheep 73,080 76,506
Calves 1,630 1,540
Pigs 530 885
Boasts have sold at 4s. 4d. to 6s. 8d., sheep at 4s. 8d. to 78.,
calves at 5s. to 6s. 4d., and pigs at 3s. lOd. to 5s. 4d. per Slbs.
sinking the otfal.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
8?
REVIEW OE THE CORN TRADE
DURING THE PAST MONTH.
After cousiderablc changes in the aspect and tempera-
ture of the last month we are brought to the close of the
year iiiuler very favourable circumstances. There were
dense fogs for about a week, an^ a frost of 12 degress on
the second week, but it soon gave place to very mild
weather, which has continued, and the principal feature of
the season has been the comparative absence of rain. To
this humid country, where a strong soil predominates,
this has been a great good. Vegetables have continued
their growth, aud been plentiful. The potatoes have
kept better than expected. The cattle have been saved
from severe exposure in the meadows, which have helped
to keep them. Wheat has been abundantly planted, and
the earliest sown almost everywhere looks well, excepting
some local damage by wireworm and slugs. In France,
where the soil is lighter, the want of rain has been some-
what complained of, as endangering the young plants in
the event of severe frosts, as it would serve to settle them
more firmly in the soil. In Germany the rain has been
more abundant, but not excessive ; and in Hungary the
prospects for the young corn have improved. It is of no
small importance that we thus commence the season after
a generally short yield of wheat ; for whatever stocks
may be gathered it is pretty certain every bushel will be
wanted. A good yield in 1 S7i is most desirable. The
range of prices being high, with a short period of double
discount from the want of gold for the Prussian coinage
and the financial difficulties of the United States, there
was little room for increase during the month which has
come and gone, with only a steady consumptive trade, at
the previous rates. But as these are early times yet,
they are no test of the ability of foreign lands to make up
the heavy deficiency in this country, which is everywhere
acknowledged as not likely to prove less than 13,000,000
quarters in wheat and flour. As so much was actually
provided for last season's wants, so let us hope that the
same supply will not fail ns. Some expect 9,000,000
quarters from America alone, and should it come, the
remaining four need not be a matter of uneasiness, espe-
cially as we now find a change much for the better in
Southern Australia, whence they hope to be able to send
600,000 quarters. This season we have had no inconsider-
able supplies from India ; but with a probable famine in those
vast regions, it will be vain to expect much corn, or even
rice. But all the nations are the servants of Providence,
aud while we would not take a crust from the famished
Hindoo, let us hope that He who makes the corn to
revive, so that every heart is filled with gladness, will
remember how Israel was fed in Egypt, and satisfy the
wants of every living thing. The following rates were
recently paid at the several places noted : Best white
wheat at Paris TOs., red 6Gs. ; white at Bordeaux 07s. ;
white Spanish at Marseilles C9s. 6d. ; winter American
at Havre 66s. 6d., spring 64s. 6d. AVhcat at Liege 66s.,
at Louvain 68s., Rostock wheat at Ilambro' 64s., fine
high-mixed at Danzig 71s. c, f., and i. ; red at Berlin
57s., at Cologne 62s. Pine heavy wheat at Pesth 65s.,
at Valladolid 50s., Barletta at Naples 52s., at San Fran-
cisco 67s. c, f., and i. ; at Adelaide 503. f. o. b. ; red
spring at New York 53s. per 4801bs.
The first Monday in Mark Lane opened on very small
supplies of English wheat, but there was a heavy arrival
of foreign, chiefly from America. The show of fresh samples
on the Essex and Kentish stands was moderate, aud the
condition generally poor. The samples that were really
fine and dry went off pretty freely, at an improvement of
Is. per qr., but there was no advance on inferior sorts,
and only a dull sale. The heavy arrivals of foreign, how-
ever, found the trade rather in favour of sellers; aud
x\.merican spring sorts, notwithstanding their plentiful-
ness, were quite Is. higher. With liberal arrivals oft" the
coast, prices were also Is. dearer, and a ready sale. The
London advance of Is. was followed in several places, as
at Alford, Gainsborough, Louth, Leeds, Rotherham,
Sheffield, &c. ; but in the majority of instances no change
of value was noted, and Barnsley was rather lower, aud
though Liverpool gained Id. to 3d. on Tuesday, 2d. was lost
on the following Friday. Edinburgh and Leith were
without change, but Glasgow improved Is. per qr. At
Dublin home-grown wheat was dull, and foreign only
firm.
On the second Monday there was but a small supply of
English wheat, but the foreign arrivals exceeded the
abundance of the previous week, mostly from America
aud Russia. The show of fresh samples from the near
counties was limited, and again generally in bad condition.
The driest lots about maintained the previous prices, but
low sorts were cheaper to sell. The foreign trade, af-
fected by the continued heavy arrivals, was generally dull,
aud American sorts lost the advance of the previous week,
but fine Australian were rather dearer, from a foreign
inquiry. Cargoes afloat being also plentiful, there was
less briskness in the sales at Is. decline. The wheat
trade this week in the country was dull, St. Ives and a
few other places noting a decline of Is. per qr., but an
upward tendency was evinced in some localities. Liver-
pool gave way 2d. per cental on Tuesday, and subse-
quently recovered. At Edinburgh, Leith, aud Glasgow
no change of value was noted. Irish wheat remained
dull at Dublin, and foreign was very firm.
On the third Monday there was the usual small supply
of home-growth, with a great falling-oft" in the foreign
arrivals — say to one-fifth of their previous magnitude.
There having been a sharp frost, samples of English were
much improved in condition, aud sold more readily at
fuU prices, in some instances obtaining rather more
money. But the foreign trade was more decidedly im-
proved for all qualities, more especially red American
spring, to the extent of Is. per qr. Floating cargoes also
were improved as much. Business in the country this
week was quiet from the near approach of the Christma s
holidays ; but wheat, though a slow sale, was generally
without any change, and in a few instances a rise of Is .
took place. At Liverpool the former rates were main-
tained on Tuesday, but on Friday prices were Is. per
cental lower. At Edinburgh the wheat trade was dull,
but firm at Leith, Glasgow being 6d. to Is. per qr.
dearer. Dublin had but a small attendance, with a quiet
trade, not only for wheat, but all kinds of grain.
On the fourth ^londay there was a short English
supply, but plenty of foreign, more than half being from
New York. The show of fresh samples on the Essex
and Kentish stands was limited, varying in condition.
Such samples as were dry and fine were held at the pre-
88
THE FABMEH'S MAGAZIliTE.
viou3 rates ; the others were extremely (litiicult lo clear
off. The market, so near Christmas, being thinly at-
tended, and of a holiday character, very little was done
in foreign, but holders generally were firm in maintaining
the prices of the previous week. The floating trade was
dull, with prices rather easier. With a sudden change
to very mild weather in the country, and the arrival of
Christmas, the wheat trade was generelly quiet, but
without reduction in prices. Liverpool was unaltered
on Tuesdiiy. The Scotch markets were in calm. The
price both of native and foreign when) at Dublin was
fully maintained.
On the fifth ^louday the supply of English was very
scanty, and the foreign arrivals good. The number of
fresh English samples exhibited was small, the condition
still showing some variety. The best lots were slowly
taken at the rates of the previous week. In foreign
l)u
o
Pm
P^
P^
el;?inm ; a mountain
chain which cropped up in the county of Somerset, and again
in the Ardennes, and was buried under our chalk formations.
If ever we got coal in Suffolk, we should get it along that
mountain chain, whose slopes were covered by our chalk for-
mation. At Harwich this mountain chain had been struck
Upon at a deph of 1,200 feet, formed of rocks, which had
been found to be coal-bearing rocks. The formation of tliis
•Strata was in a basin-shaped trough, containing the London
clay, tiie depression of tlie basin extending from Suffolk to
Kent, where it cropped out again in the Woolwich beds.
London clay formed the lower heavy lands of Essex, and it
gave to the marsh lands of that county tlieir character. It
contained ingredients which made it a valuable top-dressing.
By itself it was too close and tenacious, and it required lime
and sand to make it more porous for general treatment. It
was, undoubtedly, a marine deposit, and in some parts of
Suffolk it formed the basis of tlie gravel of the valleys. At
Bentley, near Ipswich, it was so near the surface that the
dikes were cut into it, but it was generally left along tlie
banks, when it might be made very valuable as a top-dressing.
The London clay also cropped out at Brook's Hall brick-yard,
near Ipswich, where there was a bed of it, in which could be
seen innumerable remains of fossil plants, trees, and fruits,
now changed into sulphite of iron, or iron pyrites. London
clay was also fouud in the peninsula between the Orwell and
the Stour. Here it was intersected with bands of cement
stone ; carbonate of lime was the base of this. The origin of
these bands of nodules was undoubtedly caused in the same
way as the flint nodules in the chalk, by chemical segregation,
or a running together when the mat,ter was in an oozy con-
dition. The London clay, was in fact, when formed the bottom
of a sea, and at the time it was formed the dry land in this
part of the world was enjoying a tropical climate. Enormous
fishes existed in the sea, and the sharks with teeth six inches
long and four inches wide at the base, so that their mouths
must have been eighteen feet round them. The London clay
was exceedingly rich marine habitat. All sorts of shell fishes
lived in the sea, and wiien they died the harder parts went
into the mud, and the softer parts which were rich in phos-
phorous, sulphur, and nitrogen were also deposited, and were
now to b(i fouud in the coprolites which were so abundant in
Suffolk. These represented the segregation of the organic
matter of the creatures, who lived at the bottom of this
ancient sea, just as the cement stoue nodules represented the
segre[;ation of the carbonate of lime in their inorganic parts.
Mr. Taylor also showed the composition of the red crag of
Suffolk, and said that the red colour was due to the presence
of the iron in the phosphatic nodules, which, when the sea
bottom was raised became dry land, were subjected to the in-
fluence of the atmosphere and the wear and tear of rivers.
The red colour was in fact due to the chemical changes pro-
duced by the action of the water and the atmosphere on the
sulphite of iron. The surface of Loudon clay was covered
with the remains of animals which were now extinct in
England, such as elephants, lions, tigers, tapirs. On the flint
nodules or boulders found here were barnacles on the upper
side, which showed tiiat the sea in which they were deposited
must have been a quiet one, and other signs showed that the
conditions must have been similar to those of our
shallow seas in the present day. The coraline was the oldest
of the cragbeds, aud was so called because it contained over
60 different kinds of fossil corals. There were about 320 dif-
ferent and distinct species of shells found in the coraline crag.
The bed, originally deposited as a continuous sheet, was
broken up by marine action, and in its re-disposition the shells
were broken up, so that the crag in some places resembled
bran, or the husk of Wheat, and in others, as at Aldeburgh, it
was re-cemented, or run together in blocks, in which form it
was used as building materials. The red crag came over the
corraline crag, and there were evidences that the red crag sea
was a turbulent one. Of the 324 species of shell found in the
coraline crag less than one-third were found which were still
living, but of the 250 species in the red crag more than half were
living. This, he argued, showed a gradual drawing on the
present condition of things. The existing specimens were also
some of them in British seas and some of them still further
North, showing that the climate was getting colder us the red
crag was formed. Mr. Taylor then described the Norwich crag
as a later formation, and gave examples of its being fouud near
Aldeburgh and Leiston. In this there were iIO rpesiss of
shell, many of which were living off the coast of Greenland, /
and were also found in the Dogger Bank. A very small pro-
portion of these shells were extinct. These facts proved that
a colder climate was coming over this region ; and the crags
were the connecting links between the warmer and tropical
period of the London clay and the colder or arctic period which
followed the crags. The formation of the Chillesford clay was
also alluded to. It extended to Wroxharn, nine miles on the
other side of Norwich. It was a very valuable clay for brick-
making, and was worth more than a gold mine wherever it
was found for brick-making. There were shells found in con-
nection with the Chillesford clay, which cropped o\it in a
stackyard close to Chillesford Chnrch,of the same kind as were
now found in Arctic seas, showing that the climate was still
colder when this clay was formed than it had been in any of
the previous formations. Overlying this was the Weybourne
crag, which had shells in it which were still to be found in the
North seas, and one of fhem was called the Tdliiin Jln/fira
from its being found in great abundance in the Baltic Sea. In
fact, a geologist could tell the age of a deposit by the shells
just as well as they could tell the trees of an orchard by look-
ing at the fruit. The Chillesford clay would form a rich loam
owing to the ready manner in which the atmosphere would act
upon it. About Wroxharn there were some of the richest soils
in Norfolk ; he believed this was simply due to the fact that
106
THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE.
this clay cropped out in the sides of the valleys over a large
expanse of the country, and was washed down and reduced by
the action of the rain and the atmosphere. Mr. Taylor next
alluded to the liprht lands, such as were seen at Westletou
Heath, and said that the pebble beds in the sands of the sub-
soil there were, in some cases, 40 feet in thickness. These
pebbles were small and well rounded, showing how each one
must have been worn by the water. Each of these was once a
fragment of rock, and as there must have been much waste
material in the rounding process, where had that gone ? It
had gone to form the basis of our light lands. There were no
remains of shells in these pebble beds or their accompanying
sands. The water found its way through tliese sands and
pebbles so easily that the "iron pan" found at *^he bottom
of them was caused by the action of the water, which so per-
colated through the beds, carrying witli it whatever iron there
was, and cementing the lower soils together with a sort of
chemical action. The pebble beds were the foreshore of a
sea, which retreated in a Northerly direction. They formed
the hungry soils on which, perhaps, the only tree that could
be grown with any profit vvas the Austrian pine. They might
possibly be made to pay for growing rabbits, if rabbits sold at
Loudon prices, 2s. 6d. each. These " pebble beds," as they
were traced into Norfolk, were found to alter their character,
until near Cromer they found them passing into a blue clay,
in which were large boulders of rock. Enormous masses of
rock, some of them 200 feet long, and t masse. In defiance of all law, the rabbits
and hares are protected by individual agreement. Looking at
it in that light, we are never safe. The administration of the
Game-laws and the abuses arising therefrom is a great point
for those who wish to see the law repealed, but I don't intend
to enter into that part of the question ; but all gentlemen who
are in the habit of attending the law-courts must know that
the administration of the Game-laws has been the subject of
tiie greatest animadversion. After some further observations
of a general character, Mr. Harrison went on to say that
history has always pointed out that the Game-laws were
originally made for the benefit of a grasping and overweening
aristocracy. I should like to ask at whose wish and for whose
benefit are they kept up now ? Is it for the tenants ? I
think not. Is it for the benefit of the public, who, instead of
getting food by these laws, have their food lessened ? I say
no Is it for the labourer ? The idea is preposterous. Then
who are they kept up for ? I don't wish to use any hard
words; but I will say this— they are kept up for the benefit
of an overbearing aristocracy. These are hard words; but
they are true. Some of you here present might, periiaps, be
afraid to use the expressions that I have done, however much
you may be convinced of their truth ; but I hold it to be our
duty when we speak on such matters as these to declare the
truth, and to declare it boldly and fearlessly. I am reminded
of a noble earl, who has said, in referring to our aristocracy :
Let trade, let commerce, arts, and science die,
But give us still our old nobility.
You would hardly believe that such words could have been
uttered in the last century ; but tliey were uttered, and I be-
lieve the man tliat produced them must have been a great ad-
vocate of over-preservation of game. He ought to have lived
in the good old times, before we farmers had degenerated so
much as to dislike to be gobbled up, stock, lock, and barrel,
as we sometimes are by game —
The Chairman : Wouldn't it be better if you were to be a
little more moderate ?
Mr. Harrison : Of course I shall pursue any course that
the chairman desires me to do, and I iiave no desire to use
any immoderate expressions. 1 don't think I have done so.
But to proceed. We are told that the agricultural interest is
very strongly represented in Parliament. Well, upon most
questions we are. But here in this Game-law question we
have a subject on wiiich our interests and the interests of our
landlords and representatives unfortunately clash. It would
be a mockery to pretend that they do not do so, and I do not
130
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
believe we shall ever have this matter remedied till the agri-
cultural interest is represented separately from the landed in-
terest. What I mean is, that on this question the landed
interest, meaning tlie landlords, is represented in Parliament ;
but the agricultural interest, meaning the farmers, is not. I
will now conclude my remarks, and, in doing so, I must beg
the indulgence of our cluiirman if I have been a little too
warm ; still, there is nothing like getting warm to your sub-
ject, and I feel now as if I could speak for an hour. I am
pleased to see so many farmers here, for I hear it said on all
sides that the farmers can't have auy grievances, or they would
take the trouble to make an effort to get them r -dressed. If
the farmers won't come to the Chamber, and hear the rest of
us make fools of ourselves, that is their own fault, and I can
only deplore their apathy. Why, in a county like Surrey, this
room is not crowded with farmers to-day, when such an im-
portant matter, affecting so nearly their best interests, is under
discussion, 1 am sure I am at a loss to imagine, unless it is
that Surrey farmers are more forgiving than 1 am for one, for
every farmer must at some time within the last twelve months
have been just in the proper humour to come to the Chamber,
and ventilate his grievances under the Game-laws.
Mr. P. Arthur said he had much pleasure in seconding
the resolution. He was sure that the farming community
laboured under a serious grievance, and it was a grievance
that ought not only to be remedied, but remedied at once.
Mr. Napper expressed an opinion that the matter in hand
was purely a landlord and tenant question, and he thought it
might be met in a very simple way. The solution of the
difficulty appeared to him to be to give instructions that in
the premium lease the matter of game should be provided for.
Tlie question was one, however, with which he was not imme-
diately concerned, as he was neither landlord or tenant.
Mr. John Ellis said: I think this question of the Game-
laws is the most proper question to which the attention of
this Chamber could be directed. I have very strong feelings
on this subject, but in Ihe course of my remarks I shall en-
deavour to guard against any expression of opinion which
may be offensive to any person present, or any landowner in
the county who may be absent. It is very much to be re-
gretted (and I would hardly allow myself to explain ray own
ideas of the cause) that there is not a larger attendance of
landowners and tenant-farmers of the county here. I should
have thought, and in fact I had hoped that all the landowners
of this neighbourhood would have been present to-day, as f hey
ought to have been. The question is one so momentous and
so important, and one which so nearly concerns the welfare
of the tenant, that the landowners would have shown their
good sense, one and all, to have put in an appearance ; to
have met the farmers face to face, and to have discussed the
relationship that exists between tlie two classes in their several
positions. I shall not allow myself to express myself too
strongly on this occasion, but I will say that the Game-laws,
existing in their prsent state, and inducing, as they do, an
over-preservation of game in this county, and in many counties
other than Surrey, are a blot upon our statute book and a
disgrace, and one of the greatest curses of our country. I
can't express myself more strongly, and this statement of mine,
all farmers, if they had the courage to do so, could substan-
tiate. No question has a nearer relation to us than this,
except it may be the tenure of land. When we started this
Chamber we considered the subject of the tenure of land
somewhat at length, and we went into the question of unex-
hausted improvements. I won't say that we have come to
any definite conclusion on that subject, for although we have
passed certain resolutions what has been the good ? What is
the permanent, real, and substantial good that is likely to
emanate from resolutions passed at this Chamber unless we
call upon those gentlemen who represent us in Parliament,
and ask them to take these measures and resolutions in hand,
and submit them to the House of Commons, and to represent
our interests in the House, All our meetings, unless we do
that, will liave very little real effect. Of that I am positive,
and I say again that I quite agree with the remarks of Mr.
Harrison, that the agricultural interest in this county is an
interest that has never been represented in the House of
Commons, it has never been represented, nor is it likely to
be, till we do as every other class of the community are doing,
send men from our own class to represent our interests. It
may be said that the aristocracy — and I have no desire to say
the least word, of disparapjement of that uoble bodv— J say
with all due respect, that the aristocracy do not, and cannot,
and never have done, and never will represent to any great
extent tlie interest of the tenant-farmers. It is not reasonable
to expect them to do so, for if we, as farmers, went to Parli-
ament, we should represent our own interests, and not the in-
terests of other classes. But I will not enlarge further on
this point. I start from this position — that the Game-laws,
inducing as they do an over-preservation of game, are, as they
stand, a blot upon our statute book, and ought to be repealed.
We know why they are a disgrace, and we know to what a
great extent the produce of the country is diminished in con-
sequence of them. I see thousands and tens of thousands of
acres that do not produce one-third of what they would do
were it not for these iniquitous Game-laws. I have been a
surveyor and valuer for 35 years, and how many instances
have come under ray immediate observation of tenant-farmers
and their families being ruined by trusting in their landlords,
who promised they should never be injured by game ? I have
many times seen families, industrious, hard working, honest,
striving families so ruined. I declare that I do not overdraw
the picture when I say that there have been many cases where
the Game-laws and nothing else have caused men to become
the occupants of lunatic asylums. Our chairman, as a magis-
trate, knows of the convictions that are being daily recorded,
not so much, however, in our county as in others. He knows
how much these Game-laws help to fill our gaols and our
workhouses ; no one knows better than he does that such is
the case. Then there is another important point to be con-
sidered, and that is the amazing cost of carrying out these
laws. Having touched on this point Mr. Ellis went on to
express an opinion that if the laws were not altogether re-
pealed they ought to be re-arranged. After saying that they
were often told that an agreement between the landlord and
tenant should be sufficient, he proceeded to deal with that
point. He said : I have known numbers of cases where men
have made contracts that if any damage was done they should
be remunerated and reimbursed. But what was the result ?
I have been employed to adjudieate in these cases, sometimes
on the part of the claimant and sometimes for the landlord,
and I have never known anyone instance in my whole life in
which I believed an adequate compensation was given to the
tenant or anything approaching an adequate compensation.
And the result is that a man sees his crops destroyed before
his eyes — his corn and his roots, and is powerless to prevent
it. If the corn crop is damaged, the evil does not rest vi'ith
the mere destruction done to the crop. In the first place the
grain falls short ; then there is no straw, and if we have no
straw, where is our manure to come from ? and the result was
to, not only impoverish the farmer, but to demoralise and
pauperise the labouring classes. These lavvs demoralised the
labouring classes because they very frequently offer the first
inducement to crime, by which the number of occupants in
our gaols and unions is greatly augmented. Gentlemen, we
know that this is not an overdrawn picture that I have placed
before you. These are aU matters of fact, and things that
come under our daily notice. Suppose a man enters into an
agreement with his landlord and let him enforce his claims
vigorously, is there any peace for that man witli his landlord
in future ? A friend of mine, and a very able man, has said
on this subject, " I don't know what may be the hereafter of
that man, but it is certain that if a man puts himself in a
position of antagonism to his landlord, that man is tabooed."
There is no peace for the future in his relationship with his
landlord for the tenant on this side the grave. I am exceed-
ingly pleased that this question has been brought forward,
and I repeat my former expression of regret that the land-
lords are not present in greater numbers. I should have
thought they would have been willing and glad to have met
their tenants, and discussed a question like the present witli
them. I can assure you that till we have more Clare Sewell
Heads in the House of Commons we shall never be really re-
presented in that assembly. Our labouring men will very
soon, indeed, send their representatives to Parliament, and
good and clever men too. Tiiey are coming to tliat fast,
while we are what I call napping and depending on a rotten
stick. I feel very strongly on the question of the Game-laws,
for I have seen as much of the evils which tiiey work as most
men, and I hope that I have not expressed my feelings any
further than is consistent with the facts and truth of the case,
and I can say that I have endeavoured to speak ray views
without any .stretch of the triitli whatever. There are meii
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
131
who pretend to encourage agriculture, but are doing all they
can to stay its progress by game and hedge row timber, but I
hope they will not think I meant any of ray remarks to be
offensive to them, i feel it right that we should in this
Chamber express our feelings in a manly and straightforward
manner, without fear, or favour, or regard to any ultimate
personal results. With results of that kiud we have notliiug
to do. We must do our duty to ourselves aud the class to
which we belong, expressing ourselves honesty and strongly,
and leave " results to take care of themselves." The speaker
sat down amid loud applause.
Mr. WiiiTEiiEAD (a member of the committee of the Anti-
Game Law League) proceeded to lay a heavy indictment
against the Game-laws. Among other tilings, he said they
had the effect of making landowners selfish, and mentioned
that a former Lord Derby and the Earl of Sefton opposed
George Stephenson's railway from Liverpool to Manchester
because it would interfere with their preserves. George
Stephenson, that glorious engineer, was thereby compelled to
take his railway across Cbat Moss, an undertaking declared
to be impracticable by many eminent engineers at that time.
Thus, lie said, the selfishness of these two lords, caused by
the Game-laws, was very nearly knocking the railway scheme
on the head, and preventing the innumerable advantages which
had followed its adoption. He complained that the matter
■ had not been discussed more in the light of its effect on the
food supply of the people, as he understood the Chamber was
instituted for the benefit of the general public in this respect.
Mr. W. Baker, affirmed, as one of the prime origi-
nators of tlie Chamber, that its object was, iu the first place,
to further the interests of landlord and tenant, the good of
the community at large being merely a " collateral issue."
He wished to deny Mr. Whitehead's statement that the
Chamber was instituted for tlie good of the public, and he did
this with some authority, as he was the first man to write to
the local papers suggesting the formation of the Chamber.
The primary and chief object of the Chamber was to promote
a tetter feeling between landlord and tenant.
Mr. Whitehead was understood to say that if that was so
he would leave the association. He had thought that the
Chamber was instituted for a nobler, a higher, a more gene-
rous and patriotic object. After some further remarks had
been made by Mr. Whitehead, wlio had come fully equipped
with papers aud statistics, attention was called to the fact that
the speaker had exceeded the allotted time of ten minutes, and
considerable impatience was manifested by the Chamber. Mr.
Whitehead concluded by moving an amendment to the efi'ect
that a petition be presented to Parliament for the " entire
abolition" of the Game-laws, aud that Lord Hatherley and
Lord Raleigh be requested to take charge of the petition in
the Upper House, and the lliglit Hon, John Bright and Mr.
P. A. Taylor in the Lower. He then proceeded to read the
petition which he proposed should be presented.
The amendment found no seconder.
Mr. Baker said they had had history quoted, and Mr.
John Ellis had gone thoroughly into the question of repre-
sentation in the House of Commons, but he (Mr. Baker) re-
gretted that from a body of English farmers he had heard so
little of evidence to the injurious effects of ground game [A
Voice : " We have not had time yet"]. Two years ago he
was requested to meet a friend in one of the western counties
to look over a large farm which his friend had an idea of taking.
His friend first showed him a field of eleven acres composed of
thorougli good loamy soil, capable of growing something like
four quarters of wheat or five of barley. He was informed,
and it was a fact within his knowledge, that that field had not
been cultivated for the last seven years. He asked the reason
and the reply was " Sir, do you see you little covert P Well,
that is so full of luires and rabbits that the last tenant never
secured one sack au acre from this field." Another friend in
a different county asked him to look over a farm under similar
circumstances. He had a good landlord, but the damage done
by tlie ground game was something tremendous, yet he had to
submit.
Mr. Salter said that if Mr. Baker thought it necessary to
go iuto details, he could give him plenty of them. Mr. Wliite-
head had touched upon one point with great efi'ect, and tliat
was with regard to the food supply of the people. Mr. Jno.
EUis had grappled with the subject most fearlessly, and the
gentleman who had introduced tlie resolution did the same
He (the speaker) had not gone iuto tlie question a.t all, becaus
it was so complicated and mighty that he feared the Chamber
would not deign to give him the time requsite for him to ex-
press his views upon it. The question involved other points
besides the arrangements between landlord and tenant — for
instance, tlie augmentation or decrease of the food supply of
the people, aud the moral influeuce which it had on the
kingdom generally. The latter question was perhaps one of
the most important at present existing in the kingdom. Their
chairman, as chairman of a bench of magistrates, knew very
well that although this was not a game-preserving county,
yet two-thirds of the crime in county towns and villages
might be traced to the Game-law^s. The crime emanating
from the Game-laws was something fearful. It was not the
mere conviction for offences against the Game-laws, but what
they led to, for, if a man went out to get game, and did not
get it, he would steal a sheep. A man went out to get game
one night, and did not succeed, and so he stole one of his fat
sheep, for which the man got six months ; but that did not
compensate him (the speaker) for the loss of the sheep. After
referring to the advocacy of Mr. Clare S. Read, the speaker
proceeded to instance cases in support of the alleged ravages
of ground game. He said he knew a farm which let for £400,
and which had ruined more than one farmer who had taken
it. If that farm were freed from ground game it would let
for over £1,000, and a farmer would get an excellent living.
He knew another farm which adjoined a farm which he used
to occupy in Norfolk, and which also joined the farm of Mr.
Clare Sewell Read, who was his next neighbour, which con-
tained 300 acres of arable and 200 of pasture land. Tiie
rent was £550 a-year, and the man had valued to him over
£700 for damage done by game. The speaker mentioned one
or two other instances, and went on to say that no one com-
plained of pheasants and partridges ; but nothing on earth
had caused so much bad feeling between landlord and tenant
as the Game-laws. It was not done directly by the landlord ;
there was a go-between in the shape of a gamekeeper.
A Voice : You mean a promoted poacher.
Mr. Salter : I don't know what they are before they are
gamekeepers.
Another Voice : I can assure you it is so.
Mr. Salter asked how it was the railway interest and the
iron interest got on. Why, they sent forty or fifty members
to Parliament to look after their interests, and the farmers
were, he said, great dolts that they don't do the same. He
wished the tenant-farmers would all do as they had done in
Norfolk, and send men like Mr. C. S. Read to Parliament. If
they did so, they would soon hear of land tenure, and there
would soon be au alteration. He asked, with Mr. John Ellis,
why is the tenant-farmer not represented ? Their interests
were not represented except by some half-dozen members — by
one or two particularly, and the rest moderately. Unless they
adopted some principal by which they could be represented,
they had better leave off talking, and shut up shop. He denied
that a proper agreement was sufficient, and condemned the
Legislature for turning policemen into gamekeepers. He
concluded by asking whether it was just that these policemen
should be paid out of the rates to protect game, when game
paid no rates at all.
The Chairman, Mr. Chandler, who had succeeded Mr.
Bradshaw, said the time was very sliort, but, as a landlord, he
should like to say one or two things. He would venture to
say one thing, which was that although they and he might
differ, they would not respect him the less if he gave them his
own iuiiii-jidc opinions very shortly. Now, he had said over
and over again in his life, "Perish Game-laws, perish game,
and perish every other thing that will make crime." But lie
would say that with his experience at the bar and as a magis-
trate, his view was that they would not get that diminution
of crime which some people appeared to expect by the mere
abolition of the Game-laws. He only wished he could think
so. If he could he would, if he had his will, abolish tiiem
to-morrow — he would abolish them that very day — because
what were their amusements compared to the good of the
public iu general ? A man must be a very bad man indeed
who could place a mere amusement before the wellare of his
fellow-creatures. He would abolish the Garae-laws to-day,
and never shoot off a gun agaiu, if he thought that by so
doing he could benefit his fellow-men. After some further
remarks, the Chairman went on to argue that it' a man liked
to keep a sparrow ou his ground, aud anyone took it away,
lliat person was just as guilty of felony us if he took a
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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
cUickeu. Was lie to uuderstaud that the word preservation
iu tlie resolution meaot over-preservatiou P
Mr. Salteii explained that the resolution did not go in for
the abolition of ujame. Tenant-farmers did not want that,
for they like sport as well as anybody.
The Chairman proceeded to say that liowever they might
differ on some points, there could be no difference on the
justice of landlords giving their tenants a reasonable pro-
tection against game.
A Voice : They don't, sir.
The Chairman hoped he always gave his tenants an agree-
ment that afforded them that reasonable protection ; at any
rate, for twenty years he liad never received a complaint. He
should be very glad if he could do any thing that would assist
in doing away with the feeliug that these laws were made
solely to ensure the amusement ot the rich, and to inculcate a
feeling tliat the law was made equally for the small as for the
great. The resolution, with a little alteration, would suit his
views. Mr. Salter had said that if a man could not get game
he would take a sheep. Well, if they did away with phea-
sants, what would they do then ?
Mr. Salteii : You must not argue on false premises. We
don't want to do away with pheasants.
The Chairman continued that, of course, he was under a
diihculty, as he was not present at the earlier part of the pro-
ceedings. He remarked that he was told outside that some
liard things had been said about the landlords, and he replied,
" That is the very reason I should go in directly, and if any
of these hard things are true, I'll endeavour to amend them."
Mr. Carter said some gentleman had mentioned that phea-
sants were not injurious. He denied this statement, and men-
tioned the case of a man who farmed his own land who had
suffered great loss from pheasauts.
Mr. Haumswortii, in the course of a brief speech, con-
tended that the principal object of the Game-laws was to pro-
vide sport for the aristocracy.
Mr. John Ellis suggested to Mr. Harrison that the first
clause in the resolution would be sufficient.
Mr. Harrison consulted his seconder, after which he said
he should prefer the resolution being put in its entirety.
The resolution Was then put and carried with only one
dissentient.
THE DUTIES OF GUARDIANS.
The tinrd central conference of chairmen and vice-chairmen
of boards of guardians from the various counties in England
and Wales was held at the rooms of tlie Social Science Asso-
ciation, Adam-street, Adelphi, to discuss subjects connected
with the administration of relief generally, either by way of
poor law or charity, and the public health in connection
therewith. Mr. Dickenson, M.P., was in the chair. The
first subject discussed was opened by Mr. T. B. Baker, " On
the Systematisation and Circulation of the Keports of Con-
ferences," and was spoken to by Mr. W. Portal, of Hampshire ;
Mr. Bosanquet, of the Charity Orgauisa*)ion Society ; Mr.
Plowden, of Coventry ; Sir Charles Trevelyan, and others ;
and an opinion was expressed that inasmuch as any special
preparation of reports would be expensive, it would be ad-
visable to leave tlie ventilation of analyses of such reports to
reporters of local government boards. Mr. Storr suggested
the formation of a committee to consider the subject.
Sir Baldwin Leighton then read the following paper upon
the duties of Guardians in relation to the Public Health Act :
The paper which I have been requested to prepare for this
meeting is the result of my own experience as chairman of the
Rural Sanitary District of the Atcham Union. Eor any one
practically in contact with the question the better way to
consider it would be under such heads as the following ; but
I should repeat that it is from the experience of a rural not
an urban district that these deductions are drawn :
1. Drains.
2. Water supply.
3. Structures.
4. Infection and epidemic.
5. The existance of aggravated nuisances injurious to
health.
6. General practical suggestions.
1. Brains in rural districts, and more especially for the
poorer class of houses (because I take for granted that at the
better sort of tenements some arrangement suggested, perhaps,
by the inspector, would be acted upon by the tenant or
landlord). It appears to me very questionable how far a sani-
tary authority sliould recommend closed drains for detached cot-
tages, and my own opinion is against them. There will be cases,
isolated cases, in whicii there is no garden or ground attached
to the house, where some short drain is almost necessary ;
but the proper application of all house refuse is to the soil or
the ash-pit, and the sooner it gets there without going through
a drain the better. If you put it into a drain you
only bottle up your enemy against future evil, for it must
go somewhere, and probably becomes a nuisance. As to
making sewers, that is closed drains, for carrying off all
refuse without high-pressure water-service, that seems to me
most unadvisahle and dangerous, and there is always some
risk of any closed drain you put becoming a filthy sewer.
If a drain has to be made it should be so constructed as
never to hold stagnant water or refuse near a house, and it
should, in my opinion, be open. The cases would be rare
vrhere in rural districts the sanitary authority would be
called upon to undertake drainage works. It appears to me,
further, that the sanitary authority in recommending drainage
to be applied to houses must undertake the full responsibility
of such recommendation, and see by their inspector that the
work is properly done, or else warn the persons concerned
that it is not sufficient. It has been urged that the Local
Government Board will hold the sanitary committee respon-
sible if they neglect to have these drains made, espeeially
when recommended by the health officers ; but will the Lucal
Government Board take the responsibility of what may arise
from closed drains neglected,]or even not neglected ? I, for one
would not. There are cases of blocks of cottages, not supplied with
gardens and abutting on a road, which partake of the character
of urban tenements, and yet have no supply of water from a
main. In these cases I should recommend an open gutter
down the road-side with a good supply of water from a pump,
or otherwise, to keep it flushed, and the pump might be placed
at the head of the gutter where practicable.
2. Wafer Supply. — This is a diflicult question in rural dis-
tricts, and one requiring caution and knowledge. Sometimes,
especially iu detached cottages, the expense of sinking wells
and pumps might be too great to advise ; and then something
may be done, as in parts of Berkshire, by storing the water of
the roof in cemented tanks, or catching it in waterbutts and
filtering it, as is often done. It would be impossible to lay
down an arbitrery rule as to what constitutes a sufficient
water supply in isolated habitations, but when three or more
cottages are together, some arrangement ought to be made.
It would be almost impossible, except in very aggravated
cases, for the sanitary committee to set about sinking pumps
in a village and charging it on the rates ; the expense of the
legal machinery would probably amount to 50 or 100 per cent,
of the cost. The necessity of water, however, in a sanitary
point of view, cannot be too much impressed upon all, and it
is possible, in the event of illness or epidemic, that the want
of water and consequent Wbut of cleanliness might be a cala-
mity. At the same time those who urge very drastic or
sudden measures are not aware of all the conditions or circum-
stances of a rural population. I am inclined to believe in
persuasion doing a good deal in this way gradually. As re-
gards the purity of water, a very important point, the great
infectant seems to be animal matter. If pigs, for instance,
were fed on flesh, as they sometimes are, and any refuse from
the styes percolated to the water supply, it might be found to
infect it ; but if they only fed on vegetable matter, it might
not be so injurious. I believe at least that that is the sura of
the scientific opinion on the subject, though, of course, 1
speak on that point with all deference. Regarding pigs, a
question arose in our district as to the keeping of them near
the roadside ; and although the Act seems to give the power
to the sanitary authority to prevent such an arrangement, it
was thought by the committee that the power should not be
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
13J
used except in cases where they were very offensive. That
great sanitary reformer, Moses, certainly did prohibit the
keeping of pigs to the Jews, but it is well understood now
that it was on account of the Eastern climate which made
them, if kept in an ordinary way, injurious to health.
3. Siructures, that is to say buildings, either from their
want of space or from their dilapidation, unfit for human
habitation. It is of course well-known by any one conver-
sant with the Act that th^ Sanitary Committee have no
power to close any house, much less to touch a single brick of
it ; they can only apply to the Court of Petty Sessions of the
Hundred to close it, or to put a penalty on the non-execution
of repairs. These considerations should influence the Sanitary
Authority perhaps in making application or taking this legal
step. 1. Is the building capable of being made fit for human
liabitation ? There are cases of squatters' huts standing on
tlieir own ground, with no garden or surrounding, which are
manifestly incapable of improvement. 3. Are young children
being brought up in them, or are they merely inhabited by
ased persons who have become accustomed, almost attached
to the tenement ? The first case is obviously far more urgent
tiian the last, and there are instances where the tenement
should, perhaps, be left during the occupancy of present
tenants or an understanding that they are to be pulled down
afterwards ; that is, in cases where improvement seems out of
the question, or the site undesirable. 3. Is the occupation
a nuisance to the neighbourhood ? or is there fear of an
epidemic fastening on such habitation ? If so, action should
be taken by the Sanitary Committee. This matter is not,
however, by any means free from difficulties, as wholesale
evictions are quite out of the question ; and it will be found,
as in other cases, that some private or personal representation
to landlords may effect more than any direct action of the
Committee. For this reason it is desirable that the chair-
man should have some personal influence in the district.
In all these cases, namely, of necessity for drainage, a
water supply, or habitations unfit for human habitation, il is
most (lesirnble, he/ore any steps ore taken, that the chairman or
some capable member of the Sanitary Committee shoidd visit
personally the locality. It is in my experience impossible to
form a judyment xvithout doing so.
4. Infection or Epidemic. — Here it is desirable that the
Sanitary Committee should take immediate and energetic
action to prevent the spread of it ; and, in such cases, the re-
moval of nuisances, which might in ordinary times be more
easily overlooked, siiould be peremptorily enforced with all the
powers of the Act.
5. The existence of a Nuisance injurious to Health. — That
is, some clironic cause of illness, as a filthy, stagnant pool or
ditch close to habitations : the Sanitary Committee should
take immediate steps for its removal. It will generally be
found that by making private representations to those con-
cerned, more may be done than by any legal proceedings.
6. To sum up generally, it will be found desirable, whenever
legal action has to be taken by the Sanitary Committee, that
the greatest moderation and consideration should be shown,
because persuasion will be of more avail than compulsion in
most cases, and it is desirable to have the inhabitants as allies,
not as recalcitrants ; also, the Sanitary Committee, as represen-
tative of the ratepayers, is perhaps not justified in adminis-
tering any harsh or severe policy, except in extreme cases,
where life is really in danger. The act appears to me a good
and practical one, but not sufficiently compendious to be
understood by any ordinary guardian, who cannot devote
himself to the study of it. It might be amended, I think, by
giving power to the Local Government Board to charge im-
provements on the smallest possible area, namely, the houses
henefded, tjy the improvement , as private improvements now
are in boroughs. I think it would thus be more workable,
and the parish rates might be still given as collateral security.
Tlie science of the subject seems, if even understood by
professional mind, to be still far above popular capacity ; and
a great deal may be done quietly by the inspector and the
medical officer, as well as by the chairman and members of the
committee, in gradually educating the people up to sound
economic views as to health and life.
Mr. Baker congratulated Sir Baldwin Leighton on having
followed the footseps of his father in identifying himself with
sanitary reform in the rural districts. In the discussion
which followed the difficulty of working the recent Act of Par-
liament was dwelt upon. Modified opinion prevailed that
earth closets were desirable in rural districts. A vote of thanks
was passed to Sir Baldwin Leighton for his paper. The other
subjects entered for discussion embraced " The Best Means by
which Guardians can Utilise Voluntary Efforts," and " Con-
tagious Ophthalmia, as Influenced by the Arrangements of
Workhouses and Pauper Schools." A vote of thanks was
accorded to Dr. Carter for his paper. The reading of Colonel
Gardener's paper, on the subject " How the guardians can best
utilise voluntary efforts," was posponed, and the meeting
broke up,
IXWORTH FARMER S'
SEED CORN.
CLUB.
At the last meeting, Mr. Mansfield in the chair, Mr.
GoLUSJiiTii, of the firm of Goldsmith Brothers, read the
following paper :
The subject which I have the honour of introducing this eve-
ning is no new one, recurring as it does with the seasons ; but
I think you will agree with me that it is a most important one,
and one which has hitherto not had that attention paid to it
which it deserves. Fortunes have been spent in improving
the breed of horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs ; much labour has
been devoted to the selection of your stocks of roots, but
hitherto the breeding and selection of seed corn has been
treaded as a matter of minor importance. When we consider
that rents increase, the cost of labour increases, but the acres
unfortunately do not, and that harvest conies but once a-year,
it certainly appears important that when it does come, it
should bring wilii it the best possible crops that the energy,
the forethought, and the experience of the farmer can pro-
duce. The old adag(! is that " a bad iiorse costs as much to
keep as a good one ;" I may add that a bad crop costs as much
as a good one. The improvement of our cereals is a subject
which has been studied by many intelligent men, and they
have started theories of their own, and attained results very
various, and far too elaborafe to be more than glanced at in a
paper like the present ; but all appear to agree on one point,
viz., that our cereals are but the developed species of an iti-
ferior race of grasses, which by cultivation and selection have
gradually attained the perfection in which we find them ; and
this has induced them to try how far further the development
may be carried, and results have been obtained which leave no
doubt ill our minds that much has yet to be discovered.
Perhaps the most successful of the experimentalists is Major
Hallett. I will therefore give you a general outline of the
results of his experiments extending over twenty years. They are
as follows : 1. Every fully-developed plant, whether of wheat,
oats, or barley, presents an ear superior in productive power to
auy of the rest on that plant. 2. Every such plant contains
one grain which upon trial proves more productive than any
other. 3. The best grain in a given plant is found in its best
ear. 4. The superior vigour of this grain is transmissible in
different degrees to its progeny. 5. By repeated careful
selection the superiorty is accumulated. G. The improvement is
first rapid, is gradually after a long series of years diminished
in amount, and eventually so far arrested, that, practically
speaking, a limit to i«ipiovement is reached. 7. 15y still con-
tinuing to select, the improvement is maintained, and, practi-
cally, a fixed type is the result. He says that throughout his
experiment he has found only three instances recorded in
which there were two ears on a plant containing an equal
number of grains. In every other case where the plant pre-
sented an ear containing GO grains and upwards, the next best
ear was of less contents than the finest one. The superior
power of one grain over another may consist in a greater num-
ber of ears upon the plant it produces, or in their individually
containing a greater number of grains, hut the latter is tlie
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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
more sure indication of productive power. One ear also pos-
sesses superiority over tlie others in respect of the quality of
the "-rain producfd. The grains also ia the same ear differ in
other qualities — such as stiffness of straw, power to resist dis-
ease, power to resist cold, &c. His system of " Pedigree" has,
as you are aware, been conducted on the principal that a plant
cannot be fully developed unless it has sufficient space allowed
it both above ground and under ground, and that whatever
quantity of seed we sow per acre from one peck to four bushels,
we can only obtain a given number (about one million), per-
fect ears per acre, and as the number of ears cannot be in-
creased, the only thing practicable is to increase the contents
of the ear, and this he states that he has effected by his system
of selection, by means of which he has doubled the contents of
the original ears witli which he started. The grains should
be planted singly and the space allowed must de-
pend upon the time at which it is sown as the larger
the space it has to fill, the longer time it will require to
perform it, or, in other words, the later you sow the more
thickly you must sow, and that if you plant one, two, or three
grains in a hole, you will get a larger return from the one
grain than from the three. Now, gentlemen, you must take
Major Hallett's system for what it is worth ; I know many
practical farmers ridicule the idea of such thin seeding as he
advocates, and certainly where ground game abounds it does
appear to be running a risk ; on the other hand, he gives you
certain results, and facts are stubborn things. For myself, I
certainly must think that if no other benefits result the system
of pedigree is one most likely to secure you a true stock, and
that appears particularly desirable in the case of barleys, where
so much depends on their ripening together, and producing,
as far as possible, an uniformity of colour and condition ; but
if, as Major Hallett states, the length of the ear, and conse-
quently the yield, can be so much increased, surely the sooner
the system of pedigree becomes more generally practised the
better ; at least let it have a fair trial before it is condemned.
Before leaving this part of the subject I will give you one in-
stance of the many prejudices against which he has had to con-
tend. Some years ago, a gentleman about to purchase some of the
original pedigiee wheat, asked the steward of an agricultural
baronet if he had tried it. " Yes ; but the millers don't like
it." " What sort of a crop did you get ?" Steward : " Oh,
it yielded very well, we had niue quarters to the acre." In
doubt his hearer remarked, " You mean nine sacks?" "No,
we had 27 quarters on three acres." " Really ! but that was
pretty well, wasn't it?" Steward: "Ah! but the millers
don't like it." " What did you do with it then ? " " Oh, we
sold it to a miller at 43s. per qr." (best red wheat worth 4ts.
that year). " £19 7s. per acre, with wheat at 44s. per qr., pretty
well, too, eh?" Steward: "Ah, but the millers don't like
it." We now come to the choice or selection of seed corn,
suitable to jour soil and climate, and it would appear that a
very g>-eat deal depends on this. It has been proved that the
finer varieties of wheats can only be grown snccessfully on
warm and good land, and that in cold clay soils, and exposed
situations, the coarser sorts of red wheats are better adapted.
Again, steary oats, on poor, cold soils, will degenerate, and if
their growtli be persisted in, your land will eventually be found
full of the wild oat, from which our cultivated oats originally
sprang, and which, from its early ripening and shedding its
seed, is a most troublesome enemy to get rid of. Some soils
are so well adapted to the growth of barleys of fine malting
quality, that no expense should be spared in obtaining the
finest varieties in cultivation, while other soils are so unsuited
that it becomes a question it barley should be grown at all,
and if it be, the farmer should give up all idea of growing
barley suitable for malting, and should select some such variety
as the common here winter barley, which, although very in-
ferior in quality, w-ill produce a very large return in quanty,
with a fair weight per bushel. Wliatever be the soil or
situation, no one sliould be better able to judge of its require-
ments than the man who farms it ; it is, therefore, sometimes
a great mistake to recommend your friend a particular variety
of seed, because you have found it answer extremely well in
your own case, and it may happen tliat his soil and situation
are essentially different from your own ; again, it appears to
be a mistake when you have found a variety which you be-
lieve will answer your requirements, to go largely into its
growth until you have tested its merits, or should the season
be exceptionally wet or dry, to give it up without another
trial. Fashion, evidently, reigns as supreme with the farmer
as it does with the milliners. As an instance, if Mr. Smith
grows Rivett's, and has a good crop, Mr. Brown follows suit,
the next season Messrs^ Jones and Robinson follow, until you
find every one growing Rivett's. Five years pass away, and
not one of the above-named individuals grows an acre of
Rivett's. How is this to be accounted for ? It should be
the aim to get as large a money return per acre as possible.
Nine times out of ten quantity beats quality ; but, in some
districts, the farmer can produce as much of the finer varieties
of wheat as he can of the coarser. In the neighbourhood of
Guildford, for instance, I doubt if the farmers would sow
Browick if you gave it them. Their finest wheats are worth
36s. per coomb in the market at the present time, and they
would teU you, that on an average of years, they can grow as
much fine wheat as coarse. I now come to " change of seed,"
and, firstly, let us consider the probable extra outlay, because
many of our friends make this a great consideration. Now,
assuming that your seed corn costs you 4s. per coomb above
the value to the miller or maltster, we find that on
Per coomb.
Extra cost
per acre.
Wheat at 30s,
Barley at 20s
Oats at 12s...
2s. 6d.
3s. Od.
3s. Od.
Extra quantity which
must be grown.
Ij pecks.
2| pecks.
1 bushel.
— I thiuk you will admit that the above is a very liberal
estimate, and that corn could be brought some distance, and
a liberal profit allowed to the merchant for an extra outlay of
4s. per coomb. I think I have shown that the extra outlay is
not such a very formidable affair after all. Corn grown on a
poor soil, and brought to a still poorer one, will degenerate in
quality, and it has been generally admitted that it is desirable
to procure your change of seed from land colder and poorer
than your own, so as, if possible, to improve its position
rather than the reverse. Much advantage has been derived
by procuring corn from poor thin chalks, vvhere it has, no
doubt, acquired a strength of character and a power of resist-
ance, which when it is placed under more favourable circum-
stances, enable it to take advantage of its improved position.
Thin and second-rate seed corn appear to be a mistake. If
we breed cattle, we select healthy and well-bred parents, and
why should we make a difference with our corn ? If we
desire a healthy and vigorous growth, which shall the better
resist the effects of an unfavourable season, or other adverse
circumstances to which it may be exposed, we must select fully
matured and developed grain ; for, as in nature, " like pro-
duces like," if we sow goqA. seed, we may the more surely
expect good results. I have, on more than one occasion,
observed that some farmer, visiting a friend, say, in the North
of England, has been induced by him to try a particular
variety of grain in his own county, the result is so satisfactory,
that he, in turn, persuades his 'neighbours to try it. Five
years pass away, and one of them having lost his stock
applies to the original introducer. " Oh ! " says he, " I have
given up growing it ; I found it did not answer." Now, how
does this occur ? I argue that it was the change of seed at
first gave such satisfactory results, and after that had died
out he found that the variety itself was no better adapted to
his requirements than others he had grown previously.
Change of climate also has its beneficial effect in change of
seed, and this is particularly borne out by the very large
quantity of barley and oats annually brought from Scotland,
especially for seed, and also the great demand for seed wheats
wiiich reaches us from France. On the other hand, in moving
seed from a warmer climate to a colder, an adverse effect is
experienced, which is, however, gradually overcome by ac-
climatisation, and this is especially shown,in the ease of foreign
red clovers aud sainfoins, although foreign Italian ryegrass
appears to be an exception to this rule. I should be glad if
some gentleman would account later on for the almost entire
giving up of alsike in this country, where a few years ago it
was so popular and commanded so high a price ; is it another
instance of that fashion which rules us all, or how do you
account for its disappearance ? Hybridisation has been suc-
cessfully practised by artificial means and with good results.
In 1851 Mr. H. Raynbird obtained the prize medal at the
International Exhibition forahybrid wheat which he obtained in
this way, and which for some time was a great favourite with
both farmers and millers ; the latter are very partial to a good
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
135
sample of red and white wheat grown together, and it is a ques-
tion whether'_the good qualities possessed by such a sample are
not in a measure brought about by natural hybridisation|during
theblooming season,|by which the good qualities of two distinct
varities of wheat become blended. With regard to judicious
feeding, as much care should be gi^'cn as in the grazing of
stock. The corn crop requires different kinds of food to sus-
tain it and bring it to maturity. It is useless to buy a high-
priced horse and then starve him, and I cannot help thinking
that this subject (although perhaps not coming under the
head of " seed corn " ) is also deserving of more attention
than it has hitherto received. Certain cliemicals, snch as
nitrate of soda, produce straw, but it is not always found that
a heavy crop of straw necessarily means a heavy crop of corn,
and I doubt if any manure has been positively found to assist
the plant at the proper time in producing corn. Major Hallett
would no doubt tell us that we don't get corn on our straw
because we crowd it and do not give the plant room to per-
form its fuuctions. In conclusion, great results, whether in
farming or any other business, are only to be obtained by
much care and forethought, many experiments and many
failures, and I should suggest that the most practical way of
arriving at a sound conclusion would be not merely by atten-
ding at such meetings as the present, hearing various theories
advanced, and taking no trouble to ascertain if there be any
truth in them; but let each and every one here present go
home and commence some few experiments himself. You
can most of you fiud some suitable place as a trial ground,
and if you arrive at no satisfactory results you will at least
have found amusement ; and if, ou the other hand, you
should make some grand discovery, I am sure we shall be all
pleased to hear of it at some future meeting of the Ixworth
Farmers' Club. And I will venture further to suggest that if
any gentleman will make it his business to start as a grower
of seed corn, and will secure the best cereals in cultivation,
taking care that nothing is allowed to interfere with the
purity of each stock, that he will be conferring a boon on his
fellow farmers wliich will be so far appreciated by them as to
render the undertaking sufliciently remunerative for his time
and trouble. Mr. Goldsmith added an expression of his
opinion that some corn was cut much too green, saying it did
not measure nearly so well as if it was allowed to stand a
longer period.
Mr. J. Booty had not tried many experiments, and he had
not been very successful with the few that he had attempted.
He rather inclined of late to the view that change cf seed was
desirable, and he thought it preferable to obtain seed from tlie
North rather than from the South. As to thin sowing, he
approved of what had been said on that subject, and he had
himself grown more from a bushel per acre than he had
from two or three bushels — in fact, he grew the largest crop of
red wheat he ever had iu that way. He had always found
that his land was too heavily seeded with ten pecks per acre,
and consequently he had had a great deal of smallcorn. His
experience in reference to barley was that in sowing it year
after year the quality was not so good, and he had been told
that he had some excellent barley land, but he did not get so
much by 2s. or 3s. a coom as some of his neighbours.
The Chairman : Have you changed your seed ?
Mr. Booty : No. I grew what is called " The Miller's
Delight," but I find that now they don't delight in it all. It
is my intention to chauRe the seed, and if Mr. Goldsmith will
get me some from the North I will try it.
The Chairman : Have you ever grown alsike, Mr.
Booty ?
Mr. Booty : I attempted it twice, but failed. Mr. W.
Matthew's man has grown it very successfully.
Mr. T. GoLDSJiiTu, alluding to the question of putting the
seed singly into tlie ground, said when he first commenced
farming he used to dibble every acre of wheat. He had eight
pairs of dibbles, but it was impossible to get it done
now.
Mr. Eaton GoLDSMmr said Major Hallett had little cups
which would hold one seed and no more.
The CiiAiRJiAN : If you had the opportunity of dibbling
your wheat would you do it now ?
Mr. T. GoLDsjiiTii : Certainly, every acre ; but you cannot
get it done. We liave now got into a different system. There is
not the population, or if there is they do not care to do the
work- You could get the dibblcrs, perhaps, but not the
droppers.
Mr. A. C. WooDARU : Rather an argument against the
Education Act.
The Chairman : Why would you dibble ? Because you
would use less seed per acre ?
Mr. T. Goldsmith : I used to grow better crops and better
corn. The seed was put in singly, as near as possible. You
could not get the droppers always to put one seed, but you
could get it done far nearer than you can now willi the drill.
Mr. G. Goldsmith, in answer to the Chairman, said he
would not return to the dibbling system again if he
could.
Mr. J. Booty remarked that there were now excellent
implements for pressing the land down.
Mr. Eaton Goldsmith pointed out that farmers did not
allow their turnips to grow in bunches, and surely it was not
right to" plant more than one seed at a time.
Mr. J. Booty -. I like to see my wheat look bunchy in the
spring, otherwise I do not get a good crop. The turnip is
different to the wheat, and merely runs up.
Mr. Eaton Goldsmith pointed out that the wheat plant
must liave a certain extent of ground to get its food frora-
Major Hallett said that as the plant developed above ground
so it developed under ground — when it sent up a shoot there
was a root to correspond.
Mr. G. Goldsmith observed that there was a great
difference in soils. On some soils if the seed was planted very
thin the wheat grew luxuriantly, tumbled down, and never
came to maturity, but in other soils it would branch out and do
better.
Mr. Gates said he thought all farmers would be ready to
admit that a change of seed was beneficial. When he first
went to Feltwell, Norfolk, he found that there had not been a
change of seed for years. He took some seed off another
farm, and he could grow much more barley and better quality
than his neighbours. The consequence was that everyone
wanted his seed. He stated this to show that a change of
seed was all that the land required. He thought the long
ears referred to in connection with Major Hallett's system
was probably produced by thin seeding.
Mr. Eaton Goldsmith : That is his system, but then he
speaks of results per acre, which cannot be disproved.
Mr. Gates said frequently with only half a plant the ears
were long, whether the seed had been good or indifferent. If
it was thinned with the vi-ire-worm or other means, the ears
were generally large. People had, in fact, grown great crops
from dross corn. One thing he had noticed about a thin
plant was that on the land he formerly farmed, which was
liigh land and good land, it was more subject to mildew than
a good plant. He rather doubted whether it was wise to carry
out thin seeding to the extent Major Hallett recommended ;
but, on the other hand, lie thought it was planted a great deal
too thick as a rule.
Mr. W^oodard said it had been contended that wheat
planted very thick would, after a time, turu to the grass from,
which it was originally derived. He had noticed that at those
spots wliere the drills became unblocked, and wliere, conse-
quently, a great deal of seed was allowed to drop into the
earth, there was a large amount of a sort of grass and but few
ears.
Mr. Eaton Goldsmith : Rather a strong argument in
favour of Major Hallett's system.
Tiio Chairman said he had received a letter from the
President (Mr. Green), in which he spoke of the subject dis-
cussed this evening as a very important one, and added that,
with high farming, the only way the crops could be increased
was by having grain which would produce fine kernels with
more of them in each ear. He (Mr. Manfield) thought there
was no one but would agree with that remark, but the diffi-
culty was to know how tliey were to produce this kind of corn.
Thoy were much indebted to Mr. Eaton Goldsmith for having
introduced the subject this evening. It was an important
subject, and he (Mr. Manfield) could not help thinking that
from the seed they sowed depended very much the character
of the crop they obtained. They ought undoubtedly to sow
the very best seed they could obtain, and money was well spent
in procuring seed of that kind. Major Hallett's system had
doubtless very much to recommend it ; but he (the chairman)
did not think it would do for all to sow the very small quan-
tity that Major Hallett did. He (Mr. Manfield) believed he
grew as much if not more corn from thiu sowing as he did
156
THE FAllMER'S MAGAZTNIl.
from thick sowing, if the plant from the thin sowing was a
Rood one. He well remembered planting some barley. He
put on only a bushel to the acre, because he had planted the
laud with lucerne, but he got quite as much barley as he did
when he used 10 pecks. As to the remark that i'arraers paid
as much attention to the fashion as the milliners did, he had
himself noticed that if a certain plant was grown by one far-
mer, others would copy it, uutil it gradually died out for the
time being. He thought it a bad plan to follow the fashion,
it being better not to imitate their neighbours to a very great
extent. With reference to alsike, it had, as had been re-
marked, gone out of fashion, but why he could not exactly
understand, seeing that it was admitted to be a very remunera-
tive crop. There was one matter which was well worth
knowing, and tliat was, the comparatively few ears that came
to perfection. It had been estimated at one in ten. If that
were so, it became farmers to economise their seed. If only
one spikelet out of ten came to perfection, there was no doubt
but that as a general rule the seed was planted much too
thick. They might not like the look of their plant so well in
the spring, but it seemed from experience that it would do
<|uite as well. He would ask if there was no kind of manure
that would assist in producing more corn. He believed nitrate
of soda was verygiiseful.
Mr. Eaton Gq^smitii said Mr. Lawes had contended
that nitrate of soda acted more as a stimulant than anything
else.
The Chairman : It has the effect of making the plant look
well.
Mr. T. GoLDSJilTH : But when there is a sharp frost, how
then ?
The CiiAiRJiAN continued : No doubt one argument against
a thin crop was, that it was more liable to mildew. As for
the growth of seed-corn, it would hardly pay so well as breed-
ing pedigree Shorthorns, seeing that there would not be the
extraordinary prices which were sometimes realised for Short-
horns.
Mr. Eaton Goldsmith : You would not make such an
extraordinary outlay. My belief is that it would be found of
comparatively more benefit than breeding Shorthorns.
The Chairman continued : As to cutting tlie corn green,
it seemed to him to be the choice between two evils. If it
was cut early, no doubt there was a loss in the measure, but,
on the other hand, if cut late^^a good deal of it was left on the
laud, and the question was, which plan was preferable. In
conclusion, the Chairman intimated tiiat Mr. Goldsmith was
ready to answer any question that might be put to him. There
was no man who had had more experience of the difficulties
of farmers than he had, as he had been connected with a great
seed farm for many years.
A desultory conversation followed, in the course of which
reference was made to the necessity of picking the ears so as
to get a good stock.
Mr. T. Goldsmith said he did that one year, and the pro-
duce he planted, and obtained an excellent crop of wheat.
Mr. Eaton Goldsmith remarked that it had been proved
beyond doubt that the disease in corn was hereditary. If red-
dust appeared in wheat, it would show itself again if the
wheat was used as seed, unless some strong chemicals were
used to prevent it. It was therefore very important to keep
clear of red-rust, smut, and other diseases as much as possible.
He did not remember at the moment any disease to which
barley was subjected.
The Chairman said he had seen a number of black ears in
barley. Smut in wheat might be propagated, but he was not
aware that red-rust could.
Mr. G. Goldsmith said he looked upon smut as one of the
greatest mysteries that farmers had to contend with. When
he commenced business he had some seed which had been
wetted. He planted a portion of the field, but the headlings
he left for a few days, till, in fact, there was a shower of rain,
and he then planted the seed which had been wetted at the
same time and in the same manner as the other. That which
was planted then was full of smut, but there was not the
slightest trace of it in that which was planted first. He had
heard it contended that it was beneficial to the corn to remain
after it was wetted.
The Chairman said reference had been made in the paper
to the deterioration of corn if grown under certain circum-
stances for a time.
Mr. Eaton Goldsmith said he had understood that it was
possible to continue the growth of wheat year afteryear till even-
tually it got back to the grass from which it originally sprung.
Major Hallett had stated that if wheat was sown too thickly
it produced nothing but grass. If there was deterioration on
the one hand, why should there not be improvement on the
other hand ? Rather more than double the number of kernels
had been produced in the ear by improvement, and the subject
was well worth consideration, to ascertain whether the im-
provement could not be carried further. With regard to other
corn, it had been said that if oats were grown year after year
upon strong land they would return to the origiaal wild oat
from which they sprang ; and wheat, if it was grown year after
year under adverse circumstances, and too thickly seeded, it
would go back to the original grass from which it sprang.
Mr. T. Goldsmith : I have known it grown for 18 years
in succession, on a piese of land at Walsham.
The Chairman : And it did not deteriorate ?
Mr. T, Goldsmith : No.
Mr. Booty instanced the land belonging to Mr. John Law,
who grew wheat 19 years in succession.
The Chairman -. It was planted IS different times, and
there were 18 different crops P
Mr. T. Goldsmith : Yes.
The Chairman said that was rather different to the case
put by Mr. Eaton Goldsmith, who referred to corn planted
much too thick. Scientific men had said that wheat cut oflf
several times till late in the spring, and then allowed to grow,
would come to something different to what it should be, that
it would actually become barley or oats. He should like to
have heard something said about wild oats, why it was they ap-
peared in such vast numbers one year, and the next there was
scarcely any to be seen.
Mr. J. Booty : You plough your land deeper sometimes
than at others ?
The Chairman said he did not think that that had ranch
to do with it.
Mr. Eaton Goldsmith said Professor Buckraan tried a
variety of experiments at Cirencester. He started with the
wild .oat, and grew it in succession six aud seven years, and on
one plant he got distinct varieties of the very oats which
farmers now grew, thus showing that the oats in cultivation
were simply an improved variety of the wild oat. As by cul-
tivation the wild oat could be made so useful, so by deteriora-
tion by putting the oats on land which was unsuitable, on cold
clay land, it would again assume the form of the wild oat,
which sheds its seed earlier than the other, creating a pest
which it was very diSicult to ret rid of. He was rather anxious
that the practical gentlemen should have informed him as to
whether there was any thing in these theories. It was no use
to meet in this way and talk over these matters unless they
tried experiments at home.
A vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Goldsmith fo'^
his admirable paper.
Mr. Goldsmith, in acknowleding the vote, said he
would offer, on behalf of himself and his partner, two guineas
as a prize at next year's show for the best collection of cereals,
or to be devoted in any way the president thought best.
THE VIENNA EXHIBITION.— The Emperor of Aus-
tria has conferred the Cross of the Imperial Order of " Iraiz
Joseph" upon Mr. Walter A. Wood, of Thames-street.
PRIZE CATTLE TRUCKS.— The models sent in by the
competitors for the prizes offered are now on view at the
Indian Court, National Portrait Gallery, Exhibition-road,
South Kensington, and are over fifty in number.
A TIPTREE .TESTIMONIAL.— Some unknown friends
and neighbours have presented Mr. Mechi with a Christmas
box, in the shape of a pony, with his harness complete, as
" an evidence of their friendship, regard, and esteem."
THE HULL SHOW.— In the miscellaneous awards it ap-
pears that Mr. George Cheavin's name was misprinted
Leavin, but the address was correctly given, and the name
itself in the hst of exhibitors.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
137
THE BALLARAT FARMERS' CLUB.
THE TENANT-RIGHT MOVEMENT IN AUSTRALIA.
At tlie last monthly meeting, Mr. Bacchus, Presideut, iu the
chair, amongst the letters received was one from tiie Secretary
for Agriculture stating that application had been made to Mr.
EUery, the Government Astronomer, for the supply of me-
teorological instruments for the Ballarat Farmers' Club, and
that Mr. Ellery had replied to the effect that a rain gauge could
be supplied, provided that a monthly record of tiie rainfall
vras forwarded to tiie Observatory, but no instruments were
available. On the motion of Mr. M'Clure, seconded by
Mr. Jopling, the offer was accepted. A letter from Mr. Robert
Bell, referring to the offer of a premium of £500 Ijy the Agri-
cultural Society of South Australia for the invention of a
wheat-cleaning machine, stating that he could demonstrate
the way wheat could be produced at a cost of from Is. to Is.
Gd. per bushel, but not stating how, was read, and on the
motion of Mr. M'Dowall, seconded by Mr. Jopling, laid on
the table, and directions given that all future communications
from Mr. Bell be merely laid on tiie table.
Mr. J. M. Main moved the following motion standing in
his name : " That in the interests of landlords and agricul-
tural tenants iu this colony, and in the interests of the colony
itself, it is desirable that legislation should be brought to bear
on the relations between these two classes, and that the
Minister of Agriculture should be memorialised to introduce a
Tenant- Right Bill with as little deliy as possible ; and, con-
tingent on the necessity for such a measure being acknow-
ledged by this club, that a memorial be prepared for presenta-
tion to the Minister of Agriculture in accordance witli such
acknowledgment ; and that copies of this resolution be for-
warded by the secretary to all the known agricultural societies
in the colony, requesting their earnest consideration of same,
and their cordial support of it, if approved." In connexion
with this motion Mr. Main read the following paper :
The great mass of argument that might be used to support
and oppose my views on this subject would occupy so much
more time than can possibly be devoted to it here, that I shall
abstain as much as possible from going into details now, and
will limit my remarks to a brief notice of the basis on which
such a bill should receive general support, leaving the fuller
discussion of the details to the consideration of the Press and
kindred societies, and to some future meeting of the members
of this club. Although I have designated the proposed mea-
. sure a Ten ant-Right Bill, I mean that the measure should
contain provisions for the protection of landlords as well ; that
while the interests of tenants should be protected from the
rapacity or stupidity of landlords, the property and interests of
the latter should be equally protected from ignorant or evil-
minded tenants. Much discussion has taken place on this
subject throughout Great Britain during the last year, and I
saw in a number of The Mark Lane E.ij)ress of January last
(1873) the drafts ot two bills that had been prepared under the
auspices of what was termed the Central Chamber of Agricul-
ture, the principles of which had been approved by that
Chamber, and by other agricultural authorities. Considerable
difference of opinion has been manifested on the subjecet, but
so far as I can see, a large majority of the people at lioine is
in favour of a measure of the kind. Some people contend tliat
the relations between the landowners and their tenants may be
safely left to special agreements between the parties. In this
I would willingly concur if all men interested in agriculture
were equally honourable and liberal ; but as we never find an
instance of human perfection, and very rarely an approxima-
tion to it, among any class of men, I tlunk it would be to the
advanUige of both parties if the Legislature insisted on certain
conditions on either side. We have already Acts of Parlia-
ment to enforce certain conditions between landlord and tenant
in the matters of insurance, repairs, inspection, and subletting
of buildings, between masters and apprentices, between mas-
ters and servants, between shipowners and seamen, and many
others imposing certain conditions on various trades, for pro-
tection fronr fraud or injury ; and what then can be the objec-
tion to an Act for the mutual protection of members of, per-
haps, the mokt important class of persons in the colony ? Wliile
1 should like to be able to dispense with such a measure, I
maintain that we cannot, or rather tliat we should not, if we
desire to advance the colonial agricultural interest. A bill
that will enforce certain deflned conditions of lease on either
side will do a great deal to extend and improve agricultural
pursuits ; landlords and tenants w'ould then have confidence in
the law if not in each other, and a spirit of mutual confidence
and independence would be established between them rapidly.
Unfortunately for Victoria, the evils which the proposed mea-
sure is intended to remedy are not confined to private land-
holders and tlieir tenants, but are the more rampant, and
much more disastrous, among the Crown tenants, large num-
bers of whom have been for years, and still are, engaged in the
constant deterioration, if not in tlie actual destruction, of our
landed capital, under what is ironically called our " liberal"
Laud Acts — ruinous laws that should be either swept from the
Statute Book, or [administered more to our national, and less
to our individual, advantage. But for the disastrous aliena-
tion of nearly all our best lands, Victoria might to-day have
been the greatest country in the world of her age and size — a
country with free trade, with free ports, no taxes, and an accu-
mulated revenue from Crown lands rentals, equal to all our
requirements, for the extention of our railways and the intro-
duction of population ; but since the introduction of responsi-
ble government, there has not been a Parliament, nor a
Ministry, that has not proved disloyal to the people on tiiis
momentous question of the disposal of the public lands. If
our landed capical must be sacrificed to meet our necessities
1 would certainly like to see it done under a really liberal Land
Act, embracing the principles of free selection, deferred pay-
ments, and fair value ; but I think the very loose manner in
which these principles are now being carried out is more per-
nicious to the advancement of agriculture, and more obstructive
to the true progress of the colony, than if they did not exist at
all. The present system is, in fact, a continuous destruction
of national property to which we have too long conveniently
closed our eyes, but to which they may yet be opened when
nearly, if not quite, too late. The alienation of our land capital
should be at once stopped. The boasted " liberality" of our land
laws is, at the best, that of the spendthrift, v\ho, instead of
living on the interest, squanders his principal, and trusts for
the future to chance. What chance will bring us may be a
struggle neither light nor bloodless. I have long viewed the
boasted liberalism of our land laws as a national calamity, very
seriously affecting the legitimate agricultural interest ; for I
have reason to believe that in very many cases the lands pur-
chased or held under lease or licence by that class of bastard
farmers who have been overrunning the colony like locusts,
have been partially, if not wholly, destroyed before they were
paid for in 'full. In fact, many of these unskilled men of small
means were, and are, no better than Crown tenants, paying
2s. per acre per annum for laud which, if it were private
property, would cost them os. to 30s. per acre, while they
would be compelled to make more expensive and more sub-
stantial improvements than the State requires, and without the
remotest chance of them ever acquiring the fee simple of the
land for which they would be paying the highest rental. Tliey
are thus placed in a most unduly favoured position to compete
against those farmers who have bought or rented tlieir
holdings at much higher rates, while there seems to be no tie
to bind the most of tiiem to these cheap lands, nor any deter-
rent penalty to prevent a desertion of them. As soon as they
have worked all the virtue out of one piece of land they sell
it for what it will fetch (if they have kept it long enough to
acquire the right of sale) to the first siiuattcr or huuljobber
that will buy it, or perhaps they abandon it to take care of
itself, while they remove to some new selection to exhaust it
in precisely the same way — a system of land liberalism that
demands condemnation and prompt abolition. We shall
shortly be on the, eve of a general election, and, speaking
individually, I should like to see no man elected who would
not pledge himself to lock the door of the land sales otlice, and
to throw away the key. I think I iiave said enough to show
the urgent necessity that exists for a great ed'ort being made
to conserve what ia left of the land capital of the colony, to
138
THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE.
place the lessees of both Crown and private lands on a juster
footing towards each other, and to establish better relations
between their respective landlords and themselves. I think,
while we continue to submit to this alienation and deteriora-
tion of the public lands, to the existing mismanagement of tlie
public railways, to the crushing of the mining interest, and
other grievances, we shall be doing a great deal to prove the
soundness of Mr. La Trobe's opinion of us — that we are not
fit to govern ourselves. I wish now to observe that I think a
great deal of valuable information in support of the position I
have taken up would be gained, if some member of Parliament
would obtain a return of all lands alienated from the
Crown by direct purchase, or indirectly, by lease or
licence in the first instance, since, say 1860, with the
names of the original purchasers, selectors, or licensees ;
the prices paid for them, the period of time and the
extent to which they were cultivated, tlieir present con-
dition, the names of the present proprietors, the date at which
the latter became possessed, the purposes to which these lands
are now applied, and their present value. The disease is des-
perate, the remedy must be the same, but we need skilled
doctors, not quacks, to apply it. And as I have before said, it
will be undesirable now to enter into a discussion of the mass
of details to be considered in the preparation of a Tenaut-
Eight, or, perliaps, more properly speaking, a Land 1'enure
Bill. The length of leases, the variety of improvements, em-
braced under the heacis of temporary, durable, and permanent,
the value of unexhausted improvements in the shape of ma-
nures, are all matters that can stand over for future discus-
sion ; my present object is to test the opinion of this Club
and of kindred societies throughout the colony, as to the desi-
rability of getting a bill passed to place private landholders
and tenants on a better footing, to check the destruction of
our Crown lands under the existing pernicious system, and to
better equalise the positions of the Crown and private tenants.
If it be deemed undesirable to get such a bill passed, there will
be no occasion for any further discussion on matters of detail.
Since the foregoing remarks were written, I have seen the copy
of a letter from the late Mr. J. S. Mill, to a Mr. Ross, in Mel-
bourne, which was published in the Ai-fjiis of the 1st July, iu
which he says : " I am glad to see the progress of the Land
Tenure movement in Victoria. Now is the time to stop the
alienation of public lands, before the great mass of them is
granted away." I need not say tliat I should, and do feel
proud of having unknowingly run in the same groove, witli,
though a very long way behind, so illustrious a thinker and
writer.
On the motion of Mr. M'Dowall, seconded by Mr. Bath,
a vote of thanks was passed to the essayist. Mr. Main's
motion was not seconded, but a sub-committee, consisting of
the president and Messrs. Main, M'Dowall, and M' Arthur, was
appointed to take the matter referred to in the motion and
essay into consideration, and to briug up a report upon the
subject at the next meeting of tlie Club.
Hedges and Y£>.'ces. — Mr. B.vccniis, the president, read
the following paper : Hedges and shelter trees will probably not
be much thought of by the farmer who works his land from
hand to mouth ; at first the quickest made and cheapest fence
will be resorted to, but when the farm becomes a regular
source of income, the owner will find that a certain sum of
money laid out in planting live hedges and, in open country,
screen plantations will be more to his gain than he at first
might suppose. Will it pay ? is the query usually asked when
a new scheme is indicated. After a little" trouble at first the
ready answer will be in most cases. It is paying well. Hedges
and trees are like children, requiring a good deal of attention in
infancy, which properly given enables them in after years to
look out pretty well for themselves, and do credit to those
who had charge of their youth. Stone walls are uudoubtedly
the best of all fences, tliey give some shelter and arrest, if
they do not stop, the progress of bush fires, and are the most
durable. Posts and rails, however good at first, decay and must
be renewed at some time ; but, on average soil, a live fence
properly made and attended to during its early growth, in the
end is the cheapest, most useful, and handsomest of all fences.
A live hedge bristling with prickles possesses a threefold ad-
vantage as a fence, a screen, and to keep stock apart ; two
lots of cattle cannot so easily fraternise, fight, or communicate
infection across a tliick hedge as they may across a fence of
wire or post and rails. A hedge pleases the eye ; unlike a
fence of timber, every year it grows adds to the value of the
land it helps to enclose, at the same time it affords a refuge
to small birds, which do no end of good by eating insects,
seeds of thistles and weeds, and affording them winter food iu
the berries, they will make of it " a local habitation and a
home." Some persons may be deterred from planting out
hedge plants and trees on account of the expense of purchas-
ing from a nursery ; ". hem I would say — raise your own
plants and trees in a nursery at home. The Messrs. Ander-
son, of Barkstead, and others have been very successful in
doing this on a large scale. A great number of plants may be
grown on a very small piece of land ; anyone who has not
tried it will have no idea of the quantity of cuttings and trees
that may be grown on such a small plot. Let a commencement
be made and I venture to say that a home nursery will soon
become a point of attraction to most of the members of a
family ; as the things grow so will the interest be increased.
Let fruit trees be raised there ; some member of the family
could perform the operations of grafting and budding ; it is a
useful and interesting accomplishment which no one will regret
having learned. A lavender hedge through the garden is soon
made; the flowers are sought after by the bees and are in de-
mand by perfumers, and housewives who like their linen
scented. The nursery should be in a sheltered situation ; a
row of artichokes on the north and west sides would make a
temporary screen. For garden and shrubbery shelter fences
I would recommend the English laurel and Euonymous Ja-
ponica, they grow quickly and make a high, close evergreen
fence, and shelter ; also the Ceonothus and Alaternus. The
arbor vitte makes a pretty screen fence inside a garden. In
New South Wales the lemon and olive make excellent close
fences ; the climate about Ballarat is too cold for the former,
but the olive grows here and makes a high, close fence. The
white acacia, or locust tree, might do ; it grows quickly, and
is disliked by stock. There are several native shrubs well
adapted for hedges, and others, such as quicks, &c., which you
see commonly in fences ; visit the principal nurseries where
the plants are growing, and judge for yourself. A few plants
of New Zealand flax will be found very useful, giving material
for tying all sorts of things. The poplar is one of the
quickest growing and perhaps as good as any tree for a break-
wind or screen. For this purpose it has been used at Lang's
nursery ; it grows readily from cuttings, which may be put out
in rows a foot a part, and nine inches between each cutting,
which in two-and-a-half years from the time of planting ought to
be over six feet high. Suppose you wish to plant a quarter of a
mile (MO yards) alongside another fence, plough a strip three
feet wide, not under eighteen inches deep, plant the young
trees in the centre, two feet apart ; in four years the trees will
be safe from slock, and each alternate tree can be taken up and
made use for rails for the fence. There wiU then be a good
break-wind of trees four feet apart, becoming denser each year.
The interstices may be filled up with stones and brambles,
such as the American blackberry or dog rose. A good many
brambles, grown in the nursery from seed, may be planted ;
cattle are not so fond of rummaging in places where they get
their noses scratched, or a piece of thorny bramble included
in a mouthful of green stult from the hedge ; or you may plant
or sow seeds of such shrubs between the poplars as will grow
under the shade of trees. A very common native thorny shrub,
yielding abundance of seed, a sort of myrtle called, I
think, Eugenia myrtifolia, does well as a hedge plant, and
thrives under higher timber, and is well suited for planting
between the poplars or other large trees ; to fill up, the Acacia
armata, Undulata hakea, or some other indigenous shrubs may
do as well. These native shrubs have long, penetrating tap-
roots, and are not much put back by a drought. Two rails
from the intermediate trees taken up, aud a wire fastened
by long staples to the growing trees, if considered necessary,
being added, and you have a sheep-proof fence and breakwiud
combined. This plan might be carried out with other large
growing trees, the hornbeam or sycamore for instance, but I
have chosen the poplar as it gets sooner out of the reach of
stock, and it thrives in most sorts of soils and climates. I
know from experience that poplars grow well when planted
only two feet apart ; in Italy and other parts of the Continent
of Europe they are so planted. To protect the young trees
another fence must be put up, say 20 feet from the old fence.
The space between the two may be utilised by sowing it with
grass for hay, from which two cuttings may be obtained
yearly. This fence may be removed in three or four years,
when the trees are well grown. The greatest cost would be that
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
189
of the temporary fence, but it would be worth half the outlay
when no longer required. Raising the poplars from cuttings,
brambles and shrubs from seed, ploughing, planting, enclosing,
wire.and staples.&c, accordingto ray estimate, would cost about
£70 a mile, including expense of the temporary slieep-proof
fence. Care must be taken to keep sheep from tlie 3'oung
'■rees at first, as there is a poison communicated by the contact
of sheep with young trees, fruit trees especially, which often
kills thera, and always retards their growth. There are many
native shrubs and trees which neither sheep nor cattle are
likely to injure. The gum trees growing along the sides of tlie
road between Ballarat and Buninyong grow closely together,
scarcely touched by the stock. The same thing is apparent in
the adjac( nt unenclosed country. I tliiuk it may be quite
possible to make a screen fence of such trees without enclosing
it ; to make the fence close some management of the branches
would be necessary when the trees had grown about six feet
higli ; this process, called pleaching, is well understood by
liadgers in the old country. In this way a similar screen fence
as described for the poplar, including cost of collecting seeds,
might be made for about £2i a mile ; no rails or wire would
be required, the ground to be ploughed as before mentioned,
and the seeds sown in two rows say a foot apart. Farmers in
the BuUarook and other dense forests appear to wage war
unsparingly against every sort of tree ; in a few years they may
find it expedient to plant more, and regret the destruction of a
few blackwood, cherry, and shady gum trees, which cannot be
replaced. When clearing a piece of laud, why not leave some
of the most shady trees? A few trees left on the north side and in
the corners of paddocks will be of use for shade and shelter. I
will conclude this paper with an extract from Loudon's " En-
clypicdia of Agriculture' : " When farm lands are exposed to
high winds, interspersing them with strips or masses of planta-
tion is attended with obviously important advantages ; not only
are such lands rendered more congenial to the growth of grass
and corn, and the health of pasturing animals, but the local
climate is improved ; the fact that the climate may be thus
improved, has in very many instances been sufficiently esta-
blished ; it is indeed astonishing how much better cattle thrive
in fields even but moderately sheltered than they do in open,
exposed country ; and in instances where iields are taken by
the season for the purpose of fattening, those most sheltered
never fail to produce the highest rents, providing tlie soil is
equal to that of the neighbouring fields not sheltered by trees.
Trees[and'shrubs properly disposed in a bleak situation, improve
the land in three ways, by giving shelter to stock, by breaking
the currents of winds, and communicating a degree of warmth
and softness to! the ^i'"' I'l winter living trees communicate
actual warmth to the surrounding air by their shade ; in sum-
mer they make it cooler."
On the motion of Mr. Vaughan, seconded by Mr, Jopling,
a vote of thanks was passed to the essayist.
THE WARWICKSHIRE CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE.
At a meeting, Mr. J. Scott in the chair, Captain
Townsend called attention to the provisions of the
Agricultural Children Bill respecting the attendance of children
at schools recognised by the Government as efficient, and said
the restriction was productive of considerable inconvenience
in certain districts. Such was the ease in his own parish,
where there was a good school, centrally situated, and gene-
rally used by the labourers, but not recognised as efficient by
Government, while the Government school was at some dis-
tance from the village, and only just within the limit of two
miles prescribed in the Act. Tlie consequence was that the
children had to walk the two miles, because the attendances at
the village school were not counted, notwithstanding that a
good education was imparted there which gave satisfaction to
their parents. Lord Willougliby de Broke thought there
would be no difficulty in getting efficient schools recognised.
Captain Townsend rejoined that the misfortune was that such
schools were not now recognised accordingto the requirements
of the Act, so that the attendances at an unrecognised school
would not count during the present year. It was decided that
a terse summary of the salient provisions of tlie Act should be
priuted, and that special prominence sliould be given to the
fact that the attendance of children must be at some recog-
nised Government school, in order to qualify them to be
employed in agricultural pursuits next year. The Secretary
was directed to forward copies of the publication to the various
members of the Chamber, for distribution amongst agricultural
labourers in their respective districts.
The subject of the Animals' Diseases Act was introduced
by Sir llobert Hamilton, who stated that the expenses incurred
in connection with the working of the measure in Warwickshire
liad never been separated from ,the ordinary county finances.
In compliance with a request from Mr. Ilorley and others, he
had selected all the items from 18G9 to the present time, and
found that the total amount was just under a halfpenny rate.
It was not until the Act of 180'J came into force that the
expenses incurred under its provisions were ordered to be shared
between the landlord and tlie tenant, and tlierefore there ap-
peared to have been no very great liarra or injustice occasioned
by the accounts not having been kept separate, as specified in
the Act. Mr. Kewfon tliouglit that if tlie rate did not amount
to a halfpenny in the pound, it was hardly worth dividing.
jMr. lord said that as the Act directed the expenses to be equaly
divided between the landlord and the tenant, he did not see
how they could possibly avoid compliance with it, no matter
how small ;he amount. JMr. Muiit/ agreed witli Mr. Ford,
and said the question was one of principle, not amount. Mr.
Ilorley mentioned that ho had written 1o Sir llobert Hamilton
Rud Mr, Caldecott, who were members of the local authority,
calling attention to the specific provision of the Act in this
respect, and suggesting the propriety of steps being taken in
future for the separation of the cattle disease accounts from the
ordinary finances of the county, the payment to be equally
divided between the landlord and tenant. Mr. Robbins men-
tioned the cape of Mr. Bray, of Shilton, in which compensation
had not yet been paid for animals slaughtered several months
ago, and complained of the hardship to which persons who
had suffered loss for the public good were thus subjected. On
the motion of Mr. Ford, seconded by Mr. Hicken, it was ulti-
mately resolved, ?/fw. CO//., that a memorial, pointing out the
provisions of the Cattle Diseases Act, 1869, with respect to the
division of expenses between landlord and tenant, and request-
ing that in future that course might be adopted in this county,
should be presented to the County Finance Committee. The
Chairman, Mr. Muntz, and Mr. Ford were appointed a com-
mittee to draw up the memorial. Lord Leigh mentioned that
at a special meeting of the local authority, held a few days
ago, it was resolved to present a memorial to the Finance Com-
mittee, also asking them to keep the accounts separate, and to
evy a special rate for cattle disease purposes. He had no
doubt the matter would receive careful consideration at the
hands of the Finance Committee, of whicli he himself was
chairman, and that the decision at which they would arrive
would meet with the approval of the Chamber. Mr. Muntz
urged the importance of all claims for compensation being
promptly settled. It was not only of mouu-nt to farmers who
suffered loss, but was also of public importance, as uncertainty
when a claim would be paid was calculated to make persons
conceal the existence of disease amongst their stock. He sug-
gested that the Chamber would render a service to members
by circulating information as to how claims for compensation
should be made, and when and how tliey would be paid. Mr.
Horley mentioned that the local authority had great discre-
tionary powers as to the compensation to be allowed for
slaughtered animals. He had always felt that, as cattle were
slaughtered for the imblic good, without the consent or even
concurrence of the owners, they should be dealt with liberally.
The utmost money compensation they could get was oue-lialf
of the value of the animals slaughtered, but the local autho-
rity could also give the owners the salvage, wjiicli, in cases of
pleuro-pnenmonia, occasionally amounted to something con-
siderable besides. He thought it was for the public good tliat
owners should be dealt witii liberally, as tliere would then be
less disposition to conceal the existence of the disease. He
urged that in every case the whole of (he salvage should be
given to the owners of animals comimlsorily slaughtered.
Mr. HoRLFY said the meetings of the Chamber were usually
lield ou the Saturday before the Tuesday on which the Central
K 2
110
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
Chamber met. He had frequently noticed when any question
of importance was brought forward there was no time to^com-
municate with anyone where it was desirable to do so ; and
though he was not then prepared to propose any alteration in
the day for the meetings of the AYarwickshire Chamber, he
thought that an alteration would in some respects be certainly
beneficial. Mr. Munt?. said he had noticed the same inconve-
nience. Mr. Horley intimated that he would oq a future
occasion bring the subject regularly before the
Chamber.
HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND.
The January meeting of the directors of this Society was
held in their Chambers, No. 3, George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh,
Professor Wilson in the chair.
The following resolutions were unanimously agreed to :
" That the directors of the Highland and Agricultural Society
of Scotland desire to express their deep regret at the loss
which the Society has sustained by the death of Sir Jaiies
Colquhoun of Luss, Bart., and their sense of the cordial as-
sistance rendered by him as an extraordinary director. That
the death of Mr. Cliarles Lawson, late of Borthwickhall,
having been communicated to the directors, they feel it most
justly due to his memory to express the deap sense entertained
by the Society of the great zeal, assiduity, and interest uni-
formly evinced by Mr. Lawson during the long period of liis
connection with the Society as seedsman, conservator of the
museum, and latterly as a director of the Society ; and to
express the great regret at ths loss which the Society has
sustained by his death."
The remit contained in the directors' minute of 5th Novem-
ber was brought before a meeting of the Special Committee
on Steam Cultivation on tlie 17th of December, when the
committee resolved to report — (1) That an exhibition of steam
cultivators should be held under the auspices of the Society ;
but as autumn is considered a more suitable time than spring,
and as the present season is too far advanced, the committee
recommend that the exhibition should not take place till
November, 187-i : (~) that tlie exhibition shall not be com-
petitive, but that each exiiihitor shall liave an opportunity of
showing the full working jiowers of his apparatus ; (3) that
the exhibition shall be held in the vicinity of Edinburgh ;
(4) that the Society shall pay all working expenses at the exlii-
bition ; (5) that the Scoiety shall present a gold medal to each
exhibitor ; and (6) that a descriptive report of the various
systems represented shall be drawn up for publication in the
Society's Transactions. The report was approved of, and it
was remitted to the committee to make the necessary arrange-
ments for the proposed exhibition in November next.
A proposal by Mr. Glennie, Feruyllatt, to offer a premium
to be competed for in the season 1874-75 by the owners or
companies owning steam-cultivating machinery, was referred
to the Steam-Cultivatioa Committee.
THE
HOP-PICKER.
At the annual meeting of the Society for the Employ-
ment and Improved Lodging for hop-pickers held at
Maidstone, the Earl of Darnley presided. The report stated
that the committee had addressed a letter to the Local Govern-
ment Board as to evils relating to the lodging of hop-pickers,
the remedy for which must be sought in the amendment of the
law. A correspondence subsequently arose between your com-
mittee and the Local Government Board, and there is reason
to believe that the law will be altered in such a manner as to
bring lodgings of hop-pickers under the supervision of the
sanitary authorities. At the conference of the Poor-law
Guardians of the South Eastern District of England held in
August last at Maidstone, the follovping resolution was unani-
mously carried : "That in the opinion of this conlerence it is
desirable that such bye-laws with regard to hop-pickers as
are suggested in the report of Mr. Murray Browne to the
Local Government Board should be entrusted to sanitary
authorities." Your committee respectfully appeal to peers
and members of Parliament who have directly or indirectly
supported the efforts of the Society to render their aid in
passing such measures tiirough Parliament as may repress such
part of tlie evils relating to the lodging of hop-pickers as
cannot be dealt with by merely moral suasion. The committee
desire to thank the Hon. Edward Stanhope for advice and
suggestions relating to the state of the sanitary law. The
number of hop-pickers supplied this year was 856 as against
812 last year.
The Chairman said : From a return issued by the South-
Eastern Railway Committee it appeared that during the pre-
sent year there were 14,G64 hop-pickers conveyed by special
down trains, and 16,933 returned by special up trains. In
1872 the numbers were — down, 15,947 ; up, 17,233.
Tlie Mayor, in moving the adoption of the report, said he
was pleased to see that the Society was progressing. The
previous year (1872) was, as they all knew, a very heavy hop
year, and consequently a large number of pickers was brought
down in excess of what had generally been necessary to meet
the requirements of the district ; but although a less amount
of labour was required this year than in the year before, he
perceived that the Society had supplied a large number of
pickers, the number being 859 against 812 ; consequently they
would suppose from tliat that the influence of the Society was
extending. He thought there was a great work for this
Society still to do. He believed that during the few years it
had been in existence it had very much improved the means
of travelling and the accommodation of the poor people who
came down for the hopping season. One was pleased to see
that there were fewer persons hanging about the town at that
period, not knowing where they were to be employed, than
there were a few years ago. Time was when they saw poor
people walking about the town, having no engagement, and
not knowing wiien the hopping would begin. Now, through
this Society, it was known when picking would commence,
and that must be an accommodation to the poor people. With
regard to the hop-pickers' lodgings there had been an improve-
ment in that respect. He had noticed a growing desire among
the farmers that these persons should be better accommodated
than they had been, but he did not think they should alto-
gether lose sight of the fact that the accommodation to which
these people were accustomed in London was of the worst
kind, and he had no doubt that a great many of the pickers
were far worse off in the houses in which they resided in
London than in any which they obtained in the hop districts.
He believed that very few of them went back worse than they
came. Looking at the alleys and courts of London, and the
wretched condition in which these persons lived, he thought
that their sojourn in this neighbourhood, although they were
what might be considered badly lodged, must be an improve-
ment to tiiera. With regard to the remarks which were made
as to fever and cholera being engendered, he was not at all
sure that it was not more the fault of the food tiiey obtained
than the lodgiugs iu which tiiey lived. One could see fiom
reports iu the newspapers, and from personal observation, that
a very great deal of the food supplied to these people was of a
very bad description, and he thought that this Society, through
their agents, would be doing a good work if they would pay
some little attention to this matter. The Society liad gone on
doing good, and he hoped that God would grant them success
and increased funds, and he was sure that the committee would
lay them out well.
The report was adopted, the officers were re-elected, and
the committee of management re-appointed.
The Rev. J. Y. Stratton said that with regard to what the
Mayor of Maidstone had said relative to the inspection of
food, he might say that the committee found that was already
provided for by the sanitary authorities, and that a very great
change had taken place under the efficient inspection of the
officers appointed by the unions in this district witii reg£^rd tg
l^HE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
141
the food sold to hop-pickers. With respect to lodgings for
hoppers, he always felt very strongly that the fact of their
being worse otf somewhere else did not release persons in this
neighbourhood from the responsibility of giving these poor
people such protection as might not only secure them against
the inclemency _of the weather, wliich was sometimes bad
enough during the liopping season, but they should give them
such lodging as would at least tend to secure morality and
decency. Anyone who supposed that because poor persons
were accustomed to huddle together, that they were careless
about morality and decency, made a great mistake, as was
shown by the arrangements which these people were desirous
of making when encouragement was given. An influence of
a healthy kind had been beneficially exerted on the hop-growers
by the publications which had been issued by the Society.
There were, however, some people — not only hop-growers —
who did not care a snap for public opinion, and it was most
likely that in many cases tlie conduct of those persons was not
of much importance ; but with regard to farmers, he thought
it was desirable that such persons should be influenced by law.
He was glad to say that tlie committee backed up this feeling.
It was thought that by the Sanitary Act tliey had all tliat they
wanted, but it was not so, and an amendment of the Act was
required to make it safe for an inspector to go into a hopper
house for the purpose of inspecting it. At present an action
might lie against him or his employers if he did so. A cor-
respondence had taken place which had led to a report upon
this subject being sent to the Local Government Board by one
of its inspectors, and they were given to understand tliat the
Amendment Act w-ould be brouglit forward next session.
Under these circumstances he thought that the appeal which
was made in the report to peers and other members of Parlia-
ment was fully justified, and he trusted that they would give
their attention to the amendments to the Sanitary Act when
the subject came before Parliament.
A cordial vote of thanks having been passed to Lord Dakn-
LEY, the noble earl, in responding, said that he observed that
the result of the correspondence was tliat the Local Govern-
ment Board had referred Mr . Stratton to the report o f their
assistant-inspector, Mr. Murray Browne, whose recommenda-
tion was that a permissive clause should be inserted, leaving it
to the sanitary authority to make bye-laws if they thought
proper to do so. He (Lord Darnley) must say that he was
against permissive legislation. Some parties with whom this
permissive legislation rested might be the persons who had
neglected to provide proper accommodation for their hop-
pickers, and he would rather see legislation in tliis matter
made compulsory. At the same time, if they cuuld get that
which had been recommended it would be a great gain, and
better than nothing.
The following particulars are from the report of the above
Society :
Total acreage returned as under hops in each of the years
1873 and 1873, to the Board of Trade :
1872. 1873.
Acres. Acres.
Hants 2,847 ... 2,771
Hereford 6,106 ... 6,044.
Kent 37,927 ... 39,040
Surrey 2,152 ... 2,207
Sussex 9,738 ... 10,174
Worcester 2,632 ... 2,573
Other 524 ... 467
England 61,926 ... 63,276
Wales 1 ... 3
Scotland 0 ... 0
Total 61,927 ... 63,278
In the latter part of the year 1872 the llev. J. Y. Stratton
opened a correspondence with the Local Government Board
in reference to tlic improved lodgings of hop-pickers,
and as the Board requested that the alterations in tlie law
contemplated by the Society might be specified, the following
resolution was forwarded, by desire by the Committee of
Management of the Society for the Employment and Ira-
proved Lodging of Hop-pickers : " That tlie Local Govern-
ment Board be requested to obtain an amendment of the Sani-
tary Act, 1866, s. 35, in order that the regulations for
common lodging-houses may be extended to country sanitary
authorities in the several unions visited by hop-pickers, and
that power to inspect hopper-houses, barracks, slieds, tents,
wigwams, and other places in which immigrant hop-pickers
are lodged may be given to inspectors of nuisances in the
unions." Eventually the Board referred Mr. Stratton to the
suggestions as to future legislation contained in Mr. Murray
Browne's report. This report states that the quality and cha-
racter of the accommodation provided for hop-pickers differs
greatly upon different farms. In every district there are
district, however, satisfactory in its general character,
there are farms where the accommodation provided is
estates where no interference is required ; and in every
most insuflicient and discreditable. In Kent the character of
tlie lodgings appears to be generally improving ; but it is
agreed on all bauds tliat on many farms in every district the
accommodation is still seriously and often scandalously de-
fective ; that over-crowding of the most serious description is
common, ann that the lodgings are often very filthy ; that interna
divisions are constantly neglected, although without them, in
the larger huts occupied by many persons of both sexes, de-
cency is impossible, and morality must be endangered ;
that some buildings (the thatched hurdle houses) are fright-
fully exposed to danger by fire, against which no provi-
sion is made (six children were burnt to death in this manner
last September) ; that privies, which are needed at least for
the women, arc comparatively rare, and fire-places, which are
required for cooking and for drying the wet clothes of the
children, ^:c., are very iusufliciently furnished ; tliat no wash-
ing accommodation is supplied, and.that although the e8"ects of
this state of things are largely counterbalanced by the gene-
rally healthy character of the employment (at least in fine
weather), yet that results injurious to health do not unfre-
quently arise, while the injury to decency and morality is of
the most serious description. This matter concerns also the
resident inhabitants of the district, who are exposed to infec-
tion should disease break out among the pickers. Replying
to the allegation that the pickers are of so depraved a cliarac-
ter as to be incapable of availing themselves of decent accom-
modation if it were aflbrded them, Mr. Murray Browne says
that bad as the pickers generally are they are not so bad as to
be devoid of the primary instincts and habits of a civilised
population, and tliey will prefer decent lodgings to those which
are not decent if the choice is offered them. Public opinion
may do, and has done, a good deal, but there are some hop-
growers who set it utterly at defiance ; and it may be thought
that public opinion has already had full scope for its
operation, and has effected as much as it is likely to do.
Direct compulsory legislation is in many respects to be pre-
ferred, but it would be difficult, from the nature of the case and
the varying circumstances of different districts, to apply it at
present. It would, perhaps, be better, therefore, to follow the
suggestion made by Jlr. Lambert, and to give power to each
sanitary authority concerned to make bye-laws upon the sub-
ject. This course is recommended by the precedent of the
Common Lodging Houses Acts, and appears to be in accord-
ance with the views of others. Mr. Stratton gives the follow-
ing suggestions as the result of his long experience :
The following regulations should be obligatory :
1. That the lodgings, whatever the materials, should be
weatherproof.
3. That a minimum space of 16 square feet should be
secured to each adult, two children to count as one adult.
3. That such screens or divisions should be used as are
necessary to protect occupants from indecent exposure.
4. That a sufficient number of cooking houses and of
privies should be provided.
o. That where the hopper-house is used for other purposes
at other times of the year, it should be cleaned, and the ground
adjoining made free from any oifeusive matter.
6. That sufficient water should be provided.
To the above 1 would desire to add that where sheds are
used composed of hurdles and straw, lanterns should in all
cases be provided to diminish the risk of fire. The above
details would, however, be left to the local sanitary authority
when framing its proposed bye-laws. I would only suggest
that, following as closely as possible the precedent of the
Common Lodging Houses Acts, a clause might be inserted in
any future Act of Parliament emanating troin the Local
Government Board to the following efl'ect : " Any sanitary
authority within wliose district hops are cultivated may from
142
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
time to time make regulations respecting the houses, sheds,
tents, or other habitations within its jurisdiction in which the
persons employed about such cultivation at the time of hop
harvest are designed to be lodged, for all or any of the following
purposes ; that is to say, for the inspection and registration of
such habitations, and for providing that the same be weather-
proof, for fixing the number of persons who may be received
into the same, for promoting cleanliness and ventilation
therein, for the well-ordering of such habitations, and the
provision of such screens or divisions as are necessary to pro-
tect occupants from indecent exposure, for the provision of
cooking houses, fireplaces, and privies, and sufficient supply of
water, and for providing against damage by fire. Provided
always, that the regulations made under this section by any
sanitary authority shall not be in force until they have been
confirmed by the Local Government Board."
Sussex. — I have fonud but little information as to this
county, and have had but little success in my endeavours to
collect the same. That little, however, is of an unfavourable
character. It appeared, from inquiries which I made at a
meeting of the Board of Guardians of Rye, that any internal
separation in the buildings was very rare, and that privies
were considered quite unnecessary.
And here I may advert to a point already touched upon
i.e., the great danger of fire in that not uncommon class of
hopper-houses, which consist entirely (both walls and roofs)
of hurdles thatched with straw. Six children were burnt to
death last summer in this manner in the Rye Union, and
many others barely escaped with their lives. In this case the
hopper- house, which was covered in with canvas over the
straw, seems to have been ingeniously constructed so as to
admit the wind and rain, and to afford every possible facility
to a conflagration, while it effectually prevented the
escape of those who happened to he inside at the time- Prom
the published report of the proceedings at the coroner's inquest
it appears that " it was the practice to have a naked caudle to
go to bed by," and " to tie the candle to the end of the hurdle
above the straw." On this occasion the coroner and the jury
intimated a not unreasonable opinion that lanterns should be
provided for the use of the pickers. It appears that there
have been similar fires in the same neighbourhood, aud it
cannot, I think, be denied that if the use of this sort of shed
is still to be permitted, it should be made compulsory
upon the grower to furnish lanterns for the ixse of the
inmates.
THE SHORTHORN IN AMERICA.
TO THE IDITOR OF THE MAKK LANE EXPRESS.
Sir, — 1 expect my last article -will make quite a stir
amongst the Bates men, aud 1 am anxious to see if any
of them can deny the facts therein stated. You know,
Mr. Editor, that I always said that Mr. Bates was not
Avhat I should call a scientific breeder, nor do I believe
he ever knew ffood quaUtij. He always advocated flabby
handling, such that I considered could never get ripe, nor
did the symmetry of his own breeding ever come up to
what I should call perfection. I have never seen anything
to induce me to alter my opinion, notwithstanding the
constant puffs that have appeared in this country. It
was this constant run of bravado of Mr. Bates and his
pet men that induced me to controvert the erroneous
statements made. As The Country Gentleman is on your
exchange list, I think you could not but perceive that this
paper has been the organ to praise Bates and his tribes of
Duchesses at all hazards since the introduction of his
cattle into this country.
Mr. A. B. Allen, then editor of The American Agricul-
turist, was the first to visit Mr. Bates, who received him
with open arms, feeling that his soul was wrapped up in
prize cattle, and that his paper was the instrument to
bring them into notoriety. When he returned to America,
he said in his paper that " Mr. Thomas Bates, of Kirk-
levingtou, was the only breeder of any note in England."
The junior editor of The Country Gentleman was the
next visitor who w^as as much at home iu the
house of Bates as his predecessor, and, by this means,
succeeded in gaining the good opinion of the noted
breeder. Thus the mania for the Bates stock began.
Both these papers were prepared, for the two editors
had gained all the information they wanted to know
about Shorthorns; they could write the history of
them, with the assistance of Ambrose Stevens, Lewis F.
Allen, Francis Rotch, George Vail, John R. Page, P. S.
Chapman, taken as their fancy scribes. This was the
body that first started the Duke and Duchess mania, and
they swelled the current to an overwhelming state.
Not a stone was unturned to bring this noted tribe and
the breeder of them into notoriety. They talked of their
sweet heads, beautiful eyes, tapering noses, slopinr/ shoul-
der-points, thin hides, and beautiful soft handling. Not
one of them knew the true quality by the hand ; nor
could one of these Dukes or Duchesses claim anything
higher than third-class character, and but very few of
them could maintain even that. " They were bred by
Bates " was sufficient for them to command atten-
tion aud win the admiration of novices. By referring
to " Bell on Bates," you will see that Mr. Bates
presented the bull Duke of Cambridge to an Ameri-
can gentleman, treated him with the utmost hospitality,
and made a coniidaut of him. This gentleman was at
the head of the writers. Francis Rotch went as
far as he could. Part of Mr. Tail's correspondence
appeared in " Bell on Bates." Mr. John R. Page
chimed in occasionally with the extreme excellence of
the Duchesses, and made his most flattering pictures of
them to correspond, and to take their rounds iu the agri-
cultural press. This was done under a load of flesh ;
their top aud bottom lines were even made straighter iu
such condition : many of the originals were anything but
straight. The object was toj attract the novice ;
but the practical man was not caught. The flesh, put on
with great care and expense, was attraction enough for
him, without the addition. All could not make them
perfect eveu in imagination. These portraits, extremely
overdrawn, were pleasing to those concerned.
This was the beginning of the Dukes and Duchess
mania. The fii'st bull heralded aud noised about was the
Duke of "Wellington. His importer, Mr. G. Vail, claimed
for him the jmre Bates, if not quite pure Duchess. The
editor of the American Shorthorn Herd Book hired
him ; and iu the advertisements of this gentleman the
Duke Avas the most prominent feature. He was the
exalted sire of the young ones, and the numerous praises
he received from the Bates meu can be better imagined
than described. I will give you my opinion of this noted
bull. He had a small head, thick neck, and a very deep
brisket ; shoulder-points ragged, aud his shoulder-blades
uncovered ; his waist was extremely light, his paunch
heavy, his rumps tolerable, his twist half way up to his
high tail. This is the exact description I gave of him in
the " Live Stock Journal," and in a few weeks after Mr.
John R. Page endorsed it, but disputed his pedigree, I
think Mr. Thornton will remember this. His get were
much like him. His son. Meteor, although portrayed iu
many papers, was coarse and uusymmetrical. Had 1 been
one of the judges I should not have considered him worthy
of a prize ; but he was Bates blood, and he triumphed over
others much better, to exalt the Bates tribes. Welling-
ton was a roan ; but his son. Meteor, was white. 'Phen
came the Duchesses from Earl Ducie's sale. These were
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
143
better, but not at all comparable to the fuss made about
them. The scribes were full of flattering speeches,
and they were all endorsed by The Country' Geiitleman
ml ArjricuUunst, and Tlie Ohio Farmer. Many violent
rotestations were made against other breeds, and in
oing so attention was called to the beauty of the tribe.
Softness in handling was the cry of Mr. Bates ; and this
was the cry of his followers. We all know that
softness is the reverse of good handling when the animal
is ripe — and the Duchesses have to be loaded withllesh, if
not ripe, to make them passable — and that is put on with
a great deal of care aud expense which a man of me-
dium capital cannot sustain. Those who forced for
notoriety did it at the loss of constitution and
to create barrenness, and the more scarce Dukes
and Duchesses become from such treatment, the higher
price they obtain, aud thus some breeders out of a false
persuasion of merit would sooner pursue their own will
than reform ; for they studied what was fashionable in
preference to what was perfect. Some of those long
legged, coarse, unsymmetrical bulls called Dukes of An-
dries were changed on paper into straight lines. These
coarse creatures were pampered almost to barrenness, but
still had the credit of superiority, and were honoured by
claiming the calves, and there was no visible reason why this
claim should not be allowed. The stock bull in the dark
might be a cross from the Galloway, "West Highlander, or
descended from the white cattle from Chillingham, and
none but those in the secret would be any the wiser. There
are many ways to bids these outward crosses, purposely to
make consanguinity conspicuous before the people.
Tell me, Mr. Editor, whether some of your readers, if
they know no blush, will not feel a little conscience
stricken when they meditate upon this plausible scheme
in the art of breeding. I contend that this darkness has
been the means of the improvement, notwithstanding the
secret ke])t is hardly excusable, while the forcing system
is responsible for much that is evil.
A little more about the the New York Mills sale in
comparison with the Provincial Show of Shorthorns at
London, Canada. Here I met the auctioneer, Mr. John
E. Page, and found him among the Shorthorns in all his
glory ; although none of the Duchesses were there to
dazzle him with high-sonnding names. I was very
much amused with the remarks he made to me and
others, and I think a short sketch of them may be
amusing to your readers. All who know John R. Page
have noticed the dimensions of his shirt collars, are aware
of that peculiar gaiety in his walk, aud that smile on his
face, as he wags his head with a knowing air, sticking his
thumbs into his waistcoat armholeswhile playing imaginary
tuues with his fingers on his chest. After a few preliminary
remarks, I said, " Well, Mr. P., what do you think of the
show of Shorthorns here?" "A great show, sir; a great
show, sir." '" How does it compare with those sold at New
York Mills." " Well, sir," he said, with his hands on
his hips, aud his elbows a-kimbo, " I told them at Guelph
that the cow sold for 40,800 dollars would not have taken
a twelfth prize here." " I fully agree with you, Mr.
P. ; I could see nothing in that cow to warrant a
prize at a county fair." " No, sir ; she never was
a show cow." " Then her fame and her value rested
upon her name aud fashionable pedigree." " That
might be so, sir. That was a great sale, sir ; an
extraordinary sale, sir. Such a sale that we shall
never see again, sir. I always said that I could
outsell Strafford with the Duchesses, and I have done
it, sir." This was said with much emphasis.
When I visited Mr. Campbell's herd T wrote a descrip-
tion of it for the Mlckiijan Farmer, and in that said
that the West Highland cross Avas as plain to be seen
in a great portion of the herd by a practical man as the
nose on his face ; therefore I ventured to ask Mr. Pag
his opinion on that subject. " You were right about that
Mr. Sotham," he said ; " Strafford, with that peculiar
twinkle in his eye, always told Mr. Sheldon what
cross was in his cattle. You were right also about
the two heifers from Belinda, Col. Lewis T. Morris
bought them, and they were considered as good
as any in the herd by good judges." " That is gratifying,"
said 1, " to be endorsed by the lion of auctioneers in the
best tribes of Shorthorns, and one of the best judges and
breeders in the State of New York. I hope that is not
intended for flattery." " Oh no, sir ; it is so. You aud
I have had many sharp passes at each other, and- you
have never taken a drink with me, suppose you do it
now. I own a very nice little farm, aud have
it stocked with Shorthorns ; though not Duchesses,
they are good ones." I expressed my pleasure at his
good success, here and we parted. I was very much
gratified with the Provincial Show at London. There
were many fine animals. Messrs. Sue 11, Stone,
Miller, Bertie, and Craig were the principal exhibi-
tors, the former gentleman being the most success-
ful one. There were some splendid animals in each
herd. I was very much pleased with two heifers im-
ported and exhibited by Mr. Simon Beattie, bred by the
late Mr. Game. I saw nothing in the New York Mills
herd that could compare with them for symmetry, quality,
and compactness, and these were beaten by Mr. Snell.
Such were the kind shown at London, and well up in
the Booth blood.
Since writing the above I have read the letter of Lord
Dunmore, and was as much surprised to see his denial of
purchasing those two heifers of Mr. Alexander, as he
was to see the error in my communication. Breeders
all over the country fully believed him to be the pur-
chaser, and I shall have much pleasure in denying this
emphatically, knowing from whence the denial comes.
Not only that, I will have his letter published as widely
as I can. I know the heifers were sold to go to England
for the price named, as I heard it from Mr. Broadhead,
Mr. Alexander's steward, and both were published in
the agricultural papers, the purchaser not given. I
will try and get the name of the purchaser, and have
more to say on these high prices in another communica-
tion. Wji. Hy. Sotham.
Cass Hotel, Bee. 22, 1873.
THE FARMERS' CLUB.— The following subjects have
been selected for discussion during the present year :
Introduced by
Feb. 2.— -The Commercial Principle, I Mr. J. J. Meclii,
as applied to Agriculture J Tiptree Hall, Kelvedou,
March 2,— Milk : Its Supply audi Dr.Voelcker,
Adulteration J Salisbury Square,E.C.
April 6.— The Farmer's Interest at ) Mr. James Trask,
the next Election ) Orchestou, Devizes.
May 4.-Land Laws and Landlords { EJgecunibe,' Tavistock.
November 3.— Our Villages: their 1 Mr. J'lmes Howard,
Sanitary Reform J M.P., Bedford.
^ , „ „, „ , f r Mr. Herbert J. Little,
December 7. - Tiie Future of I Coldham Hall, Wis-
I'^n-ni'Dg L bech.
THE RABBITS AND HARES.-At the Duke of Rox-
burghe's rent-day an intimation was made to all the tenants
tluit licncel'ortli tliey should have an equal rij^lit with the laud^
lord to the hares and rabbits on their farms. The giving up
of hares aud rabbits is regarded by some tenants as virtually
settling the game grievance.
lU
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE-,
THE AMERICAN DAIRY.
At the annual meeting at Sinclairsville of the State Asso-
ciation, the proceedings were opened with an address by Presi-
dent WiLLARD, reviewing in brief the advancement and condi-
tion of the dairy interest. Among the signs of progress were
the extensive associitions by dairymen. County organiza-
tions are springing up through all the dairy districts, and
State associations have been established in Massachusetts,
Vermont, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnsota,
Canada, and New York. The present season was regarded as
unfavourable. Two months of drought in the early part of the
season, he estimated, had cut short the cheese crop from 40,000
to 60,000 pounds of cheese for every 700 to 800 cows ; and
from early shrinkage and short feed the fall crop was put at
one fonrth less than the usual amount. The injury done to
the farmer's revenue by the drought has been felt as heavily in
the winter keep, as in the summer's yield. The forage-crop
is one-third short of the needs of the coming winter. This
deficit must be made up by a heavy cost of grain or hay — the
latter being now worth 25 dollars per ton at the barn, or a
loss suffered in disposing of stock at very low rates. Some
dairymen preferred the latteralternative, and were selling good
straight young cows for 15 dollars per head, and such animals
as needed to be culled from tlie herd, from 5 dollars to 8 dol-
lors. The panic, by which farmers usually suffer less than
other citizens, is responsible in a measure for depressed prices.
The future looks better than the present. The consumption
of cheese is increasing. A iialf million of emigrants yearly
finding a home within our territory are large consumers of
cheeie, and our own people, who are rapidly increasiug, con-
sume more freely than in the past. This, with tlie increasing
export demand, which is estimated for the year at £85,000,000
gives promise of a future demand that will keep pace with the
extension of the factories, and the enlarged production of the
future. Tor relief in present emergencies he urged a reduc-
tion in the price of farm labour, a better selection of milk
stock, and increased care and attention to its feed and comfort.
The Hon. Hakkis Lewis, of Frankfort, N. Y., spoke at
some length on " Adaptation." After considering the extent '
of his topic, the perfect adaptation in nature as exhibited
in the distribution and production of the vegetable and
animal kingdoms, and the adaptation of man to his peculiar
relations to mind and matter, the salient points of his reriarks
referred to what he considered adaptation in the business of
dairying. The first step which should be taken by the young
dairyman toward adapting himself to the business of his choice
Mr. Lewis contended, was to select a companion adapted to
his vocation as well as his taste. A dairyman is not adapted
to his calling without a wife possessed of some business talent.
She should have sufficient intelligence and skill not only to
perform her part, but to lend a helping hand and assutae the
direction of affairs iu she absence of her husband. Less de-
voted to fashions than their future welfare, she should mingle
her counsels with his in the selection of a home and all tiie
essentials of life. A proper regard for taste is essential to
adaptation. The wife of the merchant or the millionaire may
be excused possibly for adapting herself to the ever-changing
fashions and the marvellous freaks in dress. The wife of a
dairyman must suit herself to her business. A three-foot trail
or an absorption into her apparel of so much of the modern
press as to impede her passage through a common door is not
a good sample of adaptation in the business of dairying. This
would be as inappropriate as to fill in the place of an enter-
prising farmer with a quack doctor, a poor lawyer, or a defunct
merchant. The dairyman should select a farm suited to his
speciality, and his herd should be adapted to tlie particular
line of business to which he proposes to devote liimself. No
one need ever expect to get rich by selling milk by the quart
or by making cheese from Devons or Jerseys. He must also
adapt the food of his herd to their necessities. The food of
the dairy must contain tiie material the cows are called upon
to secrete. To expect golden butter from tlie pale fat of dead
ripe hay, bleached straw or stale corn-stalks was not consistent.
Nor did he think that to expect a bountiful yield from the
stalks of green fodder corn, from which lie had been able to
evaporate 92 per cent, of water, was much more consistent.
Strong statements were made in regard to dry corn meal as a
food for dairy cows, to which several members took exception.
Mr. L. urged that grass was the proper food for the dairy cow
in summer, and dried grass her food in winter. He further
urged that adaptation could not be found in any single species
of grass — a variety was better than any single sort. Lastly,
the dairyman does not appreciate the full measure of adaptation
if he does not possess himself of the best modern implements
and the highest skill known to his calling. The profits of his
business lie in the excellence of his goods. Poor goods give
poor returns. By reason of the modern improvements in dairy
products, the standard of public taste is all the time rising, and
he who fails to bring his goods to the demands of the times,
fails in the most essential part of adaptation.
The evening of the first day was occupied with the delivery
of the annual address by the Hon. John Stanton Gould of
Hudson, whose subject was " Cleanliness," upon which he
placed all the stress that Demosthenes did upon action. He
considered milk unclean that contained anytliing not belonging
to the necessary elements of milk. He stated that average
milk consisted of —
Water..86.00 | Butter..4.1 1 Sugar..5.2 1 Casein..3.9 | Ash.0.8
Milk that contains anything else is filthy. Tiiese elements are
all that is necessary to the composition of perfect milk. They
are exactly in the right proportions and conditions for the
purpose of nutrition, and anything whatever that was added
to them, must be regarded as foreign. It is not even necessary
that something should be added to make milk unclean. He
had often examined milk with a microscope, and had never
failed to find foreign matter mingled with spores of cryptoga-
mous plants — fungi — those identical with the active agency in
rennet were always present, and others of a more offensive
character. The tender aflinities by which the compound ele-
ments of milk are held together are torn asunder by the growtli
of these cryptogamia ; they feed upon the substance of the
milk and change its condition unfavourably, or otherwise.
There is such a thing as natural filth. These seeds are found
alike in the milk of tlie wild and domestic cow. The evidences
of native filth may be found at the factories where milk is
condensed. The highest standard of milk is received at these
factories. If any one will place his nose at the point where
the vapour of the condensing milk passes out, he will be sur-
' prised at its extremely offensive character. It has the mingled
odours of the cow's breath and her stable. Mr. Gould spoke
somewhat fully in regard to the nature and effects of these
I germs. He exhorted dairymen to make themselves acquainted
! with this class of plants, as all the changes in milk and cheese
i are produced and moulded by them. They determine aU the
I modifications by heat, explain the mysterious tliickening in
covered cans, and are the cause of the ripening of milk so
often spoken of by manufacturers. The peculiar composition
of butter, and how changes were wrought in it by foreign
agencies was explained at length, and listened to with interest
and profit. He showed that filth may be cultivated as well
as introduced. Things otherwise cleanly and desirable became
unclean in milk. The otto of roses became filth in milk or its
products. The contaminations tliat occur in milking and
handling milk, the absorption of cryptogamous plant seeds
from cellars and currents of foul air, from whey vats, and
adjacent hog pens, was made clear. The necessity of making
the study of milk more full and complete, so that the operation
of the dairy can be conducted with somewhat of scientific
exactness, was urged. A commission of scientific and practical
men to investigate the laws and facts which avail in producing
various changes in manufacturing dairy goods was suggested.
The necessity of tests at every stage to know the exact progress
made is desirable. The possibility of doing tliis was demon-
strated at the close of his address by exhibiting one of Twitch-
ell's acidometers and testing the amount of acidity in a sam-
ple of vinegar in the presence of the audience.
Prof. E. J. WicKSON of T/ie U/ica Herald gave a lecture
upon " feeding at a mark," explaining by diagrams the com-
pound nature of food and the various changes it undergoes in
passing through the different stages of elaboration in the
THE FARMBS,'S MAGAZIi^E.
14S
aniraai's body. He s'nowecl the farmers in a plain and simple
way the necessity of studying more closely than they now do
the composition of their cattle food, and of feeding less by
guess, and at a great loss, as mucli of the feeding is now
done. He sliowed how feeding for special purposes may be
accomplislied without waste, if the feeder understands the com-
position of food at his command.
Tile subject of cross-breeding for improving dairy stock was
takea up by the Hon. J. Shull of llion, and a full discussion
by the speaker and the audience was had. A variety of
opinions prevailed in regard to the subject. The salient points
in the consideration of the matter were that the stock of the
country is already well crossed. The so-called native stock
is made up wholly ot crosses, and the only native cow in tlie
country is the bullalo. Mr. II. Farrington of Canada, a dairy-
man of ovei 40 years' of large experience, had found the
most profitable milking stock in the common eows of the
country, and the sentiment of the majority seemed to accord
with Mr. Harrington's experience. The milking strains of
blood in the Shorthorns, tlie Alderneys, and the Ayrshires,
were discussed and tiieir advantages for special purposes noted.
The possibihty and propriety of establishing a breed of milking
stock in Cliautauqua county was commented upon by several.
The excellent pasturage for milk production in the county was
considered a favourable condition for cultivating the habit of a
large yield. The necessity of more attention to developing
strong and permanent milking habits received general assent.
Where crossing is to be done it was agreed that thoroughbred
bulls from milky families with good milkers of common stock
was the reaaiest way of making the first improvement.
Mr. L. B. Aknold, Secretary of tlie Anierican Dairymen's
Association, discussed the application of heat in the processes
of cheeseiuaking. All the changes in milk that occur in
cheesemaking are carried on by the cryptogamous plants des-
cribed by Mr. Gould. The action of heat, up to a certain
degree, hurries up their action. It is important that this
action should be entirely uniform, else all parts of the mass
will not be alike. The present method of ripening curd in
the cheese vat is imperfect, and can only be accomplished by a
high degree of skill derived from long experience. It changes
the temperature from SO to 98 degrees. The ditiieulty lies in
making this change uniform through the whole mass, as the
heat is applied at the bottom and sides of the vat. To assist
in distributing the heat evenly, the curd is divided. To cut
and work the curd in such small divisions as to ensure an even
heating, is to occasion waste ; to make the division in coarser
pieces, the outside and inside of the pieces will not be atfected
alike, and the ripening be unequally done, to the injury of the
cheese. Another difficulty arises from making the divisions
of unequal size — cutting fine and coarse in the same vat. The
circumstances stated are what make the manufacture of cheese
such a dillicult art. The remedy suggested by Mr. A. was to
make the cheese with less variation in temperature, setting
higher, with less rennet, and guarding more etfectually against
loss of heat on the top of the vat, after applying the rennet.
By preventing any loss of heat in any part of the vat, it was
suggested that the whole work of ripening the curd for the
press miglit be carried ou at a perfectly uniform temperature,
and obviate entirely the necessity of cutting the curd, and the
loss of richness and weight that occurs from that operation.
Mr. A. referred to cheese which he had seen, which was made
ou this plan, that was of good quality. The suggestions at-
tracted the earnest attention of the audience.
Mr. E. W. Stewakt, of The Live Stock JoimiaJ, spoke on
feeding for milk production, urging the necessity of feeding
the dairy all the food |they can consume. Feeding is the
thrice important thing in milk production, as Mr. Gould urged
tiiat cleanliness was in the manufacture of it. If there is any
profit in converting catt'e fond into milk, the more the animal
can so convert the greater the profit. He pointed out with
much minuteness how the rations of the cow should be made
up to feed without waste of material, giving the composition
of the foods in common use, and showing how they may be
compounded to the best advantage. The improvement made
upon the digestibility of certain kinds of food by cooking, and
under what circumstances it can be done profitably, were ex-
plained. He had proved by experiments continned for months
in succession, that some varieties of food are improved one-
third by steaming. Mr. S. explained how the manner oi feed-
ing meal might alfect the results to be derived from it. When
fed alone and dry it passes at once into the fourth stomach and
derives no benefit from digestion in the other divisions. If
wet and mixed with cut straw or other coarse food, it will
adhere to it and be carried into the first stomach or paunch
and thence through all the other divisions, and receive a more
complete digestion. In feeding the many thousand tons of
meal which are to be consumed the present winter, the saving
in cattle food which could be effected by this improved mode
of feeding would amount in the aggregate to an important
item. The lecture was replete with interest, and was listened
to by the appreciative audience to the very last.
At about i.SO p.m. the assemblage dispersed, after an un-
abated crossfire of questions for au hour or more, aimed at
Messrs. Arnold, Lewis, and Stewart, which showed the deep
interest that the novelty of a Convention in an extreme corner
of the State had excited, and the determination of a wide-
awake people to make the most of it.
SILESIAN BEET AS A FAEM CROP.
At a meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland,
a lecture ou the above subject was delivered by Professor C.
A. Cameron, Lord Talbot de Malaliide in the chair.
The CiiAiiiMAiM said the question which they had before
them was a very important one, if it could be carried out. It
was not the first time he had given his attention to the subject-
He perceived Mr. Sproule present, who, in conjunction in
some degree with himself, had worked up the subject many
years ago, but there were so many dilliculties in the way that
the results were not successful, although there was a manu-
factory established in Ireland for the purpose. The present
raovemeut, he hoped, would be a most successful one.
Dr. C.VMERON then proceeded with his lecture : The term
sugar is a general one, applied to several compounds of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen (carbo-hydrates), all of wliich possess a
sweet flavour. Of the various sugars, only four are of import-
ance, namely, cane sugar (sucrose), grape sugar (glucose, or
starch sugar), fruit sugar (fructose, inverted, or uucrystalliKable
sugar), and milk sugar (lactose, or lactine). Cane sugar
occurs abundantly in the sugar cane, the sugar grass (Sorghum
saccharatum), several varieties of the maple, ia beet roots,
mangels, carrots, turnips, pumpkins, cliesnuis, and many other
plants. Grape sugar is found in fruits, especially when they
liave been dried and kept for some time ; and it is the sugar
produced from starch by the action of sulphuric acid, and
during the germination of seeds. Fruit sugar, or fructose, is
found in a great variety of fruits, and cane sugar is converted
into this substance by prolonged boiling. Treacle consists of
a mixture of 50 parts uon-crystallizable sugar and a little
grape sugar, ~5 parts water, and 25 parts of saline matter.
The quantity of starch sugar manufactured for sale is trifling
but enormous amounts of this saccharine substance are inci-
dentally produced in the manufacture of malt liquors and al-
cohol. Cane sugar, as a commercial product, is at present
obtained from only three sources, namely, the sugar cane, the
beet, and the maple. The consumption of sugar is rapidly in-
creasing, not only in the United Kingdom, but throughout the
civilized world. Last year the enormous quantity of 1U,U0U,0U0
cwts. were imported into the United Kingdom, and of this
amouiit l^i million cwts. were entered for home consumption.
Of the sugar cousiimed last year in these countries, only
5,22i',4'70 cwts. were iiiipoited from British possessions, and of
the balance of t)| millions of cwts. more than one-third was
beet root sugar, and came from the Continent. I'rance alone
in 1872 exported into the Uuited Kingdom, for iiome con-
146
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
siimptiou tkerem, uo less than 2,238,811 cwts. of sugar, con-
sisting, no doubt, nearly altogether of the produce of the beet.
Even in America the beet sugar industry is extending ;|and
one sugar company (Alveredo, California) produced last year
l,000,0001bs. of sugar and fed 350 cattle on the pulp. The
consumption of sugar in the United Kingdom has now reached
the high proportion of about 501bs. per unit of the population,
and it is therefore a question well worthy of serious consider-
ation, whether it is desirable to produce this valuable food in
our own land or to continue to import it from foreign and co-
lonial countries. The sugar in beet is worth 2Jd. per lb., and
experience has shown that from 1:^ to 2^ tons of sugar may be
produced from a statute acre of beets. Except in market gar-
dens, there is hardly a food crop cultivated in this country
which realises from £35 to £60 per statute acre, the values of
the variable quantities of food produced from a statute acre of
beet roots. Wo doubt, the whole value of an acre of beet
sugar does not go to the farmer— it is divided with the manu-
facturer ; but the profits of each are sufficiently ample. The
late rapid spread of beet root cultivation throughout so large a
portion of the Continent, and the yearly increase in the num-
ber of European beet sugar factories, unmistakably prove that
the growth and treatment of beet sugar must be operations
amply remunerative to those engaged in them. Walkhoff in
his Pradkche Ituhcnzucherfahrihint, page 7, gives the follow-
ing account of the state of the beet sugar industry :
Number
of
Manu-
factories.
Quantity
of Beet-
roots used
In c%yts.
Quantity
of Sugar
extracted.
In cwts.
Average
consump
tion per
manu-
factory.
In cwts.
296
434
300
212
108
18
4
51945494
82850000
42400000
42300000
14200000
2143000
770000
4319640
5800000
3792000
3100000
1000000
150000
61600
172619
190915
141334
199530
131482
Holland
119060
192500
1370
236158494
18523240
172380
A Prussian cwt. is equal to 113-4261b3. English.
In 1827 there were only 39 sugar factories in France, and in
1850 the amount of sugar produced was only 64-,000 tons ;
last year the quantity manufactured was 400,000 tons. Only
a few years ago there was not a beet sugar factory in Russia ;
now that empire promises to rival Germany in this great in-
dustry. Mr. Pauw in his excellent pamphlet on the beet sugar
manufacture in Ireland states that in Holland the dividends
from the beet sugar factories vary from 8 to 16 per cent. The
mangel wurtzel, the common garden beet, and the white Sile-
sian beet are all mere varieties of one plant, Beia vulgaris.
The composition of all the varieties of this plant is essentially
the same, but one kind— namely. Beta alba, or white (Silesian)
beet — contains a larger amount of sugar than is found in the
other varieties. By caieful selection of seed and other means,
the growers of beet have succeeded in producing varieties very
rich in sugar ; and it is these kinds that are chiefly cultivated
when the roots are intended for the sugar manufacturer.
Payen has minutely analyzed the white beet, and according to
him, its composition is as follows : 100 parts contain
Water
"Sugar
Cellulose (woody fibre) ...
Albumen, caseine, and other nitrogeneous substances...
Malic acid, gummy substances, fatty substances, aro-
matic and colouring principles, essential oil, chloro-
phyll, aspararaide, muriate of ammonia, slHcate, ni-
trate, sulphate and oxalate of potash, oxalate and
phosphate of lime, phosphate of magnesia, oxalate of
soda, chlorides of sodium and potassium, pectates
and pectinates of lime, potash, and soda, sulphur,
silica, oxide of iron, &c.
83-5
10'5
0-8
1-5
3-7
100-0
Since Payen made his analysis, the composition of the beet
has been greatly improved. The sugar in the beet is pure
sucrose (cane sugar), neither inverted nor grape sugar being
present. Formerly not more than half the amount of sugar
present couid be practically extracted in a crystalline condition;
but by means of certain improvements — notably the diffusion
process — from 80 to 85 per cent, of the sugar can be extracted.
Those roots which are not less than one pound, nor more than
three pounds in weight, contain most sugar. When the spe-
cific gravity of the juice of the root exceeds 1,070, they are
pretty certain to be rich in sugar. Excessive luxuriance of
foliage exercises an injurious effect upon the quality of the
beet root, as indeed it does upon the common mangel. The
practice of growing enormous roots of any kind is undoubtedly
open to serious objections. Monster roots are almost always
very watery, and they do not store well. As a larger number
of small roots can be grown than large ones, and as the former,
weight for weight, contain more actual nutriment, I have no
doubt that a crop of moderate-sized mangels or turnips is more
valuable than one composed of overgrown roots. Though the
farmer may have a very large quantity of roots to cart in from
his field of monster mangels, yet it should be borne in mind
that the extra weight, as compared with a crop of moderate-
sized roots, is merely water. F. Sestini and G. Deli Torre
have recently experimented on the growth of sugar beet, and
they state that the gross produce or weight of each is the
same with both thick and thin sowing, but that the amount
of sugar is greater when the roots are small. It is clearly,
then, an advantage to sow thickly. The produce of Silesian
beet per statute acre varies very much, according to conditions
of climate, soil, manure, and tillage, and depends to a great
extent upon the kind of seed sown. It is found that the beets
rieli9st in sugar produce seeds from which plants rich in sac-
charine matter can in time be developed. J3y attention to this
point, as well as to some others, beet growers — notably M.
Vilmorin — have succeeded in producing roots containing from
13 to 18 per cent, of sugar. It is not difficult to procure the
seed of the varieties of beet richest in sugar ; and I cannot
understand why other kinds, containing only from 6 to 9 per
cent, of sugar, are still largely cultivated even in France and
Germany. In the early part of the century the yield of beet
was very small on the Continent : only 8 tons per acre were
obtained in France ; whilst at the preient time, according to
Mr. Barruchson, 16 tons is about the average yield. In the
" report of inquiry into the composition and cultivation of
sugar in Ireland," by Sir Robert Kane and Messrs. Sullivan
and Gages, a table is given, showing the quantity of sugar beet
obtained per acre in various parts of Ireland. The beet was
sown in 18 districts, and the produce in roots varied from 12
to 52 tons per statute acre. On the farm of Lord Talbot de
Malahide the yield was from 4-8 to 52 tons per statute acre,
and 12 tons of leaves were also obtained. The crop had been
manured with 45 tons of farm duug per acre. Out of the 18
crops one yielded 2^ tons (this crop failed, it was stated,
because it had been sown late), one gave 16 tons, one 18 tons,
seven from 20 to 30 tons, and eight from 3I| tons to 52 tons.
In the 3Lirk Lane Express for October 4, 1852, Mr. James
Reeve, of Leatherhead, Surrey, states that he obtained 38 tons
17 cwts. 96 lbs. of Silesian beet per acre ; whilst the orange
globe gave him a crop of 30 tons 10 cwt. 9 lbs. ; and mangel-
wurtzel a crop of 32 tons 13 cwt. 6 lbs. per acre. It is stated
that by judicious management 40 tons of beets per acre may
be obtained ; but this is a very high estimate. There can be
little doubt as to the suitability of Ireland as a root-producing
country. Larger crops of mangels are more frequently obtained
in Ireland than, ceteris paribus, in England or Scotland, and
in this respect Ireland is far superior to France and Germany.
As the beet is a close congener of the mangel, and may be
properly grown under almost identical circumstances, it is evi-
dent that very large crops of white beet could be grown in
Ireland. The mild and moist climate of this country is favour-
able to the culture of the beet. In most parts of the Continent
where this crop is cultivated it sometimes fails from spring
and early summer droughts, and occasionally from premature
frosts. In Ireland there is usually abundance of rain in the
early summer months ; and frost seldom appears until Christ-
mas or later. This mildness of climate permits the growth of
the beet to go on until December if necessary, and favours the
conversion of the non-saccharine carbo-hydrates of the root
into sugar. It is quite a fallacy to think that brilliant sun-
light and tropical heat are necessary factors in the production
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
147
ot sugar. They are, iudecd, wheu llic sugar is developed iu
the foliage, but they lesseu or prevent the production of sugar
in the roots. Beet roots carefully protected from the solar
_beams contain far more sugar than is found in those roots
which are partly exposed to direct sun-light. Dr. Voelcker
found iu that portion of a beet root which lay conapletely below
the soil S|^ per cent, of sugar, and only i per cent, in the
portion of the root which grew above the soil. In Ireland the
summers are not hot, but that is uot a disadvantage, but rather
the contrary in the case of beet culture ; for although
this plant grows indigenously iu Portugal, it does not
thrive as a sugar-producing crop in very warm cli-
mates. A company has recently been established in
Dublin for the purpose of introducing the manufacture of
beet sugar into Ireland. It has secured a large farm at
Bodenstown, county of Kildare, whereon it proposes to grow
beets and manufacture beet sugar. It also proposes to pur-
chase beets from the neighbouring farmers, for which it offers
£1 per ton. As it is important that only the varieties of beet
richest in sugar should be grown, the company decided to
make some experiments with the view of ascertaining the kind
which it could cultivate with most advantage, and which it
could recommend to be grown by the farmer. Accordingly, 10
kinds of seeds were sown in the demesne-farm of Mr. Hamilton,
at Abbotstown, county of Dublin, which was kindly placed at its
disposal by that gentlemen. The crops were manured with
thirty tons of dung, some bone superphosphate, and 2 cwts. of
kainit (crude potash compounds) per statute acre ; the land
was well limed. The results of this experiment are given in
the following table :
tn
c~
oo
22
COOr-IC)rH(«OOOr-H
00
r-H
G
s
M
S
o
C5r-100COOO"3C-t~r-IQO
l-H r-H ^ rH r-l
0 i-H
O
Soo
i
S
si
O500«eO»«O-*«t-00«D
^
1— l:-li-1rHr-fr-l(>«rHr-li-(
S'-'
Hi
_^
>i
TS
t^elioi— i>ooot-Otf*>o
s
(5
(?»OOi-HOi— l-^rH^OOOr-l
Sh
«0l01Ot0lO^t-iOU5lO
10
P
« i s
^•
<::> <^ oi
n3
ia-^oiiaoir-it^-^-^Oi
^:*
2
n>n'*0'T<'tirH
CO
0
0 s
I/>
s c«
a pH i-H r-H r-l 0 i-l « « i-H lyi
C-H
0
<
H
0
"3
0000000000
0000000000
0
^
05
0
0 05 10 (N OS rl TO C«D CO OJ
C*
>5
1— I 0' r-i i-i 0 r-I r-J 0 rH pH
i-l
Q
S^
inr-<-#(«ooej^e>j5
rH
0
i-iC~0«Mr-lrftO»C-C^«?
t^
0
5£5lOC3«6rHU3lAeiic<5">
in
0
PhjS
^'1
CS
Ou3.*OiOOi- C-l
03
eS -»1
0 H
a „ . d
C-lOOOCOMOO-JllOt-
CO'.flCOOJr— (COOOO&lin
0
CO
id
<.2^^
r-
'0
<1
0
a
Si's £ t-cg^S^ o-r
t0>^6Ofl«cS=Sg=SJ
r<
^
i^ii^g •§ 2 £
0
:.
H
0
s
0
g^^cS "^ "s 1
rH«CO-*lQCDt^00O5C
12;
0
Tlie analysis of each kind of beet represents the av
composition of three roots ; the average weight of each
was as follows :
AVERAGE WEIGHT OF ROOTS.
erage
kind
No.
1
2
3
4.
5
6
7
8
9
10
«
j3
.0
CO
ji
£
^
j^
^
^
^
S"
mn
r-H
f-H
l-H
Hid
r-l
rH
l-H
1—1
-1*
These results are very satisfactory. If the three best kind of
beets (Nos. 7, 8, and 10), as shown by these experiments, be
grown, the yield of sugar will be from 2 tons 1 cwt. 44 lbs.
to 2 tons 10 cwts. and lO'J lbs. of sugar per acre. The Rev.
I'rofessor Jellett has determined the amount of sugar in Irish
grown beets, by means of his new saccliarometer, and fouud
the proportion to vary from 11.02 to 12.59 per cent.
The Bret as a ruRHLY farm CRor.— The white beet is
a well llavonred root, and is largely eaten by cattle. The non-
nitrogenous substances wliich it contains are cliicfly sugar, a
food material probably more valuable, aud certainly more
palatable than starcii and pectose, which constitute the greater
part of the nutriment of the animals of the farm. ,The sole
148
THE FAEMEU'S MAGAZINE.
object of couvertiug barley into malt to be used as a cattle food
is to change the starch of the grain into sugar — an operation
attended by expense as well as waste of material. Some ex-
pensive articles, such as locust beans and molasses, which are
often ir/ven to cattle, are valuable only for the sugar which
they contain. If it be desirable, then, to feed cattle on
saccharine food, wliy not produce [it on the farm? Why not
grow the Silesian beet, wbieh contains from 8 to 13 per cent,
of |this valuable aliment? If there were never to be esta-
blished a sugar factory in Ireland, it would clearly be to the
interest of the stock feeder to grow a crop yielding him a
couple of tons of sugar per acre, and in cultivating which he
need not in the slightest degree interfere with his usual system
of cropping. Not only does the beet crop enable the farmer
to grow immense quantities of that which Mr. Banting terms
the most fat-producing of all foods — namely, sugar — but it
also takes out of the soil and air a greater quantity of absolute
nutriment of dry matter — than a turnip crop does, and a
much larger amount of absolute nutriment than a potato crop.
In the following table the amounts of solid food yielded by the
Imperial (the true Keaner), acclimatised in France, and by an
average of the 10 kinds of beet grown at Abbotstovvn (some
of which ought not to be cultivated), are contrasted witli the
amounts of dry food furnished by an acre of Swedish turnips,
of mangel-wurtzcl, and of the potato :
COMPOSITION OF ROOTS AND TUBERS.
Imperial Beet
acclimatised in
France.
Average of ten
kinds of Beets.
Swedish
Turnips.
p bo
6^
d
79.72 82.416
20.28 17.581
91
Si)
75
Solid Matters
9 1 11
25
Produce per statute acrf
Amount of dry food per
100.00
Tons.
22.85
4.63
100.00
Tons.
18.05
3.17
100
Tons.
30
3.30
100
Tons.
24
2.16
100
Tons.
8
2
Professor Wilson, in his '' Farm Crops," vol. 1, page 309,
states that the average yield of swedes in 37 farms in Moray-
shire during five years was 21 tons 19 cwts. 7 lbs. per acre,
and he considers that 20 tons constitute a fair crop, and indi-
cate good cultivation. I may have under-estimated the yield
of common mangels ; but if from 40 to 50 tons per statute
acre are attainable by good management, abundance of manure,
&c. we must bear in mind that by good management it is
also possible to produce proportionately large crops of the
sugar beet. The soil for the growtli of the sugar beet may
comprise every kind of land suited for root crops generally,
except boggy on moory soil The sugar beet resembles the
carrot or parsnip in the manner of its growth rather than the
turnip or common mangel, which are so much above ground :
the lighter soils are therefore unsuitable. The clayey loams
constitute the best soils for the sugar beet ; the heavier soils,
when not too stiff to admit of pulverization, producing the best
roots. In the growth of the sugar beet quality is equally im-
portant with gross weight, and for manufacturing purposes it
is still more so. Ordinarily this consideration has been too
much neglected ; and hence, by heavy manuring, the farmers
have ssuglit to grow large crops, altogether irrespective of
quality. Direct applications of farm-yard manure in large
quantity are always injurious in this respect. This manure
is best applied in the autumn, before the first ploughing of the
land intended for the sugar beet. Unless lime exists in the
soil it should be applied during the preparation of the land
for the crop, as it is an essential ingredient for the proper de-
velopment of the beet plant. At the time of sowing it is ad-
viasble to use a liberal supply of bone superphosphate, as that
substance not only pushes forward the young seedling plants
at a time when they are peculiarly susceptible to injury, but
it also forms a most suitable manure for the crop afterwards.
The quantity must depend on the state of the land, but may
usually be about 4 or 5 cwt. to the statute acre. As the beet
is very rich in potash salts, it is advisable, in most cases, to
apply 1 or 2 cwts. of kainit to a statute acre of this crop.
The soil for the sugar beet should be naturally fertile,
or have been enriched by previous applications of manure,
rather than direct applications for the crop, beyond that
of the superphosphate just indicated. The place in the
rotation may be tliat of the ordinary root crop, a portion of
the land which would otherwise be in Swedish turnips or
mangels being reserved for the sugar beet ; or it may follow
Swedish turnips or potatoes with great advantage — the pre-
vious preparation and treatment of the land for these crops
forming an admirable preparation for tiie beet. The prepara-
tion of tiie land consists of deep and minute pulverization. A
much greater depth of tilled soil is required for the beet than
for the turnip, on account of the former growing in the soil
and the latter on it. The sugar beet must not, in fact, be
grown over-ground under any circumstances, and this condi-
tion shows the necessity of deep tillage. The preparation of
land for root crops generally is so well understood by our
farmers that it is quite unnecessary to enter into minute de-
tails ; besides, the number of ploughings, harrowings, and
cleanings must be regulated by the condition of the soil to be
operated on. Pulverization, though absolutely essential to
the proper development of the roots, is not more necessary
than proper cleaning of the land from weeds in the prepara-
tory stage. Unless this be done, the young beet plants are
liable to be injured by the weeds growing up vigorously
amongst them ; and without due preparation of the land in
this respect, it is expensive and difficult — indeed, almost im-
possible— in wet seasons to keep down the weeds during the
growth of the crop. These considerations show the advantage
of making the sugar beet follow a manured crop wherever it
may be practicable to do so. The due exposure of the soil to
the atmosphere in winter is also well known to our farmers
as essential in the preparation of the land for root crops.
The most approved mode of cultivating the sugar-beet is on
the flat surface, after the soil has been duly prepared by the
necessary plonghings, harrowings, grubbings, and rolhngs, in
rows sixteen to eighteen inches apart — distances quite wide
enough to admit of the action of the drill grubber between
the rows during the growth of the crop. These distances
would not suffice for raised drills, in which farmyard manure
is to be applied, but, as before observed, no liberal application
of farmyard manure can be made without proving detrimental
to the quahty of the roots. Hence, on soils exhausted by
cropping, however suitable the kind of land, sugar-beet should
not be grown, as heavy, direct manuring must not take place.
Where raised drills are determined on, they will rarely be less
than twenty to twenty-four inches apart, and, in such cases,
eight to ten tons of well-rotted faimyard manure may be used
in the rows, though any application in this way is not to be
commended, for the reasons already explained. A greater
depth of pulverised soil is obtained by using the raised drill,
and it may have some advantage over the flat surface in very
wet seasons; but, under ordinary circumstances, the latter is
to be preferred. The proper seed time, as in the case of all
farm crops, must depend a good deal on the character of the
season. In the sugar-producing districts of the Continent
every matter connected with the production of the beetroots
has become so much the object of attention that the seed time
there is frequently determined by the temperature of the soil
at the depth of a few inches, as indicated by the thermometer.
But farmers generally will not trouble themselves with miniitiiF,
of this kind. Observation, founded on long experience,
enables them to determine with sufficient accuracy when seed
operations should take place. In the case of biennial plants,
like the beet and the turnip, they have a tendency, if sown too
early, to throw up the flower-stem during the first year, instead
of the first season being altogether devoted to the development
of the roots, which thereby have stored up the recjuisite
supply of nutriment for the development of the seed stem in
the following year. As a rule, however, the beet tribe are
sown earlier than any of the turnips, and, in fact, as early in
the season as the proper germination of the seed can be
reckoned on. The state of the soil at the time of sowing is
of much more importance than a few days earlier or later
seedtime. In wet weather, as a rule, the seed cannot be
safely sown on account of the injury done to the pulverisation
of the land by working it when wet. On the other hand, if
the soil be very dry at the time of sowing, and drought con-
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
14?>
tinue for some time, germination may so imperfectly take
place as to lead to failure. The last week in April seems to
be the most approved seed time in this country for the sugar
beet, as far as tlie weather will permit. Moistening the seed
is frequently practised to hasten germination. When the
seed time has beeu unduly delayed, a gain of some four or five
days may in this way be had ; but should the sowing be further
delayed by unfavourable weather, the moistened seed may be
irretrievably injured. When the soil is dry at the time of
sowing, and rain does not soon follow, the effect of damping
the seed will be to stimulate vegetation without the circum-
stances beiug available for nourishing the young plants, by
which they will become stunted in their growth, or perhaps
be destroyed ; whereas, without damping, the seed would have
remained inert in the soil without injury till moisture would
be available. The moistened seed must not be placed in heaps,
where it would heat before sowing. Dilute liquid manure of
the farmyard is reconimended for the purpose, and ashes or fine
mould should be mixed with the seeds before sowing, to pre-
vent theni from sticking together. Tlie seed is sown con-
tinuously in the row, or dibbled in at the distances apart at
which the plants are eventually to remain : in either case,
good results may be had. On a large scale, the latter system
will scarcely be practicable, on account of the very con-
siderable amoMut of manual labour which it entails, though
even this would be to some extent compensated for
by the saving of seed. If sown continuously in rows, about
12lbs. to lilbs. of seed to the statute acre will be required.
The depth to which the seed is to be covered is an important
consideration ; but this, again, depends a good deal on cir-
cumstances, cliielly the amount of moisture present in the soil.
In damp weather the covering can scarcely be too light, but in
dry weather it should be at least one inch. The seed may be
sown by the sowing machine or by hand, with both of which
methods our farmers are acquainted. The quantity of seed
mentioned may appear to many persons to be excessive, and
there can be no doubt that a very much smaller quantity would
suffice were it not desirable to guard against the etfects of large
numbers of the seeds not germinating, through defective cover-
ing in the soil or from some other cause ; and the sacrifice of
a few pounds extra of seed is small compared with the advan-
tage of securing a proper supply of vigorous plants. The after
culture of the crop of sugar beet presents little peculiarity
from that of root crops generally. The intervals between the
rows is to be kept pulverised and free from weeds, and if the
crop be on raised drills the final tillage will consist of earthing
up the plants, so that the crown of the roots only may be ex-
posed to the sun. The thinning of the young plants will be
performed iu the ordinary way. The distances apart of the
plants in the rows may be about eight inches, which distance,
with the rows eighteen inches apart, would give 43,.560 plants
to the statute acre. With roots only 1 lb. each, this would
give in round numbers 20 tons to the acre ; but as the roots
will range from 1 lb. to over 3 lbs. each, it will be seen that by
careful tillage under favourable circumstances 25 tons to the
acre would be a moderate crop. When the beet is grown for
the purpose of feeding cattle on the farm, the substances which
it takes from the soil will be returned to the latter in the form
of manure, minus the amount carried away in the carcases of
the animals sold off the farm. Under these circumstances, the
influence which the beet exercises upon the soil differs but
little from that produced by other root crops. But when the
beet is sold to the sugar manufacturer, a large amount of
phosphates, and a still larger quantity of potash, are taken
altogether away from the farm. The question, therefore, na-
turally arises. How is the fertilising matter withdrawn from
the farm by the beets sold to the sugar manufacturer to be
restored to it? It is not difficult to reply satisfactorily to this
question. Sugar, as I have already stated, is composed merely
of carbon and the elements of water ; it does not contain nitro-
gen, phosphates, or potash— the tliree manurial agents which
are of any value. Tlie beet as a whole contains nitrogenous
matters, phosphates, and potash, but these ingredients are not
what the sugar-maker wants ; and when he separates them
from the sugar they constitute incidental or bye-i)roduct8,
namely, pulp and molasses. The pulp is too bulky an article
to admit of its being transported to a distance greater than
that from which the beets arc brought to the factory ; conse-
quently the natural destination ot the pulp is the farm on
which the beets that produced it are grown. On the Conti-
nent the farmer brings his beets to the factory, and he returns
home with beet pulp. As the pulp contains nearly all the
nitrogen and a large proportion of the mineral matter originally
present in the beet, it is evident that if it be returned to the
farm, the fertility of the latter will be fully maintained. The
molasses produced at the sugar factory contains a large propor-
tion of the potash originally present in the beet : if it be
also consumed on the farm, then everything which is of
manurial value goes back to tlie soil. If the waste products of
the beet sugar factory be consumed on the farms that supply
the roots — and that is the natural and usual course of events
— the farms certainly cannot decrease in fertility. The amount
of plant food in the soil is practically inexhaustible ; but only a
very small proportion of it exists in an immediately available
condition. Tillage adds to the stock of effective nutritive mat-
ter in the soil, and tillage is therefore a substitute for manure.
Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, of Rothamstead, have been growing
grain crops every year in the same field for more than a quarter
of a century without any manure, and the crops show no sign of
a diminished yield. Every year's tillage sets Iree from the stony
fortresses of the soil adequate supplies of phosphates, potash,
and other food of plants. In growing the beet, the mechanical
operations to which the soil is subjected add to its stores of
effective fertilizing matters. Of these a portion is removed iu
the beet crop, but it is returned to it again as pulp, either
directly, or indirectly in the form of animal manure. The
large foliage crop produced by the beet is also a valuable
source of manure. The farmer who sells milk, cheese, meat,
and grain, and especially potatoes, sends off his land a greater
amount of phosphates and nitrogen than he usually applies to
it iu the form of manure. It is clear, theu, that a beet sugar
factory must necessarily increase the fertility of the district in
which it is situated ; because it keeps iu the farms on which it
depends for roots, the phosphates, potash, and nitrogen — sub-
stances which ordinary crops remove iu great part from the
soil. At present it is found impossible to extract from beets
all the sugar which they contain. A portion of it, the albu-
minous substances, pectose bodies, cellulose, and some other
matters, remain after all the sugar that can be obtained is ex-
tracted from the roots. Tlie residue, termed pulp, has been
analysed by Voelcker and other chemists, all of whom have
reported most favourably as to its nutritive properties. The
following analyses of the pulp have been made by Voelcker:
COMPOSITION 01' BEET KOOT PULP (rROMTUESUGARFACTORY),
100 PARTS CONTAIN :
Belgian
Beet Pulp
one year
old.
French Beet
Pulp.
English
Beet Pulp
(Lavenham
Factory).
Moisture
70.00
2.43
18.67
6.48
2.42
70.88
2.38
6.59
16.43
3.72
70.11
Albuminous compounds...
Sugar, pectose, digestible
fibre, &c
2.25
20.45
Woody fibre
5.33
Mineral matter
1.87
100.00
100.00
100.00
The amount of dry matter in a ton of pulp is nearly equal
to that contained in two tons of fresh beets ; therefore, not-
withstanding the large amount of cellulose contained in the
pulp, it is evidently the more nutritive food of the two. This
is the general opinion amongst the farmers who grow beets for
the sugar manufacturer. In Belgium and some parts of
France, fattening beasts are chiefly, sometimes solely, fed on
beet pulp. Dr. Voelcker considers that beet pulp would be a
cheap food at 12s. per ton, but I think if farmers sell beets at
£1 per ton, they would do well to buy pulp even at 15s. per
ton.
Pulp is easily kept in good condition for a year or two by
placing it in trenches, and covering it with earth. Mixed
with palm-nut meal or decorticated cotton-seed cake, a valu-
able and concentrated food would bo the result.
Although inverted, or uncrystallisable sugar does not occur
naturally in the beet, this substance is formed from cant, sugar
(sucrose) during the boiling, &c., of the beet juice. It con-
stitutes a large proportion of the molasses or portion of the
beet juice which remains after the separation of the crystal-
lisabie sugar. Molasses is an excellent fat-forming food for
stock, and is much used for that purpose in many parts of
150
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
England, especially in Norfolk. It is mixed with roots, and
sometimes with meal or chopped straw. Beet molasses is not
so palatable as that obtained from the sugar cane ; but it is
easy to render it fit for even human use, by successive treat-
ment with a little sulphuric acid and chalk.
Molasses contains potash salts, and if this substance and
the pulp be sold to the farmers who supply the roots, then
every substance of manured value takeu from the land will be
restored to it.
COST OF ■WOKKi:VG A BEET 3UGAK FACTORY.
A factory capable of working from 120 to 150 tons of beet
a day would employ from 110 to 120 hands per 24 hours, in-
cluding—
£ s. d.
1 Manager, salary per week ... ... ...8 0 0
3 Employes, salaries, 1 at £G, and 1 at £3 10s. 9 10 0
2 Men for diffusion ... ... ... ... 5 0 0
2 „ filters 3 0 0
1 „ attending to animal charcoal ... 1 10 0
3 „ „ carbonation 3 0 0
2 Engineers, 1 at 32., 1 at 25s. 2 1? 0
The workpeople would consist of men, boys, and
girls, and be paid at the rate of Is. Cd. per
day, making for 110, at IDs. per week ... 55 0 0
Fuel 87 0 0
Lime and animal charcoal ... 35 0 0
Sundries 4 13 0
"Weekly expenses ■ ... £215 0 0
Say for 20 weeks, vyould make 4,300 0 0
Labour for working up the 2nd and 3rd
produce 700 0 0
Total £5,000 0 0
which makes for 12,000 tons an expense of 3s. 4d. per ton>
and the working of an additional 3,000 tons of roots can be
effected by about the same number of hands, only retpiring
more coals, animal charcoal, and lime.
Ck.
840 tons of sugar, at
£23 per ton ...£19,320
3,000 tons of pulp, it
15s, per ton ... 2,250
300 tons of molasses
at £5 per ton ... 1,500
Other products, say ... 500
Dr.
13,000 tons of roots
at 20s. ... ...£12,000
Expenses of working,
including fuel, la-
bour, charcoal, and
necessaries of all
kinds, 10s. per ton
of roots ...
Rent, taxes, and insur-
ance
Allowance for depre-
ciation, &c
Net profit from manu-
facture
0,000
500
1,000
4,070
^23,570
£23,570
In the foregoing estimate the expenses of working are stated
at 10s. per ton of the beet roots ; but from the detailed list of
the items of tlwj actual expenses of a factory of the size men-
tioned, when the most liberal provision is made in every de-
partment to secure efficiency, the actual outlay per ton of
roots will be about 8s. 4d., instead of 10s. ; the difference
amounting exactly to £1,000 on the £12,000 tons worked up
in the season. In concluding this paper, I beg to thank the
Royal Agricultural Society ot Ireland for its kindness in per-
mitting me to read it before it. The subject matter of it,
however, appears to me to be of sufficient importance to bring
it under the notice of a society which aims at the improvement
of agriculture, for I truly believe that the establishment of
beet sugar factories in Ireland would react most favourably
upon the husbandry of this country. To use the words of
A well-known French writer, M. Basset, this industry would be
a source of riches to the agriculturalist who produces the raw
material, the foundation of honourable fortunes to those who
cultivate it as a business, and an element of general national
prosperity.
The Chairman wished to ask Dr. Cameron what was the
mode of cultivation practised on the Continent, with reference
to beet root? Did they usually manure the ground before
they planted it ?
Dr. Cameron replied that he had had some experience
with reference to pulp. When the manufacture of this article
was being carried on, he ordered several casks of the pulp,
which he gave to his steward for the stock. They ate it, and
he believed they improved upon it. However, at first they
did not appear to relish it at all, inasmuch as it had rather an
offensive smell, and he was impressed with an observation
which fell from his steward, when he asked him how the pigs
liked it, to which he replied that they ate it " indignantly."
Mr. Bagot inquired of his lordship if he remembered what
he paid for it ?
The Chairman said he could not remember exactly, as it
took place some years ago. He could not say that it was a
paying speculation, as it was a mere experiment. The pro-
moters of the project did not grow any beet themselves for
manufacturing purposes, and he did not think the price they
offered for the beet was sufEcient to induce farmers to raise it
as a speculation. They did not offer more than 10s. or 12s. a
ton. From what had fallen from Dr. Caraerou, the promoters
of the present company proposed to give £1 a ton. Well, that
would be a greater inducement to farmers to grow it. For his
own part, he had no doubt, that the system pursued abroad
for cultivating a considerable quantity of this article was the
strongest and safest one that could be adopted.
Mr. Bagot said the great difficulty he apprehended in in-
ducing farmers to grow this article would be the impossibility
of bringing back the pulp to the farm, unless it was grown
from within a short distance from the manufactory. It would
not, in his opinion, be advisable for farmers to sell off their
roots, unless they could introduce some substitute. Dr.
Cameron, in his lecture, mentioned that the refuse which
would be sold w^ould be worth 15s. a ton.
Dr. Cameron : Not for manure, but for food.
Mr. Bagot asked if a ton of turnips would not be worth a
ton of the refuse ? With regard to the price, he found that
in the neighbourhood where the sugar factory was about
being established, roots had been increasing in value. On the
previous evening he met a gentleman who resided within six
miles of Sallins, who informed him that he got as much as
24s. a ton for his mangels. If roots maintained this price,
it would be in his opinion better and more profitable for
farmers to grow mangels. No doubt, it required heavier
manure for mangels than for the growth of beet, but this was
a matter which the farmers would alone determine by experi-
ment. The company would find it difficult to induce farmers
to change the cultivation of a district. Under all the circum-
stances, he did not think they had enough of data before them
to enable farmers to grow one or two acres of beet.
Dr. Cameron observed that it would answer on any land
except moory soil.
Mr. Baggy thought it was well to have the difficulties as
well as the advantages resulting from the project put before the
meeting. Personally he had no wish to throw obstacles in the
way, but he would not advocate a course which would induce
farmers to sell roots off their farms.
Dr. Cameron — Do they sell their potatoes off their farms?
Mr. Bagot observed that there were one or two large
potato farms in his district where the owners grow extensively,
but they were able to replace them with Dublin manure. In
his opinion, the best portion of the Professor's paper was that
which stated that as the crop was likely to be consumed on
the farm, it was likely to be more paying than turnips and
mangel. In the neighbourhood where the factory was about
being established, the ground was getting what was called
" turnip sick," and for the last six or seven years the difficulty
of growing turnips was increasing. If the doctor was certain
that the growth of sugar beet would be a suitable substitute
and a good thing for the farmers, in place of turnips and
mangel, the paper would be a most invaluable one.
A vote of thanks to Dr. Cameron was put to the meeting,
and passed unanimously.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
151
RATES
AND
RENTS.
It is to be hoped that the correspondence which is
now passing Jthrough our pages ou the Case of the
Labourer, has not escaped that attention it deserves ; as,
indeed, the couti'oversy lias already been taken up elsewhere,
the more especially by our local contemporaries. For our
own part, we are sanguine euough to believe that this after-
discussion may not be without some collateral effect in
demonstrating to the farmer his actual position with re-
gard to the question of Local-Taxation. Thus, in the
outset, let U3 graut to Canon Breretou the first of his
premises, that any real improvement in the labourer's
condition by the establishment of higher permanent
wages might diminish by a third the assistance which he
has so far required from the poor-rate. And, then,
without proceeding to the proposal for the use of these
savings, we may let the Canon show how any such de-
crease would act, or those it would benefit : " The poor-
rate proper has become a permanent charge in this sense
— that if it were to cease to-morrow, the chargeable
property would rise in value at once to the full amount
of the cancelled rate, and the owners would not be re-
lieved of a burden, but rather presented with a bonus,
which would be equal to the full capitalised value of an
equal amount of net rental. Roughly speaking, the
cessation of pauperism would add 10 per cent, to the
value of real property in England." There can be no
denying the soundness of this principle, although Mr.
Sewell Read in answering Canon Breretou, says he will
" not stop to discuss the old question whether the occu-
pier or owner pays the rate." To us, however, it seems
utterly impossible to carry on the discussion without
touching on this " old" but still very material question.
Very noticeably. Canon Brerelou's argument rather tends
to put Ethe tenant's interest out of court here, and, in
accordance with the rules of political ecomy, to confine
the question of ady advantage arising from a decrease of
rates to the owner of the land who pays, and to the
working man who receives. But here the Canon does
not go far enough, as the assumption is that the labourer
will require less aid from the rates just in proportion as
he is paid more for his work. And from whose pocket
does this increase of pay come ? In the first instance, as
Mr. Brereton's opponents are not slow to show, from
that of the employer. "The farmer has within the
past thirty years paid the increase, and I believe would
pocket any reduction for many years to come. But sup-
pose the landlord should eventually secure the whole
saving. If farmers are to continue to pay higher wages
for less or even for the same amount of work, they can-
not long afford that extra drain upon their present small
profits. Consequently the rents of arable land will fall."
So says Mr. Sewell Read, who here, whether he will or
not, is discussing the " old" question of how as the
burdens increase the rents must fall. Then, Mr. James
Trask propounds what he manifestly thinks a very awk-
ward question, when he asks " If ' it is clear,' as Canou
Brereton asserts, that the 'chargeable property' will be re-
lieved to this extent, I should be very much obliged if he will
point out from what source the ' higher permaueut wages'
to be paid to the labouring classes is to come from. Will
it drop from the skies ? or will none of it have to be got
out of this ' chargeable property' ?" Of course it must
in common justice be got out of the property which
would reap the main benefit from the change.
Wage? like rates must in n degree be a matter of
rent, and any permanent rise will have to be considered
in this way ; although at first the farmers themselves
were not inclined to regard the " agitation" in such a
light. Mr. Read believes that the employer would
pocket any reduction for many years to come ; whereas
we believe that the landlord would avail himself of any
sensible reduction at the first opportunity, by the close
of an agreement or the end of a lease ; as llr. Read
himself shows us that the landlords as a class are not to
be trusted over this business of rates, for they have
systematically cleared their estates of cottages, no matter
at how much detriment to the employer or the employed,
IMr. Masfen, again, will want £25 out of any money
saved, his rates having increased to that amount since he
entered ou his farm. This is not much ; but let there
be auy tangible decrease, say of £50 or more, and we
shall be bold to say that the owner would soon be quite
as sensible of this as the occupier. Whether it be over
Game, Rents, or Rights, the tenant is always dealing with
a stronger power, who at this very moment has his ener-
gies directed to the diminution of rates— with what
ultimate object but to increase the rental value of his
property ? A leading agriculturist in Norfolk thus writes
on Saturday last in The Norwich Mercury -. " We think
that Canon Brereton's proposal was scarcely compre,
heuded by the meeting, for we are not at all sure that it
would not answer the purpose of the owners of laud-
who will really be the recipients of any saving in the
rates, to use the money so acquired in forming a benefit
fund for the sick and aged labourer which would assist
him in providing for those certain events, and, while it
relieved their property still further from rates, would
improve both the moral and physical condition of the
working man. This, we understand, to be the Canon's
idea, of which, we think Mr. Read and others scarcely
took in the full scope, judging from his reply to Canon
Brereton's explanatory letter." Our own impression
when we heard Canon Brereton speak was, that he did
not make himself clearly understood ; at the same time
the majority of the farmers would scarcely seem to
clearly understand their own position here ; for, as is
shown in the above extract, written by one of their own
order, " the owners of land will really be the recipients
of any saving in rates," while they must throw back
something in rent, as they should do something in re-
turn for the man who has thrown back the rates. One
thing is manifest enough : , if they raise rents, as they
will do in proportion to the decrease of rates, then they
must lower rents in proportion to the increase of wages.
In fact, when fairly adjusted, the question, as Canon
Brereton puts it, is mainly one between the owners and
the labourers.
" Three modes have been proposed for raising Local-
Taxation : first, on income; second, on pcrsoual pro-
perty ; and third, the existing one of taxing real ])ro-
perty. Taking tlie first, a tax on incomes ; is it likely
that this great trading and commercial country will sub-
mit for the benefit of the proprietors of laud and houses
to the imposition of a second inquisitorial Income-tax?
Why, it is only necessary to mention it to dispose of it.
Tlieu, as to the x'ating of personal property, I have never
yet seen any plan proj)ounded which is at all feasible.
Take stock-iu-t rade, for instance. Would the tradesmen
and manufacturers, yea, would the farmers of the country
submit to a Government official coming round period!-
im
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
cally to take their stock-in-trade or tlie value of it to
sasses it for Local-Taxation ? And further, is it possible iu
this nation of shop-keei^ers to carry out this system ? I
think not. Where would you begin ? You would have
to assess the stock-in-trade of many of the nobility — for
many of them are traders, and some of them trade even
in game. I believe the proposition is perfectly Utopian
and chimerical. Local-Taxation is iu principle a tax
upon property and not upon occupation, and therefor,
although at times in practice it is levied on or paid be
the occupier, I believe that the principle — and I dou't
think that principle can be disputed — is that local rates
are rates upon property, that is upon land, houses, and
manufactories, and therefore should be payable by the
landlord. I believe if this principle were adopted, and
it is partly adopted in Scotland, the agitation, or much
of it, would cease." So said Mr. James Howard at
Bedford the other day, illustrating his argument with
" a very glaring case," and declaring that " evtn in this
relormed House of Commons the interests of the tenant
are very little looked after in comparison with those of
the landlord." A year or two since there was a proposal
made at the Central Chamber of Agriculture to look up
stock-in-trade, but ready as the Chamber has been to
make a catspaw of the tenant, they dropped this stock-
in-trade notion like a hot potato. The simple truth is, that
farmers, or some of their leaders are fighting the land-
lords' battle a deal more resolutely than their own ; but
the sooner they come to understand the actual bearings
of Local-Taxation, especially in the way of rates and
rents, the better prepared will they be for the next
election. A correspondent of T/ie Stamford Mercury
thinks they are really awakening to their own interest,
for speaking of the financial condition of the Central
Chamber he says : " I look upon it as the most whole-
some sign of the times. Taken in connection with Mr.
Read's address at the Farmers' Club and the bit of his
mind which he gave the landlords, I conclude that the
tenant-farmers of the Chamber have had enough of sub-
scribing money to strengthen the hands of Sir Massey
Lopes in his career of landowners' statecraft, through
which course tenant-farmers have been used for party
purposes, and not for the good of themselves or the
nation." We have pointed out all this often enough in
the course of the last two or three years.
MASTER AND SERVANT.— A spscial meeting of the
Howdensliire Chamber of Agriculture has been held to consi-
der the propriety of taking the opinion of the Court of Queen's
Bench by a special case, on the decision of the justices of the
llowdenshire Petty Sessional Division on Saturday se'nnight, in
the case of Banks o. Crosslaud. The justices decided a parol
contract of service or hiring for a period exceeding one year
from the time of making thereof is not valid as an agreement,
but must be put into writing to be binding. Mr. J.S. Lookwood,
who was in the chair, said they had no wish to reflect iu any
way upon the magistrates, who, they were confident, had con-
scientiously administered the h\w iu giving their decision. If,
however, there were defects in the law, as he believed there
were, they must seek ts liavethem remedied. Hirings, as now
conducted, would be worthless, and tliey would be compelled
to make written agreements, whicli servants generally objected
to sign, or to have the hirings in Martinmas week, so as to
bring tiie time of contract under rather tlian above the year ;
but tliis would be attended with great inconvenience both to
employers and employed, lie should be glad to hear tlie opinion
of the Chamber as to the best course to be taken. Mr. W.
Brown, of Highgate-house, said the question was one of vital
importance to all tenant farmers and employers of labour, and
it was essential that prompt and vigorous action should be
taken in tlie matter. Mr. J. Pepper, of Yorkfleet, said the
relations of master and servant had for some time been a vexed
question, and if the present state of things continued, the in-
terests of agriculture would be very considerably damaged
The servants were as much bound to carry out their part of
the contract as were the masters, and they wished to deal with
them in a fair and honourable manner. If the law bearing on
the point were incomplete, they must seek to get it amended.
Mr. Sowby suggested that counsel's opinion should be taken,
and Mr. James Banks said he had gone into court on the ques-
tion on public grounds, so that the points at issue might be
thoroughly tested. Mr. Pepper proposed, and Mr. Pratt
seconded, " That Mr. Green be instructed to carry tlie case to
the Court of Queen's Bench, and that the Chamber of Agii-
culture agree to pay any expenses incurred by him in so
doing." The resolution was carried unanimously.
PARTNERSHIP FARillNG.— It will be remembered that
more than a year ago the Right Hon. Henry Brand, M.P. for
Cambridgeshire, and Speaker of the House of Commons, pro-
posed to the labourers on his estate in Sussex to become part-
ners in his farming projects. Lord George Manners, senior
member for the county, has, since Michaelmas, 1873, taken
the labourers on his Ditton Lodge farm noleiis rolens into
partnership. He does not expect them to contribute anything
during the years in which he may farm at a loss, but he is
satisfied willi five per cent, interest on his capital, and five per
cent, as profit, dividing the surplus amongst the labourers and
himself in two equal proportions. The share of the labourers
for the year ending Michaelmas last is £36 18s. 3d., which
will be about £3 a-head. Lord George has paid his labourers
their ordinary wages, the item for labour being £675 8s. 3d,
His lordship anticipates that in an unfavourable year his losses
will be nothing like so great as they would be but for this
arrangement.
THE RABBIT EVIL IN THE WEST.— The encourage-
ment and increase of rabbits in the northern parishes of this
county is a matter causing much dissatisfaction among the
tenantry and loss to the public. Prom one property alone it
is said that rabbits to the value of £15 per month, fed off the
tenants^ crops, are sold for the benefit of the landlord. Now,
if we reckon that every rabbit consumes and damages five
times its worth (a very low estimate), and that those still
alive do equal damage to the rabbits killed, we have an annual
loss to the tenants on the property referred to of £1,800 per
annum! There is great indignation on the part of the suf-
ferers, and a correspondent informs us that tliere is a firm and
growing determination on the part of the tenants to use the
power which the ballot will give them, and refuse to support
any candidate for the future representation of this division of
the county who will not pledge himself to an alteration of
the law, permitting rabbits to be treated as vermin, and
ignoring all contracts giving the right over them to the land-
lord.—7Xtf IFest Briton.
INDIAN CORN. — A merchant in Cincinnati having ad-
dressed a letter to the Right Hon. John Bright, urging the
importance of introducing Indian corn as an article of food for
the people of this country, received the following reply :
Dear Sir, — I duly received your interesting letter of 28th April
last, and I have submitted it to Mr. Buckmaster, who has been
giving lectures on cookery at South Kensington, and have
asked him to consider how far anything can be done on the
subject of the use of Indian corn in this country. Hitherto
nothing has been done, and there are difficulties in the way
which it will take time to overcome. The greatest difficulty
is that whicli attends all new things — the indisposition of the
people to give a favourable or even an impartial attention to
what is new. The chief hindrance to the use of Indian corn
has always been the want of knowledge as to the various
modes of cooking it. 1 speak now of those who are favour-
ably disposed towards it. There must be men and women in this
country who are familiar with this branch of cookery as prac-
tised with you, or, if not, it would not be difficult to engage
some American man and woman cook who would undertake to
instruct in it. I shall probably see Mr. Buckmaster again
when I go up to London, and I shall urge him, and those
with whom he is associated, to arrange for some provision by
which all that is known in the States with respect to Indian
corn may also be known iu this country. We have always to
import a large portion of our food, and it seems very strange
hat an article of such great consumption with you should be
o very little favoured or known among us. I cannot say
more on the subject now, but I will not forget it or your letter
upon it. — Yours respectfully, Joh:>j Bright
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
163
THE DORCHESTER FARMERS'
CLUB.
THE CAPITAL AND LABOUR OF AGRICULTURE.
At the first meeting of the year, Jlr. Richard Gauge in the
chair,
Mr. G. Wood Homr read the following 'paper :
It is now some years since I liad tlie houonr of introducing
at your Club shortly after its foundation the discussion on
" The Relationship of Capital and Labour, particularly as
applied jto Agriculture." Although that is so pxtensve a
subject that it was impossible to exhaust it, nevertheless it was
discussed comprehensively, and I should not again bring it
forward were it not that late years have been productive of
many new theories respecting the liolding and cultivation of
land It may well become us, as a Club, to review these
tiieories of modern growth, in contrast with older principles,
and endeavour to draw conclusions as to whether they combine
the essential qualifications of true progress and strict justice.
In the discussion this evening we may treat the subject of " Tlie
Capital and Labour of Agriculture" as a sequel to our former
discussion to which I have referred ; we shall tlius be saved
from retraversing well-worn ground, and no further reference
need be made to great general principles than may be required
in order to make our subject intelligible. Capital admits of the
simple division into fixed and floating. Eixed capital com-
prises lands, buildings, roads, railways, &c. Floating capital
consists of coin and other iutercliangeable commodities. The
best form of national wealth is in land, and the improvements
effected upon it and in the minerals wliich are found beneath
the surface. These being almost irremovable are secure to a
country. Unavoidable causes may at any time lead to a great
diminution in the floating ciipital of a nation. It might
have been thought that the immovability of land would have
made it an undesirable private investment, and kept it at a
low price in proportion to other securities ; but such is far
from being generally the case. The immovability of land lias
made it the safest of properties, and, together with the politi-
cal and social advantages which its possession is supposed to
confer, has raised its value to the highest point amongst inter-
changeable commodities. Tlie ownership of land has thus
become a luxury to be enjoyed by such only as can att'ord
to receive a very small annual return from their capital.
" What the eye cannot see the heart does not rue" is an old
proverb which is not applicable to land. We hear of " The
sea, the sea, the beautiful sea," but few there are who cannot
see far more beauty in the endlessly changing varieties of
landscape. Well, gentlemen, whether from " envy, hatred,
malice, and all uncharitableness," whether from a sincere aud
honest belief thatunder its present 1 oldingthe land is not applied
to the best use, or whether to raise a revolutionary cry easy to
be understood, and which is likely to find favour with that
numerous class who would rather steal from others than work
themselves, it is not my duty to inquire ; but the fact remains
that there isin this country an agitation in progress for an
alteration of the laws respecting the holding and sale of land.
Now those who are thus agitating admit of division into two
parties, the one having far more advanced views than tlie
other. The programme of the more moderate party is the
abolition of tlie laws of primogeniture and entail and a sim-
plification of title and transfer. That of the extreme party
seems to be " a curtailment of private rights in land," which,
carried to its necessary result, means that the State must
assume the ownership of all lands. Compensation to the pre-
sent owners is a question not hardly deemed of sulficieut
account as to deserve consideration. In order rightly to
undertand the ownership of laud it may be necessary to trace
back its history to remote ages. The primary and necessary
wants of mankind are very simple. They are embraced under
the four heads of food, lodging, clothing and education. In a
savage state the first of these four necessities is the all im-
portant one. The lodging is tiie bamboo hut or the hollow
tree. Education is confined to learning the arts of war, of
hunting, and of simple cookery, aud as for clothing — well, it
is here unnecessary to lay bare the naked truth. Civilization
and accumulation are the two powers which have changed nl
this, the former creating the demand, and the latter supplying
the means for the enjoyment of higher luxuries. It is here
worthy of remark how these two powers, civilization and
accumulation, go everywhere hand in hand ; with the
reclamation from the savage state there arises a desire to
store up surplus production, and this leads to the accu-
mulation of wealth. To have all things in common may be
the beidi ideal for those who are educated up to tiie proper
state of perfection, but to ordinary mortals it means a return
to the regions of barbarity. The natural productions of land
are thorns and thistles, and wild and inferior fruits, and such
like. These suflice to supply the wants of the savage, but the
necessities of civilization aie tliat these natural productions be
supplanted by those of better worth. Hence the necessity for
cultivating land. In treating of land it is necessary to bear
in mind tliat there is a wide gulf between the wilderness and
the fruitful field. Tlie latter shows the transformation ett'ected
upon the wilderness by ages of toil. Look at the beautiful
valleys of irrigated meadows now worth their three or four
pounds per acre in annual value, aud remember that these
were originally bogs, morasses, and stagnant pools, fruitful of
eels, and the pleasure grounds of innumerable herons. On
many of those sloping fields of arable land there was originally
little or no surface soil ; such has been produced by working
with Nature — by exposure to the action of frosts and sunshine
of the original beds of gravel, fiint, and limestone, together
with tlie application of suitable manures. On the flatter fields
production has been stimulated by deep cultivation and sub-
terranean waterpipes. In order to give the necessary stimulus
for the reclamation and improvement of land it has been found
necessary iu all countries to pass the ownership from the com-
munity to which it originally belonged into private hands.
Take, for example, the instances of America, Australia, and
New Zealand. They each iiave their wilderness acres in
abundance, and what temptatiou do they hold out to attract
settlers ? Come and have so many acres for your own. Thus
the land, oricrinally a national property, has been converted
pro bono publico into a private property. It has been urged
that a nation, as she advances in education and civilization,
has a right to reconsider and reconstruct ; to pass frem tlie
old state of things for which the present generation is not
responsible, into "one more consistent with modern ideas of
progress; that the resumption by the State of the ownership
of land, minerals, &c., would be one such necessary measure
of reconstruction. This opens the question of public as
against private rights. Tiie true position appears to be that,
in case of necessity private rights must give way to public
convenience, full and lilieral compensation being made for
public interests. The principle has been admitted in the case
of highways, railways, and otlier public works of the first im-
portance. It would be easy to prove that no necessity exists
for the resumption of the lands by the State, and fnrtlier that
such an operation would be impolitic and ruinous. Notwith-
standing the great outcry which is made as to tlie high price
of human food, it is very questionable whether it is not cheaper
now tlian it was half-a-century ago, taking into consideration
the fall in the value of money, and the rise in the price of
labour. See the great improvements which arc constantly
being carried out on land. In my own neighbourhood I know
of a new river having been cut and water meadows relaid at
considerable cost. Not far otf I have seen a poor desolate
heath country of some hundreds of acres drained, broken, and
manured, and thus converted into arable land. On a cold hill
I have lately seen land cleansed and subsoiled at an expense
of about £8 per acre. This is a small specimen of what is
being done by private enterprise throughout the country.
Would improvements progress in tliis way under State owner-
sliip ? Englishmen have seen enough to know that the small
line of red tape means stagnation. It would be easy to prove
that the financial operation involved would, if not totally
154
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
impossible, be impracticable and ruinous. Take all the interests
of country |life from the capitalist class, and much will have
been done towards inducing them to spend their time and
their incomes in other lauds. Although I have been
treating of the State purchase of land as if it were a possible
policy of the future, nevertheless I do not believe that with
all the mad schemes and propositions of the present day
this will ever be seriously entertained. I have entered on it
rather to clear the way for the proper consideration of the
schemes of the more moderate school of land reformers. The
objects sought to be accomplished by this party are — 1st, the
simplification of title and transfer ; 2nd, the abolition of the
laws of entail and primogeniture. There are few objects more
deserving of the attention of the statesman than the first of
these. Circumstances make it of national importance that
land should be changing ownership, and yet the State throws
every impediment in the way of such changes. You may in-
vest £2,000 or £20,000 in foreign stocks ; the operation is
completed by receiving the bonds in exchange for your money ;
but if you purchase but one small field, there must be investi-
gation of title and bundles of stamped papers of imposing
appearance — in fact, the vendor of land is generally mulcted
of 5 per cent , and the purchaser of 10 per cent, of their
respective capitals under the present system of legalised
robbery. Is such a state of things a just and right one ?
Only a few antiquates could be found to defend it. Will no
wise statesman arise to rid land of this most unnecssary bur-
den ? The law of primogeniture, as a manifest injustice,
should be abolished. In all cases where the late owner does
not signify his will with regard to his landed property it
sliould be treated as personality, and equitably apportioned.
It is true that this might sometimes lead to the division and
breaking up of large lauded properties, but I cannot see that
such would be an injury to the State. On the contrary, do
not policy and justice alike demand the change ? The law of
entail is of much more importance, as it has a bearing on a
large proportion of 1 he land of this country. It cannot be
denied that great evils result from this law. Witness the case
of a poor overgrown estate, heavily mortgaged, yet strictly
entailed. Expenses of maintenance are constantly on the
increase, and rent-rolls of such properties are non-elastic.
The position of the owner is not enviable. With only a life
interest and a decreasing income, he lias no incentive to im-
provement, and the repairs executed are often of the most
temporary character. It is true that money may be borrowed
to effect improvements at G or 7 per cent., repayable in about
30 years ; but few improvements on land will repay this
annual charge, and in such cases the property becomes in-
creasingly involved. On a property in such a case every
cottage wall and roof will bear the stamp of entail. Evil as
are the effects of this law it would be gross injustice by abolish-
ing it to leave the present owners in absolute possession.
Advancing years may already have made sons' or nephews'
interests of more marketable value than that of the present
possessor. It must not be forgotten that the law of entail is
closely connected with our system of government, llereditary
rulers without hereditary property would mean hereditary
paupers. It appears to me tliat many difficulties would be
overcome and much good efl'ected by allowing the present pos-
sessors, under some necessary restrictions, to sell a portion of
an entailed property, investing the proceeds (still subject to
modified entail) in Government securities. The present owner
would increase his income by exchanging into a better-paying
security, less exiieuse would attend the management of the
property, the stimulus given by the improvements which would
probably be effected by the new owners of tiie realised part
would often cause a rise in rentable value on the retained
portion of the property, the evils of entail would be mitigated,
and more land would be offering for sale. These advantages
might all be secured without inflicting injustice on anyone.
As tending to unfetter the capital of agriculture such a mea-
sure well deserves support. Passing to another part of the
subject I would call your attention to the burdens which rest
upon land in the form of local and imperial taxation. The
question has arisen whether the land is not taxed far too
heavily in proportion to otiier properties of the country. It
has been urged tliat some of these are hereditary to land, that
it has been bought and sold subject to them. True, this is the
case with regard to the poor-rate, but, I ask, has this principle
received any attention in recent legislation, when it would
nave told the other way ? iSmall parishes and some other
properties had always been bought and sold, comparatively
free from poor-rate classes, but being now full contributors to
the common fund of the union, pay the same proportion as
other parishes. Amongst imperial taxation, the income-tax
may first be noticed, tinder Schedule A the landowner pays
tax upon the income which he receives from his land In the
form of rents. Under Schedule B the occupier pajs upon his
assumed income. From no other class is this tax so strictly
and fully collected. I have heard of protestations against the
income-tax, and of propositions for abolishing it altogether
coming from other classes, but I never knew a landowner or
occupier object to this tax. It cannot be that threepence or
sixpence out of every pound makes less difference to a land-
owner's or occupier's income than does the same amount out
of incomes derived from other sources, but may it not be
that the income-tax appears insignificant in comparison
with the many weightier charges thrown upon land ? The
Malt-tax is one of these, and it presses with peculiar hard-
ship upon the farmer. It prevents him from feeding his
cattle on corn of inferior quality to the best advantage, it
lowers the price of the best barley to the maltster, and it
charges the farmer with a heavy tax on that portion of his
produce which he has malted for the use of his labourers in
the hay and harvest seasons. Take, as example, a farm of
five hundred acres rented at £700 per annum. At least 20
sacks of malt would be required in the year. The duty on
this would amount to about £11, equivalent to an addition of
7|^d. in the pound to the income-tax of the farmer. But im-
perial taxation is light compared with that which passes under
the misnomer of local taxation — misnomer, I say, for the
taxes are imposed by the Imperial Government, and the local
authorities have merely a nominal control over the expendi-
ture of them. The land-tax, though small in amount, must
be named. The oldest form of local taxation is that of the
poor-rate, but into this have been gradually engrafted the
charges for lunatics, for militia stores, for police, for the
repairs of bridges, for the administration of justice, and for
other purposes. The rates for these objects are upon the
average about Ss. in the pound. A rate of 3s. in the pound
upon a house may amount in the course of a year to a con-
siderable sum, but is probably a small affair in the income of
the occupier. Three shiUings in the pound upon a farm is
equivalent to an income-tax of 6s. in the pound to the occu-
pier. But this was not enough. Better roads were required
for public use, the Highway Act was passed, and another 6d.
in the pound added to local taxation. Doubtless it was neces-
sary for the national good that there should have been in-
creased facilities for education throughout the country ; it was
by no means necessary that this should liave been effected at
the cost of the temporary occupiers of land. The occupiers
of land owe no good feeling towards the Government by
whose instrumentality this injustice was perpetrated. In
many small parishes the charges for educational purposes will
amount to 6d. in the pound, equivalent to an increased income-
tax of Is. in the pound to the occupiers of land in those
parishes. Gentlemen, time has permitted of my alluding only
to the most flagrant features of this local taxation question,
but I have said enough to show tiiat it is a matter of the
most pressing interest to all who are connected with agricul-
ture. This question will not meet with a satisfactory settle-
ment whilst some of those who are the most deeply interested
remain apathetic. It should not be forgotten that a general
election of members of Parliament is approaching. Now is
the time for the agricultural interest to make itself once more
felt as a political power, and, making local taxation the stand-
point of the day, endeavour to bring this question to a fair
and satisfactory settlement. This part of the subject would
not be complete without referring to the tithe rent charge.
In the form tithe was taken before the passing of the Tithe
Commutation Act it was most objectionable, a bar to all im-
provement and good farming ; in its present form it is far less
so. To the occupier it now forms part of his rent, rising
and falling with the corn averages. I have now to speak of
the relationship of landlord and tenant. The proposed bill
of last session to regulate this relationship has been so lately
brought be''ore you, and in such an able manner, that it is
unnecessary for us to discuss it farther. As this bill is, it is
said, to be re-introduced next spring, I wish to say only a few
words as to clause 12. Proposed in good faith in the interests
of the tenant-farmer, it contains a direct blow at the rights
of property, and doubtless as such will receive the hearty
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
166
support of Radicals and Revolutionists. Hearty as is my
sympathy with every measure which tends to clear the course
for good farming, yet never will I support a measure which
bears on the forefront the impress of robbery. On a former
occasion I brought to your notice the wonderful way iu which
the letting value of land had increased from time to time.
Sis hundred years ago sevenpence per acre was the higiiest
ever paid. Two hundred years ago rent ranged from two
shillings to ten per acre, and from then, until within the last
two or three years, there has been an almost uninterrupted
rise. This, however, must be discounted by the heavy outlays
which have been incurred in the erection of farm-buildings,
and in other permanent improvements, no matter whether
effected by landlord or tenant. I have now to mention a
somewhat different state of things. In the last two years
there has been a considerable fall in the letting value of land,
amounting from 10 to 20 per cent. The principal causes
which have led to tliis are the following : A succession of bad
crops, particularly of wheat ; disease amongst stock ; the in-
creased cost of labour ; and the heavy capital which it is now
necessary to employ on a farm. It might be supposed that
the high price of live stock would have compensated agri-
culturists, but such has not been generally the case. It must
be remembered that live stock has not hitherto been re-
garded as profitable on arable land, except as manu-
facturers of manures. It is only within the last year or so
that cattle and sheep have repaid the cost of the foods grown
and purchased for them. All the expensts connected with
tlie farm have enormously increased. Coal and iron, of which
farmers are considerable consumers, have doubled in value.
E.\.tensive machinery means expensive repairs. Two thousand
pounds extra capital must mean one hundred per annum more
to the net returns of the farmer, and ought to mean two hun-
dred. It has been urged that more capital is required than is
generally to be found in employment ou the land. If this
were true the cry comes with a bad grace from the party who
are seeking by every means in their power, by making the
capital now employed unprofitable, to drive it from the land.
But I do not admit that under present laws and regulations
much larger capitals can be profitably employed. There is
abundance of wealth in this country ready for investment in
Russian Loans, Hungarian railways, or Venezuela mines, but
it flows not to our own soil. The reasons are plain. The
risks are great, the business is troublesome, and the returns
are small. The farming business which turns but half its
capital in the year disgusts those accustomed to the better re-
turns from manufacture and merchandise. Joint stock com-
panies have been brought out for carrying on nearly every
description of business, and have generally paid remarkably
well — not the shareholders, but those who have organized them.
Farming on the joint stock principle has not yet been at-
tempted in this country. When it is tried I do not expect to
find tlie shares at a very high premium. A late number of
Fraser's Magnzine has propounded the scheme of mapping out
England into large square farms of some thousands of acres
each, and some one else proposes to divide it into small four
acre farms. If all England was level land, if all soils required
the same treatment, if all seasons were exactly alike, if hedges
were not required for shelter, if everything on a farm could be
moved ashy clockwork, if employes required no supervision, if the
profits were sufficient to allow of the employment of thoroughly
efficient men as bailiffs, and if shareholders only required a very
small per ceutage upon their investment, then the former
scheme mi^ht be a success, but under no circumstances could
the latter succeed. Of the four acres at the least forty perches
would be occupied with buildings and fences, leaving three-
nnd-three-quarters acres for cultivation. A cottage, cow-
house, pig-sties, and store-room, and all fences and gates
would probably cost about £250. It is true tiiat by spade
husbandry large quantities of vegetables could be produced,
but this would be useless, as there would be no market for
them. It would be necessary to grow those articles for which
there is a demand, such as grain, dairy produce, or meat.
The latter could not be advantageously produced under such
circumstances. Of grain and dairy produce under favourable
circumstances the land might produce £13 per acre, or £45
per annum. Deduct £8 for rent, rates, tithes, &c., and £15 for
interest at £6 per cent, on the i'250 expended in buildings,
together £23 ; the balance left for one year's labour and all
other expenses would be but £22, The whole proposition is
ytopian ; carried put it would be a revival of the worse days
of Irish land tenure. A labourer with his spade has no more
power of competing with the capitalist occupier than has the
hand-loom weaver with the great steam-power manufactories
of the present day. I now approach the subject of the rela-
tionship between the capital and labour of agriculture, between
the employer and the employed. In briefly noticing this
branch of our subject my object is not to utter angry protests
or fierce denunciations ; it is simply to put before you if pos-
sible some practical views of an important question. The great
ditt'erence existing in the relationships of the capital and labour
employed in agriculture as compared with those employed in
manufacture must be at once apparent to you. In a manufactory
situated in the midst of a thickly populated town the labourer
is brought into contact with his employer only during the
actual iiours of labour ; after working hours all connection
between them ceases. In agriculture such is not the case.
The labourer generally resides in a house found for him by his
employer, is often his nearest neighbour, and living in the
country, perhaps a considerable distance from a town, is de-
pendent upon liim for many little civilities and assistances.
The labourer may have the care of stock which will some-
times require attention by night as well as by day ; his ser-
vices are sometimes required at uncertain aul irregular
hours, and, to be of any value, they must be cheerfully given.
The question of work and wages is not the only one between
a farmer and his labourers. It is often a bond of mutual ob-
ligation ; it ought to be one of mutual confidence and trust.
This relationship has been rudely shaken by the events of the
last two years. In some instances many years of constant in-
tercourse, yes, and of friendship, have been counted as
nothing, and confidence between employer and employed has
been destroyed. I am not saying such is universally the case ;
in my own experience it is quite the contrary. Whatever may
be the agricultural labouring classes, an utterly selfish dis-
regard of their employers' interests cannot generally be im-
puted to them. There is also a considerable love for old
associations, and as much honesty as is to be found amongst
other classes. After the first excitement to which I have re-
ferred was over, it was confessed by some who had in-
considerately severed old connections that they had since
passed the most miserable time of their lives. They
had discovered, as many have before them, that pecuniary
advantages are purchased too dearly at the cost of dis-
honesty and dishonour. The principle of union is good if
the end to be accomplished is also good. Agriculturists have
formed unions, commonly called agricultural societies, for the
purposes of improving the races of cattFe and sheep, for stimu-
lating the production of efiicieut machinery, and for the en-
couragement of clever and deserving labourers. The Agricul-
tural Labourers' Union appears to be formed for the purpose
of coercing farmers at busy seasons of the year to pay more
wages than they can really afford — in fact, to rob them of a
portion of their business capital. It is claimed for the Agri-
cultural Labourers' Union that it has already done good service
by raising wages, but it must be a doubtful good which in-
creases an income by £5 per annum, and increases the price of
the necessities of life by an equal or greater sum. Is it wise,
is it considerate to tiiose most deeply interested, to raise a state
of things in which all employers would rather spend 20s. in
seeding or manuring .than 10s. in the employment of labour?
I am not impugning the motives of the principal movers in
what is called the labour movement. The ultimate object
which they have in view may be good ; but, like other enthu-
siasts, they have been able to see only one side of the question,
and have consequently come in collision with the great inexo-
rable law of supply and demand. Tirm as a rock stands that
law regulating the price of every marketable commodity. It
is true that by diminishing the supply you may cause a tempo-
rary rise in value ; but — wheels within wheels — the higher
price diminishing the demand causes a return almost to former
prices. If less labour be employed in agriculture there must
be less production ; all produce will lose in value, and the
agriculturist will be recouped. It is only in the expectation
of receiving a fair return for your capital that you employ it
in agriculture. If agriculture as a business has passed from
tlie pleasant list into the doubtful or bad list, tlie risks being
greater, there will be less capital seeking investment, and yours
must command a comparatively higher interest. But I have
no fear of the great^evils which some predict coming upon our
country. Whilst the supply of coal holds out Great Britain
will be a prosperous nation ; and afterwards, w iih all her eiior=
156
THE FAEMEK'S MAGAZINE.
mous accumulation of wealth, she may fairly retire iu compe-
tence from the cares of business life. Wliilst still in active
health her appetite is enormous. Tlie present period forms a
crisis iu the history of agriculture. The question is whether
present prices will further improve, admitting of still heavier
expenses being met, or by retrogression compelling the adop-
tion of the policy of retrenchment. Prices will tell which is
to be the policy of the future. It may be found most profit-
able to cultivate by steam and to employ skilled mechanics, to
keep increased numbers of live stock fed abundantly upon the
best of cake and corn. On the other hand, it may be found
necessary to lay many acres of the arable land to pasture, les-
sening tlie demand for machinery and labour by 75 per cent.
These are eventualities which may possibly arise, and I doubt
not that agriculturists will be found ready to meet them.
Depend upon it that agriculture, as the oldest occupation and
the most important to daily life, will continue to be carried on
until the world has arrived at that state of perfection when
daily food will be no more required. Gentlemen, the subject
is in your lumds. I have endeavoured, as well as the short
time which private business has allowed me iu preparation, to
place before you a brief outline of the position of agriculture,
an epitome ol its burdens and its cari s, an expression of views
with regard to some political changes wliich are needed alike
in the interest of agriculture and of justice. May we not look
with confidence to the future? Public opinion is aroused as
to some of the worst evils of the present system, and remedial
legislation may be expected. I thank you for the attention
with which you have listened to these remarks, and, in con-
clusion, I can only express my earnest hope that in the future
capital and labour may learn more justly to appreciate each
other, and, in the establishment of mutual good feeling, derive
therefrom mutual pleasure and prosperity.
Mr. R. N. Howard took the club back to the old feudal
days, and the struggles which had taken place, and the Acts
of Parliament passed for tiie possession of land — contending
that in the present day the trade and commerce of the country
demanded that land should be free, and the freer laud was
made the better. He looked upon the laws of entail and
primogeniture, not as revolutionary, but as obstructions to
this free possession of land. Glaiiciug at what camraerce
had done fur the agriculturi,->ts, he called to mind the
hundreds of millions spent ou the coustruction of railways.
Speaking on capital, he showed the difi'erence between
fixed [and circulating — the more there was of the latter
the better for everybody. He urged that towns — tlie centres
of commerce — were as heavily rated, and in some instances
more so, than the country- Giving a local illustration,
.he mentioned iliat while thcuuiou poor-rate valuation amounted
to about £1(J1-,000 Dundiester (including I'ordington, £9,000)
stood at Jt21-,00U, or nearly a fourth of the whole. At Wey-
mouth an extra rate of 2s. in the £ had been imposed for the
drainage of the town. It might, he said, be taKen as a general
principle that it was a necessity from the gro ^ h of nations
that certain properties should change. Therelore, the agricul-
turists must not cry out against being particularly rated.
Mr. Henry Lock, clerk to the Dorchester Union, who was
appealed to as an authority on a point under discussion, said
the rateable value of the union was about £101,000, between
one-fonrth and one-fifth of which was collected within the four
parishes of Dorchester. But, then, as far as two of these pa-
rishes were concerned, Eordington and Holy iViuity, a large
portion was of an agricultural character — lie should think one-
half of the former and a-th.ird of the latter, aid, taking this
fact into consideration, the proportion would be reduced from
one-fourth or oue-fiflh to about one-sixth.
Mr. J. G. Homer pointed out that an immense tract of land,
including the whole of Frome parish, was connected with the
town of Dorchester, and that throughout the union the same
rate of assessment was levied, houses in the town being as-
sessed on the rentals the same as farms. He, therefore, could
not see that the town was paying more than its propor-
tion. Every acre of laud in the union was assessed.
After further comments on tiiis point by Mr. Lock and Mr.
Howard,
Mr. HoMfcR added that while trade and commerce were
not assessed to tlie poor-rate the capital of the agriculturists,
being invested in the land— and laud was comparatively
worthless without capital— was thus assessed. Townspeople
only paid upon their houses as individual^; they paid nothing
upon their capital, their income from their professions or busi=
nesses was not, as in the case of agriculturists, taken into ac-
count.
Mr. K. D.VMKN showed that the poiut under discussion re-
solved Itself more into a question between real and personal
property. Regarding the lecture itself, it was so comprehen-
!-ive that he (Mr. Damen) could not protend to do anything
like justice. Reference had been made by Mr. Wood Homer
to the Landlord and Tenant Bill, which was likely to be in-
troduced during the next session of Parliament, aud some of
the probable clauses of which had been already discussed by
this Club. In the allusion to the 12th clause it was intimated
that any man who supported it must be a Radical, Cr some-
thing of that sort. Now he (Mr. Damen) did not pretend to
be of any politics, although he took, he must admit, some in-
terest in agricultural politics. But he felt strongly ou one
point, viz., that if the law was essential it was important to
render it binding on the people. To pass a law from the obli-
gations of which any one might he exempt seemed to him to
be contrary to tlie spirit of all law. He considered that, if the
law question were wanted at all, the I2th clause was required.
Respecting the labour question, it had been already discussed,
but much, he thought, remained to be said thereon; it was
not yet settled. Reference was made in the course of the lec-
ture to the amount of land the labourer should have. Now
he (Mr. Damen) considered that a small portion would be an
immense benefit to the poor man ; that to send him across the
Atlantic for a bit of land instead of providing it for him in
this country was not a wise course to adopt ; a bit of land
here might be a great benefit to him, and nnght satisfy him.
Regarding the law of primogeniture, upon which the lecturer
had touched, he (Mr. Damen) had previously had his say else-
where, and all he had heard this evening on the subject did
not alter his opinion one iota; he contended that the law of
primogeniture aud entail had been to the advantage of the
great middle class in this country ; it was impossible that
class could be supported in town and country without pretty
good sized holdings, and it would be reduced to the same level
as tliat of France if the land were divided aud subdivided as in
that country.
Mr. Alfrei) Pove suggested that too much importance had
been attached to the law of primogeniture, inasmuch as it was
only called into action where a person died intestate. Not
above once iu a hundred cases did this law step iu and say the
eldest son should be entitled to the property, to the exclusion
of the other children. In reference to the expenses involved
iu the transfer of land, it was said that the cost to the vendor
in stamps and duty amounted to about 5 per cent, on the pur-
chase money, while tlie purchaser incurred about 10 per cent.
Now he thought this was something about which any vendor
or purchaser would reasonably grumble ; Ij or 2 per cent, was
as much as he (Mr. Pope), as a professional man, could get.
Mr. CiiARjiAN Saunders proposed a vote of thanks to Mr.
Wood Eonier, who, he considered, had read them an ad-
mirable paper, and deserved their warmest thanks. There
seemed to be a little diversity of opinion ou several points.
Respecting the transfer of land, it perhaps may be made a little
easier ; yet he agreed with Mr. Damen that the lavv of primo-
geniture ought not to be abolished. To render tlie transfer of
land easier might be to the advantage of the agriculturists,
and indeed the general coiumuuity. Agriculturists looked to
their own interest, aud so they ought, for it must he admitted
they had burdens of which, to a considerable extent, they
should be relieved. To the great commercial people, alluded
to by JMr. Howard, they were doubtless much indebted ; and
they ought to come forward and help to bear some of the
burdens at present borne by the laud. He thought I\Ir.
Howard would agree with him that the agriculturists were
willing to bear their lair share, but they objected to do more
than that, for they had to attend to the improvement of their
stock aud other matters. In conclusion, he thought they were
all pleased with the paper, and ought to thank Mr. Wood
Homer.
Mr. Andrews, hou. secretary, seconded the vote of thanks,
which was carried unanimously.
The President concurred iu thanking Mr. Homer for the
care and attention which he had devoted to the suliject ; every-
body, he said, must allow that tlie paper displayed great ability,
aud, he might add, also great common sense. lie thought Mr.
Homer had advanced very few arguments to which exception
might be taken. Mr. Damen had criticised his opinion ou
small holdings, but he might be reminded th9.t on the occasion
THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE.
io7
bf the Irish famiUe it was asderiaiiied that 25 per cent, of llie
farms iu Ireland were under seven acres. JNlr. Genge consi-
dered that to cut up the farms of England into divisions of
four or five acres each would tend to the ruin of the country.
He said they ought to tliank Mr. Howard for the ze>t which
his opinions — however much the chib might difler from them
— imparted to the discussion. They differed from liim very
considerably, but must thank him for tlie candour and ability
with which be expressed his opinions. For instance, he (Mr.
Genge) disagreed witii him on the question of free land. What
did Mr. Howard mean by free land ? H lie meant freeing it
from all its burdens, tlien he (Mr. Genge) entirely agreed with
him. Mr. Howard had directed attention to the feudal laws ;
but let him look back to the time when the feudal system was
at its height: what otiier state of government would he have
had ? Did he find fault with the holders of land for improving
their position ? He (Mr. Genge) thought that was a subject
for congratulation rather tlian censure. Then reference
had been made to the struggles of agriculture. But he (Mr.
Genge) thought the struggle now was between the agri-
culturists and another great party which had arisen in the
country ; he alluded to the manufacturing interest. When
the agriculturists began to iucrease in power their cliildren
were sent out into the world, and the arts and sciences were
increased and developed. Tlius a great party arose in the
State, and that party possessed now, he should say, rather too
much of the wealth and political power of the nation — too
much, certainly, for the good of the agricultural interest. He
opined that by the argument as to free land was meant that
the manufacturing party to which be had just referred
were not content to have a large portion of the wealth
of the country, but they wished to get the land also— which
he (Mr. Genge) hoped would never be the case. He attri-
buted much to the supineness of tlie lauded interest, of which
the manufacturing class were not slow to take advantage ; but
he hoped that the good sense of Englishmen would prevail,
that the manufacturing interest would be moderate in their
views, and that they would be satisfied to " live and let live."
Mr. Damen explained that he would by no means advocate
the same system of parcelling out land as adopted in Ireland.
Tiie expression he had used was ■' bit of land" — which it, migh
be advantageous to allow the labourer for cultivation. He had
not for one moment advocated the Irish system.
Mr. Wood Homer in reply said Mr. Howard attributed
tlie increased size of farms to the elTorts made on the part of
trade, whereas he (Mr. Homer) attr'huted it to the introduc-
tion of machinery. No man had done more to increase the size
of farms than Mr. John Fowler in inventing the double plough
system ; anyone who bought one of his sets could as easily
cultivate tiiree or four thousand acres as two or three hundred.
Steam cultivation would tend to the extension of farms. With
regard to the money expended on railways, as referred to by
Mr. Howard, he (Mr. Homer) did not think it was with a view
to helping agriculture, but rather to a return of some six,
seven, eiglit, or ten per cent, into the po'-kets of those who
invested it for their own private ends ; and in thus seeking to
benefit themselves they had, no doubt, benefited tlie whole
community. If the large amount thus spent could be drawn
from trade and manufacture it only showed that trade
and manufacture were more prosperous thau agriculture,
those who followed which could not invest such money. In
reference to the drainage rate, to which Mr. Howard had
referred, the speaker urged that the drainage was for the ex-
clusive benefit of tlie town, and that it was only fair everyone
whose property was benefited should be equally assessed. But,
he asked, was land exclusively benefited by the establishment
of the various systems of local sanitary inspection, education,
and other such matters? Regarding another point, he be-
lieved the labourer should have sufficient land in cultivation
to grow potatoes for his own family use ; further than that,
his services would be more profitably employed in other ways.
His own plan was to allow iiis men with families half-an-acre
of land, in some cases more — that was as much as they cared
about. (Mr. Chapman Saunders : Too much.) Mr. Homer
touclied on the salient points on the land question in the
speeches of the Secretary of State for War and the Solicitor-
General. He agreed with the president as to the supineness
of the landed interest, referring as a striking example to the
meagre support accorded to the Dorset Chamber of Agricul-
ture.
FIELD EXPERIMENTS IN 187-2 AND 187 3.
At the monthly meeting of the Cirencester Chamber of
Agriculture, Mr. H. J. Marshall in the chair,
Professor Wrightson said : It is close upon two years
since I presented jou with a report upon the experimental
department of this Chamber. 1 see by the advertisement that
I am to (iiriiish you with some account of the agricultural ex-
periments for 1872 and 1873. I must at once say that owing
to a variety of circumstances the results of the experiments of
1872 must occupy a very small portion of our attention.
Previously to the present year we had undertaken experiments
upon roots and cereals for five consecutive seasons. It was
only, however, during the past year tiiat we were able to con.
duct these experiments in a manner which appeared quite
satisfactory to me, so far, at least, as root crops were con-
cerned. The great difficulty to be met was the proper
distribution and application of the manures, and since no
ordinary drill is constructed for the sowing of definite quan-
tities of manure equally over a small plot of land, we were
obliged to resort to the somewhat laboured, and as it turned
out ineffective method of applying the manure by hand.
Year after year this systnin was adojited, and the manures
exerted their effect with more or less power, and we were en-
abled to come to some conclusions embodied in my reports of
1869 in the Eot/al Jgi-icultii.ral Society's Journal, and in 1872
in a pamplilet reprinted from the Wills and Gloucesiershiic
Standard. The hand-distribution of manure evidently pre-
vented the manures from exerting their full effect, as was at
once evident upon comparing our experimental plots with ad-
jacent land sown with the water or with tlie dry drill. Some
impulse was given to the experimental energies of this
Chamber by a paper read last spring by my friend and col-
league Professor Church, in which he pointed out the advan-
tages of agricultural stations as centres, where scientific
work in connection with agriculture might be performed. It
was resolved that by way of commencing such an ex-
perimental station at Cirencester we should enlarge
our capabilities with reference to field experiments, and other
directions were also indicated in which the new agricultural
station might be developed iu connection with the Cirencester
Chamber and with the lloyal Agricultural College. Not to
detain you with further particulars, I may remind you that the
work of experimenting was lighteucd by the outlay of a little
money. With the assistance of Messrs. lleeve, of the Brattou
Iron Works, Westbury, I contrived a liquid manure drill
adapted for onr purpose. It, in general form, resembles the
ordinary drill, but by some three or four alterations we are
enabled to sow more exact quantities, and to clear the drill
completely out upon every plot of one-twentieth part of an
158
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
acre, and this without auy delay or difficulty. A suitable man
was found to undertake the work of drilling the swedes upon
every farm, so that by the use of this implement, travelling as
it did from farm to farm, we were enabled to secure a more uni-
form method than if each farmer had been left to follow his
own devices. Messrs. Proctor and Kylnad, of Birmingham,
were also communicated with, and courteously offered to supply
their own manufactured manures free of cost, and others, which
they did not manufacture, at prime cost. These manures were
mixed, weighed, numbered, labelled, bagged, addressed, and
forwarded to the various gentlemen who were willing to un-
dertake experiments, and hence a regular system was intro-
duced, thanks to the liberality of subscribers, which enabled
us to start upou a new and improved footing. A circular was
issued inviting attention to and co-operation with our scheme,
and this was responded to by the gentlemen whose names will
be presently brought before you. We still adhere to the prin-
ciple which has always been our motto, viz.. Repetition and
Control. Perhaps the high expectation, which I at least at
one time formed, has been a little damped, but in any true
investigation we must accept the true answer which
Nature makes to our questions, even although ap-
parently these answers may be contradictory. It might have
been agreeable to have told you that in this district a certain
and absolute effect always followed the use of a particular
dressing or a particular treatment. Such is not the case, and
the tendency of our investigation is more and more to doubt
the utility of those general recommendations to a certain
course of practice with which agricultural periodicals and
journal! teem. First let me claim for this Chamber the solu-
tion of an important problem. I venture to assert that in this
neighbourhood at least the experimental results obtained by
any one agriculturist cannot be safely adopted by his neigh-
bours. Published reports of experiments, however interesting
in themselves, and however satisfactory as showing an appre-
ciation of science on the part of the experimenter, must be
looked upon with a degree of suspicion when they are pre-
sented before us as guides for our practice. Such an opinion
may have presented itself to the minds of members of this
Chamber. But the experiments which we have now con-
ducted for several years give definiteness and clearness to it,
relieving it from tlie stigma that it is rooted in ignorant pre-
judices. Our results have, to my mind, clearly placed agricul-
tural experiments upon another and new footing. They cease
to appear in the light of general guides for the agricultural
public. No longer must we examine tables of experiments
with a view to finding the best manure for swedes, wheat, or
clover — no longer must we rely upon the testimony of our
market acquaintances and farming friends for prescription
for manures. Each for himself must endeavour by strict ex-
periment to find the best fertilising substances for his own
particular farm. What, then, becomes of our own particular
system of conducting agricultural inquiry, viz., that of frequent
repetition and control ? Firstly, it enables us to come to the
above important conclusion ; secondly, it affords the interesting
spectacle of simultaneous effects, and those exhibit to us the
varied character of the soils which surround us ; thirdly, re-
petition alone can bring out t}*ose marvellous effects of season,
which will in one year frequently reverse the verdict of the
preceding one ; fourthly, does it not open up a question of deep
importance, requiring much more delicate investigation than
is possible to agriculturists alone, and which requires the aid
of agricultural chemists ? I allude to the inquiry into reasons
why such extraordinary differences, as I shall have to point
out to-day, exist. Why do we find one soil able to give 15
tons of swedes without manure of any sort, while another can
only produce its 17 cwt., albeit with a regular plant ? Why
do we find a decrease from the use of superphosphate in one
instance, compared with an overwhelming increase from its
use in another case ? Why do we find the clear dictum in
favour of one manure furnished by one series of experiments
completely reversed by another ? The answers to these ques-
tions are perhaps beyond our knowledge, but they are bom
fide questions, founded upon true experience, cannot be
doubted for a moment by those who follow me through the
results of past and previous years. I must here express my
sorrow that, owing to absence from this country. Professor
Church is not with us to-day, as his deep knowledge of che-
mistry, coupled with the great attention he has given to these
experiments, might have enabled him to have thrown some
light upon the points just raised. It is well, however, that
you should have the plain statement of the resiilts obtained
as early as possible, and if the interest of the Chamber is
sufficiently awakened, I hope that the present report will not
stand in the way of a future and more elaborate one, in which
the experience of agriculturists will be blended with the theo-
retical explanations of an accomplished chemist. Our experi-
ments also show us the difficulties which must beset the
practical solution of the question of Tenant-Right, for how
can we assign a general or universal value to a particular
fertiliser, when perhaps this fertiliser, while exceedingly
effective on one farm, is without effect upon another?
Lastly, at the risk of repetition, I must enforce from
experience the importance of each farmer testing the
value of artificial manures upon his own farm for himself.
Such ttests are quite essential, for it seems altogether unrea-
sonable that you should spend hundreds of pounds upon arti-
ficial fertilisers, and that upon laud which could well afford
to do without them. On the other hand, such tests would
frequently stimulate the purchase of still larger quantities
where a marked defect was observable. While we find these
varying and even contradictory results brought out by our
experiments, we are also able to trace certain effects which
ran througli the entire series of trials made during the last
season. When such is the case you have evidence of extra-
ordinaiy strength, which may be taken as a guide for future
practice. At first sight it may appear disappointing that all
our experiments do not bear each other out upon every point ;
but i have endeavoured to show that both the varying results
obtained upon some points and the unanimous verdict upon
others, may alike be turned to your advantage. With these
preparatory remarks, I pass on to point out the lessons which
oar experience of the past year has taught us. First, I will
ask your attention to the unmanured plots, S-i in number, and
distributed over various parts of the district. They give a
general or average yield of 8 tons 8 cwt. 74 lbs. per plot.
Some of these have received moderate dressings of farmyard
dung. The season being propitious, and the plant being for
the most part regular, this yield may be taken. as fairly iu-
dicative of what land without the help of artificial fer-
tilisers will yield. Taking 25 inches as the width between
our drills and 15 inches as the distance between our
plants, we ought to find 836 plants upon each plot of
one-twentieth part of an acre. The average number of
plants was actually 731, and hence we may say that allow-
ing for difference of space in hoeing, the plots carried a
fair plant. The immense difference which exist(!d between
the yield of these plots is well worthy of attention, and is
shown by the following table :
table i. — results obtained without artieicial
ma::^ukes.
Tons. cwt. lbs. No. of plants
Mr. Smith obtained ... 15 3 4 without dung ... 828
Mr. Swanwick „ ... 13 0 4 „ „ .,. 766
Rev. T. Maurice „ ... 1 10 80 after wheat dunged 157
Mr. lies „ ... 5 16 18 without dung ...803
Mr. Marshall „ ... 8 9 102 „ „ ... 960
Mr. Price „ ...14. 9 53 with dung 683
Mr. Price „ ... 9 0 75 without dung ... 893
Mr. Edmonds „ ... 4 0 30 „ „ —
In all these cases the same seed was used and the same climatic
conditions existed, and the extraordinary differences we must
consider as due to the inherent qualities and agricultural con-
dition of the soils. May we not naturally conclude that land
which can grow good crops without manure is in good condi-
tion? If so, we must come to the inevitable conclusion that
land in good condition is much less influenced by artificial ma-
nures, than land which is in poor condition. The knowledge
that such extreme differences exist in a favourable season with
the same seed and with the same regular plant is certainly
worth having, and alone shows us the importance of our ex-
periments.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
159
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; nominated the following gentlemen
to be members of the Club : Captain Charlton, Ilesleyside ;
IVIr. E. Woodman, Newton ; Mr. Robt. Dinning, Nilstoue
Ridge; Mr. Wm. Martin, Blanchland ; Mr. George Hudson,
Burnside, Matfen ; Mr. W. Hunter, Parmently Hall ; Mr.
AVm. Parker; Mr. Thomas Stephenson, Newbiggeu ; Mr.
Benjamin Wilson, Bingfield; Mr. Wadland, Hexham; Mr.
Wm. Hare, Vale View House ; Mr. Wiu. Gates, Causey Hill ;
Mr. Robt. Reuwick, Whittington ; Mr. James Ridley, Merry-
shields ; Mr. Septimus Harrison, Hedley Park ; and Atr. Wm.
Hindmarch, Ovington Lodge. Mr. W. Cook seconded the
nominations, which were carried unanimously.
-Mr, Grey, the chairman, then read his paper on " Com-
pensation under the Irish Land Act, compared with English
Tenants' Claims for Unexhausted Improvements," as follows :
No attempt to interfere by legislation witli the freedom of
contract between landlord and tenant has as yet been success-
ful', u England, and the necessity for such interference in Ire-
land by the act of 1870 was supposed to be justified by the
helplessness of Irisli tenants, aud their inability to make bar-
gains for themselves, as well as by the fact that, without the
autliority of Parliament, a custom actually existed by which
tenant-farmers were allowed to sell their interest in their
farms, though the law really reserved to the landlord tlie power
to evict a tenant after sis months' notice, without any com-
pensation. There was, no doubt, much justice and truth in
this, for land has been held for very many years by tenants
trora father to son, without any interruption, for several gene-
rations, so much so that there have not been wanting for
many years advocates for fixity of tenure. These advocates
profess to allow that the tenant should still pay " a fair rent,"
but how such rent could be ascertained without competition, it
would be ditlicult to understand. There were very many cases
where whole districts were let during the last century in large
farms of several hundred acres each for long leases ; and these
farms, owing to the absence of, or the inability to, embrace
prohibitions to sub-letting, and owing to the passion for
holding laud, and the great increase of prices at the end of
the last, and beginuing of the present century, were sublet at
very high rents, aud in several subdivisions. The original
tenants reserved only their houses and a portion of land, be-
came "middlemen," with large incomes, after deriving a
larger profit from the land than the head landlord, in many
instances imitating the habits and extravagances of land-
owners ; and when the famine came, and rents could not be
collected, this class fell into great trouble, and their sub-
tenants were generally in much worse case than the direct
tenants of more wealthy landowners, who could affjrd to do
without their rents for a few years, aud even to pay for the
emigratiou of tenants who could no longer earn a livelihood
by farming. It must be said, to the credit of Irish laud-
owners, that when such leases fell out, they almost invariably
adopted the actual occujiier of the hiud, and generally at lower
rents than they had paid the middlemen, though they had an
undoubted right to claim the possession of their land unin-
cumbered by innumerable poor cotters occupying only a few
acres each. It was not, however, to be expected that they
should set about building a number of houses and farm offices
on land which they had formerly let probably as a single grass
farm ; and thus the occupying tenants, having been tacitly
allowed during many years to make fences, and build houses
aud olRces, such as they were, and to do other things which
they called improvements, acquired an equitable claim at
least not to be evicted from their holdings without com-
pensation for their labour. In my experienoe, gained during
a number of years of intimate connection with estates in tlie
South of Ireland, I heard of very few cases of such tenants
being disposed without either being compensated by the land-
lords or being allowed to sell their goodwill as well as their
" improvements " to a tenant approved by the landlord. The
cases of injustice which came within my knowledge were
generally on land owned by some of the extreme advocates of
TeuantRight in Parliament or tlieir friends. The fact, how-
ever, of the landowner having this power over the ten^int was
a grievance, and Parliament decided to do away with it. The
principle on which Parliament seems to have gone is that
what may be called large farmers should receive compensation
for such improvements resulting froju their own labour or
outlay as are unexhausted on their quitting their farms, and
as are beneticial or suitable to the holding. But the very
small farmers, on the supposition that when put out of farms
they have nothing to fall back upou but emigration, shall
receive compensation for " disturbance." Tenants wlio can
claim for disturbance under the act of 1870 are those wliose
farms are valued under the Poor-law valuation under i'lOO
a-year, this valuation being frequently 20 or 30 per cent,
under the letting value, wliether they are yearly tenants or
have leases of less than 31 years. For 20 years Irom the 1st
of January, 1871, tenants taking leases for less than 31 years
of farms valued at less than £50 a-year, are precluded by the
act from contracting themselves out of this claim. A laudlord
can thus ])rotect liimself against this claim by offering his
tenant a 31 years' lease at " a fair rent," and any difference
about this fair rent is settled by the chairman of the county,
who holds a court embracing most of the duties of our quarter
sessions, county courts, and bankruptcy courts. There are
several minor details in this part of the act with which I need
not take up your time. The act prescribes a maximum of
compensation under this part, which is as follows : A tenant
whose farm is valued at or under £10 may be awarded seven
years' rent; so that a tenant who pays £15 rent, a very com-
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
m
mon case for land rated at £lO, may be awarded seven times
£15, or £105. A tenant who is rated at from £10 to £30
can claim only five years' rent ; but as this would in some
cases be less than if he had been rated below £10, he is
allowed to : 1 aim the maximum of the lower scale : thus, a
tenant rated at £13, but paying £18, could claim only £90 in
his own division of the scale, but he is allowed to claim £105 ;
hut a tenant rated at £16, and paying £-24<, can claim £120.
From £30 to £10 valuation, the maximum is four years' rent ;
from £40 to £50, it is three years' rent ; and from £50 to
to £100, it is two years' rent. In each of these cases tiie
tenant may claim under the lower scale. If, however, a tenant
quits a farm of his own accord, or is evicted for non-payment
of rent, or breach of certain reasonable conditions, he cannot
claim for " disturbance," nor if he subdivides or sublets his
farm without leave in writing. There are some other ex-
ceptions to this claim, such as for land held as town parks,
land let to labourers as such, and some classes of purely grass
farms on which the tenant does not live. Tiie above com-
pensation is provided for by the third section of the act. The
first section legalises the Ulster Tenant-Rigbt, which means
generally the right of a tenant to sell his interest in his
holding, but with certain restrictions for the protection of the
landlord. The second section legalises the "usage" when it
is proved to have prevailed on estates or in districts not in
Ulster, similar to the Ulster custom. Tenants who can claim
under either of these two clauses may choose to exchange this
right for the right to claim under the latter sections of the act,
but they cannot claim under both. The Ulster custom and
the other usages vary so much, and are often so indefinite,
that I believe tenants and landlords not unfrequeutly disagree
about them. I have not gone fully into the details of the first
three clauses, because they have not much bearing on what is
commonly understood by the Tenant-Ilight in England, but
the fourth clause embraces all that has hitherto been demanded
by Edglish farmers generally as compensation for unexhausted
improvements. 1 do not, however, include the demands made
by political agitators, unreasonable partisans, or volunteer
advisers who know nothing about farming. The section
describes it as compensation for improvements and the claim is
open to all tenants except those who claim under clauses 1 and
2, and may be made by those who claim under clause 3, in
addition to their compensation for disturbance, and includes
both tenants evicted and removed on the expiration of leases
and those who quit on their own accord. There is, however,
a difference between tenants who are put out of their holdings
on notice to quit, or on the expiration of the term, and those
who quit voliini.uily or are ejected upon non-payment of rent
or breach of contract. In the former case the tenant's claim
is direct against the landlord ; in the latter case, the landlord
may free himself from the claim by allowing the tenant to sell
his interest to another tenant. In this and all other cases,
the landlord has a set-off for all arrears of rent in respect of
any " deterioration " of the holding arising from t!ie default
of the tenant, and for unpaid taxes. If a tenant is allowed to
sell his interest, the landlord may alter the rent, but if he
cannot get so much as he would otherwise do for his interest
by reason of the rent being exorbitant, or, if he refuses to
renew his lease because tlie rent is too high, the court has the
power to decide whether it is a fair rent, and if it is, the
tenant is treated as if he were voluntarily quitting, and has
no claim ior disturbancs. There are some important ex-
ceptions to claims under the section, which, stated shortly,
are as follows : (n) Improvements made twenty years
before the claim is put in, except, however, for
permanent buildings and improvements of waste land.
{//) Improvements prohibited by the landlord as being and
appearing to the court to diminish the general value of the
estate. ('•) Improvements made in pursuance of a contract
for valuable consideration. {//) Improvements made in con-
travention of a contract not to make such, (e) Improve-
ments which the landlord has undertaken to make, ex-
cept where the landlord has failed to make them. A tenant
holding under a lease for 31 years or more cannot claim
for any imjirovements except permanent buildings and
reclamation of waste land and tillage and manures the benefits
of which are (exhausted at the end of the term. A contract
prohibiting a tenant from doing anything suitable to the occu-
pation of liis holding or its due cultivation is made void, lint
no such thing shall be deemed suitable or due cultivation
which the court thinks tends to diminish the general value of
the estate ; but this restriction on contract does not authorise
a tenant to break up grass land or cut timber, though that
might be an improvement to the particular holding of the
tenant. In deciding on all or any of these claims it is directed
that the court shall in reduction of such claims take into
consideration the time during which the tenant shall have
enjoyed the advantage of such improvements, also the rent at
which such holding has been held, and any benefits which the
tenant may have received from his landlord in consideration,
express or implied, for the improvements so made. Section 5
provides generally that all improvements shall be deemed to
have been made by the tenant until tiie contrary shall have
been proved, but on estates where it has been customary for
the landlord to do part of such improvements such presump-
tions shall be modified accordingly. It was thought that in
Ireland the landlord would be more likely to have records of
outlay than tenants, and could therefore more easily prove who
had made them. There are here again several important ex-
ceptions. (1) Where the improvements were made before the
estate was conveyed to the landlord by actual sale. (2) Where
the tenant held under a lease. (3) Where the improvements
were made twenty years before the passing of this Act.
(1) Where the holding is rated at more than £100-
(5) Where it is [proved to the court that it is the practice of
the estates for 'the landlord to make such improvements.
(6) Where from the entire circumstances the court is satis-
fied that the improvements were not made by the tenant.
Section 6 declares that where a tenancy is not determined
either landlord or tenant who wishes to preserve evidence of
improvements may file a schedule in the Landed Estates
Court ; it also provides for due notice being served by one or
the other for hearing objections and modifying such schedule
and filling the amended schedule, this schedule is therefore to
be admitted in evidence. Section 10 allows^ a landlord to
recover possession of a limited proportion of a holding for
building labourers' cottages on, and such shall not be consi-
dered a disturbance, but merely be liable for improvements and
to a fair reduction of rent proportionate to the value of the
land. Section 11 enables a tenant who is rated at or over
£50 to contract himself out of claims for compensation.
Section 13 withholds compensation from a tenant who as-
signs without leave or the landlord refuses to accept
the assignee and the court deems such refusal reasonable.
Section U enacts that an eviction shall not be deemed a
disturbance of the tenant where the tenant persists in certain
acts, such as anything not necessary to the due cultivation of
his holding, or refusal to allow the landlord to exercise his
right of taking minerals, timber, turf, game, or tish, or to make
roads, drains, &e., or to view the premises. Section 12
exempts from compensation under section 4 all town parks,
and purely grass farms on which the tenant does not live,
and labourers' cottages and gardens and land let for any tem-
porary purpose, such as one crop or a season's grassing.
I shall now go to clause 70, which, besides the general de-
finition of terms used in the Act defines more particularly the
word ' improvements," and as tliis is very important I shall
give it in the words of the Act. The term " improvements"
shall mean in relation to a holding ; (I) any work which being
executed adds to the letting value of tiie iiolding on which it
is executed, and is suitable to such holding ; also (2) tillages,
manures, or other like farming works, the benetit of which is
unexhausted at the time ot the tenant quitting liis holding.
Section 25 prescriiies the duties of arijitrators, when both
parties are willing to submit to arbitration. It is often said
that our law dcjiends more on the decisions of the courts than
on Acts of Tarliament, and any person reading tliis Act care-
fully must come to the conclusion tiiat there would lie the
widest dilfcrfiice between the dilferent awards of arbitrators,
till some comprehensive cases have been decided by the courts,
and some leading principles have lieeu establisiied as guides to
ascertain what may be considered the present value of perma-
nent improvements made at various intervals of time, and
what may be considered tlie unexliausted portion of tillage,
manures, and otiier like farming works. Arliitrators, with
the best intentions, will dill'er widely in their ideas of such
value, and, unfortunately, there are many people wiih particu-
lar notions, who by forwardness and vanity, with a certain
amount of finency, force fiiemselves into pnlilic notice, and by
their contiilent assurance command a certain luiiuber of aa-
mirers. Such people are readily appointed arbitrators by
those whose purpose it may suit. A very good illustration ot"
174
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
this will be found in a description of the evidence of some of
the witnesses in an important case tried last year in Ireland,
of which I propose to give an outline for compensation under
section 4 of the A.ct. Section 26 defines "limited owners."
Section 27 enables limited owners to charge their estates
witli an annuity for 35 years at 5 per cent, for all moneys paid
by them for compensation under this Act, having duly served
notice on the remainder man before the claims for compensa-
tion are heard. Section 28 enables limited owners to grant
leases, subject to the following restrictions : (1) The term not
to exceed 35 years. (2) It sliall not include mansions or de-
mesne lands. (3) The rent shall be a " fair yearly rent"
without taking anything in the nature of a fine. (4) The
lease sliall imply a condition of re-entry for non-payment of
rent. (5) The lease shall contain a clause declaring whether
landlord or tenant is bound to restore or keep in repair build-
ings. (6) The lease shall execute a counterpart covenanting for
due payment of rent. The court may confirm, or refuse to
con6rm, any such lease, and the confirmation shall be
certified. I shall not take up your time with the other
clauses of the Act, which relate to the proceedings to be
taken by landlords and tenants, and to the rules of the
courts. The " second part" of the Act relates to the sale
of land to tenants, to whom Government advances money
to pay for it, taking a charge on the land of 5 per cent.
per annum over 35 years to pay both principal and interest.
The " third part" directs how loans are to be made by
Government for drainage works, buildings, &:c. "Part
four" relates to legal proceedings in the Civil Bill Courts.
" Part five" is miscellaneous, but a very important change
is introduced in clause 65 in this part, which empowers tenants
to deduct from their rent, when paying it, half the county
rate wiiich they have paid during tlie time such rent accrued.
This is in addition to half the poor rate, which they could
previously deduct. All local rates are included in these two.
The club is aware that I have always advocated the extension
of this law to England. Landlords' rights in existing leases
are reserved. From the general description of the " Landlord
and Tenant (Ireland) Act, 1870," you will see that the part
which concerns our present subject is the 4th and subsequent
clauses in the first part, and section 70 in " Definitions." As
an illustration of the working of this Act, I propose to give
you a description as shortly as I can of a ease heard last sum-
mer, in which eminent witnesses were examined, and in which,
on appeal from the Court of Land Session to the Assize
Court, the Lord Chief Justice of Ireland gave a decision
which will no doubt go far to establish rules in future
cases. The case was tried on June 20th, 1870, and subse-
quent days, at the Athy Quarter Sessions, before Mr. Thomas
Lefroy, Q.C., chairman of the county Kildare ; Henry Norwood
Trye, claimant; the Duke of Leiuster, respondent. Mr. Trye,
claimed £-l,t)02 10s. for improvements made on the " Heath
J!'arm," which be had quitted in the previous March, at the end
of a twenty years' lease. The Duke admitted his claim only
for £184 3s., against which he had a set-off of £61, leaving
£123 3s. to be paid to Mr. Trye exclusive of any sura the
court might award for artificial manures of which the Duke's
agent could not ascertain the value. The sum awarded by the
court was £80 only, besides £170 for unexhausted manure.
Eminent counsel were employed on both sides, and the case
was argued in all its details. The Heath Farm, as its name
implies, is not good laud, and is described as a rather light
limestone gravel whicii grows very little if not well manured.
It is 136a. Ir. 2p. Irish plantation, which is the measure used
in this trial, and is equal to 220a. 3r. 34p. English or statute
measure, and you may bear in mind that one Irish acre is
equal to la. 2r. 19p. English, or nearly If. In the year
1842, it was taken by the Duke into his own hands in a
wretched condition, and is described by his Grace's steward,
Mr. Alexander, a very intelligent witness, who says the highest
offer he had for it was 8s. the Irish acre. Mr. Alexander ma-
naged it from 1842 to 1853 on the five course shift, green
crops heavily manured with dung and Peruvian guano, barley
with seeds, hay, pasture, and lea oats. He then went through
two courses, leaving it clean and in good condition, having
subsoiled the whole fifteen inches deep. In March, 1853, it
was let on a twenty years' lease to Dodds, who, however, did
not enter till summer, and I believe paid nothing for the tillage
or crops growing or manure, which in this country we should
consider an extravagant piece of generosity on the part of a
landlord. The rent to be paid by Dodds was £136, being £1
the Irish acre or about 123. the English. The buildings were
good and the tenant was bound in the usual way to good farm-
ing, but was not prohibited from selling farmyard manure^
a strange omission. It appears that when Dodds died
his executor was allowed to sell the lease to one Cameron. This
man says he lost money by it, and from the evidence he or
Dodds certainly reduced the condition of the farm very much,
and in 1867 Mr. Trye came and gave Dodds £300, the valua-
tion of tiie crops, and became tenant, Cameron paying all rent
due up to his leaving. Mr. Trye then held the farm from
1857 to 1873, and as he refused to take it again at what the
Duke considered a fair increase of rent — namely, 30s. the
Irish acre, he left it. You must remember that 1853 was just
after the famine, and rents were very low, and the increase re-
quired by the Duke was considered to be the increased letting
value of such land, and not from the improved condition of
this farm owing to the farming of the tenant. I think both
the chairman and the Chief Justice were right in concluding
from all the evidence that the farm was in fair condition at the
end, and much about the same as it was at the beginning of
the lease. Passing over for the present the extraordinary
claim of Mr. Trye, it was argued on his behalf that taking the
farm field by field he was entitled to all the crop-producing
power left in the land at the end of the lease over and above
what it would have produced if reduced to a condition of
sterility, this being apparently the literal interpretation of the
words of the act " Manures and tillages, the benefit of which is
unexhausted." This includes " tillages" as well as manures,
and it was argued for Mr. Trye that the good state of the farm
when he left it was owing to his tillage as well as manures,
and so he puts in a claim for the cost of all his manures, in-
cluding value of dung and all his hand labour and the value of all
his horse labour during six years. The remarks of the Lord Chief
Justice on this are very pertinent. He gives credit to Mr. Car-
ton, Mr. Trye's counsel, for the skilful way in wliich he has
mixed up " manures" with " tillages." He says, " tillages were
not to be confined of necessity to preparing for sowing ; during
the last year of the tenancy he (Mr. Carton) argued means
the value to the incoming tenant, and the condition into which
the laud has been brought by the treatment of the tenant.
Now that argument is not unfair, but it involves the conside-
ration of the question of how much better that farm is by that
very treatment than it was by the treatment of Alexander?"
I take this remark in the judgment in this case to be of very
great importance, for we have many people here, as well as
in Ireland, who appear to think that a landlord is to be always
paying for every little benefit his land may receive, though in
making it the tenant was well repaid ; but when land is un-
fortunately run out and reduced in value the landlord must
quietly submit to the loss. In closing his judgment the Lord
Chief Justice says, " Tlie application of these manures (super-
phosphates) yield large crops. Who got the crops ? They
fatten sheep, who got the sheep ? Who got the oxen ? Not
the Duke, and, therefore, I cannot alter the decree." The
decree referred to is that of Mr. Lefroy, given on the 1st July,
1873. Mr. Trye made the following claims for unexhausted
improvements :
Manual labour for six years £1,900 0 0
Horselabour 1,200 0 0
Horse made manure 562 10 0
Artificial manure 447 0 0
Oilcake, &c., for feeding 455 0 0
£4,564 10 0
Repairing buildings £20
Making a road 30
Putting up iron gates given by the Duke. . . 10
Filling gravel pits 25
Repairing fences 3
Unconsumed manure 200
Ploughing in 1863 50 338 0 0
£4,902 10 0
but he quite omits to set off against this'outlay for sis years
any of the receipts for crops and stock sold. The wonder is
that he did not include the rent paid among the unexhausted
improvements. Mr. Lefroy says truly, the first observation
that occurs to any one is the startling fact that more than 36
years' purchase of the rent is claimed for six years' occupation.
He of course disallows all the claim for labour of which
the tenant enjoyed the fruit. The claim for repairing build-
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
175
ings was disiillowed, the tenant being bound by his lease
to keep them in repair. Of the £30 for making a good road
where an imperfect one had been he allowed £20, because
he thinks it calculated to add to the letting value, taking off
£10 for the time the tenant had enjoyed the use of it. He
allowed the £10 for putting up the gates, though the Duke had
given them. The £2o for filling gravel pits was disallowed
because there were none on the farm at the beginning of the
lease, and the tenant having made thera was bound to restore
the land. Tlie curious claim of £200 for farmyard manure on
the premises wasof course disallowed, because Mr.Trye had sold
it off the farm for £56, though the Duke had offered him £79
for it ; and bear in mind this was tlie manure made during two
years, none of which was applied to the land, but all laid up
for sale, while superphosphates were used for forcing crops, and
not only the price af these was claimed, but of the oilcake con-
sumed in making this manure. The £50 claimed for ploughing
and cleaning a fallow in the last winter was allowed. There
remained thus only the claim for manures and cakes, and the
evidence given on the value of these likely to be left in the
farm unexhausted is extremely interesting. In the end the
chairman allows £170 for this, making £250 in all. One of
the greatest witnesses for Mr. Trye was a Mr. Robertson, a
Scotchman, who has kept his name so constantly before the
Irish public for many years by writing and speaking, and his own
confidence in himself that many people now think him an au-
thority, and he is just the man who will be sought as an arbi-
trator by tenants. The chairman says of him that he took a
view so extreme that he could not feel safe in acting on his
testimony, and the learned counsel, Dr. Battersby calls him " ^
sort of prophet among the tenants." Mr. Robertson, withou
knowing anything of the farm a few years ago, says he judges
the outgoing tenant's claim by tlie crops he sees on the
ground ; thus in one case where the tenant put £86 worth of
superphosphates and no dung or other manure o& a turnip
crop of 2S acres, and after that took a barley crop leaving the
land in grass, the unexhausted value of his manure and tillage
was £9 an acre or £252. After such astounding evidence no
wonder Mr. Robertson is a prophet among the farmers, but
unfortunately for them lus evidence will in future be likely to
carry little weight. Mr.TempletonandMr. McCuUock both gave
good, practical evidence, and they agree that after a green crop
and a wiiite crop little or nothing is left of the value of superphos-
phates, but bones they allow to extend over five years. On the
hearing of the appeal Professor Cameron, of the Royal College
of Surgeons, an eminent analytical chemist, gave valuable evi-
dence, as did also Mr. John Bennett Lawes, wlioseuame is too
well known by you to require any commendation from me. Their
evidence is extremely interesting, and was apparently relied
on by the Chief Justice. Mr. Lawes says, " If you manured
with bones in 1871, and had corn in 1872, a residue would be
appreciable in 1873, about a third of the value, but after
superphosphates nothing ;" in fact, he says, " Selling the farm-
yard manure off the land is exhaustion," and " the very stimu-
lants to the land in 1872 would be more serviceable to the out-
going than to the incoming tenant." Trora a consideration of
the evidence of all the witnesses and the conclusions drawn
from it by eminent lawyers, I think certain rules will be arrived
at for the guidance of future arbitrators in Ireland, and may
be made very useful in this country. It would not be doing
"justice to Ireland" were 1 to omit telling you that Mr. Trye,
whose name will be remembered as tlie first great claimant
under this Act, is not an Irishman but an educated English-
man, and, by all accounts, a very good and successful farmer.
After having occupied so much time in describing and illus-
trating the Irish Act, it would be impossible to enumerate
even a few of the Tenant-Right customs that exist in different
parts of England, nor is such necessary, as tiiese have from
time to time been subjects of discussion at this club. You
will see, however, that the decisions of the Irish courts are
likely in future to agree pretty well with many of the usual
allowances to outgoing tenants here ; for instance, that
superphosphates leave nothing after a green crop, and it
also agrees with the custom [in this country of allowing
the outgoing tenant a corn crop after liis lease is out
and he ceases to pay rent on land which he manured for
green crops in the last year. I am doubtful about the pro-
priety of our custom of giving the outgoing tenant an away-
going crop off lea land. I think it would be better to let the
incoming tenant have a claim to plough a certain quantity of
grass. In leases on some estates here, and by the custom in
some counties, bones are allowed for, divided over several
years. When the manure has to be left on the farm, it is fair to
allow part of the cakes used in producing it, and this is
done both in leases and by custom. In the same way lime
is allowed for divided over several years. It would be in-
teresting, and probably useful, to make a complete code of all
the Tenant-Riglit customs in England, and, it any such scale
of allowances as those customary in Lincolnshire could be
made applicable to all counties, it might be useful to legalise
such custom in the absence of written contracts. That this
would satisfy Tenant-Right agitators I very much doubt ; and,
in changing the customs of a country, they should be careful
not to ask Parliament to give them what belongs to others,
and bear in mind that any return they can honestly ask for
should be only what remains in the land in excess of what they,
found there, or in excess of what they contracted to do. For
instance, if a farm, dirty, and in poor condition, is let on lease
on the condition that it is to be left clean, and in good order,
the landlord and tenant have both to take this into considera-
tion in fixing the rent, and the tenant cannot honestly turn
round at the end and ask Parliament to break his contract
for him, and require the landlord to pay him over again. The
Irish judge expresses this clearly when he says that "a cove-
nant to deliver up in good condition is a covenant for valuable
consideration," and the Irish Act excepts improvements made
for a valuable consideration. If, for instance, an Act were
passed enabling an outgoing tenant here to claim the value of
his dung, on the principle laid down above, he would only be
awarded by a court the excess in its value over what he got
without paying for on his entry. In the same way with arti-
ficial manures and cakes. If it were not so, tenants would
make capital out of the pockets either of former tenants or
landlords, and any law enabling them to do so would be un-
just. As permanent improvements are in this country nearly
always made by landlords, there is not so much demand for
security for tenants' capital on this score, but if a law should
be passed giving tenants such security, no one farming on
lease can fairly ask to be allowed to put up any buildings
he likes, and then to be repaid for them. The tenant
would build what he fancied would suit him at the time ;
the landlord considers what is likely to be permanently
useful ; and even then how often may he get wrong ! There
are instances in this county and district of large home-
steads and stables, not half occupied, owing to tlie changes in
the price of corn, stock, and labour. These having been
built at the cost of wealthy landowners, do not attract much
attention ; but had there been a law enabling tenants to build
them and charge for them, what a burden they would have
been on each incoming tenant, who would have had to pay
for them ! I am also satisfied, though you may not agree
with me, that many more crotchets and fashions of the day
in building would be adopted if the control of buildings were
in the hands of tenants. In the same way witii draining
and such works, I think these are best done by the landlord.
Although arbitration is generally preferable to litigatwn, I
think constant arbitration is subject to many abuses. Profes-
sional arbitrators or valuers are apt to become like lawyers,
extreme advocates on the side of their own clients. You must
yourselves know some such men, and then it is a toss up lor
an umpire.'and another toss up whether he will not just divide
the difference ? If landowners generally would acknowledge
that land-agency is now a profession that requires a special
training, and were to employ qualified agents to settle all
matters with their tenants, instead of using as agents men
who are simply their servants or clerks, neither arbitration nor
legislation would be required ; for the business of tlic land
agent is to make such terms between the landlord and tenant
as sliall best promote good farming as a permanence, and in
doing this iu will secure the proiierty of the landlord as well
as the capital of the tenant. No donbt wlien lie steadily
keeps this object in view ho is looked on with suspicion by
some few landlords, and with dislike by the extreme tenants
whose violence he opposes ; and, iu the nature of the case,
he must sometimes appear to be one-sided, for when consult-
ing with the landlord lie must fairly lay before him the ten-
ant's view, and when bargaining with the teuaut he is bound to
argue against crotchets, erroneous opinions, selfish interests,
and sometimes ignorance. I know many such men who honestly
and impartially devote their lives to the good of the landed
community, and, as I have brought the Duke of Leinster's
case so prominently before you, I will instance his agent,
176
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
Charles William Hamilton, tliau wliora there is, amongst parti-
sans, no better abused man ia Ireland just how, but to whom
might safel)- be left tlie decision of questions which require
arbitrators, valuers, lawyers, and judges. If my views should
ever become general, associations of land agents would be ranch
more likely to arrive at a code of general rules for tenants'
compensation than will ever be done by violent discussions at
chambers of agriculture. I am not without hope that, as in
other trades certain rules of dealing are established, the time
will come when the dealings of landlords and tenauts will not
be open to the outcry against tliem on account of a few cases
of injustice and ignorance, and that this may and ought to be
done without abolishing freedom of contract, wtiich in any
other trade would be denounced as " not to be endured," I am
satisfied. I wish, however, to give you on this subject an
opinion which the shining lights of this club will not agree
with, but which the older members will receive with
some respect as being in the words used at this club by their
late founder and first president, John Grey : " A communication
has been placed in my hands by Mr. Shaw, well known for
his connection with the London Farmers' Club. The club has
taken up the question of what is called Tenant-Right, and, it
seems, wishes to learti the sentiments of provincial clubs there-
upon. For my part I will say at once that I do not think it
by any means a lair subject for legislation. A tenant's rights
are just tiiose which he can establish by law. [f any man is
so absurd as to take no security for the money, and skill, and
labour which lie lays out another man's land, he must suffer
the penalty of his folly. He must see to it, tlierel'ore, before
he expends his capital, that he has security for the adequate
reward of his enterprise. He must look to himself — not to
the Legislature. No legi-lation could embrace with suflicient
nicety such a delicate subject. If the owner of the land has no
objection to grant a lease for years, then the security must
assume the form of compensation for unexhausted improve-
mants ; all this must be a matter of individual arrange-
ment. Legislation could not interfere with advan-
tage. It would lead to everlasting disputes and arbi-
trations— arbitrations that would often be decided on the
most fanciful principles. No law could place the relations of
landlord and tenant on an equal basis. Each must see to his
own rights ; and no landlord who knew his own interest — his
interest in lia\ing a good tenantry — would scruple to grant
them proper securities."
Mr. T. P. I)ous did not know whether it was usual for any
discussion to follow the reading of the paper, or simply to
proceed with the remainder of the toasts, but as he was not
present at the meetings of the Club when they discussed a
kindred topic, he wished to say one or two words on this
matter. He thought he might say, generally speaking, he
agreed very mucli with what the chairman had expressed in
his paper. He did not know whether Mr. Grey really ap-
proved of the Irish Land Act or not ; he did not know that
he had exactly said he did. He (Mr. Hods) certainly thought
it was necessary ; and assuming it was necessary, very lew
men, even with able assistance, could have drawn an Act
more to the purpose than the Irish Land Act. He thought,
however, that the circumstances of England and the circum-
stances of Ireland were widely different. The farmers of
England and Scotland also, if not able, should be able to make
their owu bargains for themselves, lie had had a good deal
of correspondence with his friend j\lr. Howard in reference to
this matter. They had turned it over and over; all the
corners of it had turned up, but, he was sorry to say, he had
not been able to persuade him, nor had Mr. Howard been
able to persuade him, that his views on the question were
wrong. 'a^He2(Mr. Dods) did not think that the Legislature
should interfere and stop the freedom of contract in reference
to hind any more than they should interfere to stop freedom
of contract in anything else. If this matter was legislated on
at all it should be to this extent. If there was no written
contract to the contrary, in the absence of a special
bargain between landlord and tenant, and the tenant went
on farming thoroughly well, putting in, besides the farm-
yard manure, large quantities of bought manure, and
the manure from bought cake as well, he thought the Legisla-
ture should enable tlie tenant to claim that, and they should
have a court to decide the amount to be paid to the tenant for
it. As to the claims in the Irish case, referred to by the
chairman, they were so perfectly absurd he did not know how
any Irishman could have thougiit of making them, let alone
an Englishman. As to Tenant-Right, it was not a new thing
in this country. Those who knew the terms on which farms
were let in this county thirty years ago, and who knew the
terms on which farms were let now, would see that Tenant-
Right, that is, the just claim of a tenant for unexhausted im-
provements, for real improvements, had greatly increased-
Thirty or forty years ago such a thing was not known ; until
it was introduced by the chairman's late father, there was not
such a thing known in the North of England as a claim for
unexhausted manures applied to land. Since the late Mr.
Grey irtroducedit on tlie Greenwich Hospital estates, it had
been introduced on many other estates in this country ; indeed
on many estates in the northern counties they were approach-
ing to the system followed iu Lincolnshire. People some-
times said that they should do exactly as they did in Lincoln-
shire, but the circumstances were not applicable. A Tenant-
Right which was fair in Lincolnshire might be extravagance
here. Why ? Because they had no away-going crop in Lin-
colnshire. The tenant entered at March, and paid the out-
going tenant for his feed and labour. Here no incoming
tenant paid for work done, and seed that had been sown.
There the tenant went out at the term, and had no further
claim to the crop in the land, while in this county they had
an away-going crop. Therefore, to give an out-going tenant
in this county the whole of his cake bill would be extravagance.
That was not so in Lincolnshire ; if a tenant there used a quan-
tity of cake he did not get the benefit of the manure in any
manner of way. As the Chairman had remarked, it would
require a court of land agents, and he would put iu a lot of
tenants along with them, to draw up a code of rules that
would be applicable to the county in which they resided.
With regard to arbitration, although there were many points
which, could be best settled by arbitration, he had a great dis-
like to amateur law, which they very often got in cases of
arbitration. In concluding, Mr. Dods said he very much ob-
jected to any compulsory clause in any Act of Parliament with
reference to Tenant-Right.
Mr. M. Stephenson, jun., said he rose with great pleasure
to propose the next toast, "The Chairman, and success to the
Club." It was always dithcult to praise a man in his presence,
but without exceeding the rule he might fearlessly assert that
the name of Grey had always been honourably connected with
the agriculture of this district, and with the annals of this
Club. During the time J\[r. Grey had held the presidency of
the Club he had gained the goodwill and esteem of every mem-
ber of it. He had not only ably ofticiated as their president,
but he had introduced some of the most important papers they
had had discussed, and which were not only read in this dis-
trict but all over England. He had given these papers with his
accustomed ability and moderation — moderation he thought
other men would do well to follow. He gave them success to
the Club, and he congratulated his friend, Mr. Trotter, on the
attendance there that day. He was sorry to hear that Mr.
Grey had resigned his position as president, but he hoped the
nevv president would follow in the footsteps of his predecessor.
He asked them to give the toast with three times three.
The Chairman, in responding, said he felt extremely grate-
ful for the kind welcome they had given to his name, which
was associated with the toast. He felt and appreciated tho-
roughly the kindness he had always received from the mem-
bers of the Club, particularly at the annual meetings, when
there were large gatherings, as well as at the smaller meetings,
when papers were discussed, during the year. He could not
be blamed by them for retiring from the presidency ; he had
filled the office for several years, and it was only fair that other
people should take their share of the responsibility, duties, and
also the honour which they were pleased to award ; these things
should be divided and not be monopolised by himself. He was
very glad that they had appointed such a worthy person to fill
this office as Captain Nicholson, a gentleman who had taken a
warm interest in all matters connected with the Club. In all
scientific discussions that gentleman would be especially
useful, being himself a gentleman of great scientific know-
ledge, whilst his ability to preside over meetings particularly
qualified him for the office. As to the club itself, he heartily
joined in wishing continued success to it. It has existed for a
good many years, and in its time had done a great deal of good.
At the present time literature was so much more extended,
was so much cheaper, and wcut so much quicker into e>'ery
one's house, and farmers were more inclined to read than when
the Club was founded, so that many of the objects of the Club
THE FARMEU'S MAGAZINE.
1'7?
has been superseded by farmers beiug able to obtnia all the
information upon the different subjects sitting at liome- Many
farmers, who in former times went to tlie meetings, if asked to
attend now, replied, " I will see it all iu the newspapers, and I
will read it over my pipe at home." Tiiat was all very well,
but it caused the intermediate meetings of the club to be very
badly attended. He did not wisii to cast any apple of discord
into tiie meeting, and witiiout saying anything unfair, lie
miglit say he liad felt for some time that the farmers generally
had abstained from attending the meetings. Tliere were a
few — very few, regular attenders at the meetings. These were
men of extreme opinions, who did not represent the feelings of
the Club, and wlio so entirely differed from liis views on many
subjects, that he had tbouglit it consistent with his own feelings
of honesty, and liis. own dignity, for he thought he held a
position in the county, to retire Irom the presidency of the Club.
lie did not think it consistent on Ins part to act as chairman,
and to be put forth as the mouthpiece, and have to endorse
such extreme and improper views as had been entertained, lie
wished to say fairly to the general members of the Club that
unless subjects were discussed in whicli farmers could take part
without bringing mischief to the Club, without causing tiie
Club to be looked upon by the landowners as a nest of
agitators, ttie Club would cease to be useful as a farmers' club.
It might exist and might be useful as an organization
for agitating political questions, but that was not the
objects for which it was first started. Some of the
persons who attended their meetings said the farmers
were afraid to attend them. The Secretary said tliey were
afraid to come to tlie meetings, to sit there to be looked at
by their agent. lie must respectfully say that he did not
believe that. He knew many farmers in the [county, and
he knew mauy of then would speak the truth before him,
and he might say that many of them whom he had no con-
trol over refused to attend their meeting, and said the Club
"was notliing but a nest of agitators ; who was going to go
near them P " He wished to say that he did not intend to
retire from the Club ; and he hoped to see it successful and
useful. He trusted that ne.xt year the papers read would be
more useful, the discussions more general, and the attendance
greater ; and in every respect that the Club would be more
useful next year than it had ever been before.
Mr. Dky])on proposed "The gentlemen who have intro-
duced subjects during the past year," adding that the papers
liad beeu characterised by ability and terseness of expression.
He begged to couple with the toast the name of Mr, John
Hope, jun.
Mr. Hope said that doubtless every gentleman who brought
before them practical subjects elicited considerable difference
of opinion, lie expected that in every discussion of practical
and important subjects, llcferring to his own paper, he said
he had endeavoured to follow the rule laid down for every
honest man — "to speak the truth, the whole truth, and
nothing but the truth."
Mr. T. P. DoDs gave "The committee and secretary." He
believed the committee had done their part diligently by
looking after the interests of the Club. The secretary liad
been very active both in getting parties to engage to read
papers for discussion, in and beating up for fresh members.
Mr. William; Tuottek, the Vice-Chairman, Secre-
tary, and Treasurer, responded. He thanked Mr. Dods
for the kind expressions towards the committee and himself.
He had listened to the chairman's remarks with respect to
some farmers being afraid to attend the meetings of the Club
and give expression to tiieir views. Whatever he had told the
c'lairman he believed it to be correct, and would stand by it.
Certain members of the Club had shrunk from expressing their
views, and he left the cause for them to conjure up in their
own minds. Such was the fact, which had been told to him-
self. Whether the Club had been conducted by a clique or
not it was not for him to say ; but he was bound to say in his
defence that he had been no party to any such clique, and
every subject that had been discussed had first been submitted
to the Committee, and had tlie Committee's approbation.
With regard to political subjects the very gentleman who had
denounced thera had brought them before tlie Club, such as
papers on Local Taxation. If Local Taxation was not mixed
up with politics he did not know what was. The security of
tenants' capital was surely a question for tenant-farmers to
discuss. If they, as a farmers' club, could not discuss that
question, he did not know what they could discuss. It was
impossible for tenants to get that security without bringing
public opinion to bear upon landlords, and landlords, being
human beings, were amenable to public opinion. It was only
becoming and right tliat gentlemen who came before tliem to
express their views, without simply endeavouring to gain the
smile of those above them or fearing the censure of their
equals, should have a fair hearing. Shut the mouths of the
people as they did in Trance, and what would be the conse-
quence ? why, they would have a revolution every twenty-
four or twenty-five years. As Englishmen, they claimed the
right of free speech, and so long as he was Secretary, he would
fearlessly express his views on all matters brought before the
Club. With regard to his position of Secretary, if he thought
he had not their confidence, he would most certainly not wish
for a moment to continue his services. He must strongly ob-
ject to have his name branded in a censorious manner with
those of political agitators (loud applause).
BOROUGHBRIDGE AGEICULTURAL SOCIETY.
At the quarterly meeting, Jlr. J. D. Dent, M.P., the pre-
sident, read a paper upon " Tenant-Right as affected by
Legislation."
Mr. Uent stated that he did not propose to deal with the
political aspect of the question. He said some persons spesk
of Tenant-Right as being a wrong or disadvantage to the land-
lord, an encroachment or iuterlereuce with his rights and
privileges for the advantage of the tenant ; but for my own
part I cannot conceive that any right, whetiier given by
custom, agreement, or by law, which will encourage good
farming can be otlierwise than good for all parties concerned
in the cultivation of the soil. The landlord must gain if liis
farms are cultivated up to tiie liighest point, especially when
he has a farm to be let, because the dilliculty in letting farms
is experienced when a farm which is poor falls vacant, and the
landlord has cither to make a permanent sacrifice in reduction
of rent, or a considerable temporary outlay to assist in replacing
the condition which is wanting. The tenant must profit if he
lays out the capital which is really requisite for good manage-
ment, and thereby increases both his gross and net returns.
The labourer must profit, because more cattle aud sheep, more
turnips and corn, require more hands to wait upon the stock,
more force to cultivate the turnips, and to gather in and thrash
the corn ; and the ])ul)lic gain, because the greater our own
production of meal aud corn, the less we have to pay for
foreign produce, and the farmer and labourer having more
money to spend, our own trade meets witli more of its best
customers in the home consumers. 1 do not think that I can
put what I desire in more clear and forcible language than
was used by my friend IMr. Holland, who is this year president
of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, in addressing a
meeting at Evesham in 1S()2. He then said : " We wished
the tenant to be placed in such a position as to be encouraged
to farm well up to the last moment of his leaving his holding,
and that when he does leave it, he shall be compensated for
what he has put into the ground without deriving any benefit
Irom it, and that by so doing he shall be enabled to pa>s the
land in a high state of cultivation to the incoming tenant, and
that there may be no stoppage in the cultivation to the incom-
ing tenant, no risk of land getting foul, and the whole system
may be beneficial to all concerned." This is all that I myself
understand by Tenant-Right, and this I desire to see legally
carried out. I need not expatiate to you on the necessity of
our agriculture being as productive as possible; you, as farmers,
know that the more you can produce the better for yourselves,
while the records of importations assure us that however home
production may increase, we must still rely for a substantial
portion of our food supplies upon foreign sources. What,
then, are the requisites in order that we may produce with
profit more food from our own soil? Two things — skill and
capital. The latter may be lavishly poured into the land, but
if skill be wanting, the capital is wasted, and the return for
178
THE FARMEU'S MAGAZINE.
expenditure is unieraunerative, and, on the other hand, the
most careful and skilful farmer of our days cannot succeed if
he be cramped and hampered by a want of means. The best
farming does not offer such tempting returns as to attract
capital at all risks; the man who expends his money in the
cultivation of the soil must be content with a moderate rate of
interest, and therefore has a right to ask for a reasonable
security. Vou all know that in agriculture the processes are
slow, that almost all your operations in the whole course of
liusbandry are performed not merely for the immediate crop,
but also for the future, and that a tenant who has to give up
his holding for any cause at a six months' notice, may have to
leave in his larm much of his capital, for the outlay of which
he has not yet received any adequate return. The customs of
Lincolnshire and of Nottinghamshire have attempted to
remedy this evil, and the farming of both these counties is
an example and proof of the security such custom affords.
In Scotland, leases under which the tenant has a permanent
occupation for a term of nineteen or twenty-one years,
afford a similar security. The bill introduced by Mr. Howard
and Mr. Read last session, and which they propose to bring
forward again this year, is designed to enforce bylaw a system
of compensation for capital expended by the tenant upon his
holding, and for which, in the course of liusbandry, he has
not yet received a return. The Devon Commission, in 1845,
recommended such a measure for Ireland, and probably, if
such a measure had been passed, then we should not have had
to pass, in 1870, a Land Bill for Ireland, legalising payment
for disturbance, and the Ulster system of Tenant-Right or
goodwill, which enables the outgoing tenant in some cases to
obtain a sum of money for his goodwill not far short of what
the proprietor can obtain for the fee -simple. By tlie bill
tenants' improvements are divided into three classes, tem-
porary, durable, and permanent. It appears to me that
the principal difficulty of the measure arises in the satisfactory
determination of the value of the first class of these, viz., the
the temporary improvements. These are defined to he " any
outlay effectually and properly incurred by a tenaiit in the
purchase and application of manure or fertilisers to other than
corn crops, or in the purchase of cake, corn, and other feed-
ing stuffs consumed by live stock upon the holding." It is
proposed that the value of these temporary improvements
shall be settled by arbitrators, who shall ascertain the amount
of such outlay during the last four years of the tenancy, and
who may award in respect of the unexhausted value of such
outlay a sum which shall not exceed the average annual amount
expended during the last four years, and from this shall be
deducted the value of the manure, which would have been
produced from any hay, straw, roots, or green crops sold off
the farm during the last two years of the tenancy, besides
which, as a protection to the landlord, the valuers shall make
a further deduction of such sum as under all the circum-
stances of the case they may consider just, if in their judgment
the iioldiug of any part of it is in a foul or neglected condi-
tion, arising from default of the tenant. The great difficulty
about the compensation iu all these cases, wiiether given by
custom, private agreement, or as is now proposed by law, is
the getting a fair valuation of the unexhausted benefit which
is left in land from the application of manures or the con-
sumption of food. You can probably best arrive at the value
of what has been done upon, and what is left in tlie holding
by its condition. " Condition," says Mr. Lawes, " is a quality
quite distinct from natural fertility of soil ; it is mainly de-
pendent upon the amount of capital expended by the tenant in
the purchase of cattle-food or manure, and .is, therefore, his
property; it may be easily and rapidly reduced." My expe-
rience is that it takes much time and expenditure to bring
land of ordinary quality into high condition, especially if it
be in grass, and that a very short period of bad management
will destroy this condition, and, therefore, I am for encou-
raging the tenants to maintain it. I wisli, however, to avoid
another evil, and that is, that an incoming tenant may have
too great a burden put upon him, and that he may find himself
saddled with heavy bills |for cake and manure of whose com-
position he knows nothing ; and in whose future effects he
has very little confidence. Our friend and neighbour Mr.
Thompson, whose illness is so serious a loss to the agricultural
world, in one of his most able essays wrote — " The tendency
of the present day is to make agreements extremely simple
to allow an incoming tenant to be as httle hampered as pos
sible by the operations of his predecessor, but to devote the
capital, whose possession ought to be a sine fjiid /ton, to a
thorough stocking and manuring of his farm, instead of bat-
tling about tillages and half-tillages, and expending his capital
in unexhausted improvements, the existence of which is in many
cases highly problematical." I admit the force of this view of
the case, and I am very willing to see the capital of the incoming
tenant locked up, but I hope that with a proper system of valua-
tion,-and competent valuers, the evil may be avoided. As I read
these clauses, the arbitrators are not bound to award a fixed
proportion of the valie on the manure bill, but after looking
at the general conditton of the farm, at the manure left in
hand, at the straw prodaced, at the root-crops grown, they are to
allow such a proportion, not exceeding one year's average ex-
penditure, as may meet what they believe to be the justice of
the case. I cannot but think that if you have able men, who
know their business as valuers, that in this manner substantial
justice may be done. I have known instances myself of cake
and manure bills of large amounts being paid under private
agreements, where the farm has been decidedly ill-cultivated,
and the crops grown so poor as to throw great doubt on the
genuineness of the bills, as well as of the food and manure said
to have been consumed. In such a case, if I .interpret their
bill aright, the valuers would not be bound to award any part
of tiie cake or manure bills as compensation, because they
would find no unexhausted improvement ; hut on the highly-
cultivated and well-managed farm they would have the power
to award the average annual outlay upon manures applied to
green crops or grass, and the cost of the food consumed by
stock. They would have to look at all the circumstances of
the case, and the condition of the farm, therefore, should be
the first basis of valuation of unexhausted improvements, and
the compensation must be limited by a certain amount of
expenditure. There is the more necessity for recognising con-
dition as the basis of valuation, because the bill, as drawn,
does not provide any compensation for the consumption of ccwn
the produce of the farm itself, and it would certainly appear
that if compensation be made for purchased corn, an allowance
should also be_ made for corn grown and consumed upon the
farm. Mr. Lawes has suggested that the compensation to an
outgoing tenant should not be based upon a fixed proportion
of his purchased food bill, but rather upon the value of the
manure constituents of the particular description of food
actually employed. The second class of improvements men-
tioned in the bill are called durable, and for these the compen^
sation may be made to run over ten years. And amongst the
other restrictions is one of considerable importance, viz., that
these improvements shall in the opinion of the arbitrators add
to the letting of the holding. Durable improvements comprise
" subsoiling, getting up, and removing stones, liming, chalk-
ing, marling, claying, boning with undissolved bones, laying ,
down permanent pasture, or any other improvements which
have a durable elfect in amending the land deepening the
soil. From my own experience I think that probably the
period of ten years goes back too far for most of these im-
provements. I have tried liming, subsoiling, and to some
small extent boning grass land with undissolved bones, and I
confess that I think ten years appears too long a period for the
compensation of any of these improvements to run. In
laying down land also to permanent pasture the loss to the
occupier is not so great during the first and second years, if
the land be properly prepared and well manured, but rather
during the four or five succeeding years, because at this time
new grass generally requires most liberal and generous treat-
ment in order to set a good skin upon it. And this cost would
be partially dealt with by considering its condition iu dealing
with the first class of improvements. At the same time there
is no doubt that where a tenant has laid down land to per-
manent pasture, and done it well on suitable land, the im-
provement should rank amongst those that are called durable.
The third class of improvements which are called permanent,
includes what are properly the duties of the owner of the soil.
These are reclaiming, levelling, warping, planting, otherwise
than ornamental, draining, making or otherwise improving
watercourses, works of irrigation, ponds, |wells, reservoirs,
fences, roads, bridges, or the erection or enlargement of build-
ings on the holding, or any other improvements of c permanent
nature. The compensation awarded for these is guarded by
certain restrictions. The outlay must have been made within
twenty years ; it must, in the opinion of the arbitrators, add
to the letting value of the holding, and must have been incurred
with the written consent of the landlord or his agent, [except
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
179
la the case of such iraprovcmeiiis iu draining, or niakiug
watercourses as iu the opinion of the arbitrators were neces-
sary fortlie profitable cultivation, and suitable to the holding,
and which the landlord, after written application from the
tenant, had refused or neglected within a reasonable time to
carry out. I consider that all the works here specified are
properly landlord's improvements, and are part of the necessary
equipment of the farm before it is delivered [over to 'a tenant.
At the same time every one of us knows how much is wanting
on even well-managed properties iu all these items. Thepoverty,
and not the will of landlords, compels them to abstain trommany
necessary works, and, doubtless there are tenants who would
undertake to carry them out if tliey felt sure of receiving re-
muneration for their outlay. It is objected that a tenant may
have expensive ideas, and may wish to saddle his holding
with unnecessary and costly buildings, or extravagant draiaage ;
but this appears to me, in the main, to be guarded against by
the necessity of the landlord's consent, and the stipulation that
the improvements shall add to the letting value of the land. I
should like to say a few words about drainage, for, however
well executed it may have been at first, there are numerous
natural causes which will soon impair its utility. I do not
allude to the necessity and advantage of deep cultivation in
order to assist its operations, but those who have had to over-
look a large system of drainage, know that they have to con-
tend witli many other difficulties. Outfalls give way or become
choked up ; in some places the roots of trees penetrate for
yards and completely stop up even six-inch pipes ; in other
places you have ferruginous deposits ; in others, especially after
such a season as that of last winter, sand will be washed into
and choke up large mains, and in some fields even roots of
water weeds will do the same. I find it necessary to keep a
staff of three or four men constantly at work repairing defects
and removing sucli hindrances ; and certainly no compensation
should be paid for drainage, unless the drains be all laid down
upon a map, in order that the arbitrators may be able practi-
cally to examine them, and to be assured that they are in good
working order. With respect to the buildings necessary for
the housing of stock, or of labour, I do not see much difficulty
in coming to a valuation, supposing all to be kept iu good and
efficient repair. I have no doubt that the principles of this
bill is right, but I admit there are dilficulties in the working
details. Should it become an Act of Parliament, its success or
failure will depend upon the judgment and skill of the valuers
who have to carry it out. 1 will not detain you on the re-
maining clauses of the bill, except to say that existing Tenant-
E,ight customs, such as those which are in force in Lincoln-
shire, are maintained. This I regret, for some of them, as in
Surrey, and iu parts of the West Riding, which include tillages,
half-tillages, and other acts of husbandry, are a heavy burden
to the incoming tenant, and present no compensating advan-
tage. 1 should prefer a simple and elastic rule of valuation as
the basis of the measure, and an attempt should be made
to assimilate the terms of Tenant-Kight throughout
England. The great bugbear in the bill is the 13th
clause, which prohibits a tenant contracting himself out
of the operation of the Act. Can the bill be so framed
that no fair-minded landlord would refuse to put its
clauses into his agreements ? If so, why leave the careless and
inert, the prejudiced and obstinate, to refuse compliance ? If
we do not pass some such measure as this now, in a few years
we may have a cry for the Irish system of payment for disturb-
ance, and be compelled to recognise in the Tenant a sort of
quasi-ownership of the soil. There is no more gratifying fact
for a landlord than the retention of good tenants upon his
estate, nothing which should be more satisfactory to hira than
high cultivation and a prosperous agriculture. Tliis can best
be attained by keeping up unimpaired the condition of tlie land
that quality which goes beyond natural fertility, and wiiich you
may see developed in even inferior soils by the judicious appli-
cation of capital and skill. You will agree with me that there
are many acres of laud with which we are acquainted tiiat arc
not yet farmed up to the mark. The best cultivated land of
our ueiglibourhood does not present much scope for improve-
ment, but a great number of farms in this locality might be
made to produce better crops, and feed more stock. Security
for capital is not all that is needed ; skill, patience, and de-
votion to business are also requisites. No law can give these
qualities to men, but law may give security ; and if the law at
present does not give that, we should welcome any honest
attempts to amend the law, and should endeavour to bring our
practical knowledge to bear to make such amendment as fair
to all parties, and as thoroughly etticacious as possible.
Mr. Jac OB Smith said that he had read the bill over two or
three times, and had noticed the difficulties in it to which Mr.
Dent had alluded, there being too much left to the arbitrators.
It appeared to hira that it would be much better if some
principle was defined upoa which the tenant should be paid,
some element introduced which was not iu the bill. They
need not discuss the necessity of Tenant-Right, for that was a
point admitted on all hands. As so much more capital was
now expended in the cultivation of the land, it was all the more
necessary there should be adequate compensation and security.
Why there should be objections to the bill on the part of laud-
owners he could not understand, for the bill, as a whole, was as
much in favour of the landlord as the tenant. The discussion
of tlie bill had mainly turned on the 13th clause which, he
thought, if left out would render the bill absolutely worthless.
It was said the bill destroyed freedom of contract, but he did
not see any special force in the objection.
Mr. LoJiAS said that he could fully endorse the remarks of
Mr. Smith, believing that if the 13th clause were expunged the
bill would be nothing more nor less than a dead letter.
Unless the bill was made compulsory it would be worthless.
In its present form it was a kind of permissive bill, and he ob-
jected to all permissive bills. He preferred a tvi'clve months*
to a six months' notice and strongly objected to the system of
" farming to leave," as it was termed, which was caused by the
lack of Tenant-Right.
Mr. Bennett concurred in the sentiments of Mr* Dent's
paper, and said he was in favourof a large Tenant-Right, which
would be an inducement to a farmer to keep his farm in a first-
rate condition, though it might press them rather hard on an
incoming tenant in the way of limiting his capital. He con-
sidered it most desirable to cultivate well by the tenant up to
the time of his leaving a farm, when he was recompensed for
unexhausted improvements by the in-coming tenant. When
he left his farm in Lincolnshire on I'JO acres of ploughing land
he was allowed £1,670. Seven years were allowed for lime
and bones. The farmyard manure and the manure of the last
year's produce ought to belong to the outgoing tenant, and the
in-coming tenant should pay the value of it. He had the
advantage in that, for the manure would be ready to his hands
to place on the land.
Mr. Crow considered that Tenant-Right was necessary to
keep up the cultivation of a farm, and he would take the aver-
age of the last four years. He agreed with Mr. Bennett as to
manures.
Mr. Brogden was in favour of Tenant-Riglit, and was afraid
it could not be had except by eompulsary legislation. He hoped
that before long the bill to which so much reference had been
made would become law.
Mr. Scott considered the bill a fair and just one to both
landlord and tenant. The only point for them as practical
farmers to consider vvas the question of compensation, its
extent and principle. He thouglit it better for the in-coming
tenant to have to pay for the manure left on tlie farm and put
it on the land himself, for then he derived a benefit. He was
in favour of Tenant-Right for unexhausted manures and
tillages, as in some districts, and then expressed the opinion
that Yorkshire was far behind other parts of the country in
this respect. Without a Tenant-Right there was a waste of
farming for three or four years, which was a loss not only to
landlord and tenant, but to the community at large. He ob-
jected to a twelve months' notice, which might occasion a tenant
having two farms on his hands at one time. He condemned
the practice of " farming the leave," as one of the worst curses
to the country. The point was how to regulate the amount
of compensation to the out-going tenant by the incoming
tenant.
The Rev. C. H. Sale congratulated the chairman on his
moderation.
Mr. Gaunt condemned " farming to leave," as a tenant on
quitting had been exhausting the soil for two or three years
previously, and the incoming tenant was two or three years
more in getting the laud into condition again, a great loss being
thereby sustained by the country. Under these circumstances
the main point was how could matters be so arranged between
landlord and tenant that farms might be well cultivated up to
the last moment when they were left and came into other
hands.
Mr. Crow was of opinion that if a good Tenant-Right bill
IBO
I'HE FARMER'S MAGA^^tNE.
were passed, fhe agricultural iiroiluctlon of tlie county of York
would be doubled.
The CuAiRJiAN, in replying to the remarks on his paper,
doubted the accuracy of the last remark. He did not think
they could much increase the production in that neiglibourhood
or that of the wolds and parts of Lincolnshire ; but there were
many acres of small enclosures, badly-drained lauds, and a great
extent of hedgerows alTordiug room for improvement. What
was wanted was a greater expenditure of capital in these
respects to put the land in a better condition. Many landlords
either could not or would not carry out these important
improvements, and if, by legislation, they could encourage the,
tenants to improve the cultivation and condition of their farms,
it would, as he had said, be a benefit to tlie wliole couimuuity.
Adverting to the Irish Land Bill, he said he voted for it because
he thought the landlords ot Ireland had not done their duty,
but left the improvements to be made by the tenants, who had
no security of tlieir lioldings. He did not, however, think that
the English tenant wanted anything similar to the Irish Land
Act. He was not alarmed at the bugbear of doing away with
freedom of contract ; though he confessed that the tendency of
the present day was to over much legislation. Tenant-Right
was a (piestion that was neither Whig, Radical, nor
Conservative, for Sir John Pakington and other Conservative
landowners lield quite as strong an opinion on the subject as
he did.
PRIZES FOR LABOURERS.
At a meeting of the committee of the Suffollc Agricultural
Association lield in Ipswich, Mr. J. A. Ransome, the president
in the chair,
Mr. H.13ID11ELL said, with respect to the proposition to
discontinue the premiums to labourers, |horse drivers, shep-
herds, and servants, the sub-committee did not intend to re-
commend that these premiums should be discontinued at once,
but tliat the question should be discussed. They had not
appropriated the money hitherto given in these premiums to
any other purpose.
The Fresidext said before it could be determined to do
away with this class of premiums altogether, notice must be
given as for an alteration in the rules, for it would really
involve an alteration in the constitution of the society, and
must be determined upon by a general meeting.
Mr. Bo:ni), the Secretary, read a letter from Lord Strad-
broke, in which he said, " 1 observe that our committee of
the Agricultural Association, which is to meet on Tuesday,
proposes to abandon the prizes to agricultural labourers. I
am a great advocate for retaining them. The Society was
established to encourage labourers and others to be faithful
and attached servants, and I know that those who receive the
rewards are proud of them. In tliese days, more than ever,
we wish to cement friendship between master and man, and
each ought to be dependent on the other."
Mr. W. Long said he felt very strongly with the president
that this was a question of entirely breaking up the constitu-
tion of the society. One of the rules distinctly required that
if a motion of this kind was to be brouglit forward it should
be at a general meeting of the members of the Association, and
that due notice of the intention to bring it forward should be
given. He had taken a warm interest in the Agricultural
Association, and had attended the greater number of the
meetings, and the matter now before them really was one of
very great interest to him. He held in his hands the reports
ol the society for the years 1836 and 187^, and he wished to
call their attention to certain points in those reports, but
before doing so he would say that some were, perhaps, hardly
aware of the extreme interest which the agricultural labourers
took in the annual show of the society. In proof of this he
mentioned that there had been three annual shows held at
Hurts Hall, and it happened that the last was iield in the
midst of a political crisis when the aristocracy of the country
were in London and none could attend tlie show, but it was a
remarkable fact that in that agricultural district, the popula-
tion of which was poor, the number of visitors to the show
was within two of the number who attended at Ipswich the
year before, some 8,000 entering the show, whilst ten years
before the number of visitors was 1,200, and it was a matter
of the greatest possible interest to see the peasantry surround-
ing the animals which were exhibited and the interest they
took in them. He had taken out the numbers who competed
for these long servitude and other similar premiums in 1836
and in 1873, and had found that in the former year the
total amount given in tiiose premiums was £87, and the num-
ber of prizes was 46. One would have expected tliat in 1873
there would have been many more prizes, but he found that
they numbered 41, and the total amount was less than in
1836,'_being £71. This was a strong argument against with-
drawing the premiums, for there was no doubt that many
persons not only took great interest in the splendid animals
exhibited at the shows, but regarded these prizes as a great
social benefit to the labourers. He entirely agreed with what
LordStradbroke had written, and was sure it would be a most
inexpedient policy to adopt at this moment, and one which
they would hereafter lament, to withdraw the prizes. He
admitted that there was a difference of opinion on the matter.
Those who dill'ercd from that which he had expressed did so
on the ground that the Agricultural Society was extending and
that farmers' clubs had taken up the improvement of the
labourer. So far as he was acquainted with farmers' clubs
the only point which they took up in regard to tiie labourer
was that they encouraged hira in the improvement of his
garden, but he did not find it 'general in such clubs to give
prizes to good ploughmen, S:c. He felt that it would be a
great disappointment to many members if the proposition
were carried, and it would be equally so to the labourers, for
he knew the pride with Mhicli those who had gained prizes
pointed to the certificates, and said " Here am I who have
been for so many years on tiie same farm, and 1 don't wish
to leave the land." He hoped the committee would see botii
the expediency and the desirability of withdrawing tiie pro-
position .
The President said as he understood the matter it came
simply as a suggestion from the sub-committee, in order that
it might at some subsequent time be discussed. It would
have been competent for the sub-committee to have made
alterations in the number and amount of the prizes if they iiad
thought it desirable, and he was not sure that it was not desi-
rable. For instance, he understood that it usually was the
case that in the dairymaids' class there were not so many ap-
plications as there were prizes offered, and he did not see why
the classes of liorse drivers and agricultural labourers should
not be amalgamated.
Mr. 11, BiDDELL said something ought to be done. It was
not right that prizes of £3 each should be given to 13 people
for bringing up their families with the least amount of paro-
chial relief and that only four of those twelve should not have
been pauperised. Last year £34 was given in that class, and
only four of the twelve recipients came before the committee as
independent people having never had parish relief.
The President said he had attended the meetings at which
these prizes were awarded for several years, and when the re-
cipients had received relief it was to very small amounts and
in case of sickness only.
Mr. BiDDELL : It is a fact that we did not get 13 applicants
who iiad not been paupers.
The President asked whether, in the case of a man who
had 12s. a week and brought up 12 or 14 ciiildren, an afflic-
tion of providence such as fever would not make it an essential
matter for him to ask for a modicum of relief.
Mr. A.J. Smith said the highest amount of rehef received
by any of the 13 was 18s. 6d., and it was only in sickness.
Mr. Long said he did not mean to say there were not abuses
of tills as of every other philanthropic institution. He did
not know whether the prizes to shoeing smiths, who were
highly paid workmen, might not be discontinued.
Mr. BiDDELL : Those prizes are offered for our own sakes.
We are owners of horses, and it is to our interest that tlieir
shoeing should be well done.
Mr. Garrett said that remark would apply also to the
prizes to labourers, but as an employer of labour he would
say that he did not think if they doubled or trebled the
amount of the premiums they would have one more agricultural
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
181
labourer ia the county. It Imd now become a hard and fast
question of supply and demand. Tlie agricultural labourer
was a totally different man to what he was ten years ago ; he
knew his value, aud the farmers were bouud to pay it iu
money.
Mr. Hempson : And t here is no reason why we should not.
Mr. G.VKRETT : So I say, and I think the time is passed
for these prizes. I don't think they do any good to tlie
employers of labour, and the agricultural labourer is quite
able to take care of himself. It must be allowed to be an em-
ployers' question. Is it an advantage to the employers of
labour ?
Mr. Long : That is not my experience. It benefits the
labourer.
IMr. Garrett said the sub-cominittee iu making this re-
port were influenced in some degree by the fact that Mr.
Bond had received letters to the effect that if this amount of
money was to be given in the shape of rewards aud premiums
to labourers tlie writers would withdraw from the Association.
The Chairman said there was one letter to that effect.
Mr. Garrett said there was a strong feeling among the
tenant-farmers that the funds of the Association should have
been applied to so large an extent in this way.
Mr. Heiii\son said another light in which these prizes
might be looked at was that it might be questionable whether
they were appreciated now as when they were first instituted.
It was a matter that required further consideration before they
came to a decision, but it was a fair subject for discussion.
It would hardly be worth while for the society to oiler a long
list of prizes if they were looked upon in some measure with
contempt, for the labourers were at the present time being-
taught to look upon that kind of patronage with contempt.
They had repeatedly heard such criticisms as this, " Oh, the
Agricultural Society gives £10 to a fat pig, and £'2 to the
labourer who hasserved his master 40 years."
The President said he recollected as long as thirty years ago
such remarks as that of which 3Ir. Hempson spoke had been
made by the y/wii'^ aud other papers, but they had no elfect
in reducing the attention paid by these societies to the labour-
ers, and he could bear strong testimony to the extent to which
these prizes were valued by the recipients. He repeated his
suggestion that horse drivers might be classed with the
labourers in competition for long servitude prizes.
Mr. LOiNG said there was one point which they must con-
sider. The poor man now was surrounded with enemies.
There were persons who were lendering his position full of difll-
culty. Just imagine these fellows going through the country
holding meetings, aud addressing the labourers, many of them
without learning, and unable to combat the arguments of these
men, which were all delusive, but they were under the in-
fluence of these persons, aud could not but be pitied. Though
it gave great inconvenience there was no doubt that the
labourers were much under the influence of evil counsellors,
which was greatly to be deplored, aud anythiug that tended to
a union between employer aud employed was of great adv in-
t.age to all.
It was resolved to discontinue the shoeing prizes, the ar-
raugements for which are the cause of considerable expense
without corresponding advantage. The premiums for long
servitude, &c., it was resolved to leave unaltered, for the
present year at all events.
SHOEING PRIZES.— Why Mr. Garrett, of all men, should
have moved to strike out the paltry £G, that I had so much
diflicnlty in extracting three years since for shoeing prizes, I
am at a loss to conceive. They produced great emulation, and
no one who witnessed the smiths giving up a day's work and a
day's pleasure, and toiling under the broiling sun of Bury, the
drencliing rains of Beccles, and on the hot hill at Woodbridge,
could say the mouey was not well spent, and well earned, and
I cau speak from ifnifi/ experience of the good etl'ects our
village Vulcan's have derived from Professor Varnell's in-
structions. I hope the Committee will replace them, and
think twice before they do away with the other labourers' pre-
miums. Surely a time of growing disalt'ectiou between master
and man is the time of all others to reward and encourage
those who still stand steadily by us. Amend rather than
abolish — letmit/ parish reliefbe a bore, but do not letthoscwho
have struggled on without it, suffer for those who have ac-
cepted it. — Major F. Barlow, in fyswich Journal,
LOCAL CHAMBERS OF AGRICULTURE.
At the annual meeting of the Devonshire Chamber of
Agriculture after the report had been read, Mr. Wade
mentioned that some of the members of the JNewtou
Chamber thought that there should be but one Associa-
tion, and that their establishment should be an offshoot of this ;
probably something would be heard of this before long.
The further discussion of the Rev. W. H. Karsi.ake's
paper on Local Taxation was the next busiuess on the agenda
paper, but the Ciiairman suggested that it should be further
adjourned until they knew something of the measure the
Government intended to introduce. — Blr. HoLLEY.iu support-
ing this suggestion, noticed that Mr. Ivarslake regarded the
maintenance of highways and the poor rates as permanent
charges on real property, and admitted them not only to be
legal claims, but those which by equity aud justice they ought
to bear. Now he disagreed with the rev. gentleman on these
points, for he contended that if it was fair to equalise the
burden in one item it was fair to equalise the whole.
And he did not think that they should ask simply for
what some of them might think they would get, but they
should ask for all. It seemed to hira that if the cost of high-
ways and the poor went on increasing much more they would
eventually swallow up the whole of the real property of
Euglaiul. Mercantile and trading interests were extending,
but there was no extension of acres. He did not see why a
man with fifty thousand a year living iu a furnished iiouse iu
London should be exempt from such charges as these. The
highways were of as much or more use to those living in the
town as to the agriculturists, and therefore they should con-
tribute to the cost. — Rev. W. II. Karsi.ake said they must
take care not to again come under the lash of those who had
twitted them before now for being very general in their
disevusions, and he thought the discussion on the subject of
his paper had better take place when they saw what the
Government were prepared to do ; then they conld take tlie
Ministerial measure as the text of their sermon. The adjourn-
ment of the discussion was then agreed to, and the meeting
terminated.
At the general meeting of the Worcestershire Chamber of
Agriculture Lord Littei.ton moved : " That in the opinion
of this Chamber, the present system of imposing taxation for
universal objects on real property aloue is oppiessive and
unjust, and calls for speedy legislative reform." He said
he did not altogether approve the plan of throwing the
burden on the Consolidated I'und, aud would like to see
assistance given more in a local form. jMr. Gii,i,in(;iiam
seconded the motion, which was unanimously passed. A
resolution, expressing higti approval of tlie efforts of Sir
Massey Lopes, and the Local Taxation Committee of the
Central Chamber to obtain a reform of the present system,
was passed on the motion of Professor Wii.i.is Bi'NO, second-
ed by the Rev. J. Pearson. It was resolved that the t'liamber
should contribute £.)0 towards the Local Taxation Fund. The
chairman, Mr. Whittaker, anuouuced that he should also
hand over £10 to the same fund.
At the annual meeting of the Staffordshire Cbamber of
Agriculture IMr. G. A. May moved: "That this Chamber
unanimously approves of the principle of Messrs. Howard and
Read's bill, viz., that legal security should be given equally to
both landlord and tenant either for bad husbandry or compen-
sation for unexhausted improvements, and believes it necessary
for the future improvement of agriculture, and the amicable
relations between landlord and tenant." The Rev. E. C.
Perry seconded the motion, which was carried unanimously.
182
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH.
There has been no feature of importance in the cattle trade
during the past month. The supplies of stock have been about
the average and have included some well-conditioned stock.
The receipts of beasts have been tolerably good. The Lincoln-
shire season has closed, and tliat of the western counties lias
opened under favourable auspices. The arrivals from Norfolk
and Suffolk have been about the same as in the corresponding
month last year; but those from Scotland, although by no
means extensive, have been decidedly large. Tlie foreign im-
portations, as usual, have been restricted, being confined to
receipts from Spain and Holland. The trade has at no time
been brisk. Occasionally 6s. 4d. has been paid for the best
Scots, but the price has been excessive, the general top quo-
tation being Gs. 2d. per 8 lbs.
As regards sheep, the arrivals have been rather more
liberal than usual ; but, at the same time, the supply of
English breeds has been by no means large. The receipts of
foreign have been about the average. Prime small Downs
have commanded attention, and have made 7s. per 8 lbs.,
but this quotation must not be taken as indicating the general
top price, as it merely jefers to the clioicest small sheep. For
prime heavy sheep 6s. 8d. per 8 lbs. has been accepted.
Prime small calves have been in request, and have com-
manded steady prices ; otherwise the market has been quiet.
Pigs have been dull and without feature.
The imports of foreign stock during the past month hava
been as follows : Head.
Beasts 2,606
Sheep 16,059
Calves 549
Pigs 1,299
Total 29,513
Corresponding period in 1873 19,889
„ 1872 17,850
„ 1871 10,298
„ 1870 21,727
„ 1869 12,214
„ 1868 20,000
„ 1867 24,084
„ 1866 25,838
„ 1865 16,952
„ 1864 9,967
„ 1863 11,893
„ 1862 8,783
1861 2,708
„ 1860 6,760
„ 1859 9,264
The bullock arrivals from our own grazing districts, as well
as from Scotland and Ireland, thus compare with the three
previous years :
Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan
Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and ''''' ''^'- ''^'' ''''■
llCambridgeshire 7,650 6,350 4,000 5100
ttom Lincolnshire, Leicester-
shire, and Northamptonshire 1,200 1,750 800 400
Other parts of England 850 2,950 2,020 3 000
^'f^l^^ eiO 1,120 584 '909
^''^^'''^ 301 1,730 1,855 1,000
fl '^Sr f *"*''!•. '"P'n'?., °''-»r'^°,'^ exhibited and disposed of at
the Metropolitan Cattle Market during the montii have been
as under :
Jfasts 16850
^"fP 82,260
Calves 1435
Pigs.
545
Comparison of St'prLiEs.
Jan Beasts. Sheep. Calves. Pi^s
1873 14,940 64,300 1376 575
l^ll 1-J.028 73,840 314 365
1870 19,251 91760 1127 qrI
1869 19,880 94 930 654 1201
1868 17,620 86 220 620 1610
1867 18,150 82,400 756 1508
1866 24.620 89 390 1 754 o'225
1865 20,669 73,714 1095 2 370
1864 19,442 80,230 1019 I'tS
1863 20,455 83 422 I'eS? i'lll
1862 20,680 82,160 '853 ^850
1861 17,612 75 240 677 4oo
I860 20,500 92 426 1067 ^045
1859 19,805 90,520 921 o'JJn
1858 20,312 80;742 l,l5s Vita
Beasts have sold at from 4s. 6d. to 6s. 4d. • sheep s's to
7s. ; calves, 5s 6d. to 6s. lOd.; and pigs 3s. 8d. to 4s. lOd. per
olbs., to sink the offal. *^
Comparison of Pricfs,
Jan., 1873. Jan., 1872.
s. d. s. d. s d s d
Beef from 4 4 to 6 2 3 6 "to 5* 10 '
Mutton ... 5 8 to 8 0 4 4 to 7 0
5 6 to 7 4 ". 4 6 to 6 0
3 6 to 4 8 3 8 to 5 0
Jan., ]87L Jan., 1870.
s- "■ s. d. s. d. <■ d
Beeffrom... 3 6 to 5 0 3 4 to 5 ' 6
Mutton 4 4to6 2 3 4 to 5 10
X^aj 3 8 to 6 4 3 6 to 5 6
fork 3 8to5 -6 3 10 to 6 0
Veal
Pork
REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE
DURING THE PAST MONTH.
The month of January has been characterised by uu-
iisual mildness, there having been very few frosts, and
those only at night. Some quantity of rain fell towards
the close, though on the whole there has been very little
interruption to labour in the fields. The young wheat
generally looks well and forward, and all the v'egetation has
been prematurely excited by the high temperature, with a
proportionate risk of danger, as it can hardly be expected
to go scot free at so early a period. The same sort of
weather has ruled over the continent of Europe, and
those northern latitudes which are used to snow as a
protection, and have had none, yet very much regret its
absence, and fear the consequence. Continuous exports
have, therefore, been practicable in many place!} which are
usually frost-bound, and Odessa has been sending ou
supplies, more especially to Marseilles, as they "have
arrived from the interior of Russia, and this has been
against the upward tendency of prices with which the
month commenced. Still as the last four months showed
our receipts in wheat and flour to be 4, 167, GOG qrs., and
as the estimated deficiency was about 13 milions'qrs.,
we shall want monthly to the close of August, about
1,104,000 qrs. to fill the void, and should the mild wea-
ther cause au early break-up of the frost in America,
we are more likely to obtain it than seemed probable a lit-
tle while back. The issue of a tabulated statemeut of
the crops by T//e 3farl- lane Hrpress confirms the first
reports of a lar^fe deficiency, as out of 45^ ret«rn?
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
183
344 are " under average," this being about three-
fourths of the whole ; but it must be remembered that our
deficient crop of this year was sound, whereas that of
1873 was nearly all sprouted, the damage being fully 5s.
per qr. ; we must therefore this season gain in the amount
of flour about one-twelfth, which may equal one million
quarters. But should our imports seriously diminish in
consequence of the rival claims of France, Italy, and
other countries, we have now no low-priced grain to use
as a substitute for the principal crop, for all cereals have
advanced materially — say rye and maize fully 10s. per
qr., and nothing would next avail but grinding barley,
which has recently risen to SSs. per qr. A disaster this
season would therefore be one of magnitude, especially as
our Indian Empire is partially threatened heavily with
famine. Prices, therefore, we think, must rule high,
should the season be ever so favourable, but with further
failure would become oppressive. The following rates
were recently paid at the several places named: Califor-
nian white wheat at Paris 72s. ; American red spring
60s. Gd. ; Berdianski at Marseilles 68s. ; native white at
Bordeaux 70s. ; Chili at Antwerp 68s. ; native at
Courtrai 71s. ; wheat at Maestricht O63. ; Ghirka wheat
at Zurich 71s.; Bessarabian 73s.; Saale at Hambro'
68s. ; wheat at Berlin 58s. ; at Cologue 62s. ; at Stettin
58s. ; at Danzig fine liigh-mixed 70s. to 73s., cost,
freight, and insurance ; at Petersburg 55s. 6d. ; soft at
Odessa 53s. 3d. ; Ghirka 49s. 9d. ; white at Valladolid
46s. 6d. ; heavy wheat at Pesth 66s. ; soft at Algiers
64s., hard 56s. 6d. ; white at San Francisco 67s., cost,
freight, and insurance; red spring at New York 53s. 8d.
per 4801bs.
The first Monday in Mark Lane commenced on a small
quantity of home-grown wheat ; but there was a good
supply of foreign, principally from New York and
Odessa. There was but a limited show of fresh samples
on the Essex and Kentish stands, and the best dry lots
obtained an advance of Is. per qr., but not very readily.
The foreign trade was also improved to the same extent,
and for fine Australian rather more than this was occa-
sionally paid. Cargoes off the coast found also a more
ready sale, with the turn against buyers. The advance in
London was generally answered in the country by an
equal rise of Is. per qr, ; and though some places were
only firm, or slightly in favour of sellers, a few were Is.
to 2s. per qr. dearer. Liverpool noted an impi'ovement
of Id. per cental on Tuesday, and on Friday the market
was brisk at previous rates. Edinburgh, Leith, and
Glasgow all noted Is. per qr. advance on wheat, both
native and foreign. Irish wheat at Dublin was firm, and
6d. to Is. per qr. dearer for foreign.
On the secoud Monday the home-grown supply was
still limited, and the foreign about equal to the preceding
week, the quantity from America reaching ' to one-half.
There was again but a small exhibition of fresh samples
from the near counties, and this, with the improvement
in the country markets, emboldened factors to further
ask Is. per qr. on the previous rates. On the best lots
this was eventually paid, but not very readily, and every-
thing inferior was diflicult to place. The foreign trade
was also again 1j. per qr. dearer, but the increased
rates had the effect of checking sales. Cargoes ofi'
the coast more readily obtained a like advance.
At the quietest markets this week in the country the
wheat trade was firm and against buyers ; very many
noted an improvement of Is. per qr., as Birmingham,
Hull, Leeds, Gainsborough, Newark, IMclton ]Mowbray,
Manchester, jMarket Rasen, &c. ; while Brigg, Louth,
Spilsby, Sheffield, and some other places were up Is. to
2s. per qr. Liverpool, however, made no change through
the week. Edinburgh was Is. to 23. dearer, and Glas-
gow 6d. to Is. per qr. Dublin noted an improvement of
6d. per barrel on Irish wheat, and Is. to 2s, on foreign.
On the third Monday the English supply was again
limited, and the foreign fell oft' to one-half the previous
quantity. The show of fresh samples from the near
counties was small, and the weather having been damp
through the week the condition generally was very in-
ferior. This circumstance, after the late advance, was
against any farther improvement ; indeed, the trade in
the best samples was only slow, and low qualities were
next to unsaleable. It was a foggy damp day, and against
a large business iu foreign, and the tendency of prices
was rather downward for all sorts, except fine white
Australian and Danzig qualities. Cargoes atlDat were held
at unaltered rates. The country markets this week were
for the most part dull, the weather being damp, but the rates
of the previous week were generally maintained, Liver-
pool, however, noted a decline of 3d. per cental on
Tuesday, and on Friday red wheat was further down Id.,
though white was more firm. At Edinburgh and Leith
the value of native and foreign wheat was scarcely main-
tained, and at Glasgow there was a decline of 6d. to Is,
per qr, Dublin was 6d. dearer for Irish wheat, and
firm for foreign, though on Friday prices were a shade
easier.
On the fourth Monday the English supply was short,
and the foreign much reduced. The show of fresh
samples on the Essex and Kentish stands was limited,
but iu rather better condition ; the few dry lots that
could be selected were taken at about the previous I'ates,
but inferior sorts were neglected. The foreign trade was
limited in extent, and prices generally Is. per qr. below
the previous Monday's rates, and floating cargoes went
oft' heavily.
The imports into London for the four weeks were
16,667 qrs. English, 71,338 qrs, foreign, against 15,700
qrs. English, 100,699 qrs. foreign last year. The im-
ports into the kingdom for four weeks ending 17th Jan.
were 3,508,119 cwts. wheat, 559,579 cwts. fiour, against
3,276,935 cwts. wheat, 601,297 cwts. flour in 1.873.
The London exports were 3,511 qrs, wheat, 2,391 cwts,
flour. The London averages commenced at 67s. lOd.,
and closed at 66s. lid. The general averages began at
61s. 8d. and ended at 62s. 6d,
The flour trade all through the month has scarcely
varied in its aspect, being more or less firm, as was the
wheat trade. The top price has continued 57s., Nor-
folks at 44s., and country households 47s. The best
barrels 82s. to 33s., and Australian sacks 53s., the latter
having been much in demand. Extra States at New
York 27s. 7d. per barrel. The imports in four weeks
into London were 72,120 sacks English, 7,806 sacks
28,419 barrels foreign, against 88,392 sacks English,
19,923 sacks 30,049 barrels foreign for the same period
in 1873.
Maize has risen considerably — say, 3s. 6d. per qr.,
but on the fourth Monday there was some reaction down-
wards on even a very small supply, to tiie extent of Is.
per qr. ; but for the best-mixed American 42s. was still
asked, and 47s. for the best white. It is evident that
the great rise has checked the demand, as beans and
peas have become relatively cheaper. The four weeks'
imports were, however, small — say, 28,077 qrs., against
42,220 qrs. last year.
Barley has been rising iu value almost every market-
day ; but was checked by the general dulncss of the
fourth jMonday. Though prime lots of malting were still
held at 50s., and ordinary grinding at 35s., we cannot
help thinking these high rates unsafe, more especially
for malting sorts ; but grinding may be kept up till the
new imports of spring come plentifully to hand. The
imports into Iioudon for four w^eks vvere 26,321 qrs,
184
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,
British, 50,8:20 qrs. foreign, against 13,010 qrs. British,
67,844 qrs. foreign for the same time in 1873.
The malt trade, in consequence of tlie advance in bar-
ley, has been gracluall_v hardening:, and gained about 2s.
in value during the month. The London exports have
been 3,895 qrs.
The oat trade from the increased demand constantly
made has also been risiug, and gained about Is. to Is. Cd.
for old on former rates. But the imports recently con-
sisting mostly of new swedes and uudried corn, sucli
have rather goue back from the extreme price, and 381bs.
new, which were recently bringing 27s., have since been
selling with less freedom at 25s. Cd., while old Russian
sorts of the same weight are still worth 27s. fid., and
higher weights, say 4blbs., 29s. to 29s. Cd. The Baltic
still being open we may have a check for present rates by
large supplies, but there seems no prospect of a serious
reduction with the large Loudon and country demand.
The imports into London for four weeks were 3,878 qrs.
English, 2,348 qrs. Scotch, 100 qrs. Irish, 181,489 qrs.
foreign, against 6,541 qrs. English, 153 qrs. Scotch,
70,311 qrs. foreign, for the same period in 1873. This
shows a large increase of foreign, but it must be remem-
bered that last year we had heavy stocks, and these are
now reduced.
Old English beans aud foreign have also im-
proved in value fully 2s. per qr., and good hard new
iibout Is., the rise in maize having made this grain rela-
tively cheaper, and brought on an increased demand.
Italian are worth about 44s., and Egyptian 42s. Old
English Hari'ows 46s., line small 50s. to 52s. As im-
ports from Egypt this season seem likely to fall short,
])rices will very prol)ably continue firm. The London im-
ports for four weeks were 3,574 qrs. l]nglish, 10,508 qrs.
foreign, against 4,307 qi's. English, 8,787 qrs. foreign in
1873.
Boiling peas have not improved so much, from the
unusual mildness of the weather, but their value has in-
creased fully Is., fine being worth fully 46s., Canadian
45s. Hog-feed have continued scarce and firm ; duns
38s. to 40s., maples 46s. The imports into London for
four weeks have been 2,485 qrs. English, 908 qrs.
foreign, against 2,276 qrs. English, 3,596 qrs. foreign for
the same period in 1873.
Linseed, with moderate supplies, has kept very firm,
but has not been quotably dearer. Cakes also have found
a free sale at full prices. The Loudon imports this month
were 39,309 qrs., against 16,713 qrs. in 1873.
Jlore business has been doing in fine English red
cloversecd, on rather better terms, as not much of supe-
rior quality has appeared, but for medium and poor sorts
there has been scarcely any demand, or for old foreign.
Spring tares are beginning to be inquired for, aud worth
38s. to 40s. ^r qr., but so many of the winter sorts
remained unsold that they are not likely to be much
dearer when the season regularly begins, especially as
some prefer them, even in sjiring, to loreigu.
IMPERIAL AVERAGES
—
For the week ended Jan. 17, 1874.
Wheat , 55 528J qrs
623. 6d.
46a. 2d.
Barley 70^40C| „
Oats 5,141 J ,,
27s. 2d.
COMPARATIVE AVERAGES.
WHEAT. BARLEY.
OATS,
Years. Qrs. s. d.
Qrs. 8. d.
Qrs. s.
d.
1870... 49,626i ... 41 1
56,8501 ... 36 4
3,862i ... 21
4
1871... 71,132 ... 52 9
75,130i ... 35 9
6,2851 ... 22
9
1872... 56,892i... 55 8
67,448 ... 37 2
5,608a ... 22
5,19l| ... 22
6
1873... 51,186J ... 55 9
57,836| ... 40 5
H
1874... 65.5284 ... 62 6
70,406| ... 46 2
6,141* ... 27
AVERAGE S
Fob the Six Weeks
BNDINQ
Dec. 13, 1873.,
Dec. 20, 1873
Dec. 27, 1873
.Tan. 3, 1874 ,
.Tan. 10, 1874
Jan. 17, 1874
Aggregate of the above....
The same period in 1873....
Wheat.
Barley.
Oats.
8. d.
8.
d.
B. d.
61 11
45
0
26 3
61 7
44
7
20 3
61 8
41
0
26 0
61 8
44
4
25 5
62 1
43
11
26 1
62 6
46
2
27 2
61 11
44
9
26 2
56 1
40
8
22 6
LONDON AVERAGES.
Wheat 2,503 qrs. 663. lid.
Barley 2,597 ,, 42s. 9d.
Oats — ,, — s. Od.
CORN IMPORTED AND EXPORTED
EOR THK WEEK ENDING JaN. 17.
Imported into
Engl'd. Scotl'd. Ireland.
Exported.
British.
Foreign
Wheat
Cwts.
441118
112935
130601
22231
59655
160
Cwts.
47857
7028
2160
5553
f925
15284
Cwts.
345950
122932
Cwts.
8074
200
1723
209
30
Cwts.
2621
Barley.. ,.i
Oats
il7
Rye
108
Beana
Indian Corn
Buckwheat
"go
Total
766703
83812
468882
10236
2909
Wheat Flour
Oat Meal
104391
40
28096 ;
510
196
1296
Ind'n Corn Meal
Total
104931
871634
28096
111908
46B882 ,
705
10941
704
1296
Grand Total..
Malt qrs.
4205
CURRENT PRICES OF BRITISH GRAIN AND FLOUR
IN MARK LANE.
ShUlings per Quarter.
WHEAT, Essex & Kent, white new 54, fine 68
„ ,, red ,, 56, ,,
Norfolk, Linclnsh., and York8h.,red,new 55
BARLEY 38 to 42 Chevalier, new 46
38 Distilling
78 brown ..
Grinding 34
MALT, pale, new ...73
RYE
OATS, English, feed 24 to 32 Potato
65
62
56
47
59
41
Scotch, feed 00
Irish, feed, white23
Ditto, black 21
BEANS, Mazagan ...80
Harrow 42
PEAS, white, boiler8.39
00 Potato —
29 Fine —
.28 Potato —
43 Ticks 40
48 Pigeon 47
47 Maple 39 to 45Grey,new 36
FLOUR, per sack of 2801b8., best town households,., 50
Best country households 45
Norfolk and Suffolk 39
FOREIGN GRAIN.
ShUUngs per Quarter
WHEAT, Dantzic, mixed 62 to OS extra 70 to 73
Konigsberg 62 67 extra 62 72
Rostock 63 70 old —
Sile8ian,red 68 62 white.... 61
Pomera.,Meckberg.,andUckermrk. ...red 63
Ghirka 57 to 62..,Russian,hard,54to 68 Saxonska 62
Danish and Holstein, red 63 65 American 60
ChiUan, white 60... Californian 69 ... Australian 70
BARLEY, grinding 32 to 35.. ..distilling 40
OATS, Dutch, brewing and Polands 27 to 32 feed 24
Danish and Swedish, feed 26 to 28....Stral8und... 26
Canada 23 to 26, Riga 27.to 28, Aj-ch.27 to 28, P'sbg. 28
TARES, Spring, per qr small ... 38 large —
BEANS, Priesland and Holstein 41
Konigsberg 41 to 45. ..Egyptian 42
PEAS, feeding and maple. ..33 42. ..fine boilers 40
42
52
39
67
47
44
72
67
65
63
63
72
44
28
28
30
45
43
44
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THE LONDON AND COUNTY BANK opens—
DRAWING ACCOUNTS with Commercial Houses and Private Individuals, either upon the plan usually adopted by
other Bankers, or by charging a small Commission to those persons to whom it may not be convenient to sustain ap agreed
Permanent Balance.
DEPOSIT ACCOUNTS.— Deposit Receipts are issued for sums of Money placed upon these Accounts, and Interest is
allowed for such periods and at such rates as may be aio.) Still Mr. Chaplin explained that he was
not opposed to legislation, only he would have legisla-
tion without the force of legislation ; " in the Lincoln-
shire custom they had no such thing as the 12th clause
of the bill, because such a clause was not necessary."
But surely Mr. Chaplin should have gone on to say that
the bill itself was not necessary in Lincolnshire, nor any-
where else where the right is recognised ; as in plain
English he would let the custom extend itself " very
gradually," and against " very stout" opposition of
course.
But this opposition on the part of the Lincolnshire
landlords is no new thing, for five-and-twenty years since
they were doing very much what Mr. Chaplin is now to
prevent the extension of the principle, and when we
wrote thus as to their contradictory course of action :
' As to the gradual spreading of Tenant-Right, look at
the petition of the Lincolnshire landlords against the
passing of any enactment lor ensuring it — unintentionally
the best argument that was, perhaps, ever offered for
making such an Act. Say the Lincolnshire landlords —
' We have Tenant-Right already ; we have long practised
and profited to the full by its advantages. What then
can be the use of enforcing by law what Ave do volun-
tarily ?' Exactly so. The action of Tenant-Right has
brought the bogs and fens of Lincolnshire from the worst
to be the best cultivated land in the kingdom, and doubled
and trebled its value to both landlord and tenant. This
has been proved and known for many years, and has of
course proceeded to this very natural consequence.
Neighbours first, and their neighbours again, ad in-
finitum, have gradually adopted so excellent a plan,
until at length the whole country has learnt the secret
of the men of Lincoln, and brought its acres to vie in
produce with those of that once favoured district. Is
it so ? and is any further inducement for following your
example so entirely superfluous ? Or rather does not the
Tenant-Right part (only) of the county of Lincoln stand
out at this moment like an oasis from the north, south
east, and west territory by which it is surrounded ? This
famous protest — and it will be worth while to proceed
with it a little further — is framed in defiance of the first
principle of legislation. Laws, be it remembered, are
required not to compel the just, but to restrain the
unjust; in vulgar phrase, for rogues, not houest men.
Now a good and just landlord who does his duty volun-
tarily, and gives his tenant full recompense for all he
may not have reaped, needs no enactment to induce him
to this. Such a law could in no way affect him, for he
does and has done all so provided for without it. The
object is to make others follow his example, and ensure
their doing that by law that many would hesitate, from
ignorance, prejudice, or a worse motive, to do of their
own free will. Thus, the answer to all who join in with
the Lincolnshire landlords is plain enough : If, as you
say, you have the Tenant- Right secured to you
by the custom of your own district, our new Act
will to you be as nothing, either good or bad ; all we
want is to extend that custom." And that which
we said five-and-twenty years since we say again here.
The custom has not extended under the voluntary prin-
ciple, nor will it, for it is still and has been " fought
very stoutly against" by a class of landlords who would
apparently rather receive two rabbits than two pouads
per acre per annum for their land.
As regards Mr. Chaplin's hostility, a startling
anti-climax may encourage him to persevere. After
ihe statements he had advanced and the dissatisfaction
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
289
with which these were received, two meu were actually
found to propose and second a resolution requesting Mr.
Chaplin to draw up another Tenant-Right Bill 1 It is
scarcely necessary to add that this bit of bathos was
displayed at a meeting of the Council of the Central
Chamber of Agriculture.
OFFICIAL HORSE BREEDING IN FRANCE.
THE HARAS INSTITUTIONS.
Of late years, there is no gainsaying it, France has
become remarkably horsey. French sportsmen have
not been satisfied with purchasing some of the best
English blood, and accomplishing on their own turf un-
questionable feats of good racing, but they have crossed
the Channel with French-bred horses and won well-
contested battles on English race-courses. Descending
lower in the breeding scale, French draught horses im-
ported direct from Normandy and Brittany are to be
seen on most of the English farmsteads in the southern
counties, and there are not wanting other tokens of a
great movement on the part of the French with a view
to improve as well as to increase their stock of horses.
The fact is that, owing to the comparative scarcity and
consequent dearth of horse-flesh in England, and the
state of jealousy resulting from the late war in Germany,
the supply of horses to the French army has become both
difficult and onerous. The necessity has arisen now to
pay increased attention to native production, as the only
reliable source of a supply, which, owing to the fearful
destruction of war horses in 1870 and 1871, is the most
serious cause of anxiety in the minds of those whose duty
it is to reorganize the armies of France.
It cannot fail to be interesting to English readers to
have an insight in the present state of horse breeding in
France, and to be initiated to the great efforts which are
now being made to increase, and, at the same time, to
improve the production of useful horses, especially of
those breeds that are best adapted to war purposes, both
as draught and saddle horses.
The French Government, with the view of improving
the breeds of horses, has established an institution, which
in England is exclusively left to private enterprise, but
which in most of the Continental States either from lack
of sufficient means or due attention, is a matter of abso-
lute necessity as an immediate object of official interfer-
ence, creation, and management. That institution is
known under the name of Haias, which may be translated
by the English word stud. That branch of civil service,
which consists in the establishment and management of
several stations all over France, where stallions of good
blood are kept for the purpose of serving the mares of the
districts, is rather a complex piece of administrative
machinery. According to the new law which is to be
voted shortly by the Assembly, and the substance of
which I give, in preference to the existing one, as there
is no doubt but it will be unanimously adopted, the
Haras staff will comprise a director and general inspector,
six general inspectors, twenty-two station directors, and
as many sub-directors, besides a sufficient number of
undcr-clerks to ensure the proper working of the depart-
ment. There is besides a superior council of llaras, the
members of which will be appointed by the President of
the Republic. Their number will be twenty-four,
nominated for nine years. One-third will go out of
office in rotation every three years, but all will be re-
eligible to office. The duty of that board will be to give
their advice on the annual Haras budget, on the general
regulations of shows and races, on the nature and im-
portance of the encouragements to be given to horse-
breeding, and all other questions that may be submitted
to them by the Minister of Agriculture, to whose depart-
ment they will belong, or by the director-general of
Haras. It is further proposed that the number of stallions
belonging to the State, and which is now only 1,077,
shall be yearly increased by 200 until it reaches
the effective quantity of 2,500. These stallions of
various breeds and aptitudes will be divided among the
stations according to the requirements of each district.
It will be further enacted that the Haras school of Le
Pin in Normandy shall be re-established, an imperial
decree having some years ago closed it under the advice
and influence of General Fleury.
Independently of the credits voted every year for the
races, the grooming schools, &c., the present allocation
of £27,320 affected to the payment of premiums to pri-
vate owners of approved stallions will be raised to
£32,000, and successively by additional yearly credits of
£4,000, until the total amount of credit affected to that
object shall reach £60,000 a year.
We shall see presently how that money is now and will
be applied.
It is in the last place proposed to re-establish at Pompa-
dour, a Government estate situated in the neighbourhood
of Limoges in the centre of France, a breeding stud of
fifty brood mares of Arab and Anglo-Arab blood.
Formerly there was snch a stud at Pompadour, but
General Fleury, who was a most determined opponent to
the Haras institution, prevailed on the late Emperor to do
away with it, and it was closed accordingly. A herd of
Shorthorns, the private property of the Emperor, was kept
on the estate instead, which herd was sold after the down-
fall of its owner at Sedan.
The budget affected as ways and means to the Haras
institution was of late years as follows :
1871 £141,100
1872 162,500
1873 164,840
With the view of increasing the number of state stallions
from 1,077 to 1,300 the Minister of Agriculture had de-
manded for the current year an increase of £62,160, this
sum being intended as the purchase price of the 223
additional stallions, the cost of their keeping and the
wages to the extra staff of grooms to take care of them.
Unfortunately the French Treasury is already too
much drained by more pressing wants to admit of that
increase in the Haras budget, and the finance com-
mittee of the Assembly, with the assent of the
minister, have recommended that the budget
of 1874 be the same as for last year, and do not exceed
£164,840. Out of that sum, no less than nearly £40,000
are set aside for the purchase of stallions, not only to
replace those that are worn out but to purchase others.
The necessity of a carefully-selected stud of well-bred
stallions is a fact which no one can deny in any country,
but especially in Continental States like France and Ger-
many, which are obliged to keep up large armies, and
where the requirements for artillery trains and mounted
cavalry are greatly in excess of those of the English army,
for instance, taking the population, the area, and the stock
of horses into consideration. In England the necessity
of State interference does not arise, private enterprise,
fostered by a national taste and powerful patronage from
the wealthy classes, being quite adequate to all require-
290
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
ments. In France, the circumstances are very different,
and if the production of horses were left to private action,
it would very soon descend to the lowest possible condition ;
for, even as it is, with the help of the Government, and not-
withstanding the powerful exertions of a body of influential
horse-loving men, who, within the last few years, have started
into existence, and have already achieved great feats in
raising the standard of taste and anxiety to obtain it
among French breeders, the production of good and sound
horses in France is still at a low level, generally speaking,
as will appear from the following figures. The number of
brood mares in France is calculated at 600,000. Now to
serve that number of mares, there must be at least 12,000
stallions. We have seen that the number of stallions
belonging to the State is only 1,077, and it appears from
the report of the finance committee that besides that
number there were only 6.39 other stallions belonging to
private breeders. This gives a total of 1,716 good or
commendable stallions, out of the 12,000 which must be
used in France every year. This is, it must be confessed,
a very small proportion, and it is owing to that deficiency
that the existence of such an institution as that of Haras
is not only useful, but it may be said indispensable.
The Haras, then, have a double duty to perform : the
first one is to supply as large a number of well
elected stallions as the limite'1 budget placed at
their disposal will allow ; and secondly, to select out
of private studs as many good animals as can be found
to supplement their own deficiency. To that effect they
hold out the strongest inducement they can to private
breeders to exert themselves in obtaining good blood, and
to give easy and cheap access to it for all the mares of
those districts where there are no State stallion stations.
There are two classes of stallions belonging to private
breeders which receive the Government bounty on the
recommendation of the Haras. There are those that" are
" approved," and which receive an annual bounty amounting
to £36 if thorough-bred, and about £20 if only half-
bred, provided they have served a certain number of
mares in one season. There are others which are what is
called " authorised." This latter qualification is only a re-
commendation to public confidence, a kind of official
certificate of merit given by the Haras inspectors. Out
of the 639 private stallions approved and authorised in
1873, there were only 216 authorised, out of which 42
were thorough-bred and half-bred, the 423 others were
cart-horses.
From the foregoing facts and figures, on the accuracy
of which there cannot be any doubt, it may be asserted
that one-seventb only of the brood mares in France are
served by commendable horses. The main bulk are left
to the hap-hazard service of the rough lot of entire
horses which prevail all through the country. It is a
subject of general remark to Englishmen when they
travel abroad, that most of the horses in ordinary use
either for draught or saddle are entire, geldings being a
A'ery rare exception.
Under such circumstances it is no wonder the French
Government should experience great difficulty in finding
among the 300,000 horses which France produces every
year even a fair proportion of the supply wanted for the
army, and should consequently be under the necessity to
make purchases in other countries.
Vp to the last war, the Algerian colony supplied a good
number of light cavalry horses, but the drain has lately
been so «earching, coming especially after the famine of
1867-68, which destroyed 60 per cent, of the native
live stock, that very few horses can now be obtained from
Africa, and France is now compelled, notwithstanding
her financial difficulties, to increase the Haras budget
with the view of promoting greater care in horse
breeding, and supplying to the wants of French agri-
culturists a much larger number of good stallions.
It has been calculated that the late war destroyed no
fewer than 200,000 horses. It is easy to imagine, then,
what are the difficulties encountered by the War Oftice in
repairing such a fearful gap. On the other hand, the fa-
cilities which existed formerly in obtaining a supply of
horses in Germany and Hungary have been greatly ham-
pered by late events, not only on account of international
jealousy and animosity, but also on account of the great
destruction of horses which occurred among the invading
German hosts, their victory notwithstanding.
In 1871 the sum proposed in the Haras budget for the
purchase of stallions was £20,000, the assembly voted
£23,400 for that object. Last year that amount was
raised to £39,200, and the same amount is proposed for
1874. This is all the exhausted exchequer of France can
possibly afford, notwithstanding the pressing needs of a
better and more prolific horse production.
It would appear from the statistics I have quoted that
only one-half of the brood mares served in France brings
forth and rears a colt. This seems a small per-centage,
and surely some improvement is desirable in that respect.
A glance at the existence of similar institutions in
other Continental States will be useful as terms of com-
parison. This will account for the greater number of
useful horses to be found in Russia, Germany, and neigh-
bouring States than in France, the area and population
being considered.
In the year 1869 the late Emperor of the French ap-
pointed a committee of competent men to go and inquire
about the various State Haras establishments in Russia,
Prussia, and other German States, Austria and Hungary.
This committee published their report, from which I
abridge the following information ;
Prussia. — Before the battle of Sadowa there were in
Prussia three Haras stations — those of Neustadt, Graditz,
and Trakenem, in which 2,100 brood mares and 322
stallions were kept. The State possessed besides thirteen
minor stations scattered throughout the kingdom, con-
taining in all 1,500 stallions, making a total of 1823
horses, and 2,100 brood mares.
WuETEJiBURG. — In the kingdom of Wurtemburg there
are two Haras, those of Shamhausen and Marbach, in
which 110 stallions and brood mares are kept.
Saxony. — The kingdom of Saxony possesses only one
Haras, in which no less than 80 stallions are kept. The
establishments of Hanover, Holstein, and Mecklenburg
were not visited by the French committee, but from the
official information they obtained they were able to ascer-
tain that throughout the various States now forming the
empire of Germany there were at the time of their visit
no less than 4,000 stallions belonging to the States, be-
sides those kept by numerous private breeders and large
landed proprietors.
Empire of Austria. — In Austria Proper there are
four principal Haras : first, that of Fiber in Styria ;
second, that of Radautz in Buckowine ; third, that of
Kladrub in Bohemia ; and fourth, the Haras of Lipitza,
near Trieste. The two first establishments are by far the
most important. That of Radautz possesses no less
than 5,000 horses. The two latter contain each about
60 stallions and 350 brood mares. Besides the above
four breeding Haras, the empire of Austria has in its dif-
ferent provinces five other stations, in which 1,500 stal-
lions are kept.
HuxGARY. — The kingdom of Hungary is, perhaps, the
country of the world in which more horses are bred, the
area and the population being considered. In 1869 there
were in Hungary no less than upwards of two million
horses, which gives one horse for every five inhabitants.
In France there is only one for every ten inhabitants,
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
291
The State keeps iu lluugary three great Haras establish-
ments : First, that of Kisberg, where chiefly pure Euglish
blood horses are bred. Out of 220 brood inares there are 58
of pure Euglish breed. The secoud is situated at Baboliia,
and is specially reserved for the breeding of pure Arab
horses. There were in 1869 10 stallions "and GG brood
mares of pure Arab blood, besides 84 half-bred
mares. The third Hungarian Haras is the celebrated
one of Mezoheges, near the town of Arad, at a dis-
tance of about 180 miles from Pesth. This is
by far the most complete and the largest stud estab-
lishment in Europe. The estate itself comprises no
less than 44,640 acres, in a ring-fence, and the number of
horses kept varies between three thousand and seven thou-
sand at the same time. There are 34 stallions of pure
English and Arab blood, half-bredEnglish, Anglo-Norman,
and Anglo-Arab breeds for serving the large stock of brood
mares. This great establishment turns out every year
from 130 to 150 first-class stallions, which are afterwards
Bent of? to the various stations of the whole empire of
Austria. Besides these three large breeding establish- .
ments, there are in Hungary four stallion stations, pos-
sessing, io the aggregate, 1,500 horses. In a country
where horse-breeding is so powerfully patronised, it is not
surprising to find that most of the large landed proprietors
follow so great an example, and that the national taste is
thoroughly biassed in that direction. Nearly all the
great aristocratic families follow horse-breeding as a noble
pursuit, and derive pride and gratification froni the
splendour of their studs. Among these powerful private
stud establishments of Hungary, thosa of Counts Karoly,
Esterhazy, Paffy, Duke of Coburg, Archduke Albrecht,
Baron Simon Sina, &c., Src., are the most remarkable.
Some of these private studs consist of no less than five
hundred horses.
Russia. — There are iu Russia 20 million horses. The
number of stallions kept at various stations throughout the
empire amounts to at least 6,000. There are, besides, a
great many private studs of great importance, and the
Government was still increasing the number of the sta-
tions and that of the horses.
This state of things shows how inferior France is to
her neighbours in respect of horse-breeding, whilst in
point of natural resources suited to the production of
good horses, she is second to no country in the world.
Now her statesmen are compelled, by a dire necessity, to
look closely into these branches of her economy, they may
see how shallow was that appearance of prosperity and
power which the enervating reign of the late emperor had
laid over all her interests, both moral and material. At
the first touch of a stern reality, the whole fabric col-
lapsed into a heap of ruins, and people are now amazed
at the rottenness of the props that kept it up. The work
of those who have assumed the patriotic task of restoring
the former grandeur of France on more solid grounds is,
indeed, one of unexampled ditHculty. Let us hope, for
the sake and credit of our common humanity, that success
will ultimately reward their almost hopeless efforts.
THE BREWER S' LICENCE DUTY.
A deputation representing the country brewers — as dis-
tinct from the London brewers — has waited upon Sir Staf-
ford Nortlicote, at the official residence of the Chaucellor of
the Exchequer, to request, as the share for " the trade" iu
the surplus, tlie remission of the Brewers' Licence Duties,
which amount in all to something over £400,000 a-year.
While the deputation was waiting in the ante-room an attempt
was made to induce the gentlemen present to delay tiieir visit
until other deputations could combine with them, and it was
urged upon them they "hadn't even got a member of Par-
liament." It was poiuted out that there was a mistake iu
this, as Mr. Wethered, M.P. for Marlow, was iu the gather-
ing, and in the midst of the discusiion word came from Sir
Stafford that he was ready to see his visitors, who thereupon
decided at once to complete the duty upon which they had so
far entered. Sir Fowell Buxton aud Mr. N. Buxton were
present, though not strictly as a part of the deputation ; aud
there were represented, the Berks County Brewers' Society,
the Sheffield Brewers' Association, the Bucks Brewers' Asso-
ciation, the Hampshire Brewers' Union, the Portsmouth
Brewers' Association, the Manchester Brewers' Association,
the Yorkshire Brewers' Association, the Bradford Brewers'
Association, tiie Cambridgeshire Brewers' Association, the
Halifax and District Brewers' Association, and the Brewers'
Union. With Sir Stafford Northcote was Mr. W. 11. Smith.
Mr. Wethered introduced the deputation, and said they
came, by Sir Stafford's permission, to urge upon his favour-
able consideration their claim for tiie remission of the
Brewers' Licence Duties. The speaker thought the argu-
ments they had to urge were irresistible in favour of the
remission, and, moreover, it could be effected without mate-
rially affecting the imperial revenue.
The case of the brewers was tiius set forth in a memorial
to Mr. Lowe last year, and the same facts were repeated. It
said : " At present every brewer is furnished by the Revenue
Office with a paper, on whicii he is required to enter twenty-
four liours beforehand the date and liour when he intends to
brew ; and two hours before he commences to brew he must
complete the entry by inserting the quantity of malt or sugar he
intends to use. He must also givetwenty-four hours' notice
of the time when he proposes to complete the removal of the
wort from the grains, so that the local officers may gauge the
exhausted grains, and check, as far as practicable, the quan-
tity of malt entered. If licensed to use sugar, he is also sup-
plied with another entry-paper, on which he is required to
enter an account of all sugar received into his possession for
brewing purposes. The number of brewers in England is
about 33,000, and about 1,000 are licensed to use sugar. To
prevent or detect the use of substitutes for malt, and enforce
the regulations referred to for seuring the duty on sugar and
the present exorbitant licence duty, the whole of these esta-
blishments are visited at intervals not exceeding fourteen days,
but in practice at much shorter periods, aud not unfreqnently
twice-a-day. Prior to the repeal of the bop-duty these visits
extended to intervals of twenty days, and were unimportant for
securing the then limited maximum licence at the large
breweries. These regulations, admittedly necessary for the se-
curity of the licence duty on the present scale, and as now levied,
are of an exceedingly arbitrary and vexatious character, and
expose the trade to the daily risk of heavy penalties for a
mere clerical omission, from pressure of business or indis-
position ; and although, in a great many cases, the Commis-
sioners of Inland Revenue accept nominal penalties, and en-
force the law with a judgment and discretion which temper
its severity, we earnestly protest against the continuance of a
system of charge which subjects honest traders fo vexation,
annoyance, and pecuniary risk, and renders such discretion
and forbearance necessary. As to the wilful omission of the
entries, we would observe that, minute, objectionable, and
restrictive as tiie regulations are, there is stiU great facility
for fraud ; aud that, in a recent report of the commissioners,
they admit tliat 'the regulations would not enable tliera. to
secure a higher rate of licence duty.' On the quantities of
malt aud sugar entered the licence duty is computed, it being
assumed that every two bushels of malt, or 50lbs. of sugar,
will have produced a barrel of beer, or nearly one-third more
than the average general produce — a fact which can be verified
upon oath, and which is, we submit, corroborated by the fol-
lowing revenue statistics : Thus, in the four years preceding
the repeal of the beer duty, the quantity of malt used by
brewers was 85,264,581 bushels ; the produce, as computed at
present, would have been 43,032,290 barrels, while the actual
quantity charged was only 31,827,043 barrels. When the
scale of duty was limited, this mode of computation, though
unjust, was comparatively unimportant ; but, used as it now
is as a basis for recouping the exchequer lor the loss of the
292
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
hop duty, the unjustness is aggravated as regards the trade as
a body and individual brewers. When the repeal of the hop
duty was proposed, it was intended to extend the licensing
system to brewers for private use, but tliat portion of the
scheme was abandoned, and consequently that class relieved to
the extent of about £25,000 a-year, which they would have
to pay as hop duty ; and thus an unfair competition was created
between the public and the private brewer, to the disadvantage
of the former. The unfair competition extends also to the
licensed brewers, in proportion to the class of ales which they
respectively produce, as the man who brews a low or medium
class of beer, requiring from 61bs. to 81bs. per quarter of malt,
is charged on the same scale as the man who uses 181bs. to
the quarter." [A table was here given, showing that in the
three classes of ale, bitter, ordinary, and common, the same
quantity of malt produced 100, 70, and 100 barrels respec-
tively, while 100 was presumed to be the produce of all three.
The licence was £3 on each lot, first, second, or third class,
and notwithstanding that only 70 barrels of the " ordinary "
were produced. The hops consumed were stated to be 430l"bs.
to the 100 barrels of " bitter," 1581bs. to the "ordinary," and
1751bs. to the " common," the former duty taxing the first £3
16s. 3d., the second 19s. 9d., and the third £1 Is. lO^d.] The
paper went on to say : "The 'ordinary' forms a very large
proportion of the ale brewed by general brewers. Again,
long credit was allowed for payment of the hop duty, from
which brewers received considerable advantage ; but the
licence duty, however large in amount, is required to be paid
in advance. A person commencing business, and incurring a
licence duty of £500, is compelled at the close of the year to
pay £750, and, at the expiration of four months, an additional
£250; and as capital is worth, for trade- purposes, 10 per
cent., the burden of tlie tax is thus, incidentally, materially
increased."
Mr. Sicn (Chiswick) then addressed the Chancellor of the
Exchequer, and said the licence duties on brewers were im-
posed in 18G3 by Mr. Gladstone at the loud call of agricultu-
rists and hop-growers — in fact, they were taken off agricultu-
rists and placed upon tlie brewers. The tax had been borne
for 10 or 13 years, but the brewers could not get a penny in
return in profit for the tax, and, in'point of fact, it liad been an
additional income-tax more than anything else. The brewers
came to ask for tlie total repeal of the duties. They could not
see why a tax should be taken off the raw material and placed
upon direct taxation, as this was ; and, moreover, they thought
it was unfair that the shoulders of the private brewers should
not have borne it at the same time. There was no doubt
there was a larfje amount of private brewinsr, and when the
beer privately brewed was given to servants in lieu of wages,
it was for all intents for profit.
Sir Stajford Northcote asked : Do not the brewers
think they had some advantage from the repeal of the hop
duties ?
Mr. Sicii replied that they failed to find any advantage
from that repeal, for hops had been dearer ever since.
Sir Stafford Northcote : And, but for the repeal, would
they not have been dearer still ?
Mr. Sicii repHed that they could not argue on that point,
but they had the fact before them that since the repeal, hops
had been dearer.
Mr. N. Buxton interposed with the remark that the
brewers' licence duties formed the imposition of one unjust tax
for another.
Mr. SiMMONDS (Reading) urged that the tax was unjust,
inasmuch as it was made upon the estimate that four barrels
were got out of every quarter of malt, when, in poiut of fact,
it wasnotso, only about three barrels of the "ordinary" ale con-
sumed by the working classes being got out of the quarter, and
that, instead of the tax being an equivalent for the hop duties,
the beer which had the most hops was taxed the lightest. He
complained strongly of the system, too, which compelled the
brewer to pay in advance in January to the Excise, and so keep
his capital without interest.
Sir Stafford Northcote asked upon v/hat principle is
the money calculated that is paid in advance.
Mr. SiMMONDS said it was calculated upon the average of
the last three years' trade.
Mr. Bfntley then spoke, and stated that Mr. Gladstone
had imposed the duties to make up the deficiency of revenue in
1863, saying that the brewers would get the benefit of the
lower price of hops consequent on taking ofl the hop duties,
but that had not been so, for hops had been dearer since. Then
it was an injustice that the brewers' trade should be singled
out for this exceptional taxation, for this was a tax upon the
quantity of beer brewed, and ran from 12s. 6d. up to any
amount. It made an extra Income-tax of Is. in the pound on
the brewers' profits, and there was no other trade in the coun-
try taxed in a similar way. The distillers' was a similar trade
to the brewers' ; but the distillers only paid a ten guinea
licence. They besides might put their spirits into bond, and
so escape from spending their capital in paying duty, while the
brewers had to pay beforehand. The tobacco trade was the
only other trade beside the brewing trade which paid increas-
ing duties ; but even in that trade there was a stop at £32.
The principle of taxation in this country had always been that
of equal justice to all; but it was not just that the private
brewer should be exempted as at present and the public
brewer taxed. Mr. Gladstone exempted the private brewei —
he was certainly pressed to do so ; but this had been found to
be unjust to the trade.
Sir Stafford Northcote : But did not Mr. Bass urge
that the private brewer might be exempted ?
Mr. Bentley replied that Mr. Bass, who was then the only
brewer in the House, was disinclined to incur the odium of
sending the excise officer to the door of every gentleman who
brewed his own beer ; but Mr. Bass had, the speaker thought,
seen his mistake. Then, the speaker urged, the private brewer
could use sugar without the duty which would fall upon the
public brewer, and he proceeded to complain bitterly of the
inquisitorial character of the tax and its manifest hardships in
so interfering with the brewer's trade that he could not do
brewing witliout giving notice, and could not alter the charac-
ter of a brewing without subjecting himself to a penalty of
£200 — a penalty, too, which in the eyes of the public seemed
to be a disgrace, while, in point of fact, it might be through
an error of a clerk. He pressed, too, on the Chancellor's
consideration that the tax was one on trade, and that the
brewers could not recoup themselves was proved by the fact
that the price of beer, such was the competition in " the
trade," could not be raised above what it was twenty or thirty
years ago, and this, notwithstanding wages and material had
risen about 33 per cent.
Mr. Clowes (Manchester) also spoke strongly with regard
to the inconvenience caused through the obnoxious regulations
of the excise necessary in collecting the duties.
Mr. Elatteley (Mancliester) pointed out that by the tax
being charged not upon the malt, but upon the quantity of
beer which was supposed to be brewed from a certain quantity
of material, the lowest class of beers had to pay for the higher.
On a former occasion the brewers had desired the then Chan-
chellor of the Exchequer, Mr. Lowe, to impose the tax in some
other form ; but as the revenue was now in a favourable
position they asked that it should be repealed altogether.
Mr. I Moore (Sheffield) said the hop duties were consi-
dered a grievance, but the brewers now considered the licence
duties an aggravated grievance. The hop grower used to
have credit to pay the duty ; but the brewer had to pay his
duty in advance. " The trde" contributed very much to the
revenue, and the brewers thought they ought to be fairly dealt
with, for this was an exceptional tax, it weighed very heavily
upon the trade, both as regarded the money paid and the mode
of collection, and he trusted the Chancellor of the Exchequer
would see his way to relieving them of it.
Sir Stafford Northcote, in reply, said : I have listened
with great attention to all that has been said, and I feel that it
is a very great advantage to have had the matter so well placed
before me. With regard to the main subject of your request —
namely, that the Government should make arrangements to
take off these licence duties on brewers — you will, of course,
not expect me to say anything about now ; but I may remark,
with regard to the surplus with which the Government have to
deal, that though it is undoubtedly a large one — that is, in itself
it forms a large sum — yet it is not large when taken in compa-
rison with the demands made upon it, for, I need not inform you,
many classes are asking for remission of taxation, and all these
demands and requests will have to be considered and compared
together. But I will not go into that question. Full consi-
deration of your case, in comparison with other claims for re-
mission of taxation shall be given ; but there is one point on
which I should like to speak to you, and it is on a matter
which was brought before me by another deputation a few
days ago. You will have seea that ft deputation waited upon
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
293
me from the Chambers of Agriculture on the subject of the
Malt-tax, and their representation to me was, that it might be
desirable to alter the system now in vogue by substituting a
tax on beer for the Malt-tax. This, it seems to me, would
bring in, perhaps, a system like that in the Brewers' Licensing
Act. Irrespective altogether of the question whether there
should be any renission of the Malt-tax or whether beer could
pay the tax, there comes the question — and this is what I de-
sire to know at your hands — whether it is desirable that any
alteration, in your opinion, should be made in the incidence of
the tax ? I understand the claims of the Chamber of Agricul-
ture are in effect that they desire the duty to be taken oflf
Malt, the raw or nearly raw material, and they suggest, if the
taxation should be required, it should be laid upon the finished
article — beer. You would argue, I suppose, the reverse ?
(General cries of Hear, hear.^ I want to understand,
too, whether you think these restrictions and regu-
lations of the Excise against which you have spoken, are
inseparable from the imposition of these duties, or whether
you do not think that these regulations and restrictions might
be altered so as to make them less objectionable — tlie effective-
ness of the collection to remain. As I understand tliera, tiiey
are real grievances ; but those who spoke of them did not sug-
gest any alterations which would give relief in the mode of
collecting tlie duties.
Mr. Fl\tterlky said it would be quite impossible to have
any other system of collecting the duties — only this system or
none.
Sir Stafford Nortiicote -. And am I to understand that
you would have any objection to a change of the Malt-tax to
a Beer-tax ?
Tliere was a general chorus in response, " Oh, certainly, sir,
the strongest objection," and
Mr. Bentley added that the change would entail great
difficulty, especially to the Excise, and would cost more in the
collection than the malt duty did. Moreover, he did not see
what the farmers had to complain of, for the Malt-tax was not
a tax upon barley, as the farmer declared, but was really a
tax of 2d. a gallon upon beer, or from 15 to 20 per rent, upon
all beer brewed. Of course it depended on the policy of the
Government, whetlier it meant to abolish all indirect taxation,
or maintain tlie policy which had obtained in this country for
so many years — that of indirect and direct taxation ; but if
indirect taxation was to be continued, this Malt-tax was a fair
one to be paid by the working classes. They got their beer
at 3d. the pint ; in some places at l|d., and that was quite
low enough, and if they could not afford that they should go
without beer altogether. The malt duty was fairly levied ; it
did not cost more in collection than auy other tax would, and
it did not press hard upon beer. He thought the Government
would make a great mistake if the incidence of the Malt-tax
were altered as suggested by the Chamber of Agriculture.
Sir Stafford Nortiicote : I am very glad to have had
the opportunity of hearing your opinion ; but on the subject
of private brewing I think it was Mr. Bass himself who, oa
the proposal to take off the hop duties, said of private brew-
ing : " That's a small matter ; don't let that stand in the
way." Is that not so, and is not the private brewing a small
matter ?
Mr. Bentley : Mr. Bass's object was that he should not
send the Excise officer to the house of every gentleman who
brewed beer ; but it is largely carried on.
Sir Stafford North cote : Was it not the opinion of the
trade that the change — that taking off the duties on hops —
would more than compensate them for taxing the public
brewing P
Mr. Bentiey : Well, the brewers thought there would be
a larger growth of hops as the result of taking off the duties
on hops, and that they would be compensated by having them
at a lower price ; but the plant is such an extraordinary one,
that one year there is a failure and at another a small crop,
and so prices go up and down ; consequently, the brewers
have not got the benefit from the change they expected they
should have got.
Sir Stafford Northcote : Should you not ask yourselves
what you would have had to pay under the present circumstances
if the hop duty had been continued, and that, too, upon the
larger quantity used ?
Mr. Bentley responded to this question by the question—
Wliy should we pay at all ?
Mr. Flatteley added that the Chamber of Agriculture did
not see that the malt duties were any benefit to the farmers,
as, he contended, they were, and he denied what had been
stated by the Chamber of Agriculture in repect to the sugar
duties being 17s. against the malt duties of 2l3. The fact
was sugar was 2is. against 21s. for malt.
The deputation then informed Sir Stafford that there would
have been a larger number present if a few days more had
been given, as deputations from Scotland, London, and other
places would have atteaded. They thanked the Minister, and
then retired.
THE TAXES UPON FOOD.
A deputation from the Free Trade League waited
upon the Chancellor of the Exchequer at his official
residence in Dowuing-street, to urge upon him the desirability
of the removal of all taxes from food. The deputation in-
cluded members of the Working Men's Club and Institute
Union, the Westminster Working Men's Association, the
Labour Representation League, the Trades' Guilds of Learninff,
and the Trades' Congress Parliamentary Committee. Mr. W.
H. Smith, the Financial Secretary of the Treasury, was pre-
sent, with Sir Stafford Northcote.
Mr. G. Potter said the taxes raised upon the people's food
through the customs and excise amounted to £46,000,000.
Besides this, skilled artisans and professional men had to pay
Income-tax, from which he considered working men in receipt
of incomes of £100 to £180 and professional men in receipt of
less than £.'300 a year should be exempted. As an example of
the way in which taxation affected the working classes, he
might state tliat if a mau with a wife and five children spent
30s. in the course of a month in tea, coffee, sugar, beer, and
spirits, he paid, through customs and excise, the sum of 7s.
He urged upon the Ciiancellor of the Echequer tliat the
working classes, as producers, were entitled to special consi-
deration, and that otiier nations should be "shown by example
tlie undesirability of taxin? trade. It iiad been said that tiiere
was a surpUis of £6,000,000, but whether or not that was tlie
case they did not want taxes to be taken from food and im-
posed ou sometiiiag else ; they wished ratiier to see the lavish
expeaditure of the country reduced, and if that could not be
done some other means of raising revenue ought to be found
by the Government.
Mr. Briggs said the Free Trade League had decided that
sweeping reforms must be made in the taxation system of the
country. The League considered that the effect of the Malt-
tax was injurious to the production of food and the interests
of agriculturists and farmers.
Several other speakers having expressed their views upon
the question,
The Chancellor of the Exchequer said : Gentlemen,
you will not expect me to anticipate prematurely what it will
be the duty of the Government to lay before Parliament in a
very short time. As you are aware, one of the greatest mea-
sures to be brought before Parliament will be the budget for
the year, and of course the financial ))olicy of the Government
will then be discussed. All that I will venture to do now is,
in the first place, to Ihauk you for the very able manner la
which you have brought this matter under the notice of the
Government. The Government are very glad to hear the
opinions of different sections of the community, aud 1 wish to
assure you all, and my good friend Sir John Bennett in par-
ticular, that the Government would approach the considera-
tion [of the financial settlement of this year, and, so far as
tiiey are able to forecast, of the country generally, not in the
spirit of party or of class, but with tlie feeling whicii animates
us, aud which has, I believe, animated successive Govern-
ments of the country for a very long period. They will
approacii it with a desire to do what they believe to be the
2U
THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE.
best for the general interest of the country. They will take
into consideration what has been urged upon the revenue with
a view to tlie adjustment of taxation in a national and a Uberal
spirit. Of course interests of so important, I hardly like to
call it a section of the community, but so very important a
portion of the comraunity as that which you represent, must
be very carefully considered in any adjustment of taxation.
Further than this it would be very difficult for me to say any-
thing without going into matters into which I ought not to
enter. I should like to ask one question. I do not quite
understand what is the extent to which you wish to carry this
movement. I think I understood Mr. Potter to say that he
thought all classes should contribute in proportion to their
means towards the national expenditure, provided that the
expenditure is of a proper character, and we know that a con-
siderable portion of it is incurred directly for the benefit of the
working classes. Ou the other hand, Mr. Briggs, I think,
laid it down broadly that the principle of reforming the
revenue system should sweep away all customs and excise
duties, including, I suppose, the duties on malt, tobacco, and
spirits. Suppose all these duties to be removed, iu what
manner could those classes who are below the range of the
Income-tax contribute to the revenue of the country ? Is it
proposed that they should be exempt, or that they should be
made to contribute in some other manner that may be
devised ?
Mr. G. Potter said tiie principle they went upon was that
realised property should be taxed extensively.
Mr. Briggs : I suppose that the question put by the Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer is this : If the customs and excise
duties were swept away how would the working classes con-
tribute to the revenue of the state ?
The Chajmcelloe of the Exchequer : Yes.
Mr. Briggs : This is what we propose —
Sir John Bennett asked the speaker not to say what
" we" proposed, as the business of the deputation was to ask
for the abolition of the duties on tea, sugar, and coffee.
Mr. Briggs remarked that Sir J. Bennett was not a con-
tributor to the Free Trade League. £34.,000,000 could be
raised by means of a personal or household tax.
The Chancellor of the Exchequer: I only put the
question because what I alluded to raised rather a wider issue
than the one which was first raised. All I can say is that the
matter will be taken into lull consideration.
The deputation then thanked the right hon. gentleman and
withdrew.
THE HEREDITARY BURDENS ON LAND.— In
the question of hereditary burdens on land, there can be
no doubt as to who would benefit by the remission. The
beneficial owners of the laud of the country, whoever they
are, would be the gainers. Their property would be relieved
of a charge which seriously diminishes its selling value ; their
incomes, if they do not sell, would be enormously increased.
Say an estate in the country worth £5,000 a year, ou which
the rates are 2s. in the £,, or £500 a year, has for its beneficial
owner a man who has mortgaged it, or charged it, to the ex-
tent of £S,000 a year. His net income, deducting the rates,
is £1,500 a year, and this is the net income he would be able
to sell at any time. If the rates were reduced altogether, he
would have £2,000 instead of £1,500 a year, and he would
have so much more income to sell if he did bring the pro-
perty to market — both his income and his capital would mani-
festly be increased enormously by the remission. Of course
it must be understood that the man who is described as the
real beneficial owner may not always he the same person as
the nominal proprietor according to English law. Tenants,
in some cases, if they are not rack-rented, and if a custom
protects them, or if they have a long lease, may be in a posi-
tion to receive the benefit of a reduction of rates ou the pro-
perty they occupy. But such facts do not alter the principle.
It is in their capacity as beneficial owners of some imperfect
sort that tenants in the cases specified would benefit, and
they would stand exactly iu the same position as any othef
beneficial owners as regards the justice of the remission
claimed. But what title have such owners to the remission ?
Are they now unjustly taxed in respect of all or any portion of
this hereditary burden ? Ou this point it was common to urge,
some years since, that the owners of landed property should
pay no more in respect of their property than owners of per»
sonal property ; that they never ought to have paid more j
and though Mr. Baxter does not push his own logic so far, w?
observe that a friendly reviewer in Tke Standard has gono the
length of saying as much. We are informed tliat "if we ar'S
to go back into tiie past, the landowners are entitled to be
recouped enormous sums of which they have bee.i cheated by
the carelessness of collectors, the cunning of capitalists, and
the connivance of Parliament. The fact tliat a burden has
been long evaded is no reason why it should not be laid on the
right shoulders at last ; and the fact that a wrong has been
endured for a couple of hundred years does not justify its
longer continuance." But such extravagance refutes itself,
Ideal wrongs of this sort cannot be the basis of any practical
legislation, or be set up to show that the existing beneficial
owners of land are unjustly treated. Common sense tells us
that a man who purchases land takes it with all its liabilities
— considers only the net income which he buys — and it is
almost grotesque to describe him as the inheritor of the
grievances of former owners. It is the same with the fortu-
nate descendants of former owners themselves, who owe the
fact that they have inherited anything at all to the beneficent
care of the State, and as to whom the only question can be
whether the State iias not allowed too much to descend — has
not improperly abstained from making a heavier charge on
the privilege of bequest. But if existing landowners are not
wronged, why should the tax be remitted ? The only plea for
remission is one of equity ; and the condemnation of existing
taxes on the ground of injustice implied by it is so extravagant
as to prove to the common sense of mankind that it is un-
founded. It is quite true that the plea is put forward to cover
a much smaller practical claim for redress ; but, if the logic
is good for anything, it is good for abolishing the entire here-
ditary rates, and it would be mere child's play to abolish only
the fractional part of so monstrous a grievance as is alleged.
— The Economist.
THE EMPLOYMENT OF CHILDREN IN AGRICUL-
TURE. — At a meeting of the Parton (Lancashire) Board of
Guardians the Clerk read a circular letter from the Clerk to
the High Wycombe Union, petitioning Parliament for the
repeal of those clauses of the Agricultural Act of last session
of Parliament which prohibited the employment of children
between ten and twelve years of age. The petitioners com-
plained that the Act, as it now stood, would inflict great hard-
ship upon parents of children employed in agriculture,
as they would be deprived of the earnings of their children,
which formed a large contribution to the support of the whole
family. That the enforcement of the provisions of the Act
would be detrimental to the interest of the growers of corn
and feeders of cattle, and throw them upon the country at
large as consumers of the produce. That the farmers
of this country were already heavily burdened with
taxation, iu addition to which their expenses were
increased by the heavy rate of wages paid for labour.
Mr. Neild knew of several children in his neigh-
bourhood who could earn four or five shillings a-week in
watching birds or tending lambs, which was a nice healthy
exercise, and to which no work was attached. He thought as
the law now stood it was a most obnoxious imposition. He
would say that there were these conservations — though he was
not seeking the slightest favour for farmers over that of any
other business — that the peculiar nature of the employment of
which he had spoken was healthy and desirable on all grounds.
Mr. Waddington contended that the children to discharge
the duties must be exposed to the weather. The Chairman
said that as the country was looking to the education of her
children, if they were so employed how were they to get edu-
cation ? If children, by education, became more efficient ser-
vants, if they were employed under the age of teu that educa-
tion became nullified. He thought that children should have
that education which would fit them for their duties in life ;
and that as regarded competition, he thought children should
be considered as well as the parents. No motion was passed
upon the letter.
THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE.
ON A NEW SYSTEM OF CULTIVATING THE POTATO, WITH A VlliW TO
AUGMENT PRODUCTION AND PREVENT DISEASE.
A scientific old gentleman of somewhat primitive habits
once declared that with a little more soil, otherwise dirt,
lie could grow turnips on the top of his head ; while Mr.
Shirley Ilibberd, in a really interesting paper which he
read, or rather spoke from at the Society of Arts
solves one of the difficulties of the day by grow-
ing potatoes on the top of his tile: "la the year
18G4, having reasoned out the case, I prepared a plot of
ground for an experiment, to test the value of my conclu-
sions. I procured a quantity of common rootiug-tiles,
laid them in lines on hard ground, laid potato sets on
them, and then covered sets and tiles with prepared soil,
so as to form a long ridge covering a shallow tunnel. The
result was a remarkably heavy crop, the texture finer than
the average, and without a trace of disease. I then re-
solved "to improve on the plan, by providing a better
tunnel than was possible with the nearly Hat roofing-tile.
The result was the adoption of a tile made expressly for
the purpose, and known to the few friends who have
taken an interest in my proceedings as the ' Ilibberd
potato tile.' It is a foot wide and fourteen inches long,
the form that of a low, flat-topped arch, four inches deep
in the centre. The best way to use this tile is to lay
down lines four feet apart, on hard ground, aud as the
sets are laid on the tiles, they are moulded over with earth
from the intervening spaces. The result is a series of
rounded ridges, so far separated that the potato plant
enjoys abundance of light and air, lodgment of water is
impossible, and in the event of a sudden lowering of tem-
perature, when the tubers are ripening, the storage of
earth-heat below the roots tides the crop over the time of
danger, and prevents that engorgement of the tissues
which constitutes the first stage of the disease and the
nursery for the fungus. As a matter of course, the in-
tervening spaces should be deeply dug and liberally
manured, and planted with su';.i'.le crops. These
must be such as will not rob the jiijtatoes of air or
light. The cultivator will have no trouble in determining
how to utilise the furrows."
Of course this is a somewhat expensive processs, and
after giving merely the price of the tiles per thousand
Mr. Ilibberd very fairly left it to practical men to calculate
the cost of laying, planting and otherwise cultivating the
crop. The result, however, is the main point : "As a
matter of fact, if the tile system is properly carried out,
it will in a run of years produce full double the weight of
potatoes that would be produced on the same land with-
out its aid ; and it has this peculiar advantage, that by
saving the crop in a bad season it provides the cultivator
with something to send to market at a time when prices
rule high, and potatoes are regarded as articles of luxury."
And then the lecturer went on to demonstrate how
in a good season as much as k.i'2 per acre might be re-
turned in favour of the tile system.
The discussion which followed was not worth much.
Like the use of sewage, the potato disease would seem to
have a tendency to occasionally weakeu the intellects of
those who give their days and nights to such a study ;
while, what with its weekly meetings, the Society of
Arts is cursed like the Commons and other debating
societies by the presence of people who are always ready
to speak on any given subject. The point consequently
of the after sitting rested with Mr. Ilibberd's reply, and
Agricultural Society should n(jt at once abandon the pro-
this was so striking that it is a question whether the lloyal
motion of any otiicr experiuientsand devote its energies to
the due development of the tile system ; even though, as
we hear, some competition will come of the last move-
ment in this direction. In America, as Mr. Ilib-
berd quoted from market prices, certain varieties of
potatoes were sold at 50 dols. a root, 180 dols. per
bushel, and 5 dols. per lb., which was the price obtained
for Early Hose in 1SG9 ; whilst in 1870, 300 dols. was re-
fused for one peck of King of Earlies." Now 5 dols. i)er lb.
was equal to £406 per ton," and so on, after the celebrated
horse-shoe calculation, until Mr. Hibberd proved
that he himself had grown potatoes at a gross return of
little short of fen. thousand pounds per acre ! It is a
common saying that you may make out or make up any-
thing by the aid of figures ; but it must be understood, as
will indeed be seen by the report of his address, that ^Ir
Hibberd is no mere theorist but a thoroughly practical
man ; and when he talks af ten thousand pounds per acre
he says, "these are big figures no doubt, but they are
strictly founded on facts." All this may be taken as from
something of an American point of view, where with
King Earlies at 500 dollars a peck, and Grand Duchesses
at ten thousand pounds each, and Early Roses at ten
thousand pounds per acre, trade must be rather smart.
At a meeting of the Society of Arts, Lord Alfred Churchill
in the chair, Mr. Suirley Hibberd read the following paper :
So much has been written and said on the subject of potato
disease, that I can only liope to obtain attention by announc-
ing that I ara prepared to submit for your consideration and
approval proposals which, I believe, will be regarded as tend-
ing materially towards a solution of the puzzling problem
the disease forces on our attention. I shall be compelled to
go over old ground, but it will' be for the purpose of establish-
ing new conclusions. Of the history of the potato, of the
special characteristics of the fungus that accompanies the mur-
rain, of the varieties and uses of the potato, I shall have no-
thing to say, except, indeed, it may be incidentally, and for
the necessary illustration of ray argumen In all the many
inquiries and experiments wliich have bee j described and re-
ported until farmers and gardeners were tired of them, one
important point which I shall presently bring under your
notice has been overlooked, and hence the majority of proposed
preventives of potato disease are of an empirical nature ; they
are, indeed, akin to what in connection with maladies that
affect the human frame is usually denominated quackery.
The essence of quackery is to consider the symptoms and neg-
lect the cause of the disease, and in the case of potato mur-
rain numberless plans have been devised, and have resulted in
failure, because they were founded on a superficial cousidera-
tion of the aspects of the case, instead of a clear perception of
the real origin of the mischief. One advises that the plant be
suddenly and violently robbed of every leaf and branch on the
first appearance of the malady ; the result of this treatment is
that growth is suddenly arrested, and tlie crop is usually not
worth digging. The mycologists make the best figure among
the potato doctors, for they deal with a reality which they
understand in part ; but their microscopical and biological in-
vestigations have led tiius far only to a more complete know-
ledge of symptoms, and a good conjecture as to the cause of
the disease ; for, as to the means of prevention, it appears that
the more they know of the fungus, the more helpless they pro-
fess themselves to arrest its ravages. I invite you, first, to con-
sider the constitution of the plant. It is, as you know, a native
of the warm temperate regions of the western conti-
nent. It has never been found wild in either a sub-arctic or a
tropical clime, and it would probably soon become utterly ex-
tinct in this country if completely cast out of cultivation, and
left to lead tiio life of a vagrant weed. Several species of wild
potatoes are met with in Chili, IVru, ami Mexico ; from wliich
of these the cullivatrd jiotalo has been derived it might lie diffi-
cult to say, but this is certain, that tlw^y inhabit rouulries that
are con.sidcrably warm.-r than great Britain, and therefore we
begin with a plant that is not perferfly adapted to our climate.
V
296
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
The mean annual temperature of those parts of Peru where
wild potatoes are found is 73 deg., the maximum 8i2 deg., the
minimum 55 deg. ; the table lands of Mexico have a mean
annual temperature of 02 deg., the lowest temperature in
winter is 32 deg., and in summer the heat rarely exceeds 85 deg.
As the mean annual temperature in London is under 50 deg.,
,and the range of temperature during the summer months is
considerable, it is evident that Solanum iiiberosiim is out of its
element here, for it needs the best climates of the South of
Europe, where, indeed, the disease is scarcely known, and the
tubers usually grow to a prodigious size. In favourable sea-
sons the potato is one of the most profitable of farm and
garden plants in this country and the more northern parts of
Europe. The liealth of the plant is iu no way affected by a
severe or prolonged winter, as it would be if left to grow wild ;
and, for the business now in hand, we need only consider the
conditions to which it is subjected daring the five growing
months from May to September. Yoxi do not need to be in-
formed that this is a most uncertaiu climate, the consequence,
no doubt, of our environment by the "melancholy sea." In
seasons wlien the temperature approximates to the average, and
is agreeably equable, with a moderate and timely rainfall, the
potato prospers, and makes an ample return to tlie cultivator,
by a plentiful production, wholly clean, or very slightly da-
maged by disease. But in seasons characterised by a conside-
rable range of temperature, or by a deficiency of heat, and an
excessive rainfall, t be crop is damaged more or less, and everybody
appears to enjoy a monopoly of wisdom on the subject of potato
disease which leads to confusion and ends in nothing. I must
ask your attention to a few facts. In the course of the forty-
seven years ending 1872 the mean temperature at Ciiiswick of
the five growing montlis was 59 deg. 27 niiu. In the same
period the mean rainfall of the same five months was 11.13
inches. In the year 1845 (the year of the potato famine in
Ireland) the mean temperature of the five growing months
was 56 deg. 50 min., and the rainfall was 11.12 inches. In
the year 1860, when the sun was obscured for months toge-
ther by rain clouds, aud potato disease well-nigh extinguished
the potato plant, the mean temperature of the five giowiug
months was 55 deg. 63 min., and the rainfall 17.89 inches.
These were the two worst years for the potato crop iu our
time. Let us now compare them with the two best years.
In the year 1868 there was a long-continued drought ; the
pastures failed, the railway banks were everywhere on fire, and
the potato crop was one of the cleanest ever known. The
mean temperature of the five growing months was G2 deg.
67 min., and the rainfall only 6.95 inches. In 1870 auother
drought occurred, but owing to the copious rainfall in the
spring the resultant inconvenience was much less than iu
1868, and the potato crop was equally clean and considerably
heavier. In the five growing months the mean temperature
was 65 deg. 39 min., and tlie rainfall only 6.61 inches. An
extended series of comparisons all tell the same tale, but less
strikingly, and on the present occasion it is desirable to arrive
at conclusions as quickly as pos.sible. It must be observed
here that a statement of the mean temperature of any given
period may altogether misrepresent the thermometrical con-
ditions that have prevailed, for a period of excessive heat may
he suddenly followed by excessive cold, aud the mean of the
period may be altogether unafi'ected by the fluctuation. It
18 proper, therefore, to remark that potato disease
usually makes its appearance a few days after the
mean temperature has been considerably lowered, or
alter a sudden and excessive rainfall, and is a quite
common sequel to a period of electrical disturbance, so that
"thunder weather" is commonly regarded as a precursor of
the murrain. Tiiese facts being generally accepted, the ques-
tion arises, What is the cause of potato disease ? By one,
and, indeed, by many, we are told that the cause is electricity.
Auother assures us that an insect lias punctured the plant— it
may be the JpJiis vasiator, or the Colorado beetle, but au in-
sect is the cause of it. Another explanation is that a fungus
is tiie author of tlie mischief, and tiie particular fungus
selected is the one now called Peronospora infestans, formerly
B'jlryilsinfestuHS. In my opinion (aud I have been a student
of the potato and potato-culture over twenty years), the only
explanation worth a moment's attention is that offered by the
mycologiat. Without doubt, the fungus is invariably asso-
ciated with the murrain, but it is a mistake to say it is the
cause, for, in truth, it is but an efl"ect : the cause is of a more
subtle nature. If the disease invariably follows certain
changes or conditions of temperature and humidity, and is
unknown when such conditions do not prevail, why should we
not regard the fungus as only a symptom, and accept the sug-
gestion of facts, that the conditions which favour the disease
are also favourable to the fungus ? W^here was the fungus iu
1863 aud 1S70? It was, comparatively speaking, unknown,
for the plant was healthy. Iu 1845 and 1860 the fungus
found the plant a ready prey, for the plant was weakened by a
low temperature aud excessive humidity. The potato is here
out of its element, and hence it prospers only in seasons that
are better than the average, at least so far as the five growing
months are concerned. I must now beg you to bear in mind
that the potato is greatly influenced by sudden changes of
atmospheric conditions wheu the crop is nearly full-
grown and is entering on the period of ripening.
It so happens that the ripening season — July and
August — is also the season when atmospheric convulsions are
most common, great heat being quickly succeeded by unsea-
sonable cold, and the cold aggravated in its effects by a
copious rainfall. If we are to save the potato we must find
means to carry it through these periods of trial, and, as I
understand the case, that is the problem now before us. The
potato, more than any other plant in cultivation in this
country, is dependent for its health on continued solar heat.
If we could produce artificial sunshine above the surface of
the ground, and artificial sun-heat below, we should save the
crop at times when sunshine fails, and the ground is dis-
astrously cooled by a heavy rainfall. You will not expect of
me anything in the nature of a miracle, but I will endeavour
to show how a substitute for sunshine may be secured by
a simple method of procedure, and at a cost by no means
extravagant, considering the results that may be anticipated.
You are aware that iu heavy lands it is customary, at least iu
gardens, to plant potatoes on ridges* in order that their roots
may enjoy a maximum of ground heat, and be quickly drained
of superfluous moisture by meaus of the troughs between the
ridges. Now, it will be obvious that the advantage of the
ridge and furrow system would be cousiderably increased were
we to piece every ridge with a tunnel, for this would ensure
beneath the roots of the plant a body of imprisoned air, the
non-conducting property of which would render it a store-
house of solar heat, maintaining the temperature of the soil
nearly at the point it had attained before the weather changed,
and while favouring the rapid escape of surplus moisture,
acting medicinally as well as nutritively to sustain the health of
the plant. I shall endeavour to show howthis may be done. In
the year 1864, having reasoned out the case iu much the same
way as I now place it before you, I prepared a plot of ground for
an experiment, to test the value of my conclusions. 1 procured a
quantity of common roofing tiles, laid them in lines on hard
ground, laid potato sets on them, and then covered sets and
tiles with prepared soil, so as as to form a long ridge covering
a shallow tunnel. The result was a remarkably heavy crop,
the texture finer than the average, and without a trace of
disease. I then resolved to improve on the plan, by providing
a better tuunel than was possible with the nearly-flat roofing
tile. Tiie result was the adoption of a tile made expressly
for the purpose, and knowu to the few friends wlio have
taken an interest in my proceedings as the " Hibberd potato
tile." It is a foot wide and fourteen inches long, the form
that of a low, flat- topped arch, four inches deep in the centre .
I obtained a supply of this tile from Messrs. Scales, of the
Potteries iu the Green-lanes, Stoke Newington, in 1865.
There was no stint of clay or fire in making them, aud they
prove to be capable of v^ear-and-tear to a surprising extent,
considering that they have to be roughly handled. The best
way to use this tile is to lay down lines four feet apart, on
hard ground ; and as the sets are laid on the tiles, they are
moulded over with earth from the intervening spaces. The
result is a series of rouuded ridges, so far separated that the
pota:o plant enjoys abund«nce of light and air, lodgement of
water is impossible, and in the event of a sudden lowering of
temperature, when the tubers are ripeuing, the storage of
earth-heat below the roots tides the crop over the time of
danger, and prevents that engorgement of the tissues whicli
constitutes the first stage of the disease and the nursery for
the fundus. As a matter of course, the intervening spaces
should be deeply dug and liberally manured, and planted with
suitable crops. They must be such as will not rob the pota-
toes of air or light. The cultivator will have no trouble in
determining how to utUise the furrows. Iu the garden they
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,
297
will be fouud admiraljly ;iduptcd for celery, late dwarf peas,
broccolis, and winter greens. In farm practice it would
probably be best to leave the furrows open, because the
sort of potatoes selected would profitably utilise
the light and air, and in strong laud really meet across the
furrows. Here, of course, we encounter the question. Will it
pay ? It must be confessed that the Ilibberd potato tile is a
costly thing, for Messrs. Senles cannot now produce it at a
lower rate than from ^6 to £8 per 1,000, and, for the sake of
a datum, we may reckon that the cost would be £7 per 1,000,
or, if laid in lines four feet asunder, i'GO 3s. per acre. Tbe
cost of the common ridge tile at the present time is £3 IDs.
per 1,000, but tins is only 12 inches long, and the saving is
less than appears. It would be good lu-actice, however, to
lay these a yard apart, the cost ia tiiis case amounting to £51
Ds. Those wlio raise or speculate in new varieties, and who
are familiar with tbe difEculty of obtaining a stock quickly, to
ensure a high price in the market, will not regard the tile
system as costly, provided only that it affords substantial help
to save the crop in a bad season. As a matter of fact, if the
tile system is properly carried out, it will in a run of years
produce full double tbe wcighl" of potatoes that would be pro-
duced on the same laud without its aid ; and it has this
peculiar advantage, tliat by saving the crop in a bad season
it provides the cultivator with something to scud to market
at a time when prices rule high, and potatoes are regarded as
articles of luxury. But we must test the tile system on tbe
land of the man who grows potatoes for market. With a
good season, good laud may be reckoned to produce potatoes
at the rate of eiejlit tons per acre, which, at 120s. per tou,
will he worth £48. If we estimate the crop on the tiles at
sixteen tons, the total value will be £9G, from which we must
deduct £6, being 10 per cent, of the cost of the tiles for in-
terest on the iavcstinent, which reduces tbe value of the crop
to £90. This shows a balance of £12 per acre in favour of
the tile system. But suppose we estimate tbe crop at twelve
tons, the value will then amount to £66, showing a balance
of £18 in favour of the tiles. It will be observed that, in a
hot and dry season like that of 18/0, the diiTerence in bulk
and quality between a crop grown without and another with
tiles will be trifling, so as to show the least advantage of the
tile system ; while in a season characterised by a copious rain-
fall, tbe difl'ereuce will be the greatest, for as a matter of fact,
when disease prevails and there is said to be no crop,
there is usually a prodigious production of tubers, and the
misfortune is that the majority of them are worthless.
It is in such a season tbe tile system will tell its proper
story. The heavy rains that spread disease on every hand
will benefit the crops that are protected by tunnels, and
the enormous production that follows upon tlumder weather
in the height of the season will be saved for our use, when, if
not so aided, they would simply rot and make the very atmos-
phere offensive. Let us then suppose that we have a forward,
genial summer, occasionally interrupted by electric storms
and days of tropical heat and rain. In such a season tbe
potato crops on well-drained fertile sandy soils are usually
great, while on tlie heavy lands they come to nothing. But if on
these heavy lands we employ tiles, we may expect to dig
twenty tons per acre. Tiie contrast in sucli a case may be
put thus : Produce of one acre on the flat, nothing ; produce
of one acre on tiles, 20 tons at 120s., £120. When a proper
reduction has been made for interest on cost of tiles and loss
by breakage, the balance will prove the potato to be one of
the most profitable plants in cultivation.
It remains to be said that the tile system will not make
sunshine, will not create heat, and will not check tbe rainfall;
therefore, it will not be always successful, and 1 am bound to
confess that I iiave taken diseased potatoes from tiles ; but in
a bad season, the tiles, with all their shoit-comings, have en-
sured a crop when, without their aid, there would liavc been
none. Wheat, maize, and potatoes are, in a peculiar sense,
tbe products of sunsbine ; and in such a summer as that of
1800, wlieu tbe sun was obscured for months together, and
the r.iinfiill of the growing season, from Way to September,
f mounted to 18 inches, there could be but a small production
of such things, no matter what the conditions and contrivances
adopted by tbe cultivator. I make no pretension to the dis-
covery of an infallible specific, but I am satisfied that all who are
interested in the cultivation of tlie potato should give the tile
system a fair trial during at least three consecutive seasons, to
determine for themselves whether iu these remarks peculiari-
ties and merits liave been fairly stated.
Sir. W. J. Goui.TON (Retford) said he l;ad been growing;
potatoes for the last twenty-five years, to the extent of 200
acres on tbe average. He was very glad to find that scientific
men were taking up this important subject, and hoped some
good would result from it. He wished to know if Mr. Hib-
berd had made any calculation as to the cost of labour in
using the tiles.
Mr. BoTiA' made a speech.
Mr. Amos Bryant exiressed his decided conviction that
the disease in potatoes was produced by a fly, produced from a
worm found in oak-galls, which were imported for tanning
purposes. He had a powder which would exterminate tliis
fly, and he would undertake to grow potatoes for anyone free
from disease, without the expense of tiles, or to cure the disease
if not too far advanced.
Mr. Newton, having had considerable experience iu both
agriculture and liorticulture, could confirm what Mr. Hibberd
had said as to the value of drainage in the culture of potatoes,
and, though he did not quite approve of the tile system now
proposed, he believed he was the first to introduce drain tiles
into Virginia. The potato was n sub-tropical plant, and
required plenty of sun. Within tlielnst year be had seen two
crops grown on the same land in Virginia without any ma-
nure, simply because there was abundance of warmth to evapo-
rate tbe water at the time the plant was forminot starch. Since
the days of Dr. Lindley tbe potnto disease had been known in
Great Britain, but no certainty had been arrived at as to its
prevention, thougli efficient drainase seemed most promising.
Tbe potato, being a sub-tropical plant, seemed to accommodate
itself to its new home like tbe sub-tropical plants in Ilyde-
park, which only throve when there was good drainage, and
the soil was kept warm by means of air. He had tried many
experiments, like Mr. Ilibberd, but did not believe there was
any remedy for the disease. It simply came to tliis — if the
soil were warm enough, and the sun sufficieut to evaporate tho
moisture when tbe starch was forming, tlie disease did not
appear ; and he, therefore, recommended the thorough
draining of the soil, and the cultivation of early varieties,
which would ripen before t!ie approach of tbe summer thun-
derstorms.
Mr. R. J. Lecky wished to know how manure was applied
under the tile system. Having lived for many years on tho
west coast of Ireland, he had watched this disease since ISiS,
and thought a very foolish mystery had been made of it. It
was really very simple ; tbe spores of fungi were constantly
floating in the air, and whenever they found a suitable medium
they would grow. In a damp, moist year there could be no
doubt that these spores grew much more easily than in a dry
year. Plants grown rapidly and well were less liable to disease
than those grown slowly and badly, as they were not so mnch
attacked by insects and parasitical fungi. It was all nonsense
about electricity causing tbe disease. In his opinion the plant
was attacked by the disease in the leaf first, as was constantly
seen in every potato field ; it began with a little black spot in the
leaf, which became brittle, and from there it extended to the
stalk, which also became brittle. Sometimes a field would
appear entirely free from disease one day, and then, after a
foggy night, it would be all covered with it. That simply arose
from the" rapid growth of the fungus, though what sort of
fungus it was he could not say. It rapidly spread from the
leaf to the rib, from tbe rib to the stalk, and then
to the root, where it found its food in the starch.
It had been often said, that when a field.' was at-
tacked, if it were mowed down, the tubers would be saved,
and he believed it was so ; there were too many examples for
it to be doubted. No donbt Mr. Ilibberd's plan was a very
good one, but it was rather expensive. Potatoes grew in all
climates, in Normandy, in Iceland, and in the dampest parts of
the west coast of Kerry, and the crop was very often good in
that damp climate, tbe reason, no doubt, being that the tempe-
rature was high during the important part of the year. At
Valenlia the temperature during the five months referred to,
seldom exceeded 70 degrees, or fell below 55 deg. to 00 deg.
Mr. Hale thought it would have been well if Mr. Ilibberd
had given the comparative results of growing tlie same kind of
potatoes in the same soil with tiles and without.
Mr. EA.REY asked what would be the result of the tile sys-
em upon the crop, if during tlie chief growing season there
298
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
were a drought ; woulJ it uot be ratlier detrimental than
otlierwise ?
The CHAIKMA^' said he gathered from the discussion that
there was a general concurrence of opinion that the disease
was raerel)- a fungus which grew upon the potato, and which
was engendered from its being grown upon cold, damp soils.
Of course, the first remedy was drainage, the second, to pro-
vide a warm soil, such as was natural to tlie plant. This being
so, the method proposed by Mr. Hibberd seemed to answer, as
far as his experience had gone, and it was certainly a rational
one in every respect. His most powertul arguments were the
statistics he had given, showing the different crops which had
been produced in different years according to the meteoro-
logical average taken'during the five mouths of the potato's
growth, and proving that dry years produced the best crops.
Looking at the enormous consumption of potatoes, it was
most important that some mcaus should be devised, if possible,
for producing a uniformly-good crop, and Mr. Hibberd seemed
to have hit upon the right principle, because he had shown
that the potatoes grown upon the tiles far exceeded in weight,
quality, and value, those grown in the ordinary way. There
was no doubt he was right in protesting against overcrowding,
for harm was often done by attempting to fill the ground too
much, one plant crowding out the other, and robbing it of its
proper nutriment. Air was, undoubtedly, one of the most
powerful non-conductors, and the air having been once
warmed, would retain its heat for a considerable time, not-
withstanding occasional thunder showers. The material of
the tile also was a good retainer of heat, and therefore, though
there might be cheaper materials discovered for enclosing the
air, he did not think they would prove so useful as tiles in
retaining the warmth. There was a heavy outlay at the
heginuing, no doubt, but against that must be set the increased
value of the crop. If this difficulty of cost could be overcome,
no doubt the system would soon be largely extended, to the
great increase of production. He had lately seen in the
Gardeiier''s JLir/azine an article describing a beetle now preva-
lent over some part of North America, which destroyed
potatoes in a most marvellous manner, large tracts being quite
devastated by it. It was necessary, therefore, to be particu-
larly cautious in planting seed potatoes which came from
America, lest this destructive insect should be introduced. In
conclusion, he moved a cordial vote of thanks to Mr. Hibberd
for his valuable paper.
Mr. Shirley IIibueud, in reply, said his only object in
coming forward was to promote potato cuhure on scientific
principles. He liad not put down anything for the cost of
labour, leaving such details to practical men who coufd deal
with them ijuite as well as himself ; hut, according to hia own
experience, the cost of laying down the tiles was very smull
indeed ; it would hardly add anything to the expense. Mr.
Newton, although not professing to approve his system, really
did so, because he approved of draining, and referred to the
sub-tropical plants in Hyde-park, which had only been suc-
cessfully cultivated on this very system, though brick rubbish
was used instead of tiles for the purpose of enclosing the air.
Another gentleman had asked how the manure could be ap-
plied. He miglit say, according to fancy. Sometimes on a
nice sandy soil potatoes were planted on the manure, and
then covered over ; and so with the tiles. They might be
placed on the tile and then covered over with manure. And
by this plan you might manure very strongly, because as the
water was got rid of and the plant kept warm, it could assi-
milate more food. He had m mured tlic ground after the
potato was planted, digging it well, turning in plenty of guano
and cheap potash salts, and then when it was all well chopped
up, turning it over the plants. He was not particular to one
particular form of tile, his object being to establish the prin-
ciple, and leave every one to carry it out in the best and
cheapest way he could. He had tried every possible experi-
ment in potato culture, and could easily speud several hours
in narrating his experience, but considered it hetter to keep
to one point, and explain it thoroughly. Mr. Early had put
a very excellent question, and no doubt this plan would not
be so advantageous in time of drought ; but then in a light
porous soil the tiles were not required, and in a heavy clay
soil the drought would not effect the potato much on the tile ;
in fact, in 1868, he had a beautiful crop. It served to store
up the sunshine against the time of bad weather. That was
the vital principle. He himself did not grow potatoes for the
wholesale market, but he would conclude by a few facts,
showing the value of the system to a potato fancier. He
then quoted several American journals to show that certain
varieties were sold at 50 dollars a root, 180 dollars per bush.,
and 5 dollars per lb., which was the price obtained by
Messrs. Bliss for " Early Rose" in 1869 ; whilst in 1870 the
same firm refused 500 dollars for one peck of " King of
Earlies." Now 5 dollars per lb. was equal to £466 per ton,
and at 8 tons per acre, that was between £4,000 and £5,000.
He himself had grown " Early Rose" at the rate of 20 tons
per acre — by a costly system no doubt, with a beautiful soil,
fit to grow calceolarias or fuchsias, and with every care taken
in the handling to put the potatoes the right way up — but at
the same rate of 5 dollars per lb., tiiat was equal to £9,3-20
per acre. These were big figures, no doubt, but they were
strictly founded on facts, and were sufficient to show that the
cost of tiles was not always a matter of very great ira«
portance.
BOTLEY AND SOUTH HANTS FARMERS' CLUB.
THE BREEDING OE SHEEP.
At the lust monthly meeting held at Botley, Mr. W. Warner,
the president, in the chair, the subject was " The advantage of
cross breeding in sheep, particularly the Cots wold sheep," in-
troduced by Mr. Smith, of VVestend.
Mr. Smith said : When I was asked to read a paper on the
difi'ereut breeds of slieep I readily consented, as it would give
me an opportunity of describing my own breed of sheep, and
also an introduction to some of my brother farmers. lam not
come so much to teach as to learn, and there is often more in-
formation to be gained from the discussion than from the
paper read. I hope no gentleman will hesitate in asking for
an explanation on anything I say. Tliat is the only way to get
full information on the subject. I commence with the Cots-
wolds. The Cotswold sheep are supposed to derive their name
from the " cotes " or sheds from wiiich they were fed in win-
ter, and from the "wolds "or open hilly grounds in which
they were pastured in summer. I believe them to be the
original breed of the long wool sheep, as they are continually
spokeji of from the earliest times wl>en no other sheep are
noticed. I find that Gloucestershire was the earliest trading
district for native wool in England. Gloucester had its trade
compaiiics and Guildiiall long before one was established in
London. lu tlie tliirteentii century Cirencester had two markets
— one on Monday for corn, and one on Friday for wool. The
monumental brasses in the church at Cirencester and at North-
leach were paid for in Cotswold wool to foreign artists. That
attests the importance of tiie wool trade at that period. A part
of Northleach Church was built by Henry Forty, a wool
dealer, who died in 1400 at Cirencester. One of those interest-
ing brasses is to the memory of Robert Page ; he also was a
wool dealer, and died in 1434. The immense quantity of
wool grown in the county of Gloucester is apparent from the
fact that in the reign of Edward III. thirty thousand sacks of
native Cotswold wool was the annual quantity granted from
that county for the king's household. In the fifteenth century
both sheep and wool were largely exported. In 1437 Don
Durantee, King of Portugal, applied to Henry VI. for per-
mission to export sixty sacks of Cotswold wool to manufac-
ture certain cloth of gold for his own private use. At that
time the wool of the Cotswold sheep stood unrivalled in point
of excellence, and bore a higher price than any other kind of
wool. It is said to have been worth 4-3. per pound at the pre-
sent value of money. It continued nearly a century to realize
that price in consequence of the great demand for the manu-
facture of the beautiful fabrics, such as cloth of gold, Stc.
Cotswold sheep were undoubtedly considered the best animals
England could produce at that period, as a proof of which I
miglit say that it one monarch made a present of animals to
another it would be what he considered the best in his king-
dom. In 1464 a present of Cotswold sheep was made by
tHE FARMl'lR'S MAGAZINE.
299
Edward IV. to Henry of Cisfilp, and in IIGS anotlier lot of
Cotswold slieep was seut to Jolm of Aragon, bolli designed to
improve the Spanish breed of sheep. In the reign of Queen
Elizabeth tiie C'otswok! sheep are described as acoarse, hxrge bone,
long wool sheep. They have undergone a great change and
improvement since that time. Notwithstanding the improve-
ment in most breeds of sheep the Cotswold holds by far the
pre-eminence. Their beautiful and immense frames, their
fine countenance, and fullest fleece give Iheni a grand majestic
appearance, such as no other breed of sheep have ever yet at-
fciined. I think them the best sheep in existence, and will pro-
duce more mutton and wool for the food they consume than any
other breed of sheep. The Cotswold, although large sheep,
have big backs and little bellies, and will not consume so much
food as some smaller sheep that have little bucks and great
bellies. The Cotswolds are entirely in the possession of
tenant-farmers — not pushed into public estimation by noble-
men, as some other breeds are, but have risen and spread
thenaselves all over England, and to most other countries from
their own just merits, without the assistance of the great men.
Nearly fifty years past the Cotswold ram-breeders all used a
Leicester ram. That greatly improved their flocks, giving
them better symmetry, Better quality, and more aptitude to
fatten. Before the introduction of the Leicesters, many of
them were grey, but arc since mostly white. I have always
used grey sheep, but pure Cotswold. My flocks are the Cots-
wold greys. A good Cotswold sheep has a large, wide frame,
with abundance of valuable wool, a large head, eyes wide from
each other across the forehead, not long from the eye to the
nose, jaw deep and tapering to the mouth, ears long and fine,
the head well covered with wool, a grand arched neck, set on
high feeding up to the ears, ribs well sprung out from the
back and chines, shoulders well set back into the ch'ues, a
prominent, full, expanded chest, deep foreflanks, wide back and
loin, rump nicely lormed all round from one loin to the other,
hea»fy leg of mutton, good and full in the twist, iiioderate-
siied bone, feet small, clean and upright in the posterior, or
fetlock joints. I think that description will bear me out in
calling the Cotswold sheep a grand, majestic animal. [^Ir.
Smith here referred to two oil paintings of a Cotswold ram
and ewe, both splendid animals, especially the latter, in order
to give an idea of what his flock were.] Next take the Lei-
cesters. While the origin of the Cotswold sheep is veiled in
the obscurity of long-past ages, history can point with cer-
tainty to that of the new Leicesters. In 1750 they were
coarse, large bone, heavy woolled animals, seldom fit for the
butcher before th°y were three years old. At that age they
weighed from ' w i ;, -live to thirty pounds per quarter. The
wool was lull.; and coarse in the staple, and weighed about
ten pounds per fleece. Soon after that time Mr. Robert Bake-
well, of Dishley, directed his attention to the improvement of
his flock. In what way he did it I do not know, or from what
motive he acted, but it is certain that he kept himself aloof
from public discussion. The only autiientic written produc-
tion he has left behind him is an angry correspondence with
another breeder regarding some alleged unauthorised inspec-
tion of each other's flocks. So close was the veil of secrecy he
threw over his proceedings that it is stated his own servants,
with the exception of one man whom he thoroughly trusted,
were entirely ignorant of wiiat was going on. Either from
Bakewell having directed iiis principal attention to the per-
fecting of the carcase, or from his system of in-and-in breed-
ing, his sheep soon became deficient of wool, that appearing a
secondary value to him, he, perhaps, regarding a fleece as de-
tracting from what was his great aim— a ready disposition to
fatten. When the new Leicesters were first introduced the
breeding of rams was confined to a few individuals, who alone
with Mr. Bakewell established the Dishley Society. Their
object was to make a complete monopoly of the business. The
letting of rams appears to have been unknown before the days
of Bakewell. When he first introduced the practice in 1760,
he let his first ram (or 17s. 6d., and for several seasons he
could not make more than two or three guineas encli for his
best sheep. As the public became convinced of the superiority
of his breed they gradually rose in pries. In 178 1 he let one
ram for 100 guineas. The desire to possess his sheep
became so great- that in 178!) he made 1,200 guineas with
three rams, and 2,000 guineas with seven others, lie also
received 3,000 guineas more from the Dishley Society for the
use of the remainder of his rams that season, making together
6,200 guineas. Mr. Bakewell let one ram another season to
two breeders at 400 guiueas, each reserving to himself a third
of the ewes put to him, rating that sheep at 1,200 guineas for
the season. Such was the success that Mr. Bakewell achieved,
and so selfish was he that when he had shee)) to sell he
turned them for a time into his meadows to rot them, so that
no one should breed from them. Mr. Buckley was second to
Bakewell. lie had a ram let for 1,000 guiueas. I went with
my father and purchased two grandsons of the 1,000 guinea
sheep. At that time my father kept Leicesters, and my fiock
descended from them. The Leicesters have undoubtedly done
great good by crossing others. All the best flocks of Leicesters
at the present day are crossed eitlier with Cotswolds or Liu-
colus ; I know some with a great share of Cotswold in them.
Those that are not crossed (if there are any now) are nearly
all fat and very little flesh — the worst sheep there are for tlie
butcher. We want all animals full of mnterial flesh. They
have stronger constitutions than light-fleshed animals. I now
come to the Lincolns. These sheep, before they were crossed
witli Buckley's or Bakewell's Leicester, were ugly animals.
They had a long, thin carcase, hen back, great paunch, coarse
bone, slow feeders, and coarse-grained mutton. They were
kept principally for their wool, of which they grow a heavy
weight, with a beautiful lustre upon it. I find that the lustre
so highly prized in the Lincoln wool does not belong entirely
to the Lincoln sheep, but partly to the district or climate, as
Lincolns taken to other districts partly lose that lustre the
next year, and other sheep taken into Lincolnshire obtain that
lustre to a certain extent the second year. At the present
time few, if any, of the old Lincolns are to be found. They
are greatly improved by being crossed with the Leicesters,
giving them better symmetry, more aptitude to fatten, and
better qmlity of mutton, but they grow less wool. The Ox-
fordsliire Downs are a cross with the Cotswold and Down, and
good sheep they are. In 1858 they gave them tlieir name to
establish them as a breed. To my sorrow they were my best
customers. The year previous twenty-one of my rams were
purchased at my sale to be used by the Oxfordshire Down ram
breeders. I am of opinion that cross-bred sheep will be made
more profitable than Oxfordshire Downs, as a man may use
his judgment and put a long wool, short wool, or cross-bred
ram to his ewes — which he thinks will be the best cross.
Some persons must keep pure breeds to cross with. We hear
many persons when they want a ram for Down ewes say either
will do, as it is only for cross-bred lambs. If like begets like,
should not good rams be used for crossing ? If I did not breed
rams, I should keep a cross-bred flock. I think it requires
more judgment and attention to keep a good cross-bred flock
than any one breed. With good management I feel assured
they will make the greatest profit. The Hampshire Downs
are a cross between the old horned Hampshire and the Down.
They are a big framed, and strong constitutioned animal.
Their deficient points are light of wool, a great paunch, and
raw, keen back. If crossed again with a Cotswold that has a
good fat back and plenty of wool, I feel certain that would
produce a very good sheep, and a good fleece of wool also.
I give the Hampshire Down breeders credit for being the
best managers of lambs I know of in feeding and bringing
them to greater perfection than any other breed. They
make a great price of them. If they make a greater profit
I do not know, as they drop their lambs so early the
ewes must have better food, and will consume so much more
after lambing than before. If the lamb is fourteen mouths
old instead of twelve months when sent to the butcher the
cost of keeping will dip considerably into the price they make,
and the butcher will give more in proportion for a small sheep
if fat than a big one. Of the South or Susses Downs I know
but little. They have undoubtedly done a great good by
crossing other breeds. I should like thera better if they grew
more wool, had bigger backs, and less bellies. 1 think them
great consumers of food for their size. If yon chance to be
out travelling, early or late, where they pasture, yon will in-
variably see them feeding at all hours, when the long wool
sheep would be lying down. 1 often think when I see them
in a show-yard well fatted I should like to dine off a haunch,
and would keep some for my table if I were a nobleman. I
consider them gentlemen's slieep, not farmer's to pay rent
with. The Shropshire Downs are cross-bred sheep. I have
seen many very good animals of that class, but I do not know
in what way they were originally bred. I hear they are
becoming small and light of wool. 1 should recommend a
cross with a good fat-back Cotswold and heavy wool. The
»00
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
three classes of longvvolled sheep have all beea wonderfully
improved from bein.i? crossed with otlier loiignoolled sheep,
and from careful selection among their own breed. There-
fore they may be called crossbred sheep. The Shropshire,
Ilanipshire, aad Oxfordshire are all crossed with longwool and
shortrt'ool, a mixture altogether, and good sheep they are. I
consider those three classes the best sheep for profit and to
feed the public of any I kuow at the present time. If the
Hampshire and Shropshire were blended wi',!'. more wool they
would be more profitable to the producer. I believe the South-
downs, horned Dorsets, and Welsh mountain to be the only
• slieep that can be called pure breeds of all the classes I know
anything about. All other breeds may strictly be called cross
bred, and all so much improved by it that I do not think any
one may hesitate in crossing if they will use judgment and
put proper animals together, blending all the good qualities
into cue, as I believe Mr. Twynara did some years past. I
have no doubt but some of the Hampshire flocks are improved
by it at the present time. He was perfectly right in putting
the ewes of the first cro s to rams of the same cross— the only
way to produce uniformity, and nothing shows good breeding
so inuoh. Most persons admit the first cross to be good, but
many are so absurd as to say the young ewes must bo seat off
and not bred from. A very strange idea to my mind. After
you have bred the animal you want them to do away with
them. If a few lambs go wrong it will not be much loss to
cull or weed them out aud feed them. Every person before
purchasing his rams should look very closely into the points
of his ewes, and put a ram good in those points in which the
ewes are deficient. It may sometimes be requisite to use a
longwooi, shortwool, auJ a half-bred ram among cross-bred to
suit the different ewes and keep them right — that will require
judgment to be exercised.
Mr. Bakfoud thanked Mr. Smith for the practical manner
in which he had introduced the subject, and he was also very
glad to find tiiat he recognised the services the late Mr.
Bakewell had rendered in forming his celebrated breed of
Leicester sheep, and he was quite satisfied th it every flock of
longwoolled sheep had either directly or indirectly benefited
from a strain of his celebrated sheep. Before the Cotswolds
received the benefit from the Bakewell blood they were a
coarse bred, large-boned, unprofitable breed of sheep, and
required a large amount of food before they were tit for
the butclier. With regard to crossing he was convinced that
judicious crossing — for instance, the Cotswolds with the
Hampshire Downs— produced excellent animals for the butcher,
coming curly to maturity, with only a moderate amount of
food, but if the crossing was continued with the idea of keeping
a cross-bred flock he was satisfied that it required immense
care and judgment in selection, otherwise he was convinced
they would deteriorate, and while he advocated judicious
crossing for purposes of the butcher, he could not too strongly
advise the retention of our pure breeds in their integrity, for
what would the cross-bred flocks do if they had not the pure
breeds to revert to occasionally P
Mr. J. BLt;NDi,i.L had been very much interested by the
observations of Mr. Smith respecting his Cotswold sheep.
He (Mr. Blundell) had the pleisure of selling tegs obtained
by his sheep at Botley market in 1850 and 1860. Mr.
Charles B. Smith, of Wickham, had for some years used rams
from Mr. W. Sm th's Cotswold flock. Mr. Smith had gone
into the matter, and he was quite sure his remarks were much
appreciated. He (Mr. Blundellj was struck very forcibly with
his observations with reference to his idea iu bringing his
sheep to perfection. He was quite convinced that in order
for a man to bring about a good breed of stock or of sheep he
must have his beau ideal before him. He must have that
which he intended to produce iu his mmd's eye, or he would
never see it in reality. If a man wanted to improve the breed
of sheep he must have some idea in his head, for they might
depend upon it these things did not come about by accident.
When they had an idea to establish a type of eheep they must
see whether it would be of advantage to have a Cotswold, or
Hampsliire Down, an 0.\ford Down, or a Shropshire. Look
at Mr. Humphreys — he reared a splendid class of sheep, and
called them the Improved Hampshire Downs. He had one
idea : he started upon it, and lie attained to such eminence
as no man had reached since hia day. He wished, however,
to make one or two remarks with reference to tlic cross-
breeding of the sheep in his own time. He might say that iu
1826 was the first year he went to the Weyhill Sheep Hit.
There had been for some ten yeais previous an attempt to
establish a South Down or Hampsliire Down cross-breed with
the Somerset and horned Dorset, thinking they would be able
to supersede the horned ewe peculiar to the district of Somerset
aud West Dorset. One peculiarity in the ewes was early
{ambing, a greater number of twins, and more natural support
for the lambs than any breed he knew of. But that did not
succeed. He recollected very well Mr. Robert Gaylor, a gentle-
man who was a member of that club, who, before his death,
purchased some cross-bred ewes which were produced by a
South Down ram from a horned ewe, aud the lambs produced
were some of the best he had ever seen for general purposes,
aud he thought it a great pity that they did not try it farther,
but they said they could not get lambs enough, aad that was
because they adhered too much to the Down. Tiien they said
that the Down ewes did not leave such good manure as the
horned. lie had had some experience in this matter, and
coincided with this view, aud he did not hesitate to say that
so far as his observation could guide him, the horned ewes left
a great deal better manure for the crop in succession than the
South Down ewe. He thought they should have adhered to
those principles of crossing such as were set forth by old Mr.
Humphreys, and by the same rule as guided Messrs. Druceand
Howard with the Oxfords, and if the cross with the Down and
horned ewes had been persevered in upon the same principle
the Somerset and Dorset breeders might have produced a
valuable type of sheep having the appearance of Down sheep
which, through the influence of the scil and climate and the
horned ewes blood, might have dropped their lambs in
November and December, with plenty of twins, aud probably
displaced the horned ewes altogether. He would divide his
remarks under three heads. The first would be the cross for fat
lambs. Tlie best cross he knew of would be to put a Hampshire
Down ram to a horned ewe. It had been said that they should
have South Down rams but he did not think so. It would not
give the weight for age, and their coats did not come so well
as the Hampshire Down cross. He once had a very nice lot of
lambs indeed from horned ewes by the Cotswold cross, and he
recollected taking them to Tareham Cattle Show and getting
a prize with them. Ten of those lambs were sent to London,
and he was told that they were the heaviest ever seen there
for their age, aud seven out of the ten were twin lambs. The
second point was as to fat tegs. He did not think they could
do any belter, iu order to bring tegs fit for the butcher at I'Z
or l-i months old, than put a Cotswold ram to a Hampshire
Down ewe. The third and last point was with regard to the
crossing of the flock for breeding purposes. This was a very
important point indeed, because they found that go iuto what
country they would, there was sure to be some who had a pre-
judice against it. Some people said they would not attempt
it, but they did not give a reason for it. Before a man could
give auanswer he must have attempted it, aud then he would be
in a position to say whether it would do or not. His advice was
tiiat in some llocks, and more particularly Hampshire Downs
and East Dorset, the Shropshire sheep would be the best to
to cross with. And why ? Because they would have, first
of all, 30 per cent. more lambs, they would
liave a greater aptitude to fatten, they would
run thicker, and they would have sheep hardier
than the Hampshire Downs. At the same time they
would have sheep which would yield more valuable wool- He
was sure they would get 130 lambs out of 100 ewes in the
Shropshire and Downs cross while they would not have more
than 90 out of the 100 Downs. This was a matter worthy of
their serious consideration. The sheep in the midland counties,
including Shropshire, fed in a different way, and were more
easily satisfied than the Hampshire Down breed. Then it was
said that the iambs would be smaller, but they would have 30
per cent, more to sell. Supposing the loss in the 100 was 6s.
per head on account of the size it would be £30, but then the
gain on 30 lambs at £-2 each would be £00, so they would thus
have £60 as against £30. This was an important point, aud
these and other things must be taken into consideration if
they attempted to cross in the breeding of a flock, and by
doing what he suggested he believed they could get as great a
per-centage of lambs as from any race of sheep in the king-
dom. The Shropshire sheep was the hardiest breed they had.
He had seen them under various circumstances, and he had
seen them bear with that which would have cliilled their
Hampshire lambs to death. He therefore considered that to
adopt the Shropshire would be to improve our Down sheep.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
301
He would do precisely the same as Mr. Humphreys did ia the
establisliaient of the Improved Hampshire Downs. In just tlie
same way he would take the Shropshire Down aud improve
the Hampshire Downs, selecting necessarily the best, weeding
out the worst ewes, and taking the best rams. It had been
objected by some that they would not have the colour, but tliey
could have a Shropshire sheep with a dark face, aud farmers
should not be deterred ou that account. He would not detain
tliem any longer, but he could recommend Mr. Smith's type of
sheep for early maturity.
The r]Lviioi.v:v asked Mr. Smith in what way could Cots-
wolds be rendered useful in that neighbourhood?
3Ir. Smith replied tliat he believed they could be made
useful by being put to Hampshire Downs, and he considered
they would make as good sheep as there were in existence, as
the Hampshire sheep had a strong constitution.
lu reply to Mr. Barford, Mr. Smith said he would cross
the Cotswolds with the Hampshire Downs for the purpose of
growing wool and mutton.
Mr. W. C. Spooler said he thought they ought to bemnch
obliged to Mr. Smith for bringing forward the subject of the
breeding of sheep, and especially as he found that it was only
twice in the history of the club that they had had sudi a sub-
ject introduced and discussed. A.t the same time, since then
many changes had been introduced for the better feeding and
fatting of sheep, aud great expense had been incurred, and it
was one of the very best subjects that could be brought before
thein. He recollected last year, in July, going down to attend
the meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, and he stopped
at Doncaster. Feeling very hungry, lie, with a friend, ordered
some mutton chops, but, when they were brought in, he deter-
mined not to order any more mutton if he went to the north
again, the contrast between the mutton chops of the north
and those of the south beiag very great indeed. He sent
back C[uite as much as he consumed. And he thought it
worth while to say here that while they were effecting changes,
and putting more money into their pockets, they must take care
they did uot sacrifice quality for the sake of quantity, and there-
fore he thought they should keep their original breeds, for he
should be very sorry indeed to see anything like the Sussex
breed die out, and should rather wish to see them maintained
in all their purity. The same might be applied to the Cots-
wolds, but he could not recognise wool as the only remarkable
quality of these sheep, and he was therefore glad to hear Mr.
Smith speak up so well in their favour, that he had touched so
aptly on their good qualities. He liked a man who would
speak up for the good qualities of the breed of sheep with
which he was satisfied, as he considered it a very hearty
principle. He respected a man like BIr. Smith, who said that
the Cotswold slieep had never disgraced him, and wlio con-
sidered them the best breed in the world. He agreed with
most of what he had said, but there was oue point on which
he must dilfer, and it was ou a matter of history. Mr. Smith
had told them that the Cotswold sheep led to the first wool
market, but he (Mr. Spooner) could go back somewhat more
remote than that, aud refer him to the time when a wool trade
was established in Winchester at the time of the Romans.
Thus they would see this was a time much more remote than
that to which Mr. Smith had alluded ; but the breed of sheep
then in existence had no doubt died out, and been replaced by
more valuable ones. He might state that when some years ago
he was asked to write a paper on the cross-breeding of sheep
for the Joitniul of the Royal Agricultural Society, he wished to
have some engravings inserted of the different kinds of sheep
bred, but the only one the Council would allow was the old
Wiltshire or Hampshire sheep — the white-faced one — which
was the progenitor of the Hampshire sheep. [Mr. Spooner
here produced the Jonrncl containing tlie engraving of the
sheep, and he explained minutely its peculiarities.] He wished
he had been allowed to have others inserted, as Ihey would
have shown breeds now extinct. The origin of tlie Oxford sheep
was no doubt to be attribute! to those in that county. Mr.
Twynam was the first who established that breed, but lie did not
pursue it to a great extent, lie having iiad occasion to change his
farm ; but, during the lime he did couliinie it, he took his rams
to Wilton fair, iiud they were crossed with the Hampsiiire
and Wiltshire breeds, attaining extraordinary effect. Some
few years before this the 0\ford men took tlie matter up. Mr.
Druce was one of thcni, and he liad now rstablislird a lirred
which was very valuable, while Mr. Ciiarles Howard was a
very successful breeder. His sheep, he thought, were a dip
into the Leicester breed, and now he succeeded in gaining any
number of prizes. In establishing a new breed of sheep, how-
ever, they should be careful what they were about. _ It was
like a young man taking a wife. He knew many failed in
consequence of not taking the right animals, and others from
want of spirit to go on with the thing. He thought tlicre
were many who when they had established a new breed of
sheep thought they had done enough, and rested satisfied.
Perhaps good mutton or size was req'iired, and tiierefore what
had been the case with the Hampshire sheep and Oxford sheep
was so with many others, and there had been, according to
Mr. Smith's account, a greater crossing with the Cotswold ,
sheep than he had been led to believe. Rut still they had con-
tinued with their crossing. In the Royal shows the Cotswold
sheep were certainly giand animals, and showed much uni-
formity of cliaractcr, and those who wanted the animal for the
butcher alone should take the Cotswold breed. He did not
think there was any sheep which would give so much food. Mr
Spooner then proceeded to point out that the first cross witii
the male was of advantage for the purposes of the butcher, and
that while different breeds had gradually become almost ex-
tinct yet a certain part of a particular breed was traceable a
long time afterwards, in proof of which he quoted certain sta-
tistics from " Darling's Work ou Plants and Auimals," aud
v.liich was brought about by what they called reversion. It
was no good to think of crossing unless they had a superior
kind of animal, and with sheep it was different from others.
The breeding of horses was a sort of gipsy chance work, but
it was not so with sheep. In bieedmg sheep there was not
only a principle to look to but also tlie pocket, and it was not
until after many years of hard work, experiments, aud ex-
penditure of money that their efforts were crowned with suc-
cess. There was no class of animals where science, knowledge,
and skill had been brought to bear so much as with sheep.
That had been the case with Mr. Humphreys and Mr. Raw-
leuce, who had so successfully improved the Hampshire sheep.
They had only arrived at this pitch of excellence through exer-
tion and great study, and one was surprised that when they
arrived at this pitch of e.Kcellence some should let it stand still
and look on, for it vras quite as difficult to keep up this
standard of excellence as it was to obtain it in the first in-
stance. He thought Mr. Smith deserved a great deal of
credit for introducing the subject, and he hoped gentlemen
would avail themselves of the advaniage of producing stock
from his flock, which had proved so successful in the field
against all ordinary competitors, for when a challenge had
been thrown out he had accepted it, and with success.
The CiiAiiiJiAN said so far as his experience with sheep
went as a grazier, and particularly lambs, he could corroborate
everything Mr. Smith had said witli regard to the putting of
a Cotswold ram with Down ewes. He had dene so for many
years, and with very much success, aud he must say tiie most
profitable way of getting forward lambs was by putting a
Down ram to a Somerset ewe. He recollected in that market
lie showed some from a Cotswold ewe, and they not only
carried away the prize, but he also obtained more money for
them. He, however, should like to see the second cross
carried out, as he believed it would result in immense advan-
tage. He knew r. great objection to it, and particularly among
the Hampshire men and sheep breeders, was that they liad to
sell their best sheep, and consequently had none to fall back
upon to keep their flock up. He agreed with Mr. Rarford—
that they should not throw over altogether a distinct breed of
sheep, so that they miglit always have the advantage of crosses
with the pure bred. Unless they had a distiuct breed of
sheep to fall back upon they could not continue their crosses
with any advantage. He thought they should be obliged to
Mr. Smith for bringing forward the subject, as it was one
which deserved a great deal of consideration not only from
breeders but also graziers of sheep, for he was sure cross-
breeding might be carried out to a far greater e.xtent than it
had hitherto.
JMr. Rartord was of opinion that oue of (he drawbacks (o
cross-breeding was that there was a great deal of unceitainty
about it, and when a man crossed he was in doubt as to what
would be the result. He tliought the great thing was to ha>e
a breed of sheep suited to the land on which (hey lived.
]Mr. Smith, in ri'ply, said he did not think there was any
advantage in producinjc immense animals. lie cuuld uot
quite agree with wiiat Mr. Rlundell had said with respect to
t!ie Slirop-.hire ;',«miuiI*. He had seen a great deal of them,
302
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
but he did not apiirove of them much. Some people objected
to a cross on the ground of colour, hut why siiould they ob-
ject ou tlwit account when they had an increase of wool,
mutton, and o-her tliinp;s ? lie never saw any heavy wool out
of Shropslures. Uis idea was tiiat Shro|)shire sheep crossed
with Ilamshire Downs would not do at all. The latter put
to a good fat-backed Cotsvvold ram would produce the best
sheep in his opinion, lie proposed " That it is the opinion
of this Club that for the purposes of the butcher a material
advantage' is gained by using a iam of a different breed, and
that with the Hampshire ewe no cross is more advantageous
than that with the Cotsvvold ram."
This resolution was seconded by Mr. \V. C. Spoo^■ER, and
carried.
The CiiAiiiMAN proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Sraitli,
which was seconded by Jlr. BAH,roRl),and carried, and a vote
of thauks having been passed to the chairman the proceedings
terminated.
NEWCASTLE FARMER S' CLUB.
THE BREAKING UP OF MUIRLAND.
At tlie last meeting, Mr. William Lyall, of Cadonlee, read a
paper on this subject : Dr. Wallis in the chair.
Mr. Lyall said : I accepted the invitation of your
secretary, my friend Mr. 15ell, to read a paper on
this subject, with much pleasure but with consider-
able hesitancy. To labour at and superintend this kind of
work has fallen much in my way, and occupied a large portion
of my time and attentiori since beginning to farm, but to write
on the subject is a new vocation. Tlie century we live in has
been and is very likely to be a wonderful one. All branches
of industay have made rapid strides of progression, and the
accumulation of vi'ealth has been ernormous. This prosperity
we are pleased to be abl". to say, has not only visited those
who were rich already, but has greatly improved and amelior-
ated the condition of tlie working classes, who may iitly be
viewed as the great consumers of food of the country. Their
wages having been gradually, steadily, and greatly increased,
their manner of living, as a consequence, has changed, a desire
for better food become apparent, and in nothing is this more
easily distinguished than in the demand for butcher's meat,
for which our cold cUmate seems to produce a natural appetite.
To meet the increased consumption we have been making
large importations from neighbouring countries, which certainly
is a plan highly to be approved, attended though it is with
many evils ; still it would be wise for us as agriculturists —
whether landlords or tenants — to give some attention to ascer-
tain whether our own produce is as great as it can be, and to
do all in our power to provide for a demand so much in accord-
ance with the laws of nature and national prosperity. Of
course all efforts in this direction must be so limit(!d as to
allow of fair remuneration for our labonr, and a retarn of our
out;lay, but with a view to what has been said, surely the first
step must be to make certain that all ground that can be cul-
tivated is immediately brought under tillage and made to pro-
duce what it can. Late years have done much in this direction ;
out arable acres have been mightily increased, but still there
are to be found large tracts of land wliieh, from natural
weakness of the soil, or from its distance from farm buildings
and railways, because of its inaceessibleness and steeepness,
from its high exposed climate, or from the quantity of stones
upon it, would bafHe and render highly unprofitable all efforts
at regular cultivation, yet which, by a judicious expenditure,
might be made to yield excellent pasture for sheep. It is in
regard to the improvement of this kind that we venture to
throw out a few suggestions. And first, a* to fencing. Wire
fencing in many cases may be found to be the cheapest, and is
often gladly to be resorted to, but where stones can be pro-
cured without difficulty or much expense, walls are much to
be preferred. If built about 5 feet high — which costs about
8d. per lineal yard — they save the second but no less import-
ant part, of a shelter for the sheep. Great care should there-
fore be exercised that these dykes be placed with a view to this
latter consideration, and it will sometimes be found advisable
to enclose more land than is intended or can be broken up in
order to secure a convenient shelter from the " angry ariths,"
as we say in Scotland. The surface stones should therefore
be dug up and carted for this purpose before commencing to
plougli ; what more are required can be procured while tlie
plougiiing is going on. Draining should be proceeded with at
the same time, if this expensive work cannot bo dispensed
with. But where the ground is intended rather for pasture
than cultivation, it will scarcely be necessary to go so
thoroughly into this work as in regularly cultivated fields. The
most convenient time for ploughing is during the summer
months, when horses are generally less rcijuired for the
ordinary work of the farm. If the surface be tolerably level
and the land free from stones, the steam plougli may be intro-
duced, but the common ploughs can oftener be used to advan-
tage. Where on an incline, this should be done with one
furrow, as the draught is excessive, and better work can be
executed. It is no advantage to plough very deep — four or
five inches being sufficient — but the furrows should be well
closed to ensure the decomposition of the turf as quickly as
possible. This ploughing is often attended with great
clilficulty, an extra man to steady the beam of the plough being
requisite, as also others to dig up the stones at the bottom of
the furrow. But as first time is worst, and only, after all, a
question of a pound or two per acre, it would be
silly to be deterred by the first appearance of
hard labour. I iiave seen many acres to break up with
the pick and spade, the stones being lying so close as to prevent
a plough being used. But where very bad pieces come in,
unless tlic field is intended for regular ciopping, in which case
patches uuploughed would be troublesome in the course of
after cultivation, it would be as well to leave them untouched
as incur so very much expense. There is this to be said,
however, that when stones are to be dug or quarried for the
dykes, there is almost no way of getting them cheaper than
to" trench sucli pieces of ground. Stones are the great
hindrances to the breaking up of large tracts of land in Scot-
land, but there is a consideration here which is of importance
to those selecting ground for improving, viz., if the soil is
naturally dry, it is better to incur expense in digging stones
than in draining wet land of equal quality, as the former is
easier pulverised, and in most cases is of the most permanent
value. In the course of the ensuing twelve months, or at all
events six months before sowing the seed for the first crop,
the stones having been removed from the ground, lime should
be put on, the quantity applied to be determined by tiie nature
of the soil. If it be light or sandy moor four tons per acre
might suffice. I think it would be false economy ever to put
less, and very generally from five to six tons would be neces-
sary to have a satisfactory and lasting effect. The land should
then be harrowed, or if a year has elapsed since the first
ploughing, so as to have allowed time for the vegetable matter
of the turf to rot. It might be cross-ploughed, but it is unwise
to plough too soon, as more labour is entailed if the turf is
too early brought up again to the surface. The frost in winter
will have a great effect in reducing the sods, and after being
well harrowed it will be ready the following season for the first
seed. From good accessible fields a crop ofoats might be taken,
but turnips sown broadcast require no more labour, and are more
to be depended upon. A little aramonaical manure, say 3 cwt.
per acre, should be given, and the seed very carefully distributed.
Strange as it may at first appear, even on a roughish, turfy sur-
face, three-quarters, or at most one lb. per acre of seed will be
found amply sufficient. To get this very small quantity
equally sown over a whole acre seems rather difficult, but
perhaps the easiest and best method is to mix the seed with
shellings from oats, and use the ordinary broadcast sowing
machine. A single tine of the harrows will suffice to cover
the seed, and it should be rolled afterwards. White turnips
crop best on land in this particular state, and may be sown
as late as the end of June. The first crop is by no means a
certain one, but though the ground appear very rough, it
is wise to try for a crop, as the preparation for it is further-
ing the land, and a crop of turnips, besides the great
amount of eating it stands when broadcast, even more
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
803
than an app:ireutly equal crop iu drills, will benefit
the land tlirough tlie sheep (reading upon it. Another
crop of turnii)s siiould follow, and this time sown in drills,
if possible, before laying away in pasture. Some advise
grubbing, instead of ploughing, at this stage ; and if the
land is loose on the surface, and the weather dry while
the turnips were being consumed by the sheep, this
plan may be good, for obvious reasons. The grass will
have the full benefit of the manure, and the firmness below
is also helpful to its growth. Two or three pounds of rape
should be mixed with the clover and grass seeds, and sown
about the end of April or beginning of May. It will be
ready for pasture about July or so, and perhaps no food is
so fattening as what is then produced. Before being done
with these details, you may perhaps want to know some-
what of the cost. We can only roughly estimate this, as
the expense varies so much. The main items, however,
are ploughing, from £1 to &2 10s. per acre ; building
fences, £2 to £3 ; lime, from £4 to £6 ; stones digging, or
draining, £1 to £10 ; carting, &c., £1 to £2 ; in all, from
£9 to £23. A wide diflferenoe, as you may perceive ; but
say from £13 to £16 as a medium, or £20 in exceptional
cases. Allow me to remark here that the work is very hard
on both men and horses, and that it is absolutely necessary to
procure as good men as possible. The horses must be steady ;
fiery ones are of no use, and should be well fed and carefully
driven, else they may get knocks agaiost stones which may
very easily cause a great deteriortion in their value. The first
three crops — two of turnips and one of rape — will go far to
repay the outlay, not including that which is of a permanent
character. With respect to the after management of such
ground, little need be said. It is generally reckoned that the
death-rate is higher among sheep pastures on new than on old
ground, which may be accounted for by its growthy nature,
and because more sheep are kept per acre. It is, therefore —
especially the first summer, when ihe rape is there — better for
wethers or old sheep than for lambs ; and, if convenient, it is
a good plan to graze an old field along with it. It should be
allowed to lie in grass so long as it yields sufficient quantity
of pasture to be remunerative ; but N\hen the grass begins to
get wild it should be ploughed. In no case should it be
ploughed so often as to make it lose its freshness ; much of
our new land of a weak nature has been rendered compra-
tively useless through this error. It is easier to keep laud in
good condtioa than to bring it up after it has been reduced,
and if allowed to lie a number of years in grass at a time it
will thereafter produce with a vigour which can scarcely be
expeetedl'rom old cropped land. We spoke of the expense
as being from £12 to £16 per acre ; let us now consider how
this is to be met. It is evident that before this land can be
done the tenant must show himself enterprising and energetic,
be willing to put forth a considerable amount of capital and
labour, as well as be content to wait a year or two before he
reaps any fruits from bis efforts. We have, therefore, staring
us in the face the necessity of the tenant's having some security
for his capital before he will launch into such improvements,
as every one knows that enterprise must have ior its motive
the prospect of immense results or absolute security of small
profits. The former, as tenant-farmers, wo need not expect ;
the latter we are legitimately entitled to. In Scotland, where
leases for lU or 21 years are almost universal, it has been cus-
tomary to make a special bargain at the beginning of the
lease, such as the landlord agreeing to erect the fences and
execute the drainage, which, being permanent improvements,
remain to him when the lease has expired. The I'J years in
which the tenant has opportunity to redeem his capital are
held to be security. This is doubtless a fair and honourable
arrangement ; but it is by no means a perfect system. A
rush to get through with improvements during the first years,
and over-cropping at the end of the lease is almost a natural
consequence. The tenant finds it necessary to curtail his
expenditure after one-third of his lease has run, and
often ceases to improve, from a fear of not having time
to recover his capital, when he could the most easily
afford to go on. A system by which the tenant at his
way-going would receive compensation for all improvements
executed by him, which enhanced the lettable value of the
farm, would thereby be enabled and encouraged to go on im.
proving all through his lease whenever a convenient time pre-
sented itself, and would be sure to retain to the end of the
lease the soil in the highest possible condition. On the other
hand, the benefit ensuing to the landlord would even be much
greater. All land that could be broken up and yield a fair
percentage fur capital employed would gradually be brought
under cultivation, and as we have just said, it would be the
endeavour of the tenant to maintain the fertility to the end of
his lease. Practical observation teaches us that when a farm
in such a desirable condition comes into the market there is
always plenty of competition for it, and the landlord would get
in the shape of increased rent what he had paid as compensa-
tion to the preceding tenant, and a great deal more, I hesitate
not to say, if the expenditure has been judicious and the im-
provements of permanent value, not to speak of the pleasure
any right-thinking proprietor must have in seeing his land well
farmed, nor of the good results in the shape of increased pro-
duce which partake of a national character. I have always had
a great wish that this could be effected by mutual arrangement
rather than calling for legislation on the subjest. Why should
proprietors and their tenants grow year after year to be more
at cross purposes with each other ? The former, for example,
have got increased rents, just as the latter have thriven and
become able to pay them ; and sarely it is evident in reference
to the question before us that the interests of both parties
are identical. In other words, that greater facilities
to the farmer bespeak larger rents to the landlord,
factors should be particularly careful to preserve the good
feeling that ought to subsist. Great responsibility lies with
them ; and oh ! if they were men of ability — not merely good
accountants, but at home in all the branches of farming —
capable of judging of all propositions laid before them by the
farmers, and vested with powers to enter into terms for im-
provements at all times, how often would we be willing to let
our landlords get great benefits if they only allowed us com-
pensation enough to make our work pay! I know not whether
I speak to both classes or to tenants only, but surely it would
redound to our credit if we are united in our efforts to make
agricultural enterprise keep pace with the times. The taste
which the people of our islands have acquired for better living
will grov;' rather than otherwise ; what were considered luxuries
twenty years ago are necessities now ; and should we not take
advantage of this favourable tide — to put it on no higher than
selfish grounds — and increase our supplies, instead of year
after year becoming more dependent on our Continental
neighbours F Of course, we must stop short when remunera-
tion ceases, but we are yet far from this point. Let us then
so far as we can keep our capital in our own country, hoping
to increase our own profits at the same time. We leave it to
trades unions and all such little tyrannical powers to raise
their incomes by restricting the supplies — everyone is the
better for our advancements, which will be the result of honest
industry. My paper is finished. I cannot but feel how un-
satisfactorily I have performed this duty, how little justice has
been done to so great a subject. No vague theories have been
indulged in ; what has been said has been picked up by ob-
serving my vigorous neighbours, from my father (who has
had great experience), and during the last three or four yeirs
on my own farm, where we are still diligently employed. I
refrain from speaking of this from a fear of appearing egotisti-
cal ; but if any of you in the course of after discussion care to
ask any questi ons, please do not hesitate to do so, as I am
only too willing to give you the benefit of my practical know-
ledge. Or if any one or number of members of this club have
a desire to see this kind of work, as there is now a good
opportunity, if they honour me with a visit, I shall be proud
to see them, will gladly give them all information in my power,
and show them such hospitality as can be expected from a
bachelor farmer. My address is with your secretary, Mr. Bell,
who will communicate between us, perhaps he will be even
more accomuiodating, and show you the way to Selkirkshire.
Mr. Brydon said it would be a great pity if they separated
without discussing the very valuable paper which he had heard
read with great pleasure, from the little experience he had
had in the improvement of waste land, he could endorse all
that Mr. Lyall had said, and he did not know that he could
say anything ; but it struck him that the estimate of 8d. per
lineal yard for the erection of slone walls was very much lower
than in his experience.
The CiiAiUMAN : They could not do it in Northumberland.
Mr. Bkydo.n said it used to cost a shilling.
The CuAiiiiVUN said perhaps some gentlemen might have
something to say in opposition to Mr. Lyall's tlieory of
breaking up these lands. His opinion was that they ought
304
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
never to break tliem up, but (o draia them, clear away the
stones, and improve them by manuring.
Mr. Jon>' Hope (Hexham) ventured to say that Mr. Lyall
had struck very important ground, for if there was one thing
jnore than another whicli required great study aud attention
it was the subject so ably brouglit before them by Mr. Lyall.
It was not for him to speak on the mere mechanical part of
the quf stion, but rather from the standpoint of the great benefit
to the nation arising from Mr. Lyall's valuable recommenda-
tions. It was clear that the population was increasing rapidly ;
and, if we were to provide for a much larger population, we
mast keep pace with the times in capital, skill, aud labour, for
if we got behind we should suffer nationally. It was said that
w'e could feed a much larger number of caitle and sheep than
we do. Last year something like lialf a million acres ol waste
land were reclaimed, and, if we went on at tliat rate, we should
probably keep up with the requirements of the country. As
our population inereased, the value of cattle would increase,
unless we provided a large quantity of feeding land, and one
of the most important means to this end was to call into use
the waste land of the country. How many acres of waste land
had we P
Mr. Lyall said he did not know.
Mr. Hope said he had come unprepared ; but, if the discus-
sion were adjourned, he ventured to say that a great amount of
information could be brought to bear on the subject.
Mr. Reed said there was always great diffidence in speaking
on the part of farmers at these discussions. It struck him
that Mr. Lyall must have devoted a great deal of time and at-
tention to bring his paper up to the mark ; and he tliouglit,
if he had not been so busy in farming, he would have been
married, at any rate. Tlie chairman had stated that he did
not see his way clearly to the breaking up of waste lands, but
it struck him (Mr. Reed), from the little he had seen in his
outlandish country, it would be diiticult to get anything but
artificial manure there. He thought the time was not far dis-
tant when they would iiave to make a very great effort to
improve the land. Many said they would have to lay down
their poor land to grass, but it would be little use doing so
without manure, farmers were not in an enviable position.
There was one question Mr. Hope got warm upon, and that
was Tenant-Riglit.
Mr. Hope : I never mentioned it.
iMr. Reed : Well, well, I thought you did. Tiie time is
not come for that, but I hope the time will not be long before
we get a proper Landlord and Tenant Bill.
Mr. W. Bell (Harlow Hill) said many of the members in
the other room had not heard the p^per, and he thought it
would be better to adjourn the meeting. His opinion was
tliat the day was far distant when they would have to break
up fresh land, which was evident if they took this county as a
criterion. Tlicy found almost everywhere large tracts of land
only half cropped, and it would not be to the advantage of
landlords to break up more. It might be to the advantage of
the country if «-aste lands were brought into cultivation ; but
the question was. Did not Mr. Hope, or anyone else, think it
would be much better to have tlie land already broken up
brought into a better state of cultivation, rather than go on
breaking up more, which would pay neither landlord nor occu-
pier ? Let them take the railway in any direction, and tliey
will see tillage lands with crops of oats not worth bringing
into the barn. Then, again, what would be the use of breaking
up these lands without having plenty of manure to put on
them ? There was manure enough in the country, but farmers
would not pay the price for it for this purpose. If a tenant
did, he would waut 10 or 12 per cent, for his outlay, which he
now got without risk ; and how would the landlord be likely
to do it ? When liiey saw the present land properly cropped
and cultivated tliey might raise the question of breaking up
more ; but until then, they might safely let the mat.'er rest
quietly.
Mr. Robert Wood said he knew land on tlie Lammerranir
Hills which some years ago was not under cultivation, but
which now grew turnips that would do credit to any land in
the United Kingdom. On a farm of Mr. Lyall's uncle, a few
months ago, he saw turnips growing that would grace Tyuside
on black, raoory soil. Mr. Bell seemed to be unaware that in
these moory places there was a perfect mine of rich mould,
which, with the application of lime, produced enormous crops.
lie would say, cultivate well whatever they had, and briug
that which is waste into cultivation, so as to produce abun-
uant crops. Mr. Lyall did not suppose ihev were not lo
cultivate the land they had better, but to bring "that which is
comparatively worthless into cultivation also— that which in
the Lotliians is worth £3 or £4 au acre, and in parts of
England is not to be got for money.
^Mr. Wallace (Trench Hall) thought Mr. Bell aud Mr.
Wood were both right, and he agreed with them both. There
was great advantage in the black, moory soil described by Mr.
Wood, because it would give the very things they were
striving to get. But ift the counties of Northumberland and
Durham there was uot a yard of it. He would endorse Mr.
Bell's Ojoinioti strongly. With tlie present exigencies of the
labour question, aud the dilUculty of getting manure, it would
be the greatest folly to break up more land. Look at the
nature of the soil. They had got a very large area of cold-
bottomed chiy land, which was quite unfit to grow turnips,
aud it would require a great amount of manure and careful
cultivation. That v/as one proof that Mr. Bell was right. It
was impossible to grow turuips on it, and unless they could
do that it would be useless to go to the expense of working it.
He then thouglit it would be better to adjourn the discussion,
in order that they might have an opportunity of reading the
paper, and be prepared to speak about it.
The CiiAiujiAN thought that nearly all the gentlemen who
had spoken had misunderstood Mr. Lyall. It was not the
breaking up of these waste lands, but how to improve them,
and then laying them down to grass again.
Mr. BiiYDOX said the propriety of breaking up the land to
which Mr. Lyall referred was unquestionable. A great part
of the land on the Lammermuirs and Gala Water would not
keep a sheep under four or five acres ; but he had known
some which after it had been broken up and laid down to
grass would keep sis sheep to the acre.
A vote of thanks to Mr. Lyall was carried, and it was
agreed to have the paper printed.
Mr. Lyall said in reply he did uot expect that his paper
would liave met with universal approval, and he could ouly
say of those gentlemen who had ditfered from him that he was
glad to hear tlie other side of the (luestion. He did not at all
refer to the land which was immediatety under tillage, as he
was laying away land four or five years. The advantage could
easily be seen on a stock farm of having new laud, which
grew turnips better than any laid cropped land, and as turnips
are essential for stock, he had them on the new land, which
enabled him to allow the old tillled land a longer time for
pasture. Mr. Brydon had referred to steepness in the land.
He had a field that a cart could not be driven across, and the
stones had to be taken away on sledges. This year it got
about 3 cwt. of dissolved bones, with a little ammonia, the
turnips were sown in June, and he had no doubt they would
eat £S to the acre, besides t!ie advautage of running the sheep
off to another field.
The discussion was theu adjourned for three weeks.
THE ESSEX " MUDDLE."— At a meeting of the com-
mittee of the Essex Agricultural Society, it was dis-
covered that the days fixed lor holding the next show on
one side of London were the same as these fixed some time
previously for holding another meeting on another side of
Loudon, at a small town known as Epsom, whereupon it was
" unauimously resolved" to put back the Stratford Metting
until after the Derby. A wondrous body is this same Essex
Committee, and the Stratford Meeting has now been cleverly
contrived to clash with that of the Beiks Society, to be held
on the same days on another site handy to London, viz., at
Reading.
DISSOLUTION OF A POOR-LAW UNION.— In conse-
quence of the persistent refusal of the board of guardians of
the Garstang Union (Lancashire) to erect such a workhouse
as the Local Government Board deemed requisite for that
union, it has been determined that it shall Ijc dissolved, and
that tlie townships of which it is composed shall be added to
the Preston, Kyhle, and Lanca'-trr Unions.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY—
It lias been decided to hold the next meeting at Tewkesbury,
against Cheltenham and Cireucester, also in competition.
TIIE MALT TAX. — At the market dinner at Scvenoaks,
it was resolved to agitate for a total or partial repeal of the
Malt-duty.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
305
THE DETECTION OF ADULTERATION IN ARTICLES OF FOOD AND DRINK.
At the last raesting of the Chemical Society, Mr. T. Bell,
of Somerset ilouse, delivered a lecture, iu which he said :
As early as 1777, an Act of Parliament was passed to prevent
the adulteration of tea, and in the following year another di-
rected against the adulteratioujof tea and coti'ee. In the prosecu-
tions instituted by the Excise, however, every facility is afforded
to the accused to defend himself, by allowing liini to liave por-
tions of the saiiie sample as that analysed at Somerset House for
analysis and examination by liis own chemist, and in all cases
taken into court the analyst has to give his evidence on oath,
and the defendant is finally dealt with according to the circum-
stances of the case. As the cheapness of many of the s'arclies
causes them to be largely used for adulteration, one of the first
things necessary in studying the subject is to become acquainted
with the microscopic characters of the various starches, such
as those of wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, sago, rice, potatoes,
beans, peas, &c. The speaker pointed out the distinctive cha-
racters of these, illustrating his description by well-executed
drawings of the appearance which the ditferent varieties of
granules present under the microscope. He also noticed the
various kinds of arrowroot occurring in commerce, namely —
that of the JIan//i/a aricid'niacccc ; the Enst Indian or Cur-
cuma arrowroot, from Cnrci'ma amj nsUfoli" \ the Tacca arrow-
root, from Tacca oceanica; Cassava, or Tapioca, from BLmthot
iifillssima ; the Portland arrowroot, from the tubers of Arum
maculatam ; and the Canna, or Tout-les-Mois, from the Canna
edulis. The next subject treated was the adulteration of
colfee, which can only be successfully accomplished after it is
roasted and ground, but has, perhaps, been carried to as great
an extent as almost any other article of food. A very simple
way of detecting tlic presence of chicory in colfee is to sprinkle
a little of it on tiie surface of water iu a test-tube or wine-
glass, when each particle of chicory becomes surrounded with
an amber-coloured c'oud, which spreads iu streaks through the
water until the whole acquires a brownish tinge : witb pure
coffee, liowcver, no cloud is produced until the lapse of about
a quarter of an hour. Another method of detecting adulte-
ration is by the depth of colour obtained by the infusion of a
given weiglit of the suspected article in water, and by the
density of the infusion. The use of the microscope is, liow-
cver, indispensable, and, for tliis purpose, it is necessary to be
acquainted with the microscopic characters of tlie various
substances used to adulterate the coffee, such as chicory,
mangold wurzel, carrots, parsnips, turnips, beans, peas, acorns,
locust-beans, rye, the husks of mustard-seeds, &c. The dis-
tinctive characters of these were described by the lecturer,
and illustrated by enlarged drawings. He also noticed
that the ash of coffee, remarkable as it is for the minute
quantity of silica it contains, and for the absence of soda,
afforded a valuable indication of its purity. Tea is adulterated
to a very large extent, not only with leaves of various kinds,
including exhausted tea-leaves, but also with inorganic sub-
stances, such as quartz, sand, and magnetic oxide of iron ;
these latter substances are rolled up inside the leaf, and one
sample of green tea examined was found to contain no less
than 20 per cent, of quartz and 8.6 of the magnetic oxide.
The latter may readily be separated by grinding up the tea,
and removing the magnetic oxide with a magnet. The facing
employed for green tea usually consists of French chalk and
Prussian blue. In the preparation of exhausted tea-leaves,
they are rolled up with gum-water, and then dried, catechu
being added in some cases to restore the astringency. The
article known as the " maloo mixture" consists essentially of
exhausted tea-leaves. In searching for tlie presence of other
leaves than those of the tea-plant, the best method is to heat
a small quantity of the suspected tea with water until the
leaves are sufiicieutly softened to admit of being unfolded.
They should then be spread out on a piece of glass and care-
fully examined as to the nature ol the serratures and the
character of the venation, also the form of the cells of the
epidermis and the stomata, and the peculiarities of the hairs
as shown by the micioscope. The essential difl'crences which
the tea-leaf presents when compared with other leaves were
minutely described. The chemical composition of tea was
next discussed, the amouut of lignin and of tannin being very
important. The two kinds of pepper, known iu commerce as
black and white pepper, are derived from the same plant, but
differ in the latter being bleached, or having the husk removed
by washing; but neither kind can be adulterated witli success
before it is ground. The most common adulterants of ground
pepper are linseed meal, the husks of mustard-seeds, rice, bean,
and pea-meal, and the flour and bran of the ordinary cereals,
ground chilies being sometimes added to restore the pungeney.
Some of these substances can be readily detected by diffusing
the pepper in water, and pouring the mixture on to a muslin
sieve ; the deep red particles of the chili can then be recog-
nised, and also the camphor-like fragments of rice. The
mustard-husks are known by their cup-like shape, whilst the
smooth, shining appearance of tlie linseed readily distinguishes
it from the dull brown of the pepper.
Mr. Bell, iu replying to questions from Dr. Wright and
Dr. Voeleker, said that the amount of ligneous matter in tea
was determined by thoroughly exhausting the leaves by
repeatedly boiling them with fresh quantities of v/ater until
the washings were colourless. He tbought that the amount
of theinein tea did not afford positive evidence as to whether
it was adulterated or not, as the amount in the difleren
qualities of tea varied from 1,8 to 5.9 per cent. ; the estima-
tion of the tannin present was far more important.
VALE OF ALFORD TURNIP ASSOCIATION.
At the annual meeting, Mr. 11. 0. Farquharson, of Haugh-
ton, in the chair, Mr. Keid, Bents, the Secretary, submitted
the report on the turnip crop of 1873. It showed that there
are 2G members in the Association, and that the crop on 17
farms was inspected. Tue judges were ; Messrs. Win. Pater-
son, Whiteley ; James Alexander, Guise ; Win. Anderson,
Kinstair ; John Leonard, Earraton ; James Kennedy, Stratli-
lunach; Henry Stevenson, Tillygreig ; and James Lawson,
Scotsmill. The judges awarded the prizes as follows :
Ciiaile:mge Cui-, given by Mr. 11. O. Earquharson, of
Haughton, for greatest weight per acre of yellows aud swedes
combined. — 1 (the cup), Mr. Yule, Glenlogie (23 tons 12 cwt.
3 qrs. 121bs.) 2, Mr. 11. O. Earquliarson, of Haughton (26
tons 7 cwt. 3 qrs. 121bs.) 3, Mr. Wilkeu, Waterside (26 tons
1 cwt. 1 qr. 2Ulb3.) 4, Mr. Wm. xM'Combie, M.P., Tillyfour
(26 tons 2 qrs. lilbs.)
Yellows.— 1, Wm. Yule, Glenlogie. 2, R, 0. Earquhar-
son, of Haughton.
Savedes. — 1, G. Wilken, Waterside. 2, AVm. JL'Combie,
M.P., Tillyfour.
The Judges iu their report said : " We arc of opinion that
nriiips generally have been as fine a crop as has \wkw known
n this district for a largo number of years, and that, consider-
n g the great difficulty of keeping down the excessive growth
of weeds encouraged by the late rainy season, farmers deserve
great credit. Three acres respectively of swedes aud yellows
was tlie quantity inspected on each farm, as contrasted with
four of swedes and five of yellows, which was the required
quantity last year. The heaviest swedes were grown at Water-
side, the yield being 29 tons 4 cwt. 1 'ir. 41bs. It may be
noted here that on about one-half of this crop — and that the
heaviest — the dung used was driven on the stubbles and
ploughed down during the autumn. ]\lr. Yule, Glenlogie,
who carries off the Challenge Cup, had the heaviest crop ot
yellows, viz., 32 tons 12 cwt. 3 qrs. 121bs. The average of
the respective weights of swedes and yellows as compared with
last year are as follows : Swedes in 1872, 1 6 tons 2 cwt. 3 qrs. ;
yellows in 1872, 16 tons 2 cwt. 3 qrs. Swedes in 1873, 24 tons
2 cwt. 16lbs. ; yellows in 1873, 23 tons 15 cwt. 1 qr. 81bs.
AVlien we take into consideration the unusual mildness of the
bcason, we are quite convinced that the weights would have
been still more favourable had the time for inspection been
late on in the autu!iiu. The following ])oiuts observed by us
will perhaps be worthy of notice. (1.) The last week of May
and the first week of June has been the mott seasonable time
for sowing swedes aud yellows respectively last year. (2.) The
best crops have been grown on 26-inch drills. (3.) Guano,
where it has been used, has been attended with good results.
306
THE FAFtMER'S MAGAZENE.
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308
THE TAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
The CiiAiRJfAN said he was glad to find they were not in the
same position this year as they were ia the previous year, when
they were prominent in having the worst crop of turnips in
the whole county of Aberdeen. It was a very odd thing that
they should have established their association, and that tlieir
first competition should have taken place in the year in which
the turnip crop was the worst upon, record. That was a very
curious circumstance, but, of course, their record would be
retained, and would be useful for comparison in other years
during the existence of the association. He had to congratu-
late tiie members upon the results of this year, and he looked
forward to next year bein? still better. They were, with the
view of making the results better, going*to introduce a new
principle in awarding the prizes. It had been settled by the
association that next year the whole crop of turnips on the
farm should be taken into consideration, instead of, as liereto-
lore, three or four acres. Tiie judges will take into account
the character of the whole turnip crop upon the farm, and
will decide according to the best weight and best cultivation. He
hoped the adoption of that principle would have the effect of
extending the membership of the association, and would give
more satisfaction than the course iollowed in previous years.
There was one thing he wished to bring under their notice,
and that was the very prominent feature that, amoiigst the
various manures that were used, it was very, often the case
that the man who laid down the greatest quantity of artificial
manures did not derive the greatest advantage. He thought,
in these circumstances, it would be advisable for the members
of this association to have all their artificial manures analysed
before they put them into the ground. He found it stated
in an agricultural paper that week that in England some of
best firms had been found to fail in regard to tlie quality both
ot their feeding stuffs and artificial manures, wlien the articles
delivered came to be analysed by the chemists of the different
associations. Now, if such things took place in England,
they might also take place in Scotland ; and he would strongly
advise the gentlemen forming this association to have the
manures that they purchased analysed, and not to trust to any
guarantee. He thought they should take into consideration
who they would appoint to be their analytical chemist, and
how he was to be paid. They principally bought their manures
from two or three companies, and if a number of them took
the same manure at the same price they could have one sam-
ple analysed, and it would serve as a guarantee for every
buyer. He hoped they would take the matter into considera-
tion, and he would be very happy to hear any one upon the
subject.
Mr. M'CojiBiE, M.P., proposed the health of Mr. Farqu-
harson, of Haughton, their president and chairman, and the
OJiginator of the association. They all knew that the tenant-
farmers depended upon their turnips, and upon the price they
obtained for their fat cattle ; and he hoped the proprietors
would allow him to say that their rentals mainly depended
npon that also. The Vale of Alford was much indebted to
Mr. Earquharson for the impetus he had given to tuinip
cultivation. Speaking for himself, he would be very anxious
to have the best turnips in the Vale of Alford, and he could
assure them he was very proud to know thst he came in second
to liis friend Mr. Wilken. No doubt the farmers would use
their best exertions to grow the heaviest crop possible, and
they were indebted to their chairman for encouraging them to
do that. Tiiere was, no doubt also, in a more serious matter
about four years ago, they were deeply indebted to their
chairman, for at the time the rinderpest tbreatened to decimate
their herds, no one supported the tenant-farmers so strenu-
ously as Haughton did. He hoped what Mr. Earquharsou did
at that time would never be forgotten by the tenant-farmers
of the Vale of Alford. It was of no use, where he was so
well known, to say a word about Mr. Earquharson's merits.
He believed Haughton was a man, who, as every one should,
tliouglit for himself, and, tiiough he and Mr. Earquharson did
not agree upon political subjects, that jwas nothing at all.
He knew quite well that would never interfere with their
private friendship. He proposed the health of Haughton,
who was a good landlord, and he believed would always be
known as a good landlord, and one who wished to live and let
live.
Mr. George Bruce, Keig, introduced a discussion on
pastures. He said : " Old times are changed, old manners
gone," are words which might well be used in regard to the
agriculture of our vale. Not many years ago farmers derived
their income almost entirely from the grain crops, but now it
is principally, as our worthy M.E, remarked, by the rearing
and feeding of cattle they can make ends meet. As our
pastures have therefore a good deal to do with the feeding
of our stock, and have uot hitherto got the attention they
deserve — in other words, thougli tbey have degenerated in a
great measure by the continued cultivation of the same plants
— till the old system of selecting, and manner of sowing the
seeds, have not changed. I therefore intend to make a few
remarks on this subject, which I trust will, in some case, make
two blades of grass to grow where only one grew before.
Erom what I can learn, clover seeds were first sown about the
beginning of the seventeenth century, and about 1650 they
were sown almost as they are now. It may seem strange, but
for nearly tu'o and a half centuries little improvement on the
old system of sowing our seeds has been made ; while on the
other hand we know that the grass on many farms is not so
good as it used to be. None of my hearers doubt the impor-
tance of having good pasture, but were I to ask how much
ryegrass and clover seed I should sow per acre to make good
grass, so much diversity of opinion exists that ten farmers
from the hundred now present would not advise me to sow the
same quantities. Without respect to the kind of soil, one
farmer sows 401bs. of light ryegrass Bnd 41b3. of clover seed
per acre ; while liis next-door neighbour, in tlie same sort of
soil, will sow 30Ibs. of the heaviest ryegrass and lOlbs. of
clover seeds per acre. Now, one of the two must be wrong.
Unless soil, and crop, and climate are considered, wc shall
never make good pastures or hay, for there is a "certain under-
stood connection between the soil and the kind of plant," and
it is, therefore, quite out of the question to suppose that the
same seeds will suit all soils and all climates, will suit our thin
high-lying fields as well as our in-town, whether intended for
hay or pasture. In too many cases, farmers, when selecting
their seeds, do not consider that the field for hay should get
different kiuds and quantiliesof seed from the field that is to be
pastured, and the consequence is that disappointments often
occur. Without referring to any particular soils, but speaking
generally of the soil in our vale, farmers should sow for hay a
large percentage ot English red and Alsyke clover, with a few
extra pounds of ryej;rass. Eor pasture, more white clover,
with a good deal of covvgrass, and a few pounds of Italian
rye ; and in high-lying soils a pound or two of trefoil per acre
is very useful, especially for sheep pasture. I strongly recom-
mend the cowgrass clover, not only because it lives a year
longer than other clovers, but it has a much larger root, as
you will see by what I now before you. (Mr. Bruce here
exhibited a clover root about fifteen inches in length ) Tiie
Italian ryegrass is also of great moment to the farmer, being
a most useful early grass ; and, if sown at the rate ot 61bs. per
acre in the field intended for hay, the second crop will greatly
abound with it, thereby being a preventive for the blowing of
cattle. By sowing a few pounds of it with the other seeds,
you may then sow less clover seed, and be easier on your soil.
Some farmers do not sow Alskye clover. I think this is a
mistake. It is a most useful friend to the farmer. It is peren-
nial ; no winter kills it ; and it is seldom injured when the
crop is laid. It is said cattle do not eat it, and, no doubt — it
being a strong-tasted plant — they do not care for too much of
it. Were I to compare the taste of the cattleman to the
oattle, the matter may be explained by telling you that one of
our north country cattlemen went lately the round of Bingley
Hall, Smithfield, and Newcastle shows, and on being asked by
his companion when he returned home " Eu he liket to live in
the south,' he replied, " Nae ava, Saundy, man. I liket the
diet gey weel in the beginnin', but as I got naethiug ava but
roast beef and plumpuddin' and stuff' o' that kind, I got rael
sick saer't o't." Now, ray friends, cattle are something like
our cattlemen — they do not like too much of any good thing
— they do not care for too raucli Alsyke ; and to justify what
I say, you have only to notice tbein, when in a field of the
finest clover, go and eat the moss from the top of the fence.
Very often the farmer is surprised to find abundance of clover
in one field, and hardly a plant in the next. My belief is that
this is in a great measure owing to the kind of seeds we sow.
A deal of the foreign clover seeds are too weak to withstand
the vicissitudes of our changeable climate. Erost one day,
rain the next, sleet and rain and snow, and so on, on certain
soils, has a tendency to throw out the clover seeds. T have
seen a field where, on the part that was exposed, hardly a
plant could be got, while on the other side of the field, which
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
309
got the same amount of frost, but did uot get tlie morniug
sun, plenty of clover plants were to be seen. The farmer
should therefore use as hardy seeds as possible, and this can
only be attained by usin;;^ seeds of eertain countries' growth. I
mean English grown seeds, or at least a large percentage of
them. Welsh red clover is also becoming a favourite. You
all know the importance of a change of oats ; and in like
manner red clover from the mountainous districts of Wales is
a capital ciiauge. If the farmer sow English-grown clover,
he may expect a strong broad-leafed plant. If, however, he
sow weakly seeds, unless in very favourable seasons, he is cer-
tain to get weakly plants. Let him sow strong clovers, or at
least a large percentage of them, and then he will hear less of
that remark, " clover-sick," which many of our best farmers
only too often make. Owing to the size of our clover seeds,
there being from 24-0,000 to"250,000 seeds in a pound the
farmer often makes the mistake of burying his seed. By ex-
periment we lately found that red clover brairds best with a
covering of half-an-inch of soil ; that only 50 per cent, will
grow if put Ij in. deep, and at a depth of 2 in. not a plant
will appear. With white clover, tlie best braird is with half-
an-inch of covering; at j in. only the half will grow, and at a
depth of 1^ in. not a seed will germinate. From this the
necessity will be seen of getting a fine mould to receive the
seeds, and also, on looking at tlie root of clover I showed you,
you will then see tiiat too much care cannot be taken in pre-
paring the soil, the rootlets being so very feeble. Some
farmers roll the soil before putting in the seeds, but in many
eases if rolled ten times instead of once, all the labour would
be repaid by the crop, for it is evident that if the smaller
clover seeds be sown on a rough, cloddy surface, the half will
never spring. Good pasture is not only valuable in itself, but
through all the rotation, and the loss therefore to the farmer
when his seeds do not grow, is not only on his hay or pasture,
but also on his succeeding crops. Even as far back as 1700,
it was noticed "that, where there was a good crop of grass, a
good crop of grain generally followed." We know tliat the
roots and leaves of our clover grow in direct proportions to
each otiier. The farmer should, tiierefore, use every effort to
get strong plants, and plenty of them. When laying down
the grass and clover seeds last season, 1 set aside three plots,
giving to No. 1 plot 51bs. of clover, and 361bs. of ryegrass
seed per acre. To No. 2 plot I gave 6ibs. clover and 3Glbs.
ryegrass seed per acre. To No. 3 plot I gave Tibs, of clover
seed, 301b3. of ryegrass, and 61bs. of Italian rye — the clover in
plot 3 being the best strong healthy seed I could lay my hands
on. I last week dug up one square yard from each plot, sifted
out all the roots of clover and ryegrass, and weighed them.
In No. 1 plot I had 24cwt. of roots per acre, in Nj. 2 plot I
had 29 cwt. per acre, and in No. 3 plot I had 35 cwt. of roots
per acre. Can any one doubt the importance of strong seeds
after this, with roots something like what I have already
showed you, the vale of which, as a manure, many here will
he able to enlarge upon, roots entering the very subsoil,
decaying and opening up the soil, making way, and acting like
drains? This opening of the soil is a most important matter
to the farmer, and no landlord knows it better than our
chairman, when I am told he gave a tenant of a 150-acre
farm £90 in one year for drainnge. V/c got a very able paper
last year from Mr. Stevenson on tlie manure we should give to
our grass, and I need not touch this wide subject. But how
is it that bones and lime ofteu improve our pastures ? The
science and cliemistry tells us that an average crop of clover
carries away per acre about 80 lbs. of lime and 19 lbs. phos-
phoric acid. The necessity, therefore, of returning lime and
phosphoric acid in some shape may easily be seen. White
clover is an acid-hating plant. Chemistry comes again to our
rescue and tells us that time will take away all the acidity
from the soil and allow the white clover to be in the condition
of my friend the cattleman — get the food it likes. I do not
believe the ideas on future farming stated in an article which
appeared lately in F/us/'rs Magn-hir, and which was reviewed at
length in our most excellent local and agricultural paper, the
Baiff'shire Journal, where it is proposed to raise three crops in
the year by heating tlie soil with steam, nor do I believe that
Mr. Jeffries' ideas of cultivating our lii-lds will work. I would
rather put the steam into the brain of our rising generation,
by teaching them chemistry. Let them take a leaf Irom the
life of the owner of Tiptree Hall, whose works are well worth
reading, and who writes me that his success has been by
giving plants tlieir proper food — by attending to his subsoil.
Is it not a blot on Scotland, and more so on Aberdeenshire,
the most-famed cattle feeding county in Britain, that we have
no middle-class school or college where the rising generation
might study the science they are to follow after ; for surely
the science of agriculture has now a claim deserving of atten-
tion ? Until this come about, until the groundwork of the
problems be understood, the words of Liebig will come only
too true — unconsciously to the ignorant farmer all his in-
dustry, care, and toil only hasten his ruin ; while, on the
other hand, it is only by knowledge that capital and power
are attained.
Mr. M'CoMBiE, M.P., said it afforded him pleasure to hear
of the high position his young friend Mr. Bruce had taken,
and the honour that had been conferred upon him by the
Highland Society the other day, for his essay on a similar
topic to that wliicli he had now discussed. He was sure he
spoke the sentiments of all present when he congratulated
Mr. Bi uce. He would only make one remark on Mr. Bruce'a
observations on Alsyke clover. He had had a good deal of
experience of Alsyke clover. He occupied some very poor
land, tliat no other clover would grow upon except Alsyke.
He did not say it was a clover that cattle were very particularly
fond of, but he could cover poor land with it, and get a bite
for the cattle, which he could not get in any other way.
Mr. IMiTCiiELi. (Auchnagathle) said he had g'-eat pleasure
in listening to Mr. Bruce, and had got a good deal of infor-
mation from iiim. He was, however, disappointed with one
thing. After telling them there were so many different opin-
ions as to the quantity of clover and grass that should be sown,
Mr. Bruce neglected to say what he considered a proper quan-
tity. Then, again, as the result of his experience, Mr. Bruce
gave the weight of the roots of grass ; hut it seemed almost
incredible, although he did not wish to dispute it, that tlie
weight of roots per acre should be 35 tons.
Mr. Bruce : I said 35 cwt.
Mr. Mitchell said it seemed to him that was a greater
weight of roots than they could raise of turnips. But he
alluded to that to point out that Mr. Bruce had neglected to
say what was the weight per acre of each plot of grass grown.
Bid it correspond at all with the weight of the roots ? He
should think it likely that the heaviest crop of grass would be
produced from the medium quantity of roots.
Mr. Bruce replied that it would be diflicult to answer the
question as to what quantity of seed to give, without ascer-
taining the nature of the soil. Climate and soil must he
accounted for before he could say v.'hat quantity and descrip-
tion ot seed to sow. As Mr. M'Combie had said, A.lsyke
clover suited liis poor land, where nothing else would grow ;
but it did not follow that Alsyke clover would be the only or
best tiling for Mr. Mitchell's land. As to the quantity of
grass, unfortunately he could not tell that, because sheep had
been, very much to his regret, allowed to overrun and eat it
down. He should explain that the roots were weighed as
they were taken up, whereas to ascertain the exact quantity
of manurial ma' ter in them they ought to have been dried.
Mr. Anderson, Wellhouse, also expressed pleasure at
hearing Mr. Bruce bring the subject of Alyske clover under
notice, because it was a clover he had heard very much con-
demned. As had been said already, they had seen good pas-
ture from Alsyke clover where they could get it from nothing
else.
Mr. Wilken, Waterside of Forbes, explained that, at a
committee meeting a week before he had agreed — as no one
else would — to make a few observations on the utilisation of
liquid manure, not because he could offer any exhaustive in-
formation on the subject, but simply to start to provoke a dis-
cussion. Liquid manure is, lie said, one of those few commo-
dities we have at hand, a»id I am sorry to say in most eases
allow to run to waste — and that in the face of the conviction
of most farmers that it could be made, at least in some mea-
sare, available for improving our crops. The greatest dilTieulty
with us all is how to apply it to the land at as little cost as
possible. I am sorry 1 do not see my way to recommend any
mode that will altogether do away with that great bugbear of
most farmers, /(/.«//, and a little extra labour. Before anything
can be done with the liquid manure of the farm, it is necessary
first to collect it in tanks for distribution either upon the dung
or upon compost iieaps, or botii. I shall shortly describe the
mode I have myself adopted for collecting the urine. I have
made two tanks, one in the centre of the courtyard or dung-
hill, and another at the bottom of the same, outside the court
310
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
wall. luto the first is druiued the waste urine of the byres.
Both tanks are covered in and fitted with chain pumps,
and so placed that it can be pumped either into ? cart, or on
to a compost heap, formed of refuse, such as weeds, potato
heads, earth, and lime. From the tank in the centre of tiie
court I have the urine pumped daily during the winter months
on to the dung, and distributed by means of a moveable spout
with holes in the bottom. After it passes through the dung
it goes into the second tank at the bottom of the court,
and is again pximped at intervals of about a week, or
when convenient, either on to the compost heap,
or into a cart for distribution on the fields or
on another heap of earth. The first tank holds
about a day's uriue with 50 head of cattle, and is made
iu a very simple and cheap manner, viz., by sinking two
sugar barrels one on the top of the other, costing about 9d.
each, into the ground. This tank is pumped, as before men-
tioned, every day, and takes the cattleman about half-an-hour.
Tlie second is larger, and holds about a week's urine, unless iu
rainy weather. This, in the meantime, has to be driven out
in a cart to the compost heap. Next season, however, I
mean to place the refuse collected for compost alongside the
tank, as by that means I will be able to pump at once on to
it, and to save the cost of driving ; unless in spring, when I
mean to apply it, diluted with viater, in a liquid state. This
takes a man from two to thiee hours weekly, so that the cost
is not very great, at least in comparison with the value. This,
of course, is not what I would consider the best plan — only
one adapted in my case, as being the cheapest, and, I believe,
adaptable to most farms at little cost. I have no doubt, how-
ever, that in order to get the full benefit of the urine, covered
courts are the best, and perhaps the cheapest in the end, as,
by that means, rain is prevented from washing out the best
part of the dung, as also " droothy " weather and the sun's
rays are kept off, and so both bleaching and drying are saved.
He then went on to speak of the amount and value of liquid
manure. On a 200-acre farm, with 50 cattle, there would be
130 tons of liquid manure running to waste every year, the
ammoniacal value of which would be about £66. Every
farmer, he continued, has the opportunity of gatliering during
every year many useful ingredients for the future support of
his crops, if these were only systematically gathered into one
place ; and the urine being pumped or run on to them, a valu-
able compost would be the result. By a proper adoption of
the system of compost manures, I am satisfied we save and
apply to tiie soil many fertilisers that would not otherwise be
made use of. Many of the weeds which are collected from
the turnip fields should not be used until they have been so
thoroughly decomposed that their seeds are destroyed ; and
they require active fermentation ere they are fit food for
vegetables, and I think the compost heap the best place for
this. Besides, they are made valuable manure. In my opinion,
the most useful and profitable way we can use our liquid
manure is by adding it to such things as we know to be of
little or no value singly, but which become valuable auxiliaries
when mixed together. One thing is certain — if only urine is
mixed with earth, we will have a useful fertiliser, and one at
the command of all.
i\Ir. ANDERSON, Wellhouse, said the subject started by Mr.
Wilken was most important, being one of the departments in
which farmers allowed more waste than in almost anything
else. It agreed with his own opinion that they almost lost as
as much in liquid manure as would supply all tha extraneous
manures they required for their turnip crops. But the thorough
use of liquid manure could hardly be got without covered
courts. That was a very wide question, but still Mr. Wilken
had done very much to economise liquid manure under ordi-
nary circumstances, and of course whatever could be done
under ordinary circumstances it were well to do,
Mr. M'CoJiBiE said, so far as feeding fat cattle was con-
cerned, covered courts were all very well, but as to confining
calves and yearling and growing cattle in covered courts, he
most distinctly lifted up his voice against that. That was
against nature altogether. There were a great number of farmers
in Morayshire in the way of keeping their young stock in
covered courts ; and he would not give within £1 or £2 per
liead for those cuttle that he would give for cattle kept iu
open courts. His young friends, and there were a great num-
ber of them round the table, would remember that he was old
aud they were, young, and lie wouhl advise them, if they wished
to buy a bullock, not to buy it out of a covered yard, but
to buy it from a person who had beeu iu the habit of turning it
out every day. If they did buy a bullock that had not seen
the sun, nor yet perhaps tlie moon for seven or eight months,
they might depend upon this fact, that, alter being two or three
months on the grass, they would take the bullock in lighter
than they put it out.
The Chairman : Allow me to correct you Mr. M'Combie.
You and Mr. Anderson are going upon two different points.
You are talking about putting bullocks into covered courts ;
but Mr. Anderson was talking about the manurial advantages
of covered courts.
Mr, Anueuson : That is just the remark I was about to
make. I did not recommend covered courts for cattle ; I
spoke of covered courts for manure. I do not see that cattle
should be iu any way differently treated from what they are at
present ; so that Mr. M'Combie's remarks are quite aside from
the point.
Mr. Mitchell, Auclmagathle, did not approve of covered
courts. His firm belief was that many of their manure heaps
required rain water to keep the manure from heating. He
knew many men of experience would bear him out in that.
He had heard it said that rainfall was quite necessary for their
manure heaps, but that the collection of rain water from the
roofs of houses might be superfluous. He was very glad to
hear Mr. M'Combie's remark about putting stock into covered
courts. He thought these very strong points against covered
courts.
Mr. Anderson, AYelUiouse, pointed out that experiments
made on Lord Kinnaird's farm proved that crops raised with
manure from a covered court were very much better than
crops raised with manure from an open court. Of course, as
had beeu said, experiment was a great thing, and iie should
be glad to hear of more experiments of the same kind.
Mr. M'CojiBiE said that a farmer had perhaps two or three
byres filled with stock. He turned the manure into a covered
court, Au enclosure was made within the court, straw
thrown upon it, and a lot of young beasts put in. In his
opinion it was as good as death to them to be put in that
court upon the dung taken out of the byres,
Mr. Anderson : I never asked you to put stock there.
Mr. M'CoiiBiE said he saw an example of that class on one
of Lord Aberdeen's greatest farms. The young cattle were
put out upon dung taken from different byres, and more poor
starved creatures he never saw in his life.
Mr. Bruce asked Mr. M'Combie to explain to him how it
was that, when he went to Morayshire, he always bought
cattle that had been in open courts, and advised all his young
friends to keep their young stock in open courts, whereas at
Tillyfour he did not allow any young stock to see either the
sun or the moon ?
Mr. M'Combie : If you come to Tillyfour you will see that
my own stock all go in an open straw-yard. I will be very
glad to see you there at any time, and you will see for your-
self that my beasts are not kept in close courts.
Mr. Walker, Bithnie, reverted to the important remarks
made by the Chairman on the subject of chemical analysis,
A good deal of conversation thereupon followed, in the course
of which it appeared that the meetiug was favourable to the
formation cf a Chemical Association in connection with the
Turnip Association. The following Committee were ap-
pointed to make all necessary arrangements, namely, for
parish of Alford, Mr. f arquharson of Haughtou (to be chair-
man), and Mr. Anderson, Wellhouse. For Tullynessle, Mr.
Robert Wilson and Mr. Wilken. For Keig, Mr. Mitchell,
Auchnagatlile ; and Mr. Ironside, Brindy. For Tough, Mr,
M'Combie, M.P., and Mr. Paterson, Whiteley. For Leochel-
Cushnie, Mr. Strachan and Mr. Dunn.
THE METRIC SYSTEM,— The Danish Government ap-
pointed a commission in August last to report upon the ques-
tion of the introduction into Denmark of the metric system.
This commission has just issued its report, which recommends
that the system shall be allowed to be used from the 1st of
January, 1875, aud shall become compulsory on the 1st of
January, 1878, A minority of tlic commission recommend
the use of tiie metric along with the old system. Tiie question
has also been taken up in Norway, where a commission has
reported iu favour of tlie adoption of the metric system.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
311
KINGSOOTE AGRICULTURAL A8 S 0 CIATI 0 IsT.
TENANT-RIGHT BILL.
At the last mouthly meeting, Col. Kingacote, M.P., ia
the chair, the followiug paper was read by Mr. II. HoL-
BOROW :
lu discussing this important and long-agitated subject there
are a few points which 1 propose especially to consider.
1st. What do we, as farmers, understand by the words
" Tenant Right" ? Certainly not an increase of power as
directed against the landlords ; nor a demand to do what we
like with the land in our occupation to the injury of the owner
thereof ; nor an encroachment in the way of vested right in
the property itself ; nor a claim for anything detrimental or
prejudicial to the landlord; but a fair security for money
judiciously spent in the improvement of another man's pro-
perty with a view to its increased fertility and productiveness,
so tliat the tenant may not be deterred from using his best
endeavours (to the injury of himself and the nation at large)
through fear of expulsion, or any other act of vicissitude
which may rob him or liis family of his capital so invested.
2ndly. Is there a need for something to be done to this end ?
I think I may say that there can be no doubt of this ; all
parties seem to admit it ; observation confirms it. Tiie rea-
soning witli tenant-farmers on the desirability of attemptiug
to raise the soil to tlie highest pitcli of productiveness imme-
diately brings out the confession of want of confidence in thus
spending their money under existing circumstances. No rea-
sonable person can say that their security is what it should be.
That increased confidence would bring about increased endea-
vour there can be no question. That the rapidly-increasing
requirements of the nation render it necessary that everything
should be done that could be done toward feeding the popula-
tion with home produce no one doubts. That this will not be
done until better security is conceded to those who have to
spend their money in doing it is most certain. Policy, there-
fore, apart from the mere justice of it, demands that something
should be done, and without unnecessary delay. 3rdly. IIovv
is it to be done ? Who is most responsible ? In replying to
the first of these questions tiiree methods present themselves
for our consideration, viz. : Compensating agreements; Long
leases ; Legislation. Let us consider the respective merits of
each, and the expressed opinions and predilections of tenant-
farmers with reference to them. That compensating agree-
ments subject to oue year's notice to quit are in favour with
many intelligent farmers I know from experience, and their
reasons are not unimportant. For instance, it is urged that a
young farmer on starting into business life has great difficulty
in obtaiuing a farm corresponding in size with his capital, or
the kind of farm he would like to settle down upon, or such as
he would have confidence in risking his capital and prospects
upon for a lengthened period ; and if he did succeed well, he
would not like to have his hands tied so that he could
not remove to something more extensive, for a farmer can-
not gradually enlarge his farm as a tradesman can his
shop, or a manufacturer his establishment, or a merchant his
business. Theretore many prefer the yearly tenancy on
account of the opportunity it gives to remove to something
more suitable. Such persons believe that a compensating
agreement may be easily given which would meet all their
requirements as to security. That compensating agree-
ments may, generally, be given, there is no reason to
question, and such as would be fair between both parties,
if landlords would only set themselves to the attempt, and
employ those men as agents who tliorouglily understand the
business of agriculture. There is, however, some difficulty in
drawing up compensating agreements so as to give the desired
security without laying it open to the tenant to run up an
extortionate bill against the new comer; but this is only a
matter of detail, and does not immediately concern the subject
under discussion. But the bare fact of a tenant being on the
look-out for an opportunity to relinquish his holding for some-
thing more favourable, or of a tenant feeling that at any time
he may have his rent raised, or receive notice to quit, will
always militate to some extent against an earnest and unfettered
attempt to accomplish all the improvement within his power.
Leases I hold to be of little avail in bringing about enlarged
productiveness unless they are long ones, although a tenant
may fairly claim the privilege of determining it at the end of
the first seven years if he finds it a losing game, because it
should be remembered that his total ruin may be concerned,
whilst it is a mere matter of rent to the landlord. A long
lease, conceding all tlie liberty and scope for skill and enter-
prise within the bounds of reason during its continuance, with
stipulations for unexhausted condition being paid for, as well
as for a suitable course of cropping being pursued, at the
termination, would be conducive to nearly all the confidence
a tenant would require, for he must submit to some degeee of
risk in his enterprise, and would he nothing unreasonable for
a landlord to graut, who must be content to submit to a mea-
sure of risk also. That long leases have proved, aj a rule
(where they have been properly drawn up), conducive to agri-
cultural development there is no reason to question, but iiow
far it would be wise to make leases a rule without exception
is alio a grave question. The undeniable fact is that agricul-
ture is such a complicated afi'air that to generalise is more wise
than to particularise when attempting to deal with its pecu-
liarities ; and here I expect the dilliculties of the next question
will especially present themselves, viz., legislation. To lay
down a principle may not be so very difficult, but to define
particulars so as to meet all the requirementsof variety of soil,
climate, locality, and so forth, would be an endless task ; and,
if legislation fails to make matters very plain, the lawyers,
with their accustomed " coach- and-four," will soon find de-
lightful employment fortlieraselvesin driving slash throuitli it.
But this is not the worst to be 'eared: it is ratiier the alienation
of kindlv feeling and pleasing interest that may arise between
the landlord and his tenant from the former feeling that lie is
relieved from all concern for the tenant by Act ot Parliament,
and that it is only a matter of hard bargaining betwee.i theni
in every respect where the Act does not inte.rveue. People
may call this old-fashioned mutual interest and good feeling
mere teniiment if they will ; but as agriculture appear* to
differ in some respects from most other lines of business, it
differs in this particular also, that it will be a misfortune
when this kind of sentiment has become a dead letter. Not
that I am for farmers being mere semi-serfs to their landlords,
no, not that at all ; let them be men and hold up their heads
and show that they understand their business, their position,
and their responsibilitiies, but let them still cultivate the good-
feeling and respect of their landlords nevertheless. Let it not,
however, be understood that I am condemning the attempt to
legislate by Act of Parliament upon this most necessary sub-
ject, for it will be wise to do so if the desiderated security
cannot be obtained without. We come, therefore, to the
second question, viz. : Who is the most responsible ? It may
seem one-sided, but it cannot be denied that the man in
power is the man most responsible, simply because he can
meet the necessity if he will, and the tenant can use no force
except it be that of combination, but combination is altogether
averse to the farmer's practice, antecedents, or susceptibilities ;
in fact, in this particular it is just the thing he cannot do,
because of his being continually outbid by others who are not
farmers bred. " Perforce," then, is not his motto, but " Live
and let live" is. Give him the fair chance to " live," and he
will soon show you how he will both do so himself, aud help
others to do the same by supplying them with the necessaries
they require in abundance. Fourthly, let us not forget the
landlord's point of view. He thinks that he has the right
and the power to do wiiat he likes with his own ; most cer-
tainly lie has, and the responsihU'ily too. Let him see to this
latter, or the others may slip from his grasp. His wishes, liis
interest, ought to be respected to their fullest extent, and it is
hoped that no attempt will be made to the contrary ; but
whatever his wishes may he, his interest is undoubtedly bound
up in the cause of agricultural development we have beea
considering, as well as the tenants, individually, and the
nation's too. To say that the landlords have done nothing to
this end would be wrong, for many of them have already
conceded the requireuients to some extent, and others will
follow no doubt ; but will they, as a body, do all that is neces-
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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
sary if left to their owu disposal? They may ia time, but
the progress is so very tardy that something more " express"
and in accordance with the rapid movement of events and
requirements of the nation seems necessary. We will, there-
fore, proceed to examine the proposed bill, with a view to
passing our judgment as an agricultural body thereon ;
whether it appears likely to meet' the acknowledged require-
ments or not. Having read and re-read the bill, since writing
the foregoing introduction of the subject, I have, myself, come
to the conclusion that it is worthy to become the law of the
land, but with a few trifling alterations in its details. I
will, however, confine my observations to the few leading
clauses, which seem to me to contain the core and substance
of the bill itself. Clause 1 declares that the tenant shall be
compensated for his unexhausted improvements — ^just what
is really needed. Clause 2 describes the improvements them-
selves, for which claim may be made, under three heads, viz.,
temporary, durable, and permanent, each of which is well de-
fined. Clause 3 defines the mode of procedure, and is so well
got up that it seems to me difUcult for any tenant to rob a
landlord under any of its provisions, and I have made calcu-
lations in various ways to ascertain wliether the tenant would
be able to run up an unfair bill against the new comer ; but
it appears to me that his chances of doing so are very small
indeed. At the same time provision is made for a set-olf in
case of any neglect of the tenant. The leading valuers of
every district would be sure to agree to a fair scale of remu-
neration for feeding stutTs and purchased manures to serve as
a general rule, and would know how to depart from it under
any special circumstances. They, as practical men, would
know how to work out the principles laid down by this clause
so that no injustice might occur. Clause "t having reference
to "durable improvements," is most just, for if a tenant has
added to the letting value of the farm he ought to be reim-
bursed, and there would be no claim under this clause if he
had not. Clause 5 treats of " permanent improvements," and
these must also add to the letting value in order to entitle to
a claim for compensation. A most useful clause this is, and
well got up ; neither can I perceive how any hardship can
accrue to an owner of property under its provisions. Clause
10. The justice of this clause no one can deny, and I am con-
tinually meeting witii cases calling for its enactment and
operation in my valuing peregrinations. Clause 13. Here is
the point of attack ; here is the " bone of contention." Do
away with this clause, and then — why put the bill in the fire
for all the use it is of. Why do not opponents attack the
biU in its details, or as a whole? It it be unjust or unequal
■why not show it? All the opposition I have yet heard, or
read, to this clause only goes to prove that the bill itself is
wanted. It is said to be un-English to bind people I Then
do away with all Acts of Parliament, and let every one do as
he likes, or that argument fails. Another talks about
" freedom of contract." Well, ihat has been tried a
long time, and found wanting. Why ? Because the
landlords, as a rule, are unacquainted with prac-
tical agriculture themselves, and very commonly leave
their business in the hands of those who are wholly
ignorant of it. The 12th clause is like the keystone to an
arch ; take it away and the structure falls to the ground. I
now pass on to another important clause — the arbitration
clause, the 18th — together with the schedule of regulations.
This is good in itself; but I do trust that it will be so altered
as to compel the arbitrators to appoint iht'ir own umpire before
proceeding to business, instead of leaving it for the inclosure
commissioners to make the appointment when required. The
present provision of the bill in that respect would open such a
wide door for extravagant costs as might destroy the weak
party's chance of obtaining real compensation by the pre-
liminary expenses. Tliis should be avoided as much as possible.
These appear to be the leading points of the bill, and all the
rest we may pass over without special notice. After what I
have said perhaps some may be ready to accuse me of express-
ing the opposite views to what I did a year ago on the subject
of legislation in reference to agriculture. Well I still wish
that legislation could be done without, but I am reluctantly
come to the conclusion that it is necessary. AVhy, lately 1 have
had to do with two large estates where a printed form of
agreement is got up and enforced, in which a Michaelmas
tenant is positively refused all payments for artificial manures
used with the last year's root crop unless he has first obtained
a written consent for them to be used, and yet the crop could
hardly be grown without them, and the entire benefit goes to
the next comer ! Nothing but Act of Parliament will ever
cause such parties to do more than they are absolutely obliged
in the direction of recompense. In conclusion, I beg to propose
the following resolutions : " That this meeting, recognising
the great necessity which exists for better security to the
tenant-farmer, earnestly hepes that Mr. Howard's bill may
become law." Agreed to by 15 to 4. Secondly, " The opposi-
tion raised against the 12th clause is considered to be one of
the strongest proofs of the necessity for the bill itself, and
this meetiug hopes it will not be struck out." Agreed to by 11
to 3. Thirdly, " This meeting recommends tTiat the arbi-
tration clause should be so altered as to give to the arbitrators
the power to appoint their own umpire, and only to bind them
to appeal to tlie Enclosure Commissioners in case they fail
to agree upon one themselves." These resolutions were all
unanimously adopted.
BATH AND WEST OF ENGLAND
AND SOUTHERN COUNTIES AGRICUL-
TURAL SOCIETY.
Tlie usual Council meetiug of this Society was held at the
White Lion Hotel, Bristol, Sir J. T, B. Duckworth
in the chair. There were also present : Sir. T. D.
Acland, Bart., M.P., Messrs. R. Bremridge, Jonathan Gray,
R. K. Meade King, J. C. Moore-Stevens, H. G. Moysey, and
R. NeviUe-Grenville, M.P., J. T. Boscawen, H. Badcock, C.
Bush, R. H. Bush, W. Crabbe, R. R. M. Daw,Thos. Dyke,
E. W. Dymond, Charles Edwards, Fredk. Gil!, James Hole,
J. E. Knollys, H. A. F. Luttrell, H. Spackman, J. Strattou,
W. Thompson, R. Trood, C. A. W. Troyte, W. H. Walrond,
H. Williams, R. Wippell, and J. Goodwin (secretary and
editor).
The Financial Statement for the year 1873 was con-
sidered attd approved, and ordered to be printed and circulated
through the medium of the Society's Journal. It appeared
that the expenses of the Plymouth meeting were £6,383
lis. 5d., whilst the income derived from it was £7,108 53.3d.,
thus yielding a surplus of £734 13s. lOd. in favour of the
Society.
The By-Law Revision Committee presented an ad
inlerim report, and undertook to have their work completed
by the next meeting of Council (March 31st).
For the superintendence and due enforcement of the
Society's contracts, a committee was appointed consisting of
Colonel Luterell, Colonel Lennard, Mr. R. Neville, Mr. C.
A. W. Troyte, and Mr. Arthur Grenfell.
For the accommodation of the representatives of the press
on the occasion of the forthcoming Bristol meeting special
provision was directed to be made by the Official Superinten-
dent.
The following new members were elected: Messrs. T. R.
M. English, Wynhol, Walton, Clevedon ; W. Hunt, Burton-
street, Bath: G. Turner, jun., Thorplands, Northampton;
J. Temple and Sons, Slate Works, Canon's Marsh, Bristol ;
and W. Lane, jun., Sandford, Crediton.
[It seems to us that " a special provision for the representatives
of the Press" would be the inclosure to the several offices of
invitation admission-tickets, if any such courtesy bo con-
tinued, instead of compelling people to crowd about a small
window and a slow clerk on the opening morning. We
declined to exercise any such " privilege" at Plymouth, nor
do we know of any other Society where this obnoxious custom
prevails. — Editor M.L.E.']
MR. CROSS.— The only new, and by far the boldest of all
the appointments, is that of Mr. Cross to the Home Office.
There are reasons for Mr. Cross's selection, young in Parlia-
ment and almost unknown as he is out of his own county of
Lancashire. He is the man who left the Northern Circuit to
defeat Mr. Gladstone in South West Lancashire in 1868, and
he has steadily risen in the House of Commons until he was
recognised as a leader of Conservatives in all the semi-legal ad-
ministrative questions which interest country gentlemen. Be-
sides the Home Secretary is always regarded as the second in
the lead of the House of Commons, and there has been a little
mutinous talk of a Derby-llardy administration. — Wesfern
Times,
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
313
THE CENTRAL CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE.
A Council Meeting of this boJy was held on Tuesday, IVIiirch 3,
at the Salisbury Hotel, Mr. G. F. Muntz iu the chair. Among
those present were Sir J. Pakington, Sir Massey Lopes, M.P.;
Mr. C. S. Read, M.P.; Mr. A. Pell, M.P.; Mr. Chaplin,
M.P.; Col. Paget, M.P.; and Mr. Storer, M.P.
The CuAiRiiAX, in opening the proceedings, observed that
the last meeting, having met merely to adjourn, that meeting
was practically the opening one of the present year. Ap-
pearing there for the first time in the position of President,
he must crave foibearance and indulgence for any short-
comings, especially as he succeeded a gentleman v^ho was
emmently qualified to occupy that position, and who, by his
quickness of perception, his sound judgment, and his constant
urbanity, had gained the respect and esteem of every mem-
ber of that Chamber. About four years ago the then
Chairman of that Chamber, speakinn from the place where
he then stood, and observing Mr. Knatchbull-IIugesseu in
the room, said it was seldom that they were honoured by the
presence of a member of her Majesty's Government ; but at
that moment three gentlemen who had taken an active part in
the proceedings of the Chamber had received the distin-
guished liouour of being appointed to an office in the Go-
vernment of the country. He looked upon that as a
very auspicious event in connection with the influence the
Chamber was likely to exercise in the country. It had been
said that landlord influence predominated in that Chamber.
That was not so, and it could not have been said by any
one who had attended the meetings. The influence of
the Chamber depended upon its being a truly representa-
tive body, a body representing tlie agricultural interest
throughout the kingdom, not merely a section of it, and if
that were recognised it would acquire a power which would
enable it to confer immense benefit on the whole agricultural
community. As regarded the programme for the year,
they had before them two very great questions, and he
tliought no one would deny that they ought to have priority
over all others — the question of Local-taxation and tiiat of land-
tenure and compensation for unexhausted improvements. In
the case of Local-taxation they should not forget that they would
have opposed to them a large, powerful, and interested minority,
who were now exempt from such taxation — mortgagees, fund-
holders, shareholders, and others occupying a similar position,
and a great deal of energy and perseverance would be required
to enable the Chamber to accomplish the object. As regarded
the question of land-tenure and compensation for unexhausted
improvements, he believed their great diflBculty was the want
of knowledge and intelligence among those who were interested
in the matter, and what was especially needed at present was
calm and temperate discussion, with a view to a settlement,
whieli would be just and equitable to all parties concerned
(cheers). The question of education was daily becoming of
more importance to agriculturists. The amendment of the
Poor-law was also an object of great interest ; and the im-
portance of uniformity in weights and measures was increased
by the increase of foreign competition. Another question
which demanded careful attention was the protection of Eng-
lish cattle from infectious foreign diseases. The last question
which he would mention — he would not say the least, because
he knew that with many members of the Chamber it was a
question of deep interest — was that of free-trade in agricul-
ture, particularly in malt. That was a question wliich must
be dealt with. If the principle of free-trade were a true
principle, it was true not merely in one case but in all cases,
and therefore he said the question of the repeal of the Malt-
tax demanded earnest consideration.
Mr. HoDSOi.L (Kent) then proposed that three cheers should
be given lor the three members of the Chamber who had just
been appointed to olRce in the Government — Sir M. Beach,
M.P., Sir M. Lopes, M.P., and Mr. C. S. Read, M.P., and tiiis
suggestion was vigorously carried out.
During some routine business which followed, the Chairman
alluded to the fact that a deputation was to see the Chancellor
of the Exchequer on the following day iu reference to the
Malt-tax, and Sir John Pakington was, on the motion of Mr.
C. S. Read, M.P., seconded by Mr. Hodsoll, elected Vice-
Chairmau for the current year.
Mr. Smith (Essex) having inquired whether the amount of
arrears of subscriptions previously reported, namely, £189, had
been reduced.
The Secretary replied that a considerable number of
arrears had come in, and that he had no doubt they would be
able to get in the major portion of the remainder.
The election of the Business Committee was then pro-
ceeded with, the result being that the following were chosen
for the current year : Mr. G. Wliitaker, Captain Craigie, Mr.
J. II. Hodsoll, Mr. J. Bowen Jones, Mr. J. S. Gardiner, Mr.
Thomas Brown, Mr. G. Storer, M.P.
Sir M. Lopes, M.P., then read the following Report of the
Local Taxation Committee, which was adopted :
Sinco the Local Taxation Committee presented their last
report, Parliament has been dissolved, and a now Govern-
ment has assumed the reins of ijower. The unaccomplished
task of reforming our existing system of local taxation must
now, therefore, be undertaken by a new Parliament ; and
upon the new Ministry will devolve the duty of initiating
remedial legislation. While firmly adhering to their former
demands, your committee will continue, as hitherto, sciiipu-
lously to avoid all mero party considerations in dealing with
this subject. In the interest of the ratepayer, it has fre-
quently been their duty to protest against the treatment of
this question by the late Government. They are now equally
anxious to press on the present Ministry the urgency of the
ratepayer's claims to prompt and eflfective redress. In dis-
solving Parliament Mr. Gladstone indicated his future poUcy,
and at last admitted ' ' that a further portion of the charges
hitherto borne bj' real and immovable property should, wixh.
judicious accompanying arrangements, be placed upon pro-
perty gencrallj'." And in the sketch he gave of his intended
Uudget he also said, " The first item I have to set down in
the financial arrangements proper for the year is relief, but
relief coupled with reform, of local taxation." Your committee
are glad to observe this tribute to tho justice of their argu-
ments, and to welcome the prominence thus given to the
question tlu'oughout the late General Election — a prominence
which must ensure its early consideration by the new Go-
vernment. The combined necessity for both relief and re-
form has always been felt end admitted by your Committee.
Their opposition to the proposals hitherto made has beett
directed against the order in which the subject was ap-
proached, the indefinite postponement of substantial relief and
the attempted substitution of petty alterations of administra-
tive detail for real and urgently-demanded remedies. Tho
earliest and most reasonable step in general reform is now
admitted to be the removal from the rates of the most peculi-
arly national of our present burdens, in cases where central
control now determines the e.xpenditure. A development of
the existing system of Treasury Grants in tho direction
approved by Parliament in 1872, involves no complicated re-
construction of existing authorities. Such relief might,
therefore, be given at once, even if the time at the command
of the new Government should prove too limited to attempt
more intricate reforms in the present financial year. It will
not bo forgotten that the late House of Commons assented to
the charges imposed by the Education, Sanitary, and Vacci-
nation Acts only on Mr. Gladstone, Mr. Stansfeld, and Mr.
Porster severally undertaking that each imposition should
be fully taken into consideration when the whole subject of
local-taxation camo to be reviewed. Whether, therefore,
any of the charges now existing, especially that for police,
should, as matter of justice, and at the same time with a view
to greater efhciency and economy, bo removed entirely from
the local category ; whether in other cases State aid could be
further proportioned to State control, or whether any other
moans exist of alleviating existing hardships, will bo matter
for tho earnest consideration of your Committee. Admiuis-
trativo changes, although not indisponsal)lo preliminaries to
the relief of ratepayers, must ultimately bo included in any
general reform of local finance. Local Government, tho
machinery of assessment and collection of rates, the removal
of all exemptions from ratal liability, and the difficult
questions of Highway, Turnpike, and Sanitary management
will all demand careful cousiiloration. With a view to elicit
information and suggestions on some much-controverted
points, your Committee proiwso to offer a prize of fifty
guineas ibr tho best Essaj' on l^efornfc necessary in tho con-
stitution of local authorities and tho administration of local
rstes. Tho success of their former Prize Essay in awakening
an interest in needful financial I'elbnns leads your Committee
to anticipate much advantage from a jn-oposal which enables
them to show as vital an interest in efficient and economic
local Igovernment as in just and equal local taxation. In
prospect of Parliamentarj' discussion on local taxation, the
annual and other statistical returns recently distributed
x2
314
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
become of special interest and value. The aggregate rates
of England and Wales in 1872 exceeded £18,000,000, thus
showing an increase of fully 80 per cent, in the last twenty
years, and exceeding by nearly £2,000,000 the amount at
which Mr. Goschen placed thorn in 1868. This rapid increase of
local taxation contrasts forcil;ly with the frequent remissions
of imperial burdens. About one- third of the rates raised are
no doubt expended, as the late President of the Local Govern-
ment Board has pointed out, for remunerative purposes. It
must bo rememljered, however, that no less than £12,000,000
annually are now levied for what are officially acknowledged
to be non -remunerative purposes. It is of the incidence of
this large portion of our ratal liurdens your Committee espe-
cially complain. It is no doubt gratifying to see from the
Annual Poor Eate Return a slight reduction in the cost of
out-door reUef, wliich is mainly attributable to the unprece-
tlented prosjicritj' of the countiy. From the figures now
presented to us we may learn, however, some valuable facts.
In the course of a single decade, while the actual cost of
laaintainmg our paupers (i. p., in in-maintenance and out-door
relief alone) shows but a small comparative increase, the
demand made upon the Poor-rate by county, police,
and borough authorities has grown by fully £1,000,000;
or 50 percent.; the cost of lunatics l)y fitj per cent.,
and the large item of miscellaneous and unclassified
expenditure— for which recent legislation is accountable —
by nearly 100 per cent. One-third of the whole sum levied
under the name Poor-rate is now applied to purposes wholly
foreign to the original intention of this impost. The returns
moved for by Mr. Pell, at the instance of your Committee,
give for the first time, though not yet in a complete form, a
tabular analj-sis of the piu-poses to which rates arc devoted.
They also specially enforce the urgent necessity for some
such measure as your Committee's Local Taxation Accounts
Bill of last Session, and show the need of a real local
Budget, while they pointedly direct attention to the confusion
now existing in the varying dates to which local accounts
are made up, and the ii-regular or defection audit to which
many of our local taxes are suljject. Yoiu- Committee have
before directed attention to the paper on Local Government
and Taxation read Ijy Mr. Dudley Baxter, at the Social
Science Congress at Norwich. This paper has now been
reprinted, together with a series of valiiablo letters by Mr.
Baxter on Mr. Goschen's Report of 1870. Your Committee,
while admitting the ability and research with which
that Report was compiled, have already pointed out
that many of its statistics were unreUable, and that
its main conclusions were fallacious and misleading.
The present very able letters of Mi-. Baxter com-
pletely dispose of Mr. Goschen's arguments, whether de-
rived from historical data, from the api^arent rate in the
£, or from comparison with foreign countries. Yovir Com-
mittee will take steps to give the widest publicity to Mr.
Baxter's pamphlet. His careful analj'sis of the relative total
burdens of rated and unrated property claims, in their opin-
ion, especial consideration. Even assuming, as Mr. Baxter
does, that only one-half of the rates fall ultimately on the
property assessed, he very clearly shows that that property
is charged to Imperial and Local taxes at 12 per cent., while
iim-ated personalty escapes with a total payment of 5 per
cent. — a result which fully establishes the justice of your
committee's protest against exceptional taxation. The
aimual report of your committee issued in November last
attracted a large share of jjublic attention during the recess,
and neai-ly 4,000 copies of it have been circulated. At the
invitation of the Lancashire, Worcestershire, and Lincoln-
shire Chambers, the secretai-y of your committee attended
and addressed meetings in Manchester, Worcester, and Bos-
ton, which wore instrumental in increasing the interest felt
in Local Taxation Reform. Your committee have on this
occasion to acknowledge the expressions of approval of their
past exertions and confidence in their futitre poUcy which
they have received from local chambers, and from their sup-
porters generally throughout the country. They have fur-
ther ta thank the contributors who have so readily responded
to their appeal for help. To the Worcestershire Chamber of
Agriculture they feel that especial thanks are due for the
welcome aid they have again offered. — Masset Lopes, Chair-
man.
Sir M. Lopes, M.P., moved a vote of thanks to Mr. Dudley
Baxter for the interest which he had taken in local-taxation
reform, and for the able and valuable letters which he has
written on the subject.
Sir J. Pakington seconded tlie motion, which was adopted.
Mr. Pell, M.P., after reminding the meeting that at the
commencement of the last Parliament a deputation from the
Cliaraber had an interview with Mr. Gladstone on the subject
of local taxation, proposed the following : " That the Premier
be requested to receive a deputation from the Central and
Associated Oliambers on the subject of local taxation, and
that it be referred to the Local Taxation and Executive Com-
mittees to make the necessary arrangements."
Colonel Paget, M,P., in seconding the motion, observed
that the position of the Chamber in reference to that question
was not affected by the recent change of Government. That
question was free from the domain of party politics, and they
would be just as eager to press their claims on the present
Government as they were to urge them on the consideration
of that which had ceased to exist.
The Chairman then presented and read tlie second report
of the committee on " Unexhausted Improvements," which
was as follows :
Since your Committee presented their first report, a largo
amount of additioaal information has been received ; never-
theless, returns of agricultural customs are still wanting from
several counties, and to complete the inquiry in which the
committee are engaged will need some little time longer.
Yoitr committee have arranged the mode in which the details
of customs shall be summarised, and are proceeding with the
work of abstracting the several Schedules returned, and
entering the particulars in the final gummary forms. And
the diverse customs and modes of compensation which appear
in those returns have fully shown the absolute necessity for
such a ta)jular synopsis of the whole, to enable members of
the Council and of the Associated Chambers to obtain the
information afforded in the most intelligible and comprehen-
sive form. If is thoiight desirable, having regard to the
magnitude of the work and the difference in the interests
concerned iu the respective classes of improvements, that
" Temporary," " Durable," and "Permanent " improvements
should form distinct sections of the final report. In the
present report, your Committee confine their observations to
such items as materially affect the question of compensation,
ommitting references to those which are comparatively unim-
portant. Your Committee desire to draw the particular atten-
tion of the Council to the mai'ked diff'erences between customs
prevailing to-day and those existing in the j'ear ISIS when
Mr. Pusey's select Committee of the House of Commons
issued its report. For example : In Lincolnshire, at that
time, no allowances were given for guano or other highly-
concentrated manures, which are now universally allowed
for in that county. Compensation for draining was then only
partially introduced, though it is now a general custom in
Lincolnshire. At that time there was no allowance in Staf-
fordshire for pm'chased oilcake, feeding stuffs, and artificial
manure, or fur marling, boning, liming, planting quickset
hedges, or draining, all which are now subjects of compen-
sation, in, at any rate, the southern division of that county.
In Cambridgeshire, in that pai't called the Isle of Ely, allow-
ance for oilcake, for artificial manm-es, and for claying, is
new, since the date of Mr. Pusey's inquiry. In Nottingham-
shire allowances for draining were only partially introduced
at that time, but are now universally the custom, together
with compensation for road-making, planting qriickset
hedges, executing irrigation works, and making main drains,
watercourses, and reservoirs. In Cheshire there was at that
period no allowance for either draining or planting quickset
hedges, which, however, obtains in North Cheshire at the
present time. In parts of Oxfordshire compensation for
chalking and boning have been introduced since 1843. In
South Wiltshire allowance for purchased manures is new. In
parts of Gloucestershh-e artificial manures are now allowed for,
and compensation is given for drainiog, though neither
of these improvements was recognised by custom in
1848. And in parts of Dorsetshire a smaU allowance
for oilcake, feeding stuffs, and purchased manures, and
also for draining, has been introduced, though there
was no custom of the kind mentioned in the House of Com-
mons report. This is sufficient to show that an inquu-y and
report of so early a date as 1848 is wholly insufficient to
enable any one to aiTive at a correct conclusion regarding
the established customs of the various counties in the present
day. Your Committee would direct attention to the absence
of any uniform principle upon which Customs might be sup -
posed to have origmated. Thus, guano is allowed for in
some counties when applied to corn crops, in other counties
only when applied to root or green crops ; and in the latter
case, some counties or districts pay for all, and some for only
half the quantity used in the last year ; and while some
counties pay for no guano used in the last year but one of
the tenancj', other counties pay for one-third of what is ap-
plied in that year. For oil-cake the allowances vary from
half the value of cake used in the last year, with nothing
for cake used in the year before that, to one-fourth of the
last j'car's and one-eighth of the previous year's cake, or
two-thirds of the last year's and one-third of the previous
year's consumption of oil-cake. Compensation for tile-draining
ranges so diversely that improvement is calculated in some
counties to extend over six years, and in other counl ies up to
fourteen years. Planting quickset is spread over varying
periods from three to ten years. Liming arable land is sup-
posed to benefit the tenant from five years down to only two
years ; and liming pastures is taken as lasting three years
in some counties up to six years in others. The Returns
show that in some counties, in lieu of money compensation
for pui'chased feeding stuffs and manures, the out-going
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
315
tenant is entitled to an away-going crop ; but a lai-ge number
of the Returns show that in many counties and districts no
compensation whatever for temporary improvements is
secured by custom either in monej'' or crop, and up to the
present time your Committee have not received a single inti-
mation of the existence of any custom securing to the tenant
cornpensation for buildings, exccptmg structures not attached
to the freehold, which ho is, of course, at liberty to remove.
Looking at the results of the inquiry, so far as it has at pre-
sent proceeded, revealing a very partial prevalence of
equitable Tenant-Right customs, ^■ery conflicting practices
as between one county and another, and even between dif-
ferent parts of the sanio county, and, over a very lai'ge num-
ber of counties and districts, the absence of any compensation
whatever for unexhausted capital invested by the occupier
(and this a quarter of a century after the labours of Mr.
I'usey's Committee and the attempted legislation of 1848),
your Committee cannotbut conclude that the time has arrived
for a settlement of the Agricultural Customs of the king-
dom upon a uniform basis. And while the contemplated
legislation which is supported by the Council will guarantee
a rmivcrsal recognition of the respective claims of landlord
and tenant, your Committee believe that the application of
the provisions of any Act for this object will be greatly faci-
litated by the framing of a general Scale of Allowances,
founded upon the information which is being collected, em-
bracing, as it does, the experience of leading agriculturists
throughout England.— G. F. Muntz, Chau-man.
The Chairman having moved the adoption of the report,
this was seconded by Mr. Caldecott, and agreed to.
Mr. H. Neild having remarked tliat none of the recent
election addresses contained any direct reference to the special
interests of tenant-farmers, and intimated a wish to propose a
resolution relating to that subject, the Chairman informed him
that he was out of order, and called upon the Secretary to
read a letter received from Mr. J.imes Howard.
The Secretary then read this letter, in which Mr. Howard
said : " As the Chamber is about again to discuss tlie subject
of Tenant-Right, would it not be well, in tlie first place, to
settle the principle upon which any legislative measure should
be based? If tlie bill I had the honour of introducing
into Parliament last session should come under discussion,
perhaps I may be allowed to say that without the r2th clause,
or some clause equally binding on both parties, 1 do not think
the bill would be worth passing (cheers). But, by all means,
I would press upon the Chamber the necessity, before going
into the subject, of settling this point : Shall we seek a com-
pulsory or a permissive measure ? Mr. Read and I settled
this point at the very outset, and why should not the Cham-
ber P It would have saved endless discussions if the cham-
bers and clubs had first settled tliis principle."
Mr. Carrington Smith said he wislied to propose
that clauses 12, 13, and li should be struck out
of Messrs. Howard and Read's bill, and that there
slionld be introduced in clause 1 words for providing
compensation for unexhausted improvements in cases
in which it was not provided for by lease or agreement. He
would, however, first propose the following resolution :
' That every effort should be made to secure the passing of
the Landlord and Tenant Bill during the ensuing session."
Without proper provision for compensation for unexhausted
improvements the occupation of a farm was as purely [specula-
tive as the backing of a horse for the Derby. The present
head of Her Majesty's Government had now, lie believed, a
splendid opportunity of effecting a settlement of that question.
The present law said to the farmer in effect, " Tiioushalt not
improve." Let the right hon. gentleman, by legislation on
that subject, erase tlie word " not," so that the law would in
future say to the occupiers of land, " Thou shalt improve."
He could not help thinking that clause 12 in the bill of
last session was thrown as a sop to tenants and clause 13
as a sop to landlords. Surely the men who drew up those
clauses knew that a large proportion of the land of England
was held under annual agreements ; and could they desire that
every tenant who occupied in that way should give notice to
his landlord in order that he might bring himself within the
operation of the bill. In his opinion clauses 12 and 13 re-
quired elision from that bill, just as much as in the estimation
of numbers the 25th clause required to be expunged from the
Elementary Education Act.
Mr.MA^ (StatTordsliire)Iwished to observe that although Mr.
Smith was chairman of tlie Staffordshire Chamber he did not
represent its views on that subject, as was clearly shown by a
resolution which it had adopted.
Mr, T. DucKHAM then secouded Mr, C, Smith's resolution.
Colonel Paget having pointed out that there was no Laud-
1 rd and TenantBill now, Mr. C. Smith substituted the word " a"
for " the," and with this alteration tlie resolution was adopted.
Mr. C. Smith having then expressed his wish to propose
the omission of clauses 12, 13, and 14 in the bill of last
session,
Mr. Butler (Essex), put it to the Ciiairmau whether it
was competent for the meeting to take action on a bill which
was no longer belore the Legislature.
After some remarks from Mr. Corra:\-ce,
Mr. C. Smith submitted his supplementary proposal in the
following form : " And that in the opinion of this Council
the best means of attaining this end is to take the late Land-
lord and Tenant Bill, with tlie exception of clauses 12, 13,
and 14, and to make clause 1 run thus : ' Subject to the pro-
visions of this Act, wherever in the opinion of the arbitrators
such conipcnsatiou is not provided for by lease, or) agreement,
or local custom, efficient and sufficient [compensation should
be made by law.' "
Mr. T. DucKHAM seconded this motion.
Mr. Butler moved an amendment to tlie effect that the
consideration of the question be postponed until some bill on
the subject has been introduced in the House of Com-
mons.
Mr. J. S. Gardiner seconded the amendment.
Mr. G. A. May said the Staffordshire Chamber, which he
represented, had in the absence of their chairman (Mr. C.
Smith) unanimously adopted the following resolution :
" That this Chamber approves of tlie principle of Mr.
Howard's bill, namely, that legal security should be given
equally to both landlord and tenant, for bad husbandry and
compensation for unexhausted improvements, and beheves it
to be necessary for the future improvement of agriculture and
amicable relations between landlord and tenant." The feel-
ing of his Chamber was, he remarked, unmistakeably in
favour of the 12th clause of Mr. Howard's bill, what it de-
sired being that farmers should be enabled to invest their
money safely in the land which they cultivated.
Mr. Stratton maintained that although the bill of Mr.
Howard was not then before Parliament, it was quite compe-
tent for the Chamber to discuss it with a view of its being
made the basis of future legislation.
Sir J. Pakington wished to say a few words with the
view of simplifying a question which it seemed to him
was becoming rather complicated. There could be no
doubt that by means of conversation there they might lay a
foundation for future action; but the report of the Committee
just read showed how extensive and how difficult that subject
was, and that while the principle of Tenant Right had been
carried out in various parts of England, there was great
variety in the modes of carrying it out. They had just passed
a resolution declaring that it was desirable that the ensuing
session should not pass away without legislation in reference
to Tenant-Right. He thought that resolution was one of
great value, and in his humble judgment it would be better
to consider how far they should act upon it than to attempt
then to lay down details with regard to a bill which it
should be remembered was not before Parliament. He
would advise his friend Mr. Smith not to be in a hurry to
get a bill passed. lie would remind him of the peculiar
position of the new Parliament. They were now in the
month of March, the new Parliament had not yet met, and
practically the session could not commence till after Easter.
Several gentlemen had thrown out suggestions with regard to
a bill, but, as they had been already reminded, there was no
biU. There was a bill last session which was brought forward
by Mr, Howard and Mr. Read, but Mr. Howard was not now
in Parliament, and Mr. Read was not likely to introduce that
bill in the coming session ; and he ventured to suggest that
the first thing to be done now was to ascertain what two other
gentlemen would consent to become the fathers of a new bill,
or to reintroduce that which had been withdrawn. He thoi'ght
it would be better to get a new bill introduced in Parliament,
and then referred to a select committee, than to discuss the
details of a measure which had ceased to exist. He would,
therefore, suggest that both the motion and the amendment
should be withdrawn, and that they should content themselves
with having passed the important resolution already
adopted.
Mr. Stoker, M.P. hoped tlie excellent suggestion of Sir
316
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
John Pakington would be adopted, but, failing that, would sup-
port the amendment.
Mr. C. S. Read, M.P., agreed with Sir John Pakington
that it was desirable that both the resolution and the amend-
ment should be withdrawn, but thought it would be quite
competent for the Council to pass a general resolution in
accordance with the bill introduced by Mr. Howard. If they
did not begin by settling what the main principle was fo be,
they could not have a bill of any value. Mr. Howard justly
said in the letter which had been read, that the first thing
for the Council to decide was whether it was wished to have
a compulsory bill or a permissive one. He knew perfectly
well from his experience with regard to the bill of last year
that whoever might have charge of such a bill in future — and
his own duties would certainly prevent him from occupying
that position in the next session — should receive instructions
from tbe Council as to the main principles to be adopted.
Mr. Pell, M.P., wished to make one remark in reference
to what had just fallen from his friend Mr. Read. There was
great ambiguity in the word " compulsory." A hill was not
compulsory; but, if it passed into an enactment, it became
compulsory. Therefore the question was what was meant and
covered in the minds of Mr. Read and those who agreed with
him by that terra. They need not go beating about the bush.
The question was whether that Council intended to ask the
Legislature to prohibit landlords and tenants from making
any contract they chose to make between themselves in refer-
ence to a holding, unless they excluded themselves from the
operation of tbe bill by entering into an agreement or lease
extending over 21 years. That he understood to be the point
at issue. He believed the Council was aware that he was in
favour of the principle of free contract, and he thought the
meeting should be contented with lealfirming the principle
which it had already approved.
Mr. Jasper More reminded the meeting that last session
Mr. Disraeli having convened a meeting of the Conservative
members of the House of Commons on that subject, they de-
cided that the 12th Clause of Mr. Howard's Bill, making its
operation compulsory, should be struck out. (Colonel Paget,
M.P. : No.) If that were not so, perhaps the hon. and gal-
lant member would be kind enougli to explain what was done
at that meeting. All the leading journals announced what he
had stated. Of course if any Liberal members were to intro-
duce a bill, they would find themselves in a minority.
The Chairman reminded the Council that circumstances
liad entirely clianged since that question was put down for
discussion, and added that the Chamber had already decided
in effect that any bill which might be passed should not be
permissive.
A Voice : No.
At the request of the Chairman, the Secretary then read the
resolution on the subject passed by the Council last year, de-
claring that " security for this purpose, where not given by
lease or agreement, should be provided by legislation."
The Chairman thought the principle of that resolution
was that where tenants were not secured by other means the
bill sliould give security. He thought it was on the whole
desirable to follow the advice of Sir John Pakington.
Mr. T. HoRLEY hoped the Council would not separate with-
out passing some resolution respecting the principles of legis-
lation. He was confident that if they did so tenant-farmers
generally would be greatly disappointed. He did not agree
with Mr. Pell that the bill should be permissive.
Mr. Chai-lin, M.P., thought that that discussion was some-
what premature. They had been engaged during the greater
part of that morning in considering a hypothetical bill— a bill
which no longer existed, and if he might veuture to make a
sug'iestion, it would be that the wisest course would be to
adopt the suggestion made by Sir John Pakington. He
tliought it highly desirable that the disputed question whether
there sliould be a law prohibiting freedom of contract between
landlords and tenants of England should be definitively settled.
In what manner that question would be settled, he, for one,
could not doubt for a single moment. He believed that the
vast majority of the landlords and tenants throughout this
country would oppose almost unanimously anything like in-
terference with freedom of contract. (Cries of "No, no.")
He tliouglit that if the matter were brouKht to the test of a
poll of the tenants, it would be found that liis opinion was
not unfounded. iJcfore the Chamber expressed any decided
opinion on that subject, let a bill be introduced in Parliament,
and let them see what sort of a bill it was.
Mr. BowEN Jones, as a tenant-farmer, could not help ex-
pressing his great surprise that opposition to a legislative
measure securing compensation to tenant-farmers for unex-
hausted improvements should proceed from a county where
custom already gave such compensation. Why should not the
advantages enjoyed in Lincolnshire be extended to the whole
country? No one there wished to interfere with any freedom
of contract which would not prevent justice from being done
to the outgoing tenant.
Mr. LiPSCOMBE (Yorkshire) also expressed his surprise that
gentlemen from Lincolnshire should object to the passing of a
bill in accordance with the custom which prevailed there.
Mr. Chaplin, M.P., said he and other gentlemen connected
with Lincolnshire wished to see the custom of Lincolnshire
extended over the whole country. They had a custom, but it
was a custom without the 12th clause.
Mr. Bromley (Lincolnshire) said the Lincolnshire agricul-
turists objected to the bill of last session because it would have
interfered with existing agreements and contracts. They
were decidedly in favour of compensation being given for un-
exhausted improvements, but they also maintained that tbe
law should only come into operation in the absence of any
lease or agreement to the contrary.
The amendment having then been withdrawn,
Mr. Pell moved another amendment, viz. : " That the
Council, without pledging itself to details, approves of the
principle of compensation to tenants for the unexhausted value
of their improvements, and to landlords for dilapidation or
deterioration caused by default of the tenant, and desires that
security for this purpose, where not given by lease or agree-
ment, should be provided by legislation, subject only to the
written consent of the landlord in the _case of permanent im-
provements."
Mr. Bromley seconded the amendment.
Mr. Fowler (Dorsetshire) supported the amendment.
Mr. C. S. Read, M.P., said so much had been said about
the 12th clause of the bill of last session, and there had been
so much misunderstanding on the part of gentlemen who wished
to misunderstand, that he could not help troubling them again.
Mr. Pell had, he thought, purposely misunderstood the matter.
If Mr. Howard's bill had passed into law, that clause would
have prevented an agent from depriving a tenant of any com-
pensation for unexhausted improvements. He had known
cases in which landlords in England had contracted themselves
out of a custom. Immediately after the passing of the
Irish Land Act a large number of Irish landlords entered into
an agreement with tenants paying rental over £50 by which
they were prohibited from claiming sixpence for compensation
under that Act. Again, with regard to game, the law said
that it should be the property of the tenant ; but did not
landlords, as a rule, nevertheless keep the game iu their own
hands ?
Mr. Stoker, M.P., and Mr. Pnipps, M.P., supported the
amendment.
Mr. C. Smith said he was perfectly willing to withdraw his
resolution iu favour of one for giving security by law to a
tenant where it was not given by lease or agreement.
The motion was then withdrawn, and thereupon Mr. Pell's
amendment was submitted as a substantive motion.
After a few words from Col. Paget, M.P., in support of
this motion,
Mr. D. Long moved as an amendment, " That this Council
approves of the general principle of Messrs. Howard and
Read's Landlord and Tenant Bill of last year, and earnestly
but respectfully requests tiie attention of the Legislature to the
subject as early as possible."
Mr. H. Neild, in seconding the amendment, expressed his
astonishment that opposition to such a bill should emanate
from Lincolnshire.
Mr. C. S. Read said he strongly desired that the Council
might be unanimous on that subj ect, and he thought the reso-
lution proposed by Mr. Pell did in fact embody the main
principle of the bill of last session, which was simply this —
that where compensation was not secured by lease or agreement
the law should step in and protect the unfortunate tenant.
Mr. Chaplin, M.P., hoped the Council would be unani-
mous inpassiug the resolution now before it, to which he him-
self gave his hearty support, and trusted that this conduct on
his part would relieve the minds of those wlio had persistently
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
317
said that Liucolushire geutlemeu were opposed to legislatiou
on that subject. As to the 12th clause he regarded it as at
once mischievous and useless. He had always held that if the
agriculture of England was to prosper there must be una-
nimity and good feeling between landlords and tenants, and he
felt certain that any legislatiou of that kind would be most
injurious.
The Chairman, after reading the resolutiou, observed that
either a good bill or a bad one might be founded upon it,
and thought it very desirable that if it were adopted the
Council should at an early period endeavour to fgund a good
bill upon it.
Sir J. I'akington said they did not want a tenants' bill and
they did not want a landlords' bill, but one that would secure
to the tenant the benefit of what he had expended on the land ;
and he was very desirous that they should come to a unanimous
vote, because that would give increased strength to their pro-
ceedings.
After some conversation tlie resolution was adopted, only
two or three hands being held up for the amendment.
Mr. AuKELL proposed that Mr. Pell and Mr.,Chaplin should
draw up a bill founded on the resolution, and lay it before a
future meeting of the Council for consideration.
Mr. H. Neild seconded the motion.
Mr. Bromley protested against the attempt to hook two
members ot Parliament in that way.
Mr. Pell, M.P., hoped the motion would be postponed
till after the Speech from the Throne had been delivered.
The motion was then withdrawn.
The next subject on the agenda being "The thrashing
machines Bill," on the motion of Mr. G. Turner, seconded by_
Mr. T. Horley, it was resolved "That this Council is of
opinion that before any law is passed upon the subject of
agricultural macliines an inquiry into the extent, number, and
circumstances of accidents arising from the use of all farm
machinery should be instituted, with the view of ascertaining
whether any legislation is necessary."
The Secretary then read a letter from the Secretary of the
Association of Chambers of Commerce, asking the Council to
join in a deputation to the Government having for its object
the appointment of a Minister of Commerce and Agriculture.
At the suggestion of the Chairman it was decided that this
matter should be considered at the next Council meeting.
It was afterwards resolved that " Highway legislation," in-
cluding the question of the transit of locomotives on highways,
should form another topic at the next meeting.
The Council then adjourned till the lith of April.
A BEER-TAX v. THE MALT-TAX.
DEPUTATION TO THE CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER.
On Wednesday March 4, a deputation of about a dozen
members of the Central Chamber of Agriculture and the
Associated Chambers, had an interview with Sir Stafford
Northcote, in Downing-street, to lay before the right hon.
gentleman the views of those bodies in reference to the Malt-
tax. The task of introduction was performed by Mr. Joshua
Fielden, M.P., and Mr. G. Storer, M.P., the only two Mem-
bers of Parliament on the deputation.
Mr. J. FiEiDEN, M.P., said lie had long felt that the Malt-
tax was very unjust in its operation as regarded the labouring
people of this country, while it took very much more out of
the pockets of the people than went into the Exchequer.
Having been connected all his life with the manufacturing dis-
tricts, he had observed how heavily it pressed on the labouring
population there. It was the custom of many labourers in
that part of the country to brew beer at their own cottages.
It had been ascertained that in five townships 76 per cent, of
the inhabitants, chiefly labouring people, brewed at home,
'hat 8 per cent, would brew at home but could not afford to
do so, that 6 per cent, bought beer, and that 10 per cent, did
not drink beer. It was most important to encourage the habit
of brewing at home, which tended so much to keep men from
public-houses, and that could only be done by repealing or
reducing the JIalt-tax, which was practically a tax of 140 per
cent. In Surrey, where he now resided, he had found that
labouring men literally could not get beer, and, for the sake
of such persons, he wished to see the old practice of brewing
at home revived. He knew, of course, tiiat a Chancellor of
the Exchequer, when asked to repeal a tax that yielded
£7,000,000 per annum, would have to consider the subject
from a different point of view from that which he (Mr.
Fielden) had taken ; but, seeing that within a few years the
duties on tea had been reduced by one-half, and those on sugar
by three-fourths, sugar being entirely a foreign production, he
tliought those who asked for remission in the case of a home-
grown and home-manufactured article had a fair claim to con-
sideration.
The following " statement" was here presented : Because
the excessive taxation of 21s. 8d. per qr. discourages the
growth of barley, thereby preventing tlie adoption of tlie most
remunerative rotations of crops, and, as a consequence, limiting
the production of meat and dairy produce. Because the opera-
tion of this high tax directly handicaps the production of
second-class and medium-quality barleys, which alone are
capable of very extended cultivation. Because the tax, in
debarring the use of inferior barleys for malting purposes
operates as a fin(! upon high farming — very heavy and prolific
crops of barley being generally incompatililc with the pre^er-
vation of superior quality for malting. Because this discou-
ragement of the production of all but high-quality barleys acts
especially to the injury of agriculture in Ireland, where,
owing to the climate, barleys of the finest quality can
rarely be grown. Because an increased demand for barley
would be of greater advantage to English farmers than
an increased demand for any other grain, seeing that
good malting barley is produced upon only a limited
area in foreign countries, and thus our home growth would not
be swamped in our markets by immense imports, as is the case
with respect to wheat, oats, and other corn. Because the
amount of taxation paid by farmers upon the beer consumed as a
necessary item of expenditure in their business commonly ex-
ceeds the sum paid by the farmer iu income tax. The tabular
abstract of returns, appended to this statement, of particulars
relating to 56 farms in 22 counties, shows that, on 30,000
acres, the tax unon the beer consumer (including as beer the
extra wages paid in lieu of beer) amounts to no less than £3 3s.
per 100 acres. This is reckoning the tax with its artificial en-
hancement of the natural price to be 7s. 6d. per barrel of 36 gallons,
of the average strength of four barrels per quarter of malt. The
income tax per 100 acres can hardly exceed 20s. Because the malt
tax is by far the heaviest of the imposts remaining upon
articles of food and sustenance, and thus falls with peculiar
pressure upon the labouring classes and, through them, upon
employers of labour. It has been shown from statistics of the
relative consumption of beer and of tea, coffee, and sugar, that
the repeal of the Malt-tax would save the working classes per
household a very much larger sura than the repeal of the
duties on tea, coffee, and sugar. So that, even at the present
restricted rate of consumption of beer, the working classes
would gaia far more from a " free dinner-table" than from a
free breakfast-table." Because the discouragement of cottage
brewing by the weight of the tax seriously detracts
from the comforts, while it also deteriorates the
habits and morals, of the labouring classes. Be-
cause the Malt-duty is extravagant by reason of
the loss involved in its cumulative incidence ; it having been
lepeatcdly siiown on the best authority that, by levying the
tax at such an early stage in the manufacture of beer, the
natural selling price to the consumer is raised probably oue-
third ; while the tax cost the public 40 or 45 per cent, more
than the seven and a half millions actually acciuiug to tlie
revenue. Because the duties on wines, the beverage of the
rich and well to-do classes, have been lowered 60 per cent,
since the year 1859, the average wine duties having been
5s. 2d. per gallon in 1859, while they arc only 2s. at the
present time. Because all other industries except husbandry
have been considered by the State and have been delivered
from exorbitaut special taxation, whereas the British farmer is
318
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
placed by the Malt-tas at a disadvantage in competition with
foreigners. They prayed that any taxation remaining npon
malt might be transferred to beer for the following reasons :
Because liberation from Excise restrictions would give to
farmers a new source of profit in their business from the use
of malt as food for animals. As inferior barley malted con-
tains 20 per cent, more of flesh-forming constituents and 100
per cent, more of sugar than the raw grain, while it would
cost at least a third less than the same barley malted and
charged with duty, and as malt is of very remarkable value as
a food for young stock, freedom to use it in this way would
have a great effect in augmenting the production of meat.
Because the farmer using his own malted grain would be able
to protect himself to a large extent against adulterated feeding
stuffs, now too often victimising him in the market. Because
the system of taxing beer by the sale of adhesive stamps to be
affixed to barrels sold has been successfully adopted in other
countries, and because it was given in evidence by high au-
thorities of the Board of Inland Revenue, before the late
Select Committee on the Malt-tax, that a taxation upon beer
or by a system of brewers' licences, could be collected without
danger to the Revenue.
Mr. G. F. MuNTZ said the Malt-tax interfered greatly with
the productive power of the country, and on that ground he
thought it ought to be repealed.
Mr. Storer, M.P., said for many years successive deputa-
tions had waited upon successive Chancellors of the Exchequer
on that important subject, and urged the consideration of the
claims of the agriculturists to repeal on the ground of strict
justice, and as a necessary consequence of free trade in corn ;
and tliroughout, while the justice of the claims had been con-
ceded, the relief sought had been persistently denied. lie
hoped the time had now arrived wheu justice would no longer
be sacrificed to expediency. They asked the right lion, gentle-
man and the Ministry to take tlieir claims into careful con-
sideration. They remembered with gratitude that the present
Prime Minister, while he was formerly Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer, proposed to abandon half the Malt-duty. It was not
for them to say what amount of remission it would be in the
power of the Government to offer. They went for the ulti-
mate abolition of tlie tax, but they were willing to accept an
instalment, and an instalment of half the whole amount would
be very valuable. They did not ask for remission merely in
the interest of one class, though the tenant-farmers had a very
strong case. Having to farm at a great disadvantage as com-
pared with foreigners, they were compelled to use malt, the
duty on which was, in many cases, sixpence in the pound, and
in some instances — that is on clay and arable farms — as high
as a shilling. Then there was the present state of the labour
question. In the rural districts, interested agitators had done
everything in their power to set the employed against the
employers ; and he believed the asperities which existed would
be very much softened if farmers were enabled to allow their
men good beer, or if labourers were enabled to produce beer
at their own homes at a cheap rate. Labourers would then
feel that there was something more for them in tlie land from
which they were being urged to separate themselves. In many
parts of the country the labour question was assuming an
aspect which threatened the very existence of agriculture in
the case of arable land. He wished to endorse what Mr.
i'ielden had said with regard to the necessity of encouraging
private and cottage brewing. In nineteen cases out of twenty,
drunkenness was the result of poisoned beer being imbibed at
the public-houses ; and it was clearly the interest of the town
as well as of the rural labourer that there should be a remission
of the Malt-tax.
Mr. H. NziLD said the question was one of great interest
to the growers and the consumers, or would-be consumers, of
barley. He represented the dairy farmers, and could state,
from experience, that there was nothing so valuable as a con-
diment as malt, which should be liberally used in the pro-
duction of milk and butter, and for the development of stock
— cows, calves, sheep, and pigs. When that able Parliamentary
committee was sitting on that question in 1868, one of the
soundest practical farmers of the Yorkshire AVolds gave most
valuable evidence as fo the use of malt by stock-feeders and
breeders. Having calculated tlie total number of head of
stock, he estimated the quantity of malt that might be used per
head with advantage, and he put it down at 17 million bushels.
That was in 1868. He liad seen him lately, and he now
thought that 20 millions might be used with great benefit both
to producers and conEUiners. Recent legislation had very
wisely checked the adulteration of milk ; and farmers wished
to fill up the gap thus created, and to be instrumental in sup-
plying the increasing demand for pure milk. It was an urgent
necessity that every facility should be afforded for good tarming.
The labourers now had the advantage of a rise of three or
four shillings per head in their wages, and that of course in-
creased the pressure on the farmers, and rendered it more
imperative that the shackles on production should be removed.
Tiie deputation did not belong to a class which clamoured for
the boasted surplus, but they wanted to have male set free for
farming purposes. After alluding to a recent meeting of far-
mers in Liverpool, and to a meeting of the Manchester Club,
at which the repeal of the Malt-tax was strongly insisted
upon, Mr. Neild concluded by quoting the strong language of
the Parliamentary Committee of 1868, that the Malt-tax ought
to be repealed, and a licence on brewing substituted for it.
Mr. G. A. May said he wanted to dispel an idea, which
was very common, that the consumer of beer was the person
who paid the Malt-tax. As a tenant-farmer he knew that
that was not the case. An ordinary consumer might pay for
a twopenny glass of ale a penny tax, but the farmer did the
same thing. But beyond that the farmer had to face a very
difficult, and under that tax a very unequal competition. In
the centre of England there was a very large tract of strong
land, lying either on marl or clay, or cold red sandstone. The
rainfall was much greater there than near the eastern coast,
where the land was lighter and altogether more fitted for the
growth of barley, and he believed he did not exaggerate when
he said that at least one-third of the barley grown in the
Midland Counties was spoiled either by being down during
growth or by being badly harvested. In consequence of this
great loss in the barley crop many of his friends grew very
httle indeed. There was often a difference of 15s. a quarter,
and never less than 10s. between the inferior barleys and the
best, and the loss to which he alluded amounted to a very
serious sum per acre. If they took 5 quarters as the average
produce per acre, and that were worth 10s. a quarter less than
the better class of barley, that made a loss of 50s. per acre.
It was difficult even to place the lower qualities of barley,
maltsters havine to pay a much higher amount of duty on
barley bought at 40s. than on barley bought at 50s. He had
at that moment two large ricks of barley which he would be
very glad to malt for the purpose of making beer on his farm
and the feeding of his stock. He kept a rather large stock of
sheep, and would like to give his ewes before and after the
lambing at least half-a-piut of malt a day. He knew of
nothiug that would be more beneficial to both. It had been
said that malt was of very little use as a feeding material. If
that were the case it seemed strange that the refuse of the
brewers fetched such a high price. He lived near Burton,
and he believed tiiat one firm there, that of Messrs. Bass and
Sods, brewed something like 200,000 quarters of malt a year,
and the simple grains at 3s. a quarter produced £30,000.
Then tliere was the malt dust, the yeast, and the balm, the
value of which was difficult to estimate. Altogether the
commonest refuse of the brewers was of great money value,
showing indisputably that it was a very valuable ingredient
for feeding.
The Chancellor of the Exchequer : Is that refuse
used in the raw state, or is it mixed with other materials ?
Mr. May : It is generally mixed with other things.
Tlie Chancellor of the Exchequer : What is the pre-
sent regulation with regard to the use of malt for feeding
purposes P Is tiiere not a regulation that malt may be used
for feeding purposes if mixed with linseed?
Mr. BiDDELL : That regulation has been found totally in-
applicable to the farming business 1 have tried it myself, and
it has failed.
The Chancellor of the Exchequer : I wanted to know
with reference to the refuse of the breweries, how that is
commonly used, whether it is mixed with anything else?
Mr. May said it was mixed with chopped straw and hay,
and with meal. There must be great value in malt itself for
feeding purposes when the refuse was so valuable. Farmers
were now in a worse position than almost any class of trades-
men in the kingdom. Their business was getting less and
less remunerative, and they justly asked for the remission of a
portion of the Malt-tax with a view to its ultimate abolition.
Mr. G. Turner said a large part of tiie county to which he
belonged — Kent — grew an inferior kind of barley, and was
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
319
practically liaadicapped. Ie November he had a jrood, sound '
heavy barley, which the maltsters would not then look at, be- \
cause it was not quite up to the mark. lu March they were
wishing to take it, and that showed that it was good enough
to make beer. There was a large quantity of barley grown in
Kent upon which the grower lost I'rom 5s. to 7s. per quarter,
because, instead of going to the maltster, it had to be used for
distilling, grinding, and other purposes. He believed that
remark was applicab'e to five-sevenths of the barley grown in
Kent. The repeal of the i\Ialt-tax would be a great blessing
to the labourer, because he could then obtain beer from his
master's cellar instead of visiting public-houses. The physical
strengtli of the labouring class had been decreasing year by
year, and the only thing that accounted for that was the dilli-
culty of obtaiuing good and cheap beer.
Mr. W. Broavn wished to say one or two words, as a
grower of high-priced barley. Some persons said that men of
all classes did not want the Malt-tax to be repealed, but,
coming from the county of Essex, he denied that. Malt was
now the only raw material that was taxed, and they wished
that tax to be abolished, in order that t'ley raigiit liave " a
fair field and no favour" in their competition with foreigners.
To show how lieavily the tax pressed upon them indirectly, he
would give the figures witii regard to his own barley. During
the past season he had sold his barley at an average of 50s.
per qr. The tax amounted to £5 per acre on the barley-
growing land, and on the whole acreage of his farm it was
17s. per acre, or more than half the rental, lie believed that
if tiie malt-duty were repealed there would be a larger demand
for tlie better kinds of barley. He had been told by a brewer
that when malt rose to 70s. a quarter, brewers were obliged
to have recourse to sugar. Oue of the largest brewery firms
in London had tiireateued that if the Malt-tax were repealed
he would use syrups ; but it would be impossible to use a
large quantity of syrups all the year, because it was well
known that beer brewed from sugar would not keep duriug
the summer montlis. Upon all beer exported from this coun-
try the malt-duty was remitted. That was a very great hard-
ship to farmers wiio could not use their raw produce without
having it heavily taxed. As regarded the question of mono-
poly, the repeal of the duty would no doubt in some degree
open the trade. The large amount of capital that was re-
quired to compete with such firms as the Messrs. Bass tended
to keep the trade in a very few hands.
Mr. BiDDELL said if, on looking round, he saw a tax im-
posed on other raw materials produced in this country, he
would, as a farmer, cheerfully submit to a tax on malt. If he
saw a tax levied on coal at the pit's mouth, or on iron after
it had come out of the smelting furnace, he would not com-
plain. But he maiutained that farmers ought to be treated
like other people. Neitiier Mr. Lowe nor Mr. Gladstone had
contradicted what was said by previous deputations, but they
both said it was a question of revenue, aud the money could
not be spared. There was now a surplus, and it was high
time that something was done to meet the just claims of the
farmers. When in 1S52 the present Prime Minister proposed
that half the duty should be remitted, only six more votes were
wanted to carry that proposal. Since that period £20,000,000
of taxation had been removed, and he put it to the right hon.
gentleman whether if that amount of remission would have
been just then it would not be just now.
Mr. Jasper More said the Chancellor of the Exchequer
had no doubt had many claims already for the present surplus,
but, be that as it might, the present Government would probably
remain in office so long that it would have sufficient time to
give due consideration to the repeal of the Malt-tax. Mr.
Lowe, whose special ambition did not appear to be in the
direction of being the farmers' friend, had admitted that the
tax was indefensible excejit on the ground of revenue; and
many temperance advocates had come to the conclusion —
in which he concurred — that the repeal of the Malt-tax would
promote the cause of temperance.
Mr. May reminded the right liou. gentleman of the close
connection between that question and the losses sustained by
farmers in their stock by disease. In 1872 those losses
amounted in the aggregate to millions of pounds. Tiiere was
nothing which animals in a disordered state of mouth and
stomach would take so freely as a solution of malt, and if that
were tlie only ground for it the Malt- tax ought to be repealed.
Mr. Neville urged that that obnoxious tax ought to be
repealed in order that the principle of free trade might be
fully carried out. That principle was now generally admitted
to be true and correct, although, as was well-known, farmers
suffered much for some years from the operation of free trade.
Now that the English farmer had to compete with the
corn growers of the world, it was most important that they
should be freed from the burden of the Malt-tax. He believed
the repeal of that tax would tend very much to decrease
drunkenness. Tiie other day a judge sitting at an Assize in
Staffordshire — a county which was remarkable for the drunken-
ness whicli prevailed — said he thought the fearful drunkenness
of that district was owing in a great degree to the existence
of a great number of low-class public-houses where labouring
men drank bad beer. If the Malt-tax were abolished many of
those men would, he believed, practice cottage brewing and
drink their beer with their families at home.
The Chancellor of the Exchequer said : Well, gentle-
men, I am sure you will, as Mr. Jasper More pointed out to
you the necessity for doing, make allowance for the difficulties
of my position. The difficulties of a Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer are always considerable when a Budget is approaching ;
but my difficulties, coming as I do so suddenly into office, are
greater than usual ; and therefore you will hardly expect that
1 should now give you any positive answer upon the impor-
tant questions which you have brought before me. At the same
time I must thank you for having brought before me in so
convenicQt a form and with so much ability the different con-
siderations which have been urged upon me, and several of
which are put forward so well iu the printed statement just
handed to me. Of course, I feel that the Malt-tax is part of
a very large question, morally and physically as well as finan-
cially, and that the whole subject is one which requires
very great and very careful consideration, both on account
of its magnitude in itself and on account of the various
questions which are more or less directly connected with
it. All I can say at the present moment is, that we will
give the most serious consideration to the arguments which have
been brought forward, aud that I will take care to give due
weight to them in considering what arrangements are to be
made. There are one or two questions which, it occurs to me
to ask, and upon which you will perhaps be able to give me
some useful information. One argument which has been very
much dwelt upon by several gentlemen is that the effect of the
Malt-tax is bad as discouraging cottage brewing. It has also
been suggested that it would be desirable, if the revenue can
be spared, that the incidence of the tax should be altered by
converting the tax on the raw material of malt into a tax on
beer. Now I want to know whether you have considered the
question how far the transfer of taxation from malt to beer
would operate in the case of cottage brewing. The great
difficulty which arises when we consider the question of trans-
ferring the duty from the raw material malt to the finished
product beer is this — that instead of collecting the tax from
a small area and a few manufacturers, you would have to col-
lect it from a much larger area and a greater number of estab-
lishments, and that would perhaps make the levying of it
more difficult and more vexatious. A question would of course
be raised by the brewers as to the justice of transferring the
tax from malt to beer, and leaving private brewing out of con-
sideration. Have you considered at all how that should be
dealt with P
Mr. FiELDEN, M.P., observed that the amount of private
brewing was now very small, and he did not think that if it
were left perfectly free there would be much complaint.
Mr. BiDDELL said that as an employer of labour he would
not like to see occupiers of a cottage with a rental uuder £5
a year subject to a licence ; addiutr that he did not think there
would be any difficulty iu tlie case of the middle classes.
Mr. H- Neild remarked that the transfer in question had
been suggested only as a dernier ressort.
The Cuancellor of the Exchequer: Gentlemen, I don't
know that I can really say much more at present ! You can
hardly expect me to do anything more now than say that I
will take the matter into consideration. I feel its importance ;
and I feel the weight of many of the arguments that have been
adduced. One thing is, I think, quite obvious — namely, that
a reduction in the price of beer will tend to promote tempe-
rance, by leading people to drink wholesome and good beer in
S20 THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
preference to spirits ; but it' we are both to reduce the duty on I Mr. J. Fielben, M.P., then thauked the right hoii. gea-
nialt and to lose revenue on spirits, we shall want a very good tleman for the manner iujwhich he had received the deputation,
surplus (laughter). j and the interview terminated.
A BEER-TAX OR A MALT-TAX?
Mainly of course tlirough the influcDce for good or
evil of the Central Chamber of Agriculture, the cry for
jMalt-tax repeal is gradually dying away. At Norwich,
Mr. Sewell Head said " there was not the same
carDCstness for the repeal of the Malt-tax there was
a few years ago, for he was sorry to say there had
rot been that unanimity amongst farmers which he
desired to see, or that persistency which it was necessary
to manifest in order to obtain the repeal of the tax."
At a meeting of the Chamber of Agriculture iu the neigh-
bom-ing county of Cambridge on the same day, a resolution
was passed declaring " under present circumstances
it is inexpedient to repeal the Malt-tax ; " while
The Times says : " The deputation which waited
upon Sir Stafford Northcote was not, indeed, in
a parliamentary sense, very influential. Only two
members formed part of it — Mr. Fieldeu and a new
member, Mr. Storer. When we consider how many
members there must have been in London waiting to
attend yesterday's ceremonial, we may well feel that this
was a weak array. "Where were the members for Essex ?
"Where the members for Herts? Where was Colonel
Barttelot ? All these were conspicuously absent."
Precisely so, as TZ/c Mark Lane Express had been asking
throughout the autumn how it happened that the chosen
champion of repeal, this same absent Colonel Barttelot,
had not a word to say about the Malt-tax in the many
long speeches he was making about the country ? To
demonstrate what people do when they are really in ear-
nest, let us but look to the strong array of members of
the House who went up with the Anti-Income-tax depu-
tation, and then to the " two-peunyworth" which in-
troduced the Anti-Malt-tax people. "Where, oh, where
were " the Farmers' Friends," the Pells, Jenkiusous,
Brises and the others ? It is, however, only
fair to add that Mr, Read gives another reason
which he thinks will account very easily for this
apathy — at least amongst farmers, if not amongst the
M.P.s : " In 1865, he sold very good barley at 12s. a
coomb ; last Saturday he was offered 27s. a coomb ; but
he was positive that if barley were entirely free, in the
average of years the price for it would exceed that of
wheat."
It may be better or safer perhaps to take the question just
as it stands before us at present; and here Jlr. Read com-
plains of a want of unanimity, as he says, amongst farm-
ers, but as we say amongst the repealers themselves. It
has so happened that we have had some considerable
experience in organizing the action of deputations about
to wait upon any member of the Government, wlien
of course the great aim has been to take some clearly-
defined line, and to put this as concisely as possible
before thfe right honourable gentleman, who will be toler-
ably sure to catch at any inconsistency or contradiction
on the part of his visitors. And on "Wednesday last
the deputed representatives of the Central Chamber
of Agriculture went as comfortably together as a
litter of pigs engaged iu a free fight. Instead
of going straight on and enlisting the support of
other classes, by showing that with free barley
they could produce more meat and drink of a better quality,
they tried to fight barley against tea and sugar, and went
on to suggest a substitute the very mention of which would
put one of the most influential interests alike iu the
House and the country dead against the movement. The
deputation asked by way of relief for the imposition of
another duty, fiddling and inquisitorial in its character,
whereby people would be required, uuder the direction
of the exciseman, to stick postage stamps on their beer-
barrels, and so forth.
It was in this fashion, in fact, that the Chancellor of
the Exchequer was besieged : Mr. Fielden, a veteran in
the cause, said " labourers preferred to brew beer in their
own cottages. In his own district there were five town-
ships, in which 76 per cent, of the inhabitants brewed at
home, 8 would brew at home if they could, 6 per
cent, bought beer, while 10 per cent, did not drink any.
Considering that the habit of brewing beer at home was
a worthy and beneficial one to the labourer's family, and
that such persons were taxed even to the extent of 100
per cent., he held that the Malt-tax was a cruel
tax. Its removal Avould encourage the good old prac-
tice of home brewing; the labouring man and his
wife would then have an abundant supply of pure,
nutritious drink." "Whereupon, the secretary appro-
priately read a statement, which, by way of helping the
labourer, suggested the renewal of a tax upon beer in
accordance with the report of the Select Committee.
Then Mr. Storer, the nevv member, "endorsed what had
falleu as to the necessity of encouraging private and
cottage brewing, especially in the interests of morality ;
for every one cognisant with the administration of justice
must know that nineteen out of every twenty cases of
drunkenness arose from the poisoned beer men imbibed
at low public-houses." And everyboby said Hear, hear
to this, just as everybody had of course agreed to the
statement and its precious " fourteenth" and lastly. Soon
after naturally followed jMr. Neild, who straightway
declared that " no language could be stronger than that
of the Committee of 1868, who came to the conclusion,
after hearing the evidence brought before them, that the
Malt-tax might with justice be repealed, and a licence to
brew be substituted, and that no loss to the revenue
would be incurred thereby." This " strong language" was
very much as Mr. Neild gives it ; but when he refers again
to the report he will find that over this paragraph
recommending a beer-tax six of the Committee " came to
one conclusion" and six to another ; as it was only carried
by the casting vote of the Chairman, Colonel Barttelot,
who had himself drawn up the report. On precisely the
same terms a proposal from Mr. Lent Dent was rejected
— that is, by the Chairman's vote. It may be useful to
compare the two, as Mr. Dent's paragraph ran thus :
" Various propositions have been submitted to your
Committee as to the substitution of a beer-tax in lieu of
the Malt-duty ; but the difficulty of imposing a tax upon
private brewers, and the inconvenience from the inter-
ference of the Excise in the operations of the public
brewer, as well as the serious expense of collection, do
not incline your Committee to look with favour upon
the proposal."
The remainder of the argument was equally con-
tradictory ; as Mr. Jasper More " would promote the
social happiness and welfare of the labouring classes by
inducing them to drink their beer with their wives and
families" by clapping on a beer-tax ! Until, at length,
the Chancellor of the Exchequer seeing an opening was
bound to " observe that one or two arguments put for-
ward in the statement presented, and one which has been
much dwelt upon by several of the geutlemeu who have
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
321
Spoken, is that the effect of the Malt-tax is bad as dis-
coui-aging cottage brewing. I see also that you suggest
that it would be desirable if the revenue cannot be
spared, that the incidence of the tax should be so far
altered as to convert it from a tax upon malt — that is,
the material in its first stage of manufacture— into a tax
upon beer. I want to know whether you have considered
the question how far you think that the transfer of the
taxation from malt to beer would operate in the case of
cottage brewing. A difficulty which arises when yon
consider that question of transferring the incidence of
the taxation from the material malt to the finished pro-
duct beer is, that you would have to collect the tax at a
great number of establishments instead of a few. A
question would, of course, be raised by the brewers as
to the justice of transferring the tax from malt to beer,
leaving private brewing out of consideration." The
breweries, the cottagers, the private families ! If Sir
StaflFord Northcote wishes to get up " a row" of the
regular match-box pattern let him venture on a beer-tax
forthwith. The division over such a proposal was so
narrow in the House of Commons Committee, that it
would only have been prudent to have at once put it
aside ; but the Chamber of Agriculture has now the
credit of reviving a scheme, the very mention of which
will raise hostility on all sides against the repeal of the
Malt-tax. Surely the Chamber had better to stick to its
Local Taxation labours, over which at length even The
Times begins to laugh.
THE CHESHIRE CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE.
A MODEL AGREEMENT.
At a general meeting held at Crewe, to discuss the
points of agreement between landlords and tenants which
would be most just and beneficial to both parties upon taking
and leaving farms, Lord de Tabley presided.
The Secretary, Mr. T. Rigby, said Captain Smith, chief
constable of Cheshire, had told him that morning that pleuro-
pneumonia had broken out in a very virulent form in the
Hyde district, on two farms which had lately been tenanted
by a Derbyshire farmer, who brought his stock from Derby-
shire, and had only bought one cow since lie removed to the
Hyde district. That purchase he made in August last at
Hazelwood fair. Two animals had died, and 10 had heen
killed. The other portion of the county was comparatively
free. The farmer said there was no disease in the district
from which he removed, and he could not account for it, unless
it had been caused by the cold Cheshire clays.
Sir Harry Mainwarog : There is some obnoxious smoke
there, and perhaps that may have caused it.
The CiiAiroiAN said the Council had met since the last
meeting, and drawn up a report, which they recommended to
the meeting as a basis for consideration and agreement. The
Council was numerously attended by practical agriculturists
and landlords, and the points agreed upon were those which
they thought best calculated to meet with general adoption in
the district. Of course any landlord could vary any particu-
lar point, but it was wished that the attention of the Chamber
should be drawn to the desirability of having some uniform
custom, particularly as to tenancy, time of incoming and out-
going, and compensation for unexhausted improvements.
Considerable discussion took place on the various points of
agreement suggested by the Council, which were taken scrhdlm.
The Council recommended that the tenancy as to houses and
buildings should be from the 25tli of March, but the Chamber
decided that it should be from the first of May. On the ques-
tion of notice, the Council suggested that six month's notice
sliould be given by either party to terminate the tenancy, but
the meeting resolved by 26 to 9 votes, that twelve months
notice should be given. The clause as to game read thus, as it
left the bauds of the Council : " The landlord leserves all
game, fish, and wild-fowl, with full liberty for himself, friends,
or servants to enter on the ground at any time, aud hunt,
shoot, fish, aud sport." An amendmentthatthe word" winged"
should be p'aced before the word game was proposed, and
carried by 28 to 8 votes.
Mr. G. W. Latham said that all cases of heart-burning or
ill-feeling in Clieshire that he had ever known with reference
to game had been owing to the letting of game, and he wished
to move a rider to the resolution to the effect that in all cases
ofletting game the tenant should iiave the first offer. Tliere
were of course some exceptional cases. A landlord who let
his liouse was very often obliged to let tlic game willi it, and
in such a case the tenant practically stood in the same posi-
tion as he did to his landlord before the house and game were
let, and very little harm would be done. It was in cases when
the game, apart from the liouse, was let to gentlemen from
large tuwus that oppression occurred.
Mr. Edwards (Malpas) seconded the proposition, which
was unanimously passed, and the words " In all cases of letting
game the tenant to liave the first offer," were added to the
clause. The points of agreement, as amended, were as
follows ; and it was agreed that they should be printed and
further discussed at the next meeting :
Tenajvcv.— From year to year. As to the arable land from
1st November, except that portion of it to be sown with
wheat ; the meadow and mowing land from 31st December;
all other land, except an outlet for cattle and garden, from 2nd
February ; and as to house and buildings and said outlet, from
the 1st May next, subject to the following provision :
Notice. — 12 months' notice given by either party in any
year to terminate the tenancy, such notice to be given on or
before the 2nd of February.
UNDERLETTi?iG.— The tenant not to assign, underlet, or
part with the possession of the premises, or any part thereof,
without the consent of the landlord or his agent.
IIe>'t.— To be due and payable on the 2'ith June in each
year of the tenancy.
Taxes.— All tithe, rent charge, land tax, and other taxes
and rates, whether parliamentary or parochial (excepting land-
lords' property tax), to be paid by the tenant.
Cultivation.— The land to be farmed in a proper, hus-
band-like manner, and kept and left in a good state of cultiva-
tion. Proportion of tillage to be mutually agreed upon between
landlord and tenant.
Fences, Ditches, &c.— All fences to be kept aud left in
good condition. All ditches aud under drains and outfalls to
be kept free and clear from all obstructions ; and if this be
not done in any year of the tenancy the landlord to have power
to do the work and charge the tenant with the cost.
Gates, Posts, Rails, .\:c.— To be put in repair by landlord
on entering, and to be kept in repair by the tenant, landlord
allowing timber in the rough.
Repairs. — The tenant at his own cost to keep in good
repair and condition the inside of the house and buildings, as
taken from the landlord, including the glass in windows, locks
and bolts, and do all papering, painting, plumbing, and colour-
ing"; to keep pumps, wells, cesspools, drains, spouts, paved
yards in good order (being allowed stones for paving by the
landlord), to keep all occupation roads in good working order,
and so liand them over at the end of tenancy. The landlord
to do all outside repairs, painting and plumbing, and keep the
outside doors and lead in windows in repair, and renew spouts
when necessary, tenant to do all carting required in carrying
out the same.
Game. — The landlord reserves all winged game, fisli, and
wild fowl, with full liberty for himself, friends, or servants,
to enter on the ground at any time, and hunt, shoot, fish, aud
sport. In all cases of letting game the tenant to have the
first offer.
TiiEsrASS.— Tiie tenant to do his best to prevent trespass
over his land, and report the same when necessary to iiis land-
lord, agent, or gamekroper.s.
E.NXRi, — The landlord, his agents, and servants to liave
322
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
free access (ingress aud egress) to the laud, house, and build-
iugs, and to all woods aud plantations at any reasonable time,
to take laud for buildiug, planting, or other purposes, and to
liave all minerals, clay, gravel, stone, &o., with power to get,
manufacture, and take away the same at any time without
notice, allowing reasonable compensation to tenant for the
crop that may be growing, and for the reduction of the extent
of his farm.
Trees. — The tenant not to cut, lop, or fell any trees, and
to keep and preserve from damage all timber and other trees,
and to leave the orchard and garden as fully planted with
Iruit-trees and shrubs as upon entry.
PixTURES, &c. — All the grates, cupboards, aud boilers ou
the premises, as specified in schedule annexed, to be paid for
on entering, aud to be sold to the incoming tenant or landlord
at fair valuation on leaving.
Umexiiausted Improvements. — The landlord to allow
the outgoing tenant for permanent improvements, such as
specified in the schedule previously adopted by the Chamber,
on the terms, and iu accordance with the said schedule, as
fixed by arbitrators appointed as hereafter stated, deducting
from it the value of any deterioration or dilapidation iu the
premises, buildings, land, &c., caused by default of the tenant,
as specified in the said schedule.
Condition's betw'een Outgoing and Incoming Tenant.
— Outgoing tenant to have half the crop of wheat sown upon
land that carried a crop other than wheat the previous year,
and two-thirds, if grown upon a bare summer fallow, and also
the straw in which it grew ; but he must pay for the spring
cultivation, and for the cutting of all the growing crop at
harvest.
Tithe. — Outgoing tenant to pay the whole tithe rent-
charge, due October 1st, iu last year of tenancy. Incoming
tenant to pay the same, due 1st of April, in year of his
incoming.
Seeds. — Outgoing tenant to be paid by incoming tenant
for the cost of all clover and grass-seeds sown during the last
year of his tenancy, upon production of vouchers, provided the
produce of such seeds has not been grazed with any other
stock than sheep or calves under one year old, and not after
the 1st November.
Manure. — Incoming tenant to pay two-thirds the market
value of all manure left upon the farm that has been properly
cared for aud put into midden. No manure to be removed
from the farm.
Uay and Straw. — The outgoing tenant to remove no hay
or straw grown during the last year of liis tenancy, and to be
paid by the incoming tenant two-thirds of the market value
of the hay aud straw left upon tlie premises.
Arbitration. — All differences between the landlord and
tenant, or between the outgoing and the incoming tenant,
shall be settled by arbitration. It both parties concur a single
arbitrator may be appointed, and his decision shall be final
and binding. If both parties do not concur in the appoint-
ment of a single arbitrator, each party shall appoint an arbi-
trator, and the two arbitrators so appointed sliall appoint an
umpire to decide upon any or all matters of dispute between
them, and his or their decision shall be final.
Arrears and Power of Landlord to Recover. — If
the rent, or any sum due and payable to the laadlord under
this agreement shall be in arrear, or if the tenant shall make
default in the strict performance of all or any of the condi-
tions and agreements on his part herein before contained, or
if he shall become bankrupt, or file a petition for liquidation,
or coinpositioa witli his creditors, or assign over his estate for
the benefit of his creditors, or if his goods or chattels sliall be
seized, or taken under a bill of sale or legal execution, the
landlord may re-enter upon the premises, or any part thereof,
in the name of the whole, and thereupon the tenancy shall
cease and absolutely determine, but without prejudice to any
action, distress, or any other proceeding for the recovery of
any rent in arrear, or for damages for breach of this agreement
which may have previously occurred.
AGRICULTURAL HALL COMPANY, LIMITED.
At the thirtcenti ordinary general meeting ou Tuesday,
March 3rd, the following report of the directors was pre-
sented :
Since the last general meeting the purchase of the freehold
of the Agricultural Hall has been completed. Thus leasehold
property annually decreasing in value has been converted into
freehold, which the directors believe will increase in value.
The share capital, which was previously £45,000,is now £55,000
The loan capital, which was formerly £14,000, is now £26,000
Total £81,000
Out of the £8,000 debentures authorised to be issued £2,000
has not yet been raised. The balance-sheet for the year ending
31st of January last shows a net profit to the credit of revenue
of'£3,46't 2s. 6d., which, added to the sum of £1,682 16s. 6d.
(the balance of the previous year's account) makes the sum of
£5,146 19s., out of which your directors recommend a dividend
of 7 per cent, clear of income tax, on the capital of £55,000,
which will absorb £3,850, leaving a balance of £1,296 19s.,
out of which your directors recommend that £596 Is. Id.
should be carried to the credit of the the capital account,
leaving £700 17s. 11 to be carried forward. During the two
best days of the Cattle Show — Tuesday and Wednesday— a fog
of unexampled density and duration hung over London, in con-
sequence of which the receipts at the doors during the week
were £1,800 under those of 1873. Notwithstanding the con-
sequent unavoidable falling off in the income of the year, the
directors feel themselves justified in congratulating the share-
holders on the sound and promising condition of their property.
The refresliment department has been let for a term of five
years at a fixed rent of £1,000 a year. Your directors continue
to avoid undertakings of a speculative character. The new
buildings, besides increising the value of the refreshment de-
partment, continue to produce a good income, and the Great
Hall has been well let during the winter season. The directors
retiring by rotation are Mr. Leeds, Mr. Shuttleworth, and Mr.
Banister, who are eligible, and offer themselves for re-election.
At the request of your directors, Mr. Charles Dorman con-
sented to continue to act as " law clerk" for last year. He has
now finally resigned tiiat post, and your directors recommend
his appointment as a director, feeling that through his intimate
knowledge of the Company's affairs, that course will be bene-
ficial to the shareholders. Mr. Howard retired from the board
in April last, and your directors recommend the election of
Mr. Alfred Crosskill, implement maker, Beverley, Yorkshire,
in his place. The auditor, Mr. Cufflin, also retires, but is
eligible and offers himself for re-election.
The auditor's report was also presented : I have examined
the capital and revenue accounts and tlie balance sheet, and I
find that they are in accordance with the books of the Com-
pany. I have also seen the vouchers aud receipts, which con-
firm the expenditure account. I am of opinion that it is time
the capital account was closed, and that all the expenditure
should come from revenue. I am also of opinion that the de-
sire expressed by some of the shareholders, for a more detailed
account, is not unreasonablcj^aud miglit very properly be fur-
nished.
Mr. Robert Leeds, the chairman, said that the report,
which had been adopted by the unanimous voice of the board,
contained full information of the company's proceedings during
the year, and therefore he would not detain them with any re-
marks of his own. He moved I he adoption of the report. Mr. J.
Shuttleworth seconded the motion, observing that the directors
iiad used their best endeavours to promote the interests of the
Company. During the year they had been at considerable
trouble and expense to enfranchise their valuable property. A
large sum had been expended, but he believed it had been spent
well.
Mr. CumiN moved, as an amendment, that the dividend be
5 per cent., and expressed his opinion that if they divided 7 per
cent, it would be a great deal more than was fairly earned. He
thought that the business was not conducted upon safe princi-
ples, and instead of adding to the capital it should be reduced.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
323
or the account closed. The Company being entirely dependent
for its revenue upon two annual shows, the better plan would
be for the shareholders to husband their resources, and periodi-
cally set aside a considerable sum tor contingencies. Mr. Brew-
ster seconded, and Mr. Rndkin supported the amendment,
criticising at considerable length tlie management of the
property. Mr. Druce defended the action of the directors,
and considered they were entitled to the confidence of the
shaieholders. The amendment was then put to the vote, and
negatived by a majority of two to one. The original motion
was then carried.
The vacancies in the directorate were next filled up. In
opposition to a board nomination, Mr. Thomas Rudkin was
brougiit forward, but the motion being treated by the Chair-
man as one of want of confidence, it was, after a protracted
discussion, negatived. The retiring auditor was tiien re-elected,
and votes of thanks to some of the oHicjals were put or about
to be put when the meetiug broke up rather abruptly.
ROYAL ACxRIOULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.
MONTHLY COUNCIL, Wedxesday, Marcli 4.—
Present : Mr. IlollauJ, President, in the chair ; the Duke
of Bedford, Earl Cathcart, the Earl of Leicester, the Earl
of Lichfield, Viscount Bridport, Lord Cliesham, Lord
Kesteveu, Lord Skelmersdale, Lord Vernon, the lion. W.
Egerton, M.P., Sir A. K. Macdonald, Bart., Mr. Booth, !
Mr. Bowly, Mr. Cantrell, Mr. Dent, Mr. Druce, Mr. .
Edmonds, Mr. Evans, Jlr. Braudreth Gibbs, l\Ir. Ilornsby, 1
Mr. Bowen Jones, Colonel Kingscote, jM.P., ]Mr. Leeds,
Mr. Mcintosh, Mr Milward^ Mr. Shuttleworth, Mr.
Jabez Turner, Mr. Wakefield, Mr. Welbv, M.P., ilr. W.
Wells, Mr. Whitehead, Mr. Jacob Wilson ' Colonel Wilson,
Professor Simonds, and Dr. Voelcker.
The following members were elected : — •
Agg, Colonel W., Hewletts, Cheltenham.
Branwhite, F., Chapel House, Long MelforL
Briggs, T., Babrahara, Cambridge.
Camm, Rev, J., B.M., IMonkton Wyld, Charmouth, Dorset.
Carruthers, R. B., Guards Mill, Gretna, Cumberland.
Cope,E., Leighton Hall, Wellington.
Crisp, C. E., Sittles Farm, Alrewas, Lichfield.
Cutlack, H., Ely, Cambridgeshire.
Cutlack, J., Ely, Cambridgeshire.
Davies, J., Plasuevvydd, Llaiirbaiadr, Oswestry.
Dean, W., U'orth, Ilorbling, Folkingham,
Ellis, P. IL, Clayton Court, Hurstpier-point.
Hague, J., Gawsworth, Macclesfield.
Leathara,G.A. B.,Thorganby Hall, York.
Little, J., Fauld, Longton, Cumberland.
Longman, A. H., Shendisli, Herael Hempstead.
Ratcliffe, C, Womanswold, Canterbury.
Scarborough, E. I., Coly ILonse, Colyford, Cloyton.
Smallbones, V. G. V., Gramal-Neusiedd, Vienna.
Stilgoe, II., Lower Clopton, Stratford-on-Avon.
Stirason, W., Marston, Arapthill.
Tinning, J., Cliillesford Lodge, Wickham Market.
Finances. — Major-General Viscount Bridport pre-
sented the report, from which it appeared that the secre-
tary's receipts during the past month had been examined
and found correct. The balance in the hands of the
bankers on Feb. 28 was £1,733 6s. 8d. The committee
have received a report from their solicitor stating that he
had collected arrears to the amount of £IG8, and the
committee recommend that the names of sis members
who gave notice to withdraw, and twenty-six members
whose arrears from various causes cannot be recovered, be
removed from the books. This report was adopted.
Journal. — Mr. J. Dent Dent (chairman) reported
that the publication of the Journal had been delayed in
the hope of receiving Mr. Stephenson's report on last
year's farm competition. Mr. Stephenson's continued
illness had prevented his furnishing this paper, and the
Journal will be published during the ensuing month
without it.
The Liucolnshire Agricultural Society having applied
for permission to republish the paper of Professor
Simonds ou the " Lamb Disease," at their own expense,
it was recommended that the Society present to the Lia-
colushire Agricultural Society the number of copies of the
paper which they require. The judges had made their
first inspection of competing farms in Bedfordshire. This
report was adopted.
Chemical. — j\Ir. AV. Wells (chairman) reported that
the committee recommended the usual grant of £200 to
Dr. Voelcker for chemical investigations. Dr. Voelcker
had brought under the notice of the committee several
cases of inferior artificial manures and feeding stuffs, but
the committee did not consider them suitable for publica-
tion. Further correspondence, not yet completed, had
taken place in reference to the last quarterly report
of the Chemical Committee. This report having
been adopted, and the further correspondence in
reference to the last quarterly report having
been read, it was moved by Mr. Wells, seconded by
Mr. Dent Dent, and carried unanimously, " That the
committee have power to sit in a fortnight, and decide as
to the republication of the previous report in the Journal,
and as to the publication of the subsequent correspondence
both in the Journal &ni the agricultural newspapers."
Implements. — Mr. T. C. Booth (chairman) reported
that the committee recommended that the otfer of the
Society's Gold Medal made at the last meeting of the
Council be worded as follows : " For the best guard or
appliances to the drum of a thrashing machine for pre-
venting accidents to people employed." The committee
also recommended that the secretary obtain from the
consulting engineers an estimate of the cost of testing
machinery which it is proposed to provide for the trials
of carts and other implements at Bedford. This report
was adopted.
General Bedford. — Earl Cathcart (chairman) re-
ported that the Local Committee were making satisfactory
progress with the showyard ; and that the Committee
recommended that the secretary be authorised to make
arrangements as usual with a banker at Bedford, and to
let the vacant refreshment shed ia the showyard. This
report was adopted.
Education. — The Duke of Bedford (chairman) re-
ported that twelve candidates had entered to compete for
the Society's prizes and certificates at the ensuing ex-
aminatiou ; and that the committee had had an interview
with the sub-committee of head masters of middle-class
schools, who had undertaken to draw up in writing their
suggestions for consideration by the Committee at their
next meeting. This report was adopted.
Potato Disease (Special). — Mr. C. Whitehead
(chairman) reported that six entr es of potatoes had been
made to compete for the prizes oflered by the Society for
disease-proof potatoes. One cwt. of five of these entries
(of a ton each) had already been sent to the potato-
growers who had consented to grow the potatoes subject
to the regulations adopted at the last meeting of the
Council in seventeen of the districts recommended in the
last report of the committee. The committee had no
doubt that the arrangements with the growers iu the re-
maining three districts would be made very shortly, and
that the bags constituting the sixth entry would be for-
warded to the growers in the course of this week. This
report was adopted.
324
THE FARMER'S MAaAZINE.
Veterixary. — Colonel Kiugscotc, M.P., reported
that tlie committee had elected Viscouut Bridport chair-
man for the year 1874. He further reported that two
letters had been addressed by Colonel Maitland, of Holy-
wvch, Eden Bridge, Kent, to the secretary, with respect
to' the mortality of cattle from the disease called " Quarter
evil," or "Black-leg," and that the same had been laid
before Professor Simonds ; the committee recommended
that his letter on the subject be published in the proceed-
ings of the Council meeting. A letter had also been
addressed to the secretary from Mr. J. F. Cooke, Gaston
Hall, Attenborough, stating that he had suffered very
severely from abortion in his ewes, almost every ewe
beiug affected. This letter had also been forwarded to
Professor Simonds, who communicated with iSIr. Cooke,
informing him thai he considered that the result was due
to too lavish a use of succulent food, especially turnips,
which ^Ir. Cooke eventually acknowledged had been the
case. The committee recommended the payment of the
grant of £300 to the Royal Veterinary College for the
year 1873. The committee desired to express their
regret at finding from reports received that foot-and-
mouth disease had again broken out in many parts of the
country. This report was adopted.
The following is Professor Simonds' letter in reference
to " Quarter-evil:"
" Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town, N.W.,
" Eeb. 21., 1874.
" My dear Sir, — I return Colonel Maitland's letter on the
subject of the disease known as 'Black-leg,' or 'Black-
quarter,' &:c. This affection, as you are doubtless aware, pre-
vails more or less in every part of the country, and being a
blood disease proves destructive to life in by far tlie larger
number of cases.
" The attention of the Society has often been called to the
malignancy and fatality of the malady by myself under the
scientific name by which it is known, viz.:
" lliematosepsis — a septic condition of the blood. Like
maladies in which the blood undergoes changes affecting its
vitality, science fails to a great extent to elucidate its courses ;
but this much is known, that well-bred calves which are well-
cared for are more susceptible to the disease than others,
especially between the 6th and the lltli or 15th month of
their age. It is during this tlms that great care is required
in the feeding of the young animals, and in the selection of
their food. Turnips and all succulent vegetable matter ought
to be sparingly given, especially in a season like the present.
Experience has proved also that much good may be done by
the use of saline agents, such as common salt mixed with the
food. An occasional saline aperient, and a few doses of an
ordinary antiseptic, such as the hypo -sulphate of soda, will
frequently prove prophylactic.
"Among herds in parts of the country where the disease is
very rife it is the custom to bleed the calves once or twice in
the year, to insert a seton in the dewlap, give some aperient
medicine, and follow it by preparations of bark. These means
are preventive, and to preventives we must chiefly look for
good to be done in lesseniug the losses from ' black-leg.' — I
am, ray dear sir, very truly yours, " J.vs. B. SiMOSDS.
" H. M.Jenkins, Esq."
It was moved by Mr. Jacob Wilson, seconded by Mr.
T. C. Booth, and carried unanimously, "That the stock
prizes committee, the implement committee, and the
stewards of live stock and implements be appointed a com-
mittee to recommend judges of stock and implements at
the Bedford meeting."
Lieut. -General Viscount Bridport then moved the reso-
lution of which he had given notice at the last meeting
of the Council. This was seconded by !Mr. W. H. Wake-
field, and, after some verbal amendments suggested by
Earl Cathcart, Mr. Dent Dent, and Mr. W. Egerton,
j\I.P., it was unanimously carried as follows : " That the
Council call the attention of the Secretary of State for
the Home Department, and the President of the Local
Government Board, to the present unsafe condition of
many bridges throughout the country for the passage
over them of ploughing and traction engines, the increased
use of which in agricultural operations is becoming more
and more necessary.
Mr. Wakefield drew attention to the removal of pony
stallions from the prize-list of this year.
Letters were read in reference to au Intcrnatioual Ex-
hibition of dairy utensils and products, to be held at
Milan on March 30th and the following days ; and also
in reference to an International Exhibition of horses,
cattle, sheep, pigs, and implements, to he held at Bremea
on June 13 and eight following days>
AMERICAN DAIRYMEN'S DISCUSSIONS.
WINTER MEETING OE THE VERMONT ASSOCIATION.
The dairymen of the Green Mountain State were present in
force at the convention held during three days at Essex Junction.
There was a sprinkling of solid men from other parts of New
England and New York ; particularly, St. Lawrence County
was influentially represented. An equal number of persons
of sounder sense, or better up in their calling, it is rare to find
in one audience. Worthy descendents of their pilgrim sires,
the Vermont yeomanry, as a whole, are genuine Yankees, in
talent, energy, enterprise, and phjslque, and even in the in-
stinctive inclination to ask questions. They have taken the
lead in organised effort for improvement in their speciality of
butter-making. There is only one other association — the
Western N. Y. Butter-makers' — organised in the interest of
butter manufacture. The labours of the Vermont society have
left their impress upon the butter of the State. Vermont
butter has become celebrated for its superior excellence ; and
St. Albans, her leading butter market, is widely known as the
centre of a large trade, and is recognised and quoted with as
much regularity to indicate the pulse of the butter traffic, as
Little Falls and Utica are to indicate that of cheese. Tlie
good influence does not end with the education of her own
sons in the perfection of her favourite art. That influence is
cast far and wide, and other States and nations are picking up
and appropriating the facts, and becoming educated by the
teachings of Vermont. With unassuming modesty, her noble
sons gathered this year in an obscure village, liid away among
the hills and swelling peaks of her mountainous surface ; but
the light of their intelligent deliberations rises above the
enveloping heights, and shines away into the distance, the
reporters carrying the result of the deliberations to readers
numbered by the hundred thousand, to be studied, sifted, and,
as far as applicable to their several needs, utilized. — [This is
tall talk.]
The ceremonies, in true Puritan style, were introduced with
prayer by the Rev. Edwin Wheelock. The President, the
Hon. E. D. Mason, in a well-timed and thoughtful address,
reminded the members of the Association that their success
depended on themselves ; that they must be their own native
power in the work of bringing forward and comparing fact
with fact till they raise and establish their speciality to the
dignity of a science as well as an art ; that the foundation of
success is to properly appreciate the importance of mutual
advantage and improvement by associated effort, lie urged a
more liberal patronage of agricultural newspapers as a cheap
vehicle of valuable and current knowledge. Every dairyman
who does not inform himself through this agency is sure, in a
short time, to get behind ; and, for like reasons, the formation
of farmers' clubs was earnrstly urged. Again, the farmer
should not only study thrift, but a well-ordered thrift, and
strive for a more refined taste in all that pertains to the struc-
ture and appearance of his buildings, ornamental trees, yards,
gardens, and flowers, and thus add to his owu happiness, and
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
325
increase Ihose^ liome oujoymeuts that make tlie household
satisfied, and stay the drift of his youug people to the far
West, or to the follies too comnion in town and city. Dr.
L. C. Butler then welcomed the Association to the village,
and was followed hy Mr. Henry Clarke, who recounted the
history an The power of choosing a president, vice-presidents, directors
(ordinary and extraordinary), is by the fourth regulation of
tiie charter vested in the Society at the general meeting in
January. These oflice-bearers are empowered " to manage and
direct the ordinary business of the Society in all matters, in
compliance with the constitution, bye-laws, and regulations of
the institution." Bye-law No. 5 states that " the list of office-
bearers to be proposed by the directors for election at the
general meeting shall be published in any two or more 0 f the
Edinburgh newspapers fourteen days preceding." The com-
mittee are of opinion these rules should be adhered to. The
charter ordains that the ordinary directors shall be chosen out
of those who are usually resident in Edinburgh or its imme-
diate vicinity ; but the directors, owing to the change pro-
duced by railways, have for some time been widening the
range, their endeavour having been to secure the services of
gentlemen resident in various parts of the country, keeping,
at the same time, a portion within reach of Edinburgh, to
secure a due attendance. The committee, however, remind
the directors that the Society can by a bye-law modify this
part of the rules, and accept suggestions from any member
desirous to make them. The directors propose to carry
through a new bye-law giving the members a power to suggest
to the directors names Irom whom may be selected those to
be recommended to the general meeting,
8. That it would increase confidence in the decisions at the
general show if some rules were adopted giving exhibitors a
voice in the selection of the judges.
This suggestion is directly opposite to what has long been
considered a fundamental rule in the selection of judges.
With the view of preventing the existence of anything like
jobbing, or an imputation of partiality, all interference on the
part of exhibitors has been strictly discouraged, and a nomi-
nation by an exhibitor in the class in which he shows is con-
sidered a disqualification, however pure the motives of the
proposer, or high the qualifications of the nominee. It is the
practice for the secretary to submit to the directors a list com-
prising the names of a number of persons known to be quali-
fied for each breed. This list is reduced by the directors, and
the requisite number of judges, with a spare nomination to
meet the case of a refusal, is selected. Under this head, the
special ccmmittee on general shows reported in 1859 that the
principle of excluding exhibitors from all say in the nomi-
nation of judges should be adhered to and rigidly enforced.
The finding of the said special committee was submitted and
approved of by the directors in January, ISo'J ; was before the
adjourned general meeting in February, 1859 ; was published
in the Transactions for March, 1859, and has been acted upon
ever since.
9. That a deputation, consisting of the chairman, the pro-
posers and seconders of the resolutions. Lord Saltoun and Sir
J. D. H. Elphinstone, Bart., M.P., should be appointed to lay
these resolutions before the directors of the Society at the
next general meeting, and to support the views of this meeting.
According to appointment the deputation waited on the
directors at eleven o'clock on the morning of the 21st
January, immediately before the general meeting. The depu-
tation consisted of— The Marquis of Hnntly ; the Earl of
Aberdeen ; Mr. Barclay, M.F. ; Mr. Cochrane, Little iladdo ;
Mr. Copland, Mill of Ardlethen ; Mr. Ferguson, of Kinmundy ;
Mr. Harris, Earnhill ; Mr. Scott, of Brotherton ; and Mr.
Walker, Portlethen.
The Directors approved of the report of the committee on
the resolutions adopted at Aberdeen on 24'th October, 1873,
and agreed to adopt the same; at the same time tlie directors
are desirous to convey to the noblemen and gentlemen who
formed the deputation, and to all the geulleinen of the
districts which tliey represent, their anxious desire to meet
their wishes and to extend the benefits of the Society to the
utmost of their power.
The following letter was read :
Whitehall, 17th Feb., 1874.
My Lord, — I have had the honour to lay before the Queen
the loyal and dutiful address of the Highland and Agricultural
Society of Scotland on the occasion of the marriage of his
Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, and I have to inform
your Lordship that her Majesty was pleased to receive the
address very graciously. — 1 have the honour to be, my Lord,
your Lordship's obedient servant,
(Signed) 11. Lowe.
The Marquis of Lothian.
The Humane Treatment of Animals, — The reports by
the committees named to consider the suggestions made by the
Baroness Burdett Coutts were submitted, from which it
appeared —
1st, That to the medals in aid of premiums given by
local societies, there should be added a class for men in charge
of stock, and one for women having charge of dairies and
poultry, viz., Male farm-servant who has been longest in the
same service, and who has proved himself most efficient in his
duties, and to have invariably treated the animals under his
charge with kindness. Female servant in charge of dairy and
poultry, who has been longest in the same service, and who
has proved herself most efficient in her duties, and to have
invariably treated the animals under her charge with kindness.
2nd. Tliat as the arrangements for the Inverness show are
far advanced, consideration of the subject of ofl"eriug premiums
for asses and milk goats should be delayed till next year,
3rd, That the following additions should be made to the
syllabus of examinations, viz. :
(1.) Under science and practice of agriculture and also under
veterinary examination — The breeding, rearing, feeding, and
humane treatment of the live stock of the farm, the different
breeds, their characteristics, the district where they are prin-
cipally met with, and also the best and most humane system of
horsebreaking.
(2.) Under natural history — The orders, hymenoptera, dip-
tera, and coleoptera, with examples of insects injurious to farm
crops belonging to each of the orders ; the preservation of
birds which prey upon these insects, drawing a distinction be-
tween those which are beneficial and those which are destruc-
tive to crops,
(3,) Under science of forestry — Insects injurious to trees ;
the preservation of birds which prey upon them, drawing a
348
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
distinction between birds which are beneficial and those which
are destructive to treea.
The reports also bear that the matter of aiding the cause of
Immane education was also under consideration ; when, after
some conversation, it was remitted to a sub-committee to draw
up a circular on the subject to be sent to each School Board
in Scotland.
The Board approved of the report.
The following communication from the Board of Trade,
addressed to the secretary, was read :
" Office of Committee of Privy Ceuncil for Trade, 19th Feb-.
ISy-i, — Sir, I am directed by the Lords of the Committee of
Privy Council for I'rade to transmit to you for the information
of the Couucil of the Highland and Agricultural Society of
Scotland, the enclosed copy of a notice which appeared in the
London Gazefte of the 17tli inst., relative to a congress on the
subject of the fabrication of cheese, &c., and an exhibition of
dairy produce and utensils, to be held at Milan on the 30th
and 31st days of March and the Ist April next. — I am, sir,
your obedient (signed) R. Valpy."
Notice.—" Board of Trade, Whitehall Garden. 17th Feb.,
IS?*. — The Board of Trade have received from the Secretary of
State for Foreign Affairs a copy of the programme of a congress
to be held at Mian on the 30th and 31st days of March, and
the 1st of April nest, relative to the fabrication of cheese and
other products of milk. At the same time and place an ex-
hibition will be held of such products and of dairy utensils,
&c. Intending exhibitors should make application for regu-
lations and other information to the Royal Superior School
of Agriculture at Milan."
The following reply to the memorial adopted at the general
meeting of the Society ou the Slst of January was read :
H. M. Office of Works,
12, Whitehall-place, S.W., 37th Feb., 1874.
Sir, — I am directed by the First Commissioner of her Ma-
jesty's Works, &c., to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of
the 22nd ult., forwarding a memorial signed by the Marquis
of Lothian, as chairman of a meeting of the Highland and
Agricultural Society of Scotland, in reference to the progress
of the Ordnance Survey of Scotland. In reply thereto, I am
to inform you, on behalf of the Society, that the memorialists
are under an erroneous impression in supposing that the
survey of Scotland has been conducted as a separate branch of
the survey of the United Kingdom, it having been made under
precisely the same orders and regulations as that of the other
parts of Great Britain. The whole mainland of Scotland has
already been surveyed, and it is hoped that the survey of the
islands will shortly be finished, there being no intention on
the part of this department to postpone the completion of the
survey of Scotland. Inasmuch, however, as the plans of Had-
dington, Fife, Kinross, Edinburgh, Kirkcudbright, Wigtown,
and the Isle of Lewis have already been engraved and pub-
lished on the 6-inch and 1-inch scales, whilst no plans exist
of the central counties of England, excepting those of the old
1-inch scale map, it is not proposed to replot the plans of the
above-mentioned counties ;in Scotland on the 1-2500 scale
before England is supplied with any maps of that scale, even
for the mineral districts in which they are urgently required.
In these circumstances it seems to the First Commissioner
that the only mode of expediting the survey of Scotland is by
increasing the annual Parliamentary grant lor the service,
which is a question to be determined by the Lords Commis-
sioners of her Majesty's Treasury rather than by this depart-
ment. I am, sir, your obedient servant,
(Signed) Geokge Russkll, Secretary.
F. N. Menzies, Esq.
The Board resolved to send a deputation to Government on
the subject.
STOW MARKET FARMERS' CLUB.
THE MANAGEMENT OF STOCK.
At the last monthly meeting the snbject for discussion was
" The Feeding and Management of Neat Stock," which was
introduced by Mr. E. Lingwood, of Occold ; Mr. Walter Chap-
man, of Baylham, in the chair.
Mr. Lingwood read the following paper : The feeding and
management of neat stock is a subject that must needs be in-
teresting to every farmer present, and on which, when discus-
sion is invited, there is little doubt that a wide difference of
opinion will prevail. In the good old times, as it is the
lashion to call them, onr ancestors were under the necessity of
killing all the beef they were likely to require during the
ensuing winter, as soon as the grass was finished in the
autumn, having no means at hand to prevent the animals los-
ing the flesh they had accumulated since the previous spring.
Now, though a joint of good salt beef is by no means to be
despised, the same food, varied perhaps with salt pork, must
have been botii undesirable and unwholesome. Living, as we
do, in a more advanced age, the finest and fattest oxen of the
year are to be found at our annual Christmas shows, a state
of things which is traceable to two sources — the introduction
and cultivation of roots in their almost endless varieties, and
the employment for feeding purposes, in conjunction with
them, of ground corn, meal, oilcakes, and condiments of various
kinds. One of the greatest difficulties the grazier of the pre-
sent day has to contend with, is the scarcity and high price of
store cattle, sufiiciently well-bred to grow and lay on flesh
rapidly at the same time. In almost any market or fair you
may get poor and badly-bred animals at a comparatively low
figure ; but, as is commonly said, they will neither die, grow,
nor fat. Cannot this difficulty be to a certain extent met by
using a good Shorthorn bull to our Suffolk cows, and weaning
instead of fatting the calves on the cows ? A second cross,
however, often results in the production of a very nondescript-
looking bullock indeed. I have in my eye now a very nice
herd of half Shorthorn and Suffolk polled cows ; but most of
whose progeny when reared have been a caution for shins and
horns. A good many so-called Shorthorn calves are now
brought every season into the county when but a few days
old. These, if off a very long railway journey, as is frequently
the case, are difficult to rear. On first arriving home,
small quantities of food should be given at short intervals.
Some farmers recommend, and think highly of, raw
eggs ; but with every care a very high percentage die
every year. Surely, feeding in the trucks would pay, to
say nothing of the humanity of the act. In weaning,
the calf or "milk" flesh, as it sometimes called, should
be kept on, let the cost of doing so be what it may. A year-
ling steer that has never known want will often be worth more
money in the market than a two-year-old that has been badly
weaned first, and allowed to shift for himself afterwards. You
will not require to be told that some breeds of cattle are better
suited to certain situations and circumstances than others. For
choice we have the improved Shorthorn, the Hereford, the
Devon, the Norfolk and Suffolk polls, the Highland Scot, the
polled Scot, the Welsh, and the Sussex, together with an
almost endless number of crosses. For summer grazing the
Welsh breed are said to disregard flies more than any other,
but their long and sharp horns are materially against yarding.
They are also considered to lay on flesh slowly when shut up
to cake and corn. For wintering on rough grass in exposed
situations the Highland Scot stands pre-eminent, but it is far
too high-spirited to be tamely confined to a yard — at any rate
keep him from clay walls and faggots, or constant repairs will
be needed. Perhaps this restlessness accounts for the fine
quality of his beef, as a coursed hare is said to be better-
eating than a shot one. Certainly the London and Birming-
ham shows are not without their Scotch representatives, but
these individuals have doubtless been selected for their excep-
tional docility. Our own breed of cattle, now commonly
described as Norfolk and Suffolk polls, has, by the exertions
of a few gentlemen, been materially improved of late years,
both in appearance and aptitude to fatten. That they die well
when well made up, is evident in the readiness the butchers
exhibit to buy them. Their worst fault is a tendency to run
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
349
light in their hind quarters. The improTed Shorthorn pos-
sesses of all other kinds the widest reputation, not only in this
kingdom, but in many foreign countries as well. Not so very
many years since, to term a bullock Irish was tantamount to
calling him everything that was bad. Now, the continual
crossing of the Irish with some of our best Shorthoni bulls
has completely changed his character. Still, many farmers
purchase the imported cattle unwillingly from their supposed
liability to lung disease, which has been attributed to
various causes — want of good food, and shelter where
they are reared, over-crowding in the holds of vessels dur-
ing their journey over, and exposure in low-lying and
bleak cattle lairs after, for it must be remembered that Short-
horns are both well housed and well-fed, consequently it is
not wonderful their progeny should lack hardiness and capa-
bility for roughing it which the old Irish ox possessed. Turn
a Welsh pony and a tlioroughbred colt out together all winter
on a rough pasture without a wind-break of any kind, it will
need no prophet to name the result before hand. Happening
to remark once in the hearing of a surgeon that I never
allowed my neat stock to remain out at nigiit after October
1st, be expressed an opinion that were the practice more
general, pleuro-pneumonia would be mach less prevalent than
at present. To the question, " Is it contagious ?" 1 should
most decidedly answer " Yes, it is." On the whole I would
submit to you whether it would not be the best plan — unless
the graziers rears his own stock — to purchase in the spring
and put to feeding in the following autumn, with a sufficiency
of grass, water, and some kind of refuge from the sun and
flies. The cattle are tlien likely to be in a much fitter state
for yarding than if bought at some fair or market, say in
November, and shut up to cake and corn forthwith, with the
far greater risk of disease appearing in the summer stock.
Not but that lung disease, I am aware, shows itself in a most
unaccountable manner. Having by some one of the before-
named means secured a herd, how shall we dispose of them ?
By tying up by the neck side by sidein a covered shed, by placing
singly in loose boxes, or by turning the whole lot together
into a suitably sized yard? Tying up involves the expense not
only of constant littering, but daily removal of the wet straw
which must be trodden into manure elsewhere, and after all
the stock are little or no quieter than in loose boxes, whilst
in the latter case a cleansing at intervals only is necessary.
The original cost of putting up boxes no doubt operates against
the plan. Ventilation should be carefully attended to, for
though warmth to a certain extent means less food, gases in-
jurious to animal life are evolved both by the quadruped and
the fermentation of his litter and droppings as well. The
veterinarians tell us our cavalry horses have been much freer
from diseases since the strict prohibition of hot barrack
stables. Open yard grazing — at least in this district — is
perhaps after all the most usual as well as the least trouble-
some practice. Here hornless cattle are greatly to be pre-
ferred to the horned varieties, especially where clay
walls or thorn faggots form the boundaries ; a pair of sharp
horns with a frolicsome disposition on the part of their owner
for using them, soon sets a whole yard on the move. The
straw gets down faster it is true, but whether beef is laid on
at the same pace seems somewhat doubtful. Every yard should
possess a good shed with sufficient manger room under it,
and the troughs should be so constructed as to shift upwards
as the manure accumulates, of whatever materials a yard is
enclosed with. Draughts should be guarded against as much
as possible ; closely boarded doors at the entrance are also
preferable to a common railed gate, keeping out cold winds,
aud the disturbing influence of other neat stock that may hap-
pen to pass. This near a highroad is of some importance,
A stout rail fixed a few inches from the edge of the drinking
trough will save the feeder some trouble, as fouling the water
by the droppings, as is otherwise often the case, will be ren-
dered almost impossible. My opinion is, fatting bullocks
should be fed at least three times a day ; not later than seven
o'clock in the morning for the first feed, at eleven o'clock,
and at four o'clock in the afternoon, and no more food should
be given at once than will be eaten up by the next feeding
hour ; regularity on the part of the stockman should be strictly
adhered to. Domestic animals are more aware of meal hours
than is commonly supposed. I liave known butchers object
to purchase fat stock on draft oflf some farms, solely on account
of irregularity in feeding times. Few boys are to be trusted
as cattle feeders, when put to it they oftener than not cost
men's wages. My earliest recollections of bullock tending are
watching the stockmau break the linseed cakes by hand on
the edge of the shed trough into pieces about two inches
square, and scattering them regularly therein as he moved
along. Turnips were then thrown whole into short mangers
placed round the yard, andcut with a two-edged hand chopper.
Of course, by this process, the trough bottoms soon required
enewing, and an ox was occasionally choked. A. serious ob-
jection to this arrangement was, the strong possessed themselves
of the cake, whilst the weak had to content themselves with
the turnips, supplemented with a little fresh barley straw, with
which a bin was generally filled, at one corner of the yard.
The butchers at that time usually bought their beef at the
farms, to draw so many head per week, until all were cleared
off. Repository fat-stock auctions are an inuovation of later
date. The introduction of Gardner's turnip cutters and a
cake crusher led to a material alteration iu the method of
feeding ; henceforward crushed linseed or cottonseed cake,
bean or pea-meal, and turnips reduced to strips, together with
a portion of straw chaff, were well mixed before being given
to the cattle. Consequently, a choice of food was out of the
question. Some persons maintain the application of a hard
brush or curry-comb to the skins of fat bullocks is advan-
tageous : i"" it proves serviceable in no other way, it makes
them the quieter to handle. An Essex worthy tried clipping
— perhaps the beard did not pay for the shaving ; at all events,
1 am not aware the practice has extended. It is hard to con-
vince the consumers of meat, who, living in large towns, are
necessarily but little acquainted with rural affairs, that the
grazier gets little direct profit from his fat beef: they point to
their butchers' bills as an unanswerable argument to the con-
trary, without the bast idea that farm expenses have increased
quite as much as the price of meat. Rinderpest, happily ex-
tinct in this country, let us hope never to be re-introduced,
and loot-and-mouth disease now far more prevalent than for-
merly, must also be credited with their share of the bill. The
indirect profit lies in the manure left behind by corn-fed
stock, which is absolutely necessary to maintain the fertility
of arable land. You may get along for a time on some soils
with artificial substitutes, but the day of reckoning will
assuredly come at last. Let us now see what Mr. J. B. Lawes
has to say on the relative values of different feeding stuffs, &:c.
It seems, from experiments he has made, that an ox, to gain
lOOlbs. in live weight, will consume 2501bs. of linseed cake,
eOOlbs. of clover chaff, and 3,5001bF. of Swedish turnips.
Now, I would submit to you whether this'statement can be of
any real value unless we have all the conditious before us.
What was the size, age, and breed of the animal experimented
on ? Was he thin, or moderately fat, to begin with ? or was
the above result obtained by repeated trials, and under varied
circumstances ? Don't you think, like their owners, some with
the same opportunities make better use of their time than
others P Mr. Lawes goesjon to inform us that, as cattle-food,
linseed, cotton, and rapecakes after digestion, possess about tiie
same manurial value. Linseed, beans, peas, tares, and lentils
are quoted about one-fourth lower ; whilst wlieat, barley, milt,
maize, and oats fall two-thirds below cakes. Still, if every farmer
decides on selling all his corn, and using nothing but cake, the
result will be obvious; on the other hand, a portion of linseed,
either crushed or in the form of cake, is undoubtedly conducive
to the health of grazing cattle, it is false economy to give too
many roots, yet imperative that your animals should be daily
supplied with a sufficiency ot food for filling their stomachs ;
the steam chaff cutter here comes most opportunely to our aid,
and it has been recommended to cut the straw, with an admix-
ture of clover, sainfoin, tares, or other green stulf during tiie
summer season, in readiness for the following winter. Should
tills plan be adopted, the risk of mould or over-heating should
be carefully guarded against. It is a matter of regret to me
that Mr. Lawes should have placed wheatmeal so low in the
above list, as when the price admitted, I liave had my bullocks
thrive remarkably well on a mixture of seven-eighths wheat
and one-eightii linseed, ground into meal together. We occa-
sionally find that cattle are fattened entirely on dry food ; ne-
vertheless, roots of some kind, in most instances, form part of
the bill of fare — white turnips in the autumn and early winter,
followed by Swedish turnips and the mangold wnrtzel, the latter
a most valuable addition to our green crops, producing as it
does heavy weiglit per acre and keeping all tlirough the summer
as well. 1 have heard a good grazier go so far as to say one
bushel of swedes will make as much meat as double the quan-
050
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
tity of mangold. Time of Using would surely have its influ-
ence ; soil, where grown, .ind method of cultivation, might
also affect to a greater or less extent. To keep store cattle
healthy at a small cost, there is nothing hetter than pulped
roots and good sweet chaff mixed ; for the strength of the ma-
nure made in tliis way not much can he said. I hope, in con-
clusion, sorr.e member may be induced to favour the Club with
a paper on the treatment of dairy stock at some future meeting.
The Chairmjjj, in opening the discussion, said that he had
not been disappointed in his expectation that Mr. Lingwood
would give them an opportunity for a good discussion. He
fully agreed with every word that Mr. Lingwood had said
about introducing a better breed of cattle.. There was no doubt
that if a good thorougbred Shorthorn were introduced in that
neighbourhood, they would see a better description of cattle
for grazing. But there was a great difficulty, to his mind, in
introducing such a breed to cross with the Suffolk. In the
first place, a pure Shorthorn was an animal with an aptitude
for grazing, while those animals which has been used in this
county had a greater aptitude for milking. He, therefore,
hardly hoped to see these two qualities combined in one breed.
As to the Irish cattle, he had observed of late years a great
improvement in those brought into this county. He was very
nredibly informed that they had greatly improved in Ireland.
They ought to be, for there was every facility for improving
them in the admirable pastures of Ireland. With reference to
feeding there was a variety of opinions. The old-fashioned plan
was to put the stock into a warm, well-sheltered yard well
littered, and to give them a plenty of food and a great quantity
of turnips, as much, in fact, as they could eat, with some oil-
cake. It was a question whether this was a right method.
Ills idea was that they wanted to ascertain the proper amount
of food that the animal could assimilate in the 2-i hours. If
they gave too much it made the bullock uneasy and uncom-
fortable, and he could not fat so fast as he would with a
smaller quantity. There was no reason why, with the same
quantity of food, they should not be grazing a larger number
of animals with the same quantity of food. He had taken
some trouble to ascertain the merits of stall-feeding and box-
feeding. In stall-feeding the bullocks were kept in close
places littered down every day, kept very clean, and fed as
they might think proper. In the box-system a hole was dug
in the ground for the manure, which was allowed to keep
under the animals, and they were tied up or not as might be
thought proper. His plan had always been to keep them in
pairs, in places large enough to keep two in each. After
some trials he had ascertained that they got the animals up
sooner by the boxes than by the stalls where they had been
kept clean. With regard to feeding, there were many dif-
ferent opinions as to the best feeding stuffs, and he thought
the farmers were to blame to be constantly asking for cheaper
feeding stuffs. The manufacturers could always accommodate
them. Eut they knew that if they wanted a good article they
must pay a good price for it. For his own part, he felt that
on tliis point he was like the commercial traveller, who said
if he must have milk and flies, he should prefer to have them
on separate dishes. If he had linseed cake and other things,
he should rather have them separate. Mr. Chapman then
produced Mr. Lawes's diagram, showing the value of different
kinds of feeding materials, and said the results there shown
were well worthy of the consideration of any one who at-
tempted feeding cattle. He also pointed out that there was
an increasing demand for meat, and that it was to their in-
terest to produce it as cheaply as they possibly could, and the
object of their meeting to discuss such a question was to find
out how that was to be done. He should be glad to hear the
opinions of those present on the best method of feeding cattle,
and the best kinds of feeding stuffs.
Mr. W. Noble was quite sure that he had a great deal
more to learn before he could make the feeding of bullocks
pay. He hoped that Mr. Lingwood would tell them something
about that. He quite agreed with what Mr. Chapman had said
about over-feeding. No doubt they frequently gave bullocks
more than they could assimilate, and no doubt in forcing them,
they forced money out of their own pockets. He had been in
the habit of grazing young beasts, and he should i.ave liked to
liave had the experience of gentlemen as to grazing three or
four year-old bullocks. In weaning his own beasts, he had
found them to be subject to what was termed " black garget."
He had never heard of but one other case, but should be glad
to know whether the disease was caused by the locality, or
feeding and forcing. In feeding beasts, he regarded warmth
and comfort as of the greatest importance. He believed that,
as Mr. Chapman had said, pairs of beasts would do better than
in an open yard, where the drainage might not be good, and
there might be many other evils to contend with.
A Member : At what age did you experience the attacks of
black garget?
Mr. Noble : At the change of food ; for instance, in the
autumn when they were fresh out of turnips. I have taken
every precaution, but I have two or three times been obliged to
to sell my whole yard out on account of the black garget.
Mr. T. Lingwood said he used to be in the same position as
Mr. Noble, for he had lost several young calves by black
garget. He attributed it to keeping them too close in yards,
and the suddenness of the change after the summer feeding.
Now he gradually brought them on to the yards, and had not
been troubled with the attacks of black garget since he
adopted that plan.
The Chairman : Do you think it is the extreme changes
of thefood ?
Mr. T. Lingwood : I think also that the food has something
to do with it ; but it is the depriving of young things of the
exercise all at once that mainly causes it.
Mr. J. Hewitt said he liad been a sufferer from black
garget this year. In January he had lost some good calves
from a Suffolk cow and a Shorthorn bull — some of them came
from Mr. Webb's. He had given them cake through the
summer, and on taking them up in the autumn they were
living on linseed and swedes, cut hay and offal, and all at once
they fell off in their feeding and felt poor in their shoulders.
He lost four out of twelve of thiugs that he had since been
bid £12 a-piece for.
Mr. C. W. Sutton said that the speakers had already
touched the right cause of the disease when they lay it to the
food. It was a species of blood-poisoning, and was almost
entirely produced by high feeding. Mr. Lingwood was, he
believed, right, that a certain amount of exercise would enable
the animals properly to assimilate the food. The only way in
which they could keep the animals in health, if they fed them
high, was to give them something to counteract it. If they
forced them with highly stimulating food, they should give
the animals an aperient, such as a good dose of Epsom salts
and ginger, or something of that sort. That would enable
the animals to throw off that condition of the blood which
arose from high feeding.
Mr. C. Turner said that the calves which he and his father
reared did not some of them go out at all, but were kept
under cover all the time. His brother had lost some calves
by black garget last year as soon as they came upon green
tares.
Mr. Henrt Crosse said that it seemed to be assumed that
black garget was caused by high feeding, but he had known
Mr. Baker to have some beasts which were running about,
attacked with it. 'J'hirty-five years ago he had 14 calves that
had the disease, and in another case he had lost four steers
and four heifers that had never been into a yard, and some of
them took the disease and others he had to kill on account of
the danger they were in. The disease was not then called
black garget, but Professor Simonds, to whom he applied,
said it was called " quarter ill."
Mr. Sutton : It is called " quarter ill" now in some places
Mr. H. Crosse: Mr. Simonds recommended that they,
should be plugged with hellebore in the dewlap. He had
adopted that recommendation and had never since had any
trouble.
Mr. Spencer Freeman said that his experience was that
old beasts could not be fed too high, but young ones ought to
be gradually brought to the high feeding. He always gave
young beasts a little cake, and felt that as soon as their coats
were a little bright they weie doing some good.
Mr. Stearn Scott asked what was the best treatment for
running calves. Of course they wanted a quantity of food on
leaving the cow, and he should be glad to hear what was the
best food.
Mr. J. O. Fraser, on being called upon by the Chairman,
said he could not say that he knew much about bullocks, as
Mr. Webb was more for keeping cows. However, he hap-
pened to know that ten were bought last May. They had
been put on grass, and were exercised when they were after-
wards shut up in yards. They had been fed on cut hay, cake,
and beet, with all the hay they could eat, when shut up.
Tflj] FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
351
Seven out of (ea had beeu sold, but it was his business to
make figures, and not to expose them. If Mr. Webb was
there, he sliould have been very happy to have given the
figures under liis orders. But, if the Chairman liked, he
could calculate what was the profit on ten bullocks bought iu
May at £16, and kept all the while on hay, cake, and corn,
and recently sold for £2i.
Mr. J. J. Hatten said he agreed with Mr. Sutton that
it was the feeding, and not the turning out, that produced
black garget.
Mr. MAifNiNG Chapman said now that they were on the
subject of feeding, he might call their attention to the fact
that molasses and sugar were valuable feeding stuffs. They
had very important and valuable qualities. Tiiey were 40 per
cent, cheaper than they had been.
Mr. Farrow said he had not been able to gather from the
paper what was the best method of feeding neat stock. He
was just now a buyer of feeding stuff, and liardly knew what
to go into. He happened to have the misfortune to have a
small yard of Irish beasts ; he could not of course tell how
long his life might be spared, but he sometimes thought that
he should never live long enough to see them fatted. His
friend, Mr. Clowes, of Needham, strongly recommended him
to go into malt coombs, but he had been using them for the
last month with very poor results indeed.
Mr. Joii:< TuR^'£R said he always mixed the food for his
bullocks as it was used. He used corn meal, cake, and some-
times linseed meal. He sometimes had bullocks that would
not eat cake. He did not know the reason, but he could
always get them to eat linseed meal. It was, he thought, very
important to suit food to the animal.
Mr. J. O. Eraser said he thought the bill of fare for
bullock feeding in that discussion was rather meagre. There
was locust-bean meal and also cake made from other seed than
linseed. Migiit it not be advisable to introduce some of these
materials P
Mr. J. J. Hatten said that he had found one-twelfth part
of barley straw to green grass, cut and salted down and allowed
to lie for some lime, was a very good means of using the
straw.
Mr. Noble said he found Gardner's turnip-cutter was the
best. The bullocks ate the turnips better from it, and throve
better upon them, llieu from other machines.
Mr. Fraser said Mr. Noble was quite right, as to doing too
much to the roots. The beasts needed something to do in the
way of chewing, to create saliva and assist digestion.
Mr. Stirto:< described the metliodof feeding of Lady Pigot's
herd, and
Mr, LiNGwooD, in reply, said the first question he was
asked, if he remembered rightly, was as to black garget.
Altliough he had weaned his calves for several years, he had
had no experience of the disease ; but a neighbour of his, while
he lived at Ashfleld, had, and the cure that seemed to be
effectual in that case was pegging with hellebore. As soon as
the animals were big enough they were done, and the disease,
had not sliown itself since. He (Mr. Lingwood) had done the
same thing to his pigs and found the result very satisfactory.
With regard to weaning calves, the best way was to get them
straight oiT the cow ; if they went twenty-four hours without
food, he did not think that with any treatment they would get
them to go on. He always gave his calves as much food as he
could get, aud he always tried to getthem to eat at soon as
possible. He was always very fortunate with them, and he
did not know that he had ever lost one. Mr. Lingwood then
replied to Mr. Farrow's remarks that he was disappointed with
the paper he (Mr. Lingwood) liad read. He (Mr. Lingwood)
had merely opened a discussion on the subject ; and he did not
pretend to give an exhaustive lecture upon it, and he came
there himslf more with the view of learning than of imparting
information. With regard to the value of different feeding
stuffs and their ultimate value as manures, he referred Mr.
Farrow to the diagram which the chairmau had laid upon the
table. For himself, he (Mr. Lingwood) liked young bullocks,
aud he mixed for fatting bullocks roots, cut with Gardner's
turnip-cutter, in prefereuce to the pulp, but for store stock he
considered pulp the best.
WINFRITH FARMER S' CLUB.
THE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
At a recent meeting, Mr. J. J. Bates in the chair, Mr.
Chapman Saukders read the following paper :
The subject for our discussion this evening is somewhat
interesting and practical. I only regret some one better
qualified had not been selected to introduce it to your notice,
but as members of a farmers' club, and as long as these
bodies exist, it is the duty of all to further as much as possible
those objects for which these societies were established, viz.,
the improvements to be effected in practical agriculture ; and
therefore you will, I think, agree with me, that in these
times of dear meat the topic, " Sheep and their Manage-
ment," is not unfitted for our debate. Tliere is, I believe, no
county in England, taking into consideration the general
quality of much of the land and its surrounding circumstances,
where so proportionately great a number of sheep are to be
found as iu Dorset ; and also where, from circumstances
alluded to, tiiose animals are sent to various and more favoured
counties of England, as Surrey, Sussex, &c., and answer so
well. As to the various breeds of sheep most suited to our
county, we have several ; the first of which I will notice is the
Dorset horn. Although the original type and the native
breed has now passed away, considerable improvement has
taken place by judicious crossing witli the Somerset horn, and
which lias given the present and improved breed of Dorset
greater weight of mutton and wool ; and it must be a grati-
fying fact to our local breeders of horn sheep to find that
during the last i°w years nearly all the prizes for horn sheep
offered by the Royal, Bath and West of England, and otiier
large shows, have fallen to several well-known breeders of this
county. There is no doubt the original Dorset horn sheep
was somewhat of the type of the present Portland breed of
this county, similar to the old-fashioned Hampshire,
with its Roman head and immense bone and coarse flesh,
its name indicating its native origin. Tliis class of
animal, too, has passed away, giving place to one of better
quality, with heavy weight both in wool and mutton, and,
proportionately to its size, a less amount of bone. Of the
Down sheep in this county we have several different degrees,
produced by an original cross of the Sussex and the Ilamp-
siiire, now reduced by careful selection to a type suited to the
locality, embracing more or less strength, constitution, and
quality, forming in this county a class which has not been
inaptly termed the Dorset Down, although not yet so recog-
nised as a class at any of the leading agricultural shows. Of
the Sussex Down — the pure Sussex — it may be said to be
almost extinct in this county, as the system of artificial cross-
ing and improved management has led to tlie introduction of a
class of animal which has proved itself more productive of
profit to the tenant-farmer. The horn ewe is perhaps a better
mother than the Down, and, lambing earlier, requires a more
favoured spot than the latter, both as regards food and
situation — that is, climate — and where there are plenty of
good water-meadows aud early eweleaze land the Dorset will
answer possibly the best. But that is not the general character
of this part of the county at least, where I am convinced that
as a rule the Down answers better, being more adapted to
folding on the colder soils, and, lambing down later, does not
require the provision of food and shelter which the advance of
spring provides them. As I have already said, great
improvements in the breeding of sheep have beeu effected
within the last few years ; but still more remains for
breeders to sustain aud improve on what has been already
so well effected. With regard to mutton and wool,
to the production of which in a very great extent we hs.vi to
look for a still greater return annually to meet our increasing
expenses, rather than to the production of corn, remembering also,
as many of you must, on lookiug back to the time when wheat
was about the same as now in market value, and mutton at
only rather over halfitspresmtvaluo, and with the prosperity of
trade in this country, which I trust may long continue, to-
gether with the increased earnings of those engaged, and a still
increasing population, may we hope to see the price of meat
352
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
well sustained ! Does it not, therefore, offer us every encourage-
ment on looking forward to the future to select the best kind
of animals of their respective classes which we can secure P I
need not remind you of this, as the prices now paid annually
for animals of good and well-known pedigree would have
been something alarming to our forefathers, to say nothing of
the occasionally -heard-of fancy prices paid — for a bull 1,000
guineas, and 100 guineas for a ram ! The proper management of
sheep deserves every consideration, as well as the selection of
tlie right sort of animal on which to bestow that attention ;
and in this respect very much remains yet to be effected. I
would say, therefore, as a rule keep them well, with regularity
both as to the quantity of food given and also as to the times
of attendance as far as possible. I fear that too much food at
one time and not sufficient at another is rather tiie rule with
many than the exception. So again with dry food, I mean more
especially hay, which should be given early in the autumn, and
pays the consumer in the benefit to his stock then as well as
at any later season of the year. Whether all breeding or
grazing, or both combined to a greater or less extent, is or is
not the most profitable is a question which cannot be solved
in a moment. Many tell us that in this country we ought
only to breed and send our stock into other districts of Eng-
land to be grazed out. I do not think that winter-graziug
pays as a rule — that is, in the open fields on our cold and ex-
posed hills ; but during the summer and autumn months sheep
thrive and do equally well compared with those of the warmer
and more genial districts, and, therefore, occasionally with
plenty of food and to spare during the more favourable season
of the year, grazing with breeding may sometimes be combined
with advantage. This year, I tear, with the high price of
breeding stock, and also the high price of all feeding stuffs,
there is little margin for profit to the grazier. Grazing sheep
during the winter months can only be profitably carried on in
connection with good shelter in some shape or another. The
advocacy of tem porary yards of an inexpensive character in
different situations on the farm where they are likely to come
into use annually — sheep being drawn thither during bad
weather, say from this field one year and the adjoining one
another — cannot be too highly recommended to your consider-
ation, for, if not required for grazing purposes, they would often
be the means of saving many young lambs which might be
sheltered there during occasionally very rough and inclement
weather. Discretion must direct when to shelter and when
not, as during fine weather sheep do equally well in the open
field as under cover ; being also covered with a good coat
it is more in accordance with their true nature, and, there-
fore, too great confinement is not desirable. Besides, the
great advantage derived from the treading of many of our light
soils and the distribution of manure over the land is not to
be lost sight of — one of the objects to be aimed at in keeping
slieep. I'or all kinds of sheep, whether breeding or grazing,
fed on plenty of roots, the more the vi'ater which constitutes
nine-tenths of the whole plant can be reduced the better.
It is from this cause — that is, the consumption of too
great an amount of water contained in the roots — that we hear
so much occasionally of bad luck with lambing ewes, more es-
pecially when, perhaps, little dry food has been given in con-
junction therewith. As a rule I find that ewes living on
grass and hay until they lamb, although not so high in con-
dition, produce a healthier and better crop of lambs than
when they have been living on roots and hay entirely. I
would, however, prefer some grass and roots, together with
hay, to any other course of diet ; but in any case tiie roots
should be drawn from the land several days before they are
consumed, so as to reduce the amount of natural water con-
tained in them. This rule will apply also to the other sheep
fed on roots, and more especially .towards the spring
season, when the roots make a second growth. For ewes in
rather high condition before lambing, a moderate amount of
exercise is, as a rule, beneficial, when they are in the hands
of a careful shepherd, by the way, to take them from food in
one field to that of another. Bad luck with ewes arises from
various causes — accidental sometimes, and sometimes other-
wise. Shepherds' dogs, in my opinion, do more mischief than
is o ten thought of, especially when in the hands of a bad
master. It is quite a rarity to see a good old-fashioned
sheep-dog, most of them being mongrels. In the North
of England it is not so ; and at some of their agricultural
shows prizes are offered for the best shepherds' dogs, both in
money and silver cups. Although I have advocated tempo-
rary sheltered yards for sheep I do not altogether approve of
what many term " lambing yards" — that is, where the ewes
are drawn every night just before they lamb. I do not mean
that bad luck always happens there, but it sometimes occurs
that fever springs up, and one animal perhaps dies and leaves
the infection, which is rapidly taken by others, and maiiy great
losses have occurred in this way before it can possibly be
remedied ; therefore, I prefer, where a dry pasture or old ley
ground with porous subsoil is to be found, to lamb down in a
fold, moved daily and sheltered round, if necessary, to drawing
the ewes to a straw yard laid out for the same purpose. At
lambing time when ewes die — and in most flocks of any fair
number there are some deaths — the shepherds should not be
allowed to skin those which die, as there is no doubt that the
shepherd also has not unfrequently been the means of inad-
vertently conveying disease from one animal to another. After
the ewes have lambed, those with lamb should be kept separate
in pens or other places for a few days until the ewe knows
her own lambs well and the lambs their own mother ; after
wards they may be placed with others and do well without
danger. I do not think that lambs can be kept too well after
they are a month or six weeks old, and should be encouraged
as quickly as possible to go forward in the turnip field through
creep hurdles, of which plenty should be provided on every
farm. Lambs also require plenty of change to thrive and do
well. It is here somewhat that our neighbours in Hants and
Wilts teach us a good lesson in the growth of sainfoin, early
rape, &c., to which very much is to be attributed the
size and weight of tlieir lambs which are brought to Britford,
Wilton, Weyhill, and other fairs. I do not say it is entirely
owing to the practice of feeding their lambs that all success
is due, as I believe there is something in the climate or
soil more suited than is so here for sheep generally. I am
speaking now from the knowledge which I have of my rams
sent into the various counties and of their respective conditions
when they return home at the end of the season. As a gene-
ral rule small lots of sheep together thrive and do better than
very large numbers, as in the latter case the wether animals
too often do badly under these circumstances ; and plenty of
room should be given, necessitating plenty of hurdles, of which
every farmer should have enough for his use at all seasons. I
prefer shearing lambs to leaving them in their wool ; but it
should be done early, believing that they do better during the
summer and autumn — that is, where the country is somewhat
enclosed. Being shorn early, they have time to provide a
good coat against the coming winter. The use of salt might,
in my opinion, be resorted to, more than is the case generally,
with cidvantage to the health and condition of animals in
general. It is a source of congratulation to ourselves as far-
mers and to the community as consumers to find, not only our
own county, but the country, once more free from the foot-
and-mouth disease. I earnestly trust that the Government
will take every means in their power to prevent the spread of
that terrible disease over the country such as was so generally
experienced in the year 1872. No disease can be more con-
tagious than the foot-and-mouth d'sease. My own opinion is
formed from too much experience, I am sorry to say, as I believe
all my sheep which had the disease were on the average lOs. each
less in value one with another afterwards. The disease is con-
veyed from place to place by contagion in some way or an-
other, and as far as my judgment goes, it is less epidemic in
its character than it is generally considered to be ; but on this
point I am aware great diversity ot opinion exists, and long
will. Animals suffering, the less they are moved from one
place the better for a time, and paring the feet does harm
rather than good until they get nearly well, when vigilant at-
tention is required to remove all contractions of the old hoof
which may arise, and more especially also when foot-rot fol-
lows after the disease has left, as is not unfrequently the case.
To treat many of the bodily complaints to which sheep are
liable is somewhat diflScult, as it is frequently too late to save
life before the cause is discovered; the best remedy in which
case is often the knife. Still, there are some cases where the
veterinary art may be made available, although, perhaps, the
sheep has not been made a study of so much as the horse or
bullock. In concluding my imperfect remarks on so wide a
subject, I would only repeat that to make sheep profitable you
must keep them well, whether as regards food or shelter, and
also be regular in attention, selecting that kind of stock which
is best suited to the locality.
Mr. C. Besent felt very much pleased he had come to hear
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
363
Mr. Cliapraan Saunders' practic*! remarks on the breeding
and management of sheep. There was no point on which he
could contradict him. Mr. Saunders had laid down good plans
to observe — particularly with regard to the management of
sheep. He agreed with what he said as to the way to make
them pay — viz., to keep them well; he also concurred in the
reniark that sometimes they were not fed with sufficient regu-
larity— that was the case very often, and it was pernicious.
No doubt that was a very essential point in respect of their
health. . Over-feeding, especially in the lambing season, caused
a deal of mischief. Respecting the breeds of sheep, no doubt
considerable improvement had been effected within the last 10
or 15 years. Mr. Saunders had said Sussex Down were al-
most extinct (Mr. Chapman Saunders : Pure Sussex Downs
are extinct) ; but he (Mr. Besent) rather thought this
remark would rouse the dignity of some of his neighbours,
who — and a few living not far from Dorchester —
professed to have sheep of the pure Sussex breed.
Only that day he had passed a lamb-yard where he saw
sheep of that breed, some of which were not particularly large,
although no doubt very valuable in their place, and appreciated
on account of the quality of the mutton, which was considered
more delicate than that of the large Hampshire Downs. He
thought the agriculturists of Dorset had every reason to con-
gratulate themselves on having amongst them such men as
Mr. Chapman Saunders — to introduce such excellent breeds as
there were in the county; They had not only the Improved
Hampshires, but also first-class horn sheep, and he was pleased
and proud to see the owners took prizes wherever they chose
to send them. [Mr. Chapman Saunders : Yes, against all
comers.] Mr. Saunders had spoken very much to the point,
and, if they attended to what he had said, they would doubtless
do much better with their flocks than they had hitherto done.
Personally he (Mr. Besent) had experienced very bad luck in
the lambing season, the losses being abont 10 per cent. He
could not account for this ; the sheep went on well until the
lambing, but then they began badly and the season ended
badly. There were a lot of dead lambs. He assigned the
cause to a chill. The speaker again expressed thanks to Mr.
Saunders.
Mr. Longman (Belhuiih) thanked Mr. Saunders for his
paper, remarking few persons in the county were as capable
of giving them sound advice on the subject. Few men paid
more attentive than Mr. Saunders to the breeding and feeding
of sheep, and none could tell them more as to the advantages
of breeding a good class of that animal. He was sure they
must have listened with great attention to what the proprietor
of the Watercorabe flock had told them, and to his advice.
Mr. Saunders had said he frequently kept his sheep on grass
and hay; but some present had not the same advantages as he
posse»scd in that respect. Personally he (Mr. Longman)
could not do much with respect to feeding on grass. Some of
them were generally obliged to feed their sheep on roots.
The speaker asked Mr. Saunders for his opinion as to whether
he had a preference between common turnips and swedes for
the feeding of ewes ; he himself (Mr. Longman) did not like
the use of swedes before the lambing season — he thought by
using them there was more danger of inflammation than other-
wise. He generally fed with turnips ; would Mr. Saunders
recommend turnips in preference to swedes ?
Mr. Ellis concurred generally in the remarks of Mr.
Saunders. He had kept his sheep from the beginning of
November wholly upon roots. At first they had common
turnips, and about the middle of November he went in for
swedes, which they had night and day, that food being con-
tinued up to the present time. The sheep were in pretty good
condition, although a few were lost in drawing ; there were no
dead lambs, and, taken as a whole, a healthier lot of shoep he
never had. His sheep had plenty of hay. He really should
prefer swedes to common turnips.
Mr. ScuTT, altiiough not a flockmaster, was very fond of
sheep, and liked to deep them well. It was difficult, he said,
to contradict Mr. Chapman Saunders, who at Watercorabe had
been preceded by such a good flockmaster as liis father. Mr.
Saunders had spoke of not fattening stock on hill land. He
(?vlr. Scutt) had fattened some sheep, and was quite aware
they got on the best in the yard ; but at the same time tliey
were so liable to the foot-rot that it was dangerous to keep
them there. Then again — sheep were required on the land
for manuring purposes. Tiiere was one point Mr. Saunders
had not touched upon— cutting roots for sheep. He (Mr.
Scutt) had cut roots for sheep formany years past ; he fattened
a lot of tegs last year, and he was sorry he was obliged to
kill something like 15 per cent, of them. He had since adoptd
a different plan ; he had allowed them plenty of room, and
they now got on pretty well ; he did not lose them. The
turnips were previously drawn and carted to another piece of
land. He gave each sheep half-a-pound of cake, with beans
and a little pollard. Last year when he had sucK bad luck
he gave his sheep the best linseed cake and swedes ; this year
he was not using linseed cake, but raw linseed drawn through
the mill, with bran, mixed with cotton-cake, whole beans, and
pollard. He attributed his loss last year to over feeding and
the want of exercise. Sheep required exercise with their
mouths and legs ; they were apt to lay down at their trongLs,
and thus tliey engendered disease. He thoroughly believea
in exercising ewes in lamb ; he had heard Henry Richards
say, " Give them plenty of exercise ; drive them a mile and
back again till you see them steam again." There was a deal
of truth in that. He did not think persons were particular
enough with regard to the feeding of lambs ; as soon as they
were large enough they should be encouraged to eat suitable
food — by that means the lambs were improved and saved ;
they often died from the lack of something to pick up in the
shape of cake or corn. Mr. Scutt pointed out that horn stock
could not be kept well unless there was plenty of grass ; and
regarding his own experience observed the better quality of
sheep he kept the better he could make his mutton. His fat
sheep went to Wiraborne market, and the high prices he ob-
tained showed he had a good name. No one was more liberal
thanhimself with regard to artificial feeding. He considered
201bs. or 211bs. to the quarter was quite heavy enough — that
was what butchers liked; as a rule they did not care about
heavier sheep. Mr. Saunders had a very good sort of sheep,
but they were, in his opinion, a trifle too heavy ; if they were
not so heavy they would, he thought, command Id. per pound
more money. He was finding no fault with Mr Saunders,
whose rams he had used this year ; he went in for the finest
quality rather than the coarsest. He was not much concerned
about the foot rot ; he recommended that careful attention be
paid to sheep thus affected — the use of ointment and cutting
were necessary.
Mr. Besent said his shepherds were very fond of using
rock salt.
Mr. Randall, the secretary, considered it to be of the
utmost importance to exercise the best judgment in the
management of a flock. He generally kept his own ewes on
turnips before their lambing. It was a great mistake, he
thought, to be continually effecting changes in food ; sheep
should be kept as regularly as possible until after Limbing.
That, in his opinion, was the best way to manage a flock.
The President, on behalf of the Club,thanked Mr. Saunders
for bringing forward the subject. He felt sure every member in
the room had confidence in Mr. Saunders' judgment — so great
had been his experience while associated with his father at
Watercombe. There was no question about the subject being
one of large ramifications, and of immense difficulties with
reference to climate, the selection of farms, and the different
kinds of sheep suitable to particular climates and soils. The
mode of management in one season might be very successful,
but just the reverse in others ; it was a matter regarding
which it was impossible to lay down any fixed rule for obser
vance. Therefore the results of practical experience were all
the more valuable. It was almost impossible for any man to
say he had nothing to learn on this subject ; every season
brought with it its difficulties. Por instance, the crops for
feeding purposes were not the same every season, and the
health of the flock, wiiich had to be considered, must to a cer-
tain extent be influenced by tlie seasons. The great secret
of success was, he thought, the selection or a sort of sheep
most suitable to tlie farm and making the most out of the crops
produced by the land. It was from such discussions as the
present they were able to get at practical results, and he
considered they were greatly indebted to Mr. Saunders for
liaving given them the benefit of his experience. As far as his
own (Mr. Bates') experience was concerned he would observe,
without wishing to set his judgment agaiust tliat of others of
more experience, that according to liis idea tlie fewer roots
sheep had in ordinary seasons, before lambing, the better. He
had heard from experienced men tiiat the large amount of
water contained in the roots had an injurious effect upon the
ewe and offspring. But let thera test the varioas accounts
354
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
oa tliat master by their own experience, aud thus they might
be able to come to a satisfactory conclusion. The president
again expressed his thanks to Mr. Saunders, who was well
applauded.
Mr. Chapman Saunders briefly returned thanks for the
compliment paid him, answering seriatim the various
questions put to him. He was not, he said, an advocate for
using so many roots before lambing ; tliere should be a cer-
tain quantity used, but care ought to bs taken not to give too
many ; personally he liked to give plenty of hay. Regarding
the foot-rot, the best thing was to keep it down as much as
possible when only a few sheep were affected ; when the
malady was very bad they should be dressed every second or
third day, and the system of separating the diseased from
those unaffected should be carefully carried out. There was
often a great art in using the knife on such occasions. In
bad cases it took a long time for the renewal of the hoof,
llegarding the best mixture he said on his own farm he used
two parts of blue stone, one part of gunpowder, and one part
of verdigris, mixed with a little salve and linseed oil. An-
swering Mr. Longman he said he considered the use of com-
mon turnips as food much safer than swedes. Replying to
Mr. Ellis he observed the same course of treatment as that
which had been so successful in his case might in another sea-
son have just the reverse effect. They had just been benefited
by a most favourable winter. Mr. Scutt had rather puzzled
him as to the cutting of roots causing him to lose
such a large per centage of sheep ; he could not well
understand it. lie (Mr. Saunders) was in the habit of
cutting swedes for his sheep, and he recommended the system,
more particularly for hoggs. He could not explain Mr. Scutt's
case. Perhaps tlie swedes were heated in the heaps. He
should attribute the loss more to some other cause than the
cutting. No truer remark had been made than that by Mr,
Robert Randall as to the importance of regularity in feeding
and the evil of constant changes. As soon as the lambs could
feed he (Mr. Saunders) would give them a little of the best
cake ; he did not like peas— he preferred beans. As soon as
the lambs were able to eat they should have what they could
eat — that was the plan observed by the Hampshire people.
He would not split the beans ; there was more danger from
feeding with peas than with beans.
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH AVALES.
CATTLE BREEDING.
At a monthly meeting of tlic Society, held at Sydney,
His Excellency tiie Governor in tlie chair,
Dr. R. L. Jenkins read the following papers as appendices
tp the one which he had read on cattle at a former meeting :
I desire to supplement ray paper with a few additional
observations on the very important question brought so pro-
prominently and properly before us at our last meeting
by his Excellency. I mean as to whether we shall be
able to raise meat in suflicient quantities to supply a
larger demand, and that without increasing to any con-
siderable extent the price in this colony. 1 have shown
in my paper that we had 2,104,888 cattle and 16,278,697
sheep to commence the year 1872. It is true that the cattle
are over 6,000 less than in 1863, but we had then only six
millions instead of sixteen millions of sheep as at present.
The chief cause of the decrease in the cattle is attributable
to the great havoc made by pleuro-pneumonia in our herds in
18G4', and four subsequent years. Cattle owners became
frightened ; large numbers of the breeding cows were speyed
aud fattened off; no fewer than 70i,000 cattle were boiled
down for their tallow only in the years 1861< and 1865. The
raising of cattle, speaking generally, has not been so profitable
as of sheep ; but now that we have a European market, cattle
are in demand, and it is not likely prices will be so low again.
They will not be boiled down for their tallow only ; nor do I
expect will many of the females be prevented from breeding ;
but, on the contrary, there will be a danger that in the
anxiety to get numbers the quality of our cattle will not im-
prove, but this drawback, even with inferior cows, can be
much obviated by the use of good bulls. It is, however, by
substituting for bullocks which take four and five years to
gain a weight of 600 and 700 lbs. others that mature to
1,000 lbs. in three years that I would rather rely on largely
increasing our supply of animal food, I believe from this
change alone, taking into consideration the grass saved, which
of course would be feeding other cattle, that we may estimate
our gain at over 40 per cent., and that of the best quality.
Improving our feeding grounds will also much assist in giving
increased production. During a very pleasant visit I made
last August on the Hunter River I rode over lands now
covered with rich pasturage, but on which some twenty-five
years since I remember the grass was only growing in tufts
many inches apart. This change has been brought about by
the sapping of the worthless trees, I noticed that the laud
had been enclosed and plentifully supplied with water by
water holes and dams. It was pleasant to see well-bred bul-
locks fattening on the land forming these paddocks which in
an unenclosed and unimproved state were regarded but of
little value. In these remarks I chiefly refer to the properties
of the Messrs. White of Edenglassie, In addition to the
improvement of our natural pastures a good demand will lead
to the laying down of lands favourably placed with grass-
seeds, and especially with lucerne. I believe, therefore, with
the good stimulus of a certain payable market we need not
fear but that the supply will be equal to the demaud. What
this will amount to may be gathered by a paper sent me on
Home Meat Supply, wliicli I give as appendix A. It is tlie
report of the Veterinary Department of England for 1872;
and I beg to direct attention to the very valuable information
it gives on the subject. This consumption of meat in Great
Britain, during the year 1872, was 18,023,973 cwt., giving on
an average only 78 lb. to each person less than is consumed
by an Australian in eight weeks, of this 67 per cent, was home
produce, 20 per cent. Irish, and 13 per cent, foreign. It will
be seen that the total importations of preserved meats from
Australia and other places amounted to about 1-60 of the total
supply of live and dead meat — without greatly increased
importation into England. The present miserable average
of 7Slbs. to each person must yearly decrease. Home Meat
Supply. — Some interesting information on this subject is given
in the report of the veterinary department for the past year.
It seems that 18,032,973 cwt. of meat were consumed during
1870, of which 67 per cent, was home produce, 20 per cent,
Irish, and 13 per cent, of foreign, or calculated on the popula-
tion the average consumption by each person was 781bs., of
which 531bs. were British, 161bs. Irish, and lOlbs. foreign.
The mean price of live beef during the past year has increased
from 7id. in 1871 to 7id. in 1872, the rise in the first quality
and in the inferior quality being about the same, due to in-
creased cost of production caused by increased rent and in-
creased cost of labour. An increase has occurred year by year,
not only in Great Britain, but also in Continental countries,
as shown by tables in the appendix to the report giving the
prices of meat in Germany and Australia. Tliere have been
no new sources of supply of live meat discovered during the
past year; nor have there been any new processes discovered
for preserving dead meat which appear to have succeeded.
Nevertheless, our foreign imports ot meat during the past year
have increased from 1,988,890 cwt. in 1871 to 2,851,485 cwt,
in 1872. In addition to the salted meat imported in this
country, we have a coniiderable importation of meats pre-
served by other means. The importation of these preserved
meats from Australia and other places has greatly increased
during the last few years, but it has not yet reached one-eigiith
of our total importation of dead meat, and is only a little over
one-sixth of our imports of bacon and hams, the greater part
of which are brought from the United States. Our imports
of preserved meats, although large in amount, only represent
about a sixtieth part (1.638 per cent.) of our total supply of
live and dead meat. As my statement that the same principles
of close-breeding is applicable to horses appears to have taken
some of my friends with surprise, I will add to my paper some
extracts taken from " Stonehenge's British Rural Sports," as
they bear on this subject. It will be seen, as in the case of
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
355
Shorthorns, that all our best cattle are traceable to the blood
of Phceuix and her renowned sons, Comet, Favourite ; so in
blood-horses the goodness of a pedigree is dependent upon the
amount of Eclipse or Herod blood it contains. The genea-
logical tables published by this writer show the strains from
which our more successful horses are derived. The mares are
limited to about two dozen, " generally closely related to one
mother." As to the sires he says, " by comparing the above
tables it will be found that some names meet the eye continu-
ally, as for instance — Eclipse, and his sons Alexander, PotSos,
Joe Andrews, Salham, Dungameon, Mercury, and King
Fergus ; and Herod and his sou Highflyer ; Matchem also is
constantly met with, but not so frequently as Herod, High-
flyer, and Eclipse ; and it is remarkable that, though the
Godolphin blood on the whole preponderates over that of
either the Byerley Turk or Darley Arabian, yet it is spread
over a greater number of channels in its descent." The
value of these names is such, that I believe the goodness
of a particular strain may generally be estimated by the
amount ot Jlerod or Eclipse blood in the pedigree, es-
pecially that of the former. Highflyer, combining the
blood of Herod with that of the Godolphin Arabian,
is also particularly valuable as a progenitor, and periiaps even
more so than Herod when derived through other sources ; but
taken as a whole, whether coming to us through him or through
Maria, the dam of Waxy, or through other sources, I believe
that it may generally be assumed as a rule that in proportion to
the amount of Herod blood found in tiie sixty-four progenitors
of any horse in the sixth remove will be his value as a racer,
and when the amount is large, with the addition of a liberal
allowance of Godolphin blood, and that of Darley Arabian
through Bartlett's Cliilders and Eclipse, the combination is of
that quality that it cannot be excelled. Let the investigator
into the arcana of tiie breeding stud calculate and compare for
himself those elements, as contained in the annexed tables, and
I think he casuot fail to come to the same conclusion. But,
independently of the value of these tables in giving an idea of
the various combinations of strains composing each pedigree,
tliey are also of great use in leading to an estimate of the pro-
priety or otherwise of in-breeding Without such a guide as
is here afl"orded it is impossible to guess even an the curious
relationships which exist between the ancestors of our present
horses of note. Wherever the full table is given, if the eye is
cast down the several columns, the chances are that the same
name occurs again and again ; and in this way the conclusion
is forced upon us that in-breeding, to'|some extent, has been
always adopted, and almost of necessity ; because every horse
of note is now derived from the same sources, though often
variously mixed, and sometimes kept in a distinct strain for
several generations. I could not give a more striking demon-
stration of the truthfulness of these remarks than by referring
to the highest priced bull ever imported to this colony. This
animal, costing 1,000 guineas, was evidently purchased for the
goodness of his pedigree, which is one of the most fashionable,
and in the mind of the selector must have completely out-
weighed his very defective chest. A writer in The M((fk Lane
JKf/;r<'M, of July 7, 1873, signing himself " Vigil," describes
the Holker Herd, of which this bull was a member. He
says that his sire, "Baron Oxford 4th," is a magnificent bull
but flat in his ribs, concluding thus : " We now profess our
disinclination to the inflrmity, and having said so much on one
side we now gladly record that tlie Baron's olfspring, without
exception, struck out the round rib as we could wish to see."
" Vigil" could not have seen the son now in Quarantine, for his
(the son's) is a clear case of transmission of delects from liis
sire, and of those a very important kind for a small chest and
narrow frame either in man or beast, is indicative of a weak
constitution.
Mr. Living could not go the length of Dr. Jenkins w|th
regard to the superiority of Shortiiorn cattle, as that breed
of cattle was not fitted for all places. On tiie coast country
there were many things in favour of Shorthorn cuttle — plenty
of grain, &c,, but he found they sulfered more than any other
class from pleuro-pncumonia. In tlie intermediate country tiie
Shortiiorn stock tlirives well, and also in the saltbush country.
But lie doubted whether it would thrive so well as other breeds
of cattle would if the country was fully stocked. He thougiit
Dr. Jenkins had overlooked the improvement which had tiikcn
place in otiier breeds of cattle. He iiad been on the Kich-
raond, and he found that the breeders in tliat jiart of tlie
colony were going in for Dcvons and Herefords, as they found
that damp localities were not favourable for breeding Short
horns. lu other places it was the same.
Mr. WoODiiousE feared that in the scope of that paper
which they had just heard ably commented upon by Mr.
Living, the writer (Dr. Jenkins) had attempted to prove too
much. He (Mr. Woodhouse) dissented from the view which
Dr. Jenkins had expressed in regard to the Devons — that they
did not fatten readily, and that they were not such good
milkers as the Herefords. In regard to the assumption that
they did not fatten easily, there was an opinion to be found in
Mr. Youatt's work (a well-recognised authority on stock-
breeding) which went directly to contradict that. In that,
and in some other respects, when a comparison was instituted
between these Devon cattle and the Herefords, the Devons had
greatly the advantage. The Devons produced more meat by
100 per cent, than the Herefords, when carefully experimented
upon. At page 19, Mr. Youatt said : " They do not indeed
attain the great weight of some breeds, but, in a given time,
they acquire more flesh, and with less consumption of food,
and their flesh is beautiful in its kind. Mr. Youatt gave
direct proofs in support of this opinion. The flesh of the
Devons was of a mottled, marbled character, so pleasing to
the eye and to the taste. On the Duke of IJedford's Tavis-
tock estate, in the county of Devon, experiments had been
made on two Herefords and two Devons, and it was found,
when they were sold to the butcher, that the Devons were by
far the superior in fatnesss and in weight, Mr. Conyers, of
Copt Hall, near Epping — a district almost exclusively devoted
to the purposes of dairy farming — had distinctly recorded his
preference for the North Devons as milk-producing cows ; and
his (Mr. Woodhouse's) experience also led him to be favourable
to that opinion, and generally to entertain a very high idea of
these Devon cattle. A short time ago he purchased some
Devon cattle from Tasmania in low condition, and then put
them out to graze. Tiiey turned out exceedingly well, and
(speaking from thirty years' experience as a cattle breeder) he
never found cattle so tractable, or become fat so readily as did
these. They were soon able to be fed by hand, and proved
excellent milkers from the first, producing much milk even
when they were still very poor. He thougiit that the Devons
were a very excellent kind of cattle to introduce into that
country. Mr. Woodhouse here cited several data in support
of his good opinions of the Devons, and proceeded : He
thought that these tests, combined with his own personal ex-
perience, went clearly to show that they ought not to consider
the case as yet settled, and that they ought to have papers
written and read upon the Shorthorns and the Herefords. If
such a course were taken, they would be better able to judge
in the important question. For himself he had a very high
opinion of the smaller cattle, because, amongst other things,
they could travel much better in summer.
Mr. La.mb could also speak as to the excellence of the Devon
cattle, but thought they were rather prone to become very wild
and unmanageable, uuless great care was taken of them.
Mr. T. S. MoRT was not qualified to say much as to ihe
breed of the beautiful animals spoken of by Dr. Jenkins, Mr.
Living, and Mr. Woodhouse, but he was particularly intersted
in the question of the preservation of meat. During his stay
at Bodalla he had, however, naturally paid much attention to
the breed of his cattle, and at that time he had written a paper
in favour of smaller cattle as preferable to larger, which had
not been published because he feared that its object might
have been misconstrued. From what he saw, he wiis strongly
impressed with the necessity of two things as desirable for
cattle in that country — that they should not be too large, and
they should be good-tempered and easily handled. Temper
was a very great requisite in cattle, whether in cows as milkers,
or in cattle, speaking of them generally, as beasts that had to
be driven to the market. At that market would also invari-
ably be found that the smaller cattle were preferred for meat,
lie confessed he did not like large cattle. In times of drought
he had invariably found that it was the large cattle that suf-
fered most. They got bogged first, and were with the greatest
difliculty extricated from the miry spots into which they were
wont to fiounder. On the other hand, the small cattle were
found in drought to keep up their frames more easily — to liop,
as it were, over those sloughs into which the big cattle fell —
and when they did get plenty of feed and water they fattened
easily. They also gave, be bidieved, more milk than the larger
breeds. It was a very great advantage, too, that tiiey carried
themselves more easily to market than the larger cattle, and
356
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
were more liked by the butchers an^ their customers. There
was also economy in the feeding of the smaller class of ani-
mals, as had been pointed out by Mr. AVoodhouse. It was
here a matter of extreme importance that we should have
cattle that could travel readily to market. We could, by
breeding and feeding, keep more cattle on less grass if we
kept the smaller kind. He, for his part, would rather keep
a hundred cattle in his artificial pastures at Bodalla than
seventy large beasts, because the large cattle always pounded
the ground under foot, and so destroyed much food. He
trusted that the iniquitous laws here would not be upheld,
which effectually checked the production of cattle ; and he felt
confident that a law might be made which would tend to en-
courage the growth of stock, and to secure the squatting in-
terest. It would cause meat here to be produced in plenty for
export, and that without the price being raised to an exorbi-
tant price, as some seemed to apprehend. Considering the
great loss that had taken place here some years ago by pleuro-
pneumonia, it was surprising that our present stock should be
even what it was. If we utilised our land aud increased our
pastures and herds, we should have no want of meat in time
time to come. Boiling and tinniog meat would not long be
the means by which our meat would be sent to the English
market ; it would, he believed, be by the manner which he
had approved of, and which he had for years been endeavour-
ing, at a considerable expenditure, to have carried out. fhere
would always be a demand for all the meat they could supply,
an.d at remunerative prices to the producer. If meat could
only be introduced into England at a reasonable price, the
consumption of it would be enormous. Let them increase
their export of meat by breeding, and by every means in their
power, and in so doing they would be acting as would
best conduce to the general welfare of the community.
We should first of all try to increase our exports by im-
proving our land laws as much as possible. What would
ensure the success of the meat exportation to a great extent
was such an alteration of the laud laws as would enable or
induce the possessor of the land, whatever you might c.ill him,
to make the most of his land, instead of as now, making the
least of it — to give him such a tenure of it as would induce
him to expend capital in its improvement, by making water-
holes, ringbarking the trees, and other things. If such were
done our meat exports would increase until our wool and
tallow exports would become mere items compared to it. Oue
of our greatest sources of wealth lay in that very question.
They could understand it better if they remembered that the
foot-and-mouth disease in England had caused a loss of nine-
teen millions sterling. What ought we not to do, if in
England the cattle breeders could sustain a loss like that, and
still have countless herds amongst them P He thought the
question of providing highways, for the travelling of stock,
was one of the most important that the Legislature could
possibly deal with. Because if there were no roads to carry
our stock, how upon earth were we to get it to market ? The
bringing of stock was not the only consideration ; the bringing
of it to market with as little deterioration as possible, was a
most important consideration.
Dr. Jenkins said that, with regard to what Mr. Mort had
said about small breeds of cattle, he quite agreed with him
that we should have small breeds, but not perhaps in the way
in which Mr. Mort meant. He thougiit the cattle which Mr.
Mort had been accustomed to see were large ill-bred cattle —
cattle growing upon long legs, large-boned, ill-shaped animals.
What we wanted was a large animal in a small compass,
walking on short fine legs, with great squareness ; and such
animals, of whatever breed they might be, would, he contended,
fatten quicker and better than otiier animals. He understood
Mr. Mort to advocate not any particular breed, but that we
should get a good small animal ; and that animal we could
obtain, and in fact possessed in the improved Shorthorns.
They grew to great weight, and yet they weie very light as
regarded their offal. He did not desire to say, nor had he in
his paper said, auything against the aptitude of other breeds
of cattle. He had only compared the Shorthorns to the
Devons, which did not possess fattening qualities in the same
degree. His opinion was that Shorthorns matured earlier and
produced greater weight, with less food, taking natural pas-
tures into consideration, than other breeds. And they had this
other decided advantage over other breeds — their milking
qualities. He would ask Mr. Woodhouse where he would find
in the home country dairies the Devons or Ilerefonls used as
milkers ? They were nearly all Shorthorns that were used for
dairy purposes ; aud that was at once a reason why in this
colony the preference should be given to the Shorthorn breed.
At the same time let the diff'erent breeds be tried in different
localities of the colony, and leave it to further experience to
say which was the best. He hoped that in two or three years'
time we should have this discussion renewed, and be able to
bring much greater experience to bear upon the subject. He
was glad to hear Mr. Mort express an opinion that the days of
tinning meat would soon be over. But large quantities of
tinned meat would still be used on board ship and for many
other purposes, for which the carcases could not be supplied.
Mr. P. N. Trebeck said he felt that the subject under
consideration had not received the attention of members that
it ought to have received. Many of our breeders were busily
engaged on their stations superintending shearing and other
operations ; aud he proposed that the discussion should be
postponed, and that the secretary be instructed to write to the
priucipal breeders of Hereford and Devon cattle, asking them
to write on the breeding of such cattle.
Mr. H. Beit seconded the motion, which was agreed to.
The council theu rose.
THE LATE ROBERT OVERMAN.— Last week was re-
corded the death of Robert Overman, late of Egmere. In
that simple and unostentations record, so like his own character,
how much more is left untold ? how much will be recalled by
the hosts of friends he has left behind f how much more by
his attached relatives P The eldest of a third generation famed
for their practical skill in agriculture — the grandson of that
RobertOverman who drew the first Holkham lease, and who, when
his own first lease was nearly out, rode with his landlord over
his farm, and made its valuation greater than that of his land-
lord— of a race whose attachment to the name and fame of
Coke was on all occasions remarkably exemplified — the de-
ceased inherited and carried out in modern agriculture all that
modern science and skill, with energy, shrewd judgment, and
order, could add to the practice in which he was brought up.
Of his characteristics, Egmore was an example. Of an esti-
mable and generous and indomitable spirit, a hospitality which
was ever open-hearted, Robert Overman — with a right pride in
the character of a Norfolk yeoman, and what was required of a
tenant on the Holkham estate^whether it was for the pleasure
and sport of a Prince or for his landlord, or for the benefit of
his accupation — shone conspicuous in all he undertook. His
door was open and his reception kind to all those who desired
to see the cultivation of his occupation, or " breeding in all
its branches," in carrying on which he was acknowledged to
be one among the foremost of his race and degree. What
character he bore in his own district was demonstrated in the
attendance at his funeral and in the general expression of
sorrow by all who knew him. His late landlord, whose high
esteem and friendship he enjoyed through life, a host of personal
friends — not gentlemen only, but also ladies, and many of the
poorer classes, joined the numerous relatives of the deceased
in the mournful procession, which was formed at Burnham
Deepdale. There, where the remains of those of his race who
have preceded him await a joyful resurrection, the last rite
were performed. Robert Overman's was a spirit, though by no
means free from mortal frailties, whose immortality will, we
trust, receive from the Great Judge and Ruler of all that Justice,
Mercy, and Forgiveness which when on earth he was ever
ready to show to all with wliora he came into contact.— rAe
Norwich Mercury.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
357
KINGSCOTE
AGRICULTURAL
TWO-YEAR-OLD BEEF.
ASSOCIATION.
At the meeting of the Kingscote Agricultural Association,
at Hunters' Hall Inn, Kingscote, under the presidency of
Col. Kingscote, C.B., M.P., Mr. H. S. Hayward read a paper
on the best and most profitable method of producing two-year-
old beef.
Mr. Hatevtard said the present high price of butcher's
meat makes it an important consideration whether the markets
cannot be better supplied by bringing out beef at two years
old than at a greater age, if it can be done profitably. One
farmer stated as his experience that he could not afford to
follow sucli a losing business as buying lean bullocks, at £18
to £20 each, to begin upon, llis plan, which he said paid
very well, was as follows : Twelve cows are engaged in rearing
calves, which are fattened from birth, and are sold at about
twenty-two months old, when they weigh 100 to 130 stone.
The calves are, of course, well bred, while those calves which
have to be purchased are carefully selected. They are weaned
at three months old, having been previously kept short of milk,
and fed partly on gruel, and thus induced to feed on oilcake and
hay. Supposing them to be weaned in December, their daily
ration at six months old would be 1 Jib. or 21b. of linseed cake,
with the same quantity of bean meal, and a sufficient amount
of grains, mangold, and hay. The cake and meal are gradually
increased, till at twelve months old the calves get twice the
quantities just mentioned. In summer theother articles of diet
which have just been named are| replaced by trifolium, which
is excellent food while it lasts, tares, which are also good, and
grass, with second cut clover. The whole of the green food is
cut and brought to the animals in their sheds and houses,
which they do not quit till the proper period arrives for sending
them to the butcher, by which time their daily rations have
been increased to 'Mbs. of cake and 61bs. of bean meal, with
roots and a moderate allowance of hay. The principle of ma-
nagement is to let the animals continually master or outgrow
their food, pushing them ou rapidly the last three months,
so as to land them fat at the desired haven at something
under two years old. There is no reason to doubt that
from 100 to 120 stone, or ten to twelve score a
quarter, can be attained at two years old, by high
feeding, bnt as spenping a guinea to obtain a pound is a
losing business, it is necessary to ascertain by actual calcu-
lation whether such an expensive system can be profitably
carried out. Erom a moderate computation, based upon the
quantities of food given in the statement just quoted, and
taking into consideration the|necessary incidental expenses, it
is calculated that each animal fattened on the above system
costs £33 16s. 3d. The gentleman who adopted this system
states that he sells his fat cattle at 100 weeks old, at from £30
to £40 a head, and so realises a profit. But the question
arises. Could not a saving be profitably effected upon many
farms, by turning the animals out to grass the second summer,
thus saving the feeding upon artificial food six months, even
though they might not be ready for the butcher quite so soon?
He was quite satisfied that, even if early maturity is not the
object aimed at, it is wrong to turn calves out until they are a
year old. By being kept in they will escape the " husk," and
other complaints young stock are liable to. Another account
of a different and much more economical plan of rearing and
feeding stock, which has heen followed for several years on a
farm in the South of Scotland, is wortli quoting : " The lot of
fourteen calves to which the account refers were partly pur-
chased and partly bred upon the farm. Those purchased
averaged 43s. a head, at whicli price they are all valued. The
calves, with one exception, were calved between the 5tli March
and 18th April, the average date of calving being the 17th
March. For the first twelve weeks tliey were fed with 1^
gallons of milk per day ; for the next four weeks they had one
gallon per day, and a half-pound of linseed cake, and were
turned out to grass ; they were tiien weaned, and the cake was
increased to 1^ lbs. They continued on this fare till about
tlie 13th October, when they were housed at night, and got
lib. of rape cake added to their allowance of linseed cake ;
this was tiieir winter's fare, with the cleanings taken out of the
feeding cuttle's turnip bu.\e3, wliioli was about a wheelbarrow
load among the fourteen calves. They were turned out to grass
on the 18th May, and seven of them grazed on grass till near the
13th October, at which date they were shut up in open courts
with covered boxes for their food, and covered sheds ; they got
then an unlimited supply of white turnips and chaffed hay, and
also 'libs, of cotton cake. Swedes were substituted for the
white turnips some time in December, and the extra foods
were gradually increased. The average price which they
fetched was £31 is. at the age of 25 mouths." It is estimated
that their total cost in feeding was £28 lis. Gd., leaving a
balance of £o 12s. 6d. on each calf. Circumstances, how-
ever, must influence practices, and turning out calves to grass
in the South of Scotland might answer, when it would not do
in other parts. For the future he intended in his own prac-
tice to take the calves from their mothers at from a week to a
fortnight old, giving them for the first six weeks two-and-a
half quarters of best milk morning and evening, and after that
time three quarts of skimmed milk, warmed to the natural
heat, for another six weeks. Each calf to have a separate
stall and manger, and at three or four weeks old, when they
begin to eat, to be fed with chaff, mixed with a little meal and
cake. At twelve weeks old they will do without milk, and
then a little pulped roots should be added to the cliaff, meal,
and cake. At this time they will not require to be kept in
separate stalls, but may be put two or three together in loose
boxes, where they should remain until the following summer.
He found from experience that they did much better if not
turned out to grass the first summer, and would he safe from
" husk," whicli, particularly in low localities, is such a fatal
disease. By this management, they will first go to grass at
fifteen or sixteen months old, and will then do well until [the
autumn, when, if intended to he brought out fat at two years
old, lliey must be stall or box-fed witii a liberal allowance of
meal and cake. No doubt cattle would arrive at greater
weiglit at two years old, if never turned out, but their living in
fields upon grass alone for six months, in the second summer
of their lives, is a great saving of expense, and probably pays
best. The rapid increase in the population of the country,
and consequently increased demand upon the supply of meat,
made him think that the subject he had brieiy introduced for
discussion might be productive of some good. He thought
they could not do better than try to increase the supply of
meat by bringing their stock to maturity as soon as they pos-
sibly could ; and as the man is said to he a benefactor to his
country who can make three blades of grass to grow where
only two have grown before, surely they would be still greater
benefactors, if they could eend three fat beasts to market in-
stead of two.
The Chairman said the subject Mr. Hayward had brought
before them in such an interesting manner was one of great
importance to all : the present high price of meat with a daily
increase of population rendered it very needful to give atten-
tion to future supply. No one doubted that the supplies must
be greater before prices got lower, or even if they were to
remain as they were. It would very much increase the supply
if cattle were brought out at two years old instead of three,
and, he believed, if they were kept well, tiiey would be as
lieavy at two as at three. In one of the instances Mr. Hayward
had given there seemed to be £5 per head profit, while in the
other there was scarcely any profit at all. There must be a
cause for such different results under such very similar treat-
ment, either in the breeding or selection of animals, the
attendance, climate, or quality of food. Therefore it is of
great importance for them to thoroughly discuss the subject,
that they might arrive at a satisfactory conclusion as to wiie-
ther it could be done with profit, and if not, to discover tiie
reason.
Mr. Garlick, of Bevcrstone, thought that to produce two-
year-old beef with profit they must start right ; they must
bleed or buy well-bred calves. It was a great mistake to sell
tlie best calves at from £5 to £10 for bulls. The difi'erence in
price of a two-year-old from a well-bred healthy sort over a
middling-bred one was quite £7 or £8. When they had got
the right sort of auiiual they must have it well looked after,
358
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
regularly fed, aud uot forced with more than it could eat.
Some years ago he lost several calves from scour when they
were liaviug a small quantity of milk, and a quantity of water
with it. Since then he had given no milk after the calf was
eight weeks old, and had found them do well on linseed-cake,
meal, hay, and chaff, till turned out ; then cotton-cake through
the summer. They had no artificial food after twelve months
old till they were put up in the stalls to fatten, and then they
began by having a small quantity, and finished up for the last
five weeks with 41bs. of cotton-cake, 41bs. linseed-cake, aud
41bs. of meal per day.
Mr. Blackwell asked : Do you find any ill effects from
using cotton-cake ?
Mr. Garlick : No. lie would uot think of giving cotton-
cake to animals eating straw, but he believed in its use when
cattle were fed on grass or turnips.
Mr. Burnett was of opinion that to make farming more
profitable a quicker return of capital was needful, and to bring
out beef at two years old would be a means of doing so ; they
must, however, as Mr. Garlick had said, have tlie right sort,
and see tliey were well fed ; for both as regards food and
comfort, he did uot believe in turning calves out on poor pas-
ture, when three or four months old, to be teased nearly to
death with flies, with the risk of getting the " husk" in the
autumn, and being rendered scarcely fit to be seen till nearly
turning out time in the succeeding year. Although Mr. Hay-
ward had mentioned some one who condemned the system of
buying bullocks at from £18 to ^20 for fatting, he would
much rather buy and fat them than bring them up to that age,
and sell at that price. He did so for Colonel Kingscote last
year, and the result was such as to induce him to buy a larger
number this year. Knowing this subject was to be brought
before this meeting, he had written to a friend of his ia
Hampshire, who had had great experience'.in bringing out two-
year-old beef. His friend replied : " I find, when fatted at
two years old, there is little profit left ; when kept longer,
there is none. Our grass in Hampshire is not good enough
to keep them the last summer without cake ; for the last
seventeen years I have sold at two years old from £28 to £33
each, weighing from 40 to 45 score ; one year the cows were
served by a cross-bred bull, and the produce I sold at the same
age for £25. Our system of feeding has been, and is at this
present time : yearlings — straw, chaff, and mangold, with 41b3.
of cotton-cake per day; two-year-olds — chaff and mangold,
41bs. of meal, 41bs. of cotton-cake, and 21bs. of linseed per
day."
The following resolution was proposed, and carried : " This
meeting is of opinion that a well-bred calf, if kept well from
the time it is dropped, and not turned out the first year, can
be brought out fit for the butcher at two years old with profit."
The Chairman proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Hayward
for the way in which he had treated the subject, and the meet-
ing broke up with a vote of thanks to the Ciiairman.
THE LANDLORD AND TENANT BILL AND THE CENTRAL CHAMBER.
TO THE EDITOR OF THE MARK LANE EXPRESS.
Sir, — The discussion at the late meeting of the Central
Chamber of Agriculture was, upon the whole, good, but
I cannot say as much for the resolution which was adopted,
or rather re-aflirmed. I conceive that it will not be a
little difficult to embody so loose a proposition in a bill,
or, at all events, to get any such clause passed by Parlia-
ment, aud, if the feat were accomplished, I conceive it
would-be still more difficult to carry so vague aprovisiou
iuto practice. One of the first questions which would
inevitably arise iu the settlement of compensation under
any lease or agreement would be, Does the lease or agree-
ment give security — adequate security— for the unex-
hausted value of the improvements ? Who is to decide
this knotty question ? Is it to be left open for either
party to remit the point to a court of law ? If so, one
of the objects kept steadily iu view in framing the bill —
the prevention of the possibility of legal proceedings be-
tween landlord aud tenant — will be defeated. If pro-
vision be made, as ])roposed by Mr. Carrington Smith,
for leaving the point to the decision of the arbitrators,
whether " eflicieut and sufficient compensation " is pro-
vided for by the lease or agreement, it would be adding
to the already onerous duties imposed upon them, a work
which, in many instances, would more befit a lawyer.
As far as I can judge, there would be no substantial gain
in such a piece of legislation, for it may be assumed, with
some certainty, that if there should be any difficulty in
deciding the question whether the lease or agreement was
or was not as liberal as an Act of Parliament, the ma-
jority of arbitrators would simply fall back upon the pro-
visions of the Act.
At nearly all the discussions which have taken place upon
the Landlord and Tenant Bill, there has been an attempt
on the part of some speakers to get rid of the operation
of clause 12. The Central Chamber, by its resolution,
has attempted to do so by a side wind, but the framers of
this precious resolution have, I think, outwitted them-
selves, for if the resolution means anything the principle
of freedom of contract is just as much infringed as it is
under clause 12. For instance, if any particular lease or
agreement should fail to give security for the unexhausted
value of the tenants' improvements, then the law is to
override such lease or agreement. On the other hand, if
clause 12 becomes law it would be inoperative under
any lease or agreement which gave compensation equal to
the Act.
Seeing that landlords and tenants are and always hav e
been free to make their own agreements, I never coul d
see any use whatever in troubling the Legislature about a
bill unless it was to be compulsory. Then it should be
remembered that there are a host of "Limited Owners"
who have not the power to grant leases or to make agree-
ments binding on their successors ; but this is too long
a question to enter upon in a letter.
The important point after all is not the 12 th clause, the
main question is : Are the compensation clauses fairandjust
as between landlord and tenant ? So far as I know, not one
of the hundreds of criticisers of the Bill have attempted
to show that they are unfair, or even unsuited
to any particular locality. 'Tis true that not a
few have uttered the stale platitude that rules cannot be
laid down suitable for the varying circumstances and
customs of different counties. This I may say Mr.
Read and I were not foolish enough to attempt : we con-
tented ourselves with laying down certain broad, general
principles of universal application — principles I may say
of fairness and justice — vyhich could be carried out in
practice by arbitrators ia any aud _every part of the
country.
The cry raised '" interference with freedom of contract "
is simply a bogie set up to frighten timid and prejudiced
people. The Bill so far, and so far only, interfered with
freedom of contract as to prevent an unscrupulous land-
lord from appropriating that which was not his own — viz.,
the capital invested in the soil by his tenant ; iu all other
respects landlords aud tenants would be left perfectly free
to make their own bargains, aud I may add to agree to
the wisest, or the most absurd, covenants.
When Mr. Sharman Crawford first brought forward a
Tenant-Right Bill for Ireland, his proposals were most
moderate, but they were resisted by the landed proprietors,
and the cry raised, " Freedom of contract." There are
not wanting signs of the times that if the question of
Tenant-Right is not settled quickly nn England, the
demands of the tenants will gi"ovv as they did ia Ireland.
For instance, the question of " disturbance " of a tenant,
without adequate cause, was pressed upon me last year by
steady-going responsible tenants who had a good deal to
urge in favour of the principle and about its eflfect in
Ireland. I am, yours faithfully,
Jamks HeWARD.
Clapham Park, Bedfordshire, March 12, 1S74.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
359
BOTLEY AND SOUTH HANTS FARMERS' CLUB.
THE SCARCITY OF HORSES.
At the last meeting at Botley, Mr. W. Warner in the cliair,
the subject I'or discussion was "The present scarcity of horses,
with suggestions for a remeay," introduced by Mr. J. D.
Barford, V.S., of Southampton.
Mr. Barfoud said : I venture to tliink the subject chosen
for our consideration to-day is one of importance, fori would
venture to ask what would an Englishman do without his
horse, whether for agricultural or business purposes, or tlie
purposes of pleasure in a carriage, or in the hunting field?
It is a remarkable fact that, although the British Isles are
pre-eminent in Europe for horse-breeding, and althougV. our
countrymen are probably unrivalled for practical skill in all
that concerns the rearing and treatment of horses, our litera-
ture is singularly deficient, and our statistics are lamentably
wanting in all that relates to the raising of the horse. In
treating this very wide and complicated subject — a subject
that was considered of sufficient importance last year by Lord
Rosebery to ask fo r a committee of the House of Lords to
inquire into its several bearings, and although the Earl of
Granville, the then representative of the Government in the
Upper House, treated the matter very jauntily wlien the ap-
plication was made, still a committee was granted, and anyone
that has looked through the evidence will agree that many
important facts relating to the subject have been ascertained,
and although the recommendation of the committee is ex-
tremely meagre, still I have no doubt some good results will
follow. In treating this subject I purpose making some
general remarks on the breeding of our thoroughbred and
half-bred horses, following these up by some remarks especially
applicable to agricultural horses, which, of course, is tlie part
of the subject most interesting to the members of a Farmers'
Club, In the first place, in tracing back the origin of our
thoroughbred horse, I have no doubt we owe a great deal, if
not all, of the excellence of our present breed to the Eastern
blood, viz., the Arabs, the Barbs, and the Turkish stallions —
these crossed with English mares have created a distinct type
which no doubt is unrivalled in the world for combined speed
and stoutness, and there is no doubt originally racing was
started and carried on for the improvement of our best breeds
of horses, and although there may be practices on the turf
at the present day tiiat many may not quite agree with, still
I venture to give it as my opinion that it has been the means
of accomplishing in a very marked degree what it was origi-
nally intended for, and I think nothing can be a greater proof
of this than the extraordinary demand there has been on the
Continent for some years past for onr best sires and dams ; for
I think I am right in stating that hardly a single breeding
stud on the Continent of any note — " and their number is
legion" — but contains more English animals than almost all
other breeds put together, and even the far-famed American
trotters are descended from an English thoroughbred horse ;
and as I consider this great demand on the Continent for our
thoroughbred and half-bred mares is one of the principal
causes of the present high price in horses, I will briefly bring
before your notice the particulars of a few of the principal
continental studs, and see if we can gain any hints therefrom,
and quoting from an article on this subject in the last number
of the Edinbvrc/h Rerie'v, I find that Russia is placed first as
the most notable instance of horse-breeding on the Continent,
and amongst the most successful breeders in that country are
the celebrated Orloff family. On the declaration of war against
the Turks in 1772 the Empress committed to Count Alexis
Orlofi the command of the Russian fleet, and with the assist-
ance of our countryman, Admiral Elphinstone, he obtained a
signal victory over the Turks. In consequence of his chival-
rous conduct to tie Pacha, who he had captured, the Paclia, to
evince his gratitude, soon after presented hira with the cele-
brated barb Smetanska, progenitor of the two Orloft' breeds,
and whose skeleton is reverently preserved in the Orloff
Museum to this day. Count Alexis commenced his stud in
1770, and Russian horse-breeders give the following list as the
first occupants of his stable : Arabs, 12 stallions and 10
mares ; Turkish, 1 stallion and 2 mares ; English, 20 stallio."»
and 32 mares ; Dutch, 1 staUion and 8 mares ; Persian, 3
stallions and 2 mares ; Danish, 1 stallion and 3 mares ; Meck-
leuburgh, 3 mares. 1 mention this stable to show in this stud
what a large preponderance of English blood existed ; and
independently of this I find that Count Orloff obtained from
England two sons of Eclipse and Highflyer, and the winners
of the St. Leger in 1792 and of the Derby in 1791, Tartar and
Dcedalus, besides many others. These produced a distinct
type called the Orloff trotters, a breed of world-wide celebrity
as well as a breed of saddle horses — and, I find it stated by a
French stud oflicer who attended the horse exhibition of Rus-
sia in 18G9 that they were i^alising prices varying from £120
to £280, which, it must be confessed, are very remunerative
prices to a private breeder. Independent of this stud it is
stated that there are no fewer than 1,600 private studs in
Russia, with nearly 6,000 stallions and upwards of 50,000
mares, besides large studs which are maintained by the Govern-
ment, as is the case by all the Governments of the Continent.
Next to Russia in quantity, superior possibly in quality, comes
the Empire kingdom of Austro-Uungary. Hungary alone
produces sullicient horses to supply all the cavalry in Europe,
and the efforts of the Government to encourage the breed of
horses are well backed up by the Esterhazy's and other noble-
men who maintain private studs, some of them containing 500
horses. One of the most notable studs is the Kisler stud, de-
voted entirely to English thoroughbred and half-bred stock, and
contains over 600 animals — another instance, gentlemen, of
the great demand of the English thoroughbred and
half-bred blood. Among the thoroughbred sires may be
seen Buccaneer, Daniel O'Rourke, Ostregor, Bois Roussel,
as well as between 200 and 30O well selected Eng-
lish and Irish mares. The chief point of interest
in this stud is, that in selecting animals to breed from, the
three great qualities of substance, speed, and endurance are
aimed at, as well as securing none but sound animals, un-
injured by early struggles on the turf. The other great State
stud in Hungary is at Babolna, where Arabs only are bred.
This stud consisted of over lOO horses. When we leave the
great horse-producing countries of Eastern Europe and ap-
proach farther west, we shall find a very different state of
things. Up to the present century, the two great military
powers, Prussia and France, depended almost entirely oa
importation for the supply of their cavalry, even in times of
peace. During the ten years of the reign of Louis XIV.
upwards of £4,000,000 sterling were expended in France in
the purchase of foreign horses. The great demands for horses
by these great military powers are so large that the necessity
for meeting them, and the danger of depending on neighbours,
who may cut off the supply when war breaks out, iiave long
engaged the notice of their statesmen ; for we find that, in
times of peace, France requires an annual remount for the
army ol 7,000, and Prussia 8,000, and of course, in times of
war, these figures must be tripled or quadrupled. For ex-
ample, during the lati. Franco-Prussian war, the French esti-
mate their loss at 15ft,000, but a German writer states tliat
the Prussian loss exceeded a million liorses. Figures like
these cannot fail to rouse the attention of thonglitful poli-
ticians, and accordingly, for many years past, the State, both
in France and Prussia, have been unremitting in their efforts
in encouraging the breeds of horses ; and such has been the
care and attention with whicli breeding has been carried on
in France by private individuals that they have succeeded, by
the aid of English blood, in breeding such animals as Gladia-
teur and Reine, tiie former good enough to come over and win
the blue riband of the turf ; and, not only has he speed enough
to win the Derby, but has strength enough to carry sixteen
stone to hounds ; and I think you will agree with me tiiat
these are the qualities that we should aim at in breeding well-
bred horses. In lact, so well are the French-bred horses
thought of that I am informed there are at the present time
three or four French-bred stallions in Northamptonshire used
for breeding purposes, but whether hall-bred or thorough-bred,
I cannot say. Before leaving this subject of horse-breeding
in France, I cannot forbear giving you the result of the ex-
perience of a French nobleman, the Marquis de Croix, who
A A
360
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
spent his younger years iu England, during the emigration,
and here probably acquired the love for horses. He established
a stud, more than thirty years ago, on his estate at Serquigny,
in Normandy, liis object has been to breed superior half-
hred horses for the saddle and harness, and he has mainly
used English blood, and especially Norfolk trotters. His stud
consisted, at the beginning of 1S73, of 61 horses, with three
stallions, one of which, Norval, a roadster, of English blood,
but bred in France, would win a prize at any of our agricul-
tural meetings. M. de Croix has an annual sale, but never
parts with a good mare, and the following table exhibits the
results of sales during the last ten years :
& s. d.
Average per head 137 10 0
Do. of thorough-breds 120 0 0
Produce of thorough-bred horse and half-bred
English mare 100 0 0
From half-bred horse and thorough-bred mare... 143 0 0
From half-bred horse and mare 138 15 0
I have been induced to quote this instance of what I think is
successful breeding (although we are not told at what ages
they were sold), because it is a corroboration of the opinion I
have held for some time past, that in breeding half-bred horses
you should always obtain the highest blood iu the dara, for you
will observe the higliest price considerably realised, viz., £143
per head, are those from a half-bred horse (a Norfolk trotter,
for instance) and a well-bred mare. I have ventured on this
apparent digression iu my subject for two reasons — one was
to show how much our English blood is appreciated on the
Continent, and what a vast number of our good hunting and
thorough-bred mares have been purchased for Continental
breeding ; also, to show how the breeding of horses is fostered
and encouraged by the Governments of tlie different European
States. Not so our own ; on the contrary, I contend they
have been the means (in consequence of lowering the price
given for horses required for the cavalry remounts after the
Crimean war) of materially checking the breed of horses.
Another cause of the present high price of horses undoubtedly
is the very great demand for horses used for pleasure, both as
carriage horses and in the field ; for, let any gentleman go to
a meet of the Queen's or Baron Rotlischild's Staghounds, or
the Pytchley or Quorn Foxhounds, there you will see, I ven-
ture to say, four times the number assembled that you would
a few years back. Then, again, let any gentleman, a real
lover of horses, pay a visit to Hyde Park (and well will he
he paid for his visit) on the day our Four-in-Hand Club turn
out for tlie first time iu the season, and I am satisfied such
a sight will meet his view that cannot be equalled in the
world, all of course proving what an amount of wealth and
prosperity there is in the country. In discussing a remedy
for this state of things, the first and most important
question that presents itself for our consideration — is
it, or is it not, policy to have recourse to Govern-
ment breeding studs ? and I think, whatever it may be on
the Continent, the voice of this country would be against Go-
vernment clasliing with private enterprise in this matter, but
I have no hesitation iu saying that Government might mate-
rially assist and encourage breeders of horses in many ways ;
for instance, I am convinced that it would be good policy for
the Government to purchase horses at tliree years old for the
remounts iu the cavalry, and keep a reserve stud for them to
he drawn from every year, instead of waiting until an emer-
gency arises, when it is found impossible to get them in this
country ; for it is a notorious fact that for tlie Autumn
Manoeuvres last year tliere was something like a thousand
horses required, and although £47 per head was the sum given,
there were not one out of every ten that were English horses,
and 1 say this is not by any means a creditable state of things
for a country so peculiarly suitable for breeding horses as
England. Then, again, I consider that although the Govern-
ment do not keep breeding establishments, still they might
from time to time secure some of our best sires and prevent
them leaving tliis country, which they are constantly doing,
especially our Norfolk trotters, for it is a notorious fact that
so much is tli:s breed appreciated on the Continent that imme-
diately there is one old enough for sale in private hands so
soon are there purchasers ready for him for the foreign market.
Then, again, I am satisfied that immense advantage would
accrue if the Government would purchase a few cob stallions for
the use of our forest pony mares ; for of all breeds of liorses
cone are more deteriorated iu quality or hecome scarcer in
quantity than the cobs and ponies of this country. Especially
is it noticeable in the New Forest, where some years ago the
late lamented Prince Consort sent an excellent Arab stallion
for the use of the forest mares, and immense good resulted
therefrom, and I am satisfied that the same would accrue
again, and I would respectfully suggest that his Royal High-
ness the Prince of Wales, as his estate at Sandringham is
in the heart of the country where the Norfolk trotters are bred,
would be conferring an immense boon on this country if he
were to establish a small breeding stud of that excellent breed,
and send sires to different parts of the country for the use of
their respective districts. The large landed proprietors, also,
would be conferring a lasting benefit on the country by
keeping a good stout thorough-bred or half-bred horse for the
use of their tenants at a moderate charge. The greatest bene-
fit that would arise from this would be that it would tend to
diminish the number of weedy, leggy, useless animals that are
now led about the country, spreading broadcast a race of ani-
mals that are really not worth, some of them, the food they
eat, or the trouble tliat is bestowed on them in breaking, and
that would not, probably, realise more than £20 to £25 at
three years old, instead of double that sum, as it would be if
care were bestowed in selection. I think you will agree with
me that is a price that would well remunerate any one that is
desirous of breeding half-bred horses suitable for carriage
work or roadsters, and suitable also for remounts for our
cavalry. I will now proceed with the second part of my sub-
ject, viz., the breeding of horses suitable for agricultural pur-
poses or for London work, and I think it wiU require no
argument of mine to convince you that this class of horse is
more scarce at the present time than during the last twenty
years, for I venture to affirm that in the South of England, at
any rate during the last two years, it would he almost an im-
possibility to procure twenty good English agricultural horses
at any one time almost regardless of price, and nearly the
whole of the supply has been from France. I ask is this a
state of things that ought to exist ? I think not, and if it is
a fact that our thorough-bred and half-bred horses are appre-
ciated on the Continent, I think there cannot be a doubt that
our agricultural horses are also ; for, referring to a report
made by General Lamoriciere, he states : " Notwithstanding
the broad differences that naturally exist between the cart-
horse breeds and horses used for the purposes of luxury, the
English, who know how to mould nature according to their
natural wants, have solved the problem, and we lately wit-
nessed at the Agricultural Institute, at Versailles, working in
the same field, with ploughs exactly similar, and under identi-
cal conditions, four teams, comprised as follows : 1, two
Clydesdale mares ; 2, three Suffolk mares ; 3, three Percheron i
mares ; 4, three Bouloguese mares. The two Clydesdale mares
performed the same task as the other three teams, and did it
much quicker. In point of time the teams finished their
work in the order indicated above. The Suffolk mares finished
much before the Percherons, and between the latter and the
Bouloguese there was scarcely any difference." Taking the
objections generally urged by agriculturists against breediug
horses, of course the leading one is that it does not pay, and
that it answers their purpose better to breed a bullock or a
slieep than it does a horse ; but at the present price of agricul-
tural horses this argument will not hold good, however much
it might a few years back ; for, taking the cost of a colt up to
the time he is two years old, when he is usually broken in and
made to partially earn his keep, at the following sum — viz.,
from the time he is weaned (up to which time, of course, you
cannot charge anything) at six months old to twelve mouths,
say £1 per month (£6) ; thence to eighteen months (£5) ;
from eighteen months to two years old, £3 per month
(£12 ) ; making altogether £23 ; and I venture to assert
any ordinary colt by the time he is two years old, pro-
vided care is used in selection of sire and dara, will fetch
at the present time £40 to £50, and I think this will
leave a margin quite as remunerative to the farmer as rearing
a bullock or sheep ; but of course this will not be the case if
old worn-out mares are used, or mares with an hereditary
disease about them that is certain to be transmitted to the
progeny, or if in the selection of a stallion, a sis too often, I
am sorry to say, the case in this district, you use the first one
that presents itself, regardless whether he is suitable in shape
to the mare, or whether he is free from iiereditary defects.
And I would put it to you in all houesty why should not the
same care a^d clisQriiiiiuation be used i,a breeding horses aa ift
THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE.
361
sheep or other animals, for I venture to say that any farmer
keeping a breeding flock of Hampshire Down 'ewes would
not object to go to Mr. Rawlence, or gome other eminent
breeder, and give a handsome price for the hire or purchase
of a ram of known good qualities. Then why, I ask, should
such carelessness and indifference be shown in breeding farm
colts as to use the stallion that can be got at the lowest price,
as is too often the case ? And then the argument is used it
does not pay, for let me remiud you that it does not cost one
fraction more to keep a colt that will be worth at two years
old £45 than it would a wretched animal that would not be
wortli half the price ; and there is another very powerful in-
centive for you to breed a good animal, and that is, if you
should get over-stocked, and have one to sell, if you have bred
a good-sized, sound colt, when he is four years old there is
not the slightest difficulty in finding a purchaser for him, for
railway or London dray work, at something like £60. Then
you will naturally ask me where is such a stallion as you
mention to be met with in this neighbourhood P I would
answer that question by respectfully laying before you a scheme
which I am very anxious that you, as members of the principal
Farmers' Club iu this district, sliould seriouslv take into your
consideration. When visiting the Bath and West of England
show at Plymouth last year, I was particularly struck to find
that in the small county of Cornwall the farmers of that
county, seeing the importance of improving their breed of
cart liorses, have banded themselves togetlier and formed two
companies lor the improvement of the breed in their respec-
tive districts, and for that purpose they each deputed two of
their members to proceed to Scotland, about twelve months
back, to purchase a first-class Clydesdale stallion for each com-
pany, each costing £300 ; and the secretary of one of the
companies has kindly forwarded me their rules. Then, again,
another objection generally urged against breeding farm horses
is that at tlie time the mares are expected to foal they are
generally wanted on the farm, it being usually a busy time ;
but, gentlemen, I can assure you from experience that it is a
mistaken notion to suppose that mares require so much rest
at the time of foaling as is generally imagined, for I have seen
more casualties occur to mares at the time of parturition that
have been laid by than those that have been kept to work
nearly up to the time, and ten days to a fortnight, if all goes
well, is ample time for a mare to lay by after foaling, the foal
being shut up when the mare goes to work, and not allowed
to roam about the field with the mare, as is too often tlie case.
Oue more ohjection I will notice, and that is that colts are
subject to so many casualties, up to two years old, the time
they usually are broken in ; but, gentlemen, I would put it to
you whether during the last few years you have not been sub-
ject to innumerable casualties with beast and sheep, for what
with cattle plague, pleuro-pneumonia, and foot-and-mouth
disease, have you not been surrounded with difficulties in
rearing beast and sheep? Iu summing up this paper I think
yon will see I have pointed out the cause of the decrease in
well-bred horses and their high price, and that it has arisen
chiefly from the great demand there has been for them on the
Continent. I have some statistics here, which show the im-
portations and exportations during the years from 1861 to
1871. I find that in ten years there were something like
16,600 imported, and 43,250 exported, giving a balance in
favour of the exportations of 33,600. And then look, again,
at the great demand there has been in this country for horses
of all descriptions, not only for military purposes, but also for
other uses and pleasure. In one year I have quoted it is true
tliere was the French war, and then almost everything that a
man could clap his hand on was bought up. I have no doubt
tliat Loudon was cleared out of all the old cab horses and
everything that could be sold. Tlien another thing is the
extraordinary progress of tlic country, and horses are much
more sought after now than they were years ago. I think tlie
Government should really give more countenance to breeding.
I tliink a deput should be kept, so that a breeder might be
sure of a certain market for his horses when they are three
years old, and that would be r very great encouragement to
him. With reference to agricultural horses, that is a subject
which concerns you as agriculturists very much indeed.
There is no doubt that probably tliere will be more horses
bred this year than in years before, but at the same time I do
think it is a matter which requires your serious attention, and
more especially as for the last twelve months you have drawn
supplies from France, I have heard there is to be a btop put
to the supply of French horses, and if that is the case I will
ask you what you will do then ? I commend this matter to
your attention, and if it should be intended by this Club to
purchase a stallion I shall always be ready to give my assist-
ance in carrying it out.
Mr. Smith quite agreed with what Mr. Barford had said
with reference to the horses for agricultural purposes. He
wished to breed in his own neighbourhood, but he could not
see a horse he liked, and he had a great objection to a grey
horse or a black one, preferring to have a bay or a brown.
There were horses in that neighbourhood which he did not
like, and he should be glad to join such a committee as was
suggested by Mr. Barford, for he considered it would materially
improve the breed of horses, and would have the effect of
doing away with those which were of no use at all. At pre-
sent farmers did not care what the animals were, and that was
tlie reason why so many weedy horses were about the neigh-
bourhood. If they went into it they would find that it was
just the same with horses as with cattle— they must have the
best to breed from.
Mr. W. B. GiTER said the suggestion as to a company
was good, for, individually, It was now difllcult to pursue
breeding to any extent, and any sort of society which would
make more widespread the rearing of first-class animals would
be one means of doing a great deal to accomplish what they
required. He quite agreed that Government should give more
encouragement to breeders, for if they did not see that that
was a good object, he for one did not know what, in the work
necessary to pursue agriculture, could be a better oue. They
had now got a change of Government. Tlieie was one thing
now, they had a great party on the opposite side in power, and
they were all looking to the Government to see what they
were going to do for everybody, and that things would run
smooth in the future. However that might be, he did not
believe much in the one or the other. Mr. Chase had bred
good agricultural stock successfully, and if he could do so
others should be encouraged in doing it ; but the one great
thing wanted was the means of getting good horses A prize
was formerly given at their show for good cart stallions, but it
had been discontinued, for which he was sorry, and he hoped it
would be renewed, but under conditions restricting it to any
but a thoroughly well-quahfied animal, and not merely the
best animal in a small competition. He hoped much practical
benefit would result from the paper. There was no likelihood
that the present demand for good horses would cease, and they
should try and find out the best means of getting them and
making them pay their way.
Mr. CsASE has found it very difficult indeed as a breeder to
get rid of his horses unless they were in the hands of a dealer.
He had no doubt all of them would realise the money they
were worth, but the difficulty was to get a market for them.
He had for the last five years been trying to get good horses,
and he was now about to sell them, but whether they would
pay or not he could not tell until he had done with them.
Mr. J. Blundbll would rather give his attention for a few
moments to the question of 'agricultural horses chiefly, as he
considered they mostly concerned them as a club. It had gone
abroad, and there seemed to be a pretty general opinion on it,
that horses would not pay so well for breeding as cattle. There
might be some truth in that under certain circumstances, but
he had no doubt if they had the patience and spent as much
time and attention in the breeding of horses as they did cattle
it would be quite as successful. But then there was another
answer given when they inquired why a man did not breed
more agricultural horses, and the answer was because it re-
quired so much pasture land, but that, he could assure them,
was a fallacy. He knew how to raise a good cart colt witliout
it, and he would breed one and it should never go out of the
straw. He could make a profit out of liorses at £4!0 each in
years gone by, when they were much cheaper than now, and
what price could they make of horses at the present under
similar circumstances? He maintained that it was not neces-
sary for a colt that they should have pasture — for agricultural
colts at all events. He meant to say that a colt might be pro-
fitably kept in a yard, where they had a shed 12 feet by 12
feet, and 12 feet by 20 feet outside, or something like that.
Tiie colts bad thus plenty of room for exercise, and they would
do exceedingly well— that was supposing they were properly
fed. The proper feeding of them was a matter of immense
importance. And theu another matter of importance was
tliat while they ran wild they were uot manure making ma-
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THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
chines, but he considered they should be treated as such. He
thought it only reasonable and right that a system should be
arranged which would make horses as valuable for tlieir ma-
nure-giving properties as bullocks. And when they came to
the cost it was only a very trifling dift'erence. Take the
ordinary Shorthorn steer fed up to two years, and
take the cart colt, fed up to ths same age, and he thought
the latter would be worth £15 more than the former, fed
at the same cost. He said that tliey could make it pay by
rearing colts instead of cattle, and why did they not do so ?
Many hill farmers said " How can I raise a colt on my hill
farm, where I have no grass land ?" In answer to that he
would tell them that tliey had their barns which tliey did not
use, and where they often had an outlet, the barns opening
into the yard, and be told them it was in their power to breed
horses, although they might be situated different to other
people. And then he considered that one of the first points to
he held in mind in this matter was that they should not breed
from diseased animals. It was a very common thing indeed for
a farmer to breed from one, and he did not even take the trouble
to inquire whether the disease was hereditary, or whether it
arose from accidental circumstances. Tiiis, he contended, was
an all important question. It might he said that horses re-
quired a great deal of accommodation, but this would not be
so under the plan he proposed. He maintained that if the
colt Wds kept in a shed there would be no fear of his breaking
his leg in a cart wheel in tlie cart liouse, or of staking himself
by trying to jump a hedge, or amusing himself in racing the
dairy cows in the meadow. He would take credit for free-
dom from accident under the plan he advocated. And then
they must also consider that some men actually killed horses
before their time, and it was liked burning the candle at both
ends. He maintained that by the system under which be kept
his horses they would live three years longer tlian four out of
every six in the county of Hants. He could assert tbis posi-
tively, for he had seen a great many stables, and he had
scarcely noticed one in ten wliere the horses could be healthy.
And why ? Because they did not give them a pure atmos-
phere. They were actually making a horse live in an atmos-
phere where he would become broken winded and his eyes
would be affected. Therefore he advocated earth floors in-
stead of the round pitchers for horses to lie upon. Did they
suppose that the Almighty ever intended that horses should
lie upon those round pitcher stones ? Na they were sent for
another purpose, and mother earth was what the horses were
intended to lie upon. He might tell them it would be well if
they studied these things, and they must recollect that in the
feeding of cattle so with horses — they must be fed in an arti-
ficial way. It was perfectly true that they gave roots to their
sheep and cattle, but none to their horses, and he held it to be
of great importance that they should be in a position to give
them some fresh vegetable food tliroughout the whole of tlie
winter months with their corn. Horses suffered more from
thirst than any other animal, especially in the months of
Marcli and April. In the bill farms they went to work all
day, and when the rest-time came they stopped under a hedge,
where they had some hay as dry as cooper's chips, but no water,
while a little swede or turnips mixed with their food would
he of benefit to them, whereas they were called upon to work
the greater half of the day on food which damaged them im-
mensely. Let tbem next take the cab and the omnibus horses.
Before the Parliamentary Committee a vast amount of evi-
dence was given, and more particularly by Mr. Church, the
manager of the General Omnibus Company. His evidence
was exceedingly interesting and valuable. He thought, he said,
horses did not last over four years. He attributed tliat in a
great measure to the pitched roads, which made them very
difficult for the horses' feet. But it was not only in the roads
the horses had to contend with this, but they also had to
stand on them in the stables, and was there any wonder why
horses only lasted four years instead of five or six ? Certainly
not. And then came the question, what do your horses stand
upon ? He was now addressing the members of that club.
If horses stood upon earth the feet would be more elastic, they
would be much easier to shoe, they would not then see any of
the sand-cracks and contracted hoofs which appeared in horses
now, and therefore he said that this was asnbiect which required
their careful attention. But he was told that this earth
system would fail, for how could they keep up the supply of
earth P He answered, " Many people would be glad to bring
you plenty of it for the manure." For the purpose lie had
mentioned they must have the earth screened and dry, neitlier
sand nor clay, but approaching both, and if it was properly
rammed down in the stable it would remain for a long time,
sooking up that which was now so injurious and offensive, and
when the old earth was worn out they could take it up and
replace it with new. He would guarantee that would make a
change, and those gentlemen who were in the habit of keeping
hunters or racehorses, whether in the stable or the loose box,
would find that their horses would have much better feet in
standing upon earth instead of stones. He had seen some of
the best constructed stables in the kingdom, and he might say
that they were very bad when compared with the earth ones
he had alluded to.
Mr. Carey said Mr. Blundell had alluded to the earth
stables, and he wished to know whether he would have them
littered down with straw, or whether the horses should lie on
the bare earth.
Mr. Blundell replied that he would put straw on the
earth, and to cab and omnibus proprietors this would be of im-
mense importance, as he would guarantee that they saved one-
third of their straw. Mr. Barford had alluded to the fact that
the Government should have some control in this matter, and
especially in furnishing a stallion for breeding purposes, parti-
cularly for cavalry horses. What he (Mr. Blundell) wanted
was to impress upon them that the large landed proprietors
should f'urnisli one, so that their tenants might use him, which
would result in benefit to both, while he maintained that horses
should always be bred for weight and good size, so that two
might be fit for the plough.
Mr. W. C. Spooner said if the same principle adopted in
the breeding of sheep — which had kept them up equal to the
demand at the present time, the increase in the population
being considered — had been followed with regard to horses, they
would not have had to regret the great scarcity tliere was at the
present time. There were various causes to which they might
ascribe this scarcity of horses, with the exception of one class,
and that was in steeplechase horses. They knew that in that
class they were mostly thoroughbreds, while there were
scarcely any for agricultural purposes. The people who got
up these steeplechases were those who had horses not good
enough to win on the flat, and, though useless for most pur-
poses, they were faster than ordinary hunters, and thus the
supply was kept up, although they might manage to break the
back or leg of one at each steeplechase that came off. Those
persons were so exceedingly skilful that they had arrogated to
themselves a knowledge of the principles which ought to regu-
late all breeding of horses, and the very causes which Had
tended to diminish the supply of other classes of horses had
tended in a great measure to keep up the supply of steeple-
chase horses. He was conversing with an agricultural friend
last week, and he was complaining of the price of horses. He
said he liad just given £70 for a cart colt which he considered
was a heavy price, but this would tend to show how dear and
scarce they were. The cause of this scarcity was to be ascribed
to various causes. The railways displaced a great number of
harness and other horses, but they had actually increased the
demand for those suited for agricultural purposes. The num-
t)er of horses employed at the different railway stations was some-
thing very considerable indeed, and they took the best animals,
giving a high price for them, which tended to enhance the
price of horses very much indeed. That had led to a scarcity, as
the demand had been more than the supply. And then another
thing was they made no efforts to meet the probability of a
scarcity, but waited until it came before they commenced to
move in the matter. They did not do this in India with refer-
ence to the famine, but took steps so as to be ready when it came.
They had not looked a-head in the matter of breeding horses,
and the steps now taken would increase the supply in four or
five years, and unless the demand was decreased from what it
was at the present the increase would not be in the same ratio.
Every agriculturist who had a farm should experimentalise in
the matter of breeding cart horses, and he could do so with
a profit, while he maintained they could do so quite as cheaply
where there were no pastures. To the plan adopted in Corn-
wall he could bear his testimony, because it was only last year
that he officiated as judge there, and when they had the prize
horses brought out the two to which Mr. Barford had called
their attention was placed before them. Of course they knew
nothing about his history until afterwards, but they decided
unanimously that they were in duty bound to pronounce him to
be the best animal. They found out afterwards that two clubs
I'HE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
363
had made a little bet among themselves as to wliich should pro-
duce the best horse. They went to Scotland in February, to
the show held there, and each bought a prize animal which
fetched £300, and they could not get them for less because
there were plenty of people who were ready to purchase him
at that sum. This horse had action, and was young and sound.
He was as active as they could wish for, with good limbs,
strong back, and good shoulders, and about sixteen liauds, but
when the horse competed at Plymouth he was beaten by one
shown by Lord Ashburton. If a company such as Mr.
Barford had suggested were got up he should be pleased to
take some shares in it, as there need be no loss. They could
insure the life of the animal, and he should be content
to leave the matter in the hands of one or two farmers who
were eK|)erienced in it. He thought this should be done,
otherwise they would have to avail themselves of horses of an
inferior kind. They might get animals very useful in their
teams, and worth perhaps £70 or £80, but they could not
expect these horses to be so good as those worth £300, and
this could not be done unless they got a superior kind of horse
in the district. Everyone of them farmed a certain number
of acres of land, and should avail themselves of such a horse,
as they would benefit by it. And for this reason — they would
not be cheated out of their money by trusting men who could
not be trusted, and who got a great deal out of the horse with
which they travelled. That kind of horse more scarce than
any other was what he might call the useful kind for various
purposes — the saddle horse, the carriage horse, the cavalry
horse, and the omnibus horse — all these might be produced
with the same result as in otlier counties. It appealed, ac-
cording to the evidence of the Secretary to the General
Omnibus Company in London, that 90 per cent, of their
horses in 1873 were foreign ones. These were mostly bred in
Prance, and of the worst breed. They trotted away very well for
the first two miles,and after they had done six they had enough
of it. It was only a fortnight since that a half-dozen French
horses were put up for sale at a place because the owner was
disgusted with them. He was sorry to say he found many
people were breeding from these mares, and they could not do
a more retrograde thing, (or they were not only faint-hearted
but defective in their hind-quarters. He liked to see them
active. He had two of these French horses, and they were
useful on a farm, but this was all he could say of them. They
were very inferior to English horses. When he was at school
he read of tiie fable of the mountain and the labours of tlie
mouse which crept out. It reminded him of that fable when
he saw the ponderous mass of evidence as to the scarcity of
horses which had been given before the committee of the
■ House of Lords. The evidence was interesting in some in-
stances, but there were many facts they knew before. He did
not find fault with the evidence given, but there was nothing
more than a mouse creeping out of it, for after having heard
all the evidence and studied the same it resulted in nothing at
all. Perhaps they might be able to show the number of cab-
horses required if a war took place. No doubt it would be
difficult to get them, but at present the committee recom-
mended them to do nothing at all. They might have made a
suggestion that the Government should lend their assistance,
which might be very true and very right, but they recom-
mended nothing at all. They left it to private enterprise when
it had been shown clearly that it had failed, and that it must
inevitably fail ; still their advice was to do nothing at all.
When the subject was first brought forward. Lord Granville
spoke very jauntily, and everything should be as it was — there
was a scarcity, but everything would be right. The system
adopted was perfectly right. He appeared to recommend no-
thing but thoroughbred horses in the plough, but he did not
say how they should get them to work in it. He did not say
that their skin was tender, that they could not bear the pres-
sure of the collar, and yet these were the sort of horses his
lordship recommended they should have. And he was not
alone. He (Mr. Spooner) had a long argument in a railway
train with a breeder of thoroughbred horses, and he main-
tained they were the best horses for all purposes. He could not
say these were his (Mr. Spoouer's) views. If they wanted a load
pulled about they would not get a thoroughbred horse to do it.
All he coiild infer was that he was a very sensible
and shrewd man, but he was mad on one point. He
found there were many men like this. He remembered
that once a gentleman went to a lunatic asylum, and
he was sliowed round by a man who paid jiarlicular
attention to him, and seemed a perfectly sensible man while he
was with liim. When he had finished the gentleman said to
the principal, " I don't understand what capacity that man fills
Jiere," and he replied, " He is one of our patients." He added,
" He is very good indeed, now, but you step back and ask him
what he had for his dinner." The gentleman stepped back,
and said, " I forgot to ask you whether you dined to-day.
What did you have for dinner ?" and the man said, " Horse
nails ; nothing but horse nails." He was a sensible man on
all points but his horse nails. And so it was with some noble-
men. They were very sensible men, and looked upon the diffi-
culty as one to be overcome, but yet they were mad upon the
subject of thoroughbred horses. 15ut it seemed that no credit
could be giveu to men unless they came out of a racing stable.
However, there were some sensible witnesses, and one who re-
sided in that county. Mr. East, he thought, was asked to ex-
plain the scarcity of horses, and he ascribed the main reason to
the foreigners buving up our mares. No doubt that was true
to a great extent, but the Government ought to have prevented
it. People who were interested should have outbid the
foreigner. And he meant to say there was a greater reason
for the scarcity of horses, and it was that the breeds had been
crossed out. They had departed. Every generation they be-
came " small by degrees, and beautifully less." He recollected
some thirty-five years ago, when he was living in Dorset, being
in the Yeomanry Cavalry there. His sergeant had a particu-
larly'fine mare ;' she]was not only a good cavalry mount, but also
a capital hunter! She carried him thoroughly well, and was quite
equal to more than the weight she carried. Two or three years
ago he happened to meet the sergeant's friend, and he asked
him what had become of the old mare. He was told by him
that they had kept on breeding until she could scarcely carry
a man's boots. That mare was equal to sixteen, seventeen, or
even eighteen stone, and her stock at one time was worth £100
each, and when horses were much cheaper than they were now.
And when people asked what had become of the useful-bred
horses, he replied, "They have been crossed out and gradually
disappeared." At one time there were no improved Hampshire
sheep, but when people once got them they did not go on
crossing until they had no such sheep left. He had seen
horses worth £600 or £700, but they had not been allowed to
propagate their species, for tlie moment they got a good animal
they must begin again, and so go on perpetually. That was
the system which had been adopted. There were certain men
who were successful in hoodwinking different societies. He
recollected at an agricultural show a judge was asked to give
an account of it. He did so, and found a great fault — that
there was a disposition to too light breeding, recommending
that they should have half-bred stallions for well-bred mare s.
Some time after that he happened to be in a train, and over-
heard a conversation between two persons connected with the
Royal Agricultural Society. One said, " We will take good
care he shall not be judge anymore." That system he deemed
exeeedingly unwise, for when they got good advice they should
take it, and he (Mr. Spooner) was against this light breeding.
He had been judge at many agricultural shows, and he always gave
the preference to weight-carrying horses. He considered when
the breed was good enough tlien weight-carrying should be con-
sidered, but for doing this he was not approved by those who
held such views as that no other but a thoroughbred stallion
should be used. Instead of improving the breed of useful
horses they had gone back of late years, but there was no
reason wliy this should continue. He thought the Govern-
ment should step in, as they had been successful in many
undertakings. In none more so than the Post-office. And
then there was the telegraph. He admitted there was a
certain amount of monopoly in the Government having these
things, but they could make money out of that which in
private hands was unprofitable. At present what inducement
was there to breed horses ? The Government should step in,
and sliould breed stud horses and stud mares, to be distributed
throughout the country, which would be beneficial. Some
time ago a Government establishment for thoroughbred horses
did a deal of good. Then the Hampton Court stud was
established, but what good did it do ? It was unprofitable,
and very expensive, and tlie horses were nothing like so good
as those produced by Mr. BlenKiron and others. The money
given in Queen's Plates and the Hampton Court stud should
be devoted to a free stud, from which they could supply the
cavalry, and also get a good type of harness horse. He liad
been unfortunately led into this subject at length because on
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THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
many occasions he had acted as judge at various shows. He
was convinced tliat one of the fertile causes of the scarcity of
useful horses was because they had been crossed out — they
had disappeared through the ill-advised doctrine of some
people who professed to know all about the matter, and had
discarded those who had brought practice and science to bear
on it.
The CuAlRMAJf said the subject was one which calledifor
their serious consideration, and with regard to the stud for
the supply of cavalry horses that was a national question, and
one which the Government should take up. From what Mr.
Church said in his evidence before the Committee of the
House of Lords it appeared that in 1872 90 per cent, of the
horses were imported from France, and which showed, sup-
posing they were at war with a foreign power, what a state
they would be in. He thought gentlemen should read the
speech made by the Minister of Germany, in which he set
forth the necessity of keeping up the supply of horses. This
showed the state of feeling in foreign countries, and what
might come eventually, and therefore when this was the case
he contended it was the more incumbent on the part of our
Government to take the matter up. With regard to agri-
cultural horses it was a question whether it would pay to
breed them. He thought both Mr. Spooner and Mr. Barfard
were rather under the mark in comparing the rearing of a
cart colt with the feeding of a bullock. He assumed from
that that they would be able to get rid of the bullocks at two
years old, but even if they could sell a cart colt for £45 at
two years old it would pay. He recollected not many years ago
when a cart colt which was now worth £40 could be bought
for £22 or £23, but he did not think this was a thing likely
to occur again, at least, not for some time to come, and he
therefore thought some of them might go on breeding cart
horses, and more particularly if they could purchase a horse
which would be considered good enough. He should be
happy to join with any other gentlemen in taking shares so
that they might have one or two good horses in the neigh-
bourhood, as he considered it would be very beneficial for all
of them.
Mr. Barforb, in reply, said he thought, in the purchase of
a stallion, the Clydesdale horse was preferable to all others.
It miglit be thought not quite large enough, but he could tell
them it was impossible to judge as to the probable size of the
progeny of stallions. He had seen horses 16 and 17 hands
high the produce of animals not above 15 hands. But still he
attached some importance to size, as would be seen by his
paper, but at the same time they must have strength for work.
That was the reason why he recommended the Clydesdale
horse. The cart horse was called upon to go at one pace —
walking — and he thought it was of importance that they
should have a good, fast walker. He believed there was no
breed in England, Ireland, or Scotland which could come up
to the Clydesdale in this respect. He thoi"Ki;tt acknowledged the great usefulness of such an
address as they had that afternoon heard, and said that much
useful knowledge aud valuable hints had been imparted. He felt
that in listening to Mr. Outhwaite he had been silting at the
feet of a Gamaliel for information, and he had obtaiued know-
ledge on the subject wliicli would be useful.
Mr. 1Iakla:nu quite agreed witli iMr. Outhwaite that, in-
stead of Clinging to any particular tribe, Cfreat benefit would
be derived from a judious mixing of "ijlood, and selecting the
best possible animals for breeding of whatever kind. The early
Sliorthorn breeders were guided by their skill and judguient,
and chose au auiinal by its eye, aud did not care particularly
as to pedigree. For his own part, he must say that lie was
rather partial to the Warlaby herd.
Mr. ScuTT, the Vice-Chuirinan, s;iid tlial, although Mr.
Outhwaite had only exhibited prize animals during the past
few years, he knew from his own experience, as a pupil with
Mr. Outhwaite thirty years ago, thai he had then a very goud
herd of Shorthorn cows, and hence he thought that Mr.
Outhwaite's successful career had not been quite so rapid as
some supposed. Agriculturists were very much indebted to
those breeders— whether of Shorthorns, Leicesters or other
breed", for wliieli Yorkshire was lo justly eelebiated — who
produced pure-bred animals, (or most farmers nearly always
iiad cross-breds on their premises. One thing lie regretted
was the deterioration iu quality of Euglhsh cattle generally.
Thirty years ago they ha 1 far superior animals in all the,
maikets to tiiote, they liad now ; ami lie believed the Iiish had
quite as much improved in their breeding a.s the English had
deteriorated. The iuiprovcmcut in Ireland had beeu cU'ected
at very great expense, for the Iiish lauded proprietors had
390
THE FARMER'S' MAGAZINE.
bought high-class bulls— the Kiilerby, Warlaby, and other
famous Jierds.
The Chairman said that Mr. Outhwaite must have displayed
sound judgment in the selection of animals for breeding pur-
poses, seeing that he had achieved his present enviable position
with his uurivalled array of stock. lie was glad to hear that
Royal Windsor had proved so prolific an animal for breeding
purposes ; and, as regarded over-feeding, which Mr. Outh-
waite liad touched upon, he said he was often blamed for not
more strongly deprecating over-feeding at the meetings of the
Yorkshire and lloyal Societies, lie confessed be regarded
over-feeding as a great fault. As to the alleged deterioration
of English stock, lie said he could hardly endorse that re-
mark, though he was willing to acknowledge that there was a
great improvement of Irish stock, which was no doubt attri-
butable to the importation of the best blood from England.
One great fault of Shorthorn feeding had been that they had
looked too much to beef and too little to milk, lie had been
grieved to see a Shorthorn heifer unable to bring up her calf,
and to require an inferior animal to be used. Bates and other
breeders used to boast about the milk as well as beef-pro-
ducing qualities of their animals, but this was not so now.
The mania of giving extravagant prices for animals merely
because they contained certain strains of blood seemed to him
absurd. What the farmer now wanted was the class of stock
fit to bring into the market as early as possible, and which
would bring the greatest profit. What was wanted was to
produce two-year-old bullocks as prime as they formerly were
at four years.
The Rev. C. H. Sale regretted that English cattle were not
so good as they ought to be. He had seen beasts which were
a disgrace to the stock-breeding of the country. Undoubtedly,
there was a large number of poorly-fed and ill-looking animals
to be witnessed on every hand, and he argued that a poor
breed of cattle must be a lobS to the country at large. He
saw no reason why there should not be a better prevailing
class of cattle in all the rural districts. The question was a
vital and important one, and concerned the welfare of the
community.
Mr. Harland said that whilst he clung to the Warlaby
blood, yet he thought a dash of the best Duchess blood was
often advantageous for the production of good Shorthorns,
• and he thus far agreed with Mr. Outhwaite as to the benefit
of crossing. Whoever would breed Shorthorns must have
taste as well as sound judgment, and follow in the footsteps
of the great pioneers who lived before us. They valued pedi-
gree only when attached to a good animal, and rejected a bad
animal, whatever the length of pedigree. It was the good taste
of Mrs. CUarles Colling which caused that lady to say to her
husband, " Well, Charles if you will not buy the cow, I will ;"
and, suiting the action to the word, went back to Eryholine,
and bought the grandam of Comet from Mr. Maynard. So
with Mr Bates, who saw the rolling eye of Belvedere as he
passed the feeding-box, and at once parchased that impressive
sire of INIr. Stephenson ; and that same good taste has brought
the Warlaby and other herds to so great perfection that it is
now comparatively easy to breed good Shorthorns. It has
been said that Shorthorns are not good dairy cows, but that
depends very much on their early treatment. Rear them as
ordinary cattle, on natural food, and they are profitable for
liie dairy ; but if young animals are over-fed or forced for siiow,
tiie milking properties are injured by the development of the
ilesh-forraing propensities. Shorthorns, to be profitable, should
only be artificially fatted once, namely, when thry are intended
for the butcher
Mr. T. P. Outhwaite referreed to the serious loss of
cattle, amounting to 360,000, wliicii was caused by the cattle-
plague in 1866 and the following year, which was one great
cause of the breed of cattle having suffered during recent
years.
The CiiAiKMAX expreesed tlie thanks of the Society to Mr.
Outhwaite for his address.
Mr. Parrington said there was no doubt the breed of ani-
mals in this country had fallen off, in proof of which he
referred to the exhibition of cattle at fairs now and in former
years. A farmer from Lincolnshire used to buy sixty bullocks,
in grazing condition, all roans, in the Darlington market;
now, such a thing was impossible. At Yarm fair it was
customary to see two dozen animals, four years old, weighing
90 stone each ; now, there were none. Is'o doubt the cattle-
plague was one cause of this, and another cause was the great
increase of population in the North of England. Middles,
brough had sprung up into existence, and the populations of
the llirtlepools and Stockton had more than quadrupled, and
for the supply of these towns a great deal of milk was required.
In consequence of this, farmers got rid of their calves as soou
as possible, and this was another reason wiiy tlie breed had
fallen off.
NOTTINGHAMSHIRE CHAMBER OF AGRICUL-
TURE. — At the quarterly meeting the following resolu-
tions were passed : " That this chamber is of opinion
that the Privy Council should be requested, in consequence of
the prevalence of the foot-and-mouth disease throughout the
country, to invest the local authorities with the same powers
for repression of that disease which they possessed previous to
the revocation of the order of August, 1873." " That the at-
tention of the Privy Council be called to the importation of
the disease from foreign countries and from Ireland." " That
it is .highly important that a Minister of Agriculture be
appointed."
DEVONSHIRE CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE.—
At the quarterly meeting of the Devonshire Chamber of Agri-
culture, a letter was read from Sir Stafford North-
cote, the president, declining the post of delegate to the Central
Chamber, as it would be an incongruity that it should be filled
by one holding the office of Chancellor of the Exchequer. A
long discussion followed on the subject of highway legislation,
when Sir T. D. Acland, M. P., moved the following resolutions,
which were carried : " Tliat is is expedient that the expense
of the principal improvements of main roads in highway dis-
tricts should be defrayed from a common fund, or at any rate
from a fund raised by more than one parish." " That the
whole expense of permanent improvements should not be
thrown solely on the occupier."
THE LANCASHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES.
— Arrangements have been nearly completed for the amalga-
mation of the Manchester and Liverpool and the Royal Noith
Lancashire Agricultural Societies. At a joint meeting of the
committees of the two Societies held in Liverpool, a resolution
to that effect was passed, and the principal conditions agreed
to. A report on the subject has been submitted to the mem-
bers of the Royal North Lancashire Society, and was adopted
with only one dissentient. The district of the amalgamated
society will extend to all Lancashire, not embraced in the
circle of thirty-five miles from Warrington, and the new por-
tion will constitute the fifth division or sub-district. In future
the annual exhibition will be held in rotation in each of the
five divisions of the society's district. The amalgamation has
resulted in the abandonment of the show of the North Lanca-
shire Society which liad been agreed to be held at Burnley
during the present year.
YORKSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. — At the
quarterly meeting of the Council, held at York, Lord
Auckland, president, in the chair, M'-. Fairluy, the Society's
analytical chemist, reported that during the quarter he
had made the following analyses : Linseerl cakes 2, palm-nut
meal 1, guanos 4, phosphates 11, nitrate 1, waters 3 — total 22.
One of the linseed cakes was tolerably good ; one other sold as
" pure linseed cake" was very impure, containing much rape,
dodter, and starchy matter. Of tlie guanos, three were equal
to the value at which they were sold ; one was inferior. The
phosphates were generally good, two were under tiicir quoted
value. The thanks of the Council were voted to Colonel
Gunter for a complete set of The Shorthorn Herd Book.
Mr. Jacob Smith, of Humbarton, was elected on the Council
in the place of Mr. Johnson, deceased.
REORGANISATION OF KIRBYMOORSIDE MAR-
KETS.— Consequent upon the efforts of a committee acting
upon the result of the opening of the railway to Kirby, the
market has been commenced, and henceforward will be held
weekly for produce and fortnightly for cattle. The cattle,
sheep, and pigs, were penned in the market, and a rapid sale
ensued. The corn and seed trades, and manures, &e., had all
their representatives from Malton, York, Whitby, and Picker-
ing, &c.
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
391
THE ORGANIC MATTERS LOST FROM AND RESTORED TO, THE SOIL.
By CuTHBERT W. Johnson, F.R.S.
The question upon which I propose to dwell iu this
paper is not what is removed from the soil by the crops
it supports, but the loss wliich our island sustains by
drainage into the sea, and what the ocean and its tribu-
taries restore to us. Some years liave now elapsed since
Professor Way investigated the composition of the water
flowing from our land-drains {Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc, vol.
xvii., p. 123), and more recently Messrs. Lawes and
Gilbert have examined the composition of the water
flowing from soils long dressed with different fertilizers
(ibid, vol. ix. N.S., p. 275, ). The Professor examined
e'ght specimens of land-water obtained from the farm of
Mr. Paine, of Farnham. In an imperial gallon he found
the following amount of organic matter, nitric acid, and
ammonia :
Number.
Soluble
Organic Matter.
Nitric Acid.
Ammonia.
1
7-00
7-f7
0018
2
7-40
14-74
0018
3
12-50
13-72
0-018
4,
5-60
1-95
0 013
5
5-70
3-45
0018
6
5-80
805
0-018
7
7-40
11-45
0-006
8
not determined
3-^1
0-018
Now, although this may, as the Professor remarked, of
the organic matter, be in some cases very considerable, yet
it must be mentioned " that this organic matter does not
contain any, or at most very little, nitrogen — a fact which
I carefully ascertained in one or t\v(j instances. It is
therefore of the carbonaceous nature, that is to say,
resembles woody fibre and gum, or humus in a soluble
condition. And although it is pro tanto a loss to the soil,
its importance is not very great. I am inclined to think,
too, that it is in great part derived from the roots of furze,
wood, or grass, which must have been in the soil in large
quantities when the ground was first drained and broken
up ; and this idea, which is shared by Mr. Paine, from
his knowledge of the nature of the soil, is further cor-
roborated by the fact that the largest quantity (12^ grains
per gallon) is found in No. 3, the history of which land
is tolerably evident from the name, ' Furze-field,' which
it bears." We must remember, however, that the amount
of water draining from every acre of the land of our
island varies in amount from about 1,300 to 4,500 tons
annually, and that thus is withdrawn from say 40,000,000
acres of our cultivated lands an enormous amount of
these soluble carbonaceous and other fertilizing matters.
That the composition of the water of drains placed in
land manured with different fertilizers varies in composi-
tion is a reasonable conclusion verified by the researches
of Professors Voelcker and Frankland, upon the drainage
waters of Rothamsted {Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc, vol. ix.N.S.,
p. 333). These are thus described by ilessrs. Lawes and
Gilbert in their valuable paper : " Being fully occupied at
the time with other subjects, and finding that Dr.
Voelcker was desirous to investigate the question of land
drainage, we gladly provided him with samples of the
drainage-water from the differently-manured plots in the
experimental wheat-field, and also with full particulars
of their history for the purposes of inquiry. In the
' Journal of the Chemical Society of London' (vol. ix. S.S.,
p. 291, 1871), Dr. Voelcker has published the results of
the complete analysis of seventy samples of drainage-
water of accurately known history so collected. Those
results are a most valuable contribution to our knowledge
of the subject, not only in its agricultural bearings, but
also in relation to the question of the influence of the
sources of potable and other waters upon their composi-
tion and quality. For the details we must refer the reader
to Dr. Voelcker's own paper ; but the following table
gives a summary of the results so far as they relate to the
loss by drainage of the nitrogen supplied to the soil by
manure ;
Composition of Drainage-Watee from Plots differently Manured. — Broadbalk Field, Rothamsteo
Wheat every Year, commencing 1844.
Nitrogen as Nitrates and Nitrites, per 100,000 parts of Water. Dr. Voelckj:r's Eesults.
Manures per Acre, per Annum.
14 Tons
Farmyard
Manure
every
Year.
Plot 3.
Without
Manure
every
Year.
Plots 3, 4.
Sulphate of Potass, Soda, and Magnesia and
Superphosphate of Lime.
Dates of Collection, &o.
Without
Nitrogen
iu Manure
since
1851.
Plot 5.
And 411bs.
Nitrogen
as
Ammonia-
salts.
Plot 6.
And 821bs.
Nitrogen
as
Ammonia.
salts.
Plot 7.
And 1231bs.
Nitrogen
as
Ammonia-
salts.
Plot 8.
And 821bs.
Nitrogen
as
Nitrate
Soda
Plot 9.
Dec C 1860 full flow
1-956
i-'256
0-648
0-052
0-667
0-085
0-500
0-878
0-059
0936
0137
0-530
1-330
0-089
1-704
0-189
0-952
2-170
0.078
2-811
0-448
1-493
2-567
0-274
3-104
0-578
1-874
0-707
Mav'21 'l867 full flow
0-785
Jan 13 1868 full flow
1-196
Apr' 21' 1868 full flow
5-830
Dec 39 1868 enormous flow
0-659
Means ,
1-606
0-390
0-506
0-853
1-400
1-679
1-835
c c
392
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
Professor Frajjkland's Results.
2.593
0.932
0.084
0.083
1.312
0.031
0
0.366
0.057
0.131
1.418
0.071
0
0.360
0.157
0.088
2.777
0.051
0
1.354
0.454
0.122
4.744.
0.059
0
7.841
0.094
2 311
May 18, 187i2, moderate flow
June 11, 1872, small flow
1.647
Oct. 26, ISTC, moderate flow
2 303 1 sr>s
0.975
Jan. 19, 1873, moderate flow
1.294
0.461
1.522
0.441
Teb. 26, 1873, small flow
0 264
Means
0.932
0.316
0.349
0.793
1.477
1.951
1 039
The reader will remark how very nearly these results
show that the amount of nitrogen in these waters increase
with the quantity of ammonia applied. Thus in Pro-
fessor Frakland's results the water from 100 parts
contained of nitrogen :
Land unman ured 0.316 parts
„ with manure containing 41 parts of ■) ^j r»qQ
nitrogen as ammonia-salts ) ' "
„ with 83 parts of the same 1.477 „
„ with 133 parts of the same 1.951 „
Such is a general view of the extent of the most valii-
ahle of our fertilisers, constantly drainiug from the soil
into our rivers, and thence into the sea. Then there is
another great source of impoverishment of our soils — the
drainage of our houses. Here we encounter an enormous
outflow of rich organic matters, which is to a great extent
a needless waste. I need hardly do more than refer to
the sewage of our populous places, such as that of the
3,000,000 inhahitants of the metropolis — of that of our
other large cities, such as Glasgow, Liverpool, Manches-
ter, &c., and of many other minor places, by whose sewage
great streams of rich liquid manure are continually flowing
towards the sea.
Having thus glanced at the constant drainage of the
richest fertilizing matters from the soil, the next question
is the amount of enriching substances which our soil
receives, either from the atmosphere or from the sea.
From the rain, and the suow, and the dew the soil con-
tinually receives small amounts of nitric acid and
ammonia The extent of these was some time since also
ascertained by Professor Way (Hid., vol. ix. p. 114). He
found that the rain-water which fell on an acre of land at
Rothamsted in Hertfordshire, as it varied in bulk, also
differed during different months in the quantity of
ammonia and nitric acid which it contained. The sub-
joined tables gives the number of gallons of rain-water
per acre which fell in each month of the year 1858, and
the grains of nitric acid and ammonia, and also the total
amount of nitrogen in these :
January ...
February...
March
April
May..,.'
Jane
July
August . . .
September
October ...
November
December
Rain.
13.523
22.473
52.484
9.281
52-575
41.295
157.713
59.632
34.875
124.466
35.950
39.075
Total in lbs. whole year
Nitric
Acid.
230
944
1102
325
1840
3303
2680
3577
733
4480
1007
664
2.98
Ammonia Nitrogen.
1244
2337
4513
1141
4306
5574
9G30
47G9
3313
7592
3021
2438
7.11
1084
2169
3995
1024
3939
5447
8615
4870
2917
7414
2749
2180
6.63
From these results we learn, as the Professor remarked,
that the total quantity of nitrogen contained iu.a vear's
rain does not exceed 6| lbs. 'This quantity is equal to
8 lbs. of ammonia, and would be furnished by 85i lbs. of
sulphate of ammonia, or 4? lbs. of guano. We can hardly,
therefore, with these facts before us, continue to believe
ttat tie raia hjing^ dgwa nitrogea §u9ugh to account for
a normal or natural fertility, or the growth of 14 to 17
bushels of wheat from year to year.
We hardly, however, are yet sufficiently aware of the
power of the growing plant to avail itself of the ammonia
contained in the atmosphere, to estimate the real value of
the supply. The plant, we must remember, does not only
derive its ammonia from the rain-water — the same alkali
is found not only in rain, but in the water of fog, and of
dew, and of melted snow. In a gallon of snow-water,
Boussingault found 0.080 grains of ammonia, in dew-
water 0.714 to 0.4340 grains, and in fog-water at Lieb-
fraueuberg 0.1790 grains, and at Paris 9.600 grains.
Now, as these waters are all the products of the in-
sensible moisture of the atmosphere, we can hardly yet
place a limit to the extent to which a plant can absorb
the ammonia existing in that ever-present aqueous vapour.
Next, let us briefly examine the returns in the shape
of organic matters that our island receives from the sea.
First, then, as to fish. Few of my readers will be pre-
pared to hear that our trawlers employ a fleet of nearly a
thousand vessels, aud upon an average furnish us with
about 300 tons of fish daily ; and yet such is the
fact. Her Majesty's Commissioners, appointed to inquire
into our sea-tisheries, in their report (vol. i., p. 18)
observe : " Not fewer than 955 sail of trawlers of between
40 and GO tons are employed in the North Sea, the
Channel, and St. George's Channel. These vessels are
manned by at least 5,000 souls. They represent a capital, at
the very lowest estimate, of £1,000,000, and they supply
the mtoket daily with, probably, not less than 300 tons
of fish."
Such are the enormous contributions of the trawl
fishermen. Then we must not forget the immense
amount of fish drawn from the sea by the Seine and other
net fishermen, in herrings, mackerel, cod, oysters, shrimps,
and other fish.
And when we have enumerated the chief fish supplies,
then we must add the sea-weeds, another enormous con-
tribution from the sea to our soils. The amount of this
is very large on all sides of our island, especially on our
western shores. In no district have I seen these weeds
so large in size and amount, and so carefully gathered^ as
on the shores of Devon and Cornwall.
Next let us inquire as to the vast weight of organic
matters that is wafted ove>- the sea and landed on our
shores, matters which tend in some form or other to en-
rich our soils. From an official report then, we find
the following amongst those articles imported into our
country in 1872 :
Oxen, bulls, cows, and calves No. 172,993
Sheep and lambs , 809,822
Bacon and liams cwts. 2,001,855
Beef „ 228,?12
Bones, except whalefins tons 111,692
Bristles lbs. 3,068,095
Butter cwts. 1,138,081
Candles, stearins „ 106,270
Caoutchouc 157.114
Cheese 1,057,883
Cocoa lbs. 15,044,134
Coffee ,„■„>,..„.,........„.. » 166,269,052
THE FAHMEIl'S MAGAZINE.
893
Corn:
Wheat cwts, 43,127,726
Barley „ 15,046,566
Oats „ 11,537,325
Maize „ 24.,533,670
Olherkinds „ 4,531,011
Flourofwheat „ 4,388,136
Other kinds „ 42,800
Total of corn ,,103,196,934
Cotton, raw „ 13,578,906
Eggs No. 531,591,730
Fish cwts. 671,192
Flax and Hemp :
Flax, dressed and uudressed „ 1,695,644
Tow or cedilla of flax and hemp „ 380,243
Hemp and otiier like suhstauces (except
dressed and undressed) cwts. 1,115,946
Jute „ 4,041,018
Fruits :
Currants „ 1,138,853
Raisins „ 617,418
Oranges and lemons bush. 3,385,160
Guano tons 118,704
Gutta percha cwts. 41,597
Hair :
Goats' hair or wool lbs. 6,404,490
Hidss, tanned and nutanued cwts. 1,679,108
Hops „ 135,965
Lard „ 579,056
Leather gloves pairs 13,633,604
Oil:
Fish tuns 18,719
Palm cwts. 1,006,497
Cocoa nut „ 433,883
Olive tuns 24,025
Seed „ 30,084
Oil-seedcake tons 134,300
Paper for printing or writiug cwts. 205,510
Petroleum :
Unrefined galls. 729,036
Refined „ 5,670,674
Pork cwts. 218,260
Potatoes „ 5,987,429
Rags tons 23,254
Esparto grass and other materials 115,157
Rice :
Not in the husk cwts. 7,033,361
In the husk qrs. 37,447
Saltpetre cwts. 307,034
Cubic nitre „ 1,594,197
Seeds :
Clover and grass „ 290,849
Cotton tons 167,904
Flax and linseed qrs. 1,514,947
Rape „ 246,549
Silk:
Knubs or husks and waste cwts. 33,866
Raw lbs. 7,303,083
Thrown „ 63,001
Skins :
Sheep and lamb, undressed No. 8,219,014
Tanned, tawed, or dressed „ 2,824,072
Seal, in the hair, undressed „ 657,697
Goat, undressed „ 1,132,054
Tanned, tawed, or dressed „ 4,605,206
Spices :
Cinnamon lbs. 1,073,080
Pepper „ 27,576,710
Of all other sorts „ 13,064,519
Sugar :
Refined and sugar candy cwts. 1,739,303
Raw „ 13,770,696
Molasses 690,615
Tallow and stearine ,, l,328,44i
Tea lbs. 184,937,148
Teeth, elephants', sea-cow, and sea-horsecvyts. 11,339
"Wood and timber :
Hewn loads 1,789,576
Sawn or split „ 3,093,933
Staves „ 66,377
Mahogany tons 33,920
Wool : Sheep, lamb, alpacca, and the llama
tribe lbs. 306,379,664
Woollen rags tons 29,302
Woollen and worsted yarn :
Berlin wool and yarn used for fancy pur-
poses lbs. 433,563
Yarn for weaving , 11,706,437
Yeast, dried cwts. 140,191
To these immense direct contribntions of fertilising
matters from the atmosphere, the sea, and by foreign
countries, to our soils, we have yet to add another still
more enormous indirect addition to our land in the car-
bonic acid gas of our atmosphere, which is constantly
absorbed and decomposed by almost every leaf that adorns
and enriches our laud — its carbon assimilated, its oxygen
evolved for the use of animal life.
In considering these facts, which are of necessity very
imperfectly given, we can hardly fail to remark how very
largely the etibrts of man to fertilize his exhausted soils
are supplemented by the arrangement of creative Wisdom
— marvellous provisions, which, although they have
quietly been operating ever since the creation of the
world, we have only in modern days begun to estimate the
grandeur and importance.
TENANT-RIGHT AND THE COUNTY MEMBERS.—
At a general meeting of the members of the StafTordshire
Chamber of Agriculture, Mr. Carrington Sjitth, the chair-
man, said not one of the six members for the county of Staf-
ford had thought fit to make any public declaration to his
constituents as to the necessity for legislation on this subject.
The conclusion to be drawn from that was, either the Stafford-
shire Chamber of Agriculture did not represent the feelings
of the owners and occupiers of land in the county, or those
members did not represent the agricultural interest of the
county. Perhaps some blame was to be attached to the mem-
bers of the Chamber. The Chamber was of very little im-
portance, or else they had not gone the right way to bring
their views before the Parlianentary representatives. The hon.
and learned member for West Staffordshire had stated, as an
objection to legislation on the subject, that it was impossible
for the House of Commons to say what was, or wliat was not,
unexhausted improvements. To his (the speaker's) mind, tlie
words " unexhausted improvements " conveyed their meaning
as clearly as they well could. If Parliament would only say
there was such a tiling as unexliausted improvement, it would
be easy for meu acquainted with their business to say wliether
it existed in a particular case. If the members of that Cham-
ber desired to have that voice in the legislation of the country
to which they were entitled, it was necessary for eacli of them
to use his best exertions in connection with the election of
members for tiie county, in order that the agricultural interest
might be represented in the House. If the hon. member lo
wliom he had alluded did not see fit to acknowledge the reso-
lutions of that Chamber, the support of its members would bo
witlidrawn from him when he came again before tlie con-
stituents. With reference to what Mr. Disraeli had said on
the contemplated Landlord and Tenant Bill, he tliought that
Mr. Disraeli liad got hold of the wrong part of the question
when he held tliat two years' notice to quit would be a solution
of the whole dilllculty respecting unexhausted improvements.
Such arrangement could not, lie thought, be beneficial to
either party, and most certainly could not be iu the interests
of the nation, for it would lead to neglect of cultivation. Of
course, if with this system of two years' notice there were to
be a Tenant-Right, it would alter the question ; hut the system,
unless there was, iu addition, compensation provided by law
for unexhausted improvements, would be of no advantage to
the tenant, and would be, to some extent, a giving up of the
landlord's rijjht, and would be contrary to public policy.
c c 2
394
THE FAEMER'B MAGAZINE.
THE
MANAGEMENT
No. II.
OF SHEEP.
By the Northern Farmer.
The breed, or breeds, if crossing is iateuded, considere d
most suitable for the soil aud situation, as well as the
proposed mode of disposing of the produce having been
decided on, and the sheep purchased, and placed upon the
pastures they are in future to occupy, their owner will
best consult his own interest by studying to preserve his
stock in health aud comfort at all seasons, on no account
letting them lose condition through insufficiency of food, '
or unnecessary exposure to severe storms during wiuter
and spring. Amongst all live-stock loss of condition
invariably means loss of money, as however short the
period during which an auimal has been losing flesh, it
has to be doubled, let the treatment be ever so liberal,
before the lost flesh can be regained. A large number of
animals, as in the case of a flock of sheep, going back at
the same time, as they must necessarily do when under
the same conditions, will thus, if partially neglected for
one month, lose a very considerable sum of money, and
if young stock, growth is checked, and profitable maturity
greatly retarded. With sheep the danger of losing con-
dition is almost greater than with other kinds of stock,
as there seems with them to be a peculiar and almost
irresistible tendency iu some minds to overstock, and
keep the pastures bare, rendering a continuous and plenti-
ful supply of grass m a great measure dependent on the
weather, or other accidental circumstances favourable to
growth. This is at best but short-sighted policy, and
when persisted in for any length of time is the cause of
serious loss, more particularly, and almost unavoidably,
whatever care may be taken, when it is pursued on very
old pasture. Especial caution should be observed not to
crowd such land with sheep, as of all other stock they
are most liable to injury from the rank grass rendered to
them in a measure poisonous by being forced from their
own droppings. While horses and cattle refuse to eat
the rich tufts of grass which surround their own excre-
tions, until mellowed by frost and other atmospheric
changes, sheep seem actually compelled to eat what to
them must be quite as nauseous and disgusting, simply
on account of its being so equally divided, and in such an
extreme state of comminution that they cannot avoid doing
so. Chronic diarrhoea, rotten livers, loss of condition,
and general debility will soon tell in a way not to be mis-
understood, that such a system is bad, and imperatively
requires a remedy. Sheep will bear crowding on young
land, retaining sound health, and moderately good con-
dition, even should the pasture temporarily be eaten very
close indeed, and if a very small allowance of cake is given
every day, will tide over a period of scarcity with but
little trouble or inconvenience either to themselves or
their owner. Old pastures elastic with moss, in which
the cultivated and useful grasses have mostly died out,
and their places taken by those which are innutritions,
and every way inferior, should therefore be put through a
renovating course of husbandry if at all practicable, no
system of management, however enlightened by experience,
being able to do more than partially ameliorate the evils
which arc sure to result when sheep have to be kept con-
tinually on pasturage so thoroughly unsuitable. Almost
the only obstacle to such land being broken up is, the pre-
sence of trees thickly planted, or, if single specimens, each
one covering a large space; but even this can be got over,
as althougii the spreading roots obstruct the plough and
increase the labour and expense of tillage, and under and
amongst the trees, the corn, unless in an exceptionally
favourable year, may lodge and rot, or at best give but a
poor return in grain, yet, as the ploughing and first year's
crop is only a means to an end, the chief object being
altogether ulterior, much annoyance, aud possibly a cer-
tain amount of apparent loss must be put up with for the
time being, so that the desired renovation of the soil and
introduction of new grasses may be successfully accom-
plished. After all, the time required to do the work
thoroughly is not by any means long, as the third year
after the grass has been ploughed down should at farthest
see it again clothed with the coveted emerald hue, and
that of a far more brilliant shade than it previously pos-
sessed. In this case the course would be oats for the
opening crop, the land being deeply ploughed immediately
after its renioval, so that the tough sod, so long inter-
woven with the roots of grass, and possibly couch and
other weeds of a like nature may have time to be well
rotted before it again requires to be worked for the suc-
ceeding crop. For the second year a magnificent crop of
turnips may be expected from land so favourably circum-
stanced for their growth, although mauured only with half-
inch bones, a few hundredweights of superphosphate, and a
sprinkling of guano. Such a crop as may thus be grown
may well afford every alternate drill to be drawn to the
yards for cattle-feeding, while the remainder, eaten on the
land with sheep getting a daily allowance of cake, will not
fail to give a manurial dressing to the entii-e field, sufficient
to force a thick coat of succulent grass of the most nutri-
tious and fattening quality. In the succeeding spring,
grasses and clovers and a portion of rape may be sown
without a crop, which seeds striking at once into vigour-
ous growth in the beautifully fresh mould will
be fit by August, if the season is ordinarily
favourable, for the reception of a heavy stock
of sheep, which may again be netted, and
supplied with cake aud crushed corn, exactly as was done
during the previous season when the turnips were being
consumed. If the number of sheep has been fairly pro-
portioned to the acreage of the field in which they are
being fed, the whole lot will be thick fat by the time they
have it once cleared, making a handsome sura to their
owner as profit. It is quite possible that if the weather
during the autumn months has been soft and otherwise
favourable to growth, the grasses might be so far adanced
as to bear being again gone over ; this, however, is rarely
adviseable, on account of the injury which may be caused
to the roots of the young plants by exposure to the severe
weather of winter and spring, and further, this second
growth of grass, when preserved, makes an admirable pro-
vision for the ewes when suckling their lambs in the en-
suing spring. It will be noticed that no stress or im-
portance is placed upon or attached to the corn which
might be grown on such land, the reason being simply that
sheep husbandry suits the required purpose better than
any other method which could be devised, and, when
carried out in its integrity with sheep of the right sort,
gives the largest return obtainable to the acre, while
labour and other attendant expenses are cut down to the
lowest possible limit, the latter being iu itself a consi-
deration few farmers can at the present day afford to
overlook. To fully argue this part of the subiect, it may
readily be assumed that land which has been laid down
to grass for an extended period, and grazed almost con-
l^HE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
3^5
tinually, might easily give a second, and possibly a third
crop of corn, either of which would iu yield of grain far
outstrip the first, as it usually gives a large quantity of
soft and extremely flaccid straw, with a light and badly-
liUed head, while the succeeding crops with much less
straw, give a capital return in corn, worth a consider-
able sura of money per acre. It might also be assumed
that after the turnips another corn crop might with great
propriety be taken, the grass seeds being sown at the
same time as the corn, with an excellent prospect of suc-
cess. It would be easy to find men who would at once
confirm the plausibility of these theories by a Jreference
to their own experience, and there are others again Avho
would carry out the course of cropping exactly as indi-
cated, not because of its merit as a paying speculation,
but from pressing motives of expediency. The arguments
against corn, and in favour of sheep-husbandry in such a
case as has been here instanced, are however conclusive,
and may be summed up briefly as follows : The primary
object iu reversing the sward having been the renovation
of the land by restocking it with new and improved grass-
seeds, and thus again adapting it to the profitable breeding,
rearing and feeding of sheep, it becomes apparent that the in-
troduction of any course or system of cropping which retards
this consummation, nullifies the original idea, or at best
postpones the realization of the expected advantages to an
indefinite period. Again, when two crops of corn are
taken the extra manurial resources possessed by the soil
consequent on the decay of a large quantity of vegetable
matter have become in a great measure exhausted, and
the grasses when sown being imperfectly nourished,
growth languishes, and the rich full bite so anxiously
looked forward to is never obtained, the sheep placed upon
it though few in number, do little more than keep them-
selves in store condition, and the money made by the
corn is in a few years absorbed by the inadequate return
obtained from the land on which it was grown. By all
means therefore let good sheep land which has been broken
up solely for renewal of the grasses, be laid down to grass
again as quickly as possible, no scourging crops being
taken from it, but only if at all practicable those which
tend to its amelioration, and the immediate results will
exceed what the corn would make even at its best. The
enormous crop of turnips which can be grown on such
land the second year of its being turned up, would, it is
no exaggeration to say, if carefully calculated when turned
into mutton, give nearly double the return iu cash than
would be made by the corn, besides leaving the land in
such condition as to be able to carry a heavy stock of
sheep, and finish them in the best manner. Many attempts
are made to bring old land to a better skin by merely
netting the sheep regularly over each field, and feeding
with turnips and cake, thus avoiding the trouble and
annoyance of breaking them up with the plough. Going
over the surface this way certainly makes for the time-
being an apparent improvement, the grass gets to be of a
deeper green, and the moss is trampled down and hidden,
the whole field seeming from the quantity of droppings to
be vastly enriched. There is however no reality in the
improvement, no staying power in the manure ; the skin
of old grass is too tough to allow of the absorption of the
dung, and under the influence of sun and wind it quickly
dries off, leaving scarcely a trace behind, the moss and
coarse grasses again reassert their former strength, the
brown colour returns, and in twelve months there is little
trace of improvement to be observed. When turned up
with the plough, and laid down again in the spring of the
third year after turnips and without a crop, the difference
is so astonishing that it must be seen to be believed. The
thick plant of succulent grass of the lichest and most
fattening quality forced by the hnmus formed by the de-
caying roots of the old sward, grows luxuriantly for the
greater portion of the year, resists the inroads of moss,
and retains its intensely green colour for very many years.
THE IMPROVEMENT OF LAND.
At a spr ' ;:;ci:liug of the Shropshire Chamber of Agri-
culture c.i. liridgnortb, Mr. Jasper MoKE, the president,
in the chair, said before proceeding to the special subject for
discusi-ion they might be glad to learn what progress the
question of the proposed Shropshire County Agricultural
Society had made ; and, if thought advisable, even to extend
it to adjoining counties. They had lieard from Herefordshire,
and that county was willing and anxious to join them in the
formation of a society for the two counties. Much Wenlock
had not had time to consider the subject, and Oswestry and
Ludlow had not held their annual meetings yet, at which
this subject is announced to be discussed. So far, it appeared
that there was a wish in Herefordshire and various parts of
Shropshire to have a joint society; but no action would be
taken upon the subject until they heard from the other local
societies in the county.
Mr. DuDFiELD (Catsley) then said : I was iu hopes it
would have fallen into more able hands than mine to bring
forward this motion. Nevertheless, I feel pleasure in doing
anything in ray humble way to bring about a better state of
thing than now exists in many districts. I do not know
much of the north of Salop, but in the south, for some ten
miles round me I find a great many farms in bad condition,
some tolerably good, and my own not as I could wish. But
this is not through any fault of my landlord, he having ful-
filled his contract, and I trust I have done my own part in
such a way that nothing but amicability may exist between
us, and I wish it to be understood that what I have to say
here to-day is not applicable to our position as landlord and
tenant. It is true that I could do with two or three more
cottages, as labour is the worst item that I have to contend
with. I fear we shall find the question of detriments to im-
provement of land more serious than it at first appears to be.
The labour question is most difficult to handle just now, par-
ticularly in those districts where the landlords have not had
the forethought to provide cottage accommodation, buildings
for stock, drainage of land, &c., when the cost would have
been from 25 to 30 per cent, less than it is just now, and the
supply of men more plentiful. Taking a view through several
counties I happen to know tolerably well, I find many estates
in first-rate order, plenty of cottages and buildings, land
drained and farmed well. Others in the same counties are in
sad condition ; and, upon inquiry, we shall find that the majo-
rity of the latter are held under game-preserving gentlemen
who prefer to set under their old restricted agreements ; and
here we find the tenants in the midst of lots of overgrowing
timber in the open arable fields and hedgerows, too, adjoining,
up to their ankles in scutch, grass, or water, and eaten up with
game, wailing, weeping, and grumbling of their overburdened
taxation to the poor, roads, and maintaining the rates for
educating the children of mechanical students, and the pay-
ment for prosecution of poacliers. Meanwhile, we find the
committee of the House of Lords inquiring of Messrs. Keary,
Burd, and Ashdown how to improve the land by building of
cottages, &c. All, I fear it is too late. Most of our young
labourers have gone far away, and the old ones — and tenants,
too, will soon have to follow, and such landlords occupy their
own. It is of no use locking the stable door after the horse is
stolen, but let us hope for a better state of things to come.
It would be superfluous for me to explain the land tenure and
game question, as those have been so tliorougiily mooted by
competent persons of this and other Chambers of Agriculture,
and if there is anything more to be said I feel sure there are
gentlemen here more competent than myself to handle the
subject, and I respectfully appeal for assistance, feeling, as I
do, that these are the main obstacles iu the way of " improve-
ments in land." I have always felt the necessity of Tenant-
Right as an encouragement to good cultivation since I com-
396
THE FARMER'S MAaAZINB.
menced farming iu 1839, and have experienced great loss
myself, and seen that of others for want of it. Where we find
good husbandry, as a general rule, liberal, open landlords exist.
Hence the happiness between them and their tenants ; and in
case of death, or any other cause for exchange of the tenant,
he is sure to reap the benefit of his just and liberal treat-
ment by obtaining a respectable man of capital, and generally
at an increased rent. With regard to that obnoxious game
question, I feel now to be on the most tenacious ground.
Gentlemen as a rule are fond of sport, and I see no reason
why they should not have it, so long as they are satisfied with
enough game to afford healthful recreation ; but it is the
battue shooting that is the sore evil — where the hares are
kept to excess, feeding upon the tenants' crops, and driven into
the coverts " by hundreds" by beaters and keepers for the
gentlemen to shoot as they stand in the racks in the coverts
(cut expressly for that purpose), and I really wonder the
Humane Society does not interfere. That such a state of
things must be a great detriment to the improvement to land
there cannot be the least doubt. I farmed an estate myself
for fifteen years where the " loose and fast" system was prac-
tised, and could relate circumstances that would make you
shudder. There is many a tenant's heart broken, and his
family brought to grief and want, through the over game-
preserving landlord. The game is generally shot down before
the applicant looks over the farm. The steward tells you
there is to be no more over preservation, you are to farm the
land in the best possible manner, and shall have every encou-
ragement. All seems to work smoothly for a time, until you
have put the land in tolerably good condition ; then come
the hares, uocturnally, out of the woods, and eat up, and in
many places entirely destroy your crops, and you are refused
any compensation. How land can be farmed to any profit
under such circumstances I am at a loss to know. It is a
national question that all land should be made to produce as
much bread and meat for the million as possible, and I only
wonder that Messrs. Gladstone, Bright, and Co. (who profess
to be the working man's friends) have not taken up this im-
portant question, as it is well-known the tenant-farmers are
in too many places driven by the landlord in rein, and often
the curb is added to the bit ; but it is quite time this state of
things should be at an end. I know too well of the propensi-
ties of many gentlemen for game preserving that it almost
amounts to mania. One good old English gentleman in
particular (with this exception) came and said to me. " Now,
Dudfield, I want you to give that other farm up, and remain
with me." I shook my head, at which he said, " Why not ?"
My reply was, " I should rather not answer you that
question." " Oh," said he, " the game I suppose." I said
" Yes,'' and his reply was, " Well, we must have game, and
you will have it where you are going." Here is a state of
things I cannot comprehend, for gentlemen to forfeit their
word, and even their handwriting to satisfy their desires; and
I am told it is of no use urging the game question, as the
Prince of Wales is fond of battue-shooting. Suppose he is,
we can manage that, as we do not wish to be disloyal. Let a
tract of land be set apart for such, and fenced in just as the
deer parks are, and the bailiff and keepers can cultivate the
most palatable eatables for such stock. Our landlords can do
the same if they please ; and I am sure my fellow-tenants
will be glad to see his Royal Highness amongst us, and when
the party have finished their morning's manoeuvres we will
find them field sport to circulate their blood, and give them
appetite for their dinner. That the ground game should be
in the hands of the tenants I am quite certain, and I am sure
that 99 out of every 100 tenant-farmers would agree with me
in the endeavour to find a moderate quantity for the recreation
of. their landlords and their friends where required. The
resolution for your consideration is — first. That this meeting
is of opinion that an Act of Parliament, such as Mr. C. S.
Reaa's, is absolutely necessary both for landlord and tenant,
and the abolition of the Game-laws as regards ground game,
being both great detriments to the improvement of land, and
if approved and carried, a copy of the same to be forwarded
to the Central Chamber, also to the M.P.'s of the county of
Salop, with a request that they will exert themselves in the
next and any other session of Parliament to further the inte-
rests of the same." Next comes the cottages, buildings for
stock, drainage, and last, but not of least importance, laying
down arable into pasture, and renovation of old pasture-land.
These are items for a vast amount of consideration, as it is
well known they form so much importance in the case at
issue, and if the 1st resolution be passed the 2nd will be :
" That this Chamber form a committee of equal parts, land-
owners or agents, and tenant-farmers, to discuss and deteimine
he best code for this district, to be made out for the furtherance
of buildings, drainage, &c., and allowance for unexhausted im-
provements on a tenant quitting, &c., as a guidance for letting
and taking farms, and a basis for arbitrators to work upon."
If 1 have said anything that may be irksome to anyone I trust
they will forbear their verdict until sufficient time has elapsed
for consideration, as I did not come here to put class against
class, but quite otherwise. I came here not so much to serve
myself as others. It may be regretted that many tenants
stay at home and go to market grumbling about their griev-
ances, but neglect to put their shoulders to the wheel, when
required, and these are the very parties that require the most
help. This is the place to bring our difficulties to ; and if
our landlords will give us a fair hearing I feel sure matters
can be set right, and ultimate good will be the result, not
only to the community at large and ourselves, but most of all
to the owners of land.
Mr. Rainsfortii begged to second the first resolution.
Mr. WoRRALL said he could not agree with the statement
made by Mr. Dudfield, that they had lost their best labourers.
There was an entertainment at Norton, the other day, at
which it was stated by one of the speakers that those labour-
ers before him (the Norton speaker), young and old, were
such as any county or country in the world need be proud of.
So far as the game was concerned, he (Mr. Worrall) had no
objection to " feathers." Hares should be for the landlord,
and rabbits for the tenant-farmer. He would defy anybody
to come and get a rabbit off his land, because he employed a
man at 12s. a-week and his meat, to kill all the rabbits on his
farm ; whether he brings home one couple of rabbits or 20
couples, he got his wages. It was no use paying a man by
results — so much a couple — because if he could not catch
enough to bring in his week's wages he would leave. He
should be paid regularly as long as he is employed rabbiting.
With respect to " agreements" between landlord and tenant,
he should like Mr. Dudfield to see the one he had handed to
Mr. Bowen Jones, and see what objection he could have to it.
Mr. Dudfield said he was a friend of feathered game, but
a determined enemy of ground game. In the county from
which he came — Worcestershire — they would not find a timber
tree of any size in a hundred acres, because the land was laid
out for steam cultivation and high farming. They had also
in that county good cottages, in the hands of the landlord
himself, and they are all numbered, and a certain number
apportioned to each farm, and the rent, which is moderate, is
paid to the landlord.
Mr. Ralph Benson said that persons who came to meet-
ings of that kind should be looked at through spectacles that
would impartially reveal the truth on both sides. They had
heard the subject pretty strongly and broadly stated on the one
side by Mr. Dudfield ; and he (Mr. Benson) had a word or two
to say for that unfortunate and much-abused class — the land-
lords. He thought Mr. Dudfield had spoiled his argument by
the language he had used to blacken the character of the
landlords, in the ghastly phantom he had conjured up before
them. Were there such a man to be found — be he landlord,
or be he tenant — who could be guilty of the things attributed
to landlords in Mr. Dudfield's remarks, he would deserve to be
" gibbeted" in public estimation in the market-place. But it
should not go forth throughout the length and breadth of the
country that landlords denied their own hand-writing, repu-
diated their agreements, and would not compensate tenants for
loss, without being contradicted by himself. If landlords were
to be angels, even arch-angels, they could not make some bad
farmers good ones, nor the way they managed their farms
profitable. There were certain things in the labour and cottage
question that Mr. Dudfield seemed to think belonged solely to
the landlord ; and that he (Mr. Benson) did not think was
right. What had the landlord got to do with the labourers
asking for high wages ? He (Mr. Dudfield) also said that if the
landlords found good cottages for his labourers there would be
no great fear of labourers leaving him. Well, he would show
them how the matter stood in his own personal experience. la
the village of Easthope, near Mr. Acton's, there were six
cottages in a row, only two of which were tenanted by agri-
cultural labourers. He had cottages, and labourers in his
employ, and when the cottages were not asked for by his own
THE PARMER'S MAGAZINE.
397
labourers he let them to anyone that he approved. He had
three cottages at Presthope, the erection of which cost him £150,
and not one of these were asked for by agricultural labourers.
Don't, therefore, let it go forth to the world that labourers
leave — that wages are higher — because cottagers cannot get
good cottages to live in. He did not think it was so, and he
was sure it was not iu the cases to which he had adverted.
Now, then, as to the game preserving and the prosecution of
poacher. [Cries of " That's' the question."] AVhat farmer
in that room, he would ask, had ever paid out of liis own
pocket for the prosecution of a poacher ? [Cries of " It comes
out of the county rates," " We pay for it indirectly," " The
police fund has been invaded for it," and other strong marks
of dissent].
Mr. DuDFiELD : It was not the landlords in this neighbour-
hood or in this part of the county to whom I referred.
Mr. Benson said he knew it was one of the great argu-
ments against the Game-laws urged upon the attention of the
committee who sat upon it — that of the prosecution of
poachers, the pauperisation of their families, and the support
that had to be accorded to them whilst the poacher was in
gaol. In the mixed committee on the Game-laws, in which
such men as Mr. McCombie, the Marquis of Hartington, and
othere, representing both sides of the question, they might
rest assured that their claims would not be overlooked in the
matter of game. In many places they have already become
the property of the tenant-farmer. The rule he (Mr. Benson)
laid down tor his own tenants was to allow them to dig them
out and to ferret them, but he would not allow them to set
wires or traps, because if set by unskilful hands they were
likely to catch other game. He had no objection to the use of
wires for rabbits if they were set by a professed rabbit-catcher.
Farmers should employ professed rabbit-catchers, and keep the
rabbits for themselves. Mr. Dudfield said it would not pay to
pay for them by the couple. Then, in that case, pay for them,
as Mr. Worrall says, by the week. Mr. Worrall's speech would
do good, because it stated the true principle of getting over
the rabbit difficulty. Mr. Dudfield had said he should have no
objection to landlords having some game, and lie (Mr. Benson)
admitted his generosity. But he should like him to have said
something more on draining and labour. He felt sure that it
did not pay to drain laud at £10 an acre. He (Mr. Benson)
had had a bill for draining some land of his that cost £9 10s.
an acre, and yet that land had been letting at about 16s. an
acre. But draining was likely to receive a great check, be-
cause wages for labour had risen to such an abnormal pitch,
that the high charge for draining made it cease to be a profit-
able investment of capital. The wages fever, or mania, began
with coal, then iron, and it soon permeated every branch of
industry, and consequently raised the price of draining mate-
rials and labour. [A Voice : " What is the per-centage ?"]
Mr. Benson : About £6 10s. per cent. It must also be borne
in mind that drainage works won't last for ever, and in some
cases that had come under his knowledge, draining had had to
be renewed in twenty years. He was at that time paying in-
terest in London for money borrowed by his late father to do
draining, and that had now to be done over again. The pipes
had been put in too small, and he thought any land-agent in
the county would bear him out in his remarks about draining
having to be done over again in many places.
Mr. Worrall : I can find you some done two or three and
twenty years ago as good now as it was then. It can't be
done at £6 10s. per cent.
Mr. Benson : He was sorry to hear that Mr. Worrall
thought it could not be done for £6 10s. per cent. Many
landowners with an income of £3,000 a year had not got
£500 that he could lay his hand on for drainage. He did not
think it was a sound principle for a landlord to borrow money
to drain with, and at the same time he had to pay a part of it
out of his own pocket. He thought the tenant ougiit to pay
his proper percentage. If land were worth draining at all, he
apprehended it was worth £G 14s. per.cent. As to the ques-
tion of unexhausted improvements, he thouglit there was no
dilference of opinion upon that subject with tliemselves or be-
tween landlord and tenant. No man could be honest that
would not compensate his tenant, who had made his
landlord's land belter by the expenditure of his (the
tenant's) capital and skill upon it. Everybody thought
so ; and all they differed about was the means of ar-
riving at an equitable adjustment. lie thought it would be
hardly right to burden the resolution proposed by Mr, Dud-
field with Messrs. Howard aud Read's Bill, because it was q«ite
uncertain whether it may be gone on with in the present ses-
sion. Before he sat down he wished to say that he hoped that
anything he had said which they did not like they would at
least receive it with that kindness and friendship with which it
was offered, and they must also bear in mind that there were
generally two sides to a question, and he had endeavoured to
explain the landlords' side a little.
Mr. Worrall : Do I understand you that you allow your
tenants to take all the rabbits F
Mr. Benson ; I do — as many as they can get out by digging
them out and ferreting them. If the tenant uses wires, I only
ask that it may be done by a proper rabbit-catcher, to be ap-
proved by me.
Mr. Worrall : If your cottages are not let, Mr. Benson,
they must be bad ones, or high rented.
Mr. Benson : They are good cottages, with pigsties and
good gardens, and the rent is only £3 a year.
Mr. Nevett (Yortou) said there were many detriments to
land, aud one of its most grievous ones was the letting and
tenure upon which it was let. They were all too familiar with
the old form of agreement, which he ueed not go further into
than say, " That the game shall belong to the landlord," &c.
They could read the agreement if they liked, but it made little
difference whether they did or not, its conditions remained un-
altered, and if they wanted the farm, sigu it they must. The
first farm he had he held for four years, and lost a deal of
money by it ; and he ueed scarcely tell them that the game was
the cause of it. He then shifted to the farm he now occupied.
He wished to say a few words upon the four-course system of
turnips, barley, clover, and wheat. This four-course system was
very good where the land suited. It did not suit his farm. He
could not grow barley so profitably as he could spriug wheat,
aud he wanted to sow more spriug wheat, but the four-course
system stepped in and stopped him. Some time ago, he had
been written to by his landlord's agent and he (Mr. Nevett)
went to him, aud because one farmer that he pointed to did
it badly he (Mr. Nevett) could not be allowed to farm iu
the most profitable manner. Now, as to education, there
was one thing quite certain — that farmers were not well
educated, and it was equally certain that they must be well
educated. A farmer to be successful in these times must know,
and his sons must be taught, what manures will suit the land
of wliicli his farm is composed, and the crops he wishes to
produce. They must stick up for the motto of the Royal
Society — " Science, with practice." There was an excellent in-
stitution— the Cirencester Agricultural College — for the edu-
cation of farmers' sous, but the charges were too high to be
generally accessible to tenant-farmers. He should like to send
his son there, but he could not affoid to pay £120 a year for
him. They wanted good and cheap middle-class schools for
agriculturists. Then, as to draining, he had some done to his
farm twenty-five years ago with two-inch draining pipes,
four-feet deep, that were as good now as the day they were
done to all appearances, and would certainly last another
twenty-five years almost as good as now. He should like to
see some improvement iu the tenure of land. Where they
have only six months' notice, landlords could not expect that
tenants would go and throw their money broadcast over the
land. They, as farmers, must liave the commercial principle
into laud tenure more freely than it ever has been. A man
must have his land at a fair price, use it well, and have increased
security of tenure before he can do any good at farming. If
he destroys the value of the land by taking everything out of
it, he must be amenable to the landlord for the deterioration iu
the value of liie farm. If, on the other baud, he improves its
value by unexhausted improvements he must be allowed fair
compensation for it. Wiiat must come to pass is, they must
have security of tenure. He (Mr. Neveit) iniglit, under pre-
sent circumstances, sink £500 iu his farm in a very short time,
and yet he had no legal remedy, and he could be turned out
with tiie six months' notice. W'^liat could he or any other man
do with a six or twelve months' notice ? What is it after all ?
Mr. Disraeli said at Aylesbury before the election that they
ought to have two years' notice, but now he is in ollice he did
not say anytliing of the kind to Blr. Read.
Mr. BowEN Jones said that Sir Massey Lopes and Mr.
Read had told him that they did not accept office to sacrifice
principle.
Mr. Nevett : I suppose I began farming the wrong way,
but I hope it will end right.
398
THE FAEMER'S J^IAGAZINE.
Mr. Rainsforth said he had heeu greatly astonished at
soms of the remarks made hy Mr. Dudfield. He had ex-
pressed liiraself so often on the subject of Tenant-Right and
other matters at the Wenlock Farmers' Chib.that he had nothing
new to offer upon the subject, but reiterate his previous ar-
guments. He certainly felt ashamed of many of his brother
farmers who contented" themselves with grumbling, but never
tried by attending meetings of this kind to redress their
grievances. He was also equally astonished that landlords
should staud up against this subject of Tenant-Right, because
he considered it more a landlords' than a farmers' question.
He could not help thinking that laud, under any circum-
stances, would pay pay draining ; but tenant-farmers can't
farm land to advantage with a six months' notice hanging
over their heads if they talked for ever about it.
Mr. Backhouse said he did not come there to make a
speech, because there were so many farmers present who
knew so much better than he did of the subjects they had met
to consder. One subject had not been touched upon, and that
was the question of tithes, which required more equitable ad-
justment, for hitherto it had been too much in favour of the
clergy mau. The question of local taxation would also have
ocome before the Houses of Parliament again, for much was
required to be done. In their highway district they had 30
miles of turnpike roads to keep in repair by the contributory
parishes, and this question would have to be extended over a
greater area, because it fell heavily on the people of the dis-
trict. It had cost £1,000 last year, and in all probability the
next would cost £1,500. It cost £500 a mile to make the
Bridgnorth turnpike road, and it was quite certain such pay-
ments ought to be extended over a greater area. Then as to
drainage. If the landlord found the pipes, the charge upon
the tenant at the high price of labour was unduly oppressive,
the latter paying at least two-thirds of the total cost. He
thought £6 I'is. was too much for the tenant to pay, because
these improvements enhanced the value of the land, and if
the property were put up by auction who gets the advantage
hut the landlord ? They had, no doubt, excellent landlords in
their own neighbourhood ; but it was not so everywhere, and
these tliinfjs would have to be settled by Parliament to make
them more equitable between landlord and tenant. He thought
that the tenure of land should not be less than two years'
notice. He thought the education question was a most im-
portant one, and he had hoped they should have heard more
upon that subject from their Shrewsbury friends. They
wanted better schools for the middle classes and for farmers,
for at present there was little doubt the lower classes were
much better provided for than those immediately above them.
He thought it was a good rule not to tie fanners down too
closely to the rotation of crops, because he could not grow
spring wheat well, from the nature of the soil, and yet he
could grow barley well, and tliere were others just the reverse.
Mr. Benson : I understand you to mean that the clause is
in the agreement, but should not, and in practice is not, too
closely insisted on ?
Mr. Backhouse : That is so.
Mr. Nevett : Our agreements are all cut-and-dried agree-
ments.
Tlie Chairman supposed the chief impediment to the cul-
tivation of land was want of capital, wliich tiiey had heard
was a detriment a landlord often suffered from as well as a
farmer. He knew there were many small farmers who fancied
they could cultivate land just as well as large farmers, if they
had the same capital, whilst large farmers were thinking it
would be wiser for these small farmers to join their farms to
the large ones of their neighbours, and come and be their
bailiff. But the second detriment was the grievance so ran-
corously alleged of farmers having capital to improve land,
and not having sufficient security from their landlords to in-
duce them to spend it. He had always thought Bridgnorth
would be a desirable place to discuss this question of compen-
sation for unexhausted improvements, because it was a district
of great agricultural interest, with rich landlords, first-rate
tenants, high farming, and compensation clauses of a liberal
character generally introduced into agreements. The existence
of these might prevent farmers who had no grievances from
taking the trouble to join their discussions, but the remarks
of gentlemen living under such happy circumstances as Mr.
Worrall would be very useful in enabhng the public to form
correct views on agricultural questions. Over preservation of
game was, he believed, not experienced in the neighbourhood
of Bridgnorth. On the most highly-preserved estate in South
Shropshire it was generally said that hy the farms being let
low, and by liberal presents of game to the tenants, they would
stand any amount of game on their farms. In places, however,
where game preserving was severely felt, he believed agricul-
ture would not be satisfied with less than hares as well as rab-
bits being given to the occupier. He believed that next to
want of capital, want of proper education for farmers' sons
was Ukely to be a most serious detriment to farming. They
had proposed a farmers' school, such as the Norfolk county
school, for farmers' sous in Shropshire ; but the proposal had
met with no response. They were only told to go to the
school at Deustone, on which a large sum had been expended
by those who were anxious to promote particular religious
views, and the whole usefulness of the institution was spoilt
by its appearing now that the school contained a confessional
for farmers' sons, which was a form of religious sentiment that
did not seem to be appreciated in the midland counties. A
gentleman in the neighbourhood had suggested it would be well
to teach farmers' sons to speak in public at their schools.
Then some gentlemen attached importance to local rates as a
detriment to farming. No doubt new rates imposed since a
tenant signed his agreement would fall on him, but generally
he believed a relief of local taxation from the Imperial Ex-
chequer would benefit landlords rather than farmers, because
he expected when farms were re-valued the valuer would make
a tenant pay in rent what had been remitted in local taxation.
He thought, therefore, the Malt-tax dealt with in any of the ways
proposed would benefit the farmers, and especially the small
farmers, more than any remission of local taxation. He felt
surprised at the Malt-tax not having been mentioned as a detri-
ment to farming: he supposed it was because of the high prices
they at present got for their barley. He did not feel sanguine
of any immediate legislation on these subjects. Mr. Read, by
being in office, was precluded from introducing his Landlord
and Tenant Bill ; and Sir Massey Lopes, by having office at
the Admiralty, had his mouth closed on local taxation. He
had inquired in London but did not hear of any gentleman
who was going to take up the former subject, nor thut there
was any probability of such a bill being carried under the pre-
sent Government, although they might always be prepared for
any surprise in politics. The chance of a game bill, such as
farmers spoke of being carried, might be regarded as equally
remote.
Mr. Dudfield then reviewed the arguments that had been
used, and considered that the meeting agreed with him, with
the exception of Mr. Benson. He did not want to set class
against class, but to get justice done to the tenant-farmers. He
was proceeding to make some further comments on the land-
lords, when
Mr. Benson protested against the language too frequently
used by Mr. Dudfield throughout his address.
Mr. Dudiield then proceeded to say that the reason he
left Worcestershire was, because the game drove him away.
He contended th.at it was a great hardship that he and other
tenants, who could be trusted by their landlords to pay £500
a year rent, could not be entrusted with the delicate office of
laying a trap for rabbits, but a game-keeper or professional
rabbit-catcher could. On one occasion he had lost 27 bags of
wheat, by game, off a field of seven acres, and that was enough
to try any man's temper.
Mr. Dudfield substituted the following resolution, instead of
the two mentioned in his address : " That this Chamber consi-
ders that the over-preservation of game and the absence of
Tenant-Right are amongst the principal detriments to the im-
provement of agricultural land, and is of opinion that such a
bill as that introduced into the House of Commons by Messrs,
Howard and Read, last session, and one to protect the occu-
pying tenant from injury from over-preservation of game, are
necessary for improvements."
The resolution was carried unanimously.
THE HYPOTHEC (SCOTLAND) ABOLITION BILL.
— This Bill, prepared and brought in by Mr. Vans Agnew,
Mr. Baillie Hamilton, Sir William Stirling Maxwell, and Sir
George Douglas, proposes that from and after the eleventh day
of November, 1875, the landlord's hypothec for the rent of all
heritable subjects in Scetland, except dwelling-houses where
the land attached does not exceed one imperial acre in extent,
shall ceat« and determine.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
399
THE HORNCHURCH SEWAGE FARM CASE.
ROMFORD BOARD OF HEALTH V. HOPE.
Itt this actiott tlie Local Board of Health for the district of
Romford were the plaintiffs and Mr. Wm. Hope, V.C., was
the defendant. The declaration was for breach of a covenant to
pay the rent of a farm. The defendant pleaded that the in-
denture was not his deed and tiiat the rent had not become
due, and there were also pleas of eviction and fraud.
Mr. Hawkins, Q.C., Mr. Prentice, Q.C., and Mr. C. Hall,
instructed by Mr. A. H. Hunt, Clerk to the Romford Local
Board, were counsel for the plaintiffs ; and Mr. Murphy,
Q.C., and Mr. Tindal Atkinson appeared for tlie defendant.
Mr. Hawkins opened the case for the plaintiffs in an able
and characteristic speech. The action, he said, was brought
to recover tlie sum of £600, being a year's rent, reserved under
a lease dated the 16th May, 1370, by which a farm called
Breton's Farm, in the parisii of Horncliurch, which was tlie
property of the Romford Board of Health, and which had been
bought by them for the purpose of utilising the sewage of the
town, if it was possible to usilise it, was leased to the defendant.
The rent of the land and buildings was placed at £300 a year,
and a further sum of £300 was reserved as the price to be paid
per annum for the sewage that flowed upon the farm. The
sum was to be paid by quarterly instalments. Mr. Hope had
paid the £300 for the rent of the land, but had resisted tlie
payment of the charge for the sewage, and had done
tiiat upon two or three grounds. First of all he said he did
not make the deed ; but that, of course, was a mere
formal plea; seeondly, he said the deed was procured by
the fraud of the Local Board ; and thirdly, that he
was evicted from a part of the premises whicii was
subject to demise, and therefore that he was not liable to pay
any portion of tlie £600 which was reserved as the price of
the sewage, the part of the premises from which he alleged
lie was evicted being a portion of the sewage which lie said he
contracted to have, and whicli was not supplied to him in
accordance witii the terras of the lease. He (Mr. Hawkins)
was sorry to tell the jury that when they had had the exquisite
pleasure of liearing this sewage matter discussed until evening
and probably during a portion of Monday also, there remained
behind another question between Mr. Hope and the Romford
Local Board. His experience of the profession, which had
now extended over between twenty aud thirty years, had left
him in considerable doubt whether the position of a plaintiff
or the position of a defendant was the happiest one to
occupy ; but at all events liis clients on this occasion, and Mr.
Hope also, liad the opportunity of trying both positions—
because in the present action his clients happened to be
plaindffs and Mr. Hope tlie defendant, and when that action
was disposed of Mr. Hope would try his hand at being plain
tiff, and the Local Board would have the liappiuess oi being
defendant*. In the second action they would have to try
over again what th?y were trying now, and they would have
to try, moreover, two or three subsidiary questions — whether,
for instance, there were agreements not embodied in the lease
for giving Mr. Hope something which certainly did not ap-
pear in the terms of the lease itself ; whether or not Mr.
Hope had been misled into entering into the lease under cir-
cumstances to which he would have to allude ; aud if he had,
wliether he had sustained any damage by reason of a portion
of the sewage, as he said, not having come lo him ; and, if he
liad, what was the amount of damage so sustained. This
inquiry would involve, he was goiug to say, a most
charming field-day for scientific men, because they would have
to go into the mode in whicli a sewage farm ought to be cul-
tivated, and the mode in which this farm actually had been
cultivated ; they would have to show what the farm would
have produced without sewage, and what it had produced with
sewage ; wliat, moreover, it would iiave produced if more
sewage had been applied tlian was wanted, and what it would
have produced if less had been supplied than was wanted.
He would now briefly state the facts. Trior to 1868 pretty
nearly all the sewage of that part of the town of Romford
which was sewered was diverted, first, into some tanks or
works that were erected just outside the town, and from those
works the whole of the sewage, in what was deemed to be a
purified state, was turned into a stream which was dignified in
the parish of Romford by the name of a river. The people
living near the stream, or through whose land it passed, did
not quite like the smell, and the assistance of the Court of
Chancery being sought, the Local Board was restrained from
putting the sewage into the river any longer. That left the
Local Board in a difficult position, and, for the purpose of
utilising their sewage, they purchased Breton's farm, in tlie
parish of Horncliurch, about 2^ miles from Romford. The
farm contained altogether about 120 acres, and they bouglit
it at a cost of not less than about £10,000. They then at a
cost of another £10,000 erected works and laid pipes for the
purpose of carrying the sewage from the town to the farm.
At that time the board believed the population of the town of
Romford was about 6,000 perjons. All the houses were not
drained into the outfall sewer by which the sewage was taken
to Breton's farm, because a good many had cesspools and
gome drained otherwise, but building was going on, and
week by week the number draining iflto the outfall
sewer was increasing. The farm being ready for occu-
pation, the board in July, 1869, inserted an advertisement
in The Chelmsford Chronicle and other papers inviting
tenders. The advertisement opened in this way : " To
scientific agriculturists. — The Romford Board of Health
are desirous to receive tenders from persons wishing to
hire 120 acres of light laud or thereabouts, recently purchased
for the reception of the sewage of the town of Romford, which
town contains a large and increasing brewery, and
about 6,000 inhabitants. The sewage will be pumped
on to the farm by the board, and the lessee will be bound to
receive the whole of such sewage and use the same for the
purpose of irrigation. There is a first-rate residence, with
suitable buildings and a large garden inclosed with brick
walls." That (continued Mr. Hawkins) was perfectly cor-
rect. Probably the residence was at one time inhabited by a
peer of the realm, but at present it was fit for nobody wiio
did not like sewage. Of course for a gentleman like Mr.
Hope, who was interested in the question of sewage from a
scientific point of view, it was the most luxurious habitation
that could be found upon the face of the earth. He (Mr.
Hawkins) had seen the place — he had smelt it, and he could
imagine the feelings of a man who indulged and revelled in a
sewage-farm. The advertisement further stated that the farm
was 14 miles from London, and he thanked heaven it was so
far. It reached the eye of Mr. Hope, and he made application
to the board for the purpose of taking the farm. The adver-
tisement stated that the town of Romford contained about
6,000 people, and Mr. Hope wanted the board to guarantee to
him the sewage of not less than 6,000 persons, and a total
discharge from the outfall sewer of not less than 20 gallons
per head, or, in all, 120,000 gallons per day. This proposal
the board expressly refused, and Mr. Hope contented himself
without it, for it was not contained iu the lease. To the best
of their judgment the board believed the population was
about 6,000, but they did not guarantee to supply the
sewage of 6,000 persons, and Mr. Hope had full opportuuity
of making himself acquainted with all the facts before he
signed the lease. Moreover, he was distinctly told that a
good many of the houses were not connected with the main
sewer. Mr. Hawkins proceeded to read passages from the
correspondence which took place before the lease, which was
for a terra of seven years, was signed, and he called particular
attention to the fact tliat so far from com[)laining, as now,
that lie had not sufficient sewage, Mr. Hope said that the area
of land was decidedly too small for the continued application
of the amount of sewage lie had seen going upon it. He also
stated that the sewage, as he had seen it, was altogether too
strong for irrigation. Tiie lease was finally settled and ap-
proved in Jlarcli, 1870. The Local Board leased to Mr. Hope,
" firstly, all the sewage of the town of Romford, or such part
thereof as shall flow by gravitation into the outfall sewer
wliich now conducts the sewage into tanks or reservoirs con-
structed on the farm hereiuafter mentioned." Secondly, the
farm-lands, buildings, &c., containing 119a. 2r. Ip., to hold
400
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
from the ~9th September, 1869, for the term of seven years,
at the yearly rent of £600. At the end of the lease there
was a provision that if any dispute or difl'ereuce should arise
the same should from time to time be referred to the arbitra-
tion of two indifferent persons, to be chosen one by the board
and the other by Mr. Hope, or the umpire of such persons in
case of tiieir disagreement.
His Lordship : Has any application been made with respect
to that clause ?
Mr. Murphy : There is a claim in the cross-action for not
applying it.
His Lordship : Why didu't you obtain an order to enforce
it?
Mr. Murphy: An application was made to the board to
refer the (question, but we were met by an absolute refusal.
His Lordship : There is power to enforce it under the com-
mon law.
Mr. Murphy : No applicattou was made ; but there has
been a correspondence on the subject, and an arbitrator was
named by Mr. Hope, but the board positively refused.
Mr. Hawkins certainly thought it would have been best if
the parties had settled their differences by an appeal to the
arbitration of two or three gentlemen acquainted with sewage-
farming. However, liere the case was before the jury. Now,
the first season after the lease was granted to Mr. Hope hap-
pened to be one'peculiarly favourable to sewage-farming. It
was a very dry season, and the result was very grateful to Mr.
Hope — so grateful that, emulating a gentleman of great emin-
ence in this county — he meant Mr. Mechi — lie invited the
Eomford Board of Health and a number of liis own friends to
go to Breton's Farm and see the luxuriant state of his crops.
He entertaiued them most hospitably on the farm ; there was
a magnificent luncheon provided, and the Local Board, and
Mr. Hope and Mr. Hope's friends enjoyed themselves as much
as it was possible for humanity to enjoy itself in the middle of
a sewage-farm. Mr. Hope drank the lieulth of the Local
Board, and the Local Board drank the health of Mr. Hope.
They congratulated Mr. Hope upon the prosperity of the farm,
and Mr. Hope congratulated himself. Mr. Hope, being a
member of the Association of Scientific Surveyors, had issued
pamphlets which he (Mr. Hawkins) had here (holding up a
formidable bundle of papers). Let not the jury be afraid.
He was not going to read all these, though he
could if he liked. He was not going if lie could
help it, to let them in for another Tichborne case ;
yet, when Mr. Hope was before them, he would have
to ask him whether he still adhered to the opinions he had
expressed in his pamphlets and speeches. Well, Mr. Hope's
first year at the sewage farm passed away and was sueceeded
by two as bad seasons as could very well have occurred for a
sewage farm — two very wet ones — and then Mr. Hope was
dissatisfied. One had heard that even the most unscientific,
the kindest, the easiest tempered men in the world did grumble
at the weather, wet or fine, but when they had got science as
well as weather to militate against them it was enough to send
them mad. Mr. Hope, unreasonably, as he (Mr. Hawkins)
thought, began to write fault-finding letters ; still the Romford
Local Board vventon spending money at his works, and, as his
friend Mr. Prentice suggested in his ear, doing all sorts of
things for him that could contribute to his happiness.
The learned counsel quoted passages from Mr. Hope's letters,
dwelling especially on one in which lie stated that he bar-
gained for the sewage of 6,000 inhabitants, and that in that
regard he had been deceived. It was on this point, observed
Mr. Hawkins, that Mr. Hipe now alleged that the board
fraudulently represented to him that which was untrue. It
was a serious thing to say of a body of men that they wilfully
tried to cheat him, and the charge was not borne out either by
the advertisement lie had read or by the lease itself. Let him
read the plea on which this accusation was set forth. " After
the making of the indenture, and during the term, and before
the rent became due, the plaintiffs, without the consent and
against the will of the defendant, wrongfully abstracted and
converted to their own use a large portion of the premises —
firstly, the demise — that is to say, they abstracted and converted
to their own use all the sewage of the town of Romford, or
such part thereof as should flow by gravitation into tlie
outfall sewer, and evicted the defendant from the use and occu-
pation thereof, and kept him so evicted thenceforth hitherto.''
Now that allegation could not be supported by fact. Mr. Hope
had had every single portion, as far as the board could give it
to liim, of all the sewage which flowed into the outfall sewer.
They had not wrongfully abstracted and converted to their own
use any portion of it. He was not aware that for any purpose
at all they deprived him of any portion of the sewage for which
he contracted to pay. If for any necessary purpose of the
works — if for the purpose of enabling the works properly to
act — any portion was abstraced or diverted from its proper
channel, it was not with a view to convert it to their own use,
but to give Mr. Hope all he was entitled to. AVliether under
any circumstances that would afford Mr. Hope a defence was a
question of law for his lordship, but the question for the jury
would be whether any portion had been unlawfully abstracted
by the board, and if so, the further question would arise
when it was abstracted and in what quantity, because
it would be idle to say, if the board had abstracted 50 or 100
gallons in a quarter, that the defendant should pay nothing for
the rest of the sewage he had had, and it would be even more
absurd to consider that any abstraction in the quarter
between March and June should absolve him from the pay-
ment of rent between Juue and December. Mr. Hawkins
read other letters of Mr. Hope on the subject of the popu-
lation and the quantity of sewage applied. Mr. Hope
said he was led to believe that the board would
force those householders who were not connected with
the outfall sewer to become so connected, and upon this
he based his price — 6,000 persons at 2s. per head.
According to some of Mr. Hope's speeches if he had paid
three or four times this price for the sewage it would not have
been too much. Mr. Hope further said that even the census
of 1871 showed the population of Romford to be only 6,338,
including the workhouse, Marshall's Park, and Petit's-lane.
That the population (Mr. Hope proceeded) should be so much
smaller than he was led to believe by the board, of whose per-
fect good fiitli there could be no doubt, was his misfortune.
Caveat emptor. The committee, he also said, had made a
census of the town, and found that only 4,400 were connected
with the sewer. The smaller the population, he added, the
more essential it vvas that every house should be connected,
and he expected that every inhabitant of Romford would
fatlifully discharge his duty towards him. Well, Mr. Hope
declined friendly arbitration.
Mr. Murphy : Oh dear, no.
Mr. Hawkins : They tell me so.
Mr. Murphy : Then they tell you very wrong,
Mr. Hawkins : 1 am happy to be corrected by you with re-
ference to the friendly arbitration, but certainly it was not
one of our friends whom you proposed. In more than one
letter, Mr. Hawkins said, Mr. Hope stated that the fault of
which he complained was " not that of the board, who would
regret it as much as he did, but that of two former surveyors
in whose hands the board had the misfortune to be." What,
then, of the charge of deliberate fraud now preferred ? There
wf.s a perfect answer to that charge, too, in this way — —
His Lordship : I wonder it was not demurred to.
Mr. Prentice : They spoke to me upon it, my lord, and I
advised them that the plea of fraud could not be supported.
His Lordship : The plea is bad as it is. You cannot pre-
tend that it is a good plea, Mr. Murphy.
Mr. Murphy : I felt that we could not rely upon it, my
lord, because the contract had not been disapproved. It was
a matter present to my mind long ago.
His Lordship : And the arbitration of two indifferent per-
sons— how as to that? Nobody has applied, it seems, to
have it enforced. At present, under the statute, if you had
come to me at Chambers, I should have said you must, par-
ticularly when it is a matter more fit for private reference than
for a jury.
Mr. Hawkins agreed that it was a case more fit for private
reference, especially if the question of the condition of the
farm was to be gone into.
His Lordship : The parties, moreover, agreed beforehand
that that should be the mode of settling difiiculties.
Mr. Murphy said Mr. Hawkins and himself exchanged views
on the matter yesterday, and they both agreed that arbitration
would be best.
Mr. Hawkins : If your lordship will permit Mr. Prentice
to preside for a few minutes at a meeting of the Local Board,
I think we shall come to some arrangement.
A consultation, in which several members of the Romford
Board took part, was then held, and, as the result, the plea of
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
401
fraud was abandoned by Mr. Hope, and an arrangement was
arrived at iu the foUowng terras :
Verdict for plaintiff in each action for damages in declara-
tions, subject to special case in both actions, to be settled by
Mr. F. M. White. In the event of judgment for plaintiffs in
the first action, judgment to be for such sum as the court may
direct. In the event of judgment for plaintiff iu cross action,
damages to be assessed by two arbitrators, one appointed by
each party, and, if they cannot agree, by one umpire to be
appointed by them. It beiug desirable to have one special
case only, the parties agree that if it can be done by order of a
judge, or by amendment of present writ, by making it an ex-
chequer writ, or by issuing a new one from the exchequer
itself or otherwise, one special case in the excliequer shall be
stated so as to raise all questions involved in both actions.
In that case, one special case to be stated, giving the parties
their rights in the respective actions. All other usual terms.
Costs of special juries to be costs in causes. If any difference
arise in drawing up or carrying out these terms, such differ-
ence to be determined by Mr. Hawkins and Mr. Murphy, or
if they differ, by Mr. Justice Lush. No execution in either
action until judgment in both and damages, if any, assessed.
The parties to come before the arbitrators forthwith without
drawing case. The plea of fraud in first action to be with-
drawn.
THE HOERORS OF WAR AND THE FARMER.
The following Address from the Agricultural Society of
Lombardy has been forwarded to Mr. Richard, M.P. :
Dear Sir, — In this part of Italy, as ia other provinces,
the industrious class of agriculturists have heard, with enthu-
siasm, of the noble and eloquent words uttered by you in the
English House of Commons, in promotion of the eminently
humane principle of International Arbitration. No soil in
the world has been more ensanguined by the horrid butchery
of war than the classic plaias of Lombardy; nor in any
country has agriculture more cause sorrowfully to remember
f'e terrible disasters inflicted by this scourge, which decimates
the cultivators of the land, selects the best amongst them for
the sword, arrests, by its waste of property, tlie progress of
every agricultural interest, destroys the crops, and spreads
desolation over tiie country. But your work, sir, persever-
ingly directed to tlie sublime aim of maintaining and diffusing
peace amongst the nations, by the growing triumph of justice
and reason, apart from the brutal arbitrament of arms, is
eminently beneficent in its services to agriculture, because the
very life of agriculture is peace. The undersigned, as the
exponents and representatives of agriculture in Lombardy,
congratulate you, sir, on the splendid victory which your
apostolate has gained iu the House of Commons ; and they
argue from it that the day is not very far distant when this
lioliest of principles, sustained with so much ardour by you.
shall no longer be regarded as Utopian, but shall be, and by
.all governments, as in the English Parliament, everywhere
accepted as a recognised rule, and as such incorporated in the
Law of Nations. You will, we trust, faithfully persevere in
your propagandism, for it is the course of right lor which you
plead. But, inasmuch as your efforts are directed towards a
most exalted aim, and one beset with difliculties and ob-
stacles, it may be cheering to you to receive the support of
those who have faith in the progress of humanity, and to
learn that every day your noble principles are gaining adhe-
rents, amongst whom you may especially count upon the cul-
tivators of tlie land, as ourselves, who now salute you on the
success of your philanthropic initiative of a new era, and of a
great victory for modern civilisation. — Signed, for the Agri-
cultural Society of Lombardy (consisting of 545 landed pro-
prietors and cultivators), Emamuel BonziVNINI (President).
— Signed, for the Agricultural Commission of MUan (of 70
members). Carlo Cajo (President). — Signed, fur the Agri-
cultural Auxiliary of Milan (consisting of 435 landed pro-
prietors and cultivators), Girolamo M. Turiquano (Pre-
sident).— The following Agricultural Committees of various
districts in Lombardy have also signed tiie above address,
viz., those of — Mantua, Como (109 members), Varese (68
members), Vogbera (220 members). Revere (50 members),
Treviglio (44 members), Lugano (90 members), JNIendisio, &c.
YORK CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE,
A TENANT-RIGHT AGREEMENT.
At a general meeting held in Micklegate, York, Mr. W. J.
Ware, Skiroenbeck, the President of the Chamber, in
the chair.
Mr. Lett (Scampston) said that he had to bring under con-
sideration the question of compensation for unexhausted im-
provements as applied more particularly to the East Riding.
Tiie landlord and tenants' agreement he had drawn up con-
sidered the benefit of three parties, the landlord, the on-coming
tenant, and the out-going tenant. He considered that with
a good Tenant-Right there were hundreds and thousands of
acres of land whicii would be made to produce double tlie crop
which they did at present. Teuant-Right was iu point of fact
a nation's right, and when duly carried out would tend to the
benefit, of every class of the people of England. On his farm
he bad a twenty years' lease — eleven of which had yet to run.
and he had therefore a security for the capital he had invested.
Other farmers who had not security could not safely cultivate
well. He was in favour of compensation being given for un-
exhausted improvements. He then iutroduced his Landlord
and Tenant's Agreement for the East Riding of Yorkshire, of
wliich the following is an abstract:
1. The tenancy is to continue from year to year, but may be
terminated any year on the 6th day of April by a year's notice
iu writing, either by landlord or tenant.
3. The custom of the country is to hold, where it is not
otherwise provided.
3. The winged game is to belong to the landlord, and he reserves
to himself and to persons authorised by him, the right to enter
upon the land for the purpose of taking ground and winged
game and rabbits, and generally for the purpose of sporting.
But the tenant is to have the concurrent right of taking hares
by coursing, and rabbits by ferreting and digging. The tenant
may place wire net, proof against rabbits, round or across any
land in his occupation where he finds it necessary for the pro-
tection of his crops.
4. The landlord reserves mines, quarries, timbers, copices,
with right to dig, work, cut, and,carry away, paying reasonable
damages.
5. The landlord reserves to himself and his agents the right
of entering upon the said farm and premises, at a reasonable
time, to view the state of the buildings and fences, the course
of cropping, and the general cultivation of the farm.
6. The tenant is to preserve the fruit trees, and re-plant
such as are worn out. He is not to fell or injure, or cause
to be felled or injured, any timber or coppice wood, under the
penalty of three times their value, to be taken as ascertained
damages.
7. The tenant is to keep the farm and premises let to him
in good tenantable repair (fire, lightning, tempest, and flood
alone excepted), he beiug allowed by the landlord tiles, bricks,
and lime at the kiln, and timber in the rough for repairs and
gates. The tenant is to be allowed to get stone, if any on his
farm, for repairs, making good damages.
8. The tenant is not to plough or break up any meadow or
pasture land, without the consent of hit landlord or his agent.
402
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
ia writing, under a penalty of £20 an acres as ascertained
damages.
9. The tenant is to forfeit to the landlord £5 for every
ton of manure, hay, straw, fodder, turnips, or green crop re-
moved from the farm witiiout the consent of the landlord or
his agent, in writing.
10. The tenant, the year he receives or gives notice to quit,
is not to grow a white corn crop on more than one-half of
his tillage. The year of iiis termination of the tenancy he
shall be entitled to a following or off-growing crop, ai^cording
to the custom of the country.
11. The off-going tenant, in ac\lition to the customary pay-
ment for manure and seed bill, is to be paid by the on-coming
tenant for one-third of the value of ths cake, of good qualify, ap-
proved by the valuers, bought and consumed on the farm during
his last year of tenancy ; but that quantity is not to exceed the
average quantity used on the farm during the three years
previous to the notice to quit, provided the tenancy shall
iiave continued so long, and if not, then not exceeding the
average used in the previous year or years of the tenancy.
He is also to be entitled to one-sixth of tiie value of the cake
consumed during the year previous to the notice to quit, pro-
vided it does not exceed the said average ; but he must
produce vouchers in both cases before being entitled to pay-
ment.
12. The off-going teaant, during the last year of his
tenancy, shall allow the on-coming tenant or the landlord to
enter upon the said farm on an after the loth day of Novem-
ber, to plough any tillage land clear of crop upon which the
following crop will not be taken, and shall also allow sufficient
stabling for horses for that purpose, if practicable in the judg-
ment of the valuers.
13. The tenant is not to underlet the farm, or any part
thereof, or to assign his take or any part of it without the
landlord's consent in writing.
14. Immediately on the tenant taking possession of the
farm, valuers for both landlord and tenant are to go over the
farm and note down the condition of the whole of the land
(both arable and pasture), buildings, fences, gates, ditches,
bridges, skyponds, and wells belonging to the said farm, and
are to enter memoranda of their condition in two books, one
of which is to be given to the landlord or his agent, and the
other to the tenant, to be kept as a record of the condition of
the farm.
15. At the expiration of the tenancy, valuers are again to
go over the farm. If in better condition, they are to award
to the off-going tenant compensation for his improvements ; if
in the same condition there is to be neither compensation nor
damages ; but if the farm is in worse condition, then they
shall award damages against the off-going tenant, which he is
to pay to the on-coming tenant or the landlord, to such
amount as the valuers shall determine.
IG. The landlord or on-ooraing tenant is to allow the off-
going tenant the then value, as ascertained by valuers, of any
liming, claying, marling, or durable improvement ; or of any
draining, building, or permanent improvement, which the
tenant may have made with the landlord's consent in writing,
and for which he shall not have been previously compensated
by a reduced rent, length of time, or otherwise.
17. If the off-going tenant shall have erected any buildings
without the previous consent of the landlord or his agent, the
landlord shall have the option of taking them at a valuation
on the tenant's leaving ; but if lie decline to do so, then the
off-going tenant shall havj three months to remove the said
buildings, and shall make good all damage caused by the erec-
tion and removal thereof.
18. Wherever the word valuer or valuation is referred to,
it is to be understood that one valuer is to be named by either
party, with power to appoint an umpire in case of disagree-
ment, in the usual way.
19. The tenant is to have quiet enjoyment of the premises
during the term, and to yield up possession at the end of his
term in a quiet manner.
A conversation took place at the dinner on this agreement,
the terms of which were generally approved.
The Chairman said that he had travelled a good deal
through the country, and he found that different agreements
prevailed in different districts. The agreement drawn up by
Mr. Lett was no doubt applicable to the East Riding, but it
might not be suitable to the other two ridings. He considered
that the agreement contained many good features, but, owing
to the variety of customs which existed, it could not be made
to apply beneficially in all cases, and, therefore, it was better
to leave the question open.
The proceedings terminated with votes of thanks to Mr. Lett
and the Chairman.
THE CENSUS OE BENGAL.
At the fifth ordinary meeting of the Statistical Society hel.d
on Tuesday evening in St. James's-square, Dr. Parr in the
chair,
Mr. Henrt Beverley, M.A., Inspector-General of Regis-
tration in Bengal, read a paper on the Census of Bengal.
The census of 1872, which was the first attempt at anytliing
like a systematic enumeration of the people in that part of
India, showed that the population of Bengal was 67 millions,
or 15 millions more than had been supposed. In illustration
of the utility and importance of the census, the paper referred
to the terrible famine which had commenced in Bengal, to
mitigate which the Indian Government was doing all it pos-
sibly could, although, notwithstanding these efforts, the mor-
tality from want and disease must be severe. It was a very
fortunate circumstance, however, that the Government of
Bengal had before it the records of the late census, and was
thus in a position to estimate the extent and possible severity
of the disaster. By showing the true numbers of the people,
and their distrilnition in different parts of the country, the
census had enabled the Government to see where relief is
needed and to what extent. The population of Behar was
till last year put dcnvn at llj millions ; the census showed it
t<) be 19^ millions. Had there bsen no census, therribre,
there would have been u])wards of eight millions of souls in
that province alone entirely ignored in all measures of
relief. Moreover, the Government would have had little
or no information to guide it in the selection of the
proper sites for the storage of food and for the organi-
sation of relief works. It was owing to its ignorance
regarding the numbers and distribution of the people, as much
as to anything, that the Government was unable to grapple
properly with the famine of 1866. It was owing to the com
plete information on these points which the census had placed
at the disposal of the Government, as much as to anything,
that the measures which had been taken to mitigate a similar
calamity in 1874, would probably be attended with a fair
amount of success. The five provinces subject to the rule
of the Lieut.-Governor of Bengal had a total area of 248,231
square miles ; with a population of 66,856,859 souls. The
density of population varied considerably in^the various districts
and provinces. Except in a few outlying districts, the people
were counted by means of a house-to-house visitation, and this
was effected for the most part, by the people themselves, the
most respectable residents in each village being selected as
enumerators. The result was, consequently, most satisfactory.
Everything was carried out with marvellously little opposition
or excitement, and at a cost of only £21,500, or about one-
fifteenth part of the cost of the late census for England and
Wales, allowance being made for the difference in the number
of the population. Sir G. Campbell estimated the food-pro-
ducing area of country at not more than half-an-acre per head.
Statistics on this point were not available in Bengal, but the
statement was supported by a calculation made by Mr. Bever-
ley. Such was the fertility of the soil that, notwithstanding
its enormous population, Bengal exported large quantities of
food grains (estimated in a good year at over 500,000 tons),
while the area taken up by other crops was very considerable.
With such abuud'ince, therefore, in ordinary years the popu-
lation went on multiplying its numbers without fear of
transgressing the margin of subsistence. It was only when
a year of scarcity intervened, or when epidemic disease
committed its ravages, that any check whatever
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
40
was imposed on the natural increase of the people.
After speaking of the density and distribution of the popula-
tion, and the diversities of race and nationality which were
found, Mr. Beverley said one of tlie most surprising facts
established by the census was that the total number of Ma-
hommedans in the Bengal provinces exceeded 20^ millions, or
nearly one-third of the whole population ; 17^ millions being
found in Bengal proper. The number of persons professing
the Christian religion was less than 100,000, of whom 20,000
were Europeans, and 2i,000 of mixed European and native
extraction. In Bengal tlie numbers of the sexes were very
nearly equal, the females being in tlie proportion of 4'J.9 per
cent, of the whole, and three-eigliths of the population were
under 12 years of age, as against less thau three-tenths in
England. The vast population was of an essentially rural
character. The villages were closely studded and densely
populated, but they had no pretensions to be designated towns.
The main business of their inhabitants was agriculture. At
least two-thirds of the people practised agriculture as their
occupation. Tlie whole number of manufacturers and artisans
did not exceed 11 per cent, of the population, and tlie actual
actual number of artisans, properly so culled, was probably
only about 5 per cent, of the adult male population. Having
entered at great length into further details revealed by the
census, Mr. Beverley, in conclusion, said that the results of
the census could uot but exercise a weiiihty and beneficial in-
fluence upon the administration of affairs in Bengal, especi-
ally in relation to the elforts being made by the Indian Go-
vernment to cope with theterriblefamine which now threatened
a large part of the country.
The PRESIDENT said that one of the most important parts
of the British dominions was India, which contained I'JG
millions of people who were British subjects out of the 235
millions. An immense problem was there presented for sol u.
tion. It was necessary to feed a large portion of that popu-
lation in order to rescue them from the terrible danger of
death by starvation, and upon tiiat ground alone the census
which had been carried out by Mr. Beverley was of the utmost
value.
Sir G. Balfour, M.P., urged the necessity for accurate
statistics relative to India. In 10 years' official reports the
population of Bengal had been varied from 37 to 66 millions,
and the whole population of India was now -iO or 50 millions
more than had been given in previous official statistics. The
statistics of cultivation wheu not altogether wanting were
defective and unreliable. Uaving been an eye-witness of the
horrors of one famine in India, he was exceedingly anxious
that such statistics and information should be collected as
would enable the Government to provide against the recur-
rence of such disasters ; but he feared that in the present case
Mr. Beverley's calculation chat a few thousand lives would be
lost would be very much below the terrible reality.
Dr. MoUATT was also afraid that the loss of life would be
very great, especially among the large number of young child-
ren under 12 years of age. lie regretted that the exportation
of rice should have been looked upon from the point of view
of political economy, and that foreign rice, which would be
much more diilicult to use for purposes of food, should have
had to be imported to supply the deficiency caused by exporta-
tious. He also thought that the distribution of food should
have been conducted through the ordinary channels which
supplied the country, instead of great centres of relief being
organised. Had the produce of the country been quietly
bought up by the Government and distributed through tliese
channels, he believed they would have been in a better posi-
tion to meet the impending calamity than they were at the
present moment. At the same time he avowed his belief that
the Government were doing all that was possible to mitigate
the fearful distress that had commenced.
HIGH-PRICED POTATOES.
Now that the seed catalogues are beginning to be dis-
seminat-ed, it may be as well to put our readers on tlieir guard
against becoming unduly excited over new varieties of potatoes.
The sudden popularity and rapid spread of the Early Rose, and
the large sums of money made out of it during the period of
its comparative scarcity, very naturally led cultivators of a
speculative turn of mind to experiment with a view of originat-
ing other varieties, from which also a golden harvest might be
reaped. The wish for success in this direction has, no doubt,
been father to the thought, that success had really beeu
achieved in some instances. But it is quite safe to say that so
far no such acquisition as the Early Rose has been obtained,
if we except the Late Rose, which would seem to be a sort of
sub-variety or sport of the Early Rose. Again and again we
have had potatoes announced earlier than the Early Rose, and
better in quality, but none of them, so far as we know, have
stood the test of a fair competition with that excellent variety.
For the present, at any rate, we may be content to let well
enough alone, so far as an early potato is concerned. Eor
speedy maturity, size, flavour, healthfulness, and prolificacy,
it certainly has no superior, and its introduction formed a sort
of era in tlie history of our staple esculent. It were unwai-
rautable to conclude that " we ne'er shall look upon its like
again." There is great encouragement to continue experiment-
ing upon new sorts, and the fact that the potato needs renewal
periodically by growing fresh seed from the ball seems to ne-
cessitate this course being taken. But it is very undesirable
that there should be anything like a potato mania,
or that people should get into a fever over new can-
didates for public favour. If a potato really has good
and substantial claims to popularity, as was the case
with the Early Rose, it will soon be discovered, and
a general demand will spring up for it. But it is wise and
well, we think, to he chary of paying a dollar a pound for
comparatively untried varieties, merely because extravagant
things aie said of them in a price-list, seed catalogue, or ad-
vertisement. Tiiese remarks have been suggested mainly by
the perusal of a paragraph or two in a Canadian seed catalogue
just issued, wherein the transcendent excellencies of a new
potato are set forth in most glowing terms. Eight hundred and
twenty-six bushels per acre," and " thirteen bushels from one
pound of tubers planted," are among the statements made con-
cerniog the wonderful productiveness of this novelty. Fur-
thermore, we are told under this head that" yields from 12 to
20 pounds per hill are reported by the hundreds, and in one
instance, 28^ pounds were dug from one hill." Generally
speaking, the most prolific potatoes are not the choicest as to
flavour, mealiness, and whiteness. But this new sort is declared
to be ail exception, and we are informed that" thousands have
testified that they never ate a better potato." Its uniform
mealiness of grain, combined with the purest flavour, and its
snowy whiteness of flesh, which is not the least atfected by its
blue skin, cannot fail to make it highly valued as a family
potato. " All very fine, Mr. Ferguson." We hope it is true,
every word of it. No one would hail the new acquisition
more cordially than we, if all these eulogies are deserved. It
would beat the Early Rose hollow, and leave all other varieties
far in the background. But we hardly think we shall invest a
dollar a pound of these exordinary tubers, unless it be to test
them for the special and exact information of the readers of
this journal. We are rather sceptical about this novelty for
several reasons. One is that the laudation is overdone. We
are not prepared to deny that eight hundred and twenty-six
bushels to the acre, or what is more likely, a small patch at
that rate, may have been grown under peculiar conditions and
highly favourable circumstances, but that it is the habit of this
potato to yield at that rate under fair, ordinary cultivation,
we certainly are not prepared to believe. IMieu, if such
large yields per hill are, as we are told, " reported by tiie
hundreds," and if thousands have testified " that they
never ate a better potato," it must already have beeu dilfused
somewhat widely. Though the seedsman from whose cata-
logue we quote, say, " we now offer it to the public for the
first time," others must have olfured and sold it, more or less,
and if the wonderful tilings already enumerated were true, the
agricultural journals would have chronicled the advent and
achievements of the novelty, and we should have known some-
thing about it from the perusal of our exchauges. A corre-
spondent of T/te Cuiiii/iy Gentleman says of it : " Though
originating in this county, it ii not introduceil much, and all
404
THE FAEMEK'S MAGAZINE.
we know of it is through Messrs. —— (naming a prominent
seed firm). The high price at whicli it was held, and our
previous experience, has made us shy of investing iu it." It
is hardly credible that so superior a potato as this is repre-
sented to be, such a prodigy among tubers, could remain so
unappreciated as to justify the remark, " it is not introduced
much" iu the very neighbourhood where it originated, and
would be likely to be best known. Seedsmen, like auctioneers,
are beginning to be looked upon as untrustworthy, from the
extravagant and unscrupulous manner in which they eulogize
their wares. An immense amount of disappointment and loss
result year by year from these over-fulsome advertisements.
If seedsmen for the sake of a transient run of business will '
resort to this description of puffery the duty is devolved on
the agricultural journalist of cautioning the public, though in
so doing he may have to reflect on a class of people, who
while in the main quite as honest as their neighbours, are
equally liable to an over-keen pursuit of the " almighty
dollar."— The Canada Farmer.
CONSULAR REPOETS UPON AGRICULTURE.
No. III.
THE TURKISH DOMINIONS.
Next to agriculture, sieep- fanning forms the most
important element of native industry, and its results
constitute the second largest item in the local re-
venue in the consulate of Koordistan. But, unlike
agriculture, its development has been progressive, and
the pastorals have been enriched by the stimulus of
foreign capital, which is imported directly for the
purchase of animals for slaughter, wool, mohair, skins,
and butter, by Syrian, Egyptian, Constantinople, and
European traders, to the extent of £200,000 annually for
the two vilayets comprising this consulate. It is entram-
melled, too, by the unbridled rapacity of tax-farmers
exacting dues in kind : au invariable animal tax of two
piastres in cash — a tithe, in fact, calculating the yearly
produce of the animal at twenty pias — being charged on
every full-grown sheep. Sheep- farming by townspeople
of Erzeroum is pursued under a variety of agreements —
each one dependent upon the means of the owner — but
all closely resembling the " metairie " system of the South
of France. Capitalists at a distance from the purely
nomade and pastoral ranges, generally adopt what is, in
the locality, called the " Kome " system. On tliis system
they are supposed to have purchased a pasture, affording
ample grazing for 800 sheep iu spring and summer, and
yielding them a sufficiency of cut-dried fodder for winter,
together with the rude mud buildings for houseing animals
in rigorous weather, and a cabin for the shepherd. The
above number of sheep are under the charge of one shep-
herd, assisted by two boys paid by him, and four dogs to
guard the flock. All labour connected with it, manu-
facturing the produce and rendering it fit for the market,
is compulsory in the shepherd, who therefore tends and
milks the sheep, churns, makes the cheese, washes, shears,
and doctors the animals; but the grass necessary for
winter use is cut and stored at the expense of the pro-
prietor, who pays 1,500 pias (£13 12s. 8d.), or 1^ pias
per day for each animal every season. Additional ex-
penses defrayed by the latter annually are — for salt, medi-
cines, 1 pias per head, and the usual tax. Besides occa-
sional epidemics, rare, which in some years have destroyed
70 per cent, of the flocks, the other diseases to which sheep
seem periodically liable are the strangles, mange, maggots
in the head, and kargun, a malady more peculiar to goats,
which begins by violent sneezing, after which the body
swells, and the animal dies shortly after. The general
average per-eentage of mortality from all these diseases is
10 per cent, per annum— a low rate considering the total
want of care animals are subject to, and entire ignorance
of anything like veterinary skill on the part of the shep-
herd, who alone treats them when ill. Ewes are only
kept till they have entered their fifth year, and have
dropped three lambs, when they are called " kisser " or
barren, and are fattened for sale. The shepherd receives
no money wages, but derives certain perquisites in kind
annually in the number of sheep iu his charge. The pro-
portion of male and female births is three-fifths and Iwo-
liiths respectively. The latter are, of course, kept for
breeding and produce ; the former are fattened on dry
lucerne, and sold iu July or August, after completing their
second or third year, for 10s. to 14$. 6d., according to
age, to the butchers. The sheop get no other food than
green grass during spring, summer, and autumn, and the
same dried into coarse hay during winter. The proprietor
tlieu begins farming, with a capital of £600, with which
he buys 800 sheep, with sixteen rams, and a pasture-
ground sufficient for his flock. According to calculations
given in accounts for three years by Consul Taylor, it
results that a profit of £610 accrues for the three years'
sheep-farming, or more thau 25 per cent, per annum on
the original capital, this exclusive of the value of the stock
for further operations — namely, 584 four-year-old ewes ;
202 three-year-old and 245 two-year-old. Sheep-farming
iu the Diarbekr districts is not so expensive as in the
neighbourhood of Erzeroum, but the profits are less, owing
to higher taxes, comparative distance from large markets,
inferior quality of pasture, and greater heat of climate,
which lessens and deteriorates the produce. There the
Koords, inhabiting the chains and slopes of Mounts Taurus
and jMaisins, permit flocks of 1000 each to range at will
in their localities, on the payment of a fee, for summer
and autumn : during winter and spring they are pastured
in the great jSIesopotamiaii plains at the foot of the above
mountains, subject to a trifling fee to the Arab chief of
the district. The most productive farming iu these dis-
tricts is that of the Miraaz goat, yielding mohair, on
account of the greater value of and demand for its pro-
duce. The quality, although it cannot compare with that
of the Angora or Castamouni goat, ranks next, while the
demand for it is greater year by year, iu spite of inferiority,
from greater comparative cheapness. If kept entirely in
the plains, each goat gives 300 drachms of hair yearly ; if
partly iu the plaiu and partly in the mountain, 250 only;
or, taking very low average seasons, 10 maunds or 16 lbs.
10 ozs. for every J 00 goats — that is, 240 drachms per
head. These animals, costing on an average 9s. Id. each,
require no more care than sheep, the only extra fodder
supplied them being, if they remain during winter in the
mountains, dried oak leaves, collected and stacked in
several convenient localities about their walk by the shep-
herd, at no charge to the proprietor. It is stated, how-
ever, that the kargun disease causes great mortality occa-
sionally among them. Consul Taylor enters thus fully
into the particulars of these branches of native industry
because they alone seem the sole real paying occupations
adapted to Europeans in Armenia and Koordistan, the
profits derived from them being, generally speaking, with
ordinary care aud attention, the steadiest aud most lucra-
tive ; they are, therefore, best worthy the attention of
small home capitalists. The scales of profit given are the
results of the most primitive careless fanuing imaginable,
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
405
and no professional attempts have ever been made to alter
it, or to improve breeds and consequently produce. A
proper selection of animals, therefore, and the admixture
of good foreign blood, coupled vvith the experience in such
matters of Europeans practically acquainted with all the
details of such occupations, would naturally materially in-
crease the profits given, and result in articles more fitted
than at present to the European market. The country
best suited for proposed immigrants would be the high-
lands and slopes of Mount Taurus and Masino, between
Saert Mardin and Jezireh, on the Tigris, and the edge of
the great Mesopotamian plain that skirts their foot in that
direction. The climate is salubrious and water abundant,
nor are there any great hardships or privations to endure
sufficient in themselves to prevent a sober, prudent man
enjoying the same health there as in his native climate.
The only drawbacks are the same that constitute the real
obstacles existing to all commercial activity and foreign
enterprise in these rich interior provinces. They arise,
dismissing the subject of the roads, from the imperfect
dilatory administration of law, and the total want of any-
thing like social organisation among all classes of agri-
cultural, pastoral, and nomade people, anyway removed
from the provincial head centre. The foreign immigrant,
therefore, would have to rely mainly upon himself, and
gain the confidence of half-civilised people with whom he
would come in contact, standing aloof entirely from all
Government officials. Subsequent experience, tact, fair
and generous dealing with the pastorals and nomades
about him, would then surely, though by degrees, exact
from them the amount of security requisite for the success
of his undertaking, which the actual nominal ruling powers
would never be able to guarantee him.
From the report made by Consul Stuart, we learn that
a few years ago the agricultural stock and produce of
Epirus were roughly valued at £1,600,000 a year; the
contribution to the imperial chest, in round numbers, at
£400,000, or 85 per cent, of the whole. The population
was reckoned at 360,000, which figures were probably a
fair approximation about fifteen years ago. Since then,
however, the population has been constantly diminishing ;
and so far as private researches can be relied on it may be
stated at about 313,750. But not only the population,
the agricultural stock is also diminishing. In this country
neither machinery nor the wheeled carriage is employed
in aid of labour. The ox is used for ploughing, &c. ; the
pack-horse for transport. Both are falling off as well in
quality as in number. During the British protection of
the Ionian Isles, the farmers of Epirus used to obtain
supplies of large powerful Vallachian oxen through com-
missariat-contractor's droves. This they can no longer do.
The Vallachian ox has almost disappeared from Epirus,
and all the ploughing is now done with the small country
ox, which is small, light, and of feeble draught power.
But even of these the breed is declining. When the Eng-
lish were in the islands, large numbers of them used to be
fattened for the Ionian markets, which led to some atten-
tion to the breed, and consequently to some improvement.
Now, however, that there is no such demand for them,
they are bred without care or selection, and only iu such
numbers as are absolutely necessary fori agricultural pu^""
poses. In 1S61 it was calculated that there were 29,000
head of horned cattle in Epirus. A large subtraction
must now be made from that number. The herds were,
not many years ago, well thought of. Though small,
they were hardy, strong, and active. Numbers of them
used every year to be bought up for the Ionian Islands
and Continental Greece, as well for the country work as
for the saddle and light carriage. For the demands occa-
sioned by the Crimean War, some thousands of the best
were exported. The deficiency thus created has never been
supplied, and from that time dates the deterioration of
the breed, which every year becomes more observable.
Of the common run of horses now bred in the country,
few would fetch £5 at a fair in England ; perhaps not one,
£10. In 1861 it was made out that there were 13,000
horses and 4,000 mules in Epirus. Well-informed per-
sons are of opinion that both are now less numerous by
at least a fourth. With a declining population, in which
the female sex forms a large and relatively-increasing
majority, and with a falling olf in the animal power which
is employed in aid of labour, it follows almost of necessity
that there is a corresponding falling olY in the pvoduce of
the country. For here no working farmer will burden
himself with more land than he can make use of; and
there is a conventional limit both of day and season work
which is rarely exceeded by man or beast. Before pro-
ceeding further, notice may be taken of the flocks which
form one of the staples of the country's wealth. Last
year the tax on sheep and goats was 3 pias a head, and it
yielded, according to official statement, 5,720,000 pias.
It was levied directly, and the',Governnient was careful to
ascertain the number of the flocks. Judging, therefore,
by the produce of the tax, there were in Epirus 1,'J07,000
sheep and goats collectively, of a year old and upwards.
In 1860 the tax was 2 pias a head, and sold bv auction,
it fetched 5,190,000 pias, which would give *2,590,000
sheep and goats of a year old and upwards. But to this
figure a considerable addition must be made ; for the tax-
farmer, in estimating the number for which he bids,
always leaves a good margin for profit. Taking it, how-
ever, as the correct number, it still shows a declension of
about a fourth iu this branch of ihe country's resources.
No means exist for procuring anything like correct infor-
mation with respect to agricultural or industrial produce.
No statistics are ever attempted ; and as there are many
motives for concealment, all inquiries on the subject are
studiously evaded or misled. But though this is and
always has been the case, certain general conclusions can
be arrived at by observation and by the collection of such
loose data as are currently known. As regards observa-
tion, it is obvious to everyone acquainted with the country
that the breadth of land under tillage is from year to year
becoming less ; and as the mode of husbandry does not
improve, it would follow that the amount of produce
diminishes in proportion. The opinion is general that
the produce of the country is diminishing, and in a ratio,
too, which exceeds the decrease of the agricultural popula-
tion. For in many places the hands are still there, but
the means of tillage are wanting : no cattle, no seed, no
money, no credit. The laud-owners, who are sharing the
general poverty, canuot, as in other times, make loans or
advances to their villagers ; and the money-lender, seeing
their condition, avoids dealing with them. Under these
circumstances the work of agriculture becomes impossible ;
and the villager, leaving his plot of laud fallow, tries some
other way of finding subsistence. He seeks employment
as a shepherd ; or if he has the good fortuue to possess a
few sheep or goats, he devotes all his care to them, in the
hope of raising a flock numerous enough to support him-
self and family. But few, liowever, are in so favourable
a position ; and in many districts the peasants are reduced
to great distress. It is credibly reported that in some
places they are in want of bread, and are forced to live on
wild herbs, roots, and other uuwholesome and insullicient
food. Hence an unusual nmrtality amon^ them, and the
appearance of new and strange diseases previously unknown
in the country. Nevertheless, with all this, the Govern-
ment bates nothing of its claim on the land, the tale of
bricks is not diminished, and the attempt is rigorously
made to exact not only current charges, but arrears ex-
tending back over many years. To those who cannot pay
is applied the law made for those who can but will not —
to wit, first, fifteen days' hnprisonment, failing which,
406
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
seizure and sale by auction of tlie defaulters' personal
chattels, agricultural implements excepted. If the pro-
ceeds of the sale do not cover the defalcation, the balance
is held over to a future time, but remission is never made.
This law is absolute : the exercise of it is often attended
with circumstances of great hardship and oppression ; and
nothing is more dreaded by the villagers than the visits of
policemen sent out to collect arrears of taxes. The pre-
sent Governor-General, Sahfet Pasha, is said to be a very
strict Mohammedan. He has a mosque fitted u)) in Govern-
ment House, where he attends prayers regularly five times
a day, and obliges all his officials to do the same, under
pain of dismissal. He holds but little intercourse with
the foreign Consuls in the place ; and iu his general de-
portment he is said to act, as nearly as present times will
allow, the Turk of a byegone age. Iu all this his example
is more or less imitated by the ]Mussulraans of every class
in the community. They are more distant and reserved
towards Christians than they used to be; and though
sensible of their increasing poverty, they would still, in
some way or other, maintain or assert the superiority
accorded to them by their religion. As they seem to be
incapable of retrieving their sinking state, one is tempted
to believe that they are bent on obstructing all progress
among the Christians, and thereby of keeping them as
much and as long as possible in a condition of inferiority.
If there is any such motive in the spirit and policy of the
governing party, the continued decay of the country is
inevitable.
Agriculture in the Island of Crete was in a depressed
condition, according to the last report of Consul Dennis,
not having recovered the effects of the recent disturbances.
In many, even the most fertile districts, the land had lain
fallow, simply from the want of cattle for the plough, the
beasts having been destroyed during the contest, and the
peasants not possessing the means of replacing them.
Since then, however, wheat and barley had been exten-
sively sown, and copious rains had assisted the cultivation.
It never happens that the crop of cereals so much exceeds
the quantity required for local consumption as to leave
room for exportation. In the most favourable seasons the
crop serves the island only for six months. Corn may
sometimes appear among the exports, but it is invariably
merely a shipment to some other part of the island where
the crop has proved deficient. An average oil crop may
be estimated at 12,500 tons, but in very abundant years
the entire yield of the island will reach 2,000,000 mis-
tatas, or 21,000 tons. The home consumption of oil is
estimated at not less than 6,000 tons yearly — a calculation
based on the fact that there are at least 50,000 families in
the island, and on the assumption that each consumes not
less than 8 okes of oil a month, 800 okes being equal to
a ton. The crop of oil has been somewhat reduced of
late by the destruction of the olive-trees during the insur-
rection, 15,000 trees having been burnt by the Turks in
the province of Ketimo, and 6,000 in Apokorona. As
150 trees will yield a ton of oil, the loss to those districts
is considerable. The principal wine districts are those of
Candia and Kissamos, which includes Canea. The greater
part of the wine grown is consumed in the island ; what
little is exported is sent to Egypt and Barbary ; but more
often small importations are made from Santoriu and
Sauios. The wine of Kissamos and Canea can be bought
wholesale at the growers' stores at from 4d. to 7d. the
gallon : that of Candia is somewhat dearer, especially that
of Agios Myron, esteemed the best in Crete, which fetches
Is. to Is. 6d. per gallon. Of course shipping prices are
higher than these. No casks for exporting wine are to be
had in the island. The wines of Crete are almost always
red — seldom straw-coloured, like many of those of Smyrna
and Santorin. They are both dry and sweet, with plenty
of body, and ripen badly. Were they better known, and
were more care taken in the manufacture, there is reason
to believe that the wines of Crete might compete with
those of Xerez and Marsala in the markets of Europe and
America, and become once more one of the chief exports
of the island, as they were under the Venetian dominion ;
for this is a branch of agricultural industry which is
capable of very great extension. The excellent quality of
the Cretan wine has already attracted the attention of one
of the leading wine houses on the Mediterranean, which
entertains serious intentions of establishing a branch for
the acquisition of wines suitable to the European market.
By the purchase of land and the introduction of skilled
labourers free from local prejudices, the value of Cretan
wiue would be fairly tested. At present it is injured for
the foreign market by the admixture of gypsum, which is
applied in a powdered state and trodden in with the
grapes, under the impression that it imparts strength to
the wine and tends to preserve it. A good silk crop will
reach 30,000 lbs. — that is, if all the silk produced were
spun off'; but in consequence of the brisk demand from
Syria for eggs, much of the yield has been spoilt for the
sake of the moths. The best silk is produced in the dis-
trict of Selino. Cotton is cultivated chiefly in the great
plain of Messara, to the south of Mount Ida. The crop
before the insurrection sometimes reached 2,000 cwt.
Oranges and lemons are extensively grown iu the plain of
Canea, but few in other parts of Crete. Almonds are
grown chiefly in the districts of Candia and Selina, and
to a limited extent. Carobs are largely grown in the
provinces of Candia and lletimo, and the crop, on an ave-
rage, reaches 5,500 tons. The valonia oak is confined to
the province of Retimo. The crop often reaches 1,000
tons. Tobacco was first introduced some eight or ten
years since, and it is not grown iu sufficient quantities for
home consmuption, although the cultivation is unrestricted.
The quality, indeed, is inferior, in great part owing to
unskiifuluess in the preparation. Price about 4d. per lb.
Cheese is produced in many parts of the island, but the
best in Apokoraua and Sphakia. Before the disturbances
it was exported in considerable quantities to Turkey and
Egypt ; but the extraordinary recent demand has stopped
its exportation, and raised its price from 42s. to 693. per
cwt. The quantity of honey produced has also been
limited, although in 1868 it amounted to 7,500 cwt., with
750 cwt. of wax. Very little wool is produced in Crete,
although, from the mountainous character of its surface
and its vast tracts of waste land, it would admit of an
almost indefinite extension of pastoral agriculture; but
its flocks have been destroyed, a^ii it is found necessary
to have recourse to importation to people its pastures.
The native wool is of excellent quality, and sells at 4d.
per lb. The wages of agricultural labourers are generally
from Is. 4d. to Is. 8d. a day, rising to 2s. when the de-
mand is brisk. Spouges abound on the east coast, but
the natives do not dive for them. This hazardous calling
is pursued by Greeks from the islands of Symi, Calymno,
and Khalki, who come yearly in numerous small craft, and
purchase licences to fish for sponges. These duties are
farmed, and the actual farmer is a Frenchman, who also
fishes on his own account, and makes use of a small
steamer and a diving-bell to facilitate his operations. la
the Island of Cyprus the high prices of cotton have en-
couraged the peasantry to plant all available land with
this valuable staple. A favourable circumstance for its
cultivation is the destruction of the locusts, which have
now nearly disappeared from the island, owing to the
energetic measures taken by the Government for their ex-
tinction. Hitherto the season for sowing has been deferred,
on account of that insect's depredations, till the middle ot
June, when the earth has already parted with much of
its moisture. Now the seed can be sown early in May,
and full time allowed for the plant to come to maturity.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
40?
It is to be deplored that the exotic seed which was intro-
duced during the American war is rapidly deteriorating,
owing to the carelessness of the farmers in allowing it to
be mixed with the indigenous kind. "Wiiile there has
been a brisk demand for cotton at remunerative prices,
the demand for madder roots has been limited, with a
corresponding fall in prices. Some attribute this to the
discovery of a mineral colour extracted from coal tar,
which is expected to produce dye cheaper and as fast as
that given by the madder root. The exportation of the
carob tree, known in commerce as the locust bean, con-
tinues with a steady demand from Russia. This is a
favourite crop with the peasantry, as it entails very little
toil — merely ploughing round the roots of the trees, and
the trouble of plucking the pods, which require no pre-
paration for the market. The demand for England is
limited, because, as it is only wrought into cattle-cakes,
the manufacturers cannot afford to pay such prices as the
Russian importer, who disposes of it for human consump-
tion. There is nothing special to note respecting the
other staple commodities of Cyprus — wine, wool, and
salt.
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.
MoJJTiiLY Council, Wednesday, April 1. — Present :
Mr. Holland, President, in the chair ; the Duke of Bed-
ford, Lord Chesham, Lord Kesteven, Sir Massey Lopes,
Bart, M.P. ; Sir A. K. Macdonald, Bart; Sir Watkin
Wynn, Bart., M.P. ; Mr. Booth, Mr. Bowly, Mr. Can-
trell, Mr. Dent, Mr. Edmonds, Mr. Evans, Mr. Brand-
reth Gibbs, Mr. Hornsby, Mr. Horley, Mr. Bowen Jones,
Colonel Kingscote, M.P. ; Mr. M'Intosh, Mr. Milward,
Mr. Eandell, Mr. Rigden, Mr. Riley, M.P. ; Mr. G.
Turner, Mr. W. "SVeirs, Mr. Welby, M.P ; Mr. White-
head, Mr. Jacob Wilson, and Dr. Voelcker.
The following members were elected :
Adamson, John, Colton Hall, Rngeley.
Allwood Frederick, Walsworth, Hitchin.
Bell, Charles William, Roche Court, Salisbury.
Bowick, Thomas, Bedford.
Cranfield, Thomas, Stanford Bury, Shefford, Beds.
Day, Gerard James, Horsford House, Norwich.
Eve, John Richard, Silsoe, Ampthill, Beds.
Farmer, John Edward, Felton, Ludlow.
Finn, G. W., Preston, Favershara, Kent.
Fowler-Butler, Captain Robert, Peudeford Hall, Wolver-
hampton.
Gardner, William Snazell, French Hall, Moulton, Newmarket.
Gillett, Stephen George, Kilkenny, Faringdon.
Godfrey, H. W., Bank House, Thome, Doncaster.
Gripper, Edward, West Wickham, Beckenham.
Jefferies, John Robert, Orwell Works, Ipswich.
Kenyon, Charles Richard, Brynllneydwyn, Machynlleth.
Lamin, John, Bestwood Park, Nottingham.
Langdon, Maria, Flitton Burton, Nortli Moltou.
Little, James L., The Plains, Littleport, Ely.
Newman, Henry, Friars Court, Clanfield, Faringdon.
Ransorae, John, Wheathampstead, Bury St. Alban's.
Rogers, Alfred, Bromham, Bedford,
Wain, George, The Rowney Farm, Market Drayton.
Watson, J. G., East Hoathly, Hawkhurst, Sussex.
Finances. — Colonel Kingscote, M.P., presented the
report, from which it appeared that the Secretary's re-
ceipts during the past month had been duly examined by
the committee and by Messrs. Quilter, Ball, & Co., the
Society's accountants, and found correct. The balance
in the' hands of the bankers on March 31 was £1,120 4s.
7d., and £2,000 remained on deposit. The quarterly
statement of subscriptions and arrears to March 31, and
the quarterly cash account were laid ou the table, the
amount of arrears being £917. The committee recom-
mended that the names of nine members whose addresses
are not known be struck off the books.
Journal. — Mr. J. Dent Dent (chairman^ reported
that the spring number of the Journal for 1874 had
been published, and that it contained the report of the
farm prize competition of last year. This report was
adopted.
General Bedford. — Sir Watkin W, Wynn, Bart.,
reported that the Secretary of the Bedford Local C!om-
mittee had undertaken to make inquiries in refarence to
B supply of cabs and omnibuses. It was also reported
that the committee recommended the letting of Refresh-
ment Shed No. I, provided that the secretary's inquiries
produced a satisfactory result ; that descriptive class
placards be printed for fixing throughout the showyard ;
and that the Midland Railway Company be asked to run
special trains from Leicester and London on ^Monday
morning, July 13, to arrive at the showyard siding, near
Bedford, at about 8.30 a.m. This report was adopted.
Judge's Selection. — Mr. R. Milward (chairman)
presented the report uf the committee recommending the
several gentlemen who should be invited to act as judges
of implements and live stock at the Bedford meeting. This
report was adopted.
Chemical. — Mr. W. Wells (chairman) reported that
the Committee recemmended that the following additional
correspondence in reference to the last quarterly report of
the committee, which has already been published in the
Journal, be published in the agricultural newspapers
in the usual report of the meeting of the Council furnished
by the secretary.
This correspondence referred to the secretary's at-
tempted correspondence with the " Hull Pure Linseed-
cake Association," by means of registered lettersaddressed
to the chairman or secretary of that body, which were
eventually returned to him, as described in the last quar-
terly report of the Chemical Committee :
Azov Buildings, 5, High-street, Hull, Feb. 19, 1874.
Sir, — My atteniiou has this morning been called to a re-
port of a meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, whereat
the Chairmau read a correspondence wiiich is puhlished in the
Mark Lane Express of the 0th inst., which has beeu carried on
with reference to the Hull Pure Liuseed-cake Association,
and in the absence from home of the Chairman, I hasten to
inform you that none of the letters referred to have ever
reached him or myself, or, as far as we know, any official of
the Association. I consider it, however, a matter of such
grave importance that I shall call a meeting of the Committee at
an early date, when the affair shall be most thoroughly in-
vestigated.
In the meantime I will thank you at once to send me the
letters referred to, whicii tlie correspondence states have been
returned to you. — I am, sir, your obedient servant,
H. W. ClIAJIBERS,
Vice-Cliairman to the Hull Pure
Linseed-cake Association.
To the Secretary of the Royal Agricultural Society.
P.S. — I send a copy of this let'.er to The Mark Lane Ex-
press.
The secretary replied as fallows :
12, Hanover Square, W., Feb. 20, 1874.
Sir, — I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your letter dated
yesterday in reference to extracts from a correspondence re-
lating to the Hull Pure Linseed-cake Association which was
read by the chairman of the Chemical Committee at tiie meet-
ing of tiie Council of tiiis Society on tiie 4th inst., and pub-
lished with the otiier minutes of that meeting in The Mark
Lane Express of the 911; .
You iuform me that none of the letters thus referred to
reached either the chairman of the Association, yourself as the
D D
408
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE,
vice-chairman, or, so far as you know, any official of the Asso-
ciation ; and yon request me to send you the letters (as tliey
liave beeu returned to me) prior to a meeting of the committee
of the Association, which you propose to summon lor the pur-
pose of cousiderinfj them.
In reply to your letter, I beg to state that I have twice at-
tempted to communicate directly with the Association by
means of registered letters addressed to its chairman or sec-
retary, and that I liave been informed that at present there is
no secretary, nor. it is believed, chairman of the Association,
and even that it is a line point whether the Association itself
really does or does not exist.
Tliese statements differ so greatly from those contained in
your letter of yesterday, that I must request you to fnrnish
me with a list of the members of the alleged Association, and
the names of the chairman, the members of the committee,
and other officers ; also that you will inform me when and
how tlie committee and officers were appointed, and by what
authority you write on behalf of the Association. — I am, sir,
vonr obedient servant, H. M. Jenkins, Secretary.
11. W. Chambers, Esq., Hull.
At the same time the secretary addressed the following
letter to the firm who had given liim the informatiou
published by the committee in their last quarterly
report :
]2, Hanover Spare, W., Feb. 20, IST-t.
Gentlemen, — With reference to our recent correspondence
relating to the Hull Pure Linseed-cake Association, and to
the sale by yourselves and another member of that Association
of inferior Linseed-cake as " pure" linseed cake to two mem-
bers of this Society, notwithstanding that tlie members of the
Hull Pure Linseedcake Association had resolved tliat "no
other cakes than pure linseed-cakes shall be sold or described
as linseed-cake," I beg to call your attention to the enclosed
copy of a letter* winch I have received this morning.
In your letter to me of January 26 you informed me that
"at present tliere is no secretary or, we believe, chairman of
the Hull Pure Linseed-cake Association, or we would hand
over the whole of the correspondence ;" and m your letter of
January 28 you state that, in your opinion, "it is a fine point
if the Association really does or does not exist."
On the other hand, the writer of the letter, of which 1 en-
close you a copy, states that the chairman is absent from home,
signs himself as vice-chairman, and asserts his riglit to act on
behalf of the Association by stating liis intention of calling a
meeting of the committee at an early date.
[ am therefore directed to request that you will explain the
apparent discrepancies in the two statements. — I remain,
genlleraen, your obedient servant,
.11. M. Jenkin.s, Secretary.
To this letter the followitig reply was received in due
course :
Hull, Feb. 23, 187J-.
Dear Sir, — Li reply to yours of the 20tli, we would draw
your attention to the following resolution passed by the llnll
Pure Linseed-cake Association: "September IS, 1873. It
was resolved that the officers be elected annually ; " and on
September 25, 1872, we have seen a minute in the book, "That
meetings be held the first Monday in every month."
In confirmation of what we have previously stated, we know
the secretary has resigned, for his letter of resignation bears
date February 20, 1873, and the gentleman who oecnpied the
position of chairman told us iiimself that he had resigned, and
his letter of resignation, if we mistake not, bears date June 2,
1873.
Aad now, with regard to the Association itself, we may say,
it has not elected its officers annually, it has not lield its meet-
ings the first Monday in every month, and, so far as we know,
it has not held any meeting at all for twelve months ; and this
could not be for lack of business, because the chairman and
secretary's written resignation had been sent in, and, if there
was any management at all, surely it was somebody's duty to
call a meeting to elect fresh officers. We may, moreover, state
that the expenses incurred in the formation of the Association
in August, 1872, amounting to about £lt, have not yet been
paid — this does not speak much of the financial department.
After this explanation we tliink your Society will admit that
• Namely, that dated February 1!), and signed IT. W.
Ckambers, Vieo-Chairman of the Hull Pure Linseed-cake
Asfiociation."
we have previously written nothing but what is strictly tlie
truth. We may add that we shall cease to use the badge of
the Association ; we never attached very much importance to
it, and we do not wish it to be supposed vi'e have ever done so
with a view of deceiving our customers.
We are yours respectfully, * — .
II. M. Jenkins, Esq., Secretary of the
Royal Agricultural Society.
The following acknowledgment of the secretary's letter
of February 20 was received the same day from Mr.
Chambers :
Azov Buildings, 5, Higli-street, Hull, Feb. 23, 1874.
Sir, — I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your letter dated
20tli inst. A committee of the Association have been called
for Wednesday next, when your letter shall be officially at-
tended to. I am, sir, your obedient servant,
II. W. Chambers,
Vice-Cbairman to the Hull Pure
Linseed-cake Association,
H. M. Jenkins, Esq., Secretary of the
Royal Agricultural Society.
The result of the meeting referred to is contained in
the following letter, and accompanying resolutions : —
Hull Pure Linseed-cake Association, Hull, Robert Blyth,
Hon. Sec. * * * Feb. 25, 1874.
Sir, — Your letter of February 20 has been placed before the
committee of the Hull Pure Linseed-c»ke Association at a
meeting held this day, and at foot we beg to hand you copy of
the resolution passed in reference thereto.
Your re;^igtered letters dated January 1 and 20 appear to
have been received by ' . , , and signed for by one of their
clerks, and that they, on or about January 25, sent the same
in a parcel to ... of the firm of ... an ex-secre-
tary of the Association, but actinij until the appointment of
his successor, who, for reasons best known to himself, returned
the same to you, without acquainting any member of the Asso-
ciation of his having done so, or of the existence of any such
documents.
Until the appearance of the report in T/ie JJfarl- La>ie Express
no member of the committee was in any way acquainted with
the matter referred to.
We r'iraain your obedient servants,
H. H. Ayre, Chairman,
H. W. Chambers, Vice-Chairraan.
Robert Blyth, Hon. Sec. (pro tenij.
H. M. Jenkins, Esq., Secretary of the
Royal Agricultural Society.
[Copy OF Resolutions.]
Resolved : — " That the letter dated February 20, received
from the secretary of the Royal Agricultural Society, addressed
to the vice-chairman, be acknowledged, and that on the former's
compliance with the latter's request, contained in his letter of
the I'Jth inst. — viz., to send the correspoudence referred to,
the committee will furnish the secretary of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society with the list of members of this association if still
required."
Resolved : — "That the letter embodying the foregoing reso-
lution be signed by the chairman, vice-chairman, aud secretary."
The secretary replied as follows :
12, Hanover-square, Feb, 26, 1874.
Sir, — I beg to acknowledge the receipt of a letter dated tlie
25th inst., headed "Hull Pure Linseed-cake Association," and
signed by yourself as chairman, Mr. H. W. Chambers as vice-
chairman, and Mr. Robert Blyth as hon. sec. (pro tern.) of a
body apparently using that title.
This communication refers to my letter of February 20th,
addressed to Mr. H. W. Chambers, which was a reply to his
request for my letters dated the Ist and 20th of January, ad-
dressed to the chairman or secretary of the Hull Pure Linseed-
cake Association ; tliat is to say, to liis riqucst for my attempted
correspondence with an institution adopting precisely the same
name as that at the head of the letter which I received this
morning, but using a distinctive badge or emblem which is not
stamped on the latter.
My letters of January 1 and 20, had, however, been returned
to me with a statement, dated from the same address as the
* These .ind other names and some addresses have been
omitted, as it is unnecessary to specify private individuals in
this correspondence, which refers to the alleged existence of
the Hull Pure Linseed-cake Association,
THE FARMEE'S MAGAZINE.
409
letter rpceived tl.is morning', to the effect tliat tlicre was no
spcre'ary of the Association, it was believed that there was no
chairman, and, in fact, it was a line point whether there was
any Association.
L'nder these circuinstancps, and to enable me to brinsc ofn.
cially be'"ore the Chemical Committee of the Society the letter
leceived this morning and tiie accompanying resolntions, I
must renew my request for tlie information asked for in my
letter of the 19th, addressed to Mr. Chambers, together with a
copy of the rules of the Association, so that the Cliemiciil
Committee may assure itself that the body which is now styled
the " Hull Pure Linseed-cake Association " is the same body
as that with which I unsuccessfully attempted to correspond
on January 1. I am, sir, your obedient servant,
11. II. Ayre, Esq. 11. M. Jenkins, Secretary.
To this letter the following reply and copy of resolntions
were received from Mr. Blyth :
Hull Pure Linseed-cake Association, 23, Iligh-streeet, Hull,
March 4, 1S74..
Sir, — I beg to acknowledge receipt of your letter of
February 25, addressed to the chairman of this Association,
and in reply beg to hand you subjoined extract from the
minutes and copy of resolutions passed at a meeting of the
committee held this day.
1 may just mention that the office of the Association is at
the Chamber of Commerce rooms in the Hull Exchange, and
that a brass plate about 20 inches by 10 inches, with the
name of the Association, lias since its formation been affixed
to the entrance. The former secretary had, as a matter of
convenience, letters addressed to his office , hence the
address given h-.reon. Members of the Association and no
others are entitled to use the badge you refer to.
I am, sir, yonr obedient servant,
RoBKRT Blytii, Hon. Sec. {pro fem).
[Copy of Resolutions.]
A letter from the secretary of the Royal Agricultural
Society, declining to forward the letters alleged to iiave been
addressed by him to this Association, but which he states were
returned to him withont reaching it, having been read, it was
resolved :
" That it appearing evident to this committee that
the Secretary of the Royal Agricultural Society now
wishes to withhold from this Association the letters
above referred to, this committee declines further cor-
respondence upon the subject."
" That the secretary be instructed to forward to the
secretary of the Royal Agricultural Society an extract
from the minutes of this meeting embodying the fore-
going resolutions."
_ The secretary acknowledged the receipt of this eommu-
nication as follows :
12, llanover-square, W., March 5, 1874.
Sir,— I beg to acknowledge the receipt of yonr letter of
yesterday's date and the accompanying resolutions, which I
will submit to the Chemical Committee of the Society, to-
gether with the remainder of the correspondence, of which
they form the conclusion, with a view to their publication as
the sequel to the last quarterly report of the committee.
I am, sir, your obedient servant,
Robert Blyth, Esq. H. M. Jenkins, Secretary.
Of the two registered letters referred to in the above
" Copy of Resolutions" as having been purposely with-
held, the first, dated January 1, was, as will have been
g,alhered from the preceding correspondence, delivered to
a firm in the linseed-cake trade, one of whose clerlo
signed the receipt for it. That firm, on ascertaining that
the letter was not intended for them, did not, however,
return it to the secretary of the Royal Agricultural So-
ciety, or communicate with him in rrfcrcnrc to it at the
time. A second registered letter similarly addressed by
the Secretary on January 20 was delivered to the same
firm, and a])parcntly opened by them. On January 21st
it is alleged that they addressed to him a communication,
of which the following is an extract :
" We received your communication of the 1st January and
also of the 20lh, addressed to the Secretary of the Hull Pure
Linseed-cake AiSjciation, and will endeavour to find out who
occupies that position so that we can hand him documents.
" We do not krow anything of the constitution of this Asso-
ciation, or whether it exists only in name, but we do know
that cake, are being sent out branded ' pure' that ought not
to be so branded, ) roving to our minds thit the only means for
the consumer, who, in order to be certain that he gets justice
done, should connect himself with people wliom he knows to
be respectable, and not begrudge a proper price for a good
article."
This communication did not reach the secretary ; but a
copy of it, said to have been intended for another person,
reached him through the post more than a mouth after-
wards, on February 25th, having been posted in Hull the
previous day. The writer of the letter, on being asked
for an explanation, staled that it was " Evidently a mis-
carriage of the ' post,' to the clTicials of which we have
written for an investigation and on receipt of their reply
we will further communicate with you."
Since the publication of the Journal, the secretary had
received a further communication from this firm, enclos-
ing a letter from the secretary of the Post-ollice, inform-
ing them that the search for the missing letter had proved
unsuccessful.
The committee again direct attention to the practice
of manure dealers, of selling under the name of dissolved
bones, manures which, in point of fact, are mineral super-
phosphates mixed with a small proportion of bone-dust.
A case in point has been brought under the notice of the
committee by a member of the Society, who sent to Dr.
Voelcker a sample of manure which he bought as dissolved
bones, at £5 15s. a ton.
The following are the results of Dr. Voelcker's analysis :
Moisture 18.33
''' Organic matter and water of combination ... 12.48
Mono-phosphate of lime 11.81
Equal to tritensic phosphate of lime rendered
s^oluble by acid (18.50)
Fusoluble pliosphates 12.G1
Sulphate of lime and alkaline salts 38.94
Fusoluble siliceous matter 5.83
100.00
* Containing nitrogen
Equal to ammonia ...
.19
.23
It will be seen that this so-called dissolved bone ma-
nure contained hardly any nitrogen, and could not there-
fore have been made of any appreciable quantity of bone.
In the printed circular of the vendors an analysis of
dissolved bones is given, in which the per-cenlage of
soluble phosphate is stated to be 25.20, and that of
nitrogen .98, equal to 1.20 of ammonia, which is much
higher than the proportion of those constiutents actually
supplied to the purchaser.
Pure dissolved bones should be made from nothing hut
hone and acid ; they cannot possibly be produced at less
than £7 a-ton, and it is therefore difficult to understand
how the vendors should be able to sell dissolved bones at
£5 15s. a-ton. This report was adopted.
Potato Disease. — Mr. C. "Whitehead (chairman)
reported that a circular had been sent to the members of
Council asking them to give the names of large potato
growers in their respective districts, who would be able
to give the results of their experience in potato growing.
In answer to this circular the committee had obtained
the names of good men in most of the large potato-grow-
ing districts, and had ])rcpared a schedule of questions
which will be sent to them directly, desiring information
upon the conditions of soil, climate, aspect, method of
cultivation, varieties of potato planted, kinds of manure
used, the dates of appearance of the disease, and other
important details. 'Ihe committee hoped that a large
amount of most valuable information would thus
shortly be in the hands of the committee for collation,
D D 2
410
and subsequent publicatiuu iu the Journal of the Society,
if thought desirable. It was turther reported that a judge
forScotlandhad not yet been appointed.butthatthecommit-
tee were in communication with a gentleman upon the sub-
ject. Tt was recommended that all expenses should bepaid
to the judges and that a maximum fee, not exceeding one
guinea, be paid, if required, to each of the judges, not
officially connected with the Society, for each day spent
from home in the service of the Society. This report was
adopted.
Show-yard Contracts. — Mr. Randell (chairman)
reported that Mr. Penny, the contractor, had taken pos-
session of the Show-yard at Bedford on March 25, and
that he had commenced the works there. The local
committee had nearly completed the necessary works of
levelling ground and removal of fences ; they had also
advertised for tenders for constructing the roads required,
which they promised should be commenced at once. The
committee recommended that a third ring forjudging
horses be provided, and that it be removed after the first
day of the show. The following recommendations were
also made : 1. That the entrance to the horse-ring stand
be at the back, and the exits at each end; 2. That an
office for the engineers be provided as heretofore ; 3. That
the platform at the entrances be lowered and reduced in
extent, and be level or sloped from the turnstiles to the
show-yard; 4. That seats not exceeding 1,000 feet be
provided and placed in such situations as the honorary
director may select ; that the several boards bearing the
names of the different offices, &c., be repainted where re-
quired. This report was adopted.
iCnucATiON. — The Duke of Bedford (chairman) re-
ported that the committee had had an interview with the
8'ib-committee of head-masters of middle-class schools,
and had considered the draft of their proposed regula-
tions for scholarships to be held by the pupils of such
schools. The committee were of opinion that the pro-
posed scheme of examinations was not sufficiently tech-
nical to enable them to recommend its adoption by the
Council ; they therefore requested the sub-committee of
head-masters to consider an alternative scheme which had
been drawn up by direction of the committee, and to
forward their suggested modifications to the secretary in
writing for consideration by the committee at their next
meeting. This report was adopted, and the usual ex-
aminers were appointed for the ensuing examination for
the Society's prizes and certificates.
A memorial was received from the authorities of Taun-
ton inviting the Society to hold their country meeting for
1875 in that locality.
Mr. Jacob Wilson moved a resolution in reference to
the annual offer of prizes for the best-managed farms,
having for its object the publication of the scheme not
later than August in each year. This resolution was
seconded by Mr. Bowly and supported by Mr. G. Turner.
Some objections to the original resolution were made by
Mr. Randell, who moved the following as an amend-
ment : " That it is desirable that the prizes to be offered
annually for the best-managed farms, with the conditions
upon which such prizes are offered, whether by indi-
viduals or by the Society, be made known immediately aftei
the July Council in each year, and that the Journal Com-
mittee be requested to consider a scheme of prizes and
conditions to be submitted to the Council at such July
meeting." This amendment was seconded by Mr. Dent
Dent, accepted by Mr. Jacob Wilson and Mr. Bowly, and
carried unanimously.
An application from the Devon County Agricultural
Association for engineering assistance in carrying out their
proposed steam-plough trials to be held at -Barnstaple this
year was agreed to.
Applications for the temporary loan of certain of the
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,
Society's testing instruments, on terms suggested by the
consulting engineers, were also complied with.
Two letters from Colonel Maitland, iu reference to
" Quarter Evil," were referred to the consulting veteri-
nary surgeon of the Society.
BATH AND WEST OF ENGLAND
SOCIETY AND SOUTHERN COUNTIES
ASSOCIATION.
Tlie Council Meetinff was held at the White Lion Hotel
Bristol, on Tuesday, March 31, under the presidency of Sir
M. Lopes, Bart., M.P. There were also present Sir J. T.
Duckworth, Bart., Messrs. B. Bremridge, Jonathan Gray, K.
K. M. King, J. C. Moore Stevens, H. G. Moysey, E. Archer,
J. T. BoscHwen, H. A. F. Luttrell, J. D. Allen, H. Btdcock,
Clement Bush, B. H. Bush, W. Crabbe, Thomas Dinger, J.
Tanner Davy, R. R. M. Daw, Thomas Dyke, F. W. Dyraond,
Charles Edwards, Henry Fookes, Arthur Grenfell, John Hallett,
J. D. Hancock, H. M. Hodsworth, James Hole, J. E.
Knollys, 11. St. John Maule, Henry Mayo, James Pitt Pitts,
James Quartly, George Radmore, George Simpson, Henry
Spackman, R. Trood, C. A. W. Troyte, W. H. Walrond, and
R. Wippell.
Colonel Gilbert, of the Priory, Bodmin, was elected a
member of the Council, to supply a vacancy occurring in that
body.
The Bye-law Revision Committee brought up their report,
which, with certain modifications and amendments, was approved
and confirmed.
The Bristol Meeting : The secretary reported, as to the
entries for implements, tliat a miscellaneous department,
chargeable with double fees, had been established.
New Members : Messrs. Vipan and Head ly, Leicester; E,
H. Pennell, Cheriton Bishop, Exeter ; J. Heimessy, Conygre
House, Filton, Bristol ; T. F\ Bissicks, Temple-street, Bristol ;
R. Fookes, Milton Brewery, Blandford ; J. W. Rankin,
North wick-villa, Clifton, Bristol. — [Much of the matter in these
reports is simply advertisement.]
WHICH IS WHICH?— Early in March a depu-
tation from the Central Chamber of Agriculture
waited on the Chancellor of the Exchequer with the
object of urging the repeal of the Malt-tax, when only
two members of the House of Commons attended on the
deputation, Messrs. Joshua Fielden and G. Storer.
During the last week in March another deputation from
the Central Chamber of Agriculture waited on the Premier
with the view of urging the re-adjustment of Local Taxa-
tion, when, amongst others, there were present the Hon.
G. W. Milles, M.P. ; Sir John H. Keuuaway, Bart.,
M.P. ; Sir Baldwyn Leighton, Bart. ; the Hon. E. Stan-
hope, M.P.; Mr. R. Neville-Grenviile, M.P. ; Mr. T.
Eades Walker, M.P. ; Mr. A. L. Goddard, M.P. ; Lord
Henry P. Thynne, M.P. ; Mr. George Storer, M.P. ;
Colonel E. Corhett, M.P. ; Mr. RichaVd Bright, M.P. ;
Sir Edward Lacon, M.P. ; Mr. W. U. Heygate, M.P. ;
the Hon. Wilbraham Egerton, M.P. ; Colonel S. B. R.
Brise, M.P. ; Sir H. Druramond Wolffs, M.P. ; Colonel
R. H. Paget, M.P. ; Mr. W. B. Beach, M.P. ; Major D.
P. Peploe, M.P. ; Mr. E. Pateshall, M.P.; Mr. Lewis R.
Starker, M.P. ; Sir C. H. Mills, Bart., M.P. ; Sir C.
Russell, Bart., M.P. ; Viscount Folkestone, M.P. ; Mr.
John Jones, M.P. ; Colonel J. S. North, M.P. ; Lord
Henniker; Mr. P. Phipps, M.P. ; and Mr. VV. Spencer
Stanhope, M.P. W^hich is which here — that is, which
the farmer's and which the landlord's interest ? It
seems to us that these comparative lists go far to answer
the question.
THE FARMBE'S MAGAZINE.
411
THE HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY,
The monthly meeting of the directors of this Society was
held, on Wednesday, April 1, in the chambers of the Society,
3, George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh, Captain Tod, of Howden, in
the chair.
The Board approved of the letters to the convenors of the
counties connected with the Inverness show anent the appoint-
ment of local committees, which are arranged tlius : Inverness
14, Elgin 10, Nairn 4, Eoss and Cromarty 12, Caithness 8,
Sutherland 8, Orkney 2, Shetland 2.
The annual public examination of candidates for the So-
ciety's veterinary certificate was fixed to take place in the
Society's hall, on the 14th and 16th inst. Candidates mu«t
'enter their names with the secretary on or before the 9tb
instant.
The Secretary read the following report on the resolu-
tions adopted by the meeting of members, held at Glasgow on
the 14thof January, 1874:
Note.— la the following report the resolutions of the Glas-
gow meeting are givin seriatim, followed by the remarks by
the committee on eacii :
Resolution 1. — " That this meeting is of opinion that, con-
sidering the great increase in the value of agricultural stock
and implements, the additional cost of exhibiting (from high
wages and other causes), and the scale of premiums offered by
other less important associations, the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society should reconstruct its premium list on much
more liberal terms, among other changes giving in many cases
substantial money premiums instead of the paltry silver medals
awarded as 3id and 4th prizes." The committee have to
observe in answer to this, that the premium list for the show
to be held at Inverness in July next was arranged some weeks
before the meeting at Glasgow. On referring to it, it
will be found that the number of the money premiums has
been increased from 335 at Stirling to 437 at Inverness, and
that the amount offered — £2,030 16s. — exceeds what was
offered at Stirling by £170 lis., and is £730 more than the
sum offered at Inverness in 1865, while the medium and minor
silver medals have been withdrawn. The scale of premiums
for the Glasgow show in 1875 will be fixed in November next;
and as the directors have sanctioned what is considered a very
liberal list for Inverness, they will be prepared to submit to a
meeting of members, to be held at Glasgow in December, a
list worthy of the important counties embraced in the western
district.
Resolution 2. — That no change will be satisfactory, or merit
the approval or support of exhibitors, which do not include a
reconstruction of the board of directors, so as to give it a
nationally representative character, the western district having
being especially neglected in tiiis respect hitherto." The com-
mittee believe tiiat the directors are always glad to receive any
suggestions from members in regard to the management of the
Society. Since the show was last in Glasow, in 1867, the
Society has had from time to time the benefit of the assist-
ance and advice of the tollowiug noblemen and gentlemen
connected with the western counties who have acted as oflice-
bearers : The Duke of Montrose ; the late Earl of Glasgow ;
the late Lord Belhaven ; Lord Blautyre ; Sir Edward Cole-
brooke, Bart., M.P. ; Mr. Boyle, of Shewalton ; Mr. Malcolm,
of Poltalloch ; Sir Michael Shaw Stewart, Bart. ; Sir William
Stirling-Maxwell, Bart.; the Rigtit Hon. Sir James Eergus-
son, Bart. ; the late Mr. Speirs, of Elderslie ; Mr. Hozier, yr.,
of Mauldslie; Colonel Mure, of Caldwell; Mr. Graham
Somervell, of Sorn ; Colonel Campbell, of Blythswood ; Mr.
Ord Mackenzie, of Dolphiuton|; Mr. Young, Keir Mains ; Mr.
Newton, of Linnbank ; Mr. Baird, of Cambusdoon ; Sir
Henry J. Seton, Steuart, Bart. ; the late Sir Jas. Colqulioun,
Bart. ; Mr. Smollett, of Bonhilll ; Mr. Graham Speirs, of
Culcreuch ; Mr, Pettigrew Wilson, of Polquhairn. Next year,
the show being at Glasgow, the wliole of the vice-presidents
and extraordinary directors will probably be selected from the
Glasgow district, in addition to which, as has generally been
the custom, it is likely that several of the ordinary directors
will be taken from the same district. Tiie directors propose
to carry through a new bye-law, giving the members a power
to suggest to the directors names from whom may be selected
those to be recommended to the general meeting.
Resolution 3. — " That this meeting, while recognising the
improvements in accommodation for stock introduced of late
years, more especially at the recent show at Stirling, would
urge the necessity of a further advance in the same direction,
suggesting the adoption of several of the improvements carried
out at some of the English shows." It has ever been the
anxious wish of the directors and committee in charge of the
general shows to consider the convenience of the attendants
on stock as well as the comfort of the animals exhibited. The
directors are glad that the meeting at Glasgow have recog-
nised the improvements in the accommodation for stock made
of late years, particularly in the late show at Stirling ; and
before the Glasgow meeting was held, it had been resolved, as
far as possible, to improve on what was done at Stirling, es-
pecially in reference to erecting bothies for tiie attendants on
stock, and a refreshment-room for their sole benefit.
Tlie directors unanimously approved of the answers by the
committee on the resolutions adopted at the meeting held at
Glasgow on the 14th of January last. They are aware that
the special committee appointed to consider these resolutions
have given the subject their fullest consideration, and they
embrace this oppoitunity of assuring the members connected
with the western counties of their earnest desire to meet their
wishes where they can do so, keeping in view the usetulness
of the Society and the advancement of agriculture.
The Secretary reported that the sub-committee appointed
to draw up a circular on the subject of aiding the cause of
humane education had adopted the following letter, which had
been sent to the chairman of above 970 school boards in
Scotland :
3, George IV. Bridge, Edinburgh,
31st March, 1874.
Sir, — The attention of the Highland and Agricultural
Society of Scotland has been called to the advantages which
might arise from its influence being exerted towards the en-
couragement of the humane treatment of animals. The
material benefit which all concerned in agricultural pursuits
derive from proper care being,bestowed on the animals m their
possessions, or under thfir charge, seems, independently of
otlier considerations, a sufficient reason why this society should
take a special interest in this subject. It has accordingly been
resolved that both in the premiums offered by the society and
in its examinations for its agricultural diploma and veterinary
certificate, there should be a distinct recognition of the im-
portance attached to the humane and judicious treatment of
horses and other live stock. And if other public bodies can
be induced to use their influence in the same direction, it is
confidently hoped that an improvement may be effected in the
feelings and conduct of those classes of the community on
whom it is desirable that an impression should be made. None
have so much power in this respect as the school board*
throughout the country. Cruelty towards the lower animals
often originates in ignorance or thoughtlessness on the part of
young persons who are in various ways brought in contact
with them, and if opportunities were taken in primary schools
systematically to inculcate on the children lessons of humanity
very beneficial results might be expected to follow. The
directors of this society iu wliose name I address you venture
to bring the matter under your notice, and thatof your Board,
in the hope that the objects they have in view, and which
they consider of national importance, may meet with your
approval, and that the best means of promoting that object in
tiie schools under your charge may receive your favourable
consideration. They would, therefore, suggest that humanity
to the lower animals should be recognised as a necessary
element of education. — I am, sir, your obedient servant,
E. N. Menzizs, Secretary.
Some other business was transacted.
TENANT-RIGHT.— It is said that the O'Donoghue
is about to bring in an English Tenant-Right, framed
ou that of Mr, James Howard as approved by the
Farmers' Club,
412
THE FARMER'S MA.GAZINE.
NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE FARMERS' CLUB.
LOCAL TAXATION AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT.
At the March ^leetipg, a paper on this subject was read by
Mr. Tlioraas P. DoJs, land agent and valuer, of Anick Grange,
Hexham ; Mr. Wallis, Old Ridley, in the chair.
Mr. DoDS said : The indiflfereuce with which these subjects
were long looked upon is, we hope, beginning to pass away; bat
though both Liberals and Conservatives, through their leaders,
are pledged to take up and settle them, we shall still, I fear, have
to wait for some time ere these pledges are fulfilled by the pass-
ing of a comprehensive and satisfactory measure, unless more
pressure is brought to bear upon our legislators; and, as a small
contribution to that object, I consented, at the request of jour
secretary, to write this paper. There is too mucli apathy in
the country generally — too many vested interests which mast
be more or less interfered with, and, in spite of numerous
committees, both of Lords and Commous, too much iguorauce
at head-quarters, both of the practical working of the various
boards having charge of assessments, and of the extraordinary
anomalies and inequalities in assessing those hereditaments
subject to local rates, to give any hope of a large and satisfactory
measure until the present system of local taxation and local
government is thoroughly sifted, not by a committee of eitiier
House of Parliament, hut by royal commission, with full
powers to investigate the whole question. Mucii valuable
information has, no doubt, been collected both by Parlia-
mentary committees and by Mr. Goschen, when president of
the Poor-law Board, hut all seems to have been insufficient
to enable the authorities to produce any practical or workable
measures. All the recent attempts at legislation tended only
to make confusion worse confounded ; and, after reading Mr.
Goschen's report, and comparing it with the voluminous
tables contained in the appendix, one is utterly astounded at
the conclusions he draws from the.m ; aud the bills he intro-
duced as founded upon them were certainly a most " lame and
impotent conclusion." The positions maintained by those
taking an interest in the question of local taxation and local
government are :
1st. That real property bears an undue share of taxation.
2nd. That under the present law of rating there exist great
anomalies.
3rd. That in assessing rateable hereditaments for local tax-
ation there exist great inequalities.
4th. That the machinery at present existing for assessing,
levying, and disbursing local taxes is cumbrous, expensive, and
ineliicient.
To the proof of these propositions I shall now address myself:
]st. That real property bears an undne share of taxation. The
very fact that if two sons are left by their father, say
£5,000 each, and the one buys land, and the other buys into
the funds, the latter has the security of the nation that he
will have his 3 per cent, (or rather more at present prices)
paid regularly, without a penny of expense ; while the former
will have to buy well to get his 3 per cent. ; and out of that
he will have, in addition to income-tax like his brother, the
expense of collecting his rents, of maintaining his buildings,
and local taxes to the amount of £20 or £35 per annum to
pay for objects in which the fund-holder is as niucli concerned
as tiie landholder, is sufficient of itself to establish our position,
had we no stronger proof to bring. Then, again, landowners
and farmers are often taunted with not laying out sufficient
capital for the improvement of their estates aud farms ; but,
when we remember that if either landowner or farmer lays
out £1,000 in improving his estate or farm, the interest of
that £1,000 — which would have got olF with payment of
income-tax while in the funds or lent on niortguge — is no
sooner invested in the soil than it is liable, not only to all the
national taxes it bore before, but for local taxation in addition.
There is certainly not much encouragement here to im-
prove land; and we believe that the increased and
increasing amount of local taxation is quite as great
a hindrance to improvement as want of security of capital.
Tlie fact is, real property is a nice ready thing on which to
saddle any new demand. Seldom a session of Parliament
passes that something new is not placed upon it : now it is
police, now education, now militia stores, and again sanitary
purposes. It began in the time of Elizabeth with the main-
tenance of the poor, aud now I would not undertake to enu-
merate all the various items for which it is taxed. In 1776
the amount of losal taxation was £1,720,000, and in 18u3 the
amount was £16,220,000. It is surely time that full inquiry i»
made into the matter. Those wlio for years have been de-
manding such an inquiry were, prior to 1870, told butli by Mr.
Gladstone and Mr. Goschen that they might get more inquiry
than they bargained for, aud that inquiry would prove that
real property was under-taxed in comparison with other pro-
perty. Since that date, when the result of Mr. Goschen's
inquiry was published, we have heard less of such statements,
though, in tliis very year, the i'iuancial Reform Association
tells the landowners that they are " somewhat imprudent in
disregarding Mr. ;Cobdeu's warning not to put the people ,
upon inquiry into taxation, lest they should dis.;over how they
have been robbed and bamboozled for ages by the aristocracy."
Had new taxes been placed upon the cotton lords, as they have
been upon the owners and occupiers of real property, every
Chamber of Commerce would have been up in arms, and the
country would have rung with it from Laud's End to John-o'-
Groat's. Mr. Goschen in his report labours hard, in good
faith, [ fully believe, to make good his former statement that
real property is under-taxed. In this I think he utterly fails.
He gives in his tables attached to his report the amount of
taxes paid by real property, but he claims, as paid by "other
property," all the taxes not paid by real property." Now, is
any one so ignorant as not to know that by far the largest
proportion of these taxes is not paid by property at all, either
real or personal, but by articles of consumption, to the hin-
drance of Mr. Bright's " free breakfast table," and of John
Bull's free beer ? Again, Mr. Goschen attempts to sail off on
a side issue, viz. — that urban property bears a much, larger
share of local taxation than rural; and, to prove this, he ad-
dresses a large portion of his report. Now this is a proposi-
tion I by no means admit, for a large portion of those burdens
which Mr. Goschen sets down as rates, are, to use his own
words (though he says " may be looked on as" not are), " in-
vestments, not rates." This is certainly true, for what is done
in towns witli the sewerage, general district, and other rates
collectively, is done by the rural owners and occupiers indi-
vidually ; and their outlay for draining, fencing, and other
improvements are quite as much rates as those levied upon the
urban owner and occupier for similar purposes. But, as I
have already said, this is a mere side issue, under cover of
which the main question is passed over. Those who have
urged, and advocated inquiry into, aud a settlement of the
question of local taxation, have never desired that the inquiry
should be anything but full, and the settlement just and lair;
and if such inquiry shall show that urban property is more
heavily burdened than rural, then by all means let it be re-
lieved. The advocates of inquiry have said that real property
— urban and rural — is bearing more than its fair siiare of the
taxation ot the country, aud Mr. Goschen's tables show that
they are right, as 1 shall endeavour to prove, aud, in doing so,
I shall take my figures from Mr. Goschen's tables in as far as
these tables give them. The amount of real property in Eng-
laud and Wales assessed for lucomc-tax :
Tax under Schedule A,in 1868, amounted to £113,872,583
To this add amount excused on properties
between £100 and £200 per annum... 4,700,000
And value of properties of less than £100
per annum 29,100,000
Total annual value of real property... £177,672,588
The amount of personal income assessed
under Schedules B, C, D, and E, (or
the same year amounted to £223,400,000
To this add unreturned income, estimated
by the Commissioners of Inland Re-
venue at _ 17,000,000
The amount excused on incomes between
£100 and £200 13,300,000
Incomes under £100, estimated at 81,300,000
Total of personal income ... £335,000,000
THE FARMEE'S MAGAZINE.
413
The revenue, uational and local, of Englaiul and Wales is
given as follows, viz- :
1st. National, but exclusive of miscellaneous
receipts, sucli as the gross receipts from
]'ost Ollice, Crown Lands, S:c £19,527,001
2ud. Local, includint; all rales, dues, tolls,
fees, &c 21,000,383
Total taxation £70,593,381
The balance of the ~30,519,i}23 which Mr. Goscheu includes
in tiie local taxes, is made up of Government subventions, re-
ceipts Irora property, loans, and miscellaneous receipts, which
v\ hile showing the magnitude of the trust committed to tlie local
authoric.*, can in no sense whatever be classed as ia.ccs. This,
then, bhows the national taxation to be rather over 13j per
cent, on the national income nere the whole derived from direct
taxation, but as the customs, excise, assessed taxes, and net re-
ceipts from the postofHce yield £32,187,931 of taxes on jex-
penditure, there remains only £38,405,400 derived from income,
or rather under 72 per cent. Now, admitting, as I willingly
do, that real propeity should bear a larger share of taxation
than personalty and industrial incomes — a proportion which
Mr. Dudley Baxter estimates at one-fifth — let us see how, ac-
cording to Mr. Goschen's tables, matters really stands. He
states
The national taxes falling upon real pro-
perty at £7,050,337
The local at 10,703,000
Total £23,753,337
or rather over 13^ per cent, on the gross value of the real pro-
perty in England and Wales.
In stating the amount of the taxes falling upon personal
property alone, I cannot follow Mr. Goschen, for, as 1 have
already said, lie makes no distinction between those borne by
personal property and taxes on expenditure. 1 continue, how-
ever, to use hi3 figures, and if any other taxes than the follow-
ing can be fairly shown to be paid by personalty I shall wil-
lingly admit them — viz. :
Isl — National :
Proportion of stamps, including legacy and
probate duty £5,125,851
Income-tax, less assessment falling on real
properly 4,802,829
£10,288,080
2nd — Local :
Dues, tolls, fees, &c 4,303,314-
Total taxes falling on personal property £14,051,094
or Itss than 5 per cent, on the £335,000,000 of personal pro-
perly, even if the whole of the dues, tolls, and fees were paid
by personalty, which they Jare not. But, as part of the inci-
dence of the rates falls on the occupier, I allow them to stand
as paid by personal income.
Ii', however, we add to the £335,000,000
Tlie incomes derived from manual labour,
and which certainly bear a portion of
the above taxes, and which may be
reasonably estimated at 250,000,000
We have £591,000,00i)_
of personal, industrial, and manual incomes, bearing not quite
2^ per cent, of national taxes, as against 13J jier cent, borne
by real property. Mr. Gosclieu lias liimsell abuudautly estab-
lished our first proposition, and we beg to tender him cur
hearty thanks. A Mr. Butlerworlli, dating from Rochdale, in
reply to a lettsr addressed by me some years ago to the Buibj
News, boldly asserts tiiat" real property, as such, is not liable for
payment of rates," that " it is only when land or other realised
property are occupied that rates accrue ;" and that " it is time
• we were rid of the idea that laud, houses, shops, or other forms
of realised properly paid poor rates !'' Tins has at least the
merit of novelty, if savouring somewhat of ignorance. But
does Mr. BulteVworth mean to tell us that when purposing
to take a shop or uaiehouse, having calculated the amount
of rent he can alford to pay, lie gives the landlord the full
amount, and pays llie rates over aud above ? It he docs, he is
simpler, I take it, than his shrewd fellow-townsmen generally
get credit for. But evcu if it were true that it is only " when
land, &c., are occupied that rates accrue," it does not answer
the question " Why is the occupier of real property taxed
at a greatly higher ratio than the occupier in the funds?"
But it is not true that occupation alone makes amenable
to the rates. If Mr. Bnttcrworth buys a piece of land,
aud neither lets it nor occupies it himself, but leaves
it to grow briars or thistles as nature pleases, the de-
mands of the Property aud Land-tax collector, and of the
overseer, will perha|is awaken from his dream that occu-
pation alone makes it liable to taxation. And here again,
personally has the advantage, for if Mr. Butterworth, instead
of buying land and leaving it to nature, locks his money in
his safe, where it will be equally profitable, he will undoubt-
edly escape all demand for t^xes upon it. It is quite true that
a portion of the local rates is incident to the occupier — a por-
tion which those well able to judge compute at one-fourth as
regards land, and one-third as regard houses. Some of our
opponents go the length of saying that we have no grievance
at all, as the rates are not a tax, but a rent charge. Into this,
your time will not permit me to enter, but those who desire
to see a thorough exposure of its absurdity, 1 refer to Mr. Bax-
ter's " Taxation of the Uuited Kingdom," chapter xi., and
proceed to our next proposition.
2nd. That under the present law of rating theie exists
great anomalies. These I need scarcely point out to you,
and shall only notice a few of the most glaring. Because
the Act 43 Elizabeth, chap, ii., which is the foundation on
which all our rating laws is built, specially mentions " Saleable
underwoods," it has been held that land-growing timber
is exempt from rates ; so that if, as in cases I have met
witli, a landlord takes a field of, say ten acres off a farm aud
plants it, the value of the field is at once deducted from the rate.
There are, however, several large landowners, both iuNorthum-
berland aud Durham, who are so convinced of the injustice of
this, that they consent to their land bearing wood being rated
— notably in this district, the Duke of Northumberland, the
Earl of Durham, and Lord llavcuswortli. Again, if a land-
lord retains his land in his own linnds, it is to be rated at its
full value, irrespective of the stock he puts upon it ; but if he
lets the land, and lets it at a rent less than it would bring had
the occnpfcr the whole proJuce, on account of the landlord
retaining the right of sporting over it, and also a part of its
produce for the" mainteiianeo of game, the occupier is rated
only upon what it is worth to him, and the owner is not rated
at all. Again, because " coal mines" only are mentioned in
the Act ot Elizabeth, all other mines of whatever nature, are
held to be exeraiit ; and even fire-clay, so frequently found
aloug with coal, and so valuable an adjunct to a colliery, is, if
wrought by slial't, exempt ; and so freestone, ironstone, &c., if
wrought by shaft, are reckoned as mines aud so exempt, but
if wrought to the day are quarries, and are rateable. Until
the recent decision in the Court of Queen's Bench in the case
of " Guest V. East Dean," even the buildiug and the laud
occupied by waste heaps, &c., connected with mines were not
rated; and Government properly is still exempt from rates.
3rd'. lu assessing rateable hereditaments for local taxes
great inequalities exist. Eor the inequalities existiug in the
ratiuo' of railways, mines, machiuery, maasion houses, &c., 1
refer'jou to a letter on the subject, addressed to Blr. Gladstone
by Mr. T. P. lledley, of Sunderland, than whom no one is
more fuUv acquainted with the subject, or more competent to
give an opinion, and in which he says: " I veuture to assert
that at the present time there are rateable hereditaments which
are cither undervalued or wholly omitted from the parochial
assessments, oftiie annual value of several millions sterling,
and that if the la«s for regulating parochial assessments
throughout England aud Wales be amended so that all pro-
perty which is now by law rateable be fully and iairly rated
aud assessed, the efl"ect will be a more direct and satisfactory
relief to those persons who complain of the increased aud
increasing burden of local taxation than any division of the local
rates and taxes between the owner and the occupier, or alter
ing the incidence of such taxationby iucluding in the parochial
assessments personal property, stock in trade, aud shipping."
llegnrdiug the assessment of land under the present system,
rent is almost invariably taken as the basis. Kow, anyone
whokiiov>s how laud is let, and who takes the trouble to
examine the valu ilion list of any township with which lie is
acquainted, must see that even where the rent* are fairly
given, which is by no means always the case, that the result
is a very unequal asscss:neut. Ou some estates the farms arc
4M
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
held for a long series of years, at moderate rents, in some cases
descending from generation to generation witli slight change,
while on other estates the farms are let at rack rents. Are
these, then, both to be rated at their rents ? The words of the
Assessment Act, 1862, sec. 15, are " The gross estimated
rental for the purpose of the schedule of this Act shall be the
rent at which the hereditament might reasonably he expected
to let from year to year, free of all usual tenants' rates and
taxes, and titlie commutation rem charge, if auy." That is
neither the utmost rack rent on the one hand or tlie very low
rent on the other. If a hereditament is occupied at a low
rent, there may be many reasons why the owner should not
raise the rent. The occupier may have held the premises all
his life, and perhaps his father before him, or by expenditure
of his own capital and ener^ries, he may have made the here-
ditament worth what it is, but these form no reason why he
should not pay his full quota of the taxes. My opinion, tliat
great inequality and mucli hardship exists under the present
system of assessment has not been formed hastily, or on mere
theory, but is the result of ten years' experience as chairman
of the Hexham Union Assessment Committee, and of fact*
coming before me in various unions when valuing for rating
purposes. The following are a few of the cases coming under
ray notice recently : A farm not a hundred miles from New-
castle was rated at 15s. per acre, or just half its value. A
farm of over 500 acres, and valued at £180, is entered in the
rate-book as 107 acres and £90 rent. In a neighbouring
township, upwards of 8,000 acres, standiug at 3d. per acre — a
farm of 2,480 acres, whereof 280 acres are in-field pasture
and the remainder fell — let at Is. 3d. per acre. Another in
the same township of 1,500 acres, with a fair amount of
good grass within a mile of a town, and the remainder poor
grass, and fell standing at 2s. 6d. per acre. Of 5,7§7 in one
township, less than 1,000 appear in the rate-book — one farm
in the townsh'p being entered as 170 acres — rent £313
13s. 4d., and the 170 acres would be cheap at that money, but
there is, in addition, a capital allotment of 350 acres, aud
grazing for 800 sheep on the I'ell. Another grazing for
1,720 sheep entered at £59 14s., or 8d. per sheep. In the
north of this county, two farms, which all the neighbourhood
jjnow are of nearly equal value, stand in the rate-book at
values of some £400 difFereuce. I could multiply instances,
but these may suffice to convince you of the many and gross
inequalities existing under the present system. A fruitful
source of inequality is the deductions allowed for repairs, in-
surance, &e., varying, as they do in country Unions, from five
])f r cent, in some unions to 35 J in others. That is to say, a
property worth £1,000 uross estimated rental would in the
one union be rated on i'950, and in the other on only £643
6s. 8d.— a difference of £306 13s. 4d. Within the Metro-
politan district these deductions vary from 6| per cent, to 33
per cent. Well may Mr. Dudley Baiter say, " Probably there
are not two parishes in England where the local rates are
identical, and the differences are frequently enormous.
4th. The machinery for the assessing, levying, and dis-
bursing the local taxes is cumbrous, expensive, and inefficient"
Under the present law the assessing and levying of the local
taxes is under the charge of a multitude of different authori-
ties, acting separately and independently one of another.
In the Hexham Union there are 72 poor-law townships, in
each of which the overseers act separately and independently
of each other, making their poor-rates at and for different
periods of the year ; 105 highway townships, in each of which
the surveyors make and spend their rates separately and in-
dependently of each other, and the Hexham Local Board,
levying and spending the general district highway, and otiier
rates. We have then, 177 separate and independent ratiug
authorities ; and, in addition to these we have tiie Commis-
sioners of Inland Revenue levying and collecting the house
duty, land tax, and property and income tax.
Then look at the size of area over which these separate
authorities act. In the county of Northumberlaud there «re
546 poor-law »nd 631 highway townships (exclusive of cor-
porations and local boards of health). Of these townships
there are two with no inhabited houses, 11 with only one
house in each, 51 with more than one but under five houses,
and 61 with five and under ten houses. There are thus 124
of the poor-law townships having less than ten inhabited
houses. How is it possible that these 1,200 authorities, with
such multiplicity of interests, aud such limited areas, can work
harmoniously or efficiently ? The Select Committee of the
House of Commons in 1868 reported that " this confused state
of things manifestly entails upon the local officers who have
to undertake the duty of making or collecting rates a great
deal of unnecessary trouble and expense, which your committee
think might be obviated by a more comprehensive and com-
plete system." Now what is the system at present pursued in
assessing and levying the rates — say, for poor-law purposes ?
And bear in mind that out of this rate are paid not merely
the poor, but the county and police rates, the vaccination and
registration fees, maintenance of pauper lunatics, and ex-
penses attending registration of Parliamentary voters. In the
smaller townships the duty of framing the valuation lists',
making and collecting the rate, is undertaken personally by the
overseers, who are not often chosen for their fitness for the
office, but very often the reverse. lu the larger townships
assistant-overseers are paid to do the work, but from the
limited area of the townships, thtir pay is insufficient, and
they are almost invariably eugaged in other business, and their
work as assistant-overseers very perfunctorily and inefficiently
performed. Most of us are old enough to remember the state
of chaos in which township valuations were prior to the in-
troduction of Union Hating and Assessment Committees.
Since the passing of the Union Assessment Act, 1862, the
valuation lists have to be allowed by the Assessment Com-
mittee before a rate can be made, and those who have been
members of Assessment Committees know how difficult it
frequently is to ascertain the real value of the various heredi-
taments within the union. The Committee is very much de-
pendent on the information of the overseers, who frequently
cannot assist them, and just as frequently will not, for fear of
giving offence to a neighbour, who may be overseer next year.
And if, finding it impossible to get correct information, the
Committee is compelled to seek the assistance of a valuer, it
must fisst get the consent of the Guardians, each of whom
must have sufficient notice of the meeting, where it is probable
enough the Committee may be opposed by the very parties
most requiring the servies of the valuer. But if consent is
given, and a valuer employed, inasmuch as a raau employed
only casually requires higher pay than one constantly em-
ployed, it is in the end a more expensive way of getting the
work done than having a county valuer, as after noticed. Sup-
posing the rating witliiu the union is made equal, which, from
the examples I have already given, you will see it rarely ever
is, there are no means of securing equality between unioui.
Upon the ratepayers themselves the present system entails un-
necessary trouble, annoyance, and expense. When the valuation
lists are published an aggrieved party naturally goes first to
the overseers who frame the list, who at once refer him to the
Assessment Committee, and on going there he may be told he
must come on the appeal day, when the overseers of his town-
ship will be present; and then if his appeal is sustained, and
his grievance redressed, he has still the Surveyor ot High-
ways, the Surveyor of Taxes, aud if within a town, the Cor-
poration or Local Board authorities to satisfy, and between
these different authorities he is kept knocking about till he
spends an amount of time worth ten times the amount of the
rate, at which he feels aggrieved, besides undergoing a large
amount of irritation and annoyance. I have, I think, shown
the truth of the four propositions with which i set out, and
you may fairly say " yes, but you have only shown the evils of
the present system; what do you propose as an improve-
ment?" 1st. As to the relief of real property from a portion
of its undue burden ot taxation. I cannot see my way, as some
of our friends do, to rate personal property for local purposes.
This has always been found impracticable where attempted.
The late Sir G. Cornwall Lewis, an authority
we may safely follow, says : " I never heard of
any mode by which it would be practicable to levy a paro-
chial rate on personal property," and again: "as far as I
am informed of the details of rates made upon personal pro-
perty, I doubt whether any such rate could be sustained on
appeal." In Scotland, where it was fairly tried, under the
provisions of 8 and 9 Vic. c. 73, it has been abandoned as
unworkable, as was anticipated by the Board of Supervision
in their first annual report. I would make a clean sweep of
the whole of the present Assessment Acts, as they have been
patched and repatched till, with Acts, and Amendment Acts,
and Acts amending Amendment Acts, and decisions in the
Courts of Law, it is almost impossible to tell where we are,
and in their place pass one new Act showing clearly what is
to be rated, and upon what principle, and also what burdens
\
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
415
are to fall on the local rates. By that Act I would bring
under Local Taxation the luhabited House Duty, wliicli is
strictly a local tax, and which, being most productive in urban
Unions, would remove the inecjuality siiid to exist between
them and the rural uuious. I would also remove from tbe
local rutes and pay from the national taxes, all charges which
are strictly national, and in wliich personal property is as
rauch concerned as re»l. Thij was recommenaed by a com-
mittee of the House of Lords so long ago as 1850. Montes-
quieu savs : " The public revenues are a portion that each
sul)ject gives of his property, in order to secure and enjoy the
remainder." Now surely the owner of personal property is
as rauc'i bound to give a portion of "his property in order to
secure and enjoy tlie remainder" as the owner of real property.
Yet, towards the County, Borough, anrl Police Rates, wliicli
are expended almost wholly for the security of property, he
does not contribute a shilling. Can any one say that really
is more concerned than personalty in the general health and
education of the community P Why, then, should real pro-
perty pay the fees of vaccination and registmtiun, of sanitary
inspection, and of education ? Is not personalty as mncli in-
terested in the registration of Parliamentary voters as realty ;
and also in the maintenance of good roads and bridges on
which to convey persons and merchandise ? Yet all these,
with the maintenance of pauper lunatics, amounting in the
aggregate to upwards of four millions — exclusive of education
and sanitary rates, of the amount of which we can as yet form
only a vague idea — are all paid by real property, but ought
to be paid out of the national exchequer, by which means they
would fall on real and personal property, and on taxes on
expenditure alike. The proposal to put tlie expenses of the
elections of members of Parliament upon the rates I consider
to be most unjust. The vote of a man paying a few shillings,
—it may be a lew pence of rates, or of the lodger paying none,
is of as much weight in the ballot box as liis who is
paying £100. At the same lime, I do not think
the candidates should be called upt)n to pay
more than their own personal expenses of advertising their
addresses and committee rooms (and they ought to have no
other). The returning officers' official expeuses for ballot
boxes, ballot papers, clerks, &c., should be paid by a stamp on
the ballot papers. If a voter does not think his privilege
of voting worth the 3d., or 6d., or Is., as the case may be,
which bis ballot paper would cost, and who cannot find his
way to his polling place at hia own cost, is not worthy of
having the privilege. 2nd. As to the removal of anomalies in
the rating of real properly, 1 would, by the same Act, make
every hereditament from which prolit is, or may be derived,
rateable, not exempting Government or any oiher property.
All mines should be rated on the same principle as coal mines
are now rateable. Land bearing wood at the rate at which
it would be worth to let if no wood were there. Game I
would not late as game, any more than 1 would rate sheep, or
any other stock with which the land may be grazed ; but I
would rate all land at the valueof its producing power, whether
for tillage, grazing, building, or rights ot sporting. If a land-
lord chooses to let a farm at a reduced rent, reserving to him-
self rights of sporting over it, along with a part of its produce
for maintaining game, it is no more a reason why the land
should be rated at a lower amount than land of equal value
where such rights are not reserved, than his reserving a rigiit
to graze so many sheep or cattle would be. I cannot see how you
can rale a thing that 18 liere to-day, and away lo-morrow, and 1
believe that it it the not making this distinction between game
which cannot be valued, and the right of siiorliiig, which can,
that has in a large measure jireveuted a seUlement. The
remedy for the third and fourth heads of grievance may be
taken together. In the first place, I would abolisli the divi-
sions of township and parish, and with them the office of over-
seer, making for all local occasion and local government pur-
poses the poor-law unions the unit. They are large enough
to secure efficiency, and not too large for proper control. The
boundaries, wiiere necessary, might be rectiHed, so that as far
as possible no union should extend into two counties. 1
would also make highway districts compulsory, conterminous
with the unions, and witli a district rate, if they are still to
remain a local burden. The unions I would divide into elec-
toral districts, containing say 1,000 inhabitants each, to elect
guardians and members of the Highway Board, though I see
no difficulty in the same body performing both duties by the
appointment of committees, The powers and duties of the
assessment committees I would extend, making them financial
committees, the members of which to hold a higher qualifica-
tion than that required for guardians, and with the financial
committee should rest the whole responsibility of framing,
subject to the suuervision of the county assessor, the valuation
lists, making and collecting the whole rates required for every
purpose by any authority within the union. To this financial
committee the guardians. Highway Board, corporation, local
board, and every local authority within the union should,
previous to a certain date, send a statement of the sum required
by them for the vear. It would then be the duly of the fiuance
committee to make a rate, sufficient to cover the whole amount,
showing the amount required for each separate purpose, and
the time and place of payment. For this purpose the finance
committee vionld require an efficient officer, whose duty would
be to frame the lists, and make and collect the rates under
direction of the committee, paying the amounts as received to
the accounts of the ditferent authorities. In large unions,
where the work may be more than one man can efliciently
overtake, a clerk or clerks may be allowed him, but I would
retain the responsibility in one person. The consolidated rate
and demand note were recommended by the Select Committee
of the House of Commons in 1868. The committee of 1870
recommended that, on administrative ground, the rates should
be paid half by the owners and half by the occupiers ; and
that the owners be represented at the boards directly, and not
as at present by the magistrates resident in the Union sitting
ex officio ; and in this I think the committee is right, as it;
would give the owners a more direct interest in the adminis-
tration, and where leases exi>t it would throw the half of the
burden of new rates, and of the increase of existing ones, upon
the owners. Some parties have advocated the collection of all
tl\e direct taxes by this committee, but I nius^ say I think it
better that the national taxes should be collected by officers
appointed by, and responsible to, the Government. I would,
however, make the valuation lists, as settled by the finance
committee, the basis of all direct taxation — national and local.
For the purpose of framing these valuation lists, the committee
should have all the powers which the County Rate committees
now have, and also, when required, the assistance of the county
valuer. I should also abolish all deductions for repairs, insur-
ance, Jcc, which, as I have shown, act so unequally, and rate
on the gross estimated rental. Regarding the county expendi-
ture, while I do not think that the appointment of county
financial boards will lessen its amount, as I believe the magis-
trates are hs careful as financial boards are likely to be, yet, as
it is right that they who pay should liave a voice in the dis-
bursing, I do not see liow county financial boards can be ob-
jected to. They would consist, first, of members appiinted by
Government, it those items of expenditure to wliicli I have
alluded are paid Ironi the national funds ; second, of members
appointed by the owners ; and third, of members, representing
the occupiers, who might be the chairman and vice-
chairinan of the union financial committees. The county
Financial Boards should be empowered to appoint a county
valuer, who would act as clerk to the board, and make all
valuations required for rating purposes within the county, and
geuerally to see that the valuation lists are properly attended
to. The duties of the board itself would be to superintend
the expenditure for county and police purposes, for the main-
tenance of pauper lunatics, and those other purposes men-
tioned at pa^es 17 and 18 ; to hear and determine all appeals
from the unions within the county. One of the members ap-
])ointed by the Guvernment might be a barister with a salary,
wlio would keep the board right on points of law, and in
addition act as stipendiary magistrate. The County Finance
Board thus constituted, where ajipeals from the unions could
be heard with or without the intervention of lawyers, would,
I am convinced, be a much more satisfactory Court of Appeal
than that we have at present. From its decisions there would
of course still remain an appeal to the Court of Queen's Bencii
on questions of law, a privilege which would, I expect, be but
seldom exercised. In conclusion, 1 feel confident that if the
suggestions 1 have made are adopted, the result will be a
uniformity of assessment hilheito nnattained ; a large con-
tribution to the local taxes from property hitherto untaxed;
a large saving of expense, and the removal of the cause of
many complaints, and of much irritation and annoyance.
Since writing this paper my attention has been called to an
article in Tlie Atlantic Monthly for January last, on the
" Theory and Practice of Local lasatiou in the United States,"
416
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
ia which the difficulties of taxing personal property for local
purposes is shown, and that the growing tendency of the de-
cisions of the Supreme Court is to put a stop to it. Of course
in America the separate State Governments not only increase
the difficulties, but make the question one of more importance
than it is here. The writer sets out by saying : " It is known
to all who have examined ti;e subject that a hundred years
ago, or less, the law makers of England entertained very
generally the same opinion in regard to the tiieory of local
taxation which is yet popularly received iu the United Slato,
namely, that in order to secure exact justice and equality it is
essential to attempt to subject all property of the tax-payer —
real and personal, tangible and intangible, visible and invisible
— to one uniform rate of valuation and assessment. Aud
although it must then, as now, have been evident to every
one, on reflection, that in order to do this it would be necessary
to endow the assessors with more than mortal powers of per-
ception, so as to enable them to see what was invisible and
measure what was intangible, and incorporeal (debts and
credits for example), and tliat, in default thereof, this practical
application of the theory must result in absurdity and in-
justice; yet it is curious to note that the change in English
taxation, when it came about, was not due to any such pro-
cess of reasoning on the part of the people, or to any positive
enactment on the part of the State, but rather to a series of
legal decisions by its courts, which gradually undermined the
whole system of British local assessment, until it tumbled
I down, as it were, imperceptibly, and gradually became replaced
j from necessity by a theory which approximated more closely
j to the principle of political economy and the dictates of
; common sense."
Tlie C1IAIR1MA.N said the paper was so exhaustive that he
j thought the meeting would not; have any remarks to make.
There was iu a condensed form everything that could be said
and known about local taxation, aud not only as to the in-
equalities which exist, but also very sensible reasons for their
being altered.
Mr. WiLLiAU Bell (Harlow Hill) moved that the paper
be printed, and copies forwarded to eacli member, and that it
afterwards be discussed. It contained information of a very
valuable description.
Mr. George Hedley (Newcastle) seconded the motion
and it was carried unanimously.
Mr. Stephe>'son (Throckley) had very great pleasure in
moving a vote of thauks to their friend Mr. Dods for his able
paper.
Mr. Robert Bell (Newcastle) seconded the motion. He
had been very much pleased with the paper, and he thought
its general tenor would commend itself to the members. He
thought the subject sliould be taken up by the Legislature,
and all the Acts upon it brought into one.
The motion was carried by acolam?.tion.
PENRITH FARMER S' CLUB.
THE LABOUR IIARKET.
At the latt meeting, Mr. James Mitchell, of llowgill Castle,
read a pajier on " The Labour I\Iarket, and how to deal Tvilh
it," Mr. \V. liesket, I'lumpton Hall, in the chair.
Mr. Mitchell did not anticipate any dissent from this —
that the labour market was one of great importance to all
employers of labour, and of late it had become a market that
excited their serious and grave attention, pregnant as its
future seemed to be with a scarcity of tlie raw material — bone
aud sinew. As yet there had only been peaceful agitation;
he hoped tiiat tlie waters of the turbulent Atlantic had been
archeil over, aud that tiie agricultural labourers of Great
Britain, Ireland, Canada, and America would for ever after-
watds be placed in the same market, lie did not tliink that
any person would wish to return to the good old times, when
the agricultural labourers were ill and inadequately remune-
rated for their labour ; and the less so when tlie farmer was
getting better value for his produce, especially for his live-
stock. One thing only could bring about sucli a reaction iu
tlie labour market, and that was a complete change in the
money value of agricultural produce, aud a reduction of some-
thing like 50 per cent, iu the price of coal and material. Ills
experience of the world was that tlie man \>lio wauled
Naaman's wealth must take Naaman's leprosy along with it ;
and if we would have hi^ih prices for our produce, we must be
prepared to pay liberally for the labour necessary to its pro-
duction, remembering the high Authority who said, "The
labourer is worthy ol liis hire." Iu making these remarks he
wished to guard himself against misconception ; iie was not
bidding for vulgar popularity ; he was not pandering to a
vitiated taste or a disorganised state of things ; and he cou'.d
assure them that while he was in favour of justice to the la-
bourer he held with equal tenacity that the employer was en-
titled to the faithful, conscientious services of Ins workmen,
and that proper care should be taken of the employer's i)ro-
jjerty as if il belonged to the workman himself. He was sorry
to think that in this last particular many of our farm-servants
were greatly deficient ; and lie commented strongly on their
conduct in often meeting together, seemingly tor the only
purpose of excelling in the most childish, cowardly, aud wan-
ton— he had almost said devilish — destruction of the property
of some umjlTeudiug neighbour. But it was to be hoped that
now the schoolmaster was abroad, and for the future it was to
be treated as criminal for any youth over 13 years of age to be
lound ignorant, this vice would be overcome and utace
and quiet regain their sway. Mr. Mitchell next adverted
to emigrition schemes. As a resident for many years in Aus-
tralia lie spoke upou this point with some authority, and he
said half tlie emigrants wlio left their country and then re-
turned disconsolate had made a grand mistake in ever going
away at all. Before selling out they had not realised the diffi-
culties awaiting the emigrant, aud so tliey were not prepared
to meet them. To all intending emigrants lie had to say,
" You must make up your mind for roughing it ; you must
prepare yourself to tight life's battle manfully, and tliat in a
very primitive and ))atriarchal fashion, with a tent for a cover-
ing— if you fortunately possess such — and a log of wood or a
stone for a pillow," On the whole, he ditl'erred with those
who objected to Mr. Arch's scheme of free emigration, on the
principle that tree trade in one thing, free trade in all things.
If hundreds of emigrants were coming home, he said let Mr.
Arch's thousands go out. Let the scheme alone ; already it
was working its own remedy. Besides, if it was founded on a
rock nothing could prevail against it; if founded on sand it
would speedily totter and fall, lletnrning to the home labour
market, he said that while he did not think the scarcity would
diminish, he did not believe it would increase ; nor did he
look for any change in prices either up or down for some lime
to come. Therefore he adjured brother-employers not to ves
themselves about what they could not mend ; but let them go
forward like nu-u determined to meet difficulties with the
facilities at cojiiraand. Aud this brought him to the question
— How was the work of the farmer to be profitably carried
ou under existing circumstances? But first he wished to
explain as to an increase of wages among some of their local
brethren, whose farms were close to the Settle and Carlisle
line, that the increase was solely owing to the demand for
labour in the completion of that line ; but he was of opinion
that even when the line was completed, rates would not re-
cede to their original price, though with the enlarged facilities
the railway alf jrded they \»ould then be iu a position to get a
labourer Irom whatever distance they wanted him. Iletutning
to the broad question, Mr. Mitchell recommended that one
way of meeting the dillicultics occasioned by the scarcity iu
the labour market was putting into requisition the most im-
proved implements of husbandry ; and he then proceeded to
make some praciical observations upon the use of several of
these implements. He also suggested that it was a matter of
importance to farmers, in the conduct of their farms, that their
middensteads should be closed in ; and he also held that well-
arranged and comfortably-arranged buildings for the stock
were a sine qua noa tj successful farming. Attention to these
matters — to the food and comfort of the stock — along with
the outlay of further capital by farmers, he considered would
work most satisfactory results, bring in handsome returns, and
THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE.
417
more tliaa meet the euhanced rates in tlie labour
market.
The llev. J. Brukskill generally endorsed the views con-
tained in the paper just read, but lie strongly advocated au
extension of tlie cottage and albtment systems, as induce-
ments to agricultural hbourers. lie would liave each labourer
in possession of a cottage, and tliree or four acres of land on
whicii lie could keep a cow and pig or two, and iu the manage-
ment of whicli he could utilise the labour of his wife and
family, and any spare time he might have, lie feared tlie
depletion of the agricultural labour market was going on more
rapidly than we had imagined, and he did not see any prospect
of a return to the old employmf iit of the hands uow leaving
it. Another complication was hire. Husbandry was not a
branch of industry into which you could import men : they
must, as it were, be grown to it. This was an additional argu-
ment in favour of the allotment system, for it was necessary
tiiat something should be done to bind more closely tlic
labourers to their present avocation, lie looked upon the
allotments made rather in the light of savings' banks for iheir
extra labour. When agriculturists turned their attention to
other pursuits, it was not so much the increased wages they
obtained as the increased comforts the.y experienced that made
them remain iu them. If a man were allowed to have tliree or
four acres of land to cultivate, it would be a sort of savings'
bank, and bind both himself and family to the soil, and the
quality of labour would be improved instead of depreciated.
In many instances the agricultural labourers were the most
thankless and careless class we had. Only a short time ago a
farmer told him that a careless boy had cost liim £50 in one
year, through tiie great loss he had sustained by the abuse of
ills horses and other animals. Wow, nothing but training
with the animals they had to attend would teach lads to have
a feelintr for them.
Mr. Jameson asked how it was that the supply of agricul-
tural labourers liad been so small, and was becoming still
smaller, notwithstanding that there was an increase in the
population.
Mr. Mitchell : There can only be one answer to the ques-
tion, and that is, that tliere is a higher remuneration for their
labour elsewhere.
Mr. C. J. Smith said it was a remarkable fact at the pre-
sent day that not only farmers, but others in various branches
of trade, experienced great diilieulty in procuring a suiiicieut
number of hands, as well as in managing those whom they
did employ, lie believed that although every man ought to
have for iiis labour sullicient remuneration to enable him to
live comfortably, as a rule, shorter hours of labour and an in-
crease on the rate of wages tlicy had at present would be a
curse instead of a blessing to the working classes. It seemed
to him that the men now wanted to be masters : they wanted
to go upon the principle of the Americans, who declared that
all men upon the face of the earth were equal, except niggers,
in fact, iu England they appeared to be carrying that principle
a good deal fuither ; fur they said, in elfect, that men were
not only equal, but that Jack was as good as his master, and
a deuced sight better, lie feared that the plan proposed by
Mr. 13runskill, to give every farm labourer a cottage and some
three or four acres of land, would hardly succeed, because if
a labourer possessed so much land, its thorough cultivation
would require a great portion of his time, and he would have
very little to devote to his master. Now, he believed that the
wages of the agricultural labourer in tlic Nor;h were very
much higher than they were in the South of England ; and he
thought that something might be done in the way of equalising
labour and its remuneration if there was a meeting of deputa-
tions from agricultural societies sscli as that to consider t!ie
whole questiou. They might then be able to compete with
Mr. Arch himself, who was simdiug Ejglish agricultural
labourers over the water to America. By a more equal dis-
tribution of labour, they would increase its value in one part
of the country where it was too low, and reduce it iu another
part where it was too high. It had been said that the agri-
cultural labourers of tlie South were not equal to those in the
North, but he believed that experience had proved that such
was not the case. Some people were sanguine enough to
believe that education would prove the great antidote lor the
settlement of the labour question ; but he believtd that ihcy
might educate the labouring classes to such an extent as to
place them above the work they would otherwise perform,
lie believed, too, that for the ploughman who knew his busi-
ness thoroughly well to be able to read and write and cast up
accounts was all the education that was necessary for his
position ; and he was convinced that such a man would go to
his work far more happily and ellicicntly than if his mind was
stored with a knowledge of botany or geology. Education
was a very excellent tliiug, but, like many other excellent
things, it may become an evil. Over-education would never
conduce to the happiness of those who are engaged iu low-
class manual labour. The labourer of the present day — at
least in -many instances — was not the man he ought to be.
He reminded him of what was written by Beaumont and
riet.:her in one of their plays :
Eor I would live iu a good house.
And have a good master too ;
And 1 would eat and drink of the best.
And no work would 1 do.
Although men generally get a good day's wages fur their
work, he hardly thought that in many cases they did a good
day's work for their wages. With regard to the disposal of
the increased wa;;es, the Inland ilevenue account showed that
the large increase iu the general receipts was derived almost
entirely froui the sale of spirits and beer. The duty upon
these commodities had been increased last year by £l,l7i,9-i7.
IIow many millions more did that represent as the increase
in the amount expended in driuk ? The sum must be enor-
mous, and by far the greater portion of it came out of the
pockets of the working classes, with their large wages and
shorter hours of labour. So far as they were able to judge
from these returns, increased wages did not contribute to the
morality of the working classes.
Mr. Lazonui' said there could be no doubt that labour was
growing dearer, but look at the increased prices which the
farmer was obtaining for his beef and mutton, and the " fancy
prices" at which the farmers' wives and daughters said their
butter and eggs. The settlement of the labour questiou would,
to a great extent, depend upon supply and demand ; but he
saw no reason why a labourer should not sell his services in
the best market. Some men talked as though the labouring
man had no right to ask for sulliident wages to support him-
self and his wife and family decencly. lie had such a right ;
but it was apart from his duty to support men who thought
they ought to get a living, not by working like their fellows,
but in going about the couutry organising unions and siicli
like. No one could say the men were wrong in combining to
improve their position. During the increased dtmaud for
labour labouring men had had the advantage of it — they had
a better market for their services ; but as labour became more
abundant these things would be regulated accordingly, lie
had seen a good deal of the cottage system, and of the allot-
ment system, and he could not concur with Mr. Brunskill.
Give a labourer four or five acres to attend to, and he woull
have enough to keeji him empluyed. The farmer would liiid
hira come sauntering up to his work about the middle of the
day, with the excuse that the donkey or the pig had been ill.
His whole interest would be centred iu his pig and donkey,
and he would not care anything for the interests of the
firmer. He thought that the high prices of labour and its
scarcity were inconveniences that would shortly adjust them-
selves. Fanners must at present bear with these things.
Never mini labourers' unions, and such like, and matters
would presently tiud their level. There were two consequences
he noted from existing affairs — the one, that farmers would
emjiloy their own children on the fariiis more thau they had
been wont to do ; and the other, that many small farmers,
unable to bear the prices, would give up their farms, and them-
selves and their families become labourers. This would tend
in time to reduce the jiressure on the laboui' market.
Mr. BKU.N'SiiiLL asked ?lr. Lazonby how a labourer iu a
cottage, with no ground allotted to him, could economise the
labour of his wife and lamily ?
Mr. Lazonuy said he was sure that the farmer who em-
ployed the labourer could find employment for his family us
well.
Mr. Jameso.n ascribed the present high price of labour to
an excess of capital in the country, and the kecu competition
among employers of labour — farmc^rs were employers ol labour.
The labourer knew that the enqdoyer could not get on without
him, and therefore he stuck up for high wages, and there was
no option but to give tiiera. How were these wages to come
down? He must confess that he did not see much prospect
418
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
of a reductiou at present, and he looked forward to a time
when the farmer would fiad that the advanced prices he got
for his produce would not compensate liira for the increased
wages he had to pay. Then he would not be able to pay tiis
rent, and there would be a general break up. This was a
gloomy picture, but it was what he thought. To his mind
there was little chance of a change iu tlie price of labour till
tiiere was less competition among capital, and less capital em-
ployed in the purciiase of labour.
Mr. Lazonby said he should be sorry to see the labourer
getting less wages than he did now.
Mr. Jameson moved a vote of thanks to J\Ir. Jlitchell for
his paper, which was seconded, and unanimously adopted.
Mr. Mitchell, replying, said he thought there was some
misunderstanding about this cottage and tiie allotment system.
Mr. Brunskill argued that if this allotment system was carried
out the children of the labourer would be reared on this bit
of ground to follow ia the footsteps of their parents ; but he
thouglit they might be equally so reared by being employed
upon the farm where their parents were located. Many farm-
ers were tenants at will ; they had no leases ; and that being
so it was evident that the tenancy of any allotment of land
they might make to their labourer would be siill more preca-
rious thin their own. Then the labourer could not be ex-
pected to iiave any capital, and how could he work his bit of
land profitably to himself?
Mr. C. J. Smith, in moving a vote of thanks to the chair-
man, said he could only hope that they would have a little
new life infused into the Club. The two last papers that had
been read, and by teuaut-farmers too, were the best he had
heard. If, therefore, certain individuals did not choose to
attend the Club, because they thought it was not a farmers*
club, it was their fault, and not the fault of the Club.
THE
12th clause.
At a meeting of the Herefordshire Chamber of Agriculture,
the President, Mr. J. Pulley, in the chair, the attendance was
very small.
Tlie Pkesidejjt drew the attention of the meeting to the
first notice upon the agenda paper, which was " To renew dis-
cussion upon the subject of compensation for unexhausted
improvements." Ue said he should be very glad to hear the
opinion of any member of the Chamber with respect to the
12tK clause of the Landlord and Tenant Bill, whicli appeared
to be the clause which had the greatest influence upon the
question before them, and it seemed to him that it made the
whole character of the bill. The wording of the clause was
as follows : " Any contract made by a tenant after the passing
of this Act by virtue of which he is deprived of his right to
make any claim which he would otherwise be entitled to make
under this Act shall, so far as relates to such claim, be void
both at law and in equity." The President also said that he
could not help thinking "that property had its duties as well as
its rights, and that the clause wliich he had just quoted was
OLe whicli would give tlie tenant encouragement to perform
those duties which the landlord might neglect. The clause
appeared to him to be clear, concise, and straightforward, and
when such a clause existed he could not see why any amend-
ment to it should be proposed, or why, in other words, they
should attempt to do by a side wind what could be done by
plain sailing. He thought that besides looking at the inte-
rests of landlords and tenants, and at agricultural interests
generally, tliey were also bound to look at the interest of the
country ; and that all these questions connected with the im-
provement of agriculture aiifected the community at large,
inasmuch as they had much influence upon the increase of the
produce of the country. In Ifgislating upon the subject it
must be remembered that they were not legislating for the
benefit of a class, but for the public good; and he thought
that it would be to the interest of all to secure the legislation
of any measure calculated to increase the produce of the coun-
try, so as to make us less dependent upon foreiitn supplies.
The Earl of Derby, who was at present Foreign Minister, in a
speech made in September, 1871, said he believed it was pos-
sible that the produce of wheat by this country could be
doubled. This statement was confirmed by Lord Lancaster,
who was pn hjps as thorough an agriculturist as Lord Derby
was a poliiieiau, and was supported by the last report of Mr.
Caird upon the state of agriculture in the country. In the
face of this he held that it was to the general interest to sup-
port such a clause as would encourage the landlord and tenant
to develope the cultivation of the soil, and give due security
for any improvements which might be made to that end. It
had always struck him as a curious fact (and he had no
doubt that the inhabitants of this county would be able to
apppreciate his feelings) that, though we had got our live
stock generally to a most perfect state, we had not developed
our land in a similar way. The reason that our live stock
was in this condition was that it could be done without inter-
ference from the landlords ; while, on the other hand, though
we might develope our land, we knew all the while that it
might be that we were doing it for the benefit of other people.
But this clause would enable us to develope it for our own
benefit, and he should like to ask the opinion of the meeting
whether it was desirable that it should remain a portion of the
new bill or not. He regretted that Mr. Read had joined the
Government, as he thought he would have been likely to have
served the agriculturists better as an independent member than
in that capacity. Mr. Read and Mr. Howard had prepared
the bill together. Both were practical agriculturists, and tlie
president did not think that they would liave been likely to
have introduced the clause unless they were satisfied that it
was to the interest of the community at large to do so.
Mr. Carpenter, in rising to move a resolution upon the
subject, said he was sorry that he could not congratulate the
president upou having a larger attendance on that occasion,
though he could most sincerely do so upon the lucid manner
in which he had dealt with the question before them. He had
prepared a resolution to propose for their adoption; but he
was dubious whether he should not hate couched it iu stronger
terms had he first heard the pointed remarks of the chairman.
Circumstances uilfered, and, tliough there were landlords who
would be ready to subscribe to the I2th clause as freely as the
chairman, there were many (those whose land was heavily
mortgaged, for example) who would not be so ready to enter-
tain the subject in such liberal views. With respect to the
comparison which the president had made between the produce
from live stock and (rom the crops, he (Mr. Carpenter) felt
assured that if the same protection was given for the one as
for the other, and if the bill before tliem could be passed in its
integrity, there would be no lack of agriculturists ready to
embark their capital in improving the soil, and they would
net hesitate to do so. To illustrate the disadvantages under
which they now laboured, he might state ihat a case had
recently come under his notice in this county in which a
farmer whose family had occupied his holding for three gene-
rations had been stimulated by his landlord to invest money
in improvements in the land, and when, in the course of two
years, he had sunk some £50U in this way his landlord gave
him notice to quit, failing his submission to a half-guinea rise.
He thereupon quitted the farm in disgust, and it was subse-
quently let to another farmer at a rise of only 2s. 6d. per acre
more than he had been paying. However, had the bill before
them been in operation, he would have had this capital of
£500 returned to him to set up with in another farm, and in
view of this principle, and also of tiie undesirability of arbitra-
tion in the matter of improvements when there was a dispute
(his experience being that the arbitrators generally sided with
tlie landlords), he begged to move the adoption of the follow-
ing resolution : " That this Chamber is of opinion (1) that
compensation for unexhausted improvements is just and right
to a tenant, whilst upon the other hand compensation for
dilapidations and deteriorations should be secured to the land-
lord from a defaulting tenant ; (2) 'J'hat Legislative enactment
should give both landlord and tenant the above-named se-
curity."
Mr. J. Morris seconded the resolution, which was carried
unanimously.
The President, with a few comments upon them, sug-
gested, in liew of the smallness of the attendance the post-
THE FAEMBR'S MAGAZINI].
41 &
ponement of any disctissiou upon tlie oilier subjects hoticRd
upon the agendi* — "The appointineat of a Minister of Agri-
culture and Commerce," "Highway Legislation," and
" Locomotives on Common Roads." Tiiis sufrgestion was acted
upon, and a vote of thanks having been passed to th.e Presi-
dent for presiding, the meeting adjourned.
THE GRASSES AND FODDER PLANTS OF AUSTRALIA.
(Ills Excellency the Governor has directed the plblication of the eollo-w'ing paper, re.u) by Dr.
SciioMEUKOK, Director of the Botanic Gardens, before the Chamber of Manufactures) :
No doubt you will agree with me that in the Household of
Nature tliere is not a more important tribe of plants than that
of the grasses, as upon the seeds of the cereal division more
than two-thirds of the population of the globe subsists. The
same remark is also applicable in regard of the animal world.
To the graminivorous animals, wtiich are the most numerous
amongst the mammalia, the value of grasses as fodder is hardly
second to that of corn for humnn food, and a considerable
portion of tlie feathered tribe live also upon the seeds of
grasses. Without wheat, rye, barley, cats maize, Guinea corn,
rice, what would become of us? It is said that rice alone
forms the food of three-fourths of tlie human race ; in other
words, of between six and seven hundred millions of the
population of the world. As mithiug can be uninteresting
which is connected with tlve habits of a tribe of such vast
importance to man and beast. I will, before proceeding to the
real object of this evening's lecture, mention a few more illus-
trative facts. Professor Jjindley says in his work, "The
Vegetable Kingdom," the u.se of tliis most important tribe of
plants for food, fodder, clothing, &o., requires little illustration.
The abundance of wholesome Itecnla contained ia their seeds
renders them peculiarly well adapted for the sustenance of man ;
and if the cereal grasses only, such as wheat, barley, rye, oats,
maize, Guinea corn, rice, are the kinds commonly emplayed, it
is because of the large size of their grain compared with tliat
of older grasses, for none are unwholesome in their natural
state, only one kind being known amongst the whole tribe,
namely, the drake {Loliiin iemulenium — Liu.), the effects of
which are undoubtedly deleterious. Sugar is a general product
of grasses. For economical purposes grasses are often of much
importance. I will only mention the bamboo, which in some
parts of the world, especially in Asia, is employed as timber
and cordage. Plants of a grass, culled in South America
" Taquarussa," are living fountains. They grow from thirty to
forty feet high, with a diameter of six incites, form thorny
impenetrable thickets, and are exceedingly grateful to travel-
lers and hunters ; for on cutting' such a reed below a joint,
the skin of the jounger shoots is found to be full of a cool
liquid, which quenches the most burning thirst. To this I can
testify, as, during our travels in South America, we hailed
with delight such a copse of reeds to quench our t'lirst.
Besides tliese properties of the grasses I may also mention
their use for paper, cordage, straw platting, &c. In fact, the
value of this order to mankind is boundless, and I should
trespass too much on your patience if I ventured to tell yon all
of the economical purposes to which the products of the dif-
ferent grasses are applied. Besides these properties of the
graminaceae their inorganic products are also remarkable. The
cuticle contains a large proportion of silex, as is proved,
according to Professer Lindley, by its hardness and by masses
ofvetrified matter being found whenever a haystack or heap of
corn is accidentally consumed by fire. With the exception of
the genus tainbusa (bamboo) Nature has not lavished ou the
representatives of this most important and interesting order
of the vegetable world much outward beauty, uor has the
enthusiasm of ancient and modern bards been excited by them,
as is the case so frequently in praise of other plants, which
have been endowed by Nature with every beauty to please the
eye, but without the slightest use to mankind. I think we all,
indeed, are apt to look on the grasses with too much indilfer-
encp, considering that they constitute in a great degree the
staff of our life. Professor Lindley says further : " The great
mass of herbage known by the name of sedges and grasses
constitutes perhaps a twelfth part of the described species of
flowering plants, and at least nine-tenths of the number of
individuals composing the vegetation of the world ; for it
is the chief source of that verdure which covers the earth,
especially of northern countries, with a gay carpet during the
year." I extract the following account of the geographical
distribution of grasses by Professor Shaw: "The family is
very numerous. In the system of Koemer and Schubles tliere
are 1,800; and since this work, were it brought to a con-
clnsion, would probably contain 40,000 in all, it may be as-
sumed that the grasses form a twenty-second part. It is more
than probable, however, that in future the grasses will increase
in a larger ratio than the other phaneorgauic plants, and that
perhaps the just proportion will be as one to twenty, or as
one to sixteen." Greater still will be their pronortion to
vegetation in general when the number of individuals is taken
into account, lor in this respect most, if not all, of the classes
are inferior. With regard to locality in such a largo family,
very liltle can be advanced. There are, however, both laud
and water grasses, but no marine plants. They occur in every
soil, in society with others and alone; the last to such a
degree as entirely to occupy considerable districts. Sand
appears to be less favourable to this class ; but even this has
species nearly peculiar to itself. Grasses exist under the
equator, on the mountains of the south of Europe, where thev
ascend almost to the snow line and on the Andes. The
greatest dilference between tropical and extra-tropical grasses
appears to be the following : The tropical grasses acquire a
much greater height, and occasionally assume the appearance
of trees. ^ Some species of humhusa are from fifty to sixty feet
high. The leaves of the tropical grasses are broader, and
approach more in form those of other families of plants.
Separate sexes are more frequent in the tropical grasses : the
flowers are softer — more downy and elegant. The extra-
tropical grasses, on the contrary, far surpass the tropical in
respect of the number of ludividuals. That compact, grassy
turf which, especially in the colder parts of the temperate
zones, in spring and summer composes the green meadows and
pastures, is almost entirely wanting in the torrid zones. The
grasses there do not grow crowded together, but, like other
plants, more dispersed. The contribution of the cultivated
grasses is one of the most interesting of all subjects, and I
begyou will indulge, and not grudge me if 1 go into lengthened
detaile of this interesting point. It is determined not merely
by climate, but depends on the cultivation, industry, and
tnittic of the people, and often on historical events. Within
the northern polar circle, agriculture is found only in a few
places. In Siberia grain reaches, at the utmost, only to (iO degs.,
in theeastern parts scarcely 55 degs., and in Kamtschatka there
is no agriculture even in the most southern parts (51 degs ),
The polar limit of agriculture on the north-west coast of Ame-
rica appears to be somewhat higher, Icr in the more southern
llussian possessions (57 to 52 degs.) barley and rye come to
maturity. On the east coast of America it, is scarcely above
50 or 52 degs. Only in Europe, namely in Lapland, does the
polar limit an unusually high latitude— 70 degs. Beyond this,
dried fish, and here ami there potatoes, supply the place of
grain. Tne grains which extend furthest to the north in
Europe are barley and oats. These, which in the milder
climates are not used for bread, afford to the inhabitants of
the northern parts of Norway and Sweden, of a part of Siberia
and Scotland their chief vegetable nourishment. Rye is the
next, which is substituted for the inferior kinds of grain.
T'iiis is the prevailing grain in a great ])art of the northern
temperate zone, namely, in the south of Sweden and Norway,
Denmark, and in all the lands bordering on the Baltic, the
North of Germany, and part of Siberia. U is a very remark-
able circumstance that the native country of wheat, oats,
barley, and rye siiould be entirely unknown ; for, although
oats and barley were found by Colonel Chesney apparently
wild on the banks of the Euphrates, it is doubtful whether
they were not the remains of cultivation. This has led to an
opinion on the part of some persons that all our cereal grasses
are artificial productions, obtained accidentally, but retaining
their habits, which have become fi.xed in the course of ages.
420
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
Having attemptpd to impress on yoxir minds tlie importance of
lliis most valuable and interesting order of tliR vegetab'e
world, upon which the existence of the human race main'v
depends, I will now go over to the subject of this evening's
lecture, namelv, "The grasses and fodder plants which may bs
beneficial to the squatter and agriculturist in South Aus-
tralia." No doubt you will agree with me that there are few
circumstauccs to whicii the agriculturist and squatter of tiiis
colony have been so inattentive as to tlie nature and produce
of their pasture lands, namely, the grass and fodder plants.
It is also true that tlie cultivation of artificial grasses and
fodder plants will, and never can be, so general liere as at
home on account of the large extent of pasture land in the
possession of the squatter, and on account of the insuperable
difficulty arising from climate and the droughts to which some
parts of the colony are often subjected, which is against the
cultivation of most of tlic artificial grasses ; and there are not
many European and foreign grasses whicli would live tbrongh-
out the year, and renew themselves annually. I will say
first a few words regarding our native grasses, of which I am
sorry to say so many species liare already died out from culti-
vation and depasturing since possession has been taken by
Europeans. It is an liistorical fact, whenever man settles in
a new country lie exercises a potent influence over the indi-
genous vegetation and animals, especially if the intruders are
of an agricultural and pastoral pursuit. The plough, the axe,
the herds arc enemies to vegetation, and, as cultivation ad-
vances, one representative after the other succumbs to the
foreign influence. The herbage sufTers first, the native animals
second, and even man succumbs, of which many countries,
especially America, have given us examples. But the plough,
the axe, the herds are not the sole destroyers of the native
herbage — no. AYith cultivation are introduced noxious weeds
of other countries, which, if they have taken ground, spread
with alarming rapidity, and become possessors of the ground,
growing often more luxuriantly in their new abode. As an
example, I will call your attention only to seven such noxious
intruders in South Australia — viz., the so-called dandelion
{Cryptoslemnia caleiuliihicen, R. Br.), tiie cockspur {Ceniavrea
■melilensis, Lin.), the Scotch thistles {Cell they may be
adapted to the more mountainrus districts. In a few
years the herd had increased suGiciently to hold an auc-
tion, and the first sale of young bulls among the tenants
took place in 1852: eleven were sold at £11 10s. average.
The next sale then took place in 1854, and have been con-
tinued yearly.
The herd numbers about a hundred females, and of
these a large number are of tlie Isabella tribe, which went
originally from Mr. Booth to Mr. Fawkes, passed into
the possession of the Rev. Thomas Cator, from whom it
came to Iieland. But the catalogue tells the story better:
" The Ardfert Abbey herd was established about 1840.
Cows of good pedigree were from time to time added,
and the majority now are of the Warlaby Isabella tribe,
through Mr. Fawkes' Medora by Ambo ; the Gwynne
family, from Jlr. Troutbeck in Cumberland ; Mr. Pea-
cock's Duchess strain (tracing to Mr. Booth's Governor
and Robert Colling's Wellington), brought over from
Yorkshire by Mr. Welsted, the tribe still forming part
of the Ballywalter herd ; Mr. Watson's April Daisy by
Mr. Booth's Belshazzar, another fine old Yorkshire sort ;
and jMr. Stokes' Daisy, imported by Mr. Christy, and full
of Nottinghamshire blood. Among the earliest sires
were Monarch (13340), a son of the prize bull Bamboo,
and Mr. Chaloner's Admiral (12340) by Mr. Booth's
Baron Warlaby, both noted prize-winners. The cele-
brated bull Lamp of Lothian (16356) (gold medal year-
ling at Dublin 1858), of the Isabella tribe, succeeded
them, and was followed by Nobleman (18457), Castle
Grove (19408), and Northern Light (24670), all bred by
Mr. Grove Wood from the Fame tribe. Mr. Booth's
Royal Sovereign (22802) was also in service at Ardfert,
and at the present time Mr. Bruere's Regal Booth (27262),
and Mr. Chaloner's Irish Baron (31417) are in use."
In 1862, the stock rose into distinction. The Ganly
challenge cup and first prize for yearlings at the Royal
Dublin Show went to Crown of Athelstanc (19532).
Crown of Lothian (19533) followed in the same wake
the next year, and in 1864 Ravenswood repeated the
successes of the two Crowns, and with this triple honour
]Mr. Crosbie retired from exhibiting at Dublin. But how
went the averages ? — that true thermometer of public
opinion. In 1865, eleven bulls averaged £35 lis. 5d. ;
but it was found the small number of bulls supplied the
richer men, who beat the poorer tenants out of the bull
market. The number of bulls was then increased. Last
year twenty more averaged £32 4s., and on Thursday
the twenty-seven averaged £35 10s. Many of these go
into distant counties ; still, the object is maintained, for
if a tenant cannot aftbrd to go to the price of a good-
looking bull, he can secure a useful animal at less money,
and if his prejudices will allow him, he might take a
white at almost steer price. The cows run out nearly all
the year, and their calves with them. In one large field
were sixteen cows and capering calves; in another a
score of good heifers ; whilst many of the uncalvcn cows
and bull-breeders were in the solid stone farm-buildings.
These are excellently arranged on the pit system, with
tramways for feeding ; but it does not seem the most
healthy method for rearing young stock on a hotbed of
accumulating dung, however good it may be for bullocks.
A good substantial lunch was served in the granary, to
which everyone was welcome. The bulls were shown out
two at a time, and the auction took place near the build-
ings. Most of them were January and February calves,
which were allowed to run with their dams till about
Midsummer; they are theu brought in, suck their dams
twice a day, get a little oilcake and meal, and a gambol
occasionally in a paddock. Towards the end of October
they lose their milk, are pat into the boxes, and fed until
the sale. Consequently, they come out not only well-
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
439
p:rown, but hardy and ia good condition. Lot 3, Royal
Howard, of the Isabella tribe, a grand thick-lleshed roan,
created quite a sni'prise ; and, after good bidding from
two or three Irish breeders, was sold to .Mr. Candlish for
tlie Earl of Cawdor's estate in reuibrokeshire at SG gs.,
the highest jirice yet reached by auction at Ardfcrt.
Royal Earl, another good roan, similarly bred, went for
61 gs. to Mr. Scott, Queen's County, and Captain Her-
bert, M.P., got Von Booth at the same price for his
Killarney tenantry. Royal Harry goes to Colonel
Charteris's estate at Cahir at 45 gs., and others remain in
Kerry and Limerick at good prices. Some fat cows and
draft heifers were sold, one of which, ^laid of Orwell,
was bought by Mr. Cramer, of Kinsale, at 30 gs. Those
tenants who pleased were allowed to put up their own
bulls after the sale. Mr. McDonnel exhibited a very
fine three-year-old bull, and another very good yearling
was shown before being sent up to Dublin Show. The
good, healthy condition of these bulls, and their clean
state, did the tenants right good credit. But they seem
well up to their business. The Tralee Show encourages
good stock as well as crops and farming, and last year
seventy-three prizes were won by the Ardfert tenantry,
and thirty-seven prizes for stock alone. It is this system
of " Home Rule" that will tend to remove the discontents
of Ireland. Estates in the south and west, numbering
thousand upon thousand acres, and containing a popula-
tion of several thousand inhabitants, are comparatively
unknown to their owners, and the capital grown from
the soil is taken out of the country without adequate re-
turn. Absentee landlords might take a profitable lesson
from the good example set at Ardfert, where comfort,
order, and prosperity reign.
A little below INIallow, on the Blackwater River to-
wards Lismore, is to be found another good herd of
Shorthorns, the property of I\Ir. Wclstcd, of Ballywalter.
It is one of the oldest in Ireland, and entirely descended
from cows which its large-hearted owner has imported
from herds in England, principally from Yorkshire. His
bulls have also been brought over. The late Mr. Maynard
supplied him with Puritan and Lord Raglan ; but j\Ir.
Welsted's autumnal trips among the herds in the North
of England soon led to the conviction that bulls should be
used from the best herds, and consequently the Warlaby
herd has for nearly the last twenty years supplied Mr.
AVelsted with bulls. The new house is beautifully situated,
overlooking the valley of tKe Awbeg, aud oear it is some
of the richest pasture in county Cork. Mr. Welsted
adopts a dilferent system to most breeders. He sells his
bull-calves in the autumn instead of the spring, and the
prices may be lower, yet the winter's keep and anxiety
are saved. For ]\Ir. Welsted, hale and hearty at three-
score years and ten, still lives four days a week with the
foxhounds, and only recently he hunted over the same
ground where just fifty years before he had had a great
run. The cows are all put to in the spring, so as to calve
early in the year, and the calves suckled for a few days.
They are then milked ; and the clean, nice udders were a
striking feature in the herd. Oilcake has not been used
for fifteen years. Eight hundred acres do everything —
grow turnip and mangold and oats, which are bruised and
given to the young stock. The calves are, as the grass
grows, allowed to run out, get a little good sweet hay,
and, with the bruised oats, come out in capital condition
by autumn. As we strolled into the fields at noon, after
such a torrent of rain in the morning as is rarely seen this
side of the Channel, the cows came up to the gate, before
going in at night. Large, good, roomy animals they are,
straight-backed and round-ribbed, with thoroughbred-
looking heads, and the neat curled horn indicative of the
breed. The heifers are kept out night and day ; although
thin, they have abundance of hair, and constitutions that
might be envied by animals of fashionable blood. They
are bulled at two" years old, and are mostly sired by
Prince Christian, ason of Mr. Booth's fine white cow
Alfreda, whose other son, England's Glory, is now in
service. Roans predominate, and reds, and there is
scarcely a white, and not an indifferent animal in the lot.
Broad "backs, strong loins and ribs, and neat fine shoulders
are their characteristics, and so uniform are they that it
is difficult to find the best. A few animals arc occa-
sionally sold ; others go olT fut to Cork. " A mountain
of beef, yer honour— a mountain !" The average runs up
to about £35, and pays good interest for the pure Booth
bull, as well as enhancing the value of the herd. So
from year to year it increases aud multiplies, and its
feeding properties are sown, like good seed, around on the
country stocks, whose ofl'spring gradually leave their
native" shores, and find their way a wearisome hungry
journey, exposcil, after the heat of the vessel, to the cold
winds "at the English ports, yet, nevertheless, reach York,
and even distant Norwich, such good cattle the admira-
tion of every beholder aud the desired of every farmer and
grazier who uses them.
PENRITH FARMER'S CLUB,
CATTLE BREEDING.
At the last meeting called, to liear a lecture by Mr. Finlay
Dud, of Weston, Shipstouon Stour, on the Curiosities of Cattle
Breeding, the vice-President of the Club, Mr. W. Heskett, of
Plumpton, w«8 in the chair.
Mr. Dun read the following paper : More favoured than
many soutliern or eastern countries by those mists and rains
which proverbially drop fatness, Cumberland has for generations
very properly devoted herself extensively and successfully to
cattle breeding. The agricultural statistics of 1873 record that
you were possessed of 128,538 head of cattle, of which 55,000
were under two-years-old. The long-headed farmers of this
picturesque county of hill and dale, years ago discovered that
rents aud profits must be found iu hum rather than in corn.
Whilst elsewhere cattle were gruniblingly kept at little or uo
profit, merely to tread straw into manure, tlie selection of the
right sort, and their constant good management, have enabled
CiiMibfrlaud meu to make caltle hrecdiuf; and leeding a pnilit-
able department of the (arm. The general attention devoted
to the subject, the wholesome spirit of emulation created by
your shows and clubs, have steadily improved the cattle of
Cumberland, and given them si^e, substance, early maturity and
quality. A few crack henis of Galloways still remain ; but
here, as elsewhere, the cosmopolitan Shorthorn has shouldered
aside the older sorts. Prom the pedigree herds of your own
county, from Mr. Pergusou, of llarker Lodge, Mr. Curvven, of
Workington Hall, aud latterly, from Messrs. Iletherington's,
Mr. Paweett's, Mr. Jefferson's, and other good herds at home
or abroad, the tiest of sires have beeu sought. Ungrudgingly,
tenant-farmers, for the breeding merely of dairy stock aud
steers, have given 100 guineas for really good bulls of substance
and symmetry, and where men had not the scope or means to
secure such a sire on their own account, ratiier than put up
with a second-rater, two or three ucighliours have clubbed to-
gether and bought a thoroughly widl-bred bull of shape and
character. In most districts of your county this system has
b-en enterprisingly fuUowed up. Well would it he for farmers
themselves, as well as for meat prodiu-rrs generally throughout
the country, wore greater pains h^Ktowcd in llii> spjeetion of
better sires. Very freipiently evi-u iu good dairy districts do
we hear the observation : "Any bull will answer;" " I sell the
heifers down calving;" or, " I do not rear the calves;" and
thus sometimes out of a tolerably good dtiry cow a me .u mou-
F F
440
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
grel race is propagated. A few pounds are badly withheld in
a bull of character and pedigree which proves usually the sire
of some fifty or sixty calves, each of them worth at least 30s.
extra if. they were well got, worth 40s. or 50s. more than com-
moner beasts when they are a year old, and double that amount
when they go out fat at about two years. Mated witli most
dairy herds, a good consistently-bred bull, whether Galloway,
Angus, Hereford, or Shorthorn, is notably prepotent — the
stock partakes more of his character than that of the cows
witli which he is put. From rather a mixed mongrel lot of
cows a good bull will frequently leave a very uniform and su-
perior lot of calves foUowiug their sire notably iu size, style,
hair, and colour. As a general rule the best bred parent im-
presses its character more strikinkly on the pogency — a strong
argument for using only sires of sound accredited descent.
Still another consideration points to the importance of using
first-rate male animals. Whilst the progency inherit in toler-
ably equal proportion the qualities of both sire and dam, some
of the most prominent and selling qualities of cattle are chiefly
inherited from the sire. Size, skin, hair, horns, or absence of
horns, the bony frame and general mien usually follow from the
male ; whilst the intirnal organs, temper, aud constitution,
come more notably from the female. Thus, a Shorthorn bull,
on a West Highland Galloway or Ayrshire heifer, will produce
a calf usually witli much more Shorthornlappearances than can
be got from the Shorthorn cow with the West Highland Gallo-
way or Ayrshire ball. I have frequent opportunities of seeing
the cross between the Shorthorn bull and the polled Angus
cow, and also the reverse cross between the polled Angus bull
and Shorthorn cow. From the first cross the progency are
modified shorthorns, with much of the colour and appearance
of Shorthorn, and usually with horns ; from the second they are
modified polled Angus, with admirable backs, loins, and ribs,
with tlie skin, hair, and hornless head of the Angus. In like
manner, wheu it is desired to impart particular appearance or
plumage to any breed of poultry or pigeons, it can be done
much more effectually by using the male of the sort tliat is to
imitated. This law was first propounded by Mr. Orton, wlio
illustrated it by crossing many desbriptions of animals. The
principle is very familiarly exemplified iu the cross with the ass
and mare, as compared with the stallion and she ass. Foremost
among the principles which guide the careful breeder is the
axiom that " like produces like." In sacred writ the fiat is set
forth that every living thing shall bring forth alter liis kind.
Iu obedience to this familiar law, a tolerably uniform type
transmitted generation by generation iu each of the fifty-five
European breeds of cattle, and in like manner the character-
istic features are preserved of the nineteen British breeds.
Shape, size, style, colour, early maturity, and milking properties
are alike hereditary. Indifferent and objectionable characters
unfortunately are equally liable as first-rate points to reappear
in the progeny. Accidental and unnatural peculiarities are
constantly propagated. The Niata cattle of South America
have multiplied from a single accidental specimen, and herds of
thousands of these deformed creatures are to be found with
their distorted jaws, short noses, and upturned nostrils. In
Tartary a fat tailed race has been cultivated, the most prized
being white, and the sort breeds perfectly true to its kind. In
Banda oriental is a race with their hair lying reversed. A well-
known Lancashire breeder, from a single cow with ears deeply
cut into strips as if for the purpose of identification, has for
thirty years bred numbers of this "jimp-eared" sort, and
although no pains are taken to keep up the peculiarity by cut-
ting tlie ears of those calves dropped without the distinction,
and although no bull with this feature has been used, many
Iieifer calves continue to come marked as deeply as at first.
The tendency to various diseases is notoriously hereditary, con-
sumption, rheumatism, and parturient apoplexy, constantly run
in families. Recently I heard of a heifer, wiiich at her first
calving was discovered to liave one quarter of her udder faulty
and mis-shapen, and exactly resembling the corresponding
quarter of her mother's udder, which had been damaged by an
attack of garget. But like does not invariably, constantly, sla-
vishly produce like. Were it so, there would be little oppor-
tunity for the improvement of our domestic animals," for
moulding them to their various styles, for adaoting them to
their particular localities. The race has a strong family like-
ness, but every individual has its own distinct features and
peculiarities. Darwin and other observers have shown that
amidst the myriad ants in a large hillock, or the bees in a well
filled hive, each individual has distinctive features which cause
him to be recognised by his fellows. Almost every leaf in the
same great tree has its special character. Even in the most truly
bred flock or herd, the careful attendant has no difiiculty in
distinguishing each animal, however alike they may appear to
the casual observer.
No being on this earthly ball
Is like another, all in all.
Varieties amongst individuals aud the tendency to occasional
variation enable the agriculturist, the poultry fancier, and the
horticulturist — for similar laws apply tolerably certainly to the
vegetable as to the animal kingdom — to seize, propagate, and
extend various individual and accidental peculiarities. In this
way have arisen the several breeds of cattle. Taking advantage
of this law of variation, the breeder often secures special sym-
metry, precosity, and other qualities which are subsequently
increased and fixed by selection. Thus a cattle beast, which
accidentally fails to grow his horns, bfcomes'the'progenitor of a
hornless race. Forty years ago, in Yorkshire, cattle were bred
with extraordinary wide loins and rumps, but the peculiarity
inherited by the calves rendered parturition so difllcult aud
dangerous that the breed was discountenanced. The law of
variability, guided by good taste, has lately improved in various
respects our breeds of cattle. Style and quality have been
sought for and cultivated, and added to the size and substance
which more especially characterised some of the older indige-
nous varieties. A heavier, earlier matured carcase is grown
upon shorter legs ; gaudy, cartilage-padded rumps, five and
twenty years ago so common, especially among Shorthorns, have
fortunately been \^eeded out; well sloped, nicely covered shoul-
ders, open between the blades, are sought for by good judges,
and the rough blades and outstandiag knuckles of forty years
ago have been superseded. In many localities milking pro-
perties have been unjustifiably sacrificed to flesh. The tendency
to variation appears more decided in males than in females. It
is often brought out in a marked way, when two somewhat alien
strains are mated. Even accidental variations, as already in-
dicated, are apt to become fixed and permanent. In still ano-
ther striking manner the principal that like produces like is set
as it were at defiance. Frequently when two animals unusually
good in the same points are mated, their progeny do not by any
means invariably rival the excellencies of either parent. In-
stead of such animals being necessarily double-firsts, they are
sometimes in the points specially expected even below medio-
crity. Thus, pairing cattle with extremely good hind quarters I
have been surprised to find some of the progeny worse rather
than better, as compared with the parents. In mating two good
milking breeds of cattle, such as Alderneys and Ayrshires, the
crossed stock sometimes turns out indifferent dairy animals.
In breeding other animals there appears to be the same ten-
dency to preserve a tolerably constant mean rather than to de-
velop extremes. Two canaries with top-knots often breed
bareheaded birds. Tvvo non-sitting sorts of poultry frequently
produce " broody hens." A Derby or Oaks winner rarely
leaves stock as good as either celebrity. The honours of the
showyard seldom adorn successive generations of cattle. In
the breeding of cattle as of other animals, there is a great ten-
dency to what is termed reversion or calling back; The pro-
geny, instead of being the foe similes ot their immediate
parents, exhibit some of the characters of their more remote
ancestors. Peculiarities of form, colour, temper, or disease,
frequently crop up after having remained dormant during
several generations. Often there is a tendency to revert to
old natural or feral characters which cultivation and selection
have in great part set aside or removed. Thus the several di-
verse breeds of pigeons left to themselves gradually assume the
characters of the Blue Rock from which the others have been
produced. In some countries the cattle left in a natural state
speedily become lighter coloured and eventually white. The
law of reversion frequently intervenes to disturb the breeder's
calculations. He introduces into his improving herd a smart-
looking, symmetrical bull, decorated perhaps by county show
commendation, but of mixed aud dubious pedigree. Instead of
uniform, shapely, improving calves, he is sometimes disap-
pointed with an unpleasant proportion of mean, weak-loined,
narrow, bad-coloured brutes, which inherit their unsatisfactory
qualities from some common, vulgar, mongrel ancestor of the
new bull. Although four crosses of accredited blood are re-
garded by the herd-book and by Shorthorn authorities as suffi-
cient to constitute a Shorthorn ; and although such an animal
possesses one-sixteenth part of unrecognised blood, such a
descent does not prevent the outcropping of many characters
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
441
inconsistent with the type of a true Sliorthorn. Partly to di-
minish this evil, it has been wisely suggested that no new
Shorthorn families sliould henceforth be recognised without
some preliminary history or sound recommendation. Among
home-bred Cumberland stock, tiie characters of the old Lyzzick
breed which disappeared full fifty years ago, still occasionally
present themselves — the wide spreading horns, white colour,
with dark spots on muzzle, legs, and sides. Cattle may also
still be seen which call back to the " Lamplugh hokeys" — fifty
years ago great favourites in Cumberland, and remarkable for
their short white legs, heavy hides, dark red, brown, or black
colours, with white faces, limbs, and stripe down the back. In
the midland counties of England, where Longhorns — fifty
years ago — were the prevailing cattle breed, it is still com-
mon to observe the old Longhorn head, horns, and markings
appearing in Shorthorns dairy herds, where for four or
five generations only Shorthorn sires have been used. Again,
how noticeable the occasional Hereford markings in a herd
where, perhaps more than thirty years previously, a bull of the
white-faced sort had been used. White legs, and red and
white staring markings, ever and anon startle the Shorthorn
breeder, solicitous of good reds and roans, and who has,
perhaps, for several generations, bred from nothing else. Such
markings, Mr. StraflTord considers, frequently call back to
Ketton Second. Amongst the Castle Martin and Pembroke
black beasts there are every now and then a few grey calves,
and such irregularity of colour crops up even in herds where,
for fifty years, black bulls, of undeniable Castle Martin descent,
have been used. How frequently do dark noses contaminate
some Shorthorn families, and come down through many gene-
rations in which the fault has remained dormant, from the
father of " Foljambe," or from the early Dutch or indigenous
British breeds ! The persistence with which some characters
continue to be transmitted, and crop up several generations
after they are supposed to be wiped out, is pertinently illustrated
in the case of the several breeds of wliite-faced sheep, which so
frequently produced lambs with black markings. Like so
many other qualities, colour is distinctly and strongly here-
ditary. Amongst horses the transmission of colour from
parent to offspring is more certain than in other animals.
Hofacker gives results of matching 216 mares of four different
colours with like coloured stallions, without regard to the colour
of the ancestors ; only eleven of the progeny failed to follow
the colour of their parents. When animals of entirely different
colours are mated, intermediate colours are not usually secured,
nor even are piebald markings or mixed colours the rule; more
frequently the colour follows mainly one of the parents. This
is particularly noticeable amongst dogs, mice, and rabbits;
some of the several young born at a birth from differently-
coloured parents, have the colour or special markings of the
sire, others of the dam. Amongst cattle, however, the pairing
of red and white parents very frequently produces roan progeny.
One hundred of such unions taken at random from the Short-
horn Herd-book yielded ninety roan calves with only fonr reds
and six whites. A white bull with red cows appears
records of the Shorthorn Herd-book to produce from the
roan calves with greater certainty than the red bull
with the white cows, from which union there falls a greater
per centage both of red and whites. Both bull and cow being
red, not more than one-sixth of the calves come of any other
colour, and not one per cent, are white. In the same way,
when both parents are white, there is such an overwhelming
predisposition to white colour, that in twenty such unions
registered in Mr. Strafford's valuable pages, I find nothing but
white produce. When, however, one or other of the parents
is of mixed colour, such as red and white, or roan, which is of
course only an intimate regular admixture of red and white,
the calves do not come witli much uniformity, but exhibit
variable proportions of red and white and roan. Extracting
two hundred cases of pairing of red bulls and roan cows, I
obtain an almost equal proportion of red and roan calves, with
only a record of four whites, lleversing the colour of the
parents — namely, taking the roan bull with red cows — does
not materially atl'ect the colours of the progeny, but still leaves
about equal numbers of reds and roans, with not more tlian
two per cent, of white, lied and while parents appear chiefly
to bcge'; red calves. From '13 such unions taken at random
from the Herd-book, I find "iS reds, 4 roans, and no whites.
Red and white bulls mated with roan cows left 30 red, 46 roan,
and only two white calves. Two red and wiiite sires, both of
good Oxford descent, with red cows, produced '22 red calves and
only one roan. Conversely, roan bulls on red and white cows
left 47 and 45 roans. Amongst Shorthorns, when both parents
are roan, more than half the progeny follow suit. Of 333
cows born of roan parents, 197 are roan, 73 white, 64 red.
Roan bulls with white cows leave a record of 39 roan and 36
white calves. White bulls with roan cows leave 61 roan, 49
white, and 5 red. Such facts — and from the Herd-books of
the several description of cattle they might be immensely
amplified — indicate that the colour of cattle may he fixed and
transmitted quite as easily as that of pigeons and poultry,
which skill and practice breed to the tinting of a feather.
With a little time, patience, and careful selection, a cattle
fancier after two or three generations might with tolerable
certainty obtain his animals of any ordinary colour he required.
Several other conditions modify the tolerable general rule that
calves partake of the colour of their parents. The most pre-
potent, usually the most distinctive breed of the pair impresses
a larger share of its own colour as well as of its other cha-
racters. Often a well-bred Shorhorn hull will communicate his
colour and good points to the calves of a mongrel herd of many
hues rnd types. I had a red hull for several years, which,
although the sire of upwards of 120 calves, and mated often
with white cows, never produced a white calf. For several
years I have watched the crossing of polled Angus bulls, usually
obtained from the renowned Tillifour herd, with fairly bred
non-pedigreed Shorthorn cows, and so notable is the prepo-
tency of the polled Angus that the calves, with the exception
of a few dark greys, are invariably black, and as invariably
without horns. AVhen the Shorthorn sire is put upon black
polled Angus heifers there is much variety in the colour of the
progeny, fully half a which show the red, white-and-roan, so
characteristic of Shorthorns, whilst many are also possessed of
horns. Some Shorthorn breeders have perhaps unreasonably
a great objection to white animals, they consider them to be
delicate. In low condition in winter they certainly never look
well and are apt to be infested with vermin. In the West
Indies white beasts are notably weaker and worse than the
coloured. Amongst white stirks there is apt to occur an
irritable state of the raucous membrane of tiie generative
organs which I liave not noticed in the darker coloured
animals. The law of reversion often leads to peculiar colours
and markings amongst cattle. In this way is to be explained
the black markings and dark noses which occasionally disfigure
even well-bred Shorthorns. Such outcroppings of old heredi-
tary insignia are particularly apt to occur where two distinct
tribes are attempted to be blended. Every observant Short-
horn breeder can call to mind examples where a Bates family,
clean and flesh-coloured about the nose, is mated with a Booth,
equally free from dark mottlings, and yet a considerable pro-
portion of the progeny exhibit smutty noses. The like ten-
dency to these dark muzzles is observable among the half-wild
cattle at Chillingham Park and Hamilton Palace. It is re-
corded that during thirty-three years about a dozen calves have
beeu dropped at Chillingham having distinct brown, blue, or
black spots on their muzzles, cheeks, or necks, and although
these mottled calves are never reared they still continue occa-
sionally to appear, the dark marking doubtless dating back
to the time of King John, when there lived in these
islands an indigenous race of white cattle marked
with red or black spots about the ears and muz-
zles. White cattle, with similar dark markings about
tlie liead, muzzle, tips of ears, and feet, are
at the present day found in various parts of the world. For
upwards of a hundred years, wild iierds of such cattle liave
lived in the Ladrone and Falkland Islands. In the latter
group these white cattle occupy the higher grounds, keep
themselves distinct from their coloured fellows in the lowlands,
and regularly breed three months earlier. It is curious that
animals in a natural or semi-wild state almost invariably
divide themselves into separate herds, distinguislied by uni-
iormity of colours. Calves, when first drojiped, and during
the earlier jieriods of their existence, often exhibit old specific
colour markings, which gradually wear out. The brindled
appearance and biack muzzle already referred to are usually
more observable in the young calf, and after several months
often entirely disappear. The lemon-red, Hubback-red, and
faded colours, whicii in some Shorthorn tribes are very notice-
alile in the ncwly-dropped and young calves, arc shortly super-
seded by much darker reds. Similar tendency to the develop-
ment of old feral colours is noticeable in foals and donkeys,
many of which arc dropped witli bars and lines both on their
442
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
bodies and limbs, which gradually, however, disappear. It has
long been observed that white pigs cannot long breed of uni-
form colour, but become marked with black spots if run in llie
yard with a black sow or hog. Careful breeders of Shorthorns
are very averse to raising with their favourites, Alderneys,
black Angus, whitefaced Herefords, or other such breeds with
colours or markings different from the Shorthorn. An ex-
perienced breeder informed me that several years ago a valu-
able Shorthorn cow, being led to the bull, made off, and stood
for some time by the gate of a yard containing a number of
Hereford oxen. Served by the Shorthorn sire, shs produced,
in due course, a calf unlike both sire and dam in colour, but a
facsimile of the Hereford oxen, which appeared to have iai-
pressed her excited imagination. We know of at least one
analogous case in which Shorthorn calves, with most unusual
black markings, have been dropped by cows which, at the
period of conception, had happened to run amongst black
cattle. In like manner, bitches in heat, taking a fancy to a
particular dog, although served by an entirely different dog,
occasionally produce one or two of their pups with markings
similar to those of the object of their affections. The colour,
as well as other characters of the offspring, is apt to resemble,
not their own immediate sire, but males with wliich the dam
has previously had fruitful intercourse. A polled Galloway
or Angus bull put to ordinary Shorthorn cows produces usually
a very large proportion of black-polled calves. In subsequent
seasons these cows, especially if they have bred for the first
time with the black-polled bull, when mated with Siiorthorn
sires, still leave calves with black, grey, and brindled markings,
very evidently derived from the influence of the polled cross.
Various explanations have been given of this curious pheno-
menon. There was at one time an idea tiiat the f(ctus, whilst
in utero, inoculates the maternal system, but, as no fecial
blood passes back into the circulation of the mother, such
explanation is untenable. It is more probable that, in the
first pairing, the male, besides fertilising effectually one or more
ova, gives his impress to others, wliich for a year or longer
period may remain unimpreguated. Before closing, I would ad-
vert to one other subject in which cattle-breeders are interested,
namely, the period of gestation. This varies somewhat in the'
various breeds, and is several days longer in Shorthorns
Herefords, and other large races, than in Ayrsliires, Alder-
neys, and Devons. From ray somewhat limited experience,
West Highlanders and Polled Angus calve somewhat earlier
than Shorthorns. From Earl Spencer's observations on 76-i
cows, he obtained, as the average length of gestation, between
284 and 285 days. The shortest period recorded in which a
live calf was produced was 220 days, the longest was 313—
the produce a^cow-calf. M. Teissier's observations, on up-
wards of 500 cows of different breeds, yielded an average of
282 days between the date of ^service and o[ parturition. I
have chronicled, for some years, the gestation of a herd of
Shorthorn cows. I have 573|entries on whichj can implicitly
rely, and I find that the average period is about 281 days.
235 bull-calves have been carried 281 days, 238 heifer-calves
have been carried 280 days. The shortest period was 248 days,
the gestation of twins born small and bare of hair. Another
calf, from a stirk, was carried 253 days. The longest period
was 308 days — theprodnce a white bull-calf, from a 17-year-
old cow. Several cows went regularly several days over time,
whilst others as regularly failed to carry their progeny the
usual period ; one cow constantly calving ten or eleven days
short of the average, the calves being apparently sound and
healthy. There is always more irregularity with first than
with subseqoent gestations, and twins are rarely carried out
their full time. There is a strong hereditary tendency in
some families to multiple births, and I fancy that I have at
least one family with this predisposition. In 473 births I have
had sixteen lots of twins. From the Shorthorn Herd Book
I extracted 1,137 births before I made up twenty lots of twins.
But at the close of such a long paper, such statistical details
are rather tedious. Many of the subjects brought under your
notice I venture to think are not only interesting but also may
be applied to increase and extend the production of symmet-
rical, hardy, paying stock. Like other fine arts, the higher
department of breeding, such as the successful production of
superior sires, demands experience, judgment, power of appre-
ciating slight distinctions, a cultivated^ eye and touch, as well
as enthusiasm and love for their vocation, are all essential to
success. Great breeders may be said to be born, not made.
Carefal selection must be continued for many generations ;
only the best animals must be bred from, all misfits or rogues
must be unsparingly sacrificed ; any delicacy of constitution,
one of the faults of some high-bred strains, must be scrupu-
lously avoided. To secure fixity of character, so desirable to a
good herd, sound, hardy, suitable sires, of strains not too re-
mote from that ot the cows, will be used. Continued in-and-
in breeding is to be deprecated as reducing size, vigour, and
fertility. A bull, when once he has proved liimself a good
getter, should not be lightly parted with. I am sure many
four and five-year-old bulls get better stock than they did
when yearlings, and even when two-year-olds. Immature
sires cannot be expected to procreate vigorous progeny. Arti-
ficial treatment and pampering is injurious in breeding animals,
a reasonable amount of exercise is conducive to thriving and
good health. Want of exercise not only diminishes fertility
and muscle, but also the capacity of the chest and general
vigour, and such defects are apt to become hereditary.
Amongst ordinary dairy and steer breeding herds, the real
sources of the people's food, the prevailing errors in the man-
agement of breeding cattle appears, as already mentioned, to
be the use of common underbred bulls, their chief recommen-
dation being their low prices. Many tolerable judges affect
small, smart compact bulls, with heifer-like points. Such
animals seldom leave stock of size, substance, or paying pro-
perties. Another fatal fault in many bulls is their long cow's
head — an unfailing evidence of under-breeding, or of some
unsuitable strain. To raise useful paying cattle, the bulls
should be of full size, robust, well-grown when young, with
mascnline heads, moderately full placid eyes, not too prominent
or staring, for such a feature tells unmistakably of delicacy
of constitution : big backs and loins, hides moderately thick,
not thin and " papery," full and mellow when handled ; in
the younger animals, possessed of abundance of a soft, velvety
undergrowth of hair amongst the longer coat.
Mr. Mitchell said he did not rise for the purpose of asking
any special question, but simply to express his entire satisfac-
tion with the deeply interesting paper which had been read,
and to which they had all listened with great attention, and he
hoped with considerable profit. The lecturer had particularly
impressed upon them to direct great attention to the selection
of the male animal, and though he (Mr. Mitchell) quite agreed
with Mr. Dun that this should be the first and special object,
he believed that many farmers did not pay proper attention to
the females.
Mr. Jameson : There was one part of Mr. Dun's remarks
which struck me most emphatically, and which I should like
to have defined a little more. I allude to the words ''rent-
paying stock." Now I should like to know what is meant by
that, for I confess it has always been a puzzler to me.
The Chairman : You will also find on inquiry that the
question is one that many farmers are frequently sadly puzzled
with.
Mr. Jameson : I tho'ight it was well known. What I want
explained is, what are the peculiar characteristics of " rent-
paying stock" ?
The Chairman : "Hent-paying stock" in one part of the
country may not be so in another. For -instance animals that
are suitable for the Vale of Eden would not do upon the slopes
of Skiddaw.
Mr. Jameson : Oh, I see ; it is like orthodoxy, it meaus
anything.
Mr. Mitchell : It means the best animal of its kind suitable
to the locality, whatever the breed may be.
Mr. J. C. IJowsTEAT) : I should like to ask Mr. Dnn what
is the cause of the same bull from the same cows getting so
many whites one season and a very small proportion of whites
the following season ? It was the case with Flag of Britain
the two first seasons we used him.
Mr. Mitchell : Are you sure, Mr. Bowstead, that the calves
were got the second season by Flag of Britain ?
Mr. Dun : We all know very well that circumstances alter
cases in agriculture as in many other things, and that what is
particularly suitable in one locality is not so in another In a
cold and rigorous climate a short-legged, hardier animal is
required than where there is plenty of shelter, a warmer atmos-
phere, and a large use of artificial feeding stuffs. Shorthorn
stock, it is well known, is suitable to many parts of these
counties where plenty of plant-food is to be obtained and the
climate comparatively mild, and particularly where the animals
are protected from extreme weather by sheds erected in the
fields, and brousht into good yards in the winter ; but Short-
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
443
horns in some of the mountaiu fastnesses of your own county
and in various parts of the West Highlands of Scotland would
be entirely out of place ; for they would not be able to obtain
sufficient ])laiit food to bring them to early maturity, which is
a speciality of the breed, hi such situations what is wanted is
an animal with equally good conformation as the Shorthorn,
but possessing shorter legs, a hardy constitution, abundance of
hair, and what is even of more importance, an animal acclima-
tised to the circumstances amidst whicli it is placed. Mr. Dun
added that this was well illustrated by the diiferent hreeds of
sheep, of which there were between twenty and thirty in this
country, as for instance tliose in llomncy Marslies, which were
eminently adapted for the circumstances in which they were
placed, and on which no other class of sheep would thrive. In
tiie last twenty years the system of farming had very much
clianged, and Shorthorns uow flourished in places where for-
merly they would have been unprofitable.
]Mr. J.vjiESON : Is it not a fact tliat dairy produce is not so
good now as it was a few years ago, and that it is owing to
animals being kept too fat?
Mr. Dun : I presume that in Cumherland, as elsewhere,
farmers, like those engaged in other trades and professions,
follow the system which pays them best. A good deal de-
pends upon the locality. If land is situate in the immediate
neighbourhood of a large town, it is very desirable that a con-
siderable quantity of milk should be produced, aud there you
will find farmers devoting their energies, time, and money
especially to the dairy. In other localities, where the popula-
tion is less dense, especially of late years, farmers have applied
themselves to the rearing of wliat I call " rent-paying stock,"
that is as to shape, symmetry, with nice quality such as any
good judge would wish to buy. Animals of this description,
such as Shorthorns, Angleseys, and other breeds, not generally
possessing any high milking qualities, hut full of bloom, quality,
and possessing properties for the early laying on of flesh, have
been extensively purchased and bred, as it very likely happens
they are founl to pay the best.
Mr. Jameson : I am afraid that is the case.
Mr. Dun : There is another matter with regard to the extra
properties of animals which shouli be taken into considera-
tion. No doubt feeding stock has increased of late years
partly because it was very desirable to increase the manurial
fertility of the soil, which can, as a general rule, be done faster
and better through feeding stock than througli dairy stock.
Farmers, in other words, want to carry out from the manure
heap a large amount of plant food ; and instead of applying
fertilisers in the form of superphosphates, guano, &c., direct to
the soil, they use linseed and other cake, crushed grain and
turnips amongst their rapidly-growing young stock and feed-
ing beasts. In that way they obtain an immediate profit, and
a considerable amount of return, by having luxriant crops
eventally in consequence of having this rich manure placed
upon the soil.
The Rev. J. Brunskill asked if the lecturer had read of
the experiments by Dr. Orton, some twenty years ago, for his
paper seemed to establish a definite principle on the physiology
of breeding.
Mr. Dun rephed that he was acquainted vfith the
main arguments read by Dr. Orton at the Newcastle Club.
The chief peculiarity drawn from observation is the
special power the small animal has in reproducing its own
own features in its progeny. The male animal gives to the
beast tlie shape, the size, the skeleton ; the female gives it the
constitution and internal organs. This was first and fully at-
tended io by Mr. Orton, who illustrated it by noticing the
effects produced by putting a male donkey upon a mare. The
produce in such a case is an animal witii the skin, ears, tail, and
feet of a donkey, and that animal brays. On the otiier hand,
if a stallion is put upon a she ass you get a cross-bred creature,
which has the ears and skin, and hair, and tail, and feet of the
horse, its siie, and that animal neighs. Again, in breeding
poultry, it is very well known that if you put a Dorking Tom
amongst a mixed lot of barndoor fowls you will liave an im-
mense number of chickens of the Dorking breed; but if you
put a cross-bred Tom amongst a number of Dorking hens,
you don't get the development alluded to. Now, that law is
capable of being applied by us with advantage as breeders of
stock. If you have got a big, roomy, hairy-legged cart mare,
and desire to get foals witli more style, less hair about the
legs, and perhaps with more speed about them, you will put
the mare to a coaciiing stallion, or a tolerably well-bred horse,
that will leave such an impress upon her that the subsequent
foals which she may have, even by a cart-horse, will not be
altogetlier like their own sire, but prove to possess more the
proportions of the first sire.
Mr. Jameson : Have you auy proof of that ?
Mr. Dun : Breeders of racing stock are of course very
anxious that their yearlings should come out great, big ani-
mals, standing firm upon their legs, well developed and pre-
cocious animals ; and they put little under-rated, weedy,
thorough-bred mares for the first time to a big half-bred
stallion. The next season the mare is put to a thoroughly
well-bred horse of name and celebrity, aud the progeny comes
away with even more size, apparent power, and grander in
form than it would liave been if got from a little mare put to
a thorough-bred horse at first. But the most provoking thing
is that though these horses sell splendidly well, they never
come to the post to run ; they have no racing power, and it is
all a case of " sell."
Mr. Robinson said it would perhaps be remembered that a
few years ago a very interesting paper on the breeding of ani-
mals was read to the Club by Dr. Taylor, who took the same
view as just enunciated by Mr. Dun.
■ A vote of thanks to Mr. Dun was proposed by Mr
Jameson.
Mr. Lazonby, in seconding the proposition, said he liad
sometimes thought of writing a paper himself, but had been
deterred through fear of being pulled to pieces. He thouglit
he could manage two or three, but he shrank from encoun-
tering the shock of the whole weight of the members of the
Club.
A vote of thanks to the Chairman brought the proceedings
to a close.
THE WEST CUMBERLAND FARMERS' CLUB.
IRRIGATION.
At the last meeting, held at Whitehaven, Mr. W. B. Clarke,
in the chair,
Mr. Montgomery introduced the question of irrigation.
He said that in the paper which he read to them lately he
spoke of drainage and irrigation as things which ought to go
hand in hand ; but on land that needed it — which might be
said of this country generally — drainage must always be first,
for it was not until the land was drained that irrigation could
be employed witli advantage. How far we were from the
utmost point of improvement in this country might be in-
ferred from the fact that of twenty millions of acres of laud
requiring drainage in England and Wales only three millions
liad been drained, and it might be taken for granted that the
drainage in all cases was not very perfect. Ho begged to
remind tliem that the more ptirfectly land was drained, the
more need there was for irrigation. By drainage was secured
the speedy removal of superfluous wafer, which, allowed to
stagnate in the soil, would render it unfit for the production of
good grass or good crops of any kind. With drainage aloue
a short drought might be sufficient to make the land too dry,
and arrest vegetation at the very time when it was most de-
sired that it should make rapid progress, and when it cer-
tainly would, if there was sufficient moisture in tiie soil ; but
drainage combined with irrigation put it in the power of the
farmer to secure himself, as far as was possible, against the
baneful elfects both of a redundance and of a scarcity of
moisture. On tlu; one hand, drainage must be continuous —
the drains always open to carry olT superlluaus moisture ; on
the other, irrigation must not be continuous, but resorted to
whenever it seemed likely to be beneficial. The fact that the
application of wafer benefited crops was patent enough from
mere observation, but science fully explained it; indeed, it
444
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
was easier to explain the necessity for a constant sup-
ply of water than to explain how a superabundance,
especially when it was allowed to stagnate, was injurious.
Plants had no mouth, like animals, with which to take
up nourishment from the soil ; not one solid particle entered
its roots, so that manures ought to be thoroughly decom-
posed and dissolved in water before plants could derive
any benefit from them. Those manures, therefore, which
were most easily soluble, and had no preliminary decomposi-
tion to undergo, were the most speedy in producing eft'ects.
AVhen, however, decomposition must take place in the soil —
as in the case of the rougher parts of farmyard manure — tlie
presence of moisture, as well as of heat,' was essential to
this process. In a perfectly dry state no decomposition
would take place, and decomposition is never rapid
when this state is too nearly approached : consequently
it was most important that the soil sliould always be
kept moist to a certain degree, varying according to the crop
and its stage of growth, but much exceeding the degree of
moisture often found in the soil after a drought of a few weeks
or even a few days. The surface of the soil soon became per-
fectly dry, and in that condition it was impossible for say
turnip seeds to vegetate or the seed plants to live, so that tlie
field liad to be resown or turned to some other purpose. A
dry state of the soil was incompatible with vigorous and
luxuriant vegetation. As a dry atmosphere dried the soil, so
a moist atmosphere moistened the soil. The surface of a
newly irrigated field gave forth much moisture to the atmos-
phere on a hot summer day, and this moisture, meeting the
leaves of plants in its ascent, refreshed them and restored
tiiem to a state of perfect health. He would ask anyone to
observe a plant in a flower.pot. It must get water, or it
would soon die. And when its leaves had begun to hang
down, how speedily it revived and looked fresh and bright if
water was supplied. Yet there must be a hole in the bottom
of the flower-pot, and a few small stones or bits of broken
pottery under the earth for drainage, in order that water
might not stagnate about the roofs of the plant, which would
not kill it so quickly as want of water, but would kill it ere
long.
Mr. BoRTHWiCK quite agreed with Mr. Montgomery that
the first thing to do with wet land was to drain it. The next
thing he would do was to thoroughly disintegrate it, and pul-
verise it, and properly manure it, otherwise the draining would
be to a great extent useless. From his experience he thought
that as agriculturists they had little to do with irrigation,
because in this cUraate it was so little needed. He had gone
over some water-meadows in Cumberland, which lie had com-
pared with adjoining land of a similar quality, and he must
confess that the whole of the expenditure incurred in laying
the drains, sluices, &c., and managing tlie concern were in a
great measure lost, because the system had been abandoned
for no other reason than that it did not pay. No doubt Mr.
INIontgomery was right in theory, but what they wanted to
talk about was not theory, but practical matters — things which
some had seen and others might not, and so, by exchanging
ideas, disseminate knowledge. He would be glad to hear
from some gentleman the practical results of irrigation. He
agreed with Mr. Montgomery that moisture was most essential
to the growth of j)Iants, and that a superabundance of it was
a great evil ; but it was rarely they had a season when they
suffered from want of rain in Cumberland. Two years ago
the crops were a little stunted, and perhaps the turnip crop
was a little deficient for want of rainfall, but he had yet to
see how it was possible for a man to irrigate a whole farm.
The tenant could not afford to do it, and it would be ruinous
for the proprietor to go to the expense of laying pipes, con-
structing reservoirs, and so on, because in nine years out of
ten, if these requirements were at hand, they would not be
needed. If it was a question of irrigating a bit of grass land
on a hill side for the purpose of creating herbage on which to
keep stock, and in a place where they could get the water to
distribute itself by gravitation, he would say try it ; and if it
was found to be beneficial, he did not think the Cumberland
folk were so negligent of their own interests as not to adopt
what they saw their neighbours doing with advantage. Irri-
gation as recommended by Mr. Montgomery was not very
likely to succeed in West Cumberland, unless they were to
experience a different cycle of seasons from that which they
had experienced.
Mr. R. Jeffekson said, with regard to drainage, that the
West Cumberland people generally had taken time by the
forelock and had got their land pretty well drained before
this, otherwise it would be a hopeless task to get it done in
these expensive days. To drain land now would not cost less
than £26 an acre. With regard to irrigation, he was always
extremely fond of it, and many a wet skin he had got in rainy
weather while laying water on the land. Some might agree
that in this climate irrigation was of no use, but after all
there was something in water running over the land. He
could not tell what it was, but wherever they found a running
stream there they found a green spot. He did not care how
poor the water was, it would do good if it ran over the land and
did not remain stagnant. WHiere they had a river which be-
came greatly swollen in the autumn and overflowed meadow
land the land caught all the juice washed out of the arable
fields in the neighbourhood and was made a fertile spot. Some
people, on the other hand, were mistaken in their idea of
getting water oft" the land as soon as possible. It used to be
the custom in sowing wheat to get the water away as quickly as
possible, but he was glad to say that theory had been exploded,
because when land was drained the water ought to find its way
through the soil by filtration. One did occasionally meet
these anti-water fellows. He had seen a farmer, not 100
miles from WHiitehaven, send sheep to eat turnips on grass
land in order to manure it, and then actually to cut drains in
the grass field to convey the manure away. That, they might
see at a very short distance, and an enlightened agriculturist
he was in some things. He (Mr. Jefferson) would like to be
his neighbour, so as to catch the stream after it had left his
land, for he thought he would be able to make something of
it by sending it over his own land. With regard to turnip
land, he thought it was impossible to irrigate it, for if they
sent a stream of water over it in the soil would be washed
away ; it was only useful where they had a grass field. Re-
specting water-meadows lie had seen some that never got a
shovelful of artificial manure of any kind and yet grew abund-
ant crops year after year. A good deal of time and attention
were required, and the first flood of the autumn was the best,
for then they caught all the juices from the land above ; if
not properly attended to they would not pay. It was the
want of labour that was at present bothering the farmers, who
could not pay that attention to farm management which they
ought while they could not get men to attend to really neces-
sary work.
Mr. M'Caa (Greysouthen) gave details of some land near
Edinburgh which liad been irrigated. Originally it was not
worth 5s. an acre, but it had increased in value from £28 to
£30 after being irrigated by Edinburgh sewage, and yielded
enormous crops — Italian rye-grass growing at the rate of an
inch-and-a-half per day.
Mr. Robertson (Gilgarron) said his experience of the irri-
gation of a meadow in his neighbourhood fully bore out what
Mr. Montgomery had said.
Mr. Ross was of opinion that wliere water could be found
liandy, and would spread itself by gravitation over a bit of
land, tliat was the most profitable way of manuring it, but
unfortunately these positions were very limited.
THE METROPOLITAN CATTLE MARKET.— At
the Court of Common Council Mr. Deputy Fry drew
attention to a statement of the money received and ex-
pended in connection with the Metropolitan Cattle Market.
He might be told by the Chamberlain that it was correct,
according to the Act of Parliament, but it was a very fallacious
one. There was a deficiency of £837, but in point of fact the
deficiency was £3,437. They had raised loans amounting to
£42,600, and they had paid off only £40,000, so that the
deficiency was as he had stated. He thought it was his duty
to say that the time had arrived when serious attention should
be given to the state of their markets. By and by he should
have to make some remarks as to Deptford. They were losing
large sums of money in the conduct of their markets. Mr.
Rndkin was sorry that this matter had been mentioned in the
absence of the chairman of tlie Cattle Market Committee. The
suggestion that had been made was fallacious. If it were dis-
covered that there had been a loss of £3,400 last year, it was
the smallest loss they had ever sustained in one year. In three
or four years the market would be found to pay. Mr. Deputy
Fry added that the report dealt with five years, and during that
time the loss on the Cattle Market had been £26,649.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
445
WESTER ROSS FARMERS' CLUB.
THE COURSE OF CROPPING.
At the last meeting Sir Kenneth Mackenzie of Gairloch,
Bart., read the following paper ou the most suitable course of
croppiut; for purely arable farms iu Wester Koss at the present
day :
The title at the head of this paper would be misleading, if
I did not state at the outset that I can only pretend to intro-
duce very shortly to your notice the subject to which it refers.
Au essay treating of it in all its bearings would occupy a goodly-
sized volume, aud would have to bo written by one having
much greater experience and practical knowledge of farming
than I can be supposed to possess. It is, however, I tliink a
subject of more importance than the attention generally
bestowed on it would lead one to suppose ; and though my
contribution to its elucidation v/ill be but small, I hope to be
the means of eliciting in the discussion tliat will ensue many
valuable opinions regarding it. The v/ish lias often been
heard of late that the cultivation of land should be free and
unfettered, at all events till within the last four years of a lease ;
but as a back-going man, endeavouring to retrieve himself, may
ruin a farm by injudicious cropping, and after all, from failing
means, have to abandon it before the lease has run its course,
I do not think it probable that landlords will voluntarily part
with all control over a matter' of such vital importance to them
as the course of cropping. At the same time, tliere is no one
system of rotation that can be said to be best under all circum-
stances, and it may possibly be highly impolitic to continue to
prescribe the same order of cultivation that seemed judicious
to our fathers, when the Corn-laws were still in force ; when
artificial manures and feeding stuffs were but little used; when
fallow crops were looked on as profitless, and only somewhat
less wasteful than leaving the fallows bare ; and when meat
occupied an unimportant place in the farmer's sales as compared
with grain. All this has changed. The farmer's great object
now is said to be the production of meat, and though grain,
doubtless, still constitutes a larger item in his profits than city
writers seem aware of, yet the fallow crop is at the present
time second in importance to none. The proportiou iu which
the different crops are produced depends necessarily on the
rotation observed, and tlie (j^uestion, therefore, which I offer
for discussion, when simply put, amounts to this — Whether is
the old five-course shift stiU the best and most profitable for us
to adopt? I am quite aware that the answer cannot be the
same for every farm in Wester Ross. There are diversities of
soils which mark off some farms as specially adaped for breed-
ing, others for feeding, and others for growing wheat. Some
farms, too, have pasture out-run attached to them, where
young stock may graze in summer, and in such cases less
arable land will be required in grass. But I think the discussion
should be limited to the average farm of this part of the
country, which lets at from 25s. to 30s. the acre, where there
is no out-run, and where both breeding and feeding can be
profitably carried on. The mass of the Black Isle farms are
of this nature, and if we can arrive at definite conclusions re-
garding the course of cropping proper for them, our conclu-
sions may easily be modified to suit other cases where con-
sideration may have to be given to special circumstances.
Another observation I must make is, that I think it desirable
to estimate the relative proportions of crops which may most
profitably be cultivated with reference to a permanent stock.
There are cases where flying stock may be advantageously
made use of, and, without doubt, arable farms can serve no
better purpose then the feeding of those classes of sheep whicji
can be bred, but cannot be fattened, on the hill-side. Wed-
ders can, perhaps, be most cheaply finislied on the parks aud
permanent pastures of England, but cast ewes should form a
natural source of profit to the northern agriculturist. No cattle,
however, worth the expense of turnip feeding, can be bred on
Highland moors. Those so bred should, like hill wedders, be
grass-fed iu England, for only beasts that come to early maturity
can be fattened with profit on agricultural farms. At the present
time many of us look to Caithness for our feeding cattle, but that
source of supply cannot last long. With the opening of the
railway, the farmers there will take to feeding too. For some
time longer we may still be able to procure Irish or Continental,
store cattle, at the risk of introducing disease into our stocks
but the really satisfactory and only permanent system is to make
ourselves, as far as we can, independent of extraneous breed-
ing, by rearing for ourselves all the feeding beasts we require.
Ou a farm thus conducted, provender will be required equally
iu summer and in winter, and the object of the rotation siiould
be to establish an equilibrium of supply thoughout the different
seasons of the year, so that with a constant stock there
may at all times be a sutficiency of food, yet never such aa
excess as to require the addition of a flying stock for its
consumption. Having made these preliminary remarks, I now
proceed to estimate tlie probable produce of a 200-acre farm
of the character I have pre-supposed, when cultivated on
usual five-course shift, and the value of that produce when dis-
posed of, whether directly or indirectly. On such a farm
there would be 80 acres of grain crops, 80 acres of grass, and
40 acres of green crop. The grain crop would usually consist
of 40 acres of oats, 20 acres of barley, and 20 acres of wheat,
and the oats may be supposed to yield 5 quarters of grain to
the acre, and 26 stones of straw to the quarter ; the barley, 4
quarters of grain to the acre, and 22 stones of straw to the
quarter ; aud wheat, 3^ quarters of grain to the acre, and 35
stones of straw to the quarter. It would, however, be necessary
to have two acres of tares, which, though commonly enough
taken off the fallow shift, should, according to the best rules
of husbandry, rather follow lea. This would, therefore, reduce
the acreage of oats to 38, and the gross produce of grain would
be—
Qrs. Dutch stones.
38 acres oats ... 190 grain 4,940 straw.
20 acres barley... 80 „ 1,760 „
20 acres wheat... 70 „ 2,450 „
Total straw 9,150
Of the acreage in grass, 14 would be kept for hay, producing,
at 150 stones (of 341bs.) to the acre, 2,100 stones ; 20 acres of
young grass ; 40 acres of two-year-old grass, which would be
pastured. Five acres of the green-crop shift would be under
potatoes, and the remaining 35 acres under Swedish and yellow
turnip. The yield of potatoes, at 16 bolls to the acre, would
be 80 bolls, and that of turnips, at 16 tons to the acre, 500
tons. The grain and potatoes would give a direct return, the
value of which I will immediately endeavour to estimate, but
the value of the pasture and turnips; straw and hay, has to be
realised through the stock. According to my calculation, tliere
might be kept on the farm 18 milk cows and a bull, with their
progeny, until fed off at two years old, and 35 cast Clieviot
ewes, from which a crop of lambs would be taken, both ewes
aud lambs being afterwards fed off on turnips. Assuming
that five horses should work the farm, and that there would
always be one colt coming on, the 06 acres pasture would be
thus allocated from April to Oct. :
5 Horses and a colt 0 acres.
18 Cows, with calves, and a bull 28 „
18 Stirks preparing for feeding IS „
35 Ewes and lambs 14 „
CG
A tup might range with the horses or the cattle. The t«o
acres of tares would liclp the horses in harvest, be useful for
pigs, and save breaking too early into the turnip crop. The
whola stock would be put on winter keep about tlie middle of
October, and the cast off ewes would be purchased at the
October market, and put on the rough pasture which had been
left by the cattle and horses. I count that through tlie winter
the cows would consume a I;alf cwt. of turnips a-day for the
first three mouths, and three- fourths of a cwt. a-day for the last
three months when milkiug. Tiie stirks would consume about
the same, making in all, for 18 of each, 203 tons. The stirks
throughout, aud the cows till calving, would have no other dry
food than straw ; after calving the cows would need half a stone •
of iiay per day — in all, 819 stone. The feeding beasts should
be fit for the butcher by the 1st March, getting one cwt. of
turnips a day, with as much oat straw as they will eat, aud a
446
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
little cake at finishing, lleckouing tlie time they would be up
as 110 days, the turuips tliey would cousume would be 126
tons. The bull would require about 8 tons. The lambs would
be speaned early in August, and would have the foggage, and
(after harvest) the young grass to keep them till the^raiddleof
October, when botli tliey and the old ewes would be put ou
turnips. I count that the hoggs would take six months' keep
:it the average rate of two cwt. turnips and iialf-a-stone of
hay per week, whicli would come to 19 tons of turnips, and
455 stones of hay. Some of the esves would be fat soon after
Martinmas, others not till February. They would be drafted
olf as they were ready, and might take ten weeks' turnips on
an average, which, at the same rate of keep as for the hogsjs,
would require 35 tons of turnips and 175 stones of hay. The
new cast of breeding ewes would pick up a living ou tlie rough
pasture till nearly Christmas, after which time they
would get half turuips till they lambed, and full turnips
afterwards. During a snow-storm they might require a little
hay. I allow for theiu and a tup 49 tons of turnip and 43
stones of hay. The five horses, the colt, and the pigs may be
allowed 18 tons of turnips for the winter, and the work horses
would need a stone of hay a-day during spring work, and some
besides at odd times, say altogether 600 stone. Putting all this
together, the consumption of produce by the stock would be
as follows : —
Cattle require of turnips 339 tons.
Sheep „ „ 175 ^^
Horses and pigs „ 18
Leaving a margin of 5 per cent 28 ",
Total 560 tons.
The cows requireof hay 819 stones.
The sheep „ „ (573
Thehorses „ „ GOO
Securing a margin of g
Total 2,100 stones..
1 do not know, and have not at short notice been able to
ascertain, how far straw goes either as fodder or as litter ; the
quality of the straw must have much to do with the freedom
of its consumption as fodder, and the character of the fold and
byre must greatly affect economy in its use as a litter. It
may, I think, be assumed that the straw produced under a
five-course shift would suffice to meet the consumption I have
here contemplated, but I do not suppose there would be very
much to spare. I have now to state the farm returns in
money. From the sales of barley and wheat must be deducted
the quantity required for seed. From the oats I retain SO qrs.
for seed and farm use, and from the potatoes 40 bolls for the
same purpose. There remains —
100 qrs. oats which, at 26s. leaves £130 0 0
70 qrs. barley... „ at 35s. „ 122 10 0
63 qrs. wheat... „ at 52s. „ 161 4 0
40 bolls potatoes „ at 2O3. 40 0 0
£453 14 0
This is the amount of the produce which has been, we suppose,
directly realised. Tlie value of the remainder is to be found
in the stock, on which the profits are as fellows :
18 fat cattle at £23
35 hoggs at £2 2s
Clip of 35 ewes at 6s
Difference between the purchase and
selling prices 35 ewes, bought lean
and sold fat, at 8s.
Add price of grain and potatoes
Total receipt
£396 0 0
73 10 0
10 10 0
14 0 0
£494 0 0
453 14 0
£947 14 0
I have not made out these estimates without the assistance o
friends, but tliey are all still rough, and a margin of errors
must be allowed for. Into the cost of labour, and the farmer's
net profit, I have not attempted to enter. If it should be
remarked that I have made no allowance for losses on the
stock, per contra I have no account of double lambs, of which
there should be several pair, nor of the sales of pig or dairV
produce, I must now ask you to observe that while T iiave so
arranged the stocking as to make supply and consumption fit
in to a nicety, in order to do so I have been obliged to assume
peculiar proportions of sheep and cattle, and to feed off two
small lots of sheep of different classes at considerable cost
and labour. The reason of this is, that on a five-course shift
the turnip will winter more than the grass will summer.
Without the power of purchasing store cattle, you have to
summer the same number of cattle that you winter ; but by
purchasing cast ewes in October, you can winter two and
a half sheep for every ewe and lamb you summer,
and thus the turnip is overtaken, which, if cattle
alone were kept, would be wasted. By increasing
the proportion of grass, the sheep may be dispensed
with, and tiiis may be done by leaving the lea unturned for
three years instead of two, by which means the five-course be-
comes a six course rotation. The scale, however, thus becomes
too greatly overbalanced. Not only is the grass increased
from two-fifths to one-half, but (he green crop is at the same
time reduced from one-fifth to one-sixth, and the wintering is
consequently now insufficient for the summering ; in order to
obtain an equilibrium half the farm must be worked on the
six-course shift. If we assume 5 acres of the green crop
quarter to be required for potatoes, and an acre or so of turnip
for horses and pigs, and if we deduct 5 per cent, from the
turnip crop as a needful margin, and allow 10 acres of grass
as hay and pasture for the horses, then the proportion of grass
to turuips available for cattle and sheep will be
Under the 5 course shift at 100 to 45'87
6 „ 100 to 28-64
„ mixed „ 100 to 36'18
According to our former computation of the production per
acre and the consumption per head, I make out that a cattle
stock entirely home-bred requires 41 acres of turnips for every
100 acres of grass, including both pasture and hay. A cast
ewe stock, when the lambs are sold after speaning, and the
ewes only are fed, requires nearly 34 acres of turnips to the
100 acres of grass ; but if the hoggs are kept and fed as hoggs,
59 acres of turnips are needed for every 100 acres of grass.
Not having much time to prepare this paper I give those
figures under reservation of any errors into which hasty
reckoning may have let me slip. The result aimed at by
mixing the five and six course shifts might be reached by
reserving one field in permanent pasture, and cultivating the
remainder on a five-course rotation, were it not that per-
manent pasture is apt to be a figure of speech on most of our
light-soil farms. You may leave a grass field permmently
unturned, but after four or five years there will be little pas-
ture. Foreseeing the probability that at no distant time we
shall h:\veto make ourselves independent of an extraneous
supply of store cattle — thinking it possible tiiat even now it
might not be disadvanta;5eous to be so — and considering that
our rotation of crops must probably he altered before
we can establish our independence, I have thought that a dis-
cussion on an improved system of rotation might be interest-
ing. To you, gentlemen, I now leave this subject. A change
in this part of our system of cultivation can scarcely be
effected without modification in the terras of our leases, and
the subdivision of our farms, but such modifications will no
doubt gradually be made, if the farmers of the country ex-
press a wish for them. If the discussion to-night evinces
that this desire exists, I hope that some member of the Club —
more competent than I am — may be induced to prepare
another paper on the subject for our next meeting, bringing
out more fully than I have been able to attempt the difi'erent
rotations that are possible, and the various merits of eac)
The discussion on the paper was adjourned.
ABATEMENT OF RENTS IN SCOTLAND.— Lord
Kinnaird has sent the following letter to his solicitors in
Dundee: Rossie Priory, Inchture, N.B., 18tli March, 1874.—
From my experience of the farms in the Carse, I do not con-
sider that last year's crop has made up for previous losses.
I therefore am prepared to allow my Carse tenants a deduction
of 10 per cent, on tlie rental for crop 1873 out of last instal-
ment. I expect, with our present prospects, that the Carse
farms will again do well.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
447
THE CENTRAL CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE.
A ineefiug of the Council was held at tiie Salisbury Hotel,
Salisbury-square, on Tuesday, April W, Mr. G. l'\ Muntz in the
chair, when t lie attendance of members was by no means so
numerous as usual.
The following were elected members of the Council : Lord
Egerton, of Tatton, Mr. W. W. B. Beach, M.P., the Ilin. S.
Stanhope, Mr. Ra-slileigh, M.P., Mr. Treraayne, M.P., Mr.
Stanford, M.P., Mr. Brymer, and Mr. Medley.
Mr. Storer, M.P. (Nottinghamshire), moved that the
thanks of the Council be given to the Lord Mayor of Loudon,
for his courtesy in inviting representatives of the Central
Chamber of Agriculture to the Mansion House.
Mr. Caldecott seconded the resolution, and said that,
whether agriculture went " hand in hand" with commerce in
future or not, there was no doubt that on the present occasion
the former had gone hand to mouth with the latter. The
motion was agreed to.
The Ci£A.iR.\iA.X gave notice that, at the meeting of the
Council in June, the Committee on Unexhausted Improvements
will report the result of tlieir inquiries into agricultural cus-
toms in England and Wales.
Mr. Pell, M.P. (who has succeeded Sir Massey Lopes as
chairman of the Local Taxation Committee) presented the
report, of which he moved the adoption.
The Local Taxation ComaaiDtec in presenting their rejoort
congratulate the Council ou the very satisfactory declara-
tions made by the Prime Minister to tho deputation from the
Central and Associated Chambers of Agrioultaro on the
23rd of March last. The Prime Minister emphatically de-
nounced as a "violation of justice" the existing "system
of raising taxes for general purposes from one particular kind
of property." Ho took occasion to repudiate the fallacy that
this matter concerns land alone, wiiich is so persistently
advanced by those advocatmg the interests of privileged
classes who now escape any fair contriljution toward national
obligations. He claimed for tho question the dimensions of
"a great national grievance," in which town and country
were alike interested ; and he complimented the chambers
of agriculture on their careful study of the subject and their
recognition of its more than agricultural character. Mr.
Disraeli reminded the deputation of the interest he had in-
dividually taken in this cause more thaa flve-and-twenty
years ago, and pointed out that almost every member of the
Ministry now in power had long advocated the redress
which ratepayers claimed. On the part of her Majesty's
Government, ho announced their complete concurrence in
the views expressed by the deputation. While compelled by
official reserve to withhold any indication of the practical
method in which the sympathy of the Government might
find expression, he promised that local taxation should re-
ceive " the most anxious and complete consideration " when
the general finance of the country came to be considered ;
and he declared it to be the duty of her Majesty's Ministers
to deal with the matter in such a way as, he hoped, would
" in the end completely satisfy those just demands which
had for so long a period been brought before the countrj', and
which, he believed, the great bulk of the enlightened opinion
of the nation had now adopted." To these observations yoiu*
Committee naturally desire to call especial attention, as
marking tho position at length occupied by the question on
which they have been so long and anxiously engaged. The
recognition thus accorded to the reality and magnitude of
the ratepayers' grievance entitles local taxation reformers
to look forward with confidence to some definite and snb-
stantial relief. Year after year ratepayers have seen the
claims of the payers of Imperial taxes only considered in
questions of finance. No material attempt has been made
to alleviate the pressure of those much more onerous (be-
cause unequal) imposts which are locally levied. On tho
other hand, new taxes upon a single do-icription of property
have been annally accumulated, while various items of Im-
perial Revenue have been abandoned or reduced. While
awaiting relief, j'our Uommitteo will continuo vigilantly to
watch the introduction into Parliament of any rate-imposing
or rate-increasing measures. Fewer bills than usual of this
nature have as yet appeared, and your Committee trust that
the resistance which in the last Parliament they wore able to
ofTer has been successful in discouraging legislative pro-
posals of secondary importance, wliich, had they touched
the Imperial Revenue, would have been at once detected by
the peculiar guardians of the public purse, and moans taken
by the Government of tho day to ensure their immediate
rejection. Proposals to increase the rates by adding the cost
of establishing School Boards and free education in every
district throughout the countiy will, of course, continue to
receive the strenuous opposition of your Committee ; while a
re-introduction of the Prison Ministers Bill, formerly success-
fully opposed, will necessitate tho resistance which every new
charge on the rates must involve. On the other hand, your
Committee are glad to note that the Juries Bill as introduced
this Session omits the proposal which last year provoked
their opposition, and charges on the Treasury the payments
to overseers for making up jury lis:s. Your Committee
look forward to the time when readjustment of local with
Imperial taxation having been effected, they may be able to
devote increased attention to much-needed reforms in the
administration of local authorities. Sir Massy Lopes, who
from the formation of your Committee has with such singu-
lar ability acted during five years as its Chairman, has been
compelled by the pressure of official duties to resign that
post. The Council will, however, be glad to learn he does
not vacate his seat on the Committee, and although unable
to give that close attention to varied details which the Chair-
manship involves, he retains the same deep interest he has
ever had ui tho cause with which he is so closely identified.
Your Committee have accordinglg elected to the vacant post
Mr. Pell, M.P., in recognition of the valuable aid he has
already given them, and the time and attention he has been
able to bestow on the subject both as a member of the Exe-
cutive and in Parliament.
The motion, on being seconded by Mr. Long (Gloucester-
shire), was agreed to.
It was further agreed to, at the instance of Mr. Long,
seconded by Mr. Caldecott, " That the pressure of official
duties having prevented Sir Masesy Lopes continuingto dis-
charge the duties of Chairman of the Local Taxation Com-
mittee, this Council, in the name of the Chambers of Agricul-
ture, desire to express their best thanks to him for his eminent
services to the cause of local taxation reform."
The Chairman next presented a report of the recent in-
terview of a deputation from the Chamber with the Chancel-
lor of the Exchequer, on the subject of the Malt-tax ; and the
adoption of the report was proposed by Mr. Storer, who
remarked that it was not necessary for him to go further into
the matter than to state that the deputation had been kindly
and courteously received by the minister. Many of them had
been present on similar occasions when the reception had not
been quite so pleasant. Therefore, they felt all the more grateful
when they were received with courtesy and respect. He was
sure they were all satisfied with everything the Chancellor
of the Exchequer said on the subject. The right hon. gentle-
man had promised to consider the question and to examine
the difficulties that presented themselves to his mind ; and liis
(Mr. Storer's) advice was that agriculturists should not aban-
don hope or lose confidence. All these things, however, re-
quired time, but he believed that they had now more prospect
of jusiice being done to them than they ever had before. He
exhorted them, then, not to lose heart; but to remember that
time worked wonders, and that, although the Malt-tax was a
mountain in itself, supported by stupendous influences in and
out of the House of Commons, the justice of their cause was
such that they might hope to overthrow the mountain.
Mr. T. WiLLSON seconded the motion, and concurred in all
that Mr. Storer had said " with regard to the courtesy of the
reception." It certainty did present a strong contrast with
that of former deputations to Dowuing-street.
Tlie motion was put and agreed to.
Mr. DucKUAH (Herefordshire) moved : "That, considering
the great disadvantages arising from the present division of
Government administration in matters relating to agriculture,
this Council desire the establishment of a separate.'agricultural
department."
The want of such a department, he argued, had long been felt
and he insisted that tlie existing state of things ought not to
be allowed to continue.
Mr. EoRD (Warwickshire) seconded the proposal, and said
that if, during the last few years, when cattle plague and other
diseases prevailed among their stock, they had had a Minister,
or a Department, of Agriculture, they would not have seen
such ridiculous orders as had been issued by the Privy Council,
and caused such serious loss to the country.
4i8
THE TARMER'S MAGAZINE.
Mr. PracE (Brecknockshire) observed that, considering the
important questions which had cropped up of late years, and
wliich were likely to crop up hereafter, it seemed an extraor-
dinary anomaly that there was no department of the Govern-
ment with which the agricultural community could communi-
cate in seasons of distress or anxiety. Almost every country
iu Europe had its Ministry of Agriculture, aud he did not see
why such au advantage should be withheld from England
(Hear, hear).
Mr. Stratton said he understood that at the beginning of
the century we had a Minister of Agriculture, and he thought
it desirable that the Chamber should be informed how it was
that the office had ceased to exist.
I\[r. Caldecott : Perhaps some old gentleman who
flourished in the time of George the Third might be able to
tell us.
Mr. Storer was not old enough to supply the information ;
but the other day, on opening an Agricultural Calendar by
Arthur Young, he saw that the author was described as
Secretary to the Board of Agriculture. That was in ISOi.
It was desirable to know what had become of that Board, and
if any gentleman could give the information it would be very
valuable. At any rate, the fact that it had once existed here,
and that it existed now in most countries on the Continent,
taken in connection witli the losses to vvhicii agriculturists
were liable, owing to one Governmental department being
charged with one particular subject, and another department
with another particular subject, must suggest to their minds
that it would be convenient and useful for the scattered
autliorities to be brought under one head.
Professor Willis Bund had hoped that a stronger case
would have been made out for the proposition than what
he had yet heard. There were considerable ob-
jections to sucli a department being created, and
one question which struck him was. If tiiey had
it so lonx ago what was the reason that it had been abolished ?
The obvious answer must be that it had proved useless, and
was therefore abolished. What he feared was that if they
had a separate department it might think it to be its duty to
" do" something — perhaps, a good deal ; he was not clear that
it might not be too much, and that there would be considera-
ble intermeddling in agricultural matters (Hear, hear).
Earraers did not want an inspector constantly inquiring into
everything, and asking perpetually for returns, nor did they
like being continually interfered with ; in fact, he was not
sure that the result would not be an illustration of the old
fable of King Log aud King Stork. Moreover, an agricul-
tural department would be an expensive matter ; and as they
were endeavouring to get some relief from the Consolidated
Eundfor the agricultural interest generally, they might be told
that they were represented by a Minister of Agriculture, that
they had obtained relief to that extent, and that they could not
therefore ask for much more. Tiien, if there was to be a de-
partment of commerce and agriculture, or of agriculture and
commerce, he should like to know which was to be first, and
he feared that if agriculture and commerce were connected
together 'n one department they would simply see a remodelled
Board of Trade, and nothiug more, with perhaps additional
inspectors asking for new returns ; and they would be in no
better position tlian at present, without getting ssubstautial
relief. True, other countries had their ministers of agricul-
ture and commerce, but there was no country in which agri-
culture was so prosperous as in England, and that for the
simple reason that it was so little interfered with, whilst in
France, Austria, and other countries there was constant official
interference, tiie etfect of which was greatly to clieck the
development of agriculture. Tlie conclusion he had come to
then was that it were
" better to bear the ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of."
Mr. J. Turner (Peterborough) admitted that perpetual
interference witli their business by a Government department
would be most objectionable, but it was not to be denied that,
to a certain extent, some such interference was necessary. He
thought, then, if they were to have interference and inspection
and to be under Governmental management at all, it should
be uuder persons who understood at least the rudiments of
agriculture, and not right lion, gentlemen who would tell them
to go home and mind their business, and not meddle with-
politics. The Chamber he represented held that there ought
to be a Department of Agriculture with a responsible parlia-
mentary minister at the head of it ; and he was inclined to
think that it should be separate from commerce, and entirely
devoted to agriculture (Hear, liear). Agriculture had been
put out of sight by the superior attractions of her young and
better dressed sister. Commerce, and he thought that the crea-
tion of a ministry of agriculture and commerce combined would
be about the worst step that could be taken (Hear, hear).
The interests of agriculture would be subordinated to those of
commerce under such a department, as they always had been
ever since he recollected anything of agriculture (Hear, hear).
The resolution was then put and agreed to, with but a few
dissentients.
Capt. Craigie next moved the appointment of a committee
to confer with the Associated Chambers of Commerce with
respect to their proposal for a Minister of Commerce and
Agriculture, and the best means of carrying out the foregoing
views of the council. Whether the department should be
separate or combined was a point which could be better inves-
tigated by a committee than by the Council, and he recom-
mended that the Chambers should lose no opportunity of co-
operating with their commercial brethren on the subject.
Mr. Stratton seconded the resolution, which was carried
sub silentio, and the following gentlemen were nominated a
committee accordingly : The Chairman {ex officio), Mr.
Storer, M.P., Mr. Phipps, M.P., Mr. J. Turner, Mr. Price,
Mr. T. Eord, Captain Craigie, and Mr. Stratton.
The Secretary having read the resolutions passed by the
Chamber on Highway Legislation, in February 1867, March
1808, March 1871, and March 1872,
Sir G. Jenkinson, M.P. (Gloucestershire), said he had
prepared a question which it was his intention to put to the
President of the Local Government Board in the House of
Commons to this effect : Whether, in consideration of the
constantly increasing expenses which are thrown on separate
parishes by the irregular and piecemeal extinction of turnpike
trusts, the Government intend, in accordance with the recom-
mendations of the Select Committee on Turnpike Continuance
Acts, both last year and the year before, to provide by legis-
lative enactment this session for the more speedy and final
extinction of all remaining turnpike trusts, and for the future
maintenance of all turnpike-roads, of which the trusts have
been or may hereafter become extinct ? On receiving an
answer to that question, which would probably be that the
Government did not intend to do anything, he shonld give
notice for an early day of a resolution which he had carried in
the House two or three years ago ; but nothing had come
of it ; indeed, nothing ever did come of motions
carried by private members ; and too often, when
a raau had made himself a little disagreeable on local
taxation or some other subject, the Government of the day
contrived to silence him by putting him into the Admiralty or
some other office (Hear, hear, and laughter). The resolution
was. That as great and continually increasing hardship and
injustice was inflicted on the ratepayers of various parishes by
the present system of partial and piecemeal extinction of turn-
pike trusts, it is both expedient and necessary that provision
should be made, without further delay, by legislation for tiie
early and simultaneous abolition of all remaining trusts, and
at the same time for the future maintenance of all turnpike
roads, of which the trusts have been or may hereafter become
extinct, on an equitable basis. He had always recommended
that the licences on horses and carriages should be given up
to the counties for the maintenance of the roads, and he had
been entrusted with more than 30 petitions to the House of
Commons from different localities, asking that that should be
done. If some such arrangement were made it would be a
sensible relief, because the amount cf these taxes was in round
numbers something like £900,000 a year, being in the year
1871 on horses £il4,GG3, and on carriages £476,29i, to-
gether £890,957. To this he would add the tax on dogs,
£289,750, and these amounts together made as nearly as pos-
sible the sum which had been collected from tolls on the
average of the last three years. At the smallest computation,
however, the tolls were levied in such a manner that at least
25 per cent., he believed 40 per cent., was lost in the collec-
tion. Then, if the tolls were extinguished, the toll-houses
would be disposable, and that would add a considerable item
to the general county fund for the maintenance of the roads.
In conclusion. Sir George moved a resolution which was in
substance the same as that which he proposes submitting to
the House of Commons.
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
449
Mr. i'owLER, Dorsetshire, seconded the motion.
Professor BuxD moved the following amendment : "That
in the opinion of this council no furtlier turnpike trusts should
be aholislied, or highway districts formed, until some general
measure for the maintenance of the highways of the country
by all classes of property is passed into law." The necessity
for that was, lie remarked, siiowu by experience in Worcester-
shire. In that county there were seven highway districts, and
in all but one there had been a great increase of expenditure
under tlie present system, the increase being in one case as
much as 5 J per cent. But, that was not tlie worst, since the
turnpikes were abolished in part of the county they liad had
tlie turnpike roads to maintain as well as the old parish roads,
and the result was that their maintenance had been thrown
entirely upon the land, not a single sixpence being contributed
by those who chiefly used them (Hear, hear). In his parish
there were four turnpike roads, which were really arterial
roads leading from one part of the country to another. Those
roads had been recently supported by the parishes through
which they passed, and the rates had in consequence increased
to an almost incredible extent. He believed that within
about six years the maintenance of the whole of the roads
whicli have been thrown on the land, and those who chiefly
used them would contribute nothing. England was, he be-
lieved, almost the only country in the world in which the State
did not contribute towards the maintenance of the mam roads.
He hoped that before long there would be some general
measure in Parliament dealing with the whole question in a
comprehensive manner, audlie thought that in the mean time
no additional burden should be thrown upon the land.
Mr. Whitaker (Worcestershire) in seconding the amend-
ment, observed that he was one of those old-fashioned people
who thought that those who used roads should pay for them
(cheers). The expression " Continuance Act" was a misnomer ;
the words ought to be " Discontinuance Act," fresh turnpike
trusts being struck out every session i(llear, hear). He be-
lieved that if there were a strong resistance to any further
abolition of trusts, that would force on legislation which would
afford relief. As regarded highway districts, he thought ex-
perience had shown that the more concentration there was
the greater would be the expense.
Mr. Pell, M.P., supported the amendment. Under the
present system the ratepayers were subjected to two evils —
the payment of a toll in the interest of the landholders, and
the burden of rates for tiie maintenance ef the roads (Hear,
hear). That was certsinly a very unsatisfactory state of
things ; but to deal with the question piecemeal, as Sir George
Jenkinson proposed to do, would also be unsatisfactory (Hear,
hear). It was clear that legislation could not be long r de-
ferred. The Act under which highway districts were formed
had proved very imperfect in many respects. There was no
proper provision for an audit ; under some circumstances
those who collected the rates were not called upon properly
to account for what they received ; and there might even be
two assessments in cases in which timber was made to contri-
bute to the repair of roads. In the eastern counties tliere was
a strong desire for legishrtion with regard to occupation roads,
and he was prepared t6 enter into communication with the
present, as he had done with the late. Government on that
subject. He thought that on the whole it would be well to
adopt the amendment and postpone the question altogether.
So anomalous was the present state of things that in one
parish the cost of the roads was only £10 a mile, and in an
adjoining one it was £20 or £30, and Sir George Jenkinson
could ;not wish to see such a state of things as that per-
petuated.
The SECRETA.RY then read resokitions passed by several of
the associated Chambers, including the Devonshire, Hereford-
shire, and Gloucestershire Chambers, condemning the present
system and insisting on tlie necessity for legislation.
Mr. Turner (reterborough Chamber) said that in the
highway district in which he lived the expenses had been in-
creased during the last six or eight years by something
like 100 per cent., and the ratepayers complained loudly of
having to maintain the turnpike roiils. In one or two
parishes in that district all the roads wore turnpike roads, and
there the rates were 300 per cent, less than in the adjacent
parishes. He thought they should be very cautious in ex-
pressing an opinion as to the proper mode of remedying the
existing evils.
Mr. Butler (Essex Chamber) would not be disposed to lay
great stress on the extra expense of the roads under highway
boards, provided they got good work for the money ; but it
was, he maintained, impossible for any surveyor to superintend
the work on 180 or I'JO miles of road (Hear, hear).
Tlie great secret of the failure of the Act was that otticial, in-
dependent surveyors were not appointed to manage the roads.
He did not believe that any permissive Act could work satis-
factorily (Hear, hear) . He had very great faith in the honesty
of surveyors, being one of them (laughter), but he had not
much faitii in the ability of many of them to make out a
proper account. No one could deny that during the last
twenty years there had been a great iraprovement in the high-
ways of this country, but ho did not believe that the improve-
ment was continuing under the highway boards.
Mr. Yalland (West Gloucestershire) said that in his
parish the abolition of turnpike trusts had increased the rates
75 per cent., and the cost was now Is. lOd. in the pound,
nearly the whole of which was paid by agriculturists.
Mr. T. HoRLEY (Warwickshire Chaml)er), in supporting
the amendment, observed that while the highway districts
were in many cases working unsatisfactorily, fo also was the
old parish system, there being sorapfimes an amount of jobbery
whicli was discreditable to the country.
Mr. J. Trask (Hampshire) thought that in many cases the
reason why highway districts had failed lay more in the man-
agement than in the Act itself (cries of " No.")
Mr. Gardner (Essex) said that in his district the expenses
had increased about 8G per cent, in the last Ave years. He
was in favour of the abolition of the Permissive Act.
Mr. W. BiDDELL (Sulfolk) said, having been connected
with two highway boards, he could not help thinking that a
large part of the difficulties in working arose from its having
to be carried out, as it were, by reluctant instruments. lu
considering the increased expenses, they ought to take into
account the additional cost of wages and of materials (Hear,
hear).
Mr. Beach, M.P., observed that the simultaneous abolition
of turnpike trusts was scarcely possible on account of the
varying nature of different trusts. No doubt, if Parliament
chose to provide the requisite money, all the remaining turn-
pike trusts might be speedily wound up, but no gentleman
could be sanguine enough to believe that it would consent tg
do that. Tlie select committee on the Turnpike Trusts Coij-
tinuance Act, of which he was a member, aiter having carer
fully considered the matter, had come to the conclusion that
the formation of highway districts should be made cQrapuU
sory, and that legislation should not be confined to turnpike
roads, but embrace all the roads of the country. Tlie general
circumstances of the different counties should be made as far
as possible unifornij and they might then look forward to a
general highway measure which he hoped would ere long be-
come law. He thought the proposal that the produce of
certain licence duties should be devoted to the maintenance
of the roads was fair and just.
After some remarks from Mr. T. Duckham and Mr. Gilbert
(Nottingham), the Chairman made a vain attempt to effect a
compromise between the proposer of the resolution and the
proposer of the amendment.
Mr. Stratton having given notice of an amendment forming
a modification of the resolution, Sir G. Jenkinson, M.P.,
offered to withdraw his proposal provided I'rofessor Bund
would also withdraw his, but this the Professor declined to do,
on the ground that the amendment involved the principle of
local taxation.
The amendment was then put and carried. On its being
submitted as a substantive motion,
Mr. T. Horley moved as an amendment "That it is
desirable that, before any resolution is passed, further infor-
mation should be obtained as to the anomalies that exist in
the working of the Permissive Highway Act in districts where
it is in operation; and that further time should be given to
discuss the matter in the provincial Chambers before the
Council of the Central Chamber arrives at a conclusion."
Mr. IlussoN seconded this amendment, and it was adopted.
On its being put as a substantive motion,
Mr. D.LoNc; moved an amendment declaring that the time
had now arrived for the Government to lake into consideration
the subject of the maintenance of the turnpike roads and high-
ways, but he withdrew it in favour of Mr. Stratton's 'inicnd-
meut before referred to, and seconded that amendment, which
was " That the maintenance of all roads is rapidly becoming a
450
THE FARMER'S MAGAZIl^E.
charge ou real property ouly, aaJ not paiJ for by tliose wlio
use them ; and that this Couacil are of opinion that tlie
Government sliould substitute for tlie present tolls the asssist-
aace of the licences on horses, carriages, and dogs "
After some furtlier discussion, Professor Bund moved tlie
adjournmeut of the discussion till the June meeting ; aud
this having been carried, the proceedings terminated.
MAIDSTONE FARMER S' CLUB.
THE DISEASES OF LAMBS.
At the last meeting, Mr. T. B. Lovett in the chair, the
object was to hear a paper by Dr. Joyce, of Craubrook, on
The Thread-worm of Sheep's Lungs.
Dr. Joyce commenced by stating tint there were few sub-
jects of more importance to the farmer than an acquaintance
with the causes of the maladies to which domestic animals
used by man as fool were liable. This was more especially
true of parasite diseases, /. e., diseases having their immediate
eans.i in the development and multiplication of some low form
of life in the cavities or tissues of tlie body. It was only
necessary to raeution the rot, staggers, and the bronchitis,
associated with tlie diseise now under consideration, to bring
this fact home to all agriculturists. After alluding to the de-
preciation of stuck caused by these diseases, an 1 to the general
dilficulty of dealing with such, he said : My oivn attention was
directed to the lung disease in young sheep some years ago,
when living in Ilolvenden. I then knew little of its history
or causes, but seeing their sufferings, and the loss entailed, I
devoted what spare time I could afford to studying tiiis disease,
both by obtaining the care of lambs affected, and makiug
examinations of tlie bodies of those that had succumbed to Uie
malady, and I propose to lay before you to-night, in as brief a
manner as possible, the leading facts connected with its de-
velopment and causes. With the symptoms that mark the
invasion of the disease I imagine most of you are pretty well
acquainted. They generally show themselves in late summer
or early autumn, aud be?in with short, iiusky cough, increased
on motion or in hazy weather, and accompanied by a discharge
of frothy fluid from the mouth and nostrils, and by thirst and
scouring. Tiie coat opens and looks rough, the eyes become
sunken and white, and very frequently a desire to eat dirt or
sand is present, and rapid emaciation takes place. The cha-
racteristic symptoms are the constant hacking cough, and pro-
gressive Joss of flesh, and their presence should at once awake
suspicion of the disease, with a view to prompt and early
treatment. If death takes place the appearances found on
examining the body after death are as follows ; On cutting
across the lungs a large quantity of frothy fluid can be squeezed
out, aud the lung tissues exhibit every stage of inflammatory
action ; in some places just commencing, in others advanced to
the second or third stage. On opening the windpipe, and
cutting up the air tubes with a pair of scissors, a large quan-
tity of thick tenacious slime is found sticking to their sides,
and embedded in this slime are numbers of thread-like worms.
When the air tubes diminish to about the one-sixteenth of an
inch they become completely blocked up, so that all the air
cells beyond that point are cut ofl' from a supply of fresh air.
Now it is to these air cells (to which all the tubes lead, and
in which they end) that the changes, between the air taken
in at every inspiration and the blood pumped into the lungs by
the heart, take place. The blood then yields up its impurities
into a gaseous condition, and obtains in exchange a more than
equal quantity of pure oxygen, and becomes fitted to start
again on its life-giving circulation throughout the body.
Therefore anything which interferes with this process, if long
continued and largely existing, slowly kills. There are also
found on the surface of the lung numerous small round
whitish elevations, about the size of a mustard-
seed. These spots, if examined with a lens, show
in their centre a small dark spot, and if broken
into by the point of a needle a long flue hair-like worm can
be extracted. In a more advanced stage of the disease, large
patches of the lung, of whitish colour, and hardened by in-
flammation, are found. The heart is found to be pale and
flabby, and the blood watery. The coats of the stomach and
bowels are thinned, the various glands much enlarged, and,
in addition to the worms found in the lungs others of an
allied species are found, often in great numbers, in the fourth
stomach, and many yards of tape-worm in tlie intestines. It
becomes evident from these appearances that death results
from a chronic wasting disease. Downward extension has
evidently been progressive. As each fresh portion of Inng
becomes useless for breathing purposes by the inflammatory
action set up by the presence of the worms, the blood becomes
more and more unfit to nourish the various vital organs, till
at last a point incompatible with life is reached, and the poor
creatures dies, worn out by the protracted struggle. It is
probable that at any point before this, provided the develop-
raeut of fresh worms could be prevented, and those present
killed or expelled, a cure could be effected. The lecturer
then passed on to consider the nature of the worm, which
produced this disease — the strongylus filaria, one of the tape
worms. Tiie sexes of this worm were separate, and when
fully developed, the female animal attained a length of 3in.,
and was about the thickness of a thread of sewing cotton,
The male worm did not attain a greater length than an inch.
Tiie eggs extruded by the female worm amounted to thousands.
Large numbers of these eggs were undoubtedly coughed by
the animal affected with them in mucus, aud discharged from
the mouth ; others passed into the stomach, and were voided in
tlie excrement. The worms found coiled up in the little elevations
mentioned as being found ou the surface ofdiseased lungs were
of a different sort, and were called gordiana. They attained a
length of from two to four inches, and were of a black,
greenish, brown, or beautiful crimson colour. They were less
organized than the filari;e, but tlieir vitality was very remarks
able. Young gordians had beeu placed on glass, and dried
and wetted tiiree times in succession, yet after ten days they
had beeu fouud alive. The lecturer, after pointing out the
singula! fact that these worms, like the tape worm, existed in
a difl"erent form in some other animal or insect, and had to
pass through dift'erent animals in order to obtain their free
development, said the history of the strongylus was not
exactly known, but it was most probable that it did pass
through some other body at some period of its existence, and
further researches might perhaps define its actual history
more exactly. There were reasons for supposing, however,
that its insect nest would be found in some species that choose
white clover for their food. The lecturer then referred to the
conditions most favourable for breeding these parasites. To
obtain correct information on this important matter a series
of questions were some years ago circulated by the Bath and
West of England Agricultural Society, and in a large number
of answers returned there was a curious uniformity of testi-
mony on one point. Over and over again it was stated that
lambs fed on white clover, especially if it had been heavily fed
off by sheep in the spring, invariably produced the disease.
This uniformity (proceeded the lecturer) coming from
independent observers is remarkable, and if we examine the
underlying conditions we shall, I think, arrive at a correct
result as to the favouring conditions. In the first place it
would not be correct to suppose that sheep are alone affected
with this parasite during the early portion of their lives, be-
cause examples have been taken from the lungs of sheep at
all ages, but it seems to be only during the first few months
of life they are capable of being developed in sufficient num-
bers to threaten the life of their host. That, we may call
fact one. Second, the natural food of the strongylus is, as I
have before stated, tho unhealthy mucus thrown out by the
air passages. In a state of health the living membrane of
the air passages called the mucus membrane is always kept
permaneatly moist by a certain amount of secretion, that the
air, as it passes to and fro, may be impeded as little as possible.
This fluid is strained from the blood by very minute cells
which line the air tubes throughout, and which are tipped by
very delicate fringe-hke processes in constant motion to whip
towards the mouth any matter which needs removal. One of
the most curious sights you can imagine is to see under the
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
451
microscope (for I am speaking of objects not raore than
1-2500 part of an inch in size) this delicate fringe waving to
and fro as many as ten times in the second, all working in
such a manner as to sweep whatever lies upoQ the surface in
one and the same direction ; and this motion goes on for some
time even after the death ot the animal. When this mucus
is only poured out in proper quantities, and is healtliy in
character, it is probable the young strougyli, if by chance
they are brought into contact with it — a chance that must T)e
constantly happening — would not find themselves surrounded
by those conditions favourable to their development. But if
the lambs have already been subjected to conditions calculated
to lower health and increase the amount of mucus secretion,
then I take it tliey would find themselves placed amidst tlieir
natural pabulum, development and malti plication would
rapidly proceed, and would tend to perpetuate and intensify
the pre-existing evil. Thus interpreted, the natural history
of the disease appears to be this. Eggs containing the young
strougyli ready for development or already hatched, are
scattered over the field by the sheep in ths early part of the
year. If it prove a wet summer, it causes the grass or clover
to grow luxuriantly, and to contain an undue proportion of
water and a diminislied amount of earthy salts in its issues.
Consequently when tlie lambs are turned on to the pasture,
they get out of condition, all the vital organs suffer, the mem-
branes lining the digestive canal pour out an undue amount of
mucus causing scouring, tiie membranes of the throat and
windpipe get lined willi the sticky unhealthy phlegm, the
product of a low form of inflammation, and in this the germs
of the filariic, taken up witli the food, get caught on their way
to the stomach. Kuding iu tliis unhealthy mucus their natura
sustenance, they rapidly develope and multiply. I believe it
lias happened tliat filarire liave been found in the lungs of lambs
before weaning, and it has been supposed from this that the
germ of the worm must have been received direct from the
dam. A simple solution would be to suppose that the eggs or
young worms had been fished up from infected pasturage by
the teat of the ewe, and had been swallowed by the lamb
during sucking. Or on the other hand the true solution
of the fatality of clover may be that it forms the food of some
caterpillars, into which the immature strangyli passes, and in
whicli it has to pass some portion of its existence. When
once the worms have gained access to the lungs, and begin to
develope, they soon make themselves felt by the train of
symptoms they set up. Each worm becomes the focus of
irritation, which gradually merges into inflammation, extend-
ing, as the worms multiply, over tlie whole lung. An equal,
if not a greater amount of mischief is done by the gordians in
tlie surface of the lung ; each little cyst is surrounded by a
small patch of hardened lung, and where both filari;e and
gordians exist together, the case soon becomes desperate. At
the same time worms of an allied species abound in the sixth
stomach, and help to exhaust the vital powers of the animal.
Lastly, as to the all-important subject of treatment, preven-
tive and curative. This may be as regards drugs, direct and
indirect — direct where an attempt is made by medicated iu-
lialations to destroy the worms in their homes in the luugs.
Indirect when medicines given by the storaacli are absorbed
into the system, and conveyed to the lungs by the blood, and
there so modify the pulmonary mucus as to render it unfit to
nourish the parasite. The direct method is carried out by
confining the animal for a short time in a chamber filled with
the fumes that are given off by burning sulphur — /. e., sul-
phurous acid. Tliese fumes are best obtained by dipping
pieces of deal in melted sulphur, and theu igniting them.
Some caution is necessary iu the time of exposure and the
strengtii of the gas. Ten minutes would not be too long,
provided a proper amount of air could be allowed access to
the chamber in which the animals are confined, and tliere
should also be means by whicii a large amount of air could
be quickly admitted if necessary. Chlorine gas nuiy also be
used in a similar manner. It is readily obtained by pouring
strong sulphuric acid on common salt, but equal if not more
care is required in its use. A gentleman iu Devonshire tried
this plan a few years ago, and reported very favourably of it,
tliough on his first attempt lie had sixteen lambs instantly
killed by administering too strong a dose of it, and one of his
labourers who helped to remove tlie lambs from the chunilK'r
in which they were confined was also affected by it. After
experience had taught him the right proportion that could be
safely inhaled no other accident occurred, and after the pro-
cess the lambs at once began to gain flesh, and the scouring
and cough ceased. In some of the damp pasture ground of
the Lower Alps, where the disease is very common, much
benefit lias been derived from the inhalation of heated tar.
As regards the administration of remedies by the mouth, the
process, though a more roundabout one, is more simple, and
undoubtedly much good follows their use. As be fore stated,
in most cases iu which the filuri;e are present in the lungs,
other worms of an allied species abound in the fourth stomach
and the bowels, and these are at once reached and killed.
A teaspoonful of milk of sulpur mixed with the ordinary
food, or given as a dreucli, may be administered every
morning for a fortnight, and theu at intervals of two or
three days. A tablespoouful of linseed oil and turpentine
given every morning for a week has been tried with
partially beneficial effects, a dessert-spoonful of common
salt, every other morning fasting, for a week, or a table-
spoonful of turpentine with half a pint of strong salt and
water to each lamb three alternate mornings every week till
the cough ceases, has also proved useful, a dose of castor oil
being afterwards given to clear out the dead worms. Any
remedy that would tend to dry up or diminish the phlegm on
which these creatures live would also prove beneficial. I would
suggest that a teaspoonful of oxide of zinc made into a ball
with turpentine, and given every morning fasting, would prove
a cheap and useful remedy. In all cases medicine should be
given ill the morning alter the lambs have been shut up
during the night without food. Afterwards a little powdered
sulphate of iron mixed with bean or pea meal may be given
to improve the condition of the blood. The administration of
these drugs must be helped by a warm and dry situation, and
good nutritious diet such as oilcake, bean, and pea meal, oats,
and bran ; in fact, during the continuance of the diarrhoea as
small an amount as possible of succulent food should be allowed.
In conclusion, the lecturer said he thought what he had stated
exploded the idea that these worms were bred in sheep, and
said he believed the best method of avoiding the disease was to
keep Iambs in small lots, give them plenty of room, changing
from field to field as often as possible, generous diet in bad
seasons, sufficient supply of dry food, wilh a free access to
rock salt.
The Chairman could bear testimony to the great accuracy
of Dr. Joyce's representations. Unfortunately he (the speaker)
111 d been a considerable loser that year, having lost something
like 100 lambs or 20 per cent, of liis entire stock, lie could
speak favourably of turpentine and oil as a remedy, and be-
lieved tliat the use of dry food was of great assistance.
Dr. MoNCKTON remembered some years before having had a
few lambs affected with the cough, and this caused him to
refer to an authority on the subject. Shortly afterwards, iiow-
ever, the lambs recovered, and he had never been troubled in
the same way again. He had therefore iiad very little practical
acquaintance with the disease of which Dr. Joyce had been
speaking, lie had noticed with regret a point casually referred
to iu the paper to the effect that these worms were exceedingly
tenacious of life, and that they had survived the direct appli-
cation of weak spirits and diluted turpentine. Dr. Joyce Jiad
spoken of tape-worm in the human subject as tlie result of
an indulgence in measly pork, and he had himself several times
proved the truth of this assertion in an interesting way at the
hospital. Patients liad presented themselves with symptoms
of tape-worm, with which they were afterwards found to be
affected, lie had inquired into the habits of such persons,
and had found that iu most instances they had been in the
habit of picking at raw pork. The mother of one girl had
told him that she dared not send her to the grocer's for bacon,
or ham, or pork, for she was sure to fiud about half of it eaten
before she got hack. The remedy, of course, was that all
pork, whether measly or not, should be properly
cooked before it was eateu. He questioned whether
Dr. Joyce had given sufficient prominence to the
tendency of the ova of the filariic to enter by
the nostril into the lungs of the sheep. The consumption of
ova by the mouth appeared very imperfectly to explain the
strong tendency to development wliicii was observable iu the
air passages. The nostril sreiiied to be the direct road to
the windpipe, and he bad been inclined to view it as the way
ill which the ova were introduced, and tlie worm thereby
generated. He thought this ovum which became the filariie
in the windpipe of the sheep, might have been deposited by an
insect upon the lierbage; an idea which was a good deal sup-
452
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
ported by Dr. Joyce's observation tliat clover apparently was
largely instrumental in disserainating the disease, and it cer-
tainly seemed probable that if an insect did deposit the ovum
he would select some such plant for the purpose. It might
be su^^ested that the gape in chicken was attributable to
a similar cause. As regarded treatment, all that he had
confidence in was the use of turpentine internally, for he
apprehended that its likelihood of doing good depended upon
its being absorbed into the stomach, and excluded by the
mucus membrane. Dry food might enable the sheep to main-
tain the struggle against the disease, and thereby increase the
percentage of recoveries. The first great thing was to en-
deavour to detect, identify, and keep out the ova, and secondly
having failed to do this, to destroy them. They could not
expect much good to result from tlie inhalation of gas, for if
the direct application of spirits failed to destroy, the inhala-
tion of sulphuric acid gas for a few passing moments was little
likely to prove effectual, especially when they remembered
that the enemy with which they had to contend was buried
and ensheathed in a thick mucus. Dr. Monckton concluded
liis remarks by speaking of the many impure atoms which
were constantly iloating in the atmosphere, and being inhaled
into the system. He explained how the air could be effec-
tually filtered by the means of cotton wool, and suggested,
amid some merriment, that sheep might be fitted up with
respirators made of such material.
Dr. OwEXs remarked as to tapeworm being the result of
persons eating measly pork, that at the time when it was his
duty to open bodies, he remembered three cases where persons
had been in the habit of eating raw pork, but in neither was
there any trace of tapeworm observable ; so that he did not
think it necessarily followed. Dr. Monckton had also said
that the ova of insects which had been deposited by them
upon tlie herbage, may have been sniffed up through the
nostrils of the sheep and have generated these worms into the
lungs. He quits agreed with this, and he had been wondering
whether the worm in grouse might not be accounted for in
the same way ; thus bearing out the idea that the flower of
clover, &c., formed a deposit for the ova. He also thought
with Dr. Monckton that it was absurd to give powerful drugs
to the sheep in order to destroy the parasites in their lungs,
when they were so exceedingly tenacious of life that direct
application of powerful medicine through the throat failed to
answer the desired end.
Mr. Chittendkx said that while admitting the theory that
these parasites were either picked up in the food, or inhaled
from the air, passed through various stages, and then returned
to the ground to be again picked up by the lambs, he would
venture to ask Dr. Joyce whether in young and healthy ani-
mals these worms could not, by the aid of a microscope, be
discovered in an undeveloped form. His belief was that this
cause of disease was inherent in the lamb. Mortality was
very great among young children ; and they also knew, from
practical farming experience, that they suffered especial loss
among their young sheep, the parasites of which he had been
speaking forming a fruitful cause of disease. His idea, then,
was that they existed in all lambs in an undeveloped form ;
and the next queslion would be what course of treatment they
could best adopt. He thouglit that if they could succeed, by good
management and proper care, in keeping the sheep in health,
tiiey would not be troubled much with this tapeworm. Certain
seasons were particularly unfavourable to the sheep. At one
time there was a large, and at another time only a scanty, crop
of grass. Tins would lead to irregular feeding, and develop a
disease which had not shown itself before. He believed that
if they maintained their animals in good health, the existence
of those destructive little creatures in the throat or lungs
would not be sufficient to induce any mortality. Their own
experience showed that there was nothing more suicidal than
to put their lambs upon stale keep ; and he was satisfied that
no lambs should be placed upon a piece of grass or food of
any kind that had been fed off the same year. He thought
if that were followed oat they would seldom find their lambs
become emaciated. As they advanced into the chilly autumn
months the food that had been nourishing during the summer
lime failed to continue so; and if they neglected to use corn
and other nourishiug food, their sheep must necessarily suffer.
He thought one great cause of mortality among their lambs
was that they were permitted to get out of condition towards
tlie end of the year. An unflourishing, retrogressive state of
health meant incipient disease. Therefore, when they found
an animal failing, they must, by the use of oilcake, &c., assist
nature to combat with the disease which was coming upon it.
Mr. Chittenden concluded by recommending the free use of
oilcake, which he had found to be most advantageous among
his own flocks.
Mr. Hayes remarked that the present year had been a most
disastrous one for his lambs, which had suffered greatly from
worm in the throat. He had lost no less than 25 per cent, of
the whole number. He could not account for it at all. They
were in good order when weaned, and had been fed more
freely than usual, the extraordinary part of it being that those
who had suffered most were apparently the best situated,
having been fed upon land lately mown. They had been put
out in small lots of from twenty to thirty, and every care
taken of them, but the loss had been greater than they (his
brother and himself) had known for thirty years.
Mr. Stoimiiam said the first question they had to consider
was, how these ova obtained access to the system. Scientific
investigation seemed to point to the fact that it was taken up
from the herbage by the sheep, and passed through the nostril
to the lungs. At certain seasons they had to contend with the
rot in sheep. There was a slimy sort of snail attached to the
herbage ; the sheep were attracted to the spot, and so the
system became undermined, and the sheep died. In the same
way he believed these little parasites were passed through the
nostrils and developed in the lungs. It was a painful thing
that they should be found so tenacious of life, and he did not
think that an effectual mode of treatment had yet been dis-
covered. Dr. Monckton had given them a capital insight into
the impurities of the atmosphere, showing how many minute
particles they were constantly inhaling. Parasitical life, he
believed, attached itself more readily to weak organisms, and
this showed them how careful they ought to be not to allow
their young stock, by inattention to diet, to get into a weak
state. He knew the case of a farmer who had a lot of nice
lambs which had been fed upon trefoil. He took them to
market, but failed to sell them, and brought them back to the
old pasture. The result was that nearly the whole of tlie
lambs died. There was something abhorrent to those animals
in being put upon stale keep, and he had no doubt that this
carelessness as to their real wants led to much greater loss
than they would otherwise sustain.
The Chairman said that to speak of remedies he was in-
clined to think that turpentine was the very best. He had had
the lungs of a sheep opened, which had been treated in this
vvay, and every one of the worms was found tnrned back, com-
pletely dead. There was no doubt, however, that the germs
would still remain and go on developing from time to time.
He thought the best plan was to be careful as to general
treatment and diet, and to give occasional doses of turpentine.
Dr. Monckton remarked that it might be interesting to
them to know that a respirator similar to those of which he
had spoken had been used with great advantage by the firemen
of London who had been thus enabled to breathe freely in a
fearfully dense and destructive atmosphere. In the course of
some further remarks, Dr. Monckton suggested that a slight
incision made into tlie windpipe of a sheep might induce the
escape of the cause of irritation as it often did in the case of
a human being where a luit-shell or something similar had
been partially swallowed. He thought Mr. Chittenden's idea
that the disease was an integral part of the lamb was an
altogether fallacious one, but when he said that they might by
careful treatment fortify the auimal, and enable it to with-
stand the disease, he quite agreed with him.
Mr. Plomley thought Dr. Monckton's plan of tracheotomy
would answer no purpose, as the worms were not found in the
larynx, but in the ramifications of the bronchial tubes. He
also thought that care must be taken in the treatment of
affected lambs, for it would be very injudicious to feed them
high while they were in a weak and emanciated state.
Mr. Troutbeck said he should like the lecturer to explain
a circumstance which had come to his knowledge. A number
of sheep which had been bred in mountainous districts, and
which left them in a perfectly healthy state, their produce also
being healthy, had died after being introduced to pastures in
the breeding districts of the midland counties, although they
had not been fed off for two years previously.
Dr. Joyce then procened to reply to the observations which
had been made. AVith regard to what Dr. Monckton had said
with reference to the ova being taken up by the sheep through
the nostril, he expressed himself as more in favour of the
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
453
sappositioa that the sheep inhrowsiug consumed the excretion
of other sheep, which he knew from examination did contain
the ova. The danger of a stale hite was very great, for these
parasites, as he had shown, were exceedingly tenacious of life,
and would resist change of temperature for months and months.
Tliey were, however, migratory, and if by careful feeding the
disease could be put off for a time, no loss would probably be
sustained. With regard to Mr. Troutbeck's question he could
only surmise that the sheep had fed upon infected pasture on
their way from one grazing district to another.
A vote of thanks to Dr. Joyce for his paper closed the pro-
ceedings.
CORK FARMER S' CLUB.
At a special meeting, Mr. D. J. Riordau, president, in the
chair, Mr. Jones submitted the followia;^ report, which he
liad prepared at the request of the committee :
The committee, in presenting the report of the Cork
Farmers' Club for 1873, congratulate the members on its
unimpaired stability, and the esteem in which it is held by
the general public, which is attributable, may _be truly said, to
never having deviated from the principles laid down at its for-
mation, and to which, for special reasons, they will as briefly
as possible allude : In the latter part of the year 1865 the
Club was established, and being somewhat of a novelty in
Iieland, persons before joining it asked what is the meaning
of a farmers' club ? What are its objects? These qtiestions
were best answered by pointing out the objects sought to be
obtained by the leading farmers' clubs of England, when they
were no novelty, and whose example it may often be our spe-
cial interests to follow. In the early part of the year 1866, in
order to give this information clearly, the Club reprinted in
phamplet form the inaugural address delivered by the llev.
Prebendary Brereton on the opening of the Barnstaple farmers'
Club in Devonshire, in which he ably points out many of the
advantages to be derived from the establishment of farmers'
clubs, and the subjects properly appertaming to them. He says ;
" I have only to name a few of these questions to make the ad-
vantages obvious — The condition of the labourer, the mutual
obligations of landlord and tenant, the desirableness for larger
or smaller occupancies, and the adjustment of local and gene-
ral taxation, the improvement of local communication, the
relative profits of grass or tillage, the most profitable breeds of
animals, the true principles of mutual insurance applied to
agricultural property, and the best sanitary precautions apart
from insurance." He then goes on to say, " Even this slight
enumeration of the questions which are occupying general
attention in the public press and before the Legislature, but
which are almost legitimate subjects for discussion in a farmers'
club, must, I think, convince anyone that as they will not be
satisfactorily solved without a thorough mutual understanding
and co-operation between the owners and occupiers of the land,
so will they best elicit their understanding and co-operation
when landlords and tenants meet in the same society, in the
same rooms, and converse freely together. It is my sincere
hope tliat the Farmers' Club will longjbe the means of bringiug
together for consultation and co-operation on the great practi-
cal matters of rural-life men of all classes, views, and parties."
Your committee in thus alluding to those topics suited for
English farmers' clubs, and which have been adopted from the
outset as the basis for the Cork Club, cannot complain too
strongly of the sueer, constantly made by those who do not
wish well to such institutions in this country, that the Cork
Club was merely a political one, when in no single instance
hasit ever goue outside any of these questions. It is true the
Cork Club has on all occasions taken an active part both in
county and city elections, in the latter for the simple reason
that the city franchise extends into the country for a radius of
several miles. If it be political for farmers to lake an active
part in the selection of their representatives in Parliament who
will honestly endeavour, by a fair attendance in the House of
Commons, to rectify present abuses, and attain the foregoing
object, but above all things the further amendment of the
Land Bill, which means fixity of tenure at fair rents, and a
change in the local and general taxation (of the latter a
thorough revision of the grand jury laws), your committee
trust tkat so far the farmers' clubs of Ireland will continue to
be political as long as they have existence. It is dpplor.ble
to think that what is an Englishman's prjudest boast — his
nationality, and the freedom to make his own laws — slKiuid
be consiilnrcd in an irishman little short of outrage iiml
crime. Your committee wish to point out some of the
subjects the Club aimed at attaining, in order to show
jt has never exceeded its duty : In 1806, a meeting an! reso-
lutions on the best mode of meeting the cattle-plague ; reso-
lutions recommending the extension of root crops, and the
consumption of grain grown on the farm ; resolutions for the
alteration of the grand jury laws ; resolutions condemning
Mr. Eortescue's land bill ; rules for the guidance of a cattle
insurance ; a lecture on the growth of llax, and resolutions
recommending its culture ; the first great show of roots,
cereals, butter, flax, and poultry ; the first annual dinner, a
most complete success, at which members of Parliament and
several leading citizens were guests; the deputation to Dublin
to present Mr. Bright with an address for his advocacy of
Irish affairs. In 1867, a scheme for gradually creating a far-
mer proprietary in Ireland ; the first meeting with regard to
Parliamentary representation, at which Mr. M'Carthy Downing
was selected in preference to Messrs. Smith-Barry and Scully ;
a joint committee of the farmers' clubs and members of the
agricultural society at a conference with the committee of
merchants on the butter question, at which important changes
were suggested and adopted, and a thorough good under-
standing established ; a petition on the grand jury laws with
6,000 signatures — the growth and extension of green crops ;
a publfc trial of mowing maehiucs, at which a medal was
awarded. 1868 : The oppositioa to presentments for malicious
burning, sffectiug a saving of £1,221 to the ratepayers ; the
first ploughing match, the largest that ever took place in Ire-
land— forty-nine ploughs entered ; the analysis of manures —
one sample sold at £14 per ton being found worth only £1
18s. ; the recommendation on the reform of the land and grand
jury laws; the essay by Mr. Riordau on the extension and
cultivation of green crops ; the reclamation of waste lands ;
the show of roots, which was an improvement ou the first,
and the dinner was equally successful ; the report ou the
Poor-law amendments. The records of the Club show works
of a similar character, but it would be tedious, and waste of
time and space, to specify any more than for the past year:
For the report on the laud bill by Mr. Ronayne, M.P., and
his ever watchfulness in the farmers' interest, the Club are
deeply grateful ; the conference of clubs held at Cork in
January last on the laud act, its bearings, novel leases and re-
medies suggested. The following were the clubs represented :
Coik, Mallow, ilacroom. Limerick and Clare, Kerry, Kil-
larney, Kildare, and Queen's County. A most successful
ploughing match on a field, most favourable, given by Mr.
James llegarty, Whitechiirch ; the great Tcnant-Right
meeting held in the Rotunda, Dublin—Mr. Dorgan (jjre-
sident), Mr. Riordan (vice-president), Mr. E. Farrell, and Mr.
J. Jones, lion, secretary, representing Cork. The meeting
was one of the most important ever held on the laud bill, every
farmers' club and tenant association in Ireland being repre-
sented. Resolutions were unanimously passed condemning
the bill ; the Daily News remarking : " Such is the verdict on
one of the Premier's messages of peace by the very persons
whom it was specially designed to conciliate ; and the tem-
perateness of the language employed only gives more weiglit
to a sentence pronounced witli so much clearness and ])rc-
cision." The conference held in Belfast on the 20th and 21st
January last, attended by iMr. Riordan, vice-president, and
Jlr. Farrell, was equally, if not more important, as the fusion
of the interests of northern and southern farmers was more
like completeness than on any former occasion. Besides the
imMicdiule result of this conference was the election of several
Tenaiil-Right and Home-Rule members of Parliament for
boroughs and counties which otherwise would have been sealed
against them. The root show, from unavoidable circum-
stances, did not take jdace this year. A conference of far-
mers' clubs of tlio county of Cork was licld on the 5th of
December, for the purpose of determining what steps sho\i!d
be taken with a view to electing a tenant-farmer for the next
vacancy for the county, and the following resolution was
unanimously adopted : " That we form a committee of chair-
454
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
man, vice-chairman, and hon. secretary of the different far-
mers' clubs of the county, to name a day upon which a meeting
shall be held, to whicii delegates, clerical and lay, shall be
invited from every parish in the county, for tiie purpose of
naming a proper candidate." An unexpected dissolution of
Parliament took place in January following. The county
meeting was liastily called, was held in tlie Chamber of Com-
merce on the 3rd of February, and resulted in the unanimous
adoption of Mr. M'Carthy Downing and Mr. William Sliaw
(who resigned his seat for Bandon), and who were returned
witliout opposition. The committee suggest, as some portion
of work for the ensuing year, that a mowing trial be held in
June. The annual show of roots, cereals, butter, &c., and
the competition for the medals given by tlie hon. secretary
for the field culture of mangels and turnips be licld in No-
vember: two prizes, first and second, for labourers' dwellings ;
the analysis of manures, at the scale previously agreed upon
by the Club. Resolutions on these matters will be proposed
at the meeting this day. It will be seen from tiie foregoing
report that it is not even the intention to depart from the
original principles, while also there are many topics whicli
have not as yet been touched. The committee liope that in
time, as prejudices against farmers' clubs fade away, they will
become, as in England, institutions of the country, their
object being the advancement of agriculture, thereby promoting
the best interests of society.
D. J. RiouDAN, Chairman.
J. Jones, Hon. Sec.
March 12, 1S7J^.
The President thought the report ought to embody the
fact that through the action of a deputation from the Club,
wliich waited on the agent of a landlord who was going to
evict one of his tenants for allowing his rent to run in arrear,
although lie had laid out an immense sum of money on the
farm, an offer proposed by the deputation liad been accepted,
and the tenant was left in possession of his farm, instead of
being thrown an outcast upon tlie world.
Mr. Jones : That does not appear upon your records.
President : But it occurred. I was one of the deputa-
tion ; and I think it ought to be inserted in the report, if
possible.
Mr. Jones : I had no document to show me anything
about it-
Mr. Farrell moved the adoption of the report, lie said
the farmers of tiie county knew their own interest they
(vould become members of the farmers' clubs in larger numbers
than they had done.
Mr. DoRGAN had mucli pleasure in seconding the adoption
of the report. If there were notliing else to show the useful-
ness of the Club, the opportunities it afforded of bringing the
best agricultural implements to the farmers' doors, and enabling
them to judge of them in operation, ought to suffice. Another
proof of their utility was found in the exhibitions of their skill
in the production of roots, and the beneficial competition those
led to. He should add tiiat instead of their being a drawback
upon the comfort of the labourers, tlie farmers were most
anxious to promote habits of cleanliness and domestic comfort
amongst them by offering prizes for their encouragement; and,
if circumstances permitted, they would do still more.
Alderman Keller observed that fixity of tenure was the
only hope for the country. To that the country looked for-
ward with one mind.
Mr. M'AiJLUTE : I think we will be a long time waiting
for il;.
The adoption of the report was then put from the chair, and
agreed to.
The Secretary read a series of resolutions adopted by the
committee :
Proposed by BIr. E. J. Farrell, seconded by Mr. J. Bagsjott:
That a mowing match be held at the most fining time in June,
open to all, and the several makers be invited to compete, and
that a medal be awarded, and that a special medal be awarded
to a one-horse mower, if deemed of sufficient merit. — Con-
firmed.
Proposed by Mr. J. J. Bateman, seconded by Mr. J. Dorgan:
That the annual show of roots, cereals, butter, &c., and the
competition for the medals given by tlie honorary secretary,
for the field culture of swede turnips and mangels, be held in
the autumn, the competitors for field culture to state at time
of entry the mode of culture and manures used. — Confirmed.
Proposed by Mr. T. Dorgan, seconded by Mr. James Ile-
gart.y : That two.prizes, first and second, be offered for labour-
ers' cottages, thatched or slated, open to all, and that the
members of the Club be earnestly requested to urge competi-
tion : gentlemen's lodges and tradesmen's cottages excluded.
Mr. Jones referred to the annual report for ISfiG to show
that from its earliest days the Club had moved in this matter ;
but unfortunately there were on that occasion two competitors
for the prizes, 25 miles apart, and neither of them of sufficient
merit.
The President said the club had been accused, some time
ago, of indifference to the interests of the labourers, by parties
who wanted to make a handle of it at the time ; but their
records proved that from the very start they had been advocat-
ing the cause of the labourer as well as that of the farmer.
Mr. Farrell denied that the farmers neglected the interests
of the labourers, and urged that they could do nothing while
they themselves were in a position of insecurity. lu many
leases therfe was a clause which prohibited flie tenant from
building one labourer's cottage, although he might knock
down as many as he could.
Mr. Dorgan : I have it so.
Mr. Farrell : And yet we are accusf d of neglecting the
labourer. There is no more patient drudge in this world than
the Irish labourer ; and only ibat he is so 1 don't know what
the Irish landlord or tenant-farmer would do with his land.
He toils from morning till night for a very small amount of
wages — it is not enough, indeed, to give him decent food.
Most of the farmers are in the same position themselves, and
I know instances in whicli the farmer finds it very hard to
make up his rates. I hope and trust there will be found
suflicient spirit amongst our members to demand an inquiry
into the condition of the Irish labourer during the coming
session. I think it would be well if we asked Mr. Ronayne.
Mr. Shaw, or Mr. Downing to call for such an inquiry, and
let the Conservatives see how the landlords are treating the
labourers.
Alderman Keller said it was plain that if Uie labourer
were to get suitable cottages and a bit of land they irust come
from the owners of property.
The resolution was adopted.
" Proposed by Mr. J. M'Auliffe, seconded by Mr. Denis
M'Donnell — That the secretary be iiuthorised to wait on the
vendors of manures and request them to submit samples of
same for analysis, the samples to be taken by him from the
bulk, vendors to pay the cost of analysis at the scale agreed on
by the club. — Confirmed.
RABBITS, FOXES, AND FARMERS.
At a meeting of the Hambledou Hunt, the new master,
Mr. Walter Long, who has just succeeded his father, said he
hadn't the slightest doubt that nine-tenths of the foxes were
killed by the keepers who were allowed rabbits as perquisites.
Many letters were read bearing on this subject, and others
appealing for consideration for tenants whose poultry is des-
troyed. Mr. Strattou moved a resolution : "That iu the
opinion of this meeting the preservation of rabbits causes the
destructionof foxes."— Mr. I'addon, insecondiugthemotionsaid
he took it there were 80 foxhunters in the Hambledon Hunt,
besides others who took a part in the i-port, and each of these
had on an average two horses. All this was a benefit — from
the very tailor up to the hay dealer, corn merchant, and others.
They must not for one moment think that foxhuuting should
be discontinued. Their worthy chairman hit the right nail
on the head when he said that the keepers aestroyed the foxes.
He did not believe half the gentlemen were aware of what
their keepers were about. He noticed the other day that one
left a certain ]d:ice, and he had iu his possession nearly £2,000,
which he had made out of what? ("Rabbits"). Not out of
his wages, which did not average, perhaps, more than £1 per
week, and he could not have realised anything like that sum
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
455
from that source alone. The fact was the keeper had leave to
kill the rabbits ; he employed the poacher, and thy ferreted
out the rabbits for the keeper. And when they compared the
price of rabbits they would find whereas tome time ago they
were 4d. each they were now Is. 4d. It was but the other
day a gentleman told him he made £300 per year by his rabbits.
— Mr. C. B. Smith remarked that there was no question that
the preservation of rabbits was a great evil, and it led to more
bickering aud ill feeling than anything else. There raifjht be
a desire to get rid of rabbits altogether, but he did not think
that was likely to happen in their time. — The motion was
amended as follows : " That in the opinion of this meeting the
preservation of rabbits is the chief cause of the destruction of
foxes." — This was put to the meeting, and carried unanimously.
— Mr. Knight, of Middlington Farm, Soberton, said in a farm
he occupied he estimated he lost £100 a year by rabbits, which
was under the mark, and he had suffered quite to the extent of
£2,600. He had seen as many as 200 rabbits feeding in a
small field. He had complained, but it was no use, for the
keepers had the rabbits, and the poacher was employed by them
to kill thera. They were trapped, and the fox came along and
took some out. They then knew the result. The fox was
killed, and if he (Mr. Knight) wanted a rabbit he was obliged
to buy one. This was the way foxes were destroyed. — Mr. C.
Purrott suggested they should take the map of the Hambledon
country, divide it into districts, and have a committee of three to
assist the master during the year. They could have three gentle-
men in each district, one of whom, should be a landowner, and
the third a tenant-farmer. Tliese gentlemen would make them-
selves acquainted with the various matters, and would always
be aware, to a certain extent, of the number of foxes in
their district. A great deal had been said about the
keeper, and if they took away his perquisites how did they
suppose they could obtain his assistance without they did
something for him ? He would suggest that they should give
him 7s. 6d. for each "find" until November, and after that
time 10s. The committee would receive claims for damage
done to poultry, and would recompense parties at once. — Mr.
Wyatt could tell them that since rabbits had got from 6d. to
16d. there were more of thera and less foxes, and the other
day he saw a rabbit lying dead in a cove — for what purpose he
could not say. It might have contained arsenic and this
would have been taken up by a fox as well as a hound.
He siiould like to see more power given to the
tenants, who would act as keepers. He was perfectly
satisfied that if a large landowner would make every
one of his tenants keepers — that was by giving them
power over the ground game — they would take care that no
labourer was turned into a poacher, and they would have
more foxes, less rabbits, and plenty of hares. — Mr. C. B.
Smith thought the keeper should not be allowed to have the
rabbits as perquisites, as it would get rid of trapping and the
evils of which Mr. Stratlon had complained, and it would do
more than anything else to lessen the quantity of rabbits. —
Mr. Purrott then proposed that the Hambledon country should
be divided into districts, that a member of the hunt and a
farmer living in the neighbourhood of such district be re-
quested to act as a subcommittee, who should from time to
time investigate any complaints made with regard to damage
to poultry, that they should make themselves acquainted with
what was passing in their neighbourhood which was de-
trimental or otherwise to foxhunting, and report to the
general committee. — Mr. King Wyndham might state that
the damage fund amounted to about £120 or £130 per year,
which, however, had nothing to do with the master's fund.
The members of the hunt gave £3 or £4 each, and if that
could be increased it would be very beneficial. He quite
agreed with Mr. Purrott — that the country should be divided
into districts. — Mr. King Wyndham said he could not under-
stand why it was the Corhampton covers were drawn blank,
and whether it was the fault of his keepers or not he did not
know. At all events he had told them that he would have
foxes, aud a litter or two as well, and if there was not he should
turn them off. He could not, however, believe that they
injured or killed the foxes, but they had been found dead on his
property, and also that of Mr. Long. They had found no
less than sixteen that had been killed. Two or three had been
brought to him by his own keepers. One of them — a fine
old dog fox — had eight shots in him, and he had no doubt
come from some distance and died there. If any gentleman
could tell him that either of his keepers killed a fox he would
not have him one minute longer. At all events he had told
them " Foxes I will have, and also a litter or two," and if
that was not so they would know what they would receive. —
The resolution of Mr. Purrott was then put, and carried
unanimously.
THE ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY'S SPRING CATTLE SHOW.
The forty-fourth Spring Show of the Royal Dublin
Society opened on April 21st, in their premises in
Kildare-street, where from a general point of view the show
of Shorthorns was a fair one; but it cannot be denied that
amongst the very large number of yearling bulls exhibited,
there were many that would have been better absent, were it
not that this annual show is also the great mart for the sale
of yearling bulls ; and as all farmers in Ireland are now
most anxious to introduce pure pedigree blood amongst
their dairy stock for improvement, it is a matter of
£ a. d. to procure this at a moderate price, as they are
not able to give fancy prices for fancy bulls well made up.
Thus the seller of bulls in the rough and the farmer
of moderate means are substantially served by the exhibi-
tion. As compared with former shows the Shorthorns
are in excess of all hitherto brought forward, as will
appear from the following table :
Bulls.
Heifers and Cows.
Year-
lings.
2 years
old.
Aged
Year-
lings.
2 years
old.
3 years
old.
Cows.
1
1871
135
45
24
18
6
1
8
237
1872
136
36
27
13
4
0
5
221
1873:
148
37
20
20
1
2
6
234
18741
154
27
29
15
10
3
15
253
The judges commenced their duties early, at about 8
o'clock, by selecting such animals from the 154 yearling
bulls exhibited as they deemed most qualified to compete
for the four prizes, and it took them tiU after 10 o'clock
to come to a final decision, although in the process o
weeding out they sent back several finer animals thai*
some kept in the ring, certain of which were sold
soon after at, as we learned, almost fabulous prices.
From these yearlings the judges selected Major Bar-
ton's Conqueror by Iron Duke (31420), out of Mysie b
Cumberland the First ; he has a capital back, ribs well
sprung, and good crops, being very substantial and sym-
metrical throughout. Mr. Henry Lyons, of Groom
House, was put second, for Lord Robert by Lord Francis
(26650), out of Diana by Saturn, a very stylish, strong
bull, with a good back, well-formed ribs, and beautiful chest ;
his twist excellent, aud well coated with fine hair. Mr,
Chaloncr took the third honour with Sir Andrew
by Frederick Fitz-Boolh (26195), out of Alice by-
King Richard; a grand topped bull, with good
ribs and Hank, backed by a capital coat of fiue mossy
hair, and an excellent touch. He was placed No.
24 instead of 23, which caused some confusion, but after
th", award he was placed by his proper number. The fourth
prize was given to Mr. David Gibson, Ballybrit House,
for Autocrat by Czarowitz (30S37), out of Dewdrop by
Count de Gray, an altogether taking auimal, with capital
ribs, crops, good depth of carcase, and a very level back.
The high commendations weut to Major Barton's Indian
G O
456
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
Chief, half-brother to his first-prize bull, who was fui-ther
distinguished as the reserved number ; while the others
were Earl Fitzwilliam's Count Malton ; Mr. Robert
Cosby's Phosphorus, out of Ehoda by Sol, a most pro-
mising animal; and Mr. Meadows' highly-bred Master
Frank. Mr. Cope's Baron Roby the Third, bred by the
Duke of Devonshire, Holker Hall, by Baron Oxford the
Fourth, out of Oxford Rose the Second, was expected to
do great things, but he did not tell iu the eyes of the
judges, albeit he deserved a higher grade, for he is a sweet,
symmetrical youngJbuU. There were some other high com-
mendations : Mr. Humphry Smith's Longfellow by Lord
Claud, out of Auricula by Sheet Anchor the Second ; Mr.
Thomas M'Craith's Blyn Gwynneby Gwynne Fitz Booth,
out of Leda the Fourth ; Mr. Francis Morice's Mayboy
by Victor, out of Mayfly ; Mr. Patrick Sinnott's Knight
of the Garter by Valentine, out of a dam by Agamemnon ;
and Mr. James Hamilton's British Oak by Royal Oak,
out of Violet by Heart of Midlothian. The commenda-
tions went to Mr. Francis Lowe's Jonathan by Wide-
awake, out of Rosalia by Little Wonder ; Mr. George
Beresford's Knight of the North by Knight of the Thistle,
out of Miss Battersea the Second by Crown Prince ; Mr.
N. M. Archdall's Chancellor by Abercorn, out of Titania
by Napoleon, and another for Drummer also by Abercorn,
out of Moss by Ancient Briton ; and Mr. G. Nugent's
Bonny Boy by the Baron, out of Bonnie Lass. Unques-
tionably this veiy numerous entry of yearling Shorthorn
bulls contained many more which were deserving notice,
among which may be classed Mr. Wm. Scott's (of Cool-
nagour) Young Roseberry; Colonel Carden's Prince
Patrick; Mr. Downing's Brigadier General; Christy
Brothers' Sir Francis, Young Lie tor, and Viscount ; Mr.
Maxwell Gumbleton's Cherry Brandy ; and Mr. Wm.
Meade's Red Prince.
In the two-year-old Shorthorn bull section there were
twenty-seven entries, from which Mr. Meadows' white
bull, Ben Brace (30524), was put first. He has greatly
improved since this time last year, when he took the second
honour, while at the Hull Royal he was fourth, and at
the Northumberland Society's show at Berwick, in July
last, he took the first place. He is by Bravo (25665),
out of Bracelet the Second by Vanguard. He holds his
fine coat of soft, silky hair ; he has a straight, level back,
and is very well all over, excepting that behind the crops
he is a trifle hollow; both ends are good ; ribs well sprung,
and he stands square. Major Myles O'Reilly, M.P., was
put second for Prince Royal (.32*202), by Royal Prince
(27384), out of Lady Sara; a fine upstanding* bull, with
a good breadth of back, but rather hollow ; both ends
and middle piece are good, and altogether he is a bull of
much promise. The third, or reserved, bull is Mr.
Thomas Jackson, jun.'s, Peter Simple, from the Bally-
highland herd, and a commended bull of last year. The
Dey of Algiers (25892), is credited as his sire, and the
dam Simplicity by Equinox ; he is much improved, and
placed a step higher on the ladder of fame. Mr. N. M.
Archdall takes the second high commendation for
Banagher by Abercorn (25484), out of Jenny Lind the
Fourth, and the commends went to Rev. Mr. Moutray,
for Count Andressy, out of Columbine by Count Robert ;
he is a strong upstanding bull, and sold, soon after adjudi-
cation, to the Duke of Leinster at a high figure. Mr.
Matthew Kirwan, Yellowstown, Ardee, "was also com-
mended for Sir John, by Mr. Chaloner's fine bull Frede-
rick FitzBooth, out of a cow by Mr. Chaloner's Golden
Spur. There were several highly-bred bulls in this
section unnoticed, amongst which were those of Messrs.
J. A. Farrell, W. H. Massy, G. Low, Lord de Vescie, Mr.
Moffatt, Earl of Courtown, Messrs. W. S. Garnett, J. A.
M. Cope, Robert Dowse, Wm. Bolton, W. A. Barnes, Capt.
Butler, and a nice English bull, bred by Mr. F. Lythall,
of Leamington.
The three-year-old bulls numbered 29, out of which
Major Myles O'Reilly's grand bull King Richard the
Second (31514) was selected for the first place in his
class, and also as the Champion or winner of the Chaloner
plate, as the best of all the bulls over two and under six
years old. He comes from the highly-bred herd of the
late Colonel Leslie, of Glasslough, and is by Booth's King
Richard, out of Rosalea by British Flag. King Richard's
fortunes have been varied. At Dublin, in the spring
of 1872, he stood second, where he was thought to be one
of the best, if not the very best in the yard, and third at
the Belfast Royal in the same year; in 1873, at the
Royal Dublin, he only got a high commendation, where
Mr. Hinson's St. Ruth took first place and the Chaloner
plate, both of which St. Ruth now yields up to King
Richard the Second. The second place was assigned to
Mr. John A. M. Cope, Loughgall, for Marmaduke by
Hopeful, by Best Hopes (23414), out of Cherry the
Fourth by Priam ; while St. Ruth got the reserve place.
The other high commendations were Mr. Cooke's Lord
of the Manor, from the Welsted herd ; Mr. O'Leary's
(Ardfert) Royal John, bred by Mr. Crosby, Ardfert
Abbey ; Mr. Thomas H. Stevens's Rasselas, from the
Rev. M. Moutray's herd ; Colonel H. R. Carden, Fish-
moyne, for Prince Patrick, from the Tynte Park herd ;
and Mr. James Ganly, for Cardinal Wolsey by Leviathan,
out of Limerick Lass. This good bull is never housed
except at night iu the winter, and is constantly out with
the cows, while he exhibits great substance, strength, and
stamina. There was a good bull shown in this sec-
tion by Mr. H. Lyons, Croom-house — Lord Francis
(26650) — from Mr. Meadow's famous herd by First
Fiddle, out of Fanny the Seventh by Saturn, but he was
unnoticed. A very fine bull, Breakspear, the property
of Wm. Stawell Garnett, bred by Mr. xVI. H. Cochrane,
Hillhurst, Compton, Canada, was shown iu this class, but
was unnoticed. He is by Royal Commander (29857), out
of Queen of Beauty by Knight Errant (18154) ; but this
was not treating the American quite fair, for he deserved
some notification.
The yearling heifers numbered fifteen. The prizes were :
first to Mr. Maxwell Gumbleton, who is fast getting into
good stock, for Princess of Wales by Red Cross (32247),
out of Truelove by Ducrow. She is a sweet, stylish heifer,
with a fine back, splendid bosom, well-coated, and of
great promise. The second went to Mr. Michael Callan,
Castlebellingham, for Sovereign's Butterfly by Mr.
Chaloner's famous Sovereign (27538), out of White But-
terfly by Royal Sovereign (25044). She is a most taking
animal, having a profusion of fine mossy hair, a fine and
level back, splendid bosom, and finely sprung ribs. The
third, or first high commendation, was to Mr. Wm. Scott,
Coolnagour, for Style by Patriot (32053), her dam by
Crown of Lothian. A finely-topped heifer, with nice
hair, capital ribs and ends, she stood a very lengthened
contest with the second-prize heifer. Sovereign's But-
terfly, but eventually had to give way. The other high
commendations went to Mr. Gumbleton's Czarevna by
Red Cross, out of Seraphina, also by Ducrow, being half-
sister to the first-prize heifer, and of equal descent from
the grandsire, and to the representatives of the late S. A.
Richards, Ardamine, Gorey, for a very symmetrical heifer
in all her points, Apricot by Peacock, by Manrico
(26805), out of Roan Lass by Main Royal. The com-
mendations were to Mr. David Gibson for Countess of
Lothian, Mr. J. Ffolliott for Waterloo the Twenty-Sixth,
and Mr. R. F. Dunlop for Miss Gwynne the Third.
Of two-year-old heifers there were ten, and so good
that the greater part were highly commended. Mr.
Downing, Ashfield, Fermoy, who has been a very sue-
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
457
cessful breeder for some years, took the lead with Verbena
Royal — a sweet creature, of beautiful symmetry throughout,
carrying a load of good hair ; she was so very fat that a
rib could be scarcely felt, but her owner reports that she
could not be kept down without injury to her constitu-
tion ; and the judges could not pass her over. She is by
Royal Duke (25014), out of Vestal Queen by Hero of
Thorndale (18061), claiming kindred in her descent to
Western Wonder and Australian. The representatives of
Mr. S. A. Richards, Ardamine, Gorey, came in second for
Rosetti, bred by the late Izon Bryan by Charlemagne
(28126), out of Fanuy the Twenty-fifth, by Agamemnon
(23278), descending from the long line of Fannys which
have shed such lustre on Mr. Meadows' (Thornville)
famous herd of Shorthorns. The high commendations
were Mr. Bolton's Pansy Gwynne, out of Polly Gvvyune
by King Richard. She is of fine symmetry, and has a
rich 5oat of mossy hair, and so good tliat the outside
judges thought she should have stood higher, but there
was no getting over the leading lassies. Then
followed Mr. Dunlop's Daisy the Tenth, and his Snow-
drop the Second, and the Earl Fitzwilliam's Dandy. A
commendation was given Lord Clermont's Lady Emily,
bred by Earl Dartrey. However, Lord Clermont's Mar-
chioness by Hercules, out of Myrtle, and Major O'Reilly's
Queen Catherine by his prize bull. King Richard the
Second, out of Kathleen, are well worth notice.
The section for three-year-old heifers numbered but
three. Mr. Dunlop, of Monesterboice House, took both
first and second prizes for Jane the Third by Gallant
Knight, out of Jane the Second, and Daisy the Ninth by
the same bull, out of Daisy the Fifth, respectively.
The section for cows comprised fifteen entries. Mr.
Wm. Johnson, of Prumplestown House, Carlow, took
first place for his grand wealthy cow May Rose by Prince
of Rocklands, a highly-commended bull of 1872, by Lord
of Rocklands (22183) out of Amy. She is a remarkably
fine cow, and descends from the herds of the late Mr.
Anderson, of Grace Dieu, and the late Mr. Jaffrey Bar-
croft, both of whom spared no expense in procuring the
best blood extant. Mr. Dunlop, who exhibited a number
of cows in this section not in the best plight, was put
second for Snowdrop, which was second also in 1872 ; she
is out of Beauty by Mountebank (24626). jMr. Richard
Manders, Brackenstown, Swords, got a high commenda-
tion for a nameless cow bred by Mr. Thomas Connolly,
M.P. : she is a clever well put together cow, but her pedi-
gree is not clearly set forth. Mr. James Smith's Miss
Matilda, the second prize cow at this show last year, and
hitherto varying from second to first, though still a fine
cow, but growing a little patchy, is unnoticed ; as is also
Thomas Winder's last year's highly-commended cow,
Primrose.
On the whole the show of the younger stock, year-
ling and two-year-old Shorthorn bulls and heifers, was
fully equal to any hitherto held, but with little exception
the aged stock was not up to the mark, and we suspect
the most of these bulls will find their way to the butchers.
Many of our best breeders have retired from those shows,
finding it more j)rofitable to sell their young stock at home,
by either auction or private sale, thus avoiding the trou-
ble and risk of feeding them up to show condition, so that
the grand object to be effected at the spring show of the
Royal Dublin Society is the sale of yearling bnlls, for
which the time of year is admirably adapted.
As usual at this show, in the exhibition of iiorned stock
other than Shorthornsthere werebut few entries; in all, five
Hereford bulls, one of them indeed a magnificent beast,
but there were no cows, and one heifer only of that breed,
imported by Mr. John A.Farrell, iMoynalty. 'I'he premiums
were taken by Messrs. Johnson, Pnrdon, and Farrell. Tiiere
were three polled Angus bulls, and two cows or heifers,
where Messrs. Farrell and Owen were first and first ; eight
Kerry bulls and fourteen Kerry cows and heifer, of which
Messrs. Butler, Purdon, and Robertson had the best ; one
Ayrshire bull, and fifteen Alderney bulls, cows,and heiferS;
so that if it were not for the name of the thing, it would
be more economical to exclude the miscellaneous breeds
altogether.
The show of pigs was limited to thirty-two pens, but
these were as a rule of the best breeding ; Messrs. Molloy
and Manders being distinguished for Berkshires, and
Messrs. Molloy (again), Boyle, Napier, Butler, and Lord
Clonmel for whites. Amends were, however, made good
in the show of poultry, which occupied 238 pens of the
most improved varieties, and all in splendid condition and
plumage, so that for poultry and plenty of them the Royal
Dublin Society Shows stand in the first rank, alike as re-
gards breeding and quality.
JUDGES.
The following acted as judges in the several departments :
Shorthouns.— W. Linton, Sherriff Hntton, York ; A.
Mitchell, The Walk House, Alloa, N.B. ; J. Stratton,
Alton Priors, Marlborough, Wilts.
Other Breeds. — H. Haywood, Blakemore, Hereford;
J. Keating, Cabra, Moynalty ; S. Gilliland, Brook
Hall, Derry.
Kerries. — L. Christy, Carrigeen, Croome ; G. Hewson,
Ennismore, Listowel; Major Hartley, Clonsilla.
Fat Stock. — W. Reilly, Kilbarry, Navan ; A. Darker,
Clonsilla -. J. Simson, Cloona Castle, Hollymount.
Pigs. — Major H. L. M'Clintock, Hillsborough, Co.
Down ; G. N. Purdon, Lisnabin, Killucan ; A. War-
burton, Kill, Straffan.
The show of implements and machinery was the best
ever held by the Society, alike for numbers and con-
struction ; there being no antiquated rubbish to be found,
but all in improved form, and so numerous as to cover
every available space. Of English manufacturers and
dealers there were J. and F. Howard, Bedford ; Fair-
banks and Co., King William-street, London ; Harrison,
McGregor, and Co., Leigh, Lancashire; Ashby, Jeffery,
and Luke, Stamford ; Bradford, Manchester ; Rollins,
London Bridge ; Thomas and Taylor, Salford, Manches-
ter ; Osborne, Fox- street, Liverpool ; Penny and Co.,
Lincoln ; F. Eastwood, Blackburn ; W. S. Boulton and
Co., Norwich ; Taylor and Wilson, Accrington ; Le Butt,
Bury St. Edmunds ; Clarke, Ipswich ; Sharmau and
Ladbury, Melton Mowbray ; Hathaway, Chippenham ;
F. and C. Handcock, Dudley ; Williams, Rhuddlan, near
Rhyl ; Busse and Co., Finsbury, London ; Nicholson and
Sons, Newark'; W. A.Wood, 36, Worship-street, London ;
Samuelson and Co., Banbury ; Ransomes, Sims, and
Head, Ipswich ; Hornsby and Sons, Grantham ; Bristol
Waggon Works Company Bristol ; Page and Co., Bed-
ford ; Boby, Bury St. Edmunds ; the Reading Iron Works
Co., Reading; Ilaughtou and Thompson, Carlisle; Picksley,
Sims, and Company, Leigh, Lancashire; P. and H. P.
Gibbons, Wantage, Berkshire ; Riches and Watts, Nor-
wich ; Beach and Co., Dudley ; Davies, Regent-street,
Loudon ; Davis and Co., Newington Butts, London ;
Duffield, Regent's-park, London ; Jones, Gloucester ;
Brown and Co., Blackfriars, liOndon ; Bailey
Brothers, Chancery-lane, London ; McDougall Brothers,
Manchester ; Isbcl C. Bates, Stoko-Newington, London;
Fred. Vanstan, Bridport-strect, London ; John Beesley,
Regent's-park, liOndon ; Benjamin C. Tipper, Birming-
ham ; Samuel Edwards, Snlford, Manchester; \V. H.
Hilton, .'Vltrinciiam ; E. Archer, Essex-road, London;
Maurice de Leon and Co.,W. Waide, Leeds; Isaac Dixon,
Liverpool. Scotch: Alex. Jack and Sous, May bole ; J.
and T.Young, Ayr; Thomas Hunter, Maybole. Irish:
W. and J. Ritchie, Ardee; A. Fawcett, Killucan; William
G G 2
458
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
Kerr, Henry-street, Dublin ; F. Ilealy, Hammond-lane,
Dublin; Smith and Willstood, Capel-street, Dublin;
Paul and Vincent, Dublin ; Kennan and Sons, Fishamble-
street, Dublin; Thompson Bros., Wexford; Walter
Carson and Sons, Bachelor's-walk, Dublin ; Dromore
Heating Company, Ormond-quay, Dublin ; J. Edmond-
son and Co., Capel-street, Dublin ; O'Neil, Telford, and
Co., Athy ; The Dublin and WickJow Manure Company,
Ballybrough-bridge, Dublin and Wicklow ; Fred.
Barrett, Stephen's-green, Dublin; Booth Brothers, Upper
Stephen-street, Dublin ; John Jacques, Capel-street, Dub-
lin, and Soho Bazaar, Oxford-street, London ; Stephens
and Wilson, Stephen's-green, Dublin; The Drogheda
Manure Co., Drogheda; Richardson Bros., and Co., Bel-
fast, Cork, and Dublin ; The Singer Sewing Machine Co.,
Grafton-street, Dublin ; A. L. Eckford, Sandymount,
Dublin; McMaaters, Hodgson and Co., Capel-street,
Dublin ; Edmond Barnes, Charlemont Mall, Dublin ;
Mrs. Callan, South Frederick-street, Dublin ; Denis
O'Brien, Denmark-street, Dublin ; S. D. Watkins, Dame-
street, Dublin ; Fanelly and Son, Hawkins-street, Dublin;
R. L. Hughes, Dawson-street, Dublin ; National Manure
Co., Burgh-quay, Dublin ; Walter Fleming, Dawson-
street, Dublin ; R. E. O'Grady, Dawson-street, Dublin ;
M'Mahony and Brothers, Camden-quay and Blarney,
Cork ; Patrick Carroll, Stephen's-green, Dublin ; Henry
Sheridan, Bridgefoot-street, Dublin ; Hugh Atkins, Bel-
fast ; John Loughnan, Athy ; Martin, Hill, and Co.,
Usher's-quay, Dublin ; H. E. Brown and Co., Redmond's-
hill, Dublin ; Bates and Sons, Gorey ; Messrs. McDonald
and Lenaham, Ringsend, Dublin ; W. and T. McKinlay,
Strabane ; James Rutherford, Eden-quay, Dublin ; T.
Dockrell, Sons, and Co., South Great George- street,
Dublin.
SHORTHORN SALES.
SALE OF LORD EXETER'S
SHORTHORNS.
Or Tuesday, April 7, Mr. Strafford drew a large company
of Shorthorn fanciers and breeders together at the Dairy
Farm, Burghley Park, for the purpose of disposing of the
drafts from the herd of Shorthorns which has been kept
up by the present Marquis of Exeter and his predecessors
since the commencement of the present century. Its
main object is to supply the house with milk and the
tenants with bulls. In olden times the large deep York-
shire-looking cows were the admiration of all who visited
that noble park and mansion. Much depends in estab-
lishments of this kind on the skill and taste of the bailiffs.
About five-and-twenty years ago the stock seemed to fall
off, but under the late Mr. Higgs and Mr. Sharpe's
management new blood was brought into the herd, and
after Lord Ducie's Francisco (12893) was used, Mr.
Harvey Combe's Briar (15376) came down to Burghley,
as well as one or two cows from Cobham Park. These
Bates lines were finally topped with the Fourth Duke of
Thorndale (17750) from Mr. Hales, a bull of extraordi-
nary length and thoroughbred appearance, that had been
imported from America, and was of the pure Duchess
blood. He left his mark on the herd by additional style
and length, but the great depth and massiveness of the
old cows were sacrificed. The larger part of the herd
was sold at the late Marquis' death, including
Fourth Duke of Thorndale, who went to Colonel
Gunter for over 400 gs. Mr, Walton, from Cumber-
land, soon afterwards took charge of the herd.
Some of the old Gwynne and Charmer blood were
bought in, and a comparatively new era started.
Nestor, of the Gwynne tribe by Mentor, who combined
Fourth Duke of Thorndale and the old Burghley
strain, was put to Louisa 9th, and begot Telema-
chus, who has been well paraded up and down the
country, bringing to the coffers about £650 and notoriety to
the stock. The old bull, though but six years old, was shown
on the sale day, and is somewhat losing form, having dropped
in his back and lacking that fresh gaiety of appearance
and even shape, which brought him so many admirers.
As none of the cows and heifers sold were in calf to him,
and only one female in the sale claimed him as sire, it
was naturally presumed that his blood is being retained in
the herd. Cambridge Duke 5th, of the Red Rose tribe, a
costly purchase from Mr. Lynn, is evidently the stud bull.
A deep good red he is, with a ponderous dewlap, but de-
fective behind his shoulders and in his flanks. Most of
the cows for sale showed age, and consequently no great
prices were realised, although there was a fair, even, yet
slow sale. Lot I, Nonpariel 21st, ten years old, and in
calf, a good bull-breeding sort, made 51 gs., and went to
Captain Ashby. Lot 2, Purple Jar, the finest cow in the
sale, but a doubtful breeder, still keeping her old coat,
went a speculative purchase to Mr. Mackinder, at 47 g».
Mr. Chirnside, of Rugby, took two lots, Grand Duchess
by 4th Grand Duke, and in calf, at 68 gs., and Ada, of
the old Lenton blood, carrying a prodigious udder, at 57
gs. Elvira 8th (75 es., Lynn), a highly bred and stylish
looking cow, was rather bare of flesh, and strong in her
hips aud shoulders. Lady Gwynne, her daughter, and
son did not hold the reputation of the tribe, and their black
noses deterred any spirited competition. Capt. Williams
took the cow into Somersetshire at 50 gs. and Captain
Furness the daughter at 32 gs., whilst the bull-calf could
onlv pull 20 gs. Belle of Oxford 2nd seemed a good
cow, and cheap at 75 gs. (Langham), and Mr. Casswell
bought Blanche Artenay for 50 gs. A very pretty heifer-
calf, called The Queen, from Mr. Chapman's old stock,
had taken second honours at the Rutland show, and
brought 50 gs. from Mr. Chirnside. The J calf was
leggy, plain, and thin, yet she was thought good enough
to go to Brampton at 20 gs.
Most of the bulls were in capital condition and well
brought out : two out of the sixteen were withdrawn.
Six were by Telemachus, most light-coloured like him-
self ; and six by Cambridge Dukes, chiefly reds. Lot 6,
Telemachus 5th, a red of the old Nonpareil blood, was fan-
cied by many for his colour, though he wanted softness of
hair and handling. Mr. E. Lythall gave 68 gs. for him — the
top bull price. Lot 5, Telemachus 4th, a white, handled
far better, and was full of hair and of good shapes. Mr.
Moscrop bought him for the Aske herd cheap enough
at 65 gs. The first bull offered, Telemachus 2nd, rising
three years old, was very fat and heavy : he had taken
£50 out of agricultural societies, and now Lord Maccles-
field got him at 60 gs. Lot 2, a strong-shouldered two-
year-old by Telemachus, from the fine cow Purple Jar,
brought 3 gs. more from a new breeder — Captain Ashby.
Lot 3 was short of hair, and a little flat-sided ; still a
very useful bull, and by Telemachus' sire : Mr.
Fawkes took him at 52 gs. Knight of Gwynne
looked better in the house than out it, so that
he made but 36 gs. One of the best fore-quartered
calves was Telemachus 7th, red with a little white, and
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
459
the excellence of his head and chine probably ran him
up to 41 g9. (Rowley). Lot 8, Lord Oxford 6th, by Mr.
Angerstein's Oxford bull, out of the Louisa tribe, made
only 51 gs. ; and Henry 2nd, of nice quality and colour,
though bad in his girth, realised 53 gs. The other calves
went at lower figures, resulting in an average of £47 17s.
for the 14 sold ; the cows made just over £50 a-piece,
and the sale although slow, still made a good ave-
rage at £49 Ss. 5d. For we believe the first occasion
Lord Exeter presided at his own tabic, and very happily
he welcomed all present. Lord Kesteven gave his Lord-
ship's health, and what with a large concourse of towns-
people to the bazaar in the park, Burghley had with the
bright sun, albeit keen wind, quite a gala day.
COWS AND HEIFERS.
Nonpariel 2l8t, roan, calved May 26,1864; by Duke of
Geneva (19164), dam Nonpareil 20th by Marmaduke
(14897).— Capt. Asliby, 51 gs.
Purple Jar, roan, calved April 21, 1865 ; by 4th Duke of
Thorndale (17750), dam Rosamond by Oxford Duke (15036).
— Mr. D. Mackinder, 47 gs.
Nestorine, roan, calved Feb. 21, 1868 ; by Nestor (24648),
dam Blonde by Emu (19696). — Mr. Mutlieringhara,37 gs.
Grand Duchess, roan, calved, Feb. 28, 1869 ; by 4th Grand
Duke (19874), dam Blonde by Emu (19696).— Mr. Chirn-
side, 68 gs.
Ada, roan, calved March 27, 1869; by The Yeoman
(25305), dam Ada by Economist (21669).— Mr. Chirnside,
57 gs.
Elvira 8th, roan, calved December 21. 1869 ; by 17th Grand
Duke (2406t), dam Elvira 7th by 10th Grand Duke
(21848).— Mr. J. Lynn, 75 gs.
Lady Gwynne, roan, calved March 22, 1870; by Duke of
Cambridge (25940), dim Jenny Gwynne by Duke of York
(14461).— Capt. Williams. 50 gs.
Belle of Oxford 2nd, roan, calved April 10, 1870 ; by General
Napier (24023), dam Belle of Oxford by Imperial Oxford
(18084).— Mr. H. H. Langhara, 75 gs.
Joyful, roan, calved November 12, 1870 ; by Wisdom (30331),
dam Hopewell by Eclipse (23856). — Capt. Cooper, 35 gs.
Lady Honeycomb, white, calved April 5, 1872; by Lord
Nelson (26693), dam Ada by The Yeoman (25305).— Mr.
Griffin, 35 gs.
Cherry Gwynne, roan, calved September 29, 1872 ; by Grand
Pippin 2nd (28780), dam Lady Gwynne by Duke of Cam-
bridge (25940).— Capt. Furness, 32 gs.
Blanche Artenay, roan, calved December 31, 1872 ; by Duke of
Artenay (30918), dam Lady Blanche by Costa (21487).—
Mr. J. H. Casswell, 50 g.«.
Queen Isabella, red, calved January 15, 1873 ; by Duke of
Artenay (30918), dam Calypso by Telemachus (27603).
^Mr. Lawrance, 32 gs.
The Queen, roan, calved March 28, 1873 ; by Wisdom
(30331), dam Princess by Galen (19805).— Mr. Chirnside,
56 gs.
Jacquelina, white, calved September 25, 1873 ; by Telemachus
(27603), dam JacqueHne by Dandilly Dan (23675).— Mr. J.
Beasley, 20 gs. BULLS.
Telemachus 2nd (32649), roan, calved December 4, 1871 ; by
Telemachus (27603), dam Sea Gull by Nestor (24648).—
Lord Macclesfield, 60 gs.
Telemaclius 3rd (32650), roan, calved May 26, 1872 ; by
Telemachus (27603), dam Purple Jar by 4th Duke of Thorn-
dale (1776&).— Captain Ashby, 63 gs.
Beau of Oxford, roan, calved Julj 30, 1872 ; by Nestor (2461.8)'
dam Belle of Oxford by Imperial Oxford (18084) — Mr.
Faux, 52 gs.
Knight ot Gwynne, roan, calved October 27, 1872 ; by Tele-
machus (27603), dam Gipsy Gwynne by Royal Oxford
(27380).— Mr. Wilson, 36 gs.
Telemachus 4th, white, roan ears, calved November 9, 1872 ;
by Telemachus (27603), dam Grand Duchess, by 4th Grand
Duke (19874).— Lord Zetland 65 gs.
Telemachus 5th, red, calved November 16, 1872; by Tele-
machus (27603), dam Lady Penrhyn by 3rd Duke of
Wharfdale (21619).— Mr. E. Lytliall, 68 gs.
Telemachus 7th, red, calved May 24, 1873 ; by Telemachus
(27603), dam Wild Sage by Nestor (24648).— Mr. Rowley,
61 gs.
Lord Oxford 6tli, roan, calved February 22, 1873 ; by Lord
Oxford 5th (31738), dam Louisa 9th by Prince Albert
(18579).— Mr. Hill, 51 gs.
Cambridge Jam, red, red, calved June 24, 1873 ; by Cam-
bridge Duke 4th (25706), dam Jam Pot by 4th Grand Duke
(19874).— Mr. Dainty, 40 gs.
Henry 2nd, red, calved August 19, 1873 ; by Cambridge Duke
5th (30644), dam Rosamond by Telemachus (27603) —
Mr. Maidens, 52 gs.
Achilles, red, calved September 10, 1873 ; by Cambridge Dnke
5th (30641), dam Nestorine by Nestor (24648).— Mr.
Duke of Gwynne, roan, calved October 27, 1873; by Cam-
bridge Duke 5th (30644), dam Moll Gwynne by Telemachus
(27603).— Mr. Armstrong, 32 gs.
Cambridge Gwynne, roan, calved November, 3, 1873; by Cam-
bridge Duke 5th (30644), dam Lady Gwynne by Duke of
Cambridge (25940).— Mr. Walker, 20 gs.
The Banker, white, calved March 8, 1874; by Rutland
(29908), dam Ada by The Yeoman (25305).— Mr. Callis,
12 gs.
SUMMARY.
15 Cows averaged £50 17 9 £763 7 0
14Bu!ls „ 47 17 0 669 18 0
29 head averaged £49 8 5 £1,433 5 0
SALE OF MR. J. J. HETHERINGTON'S
SHORTHORNS.
At Middle Farm, Brampton, Carlisle, on Thursday
April 9, 1874.
BY Me. J. THORNTON.
This herd had been bred by Mr. J. J. Hetheringtoa
during the last six years, partially from some of his
fathers' sto;k, which was sold off at a "great sacrifice"
during the time of the cattle plague. Fortunate pur-
chases were made on that day. Mr. Foster, of Killhow,
invested in some Gwynnes, which repaid the outlay four-
fold, and others were equally fortunate ; for Mr. Hether*
ington had always an eye to a good beast, and though but
a poor keeper, had form and quality and good blood
in view. His earliest knowledge of the breed was gained
throuL'h his neighbour, Mr. Calvert, of Sandysike, a
friend of the Brother Colling, whose stock was brought to
the Cumberland border and retained as a herd for nearly
a century. Quite recently it was scattered, and Mr.
Hetherington became the purchaser of those lots which
were sold at his son's sale- But the Gwynnes were the
cattle for which Middle Farm has been so long noted.
From a little calf sold at the '66 sale came now quite a small
herd of nine Gwynne females and one bull-calf, and the
nine cows and heifers sold averaged nearly £130 each.
There were also a goodly number of the Millicent tribe,
which were purchased at Mr. Slye's ; although tracing to
the Farnley herd, the cro.^ses had not given them a dis-
tinct character, and some of the heifers had rather
a light, shelly look.
Ranged side by side in a long clean cow house we have
not for some time seen a cleaner, better lot of cows.
They were in blooming condition, not over fat nor
in half-starved order, whilst the great size, rich clear
colours, and well-shaped udder, told of constitution, flesh
and dairy qualities. Among the more taking lots were
Princess (lot 2), of the Darlington tribe, and a very fine
white cow (lot 8), Camilla, of Mr. J. Fawcett's breed ;
indeed, there were few, if any, better than this cow. She
calved twelve hours before the sale a white heifer-calf,
and walked into the ring as robust and strong as possible.
Both these go to form the nucleus of a good herd at
Edenhall. Lot 10, Polly Gwynne 3rd, was aaother fine
young cow. Her great size and good colour made her
conspicuous, and iu securing her, although at 125 gs..
460
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
Mr. Charles Howard has a cow that will lay the founda-
tion of another lot of Gwynues, as excellaiit, nay, if not
better, than those sold at Biddenham four years ago. Her
two heifers were the two highest-priced lots of the sale,
the three-year-old, another good red and white and heavy
in calf, going to Major Webb at 205 gs., and her calf to
Mr. Fox at 185 gs. Mr. Fox also got a very good red
calf at 100 gs. out of her dam. This cow (Polly
Gwynne 2nd) was the matron of the tribe. She com-
bined the Wild Eyes and Gwynne blood in her
veins, and the cross seemed to be a happy blend.
It brought out great scale and substance, with a fine head
and character, totally different to that often seen nowa-
days : moreover, she carried a large, well-shaped vessel,
and gave six-and-twenty quarts a-day. Mr. Fawcett
seemed determined to possess her, and at 77gs. she was
a bargain, as her fresh look is like producing many of
the same kind. Mr. Fawcett afterwards expressed the
great satisfaction he had in securing this cow, as she
reminded him strongly of the character of the Elvira
cow of the same blood which he possessed fully half a
century ago. One of her heifers was by his Emperor
Maximilian, a bull by Grand Duke Gth, from Policy, a
cow full of Farnley Booth and West Rasen blood. It
was singular how this cross changed the appearance of
the produce to the dam. Polly Gwynne 4th came out a
light roan, on shorter legs than the rest, with stronger
loins and back. Mr. Harward, of Winterfold, bought
this cow as 115gs. ; and her calf, very much like herself
in colour and form, went for 135gs. to Sir Wilfred Law-
son, who was Mr. Fox's opponent for the 9th. Mr.
Harward also took her other heifer by Oxford 4th at
76gs. Lot 24, Polly Gwynne Gth, had injured her knees,
and, at the request of the auctioneer, was allowed to be
kept by young Mr. Hetheringtou for a fresh start.
The iirst cow, lot I, Lady Lena, bred by Mr. Jolly, by
Mr. Booth's Knight of Warlaby, was a remarkably good
breeder and a great milker, and she also came into the
ring with a " thumping " red seven months' bull-calf, as
big as many year-olds. The cow Mr. Smith keeps in the
district at 47gs., whilst her calf brought a guinea more, and
goes into Derbyshire. She was twice put to Fourteenth
Duke of Oxford, from Holker, and brought heifers, both
very fine animals, totally upsetting the general opinion
that Booth and Bates won't mix. Lot 19, perhaps the
handsomer, a fine large roan cow, became Mr. Fawcett's
property at 7Igs. ; and her other heifer, as well as a two-
year-old, which was singularly like her half-sister in form
and colour, were purchased for Mr. Attenborough. Lot
9, Elvira 10th, a nice cow of the Princess blood, had
calved, since her purchase at Ulverston, a roan heifer-
calf, and was giving twenty quarts daily. Mr.
Woodburn took her back to her old district
at 80 gs., and her calf making half the money goes to
Warrington. A very fine cow was Young Nanny, of the
Sandysike blood, not unlike the Gwynues in character,
and like them full of Colling blood. Mr. R. Thornton
bought her at 65 gs., and Mr. John Todd, of Mireside,
who has a great fancy for the blood, got the other two
representatives of this admirable sort. Baron Deepdale,
from Underley, the bull in use, had swollen knees, and so
only reached 44 gs., and for the other bulls there was a
slow dreary sale. Indeed, for the females, the sale was
at times dragging, but at £61 16s. 6d. average for 42
cows, against £27 for 34 in 1866, was a satisfactory
return, and encouraging to young breeders like Mr. J. J.
Hetheringtou, who have steady judgment and care, with
a lively though quiet interest in the pursuit. Sir Wilfred
Lawson took the chair at the lunch, and was, as usual,
as happy in his remarks as he is at a teetotal lecture.
SALE OF MR. ROBERT JEFFERSON'S
SHORTHORNS.
This sale took place the day after the Middle Farm
Sale, and was numerously attended. It was really a sale
of bulls, to which a number of cows and heifers were
added, as well as the " small select herd," the property
of Mr. Gnnson. If Mr. Guuson's " small select " lot
was a specimen of what he could do in the way of Short-
horn breeding, the sooner he attempts a herd on a large
scale the better. The eight sold were in admirable con-
dition, and averaged £65 10s., with the best lot away
with an injured spine. This was a yearling heifer that
had run the noted Errant Girl a hard race, though she never
got a-head of her, yet it was reported a local admirer was
present who would have given 300 gs. for this Sonsie Lass.
Among Mr. Guuson's was Earl of Derwent (28508), a
bull full of the old Raine blood, bred bylMr. Marshall of
Howes. He stood first at Stirling last year, and had
simply to go and win elsewhere. He is a very grand
bull, of remarkable flesh, evenly laid on, a fine-tempered
coloury beast withal, and one of those grand animals that
a breeder or a novice would equally admire. His fine
head, full of curly, long hair, indicated his coat in season
now shed, and perhaps a little length of quarter might
improve him ; still, he is a bull who would have run
even Commander-in-Chief hard, and we doubt much if
there be anything in the country that can stand against
him at Bedford, if his purchaser (Mr. Handley, at 75 gs.)
please to exhibit him. He was reported among the
locals very " smittel," and the herd said " they munna kep'
hay off him," so great was his inclination to feed. The
top price of the sale was 105 gs., given by Mr. Toppen
for Wild Eyes Gwynne 3rd, a wonderfully good red-and-
white heifer, whose only fault apparently was the want
of a pocket-handkerchief. Lot 14, Elvira 2nd, another
beautiful cow, goes into Cheshire cheap enough at 85 gs.
(Messrs. Williamson Brothers), and Phyllis 10th, a very
fat three-year-old, went to Mr. Blackstock at 65 gs.
Among Mr. Jefferson's was Sonsie Duchess, a rare good
breeder, which Mr. Fox got at ten years old for 61 gs.
Lot 10, Fickle Fanny by Edgar, from the Knightley
Walnut tribe, went to Mr. J. Wilson Wilson cheap
enough at 75 gs., and he also got Sweetheart 26th, a
nice red heifer-calf at 47gs. Lot 11, Roseanne Gwynne,
was not in a breeding state, and so Mr. Mossop got a
bargain at 43gs ; Prelude, one of Royal Cambridge's
heifers, ran up to 57gs., and Village Ghost, four years
old and just served, could only scale 50gs. from Mr.
Atkinson of Bywell. There were three nice calves which
made as much as the cows.
The bulls were mostJy after Knight of the Shire, hired,
like many others, by Mr. Jefferson, from Mr. Booth, of
Warlaby. As soon as they came in, the company rallied,
and bidding became more brisk. Lot 45, of the Fame
tribe, followed by request Earl of Derwent into the ring.
He was a nice light roan hairy calf out of Colleenette, a
very massive cow of the Fame tribe. After smart bids
between Mr. Grimes and Mr. Hoddinott, of Hampshire,
he goes to the latter breeder at llOgs. Mr. Anthony
Metcalfe bought True Briton at 45gs. from Mr. Cleasby,
but the white began to tell. Yet they were the best.
Knight of the Shire had left several after himself, both in
colour and in very thick thighs and massive hind-quarters.
Smiling Morn from Mr. Wood's Coral touched 50gs. (Mr.
Hindson), but another, Simon the Cellarer, could only
reach 26gs. (Hodgson). Certainly the best bull. First
Wrangler, was ill. His swollen jaw indicated it, and he
looked all wrong. 35g3. was Mr. Jefferson's
reserve, but it was soon topped, and we very
much question whether Mr. George Atkinson
has not got any cheap bull at 60 gs. Lot 36, from. Mr.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
461
Barnes' Speranza, a fiae cow, doubtless seut lier son up
to 55 gs. (A. Bell). First Justice by Vain Hope (qow iu
use witU Mr. Dovvniug's herd at Fermoy), a large fine
red and white bull out of Fickle Fanny, goes into Scot-
land at 55 gs., and Mr. Gunsou's highly-bred but empty-
bellied Cumberland Worthy reached the same price from
Mr. Robertson. He was a nice calf, but probably " out
of sorts." Magnano made 26 gs., a cheap purchase (o
Mr. Smith of "Goole. With this calf the sale really
ceased, with a total showiag £2,219 14s. for 48 head,
or a general average of £46 5s., about a guinea below
the average for the seventeen bulls. Mr. Thornton was
the auctioneer.
MR. WILEY'S LEICESTER FLOCK.
Second Sale at Brandsby, ox Tuesday, March 31.
The remainder of this celebrated flock of pure
Leicesters was brought to the hammer at the Warren
House Farm, Brandsby, by Mr. Thorntou, of London,
and Mr. Walker, of York. It comprised the lambs from
the ewes that were sold last autumn at an average of
nearly ten guineas each, and the rams, most of which had
been let privately. The few gimmers were admirable :
they came out in capital condition, and with enormous
fleeces, which the cold, blustering, windy day showed to
much advantage. The first pen of three went to Mr.
Cock, of Westmoreland, at Ts gs. For the next lot, a
splendid pen of three and quite the pick, being of great
size and very fine quality, caused brisk competition
between Mr. Hutchinson (of Catterick), Mr. Cresswell
and Mr. Jefferson (of Preston Hows, Whitehaven), who
finally got them at 16i gs. Lots 3 and 5 were pur-
chased by Mr. F. Danby at 6^ gs. and 5 gs. Mr. Strick-
land gave 8 gs. for the last pen of those, and the re-
maining three pens of five went to Mr. Usher at 5^ gs.,
Mr. Riccall at 6 gs., and Mr. W. Fox at 4 gs.
The tup hoggs were equaUy as good as the gimmers,
the quality and length of staple of many of them being
excellent, and they showed strong, robust constitutions,
as well as great size. Lot 3, a fine youug sheep, with a
grand back and neck, brought out sharp biddings, and
was finally secured by Mr. Meade, of Co. Cork, for 42 gs.
He also took lot 5, perhaps a more elegant lamb, with a
beautiful fleece, at 25 gs. Mr. Riccall gave 17 gs. for lot
10, and also purchased several others. Lot 13 was
another favourite lamb, and Major Stapylton's agent and
Mr. Cresswell hung well over it, until the latter secured
it for his old flock in Leicestershire at 40 gs. The re-
maining lambs ranged from 4 gs. to 11 gs., and one
shown out of the wool brought 2k gs.
The highest prices among the twenty shearlings was
18 gs., lot 36 (used by Mr. Tindall),' sold to Major
Stapylton. Lot 40 (used by Mr. Borton), 19 gs. (Dob-
son). Lot 43, 15i gs. (W. Fox, Whitehaven). There
were thirty two-shear and old sheep, the pick of which
went to Mr. Hutchinson for 40 gs. It was a very eraud
ram, and had been hired by Mr. Wheatlty Tindall,
of Lincoln. Lot 60, a two-shear, hired by Lord
Feversham, was bought by Mr. Stamper, at 25 gs. Mr.
Stephen Franks gave 10^ gs. for one. Mr. Dobson,
16 gs. for lot 30 (used by Mr Borton), and the two last
went to Cumberland, Mr. Jefferson taking one
good sheep at 20 gs., and Mr. Cock, the last, at 5 gs.
So ended the last of the Braudsby flock. It is remark-
able that in the North of Eugland the West Coast is
now taking that prominence both for Shorthorns and
sheep that years gone by was held by breeders on the
East Coast. The thirty-two gimmers averaged about
£7 3s. ; the thirty-six tup hoggs, £9 ; the twenty shear-
lings, £7 63. 6d. J and the thirty old sheep, £8 ISs.
The cattle were merely a few well-bred dairy cows, a
fiue lot of in-Calf heifers, and some grand bullocks. A
young cow by Breastplate brought 42 gs., and Alfred, a
pedigree bull from the Albina tribe, sold for 44 gs. (Mr.
Mason). The heifers went from 13 to 24 gs. each, and
the steers, which were forward and in prime order, sold
well. A roau three-year-old pure-bred, preparing for
show, and reckoned at 'JO stones, was purchased by Mr.
Ilarlaud, of Sowber Hill, for £50 lOs. Some imple-
ments were also sold ; but the remainder of them and the
household goods and chattels were dispersed on Thursday.
It was the general opinion that the sheep would have
sold better last autumn. Mr. Wiley, however, preferred
to keep up his old custom of having his friends around
him to the last, and letting them privately. With the
exception of those named, many of the rams in the wool
went only at butcher's prices, and doubtless in the
autumn would h:ive fetched more money. There was a
large attendance, though not equal to the assembly that
saw the first act of the Brandsby Sale last September.
A slight cold and a very rough March day prevented the
appearance of Mr. Wiley. He removes to his sou's house
at Winterfield, near Bedale, where, as he remarked, " he
should still feel proud to see his old friends and well-
wishers."
SALE OF THE LATE MR. BURGESS'
SHORTHORNS,
At Edenham, on Wednesday, April 15, 1874.
BY MR. THORNTON.
The late Lord Willoughby d'Eresby occasionally pur-
chased a good bull for his tenants at Edenham, and this
doubtless led Mr. Burgess to breeding a few Short-
horns. His first attempt was with some cows, having
a dash of the old Lenton blood, and he occasionally
picked up a few well-bred animals at the sales within easy
reach, that he was so fond of frequenting. Several came
from Burghley, and these were descendants of stock from
Mr. Lynn's, Mr. Roberts', and Mr. J. G. Dixon's herds.
As Mr. Burgess had always upheld the old Burghley blood,
going there first for his bull Rampion (16784) and others,
so he in later years w&nt to Lady Bigot's herd, and bought
three bulls, Prince Rupert (20604), Cheery Chap (21404),
and Flag of Orleans (23957), all sous of bulls hired from
Warlaby. He soared a little higher, as means allowed,
towards the end, and got Prince Boabdil (27120), of the
Bliss tribe, and Job (31438), of the Farewell, a bull good
in form and flesh, but a harlequin in his spangled red and
white colour ; yet oddly enough, with one or two excep-
tions, all the calves by him were nice roans, and very good-
looking. Truly blood tells. A farm adjacent to well-
preserved woods aud overrun with game is no place for
high farming or rearing good cattle ; yet he struggled
against it, and did his best as far as circumstances per-
mitted. The cattle were nice hairy animals, particularly
the cows. The heifers, put to calve down at two years
old, were rather small, and certainly very thin ; but the
calves, with a more generous diet, gave promise of better
things. Lady Pigot put ten lots into the sale, some of
which she had purchased privately for milk years ago from
Mr. Burgess, and two or three cows aud heifers, which
by their absence of calves had a doubtful appearance about
them.
Death gives a peculiarly solemn tinge to business that is
usually of a bright and cheery nature. Stricken down
with congestion of the lungs, Mr. Burgess passed away
ere three score years had elapsed, and he left an orphan
family behind him. For them the herd was realised, and
it brought for the thirty head close upon £1,200, At
462
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
the lunch Mr. Piccaver, the executor, was very happy,
but as happy as sad when he spoke of the paiuful duties
incurred for his departed friend. The sale, too, had just
the same tinge. One very beautiful cow. Baroness
Milcote, ran up to 95gs. (Mr. Wortley), notwithstanding
her black-nosed calf ; Mrs. Colling, one of the old Caistor
breed, a hairy, nice cow, realised 53gs., and her calf
20gs. Mr. How gave 40gs. for May Dew, a white cow,
of the Zelluria tribe, and also took her calf at 36gs. Lot
31, Queen Farewell, bought at Childwick, made 5izs. (J.
Looker). Job, notwithstanding his sire and his head,
went to Mr. Tweedie at 67gs., aud a red yearling bull
brought 38gs. (R. Godfrey). Lady Pigot's lots sold for
just as much as they were worth ; white Bellona and Milky
Way, both fashionably bred, but ve>-// very doubtful breeders,
were both bought by ]\Ir. R. Kinder at 60gs. and 36gs.
The 200gs. reserve on Sidus was not covered ; so he
returns to Wytham-on-the-Hill, where some very beautiful
animals are preparing for this year's show. The 39 head
sold made within a few shillings of £40, and most of the
company adjourned to Bourn, for Laughton on the follow
ing day.
Summary.
£ s. d. £ 8. d.
33 Cows averaged 41 1 0 1,354 10 0
6 Bulls „ 31 1 3 180 7 6
,39 Averaged £39 10 2 £1,540 17 G
MR. JOHN HENRY CASSWELL'S HERD,
At Laughton, Folkixgham, on Thursday,
April 16, 1874.
BY MR. THORNTON.
A very wet night brought a fine day, and with it a
good company ; for every longwooUed breeder
knows Casswell's sheep, which have grazed the
rich grass round ancient Laughton for more than a
century. Mr. John Henry Casswell got his father's farm,
and with it a " useful lot of beasts," which were descended
from six cows and heifers bought at Ostler's sale, 1831.
" A red bull of Mr. Dixon's of Caistor," and " a roan
bull of Mr. W. Smith's of West Rasen," indicated suffi-
ciently the record of the breeding in early times ; these
were, however, succeeded by two sons of pedigree bulls,
and finally Young Vanguard (30203), Fitz-York (28612),
and Baron Panton (23377), from Panton, were all recorded.
Some time after the son got the farm he made a few pur-
chases of cows from Burghley, and Mr. George Bland, of
Coleby, and his friend, Johu Lynn, sold him Baron Gran-
tham (27940) of the Mystic-Charmer line. Then he
went to Gaddesbj', and got a very useful and well-bred bull
in Baron York (30500,) of the Bates and Foggathorpe line;
indeed, he was a son of old Seventh Duke of York, and
gave his stock all the gaiety and elej;ance imparted by
the grandsire. Whatever the blood of the herd may have
been, the animals were certainly brought out in a way we
have rarely, if ever, seen surpassed. They were well and
cleanly bedded iu warm, comfortable crews, hardly a hair
awry, and in beautiful condition. The heifers might have
been put in a line, to do credit to the county show ;
for, as many remarked, it was quite a show to see them.
The ring in the orchard by the neat and tidy drive to the
house, the clean new hurdles, the capacious stand, all beto-
kened the quiet forethought and finish which characterised
the whole proceedings. The lunch, laid for 300 in a capital
booth, was as tastefully and quietly decorated, not alone
with flowers to please the eye, but with solidgooddishesand
sweets to tempt the dainty appetite. Contrary to usual
habit, neighbours, not breeders, filled the chair and vice-
chair, and which possibly accounted for the peculiar wan-
dering, still funny speeches at the lunch. But Mr. Thorn-
ton led the way to business at two sharp, and soon
despatched it. The second cow, one of Rowland Wood's
breeding, but of Pawlett's blood, through her sire, made
the top price, 90 gs., and goes to Mr. Braikenridge in
Somersetshire. The cattle list, however, gives the
prices throughout, aud the cattle were all alike, and so even
and good that the prices ruled accordingly, aud it is
diflicult to particularise. Most of those who bought the
dams bought also the calves, and perhaps Sir Thomas
Whichcote took three of the ripest plums to Aswarby.
The average was very good for the entire lot, and about
5 gs. over general expectancy. Mr. Casswell reserves a
dozen to go on with, and if a good beginning makes a
good ending, fortune, with success, smiles on the wa .
Summary.
42 Cows averaged £47 15 6 £2,006 11 0
21 Bulls „ 40 17 0 857 17 0
63 averaged 43 9 4 £2,864 8 0
SALE OF MR. CRUICKSHANK'S
SHORTHORNS, AT SITTYTON.
At this annual sale there were in all entered in
the catalogue fifty-five bulls and fourteen heifers. Of
the bulls, one had been previously sold, and five, having
been slightly lamed, were not offered ; and of the heifers,
one was uot offered. The bulls used in the herd are all
more or less well known. They are Baron Colling
Bredalbane, a son of Champion of England; Master of
Arts, also a son of Champion of England ; Lord Lans-
downe, a son of Cajsar Augustus ; Scotland's Pride, by
Grand Monarque ; Royal Duke of Glo'ster, Csesar Augus-
tus, Earl Granville, Knight of the Whistle, by Knight of
the Garter ; Lord Lancaster, Young Englishman (Upper-
mill), Masterpiece, a son of Champion of England.
Mr. Mitchell, St. John's Wells, was the auctioneer, dis-
posing of the whole stock in an hour and a-half, and Mr.
Philip, Boynds, was judge of the sale. The first two
bulls sold were two-year-olds, the rest yearlings. The
following is the sale list :
BULLS.
Loyalty, red, by Baron Colling, dam Lustre 6th. — Mr. Black,
Linhead, Ellon, 24gs.
Blair Atliole, red, by Breadalbane, dam 13th Duchess of
Glo'ster. — Mr. Bruce, Myreton, Insch, 30gs.
Plum Pudding, white, by Master of Arts, dam Passion Flower.
— Mr. Maithnd, Little Methlick, 39gs.
Guardian, roan, by Lord Landsdowne, dam Orange Blossom.
— Mr. Meldrum, Dairsie, Fife, 46g3.
The Judge, red and wliite, by Scotland's Pride, dam Butterfly
10th. — Mr. James MKenzie, Belscanipliie, Slaias, 29g8.
Reputation, red, by Scotland's Pride, dam Butterfly 33rd.—
Mr. Duncan, Aberdeen, for Messrs. John Thomson and Son,
Newark, Sanday, Orkney, 40gs.
Robinson Crusoe, red, by Royal Duke of Glo'ster, dam
Charade. — Mr. Douglass, Ardboll, Ross-shire, 70gs.
Chronometer, red, by Ctesar Augustus, dam Chastity. — Mr.
Hector, Collyhill, 27gs.
Ferdiuand, red, by Earl Granville, dam Flora 2ud. — Major
Ramsay of Barra, Straloeh, 41gs.
Phoenix, roan, by Cfcsar Augustus, dam Victoria 41st. —
Provost Wood, Banff, 46gs.
Framework, roan, by Lord Lansdowne, dam Vellum.— Mr,
Duncan, Aberdeen, for Mr. James GuDn,Sibster,Wick,32gs.
Golden .\night, red, by Knight of the Whistle, dam Golden
Days. — Mr. Howie, Nether Comisty, 35g8.
Schoolmaster, roan, by Scotland's Pride, dam Sybil 6th,—
Mr, Maxton Grahame, Redgoiton, 52g3.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
463
Juryman, red, by Lord Lancaster, dam Lovely 12th. — Mr.
Lurasden, Braco, Grange, 35u3.
Nimrod, red, by Young Englishman, dam Goldie 4th. — Mr.
Leiih, Standstill, Caithness, 33gs.
Sir Charles, red, by Caesar Augustus, dam Sibyl 2nd. — Mr.
Dunbar, Dysartbank, 26gs.
Londoner, roan, by Scotland's Pride, dam Lavender 9th. — Mr.
Moir, Knockhall, 25gs.
Marcus, roan, by Cte-ar Augustus, dam Matchless I2th. —
Mr. Harvey, Pitgersie, 41gs.
World Wide, red, by Lord Lansdowne, dam Russian Violet.—
Captain Smith, Minraore, Glenlivet 72gs.
Plato, red, by Lord Linsdowae, dam Lady's Pride. — Mr. Abel,
Ley Lodge, Kintore, 29gs.
Thistledom, white, by Masterpiece, dam Lucy. — Mr. Cumming'
Corthiemuir, 24gs.
Southesk, red, by Scotland's Pride, dam S.«tinet. — Mr. Gray,
Roeberry, 23g8.
Gold Coin, red, by Caenar Augustus, dam Golden Princess. —
— Mr. Rust, Potterton, Belhelvie, 23^:3.
Quarterma-ter, red, by Scotland's Pride, dam Queen of Forth.
— Mr. Alex. Henry, AukerviUe, Ross-shire, 8 gs.
Romulus, roan, by Scotland's Pride, dam Riug Dove. — Mr.
Stephen, auctioneeer. Cutler, ISgs.
Barrister, red, by Lord Lancaster, dam Louisa Buckingham.
Mr. Stoddart, Aryburn, Oldruachar, 26gs.
Borealis, red, by Lord Lansdowne, dam Butterfly 12th. — Mr.
Douglass, Clytli, Caithness, 4lgs.
Vanquish, roan, by Rjyal Duke of Glo'ste.-, dam Violet's
Pride. — Mr. Brand, Auchinten, Cruden, 48gs.
Roman Empire, roan, by Scotland's Pride, dam Arabella. —
Mr. Davidson, Mains of Cairnbrogie, 42gs.
The Scholar, red and white, by Caesar Augustus, dam Sprightly
— Mr. Morrison, Newseat, Schivas, 32gs.
Templeiuore red, by Lord Lansdowne, dam Lucy Bucking-
ham.— Mr. Duncan (for Mr. Edmonston, Unst., Shetland),
19gs.
Hamlet, roan, by Lord Lansdowne, dam Hebe 27th. — Mr.
Heatherwick, Mains of Auchnagatt, 29gs.
Lord Prudhoe, roan, by Senator, dam Victoria 43rd. — Mr.
John Milne, Mains of Laithers, Turriff, 36gs.
Orlando, roan, by Lord Lansdowne, dam Oak Garland. — Mr.
Ledingham, Braeside, Rothmaise, 36g8.
Lord Milton, red, by Lord Warden, dam by Lady Morpeth. —
Mr. James Henderson, Whitecairns, Belhelvie, 29gs.
William of Orange, red and white, by Royal Duke of Glo'ster,
dam Orange Blossom 9th. — Mr. James Smith, Goval, New
Machar, 33gs.
Welcome, roan, by Lord Warden, dam Valeutia. — Mr. Russell,
Kiniamouth, 35g8.
Loweswater, roan, by Lord Warden, dam Lavender 13th. —
Mr. Ironside, Ingliston, Inverurie, 35t;s.
Columbus, roan, by Royal Duke, dam Cassandra. — Mr. John
Leys, Blair, Fintray, 32^8.
Moonlight, white, by Masterpiece, dam Orange Blossom 6th.
— Mr. Anderson, Fingask, 20gs.
Sensation, roan, by Scotland's Pride, dam Sunset. — Mr. Shep-
herd, Oraigies, 29gs.
Vivian Grey, roan, by Lord Lancaster, dam 11th Duchess of
Glo'ster. — Mr. Godsmau, Aucjuliadley, 25gs.
Diogenes, red, by Royal Duke of Glo'ster, dam The Beauty.—
Mr. Shepherd, Craigies, 62g8.
Astrakan, red, by Scotland's Pride, dam Water Nymph. — Mr.
HutcheoD, Upperton, Turriff, 21g8.
St. Clair, roan, by Masterpiece, dam Butterfly 31st. — Mr.
Scott, Glendronach (for Mr. Ledingham, Drumblair), 32gs,
HEIFERS.
Magenta, red, by Scotland's Pride, dam Mysie 26th. — Mr,
Nares, Bructor, 28g3.
Boquette, red, by Masterpiece, dam Butterfly 8th. — Mr. Dutliie
CoUynie, Tarves, 34g8.
Bloomer, red, by Lord Warden, dam Birthright. — Mr. Doug-
lass, Cairoesie, 32gs.
Orange Jelly, red, by Lord Lansdowne, dam Orange Blossom
13th. — Mr. Druramond, Black Rutiiven, Perth, 27gi.
Bellflower, roan, by Masterpiece, dam Butterfly 7th.— Mr.
Wallace, Chapel of Seggat, 31gs.
Rhoda, red, by Masterpiece, dam Rosleaf.— Mr. Hector,
CoUyhiU, 19g8.
Gazelle, red, by Lord Lansdowne, dam Graceful! — Mr. Max-
ton Graliame, 2Ugs.
Juliet, roan, by Lord Warden, dam Beauty's Pride. — Mr.
A. 0. Stevenson, Caresfon Castle, Brechin, 30gs.
Amaryllis, white, by Royal Duke of Glo'ster, dam Ayrshire
Rose. — Mr. Valentine, Afllock, Skene, 13gs.
Woodbine, red, by Scotland's Pride, dam 'Woodflower. — Mr.
Cowie, Cairnhill, Monquhitter, 20gs.
Lustre, 7th, red, by Lord Lansdowne, dam Lustre 6th. — Mr.
Stewart Bain, Caithness, ISgs.
Orange Leaf, roan, by Lord Lancaster, dam Olive Leaf. — Mr
Jas. Rust, Powbutts, Straciian, 30gs.
Gaiety, red, by Caesar Augustus, dam Galaxy.— Mr. Drura-
mond, Black P..uthven, Caithness, 38gs,
The average price of the 45 bulls sold is £38 2s. ; and of
the 13 heifers, £28 3s. 9i. The total proceeds of the sale
amount to £1,981 2s.
SALE OF MR. SLYE'S SHORTHORNS,
At BiSAUMONT Grange, Lancaster,
On Wednesday, April 22nii,
BY. MR. H. STRAFFORD.
This was a draft from Mr. Slye's well-known herd,
which contains many fashionably and highly-bred animals
of the Bates blood. The catalogue was very rich in high
pedigree, the twenty-five animals being of the Duchess,
Barringtoa, Waterloo, Lady Walton, Charmers, Knight-
leys, Gwynnes, and other fashionable sorts ; but on in-
spection they were not found quite up to show condition.
Most of the cows were old, and only recently served ;
two or three of the heifers, especially Gloster Gwynne,
and Lady Oxford Bates were looked upon as doubtful
breeders, and this, coupled with the patchy red-and-white
of several animals, caused a want of competition,
resulting in prices, although good in themselves, consi-
dering the state of the animals, nevertheless not up
to the anticipations of those interested. There was a
numerous and distinguished company of breeders present,
including Mr. Bowly, Siddingtou ; Mr. Beauford, Mr.
J. Fawcett, Scaleby ; Mr. Drcwry, Holker (agent to the
Duke of Devonshire) ; Mr. Roper (agent to Lord Skel-
mersdale) ; Mr. Kello (agent to R. Pavin Davies, Esq.) ;
Mr. Burnett (agent to Col. Kingscote), Mr. Kirkell (agent
to Lord Chesham), Mr. Punchard (agent to Earl of
Bective), Captain Heaton (agent to the Earl of Ellesmere),
Mr. Bowstead (agent to Sir R. C. Musgrave), Mr. Walton
(agent to the Marquis of Exeter) ; Messrs. Casswell, Lin-
colnshire; Ashburner, Lancashire* Dickinson, Wigaa ;
Thompson, Penrith ; Hetherington, Middle Farm ; Whal-
ley, Cragg, Bromley, Allen, of Leicester, Fair, White-
shide. Rev. J. Swarbrick, Dalton, Carlisle, Bell, Metcalf,
Heskett, Thornton, of London ; Perelle, of Liverpool ; aud
Major Webb. The following is the list of animals, prices,
and buyers' names :
COWS AND HEIERS.
America, by Marmaduke (14897), out of Asia by 2ud Grand
Duke.— Mr. Barr, 27 g».
Countsss of Barringlon 2nd, by 9th Duke of Oxford (17738),
out of Countess of Barrington by 3rd Grand Duke. — Mr,
Dugdale, 39 gs.
Welhngtonia, by 3rd Duke of ThornJale (17749), out of
Waterloo 24th by 3rd Grand Duke.— Mr. W. Heskett,
28 gs.
Oxford Gwynne, by Oxford (20450), out of Sophy Gwynne
by Young Benedict. — Mr. J. Dallon, 60 gs.
Dulcimer, by Oxford (20450), out of Czarina by Second Grand
Uuke. — Mr. J. Heskett, 44 gs.
Grind Duchess of Fawsley, by Grand Duke of Lancaster
(19883), out of ChrysaUs by Earl of Dublin.— Mr. W.
Ashburner, 37 gs.
464
THE FAEMEK'S MAGAZINE.
Eoyal Charmer 4th, by Barrington Oxford (25607), out of
iloyal Charmer by 2nd Duke of Cambridge. — Mr. J. W.
WilsoD, 80 gs.
Glo'ster Gwynne, by Grand Duke of Lightburne (26290), out
of Orphan Gwynne by Duke of Glo'ster. — Mr. J. H.
Casswell, 46 gs.
Lady Oxford Bates, by 17th Grand Duke (24064), out of
Lady Bates 3rd by 4th Duke of Oxford.— Mr. J. Fawcett,
120 gs.
Rose of Oxford, by Barrington Oxford (25607), out of Moss
Hose 2ud by Oxford.^-Sir B.. C. Musgrave, Bart., 41 gs.
Duchess of Kent, by Grand Duke of Kent 2ad (28759), out of
Lady Walton 2nd by Earl of Glo'ster. — Marquis of Exeter,
97 gs.
Duchess of Glo'ster, by Grand Duke of Thorndale (31297).
out of Lady Walton 2nd by Earl of Glo'ster.— Mr. J. H.
Casswell, 150 gs.
Dulcibella, by Grand Duke of Thorndale (31297), out of
Dulcimer by Oxford. — Mr. J. H. Casswell, 46 gs.
Royal Thorndale Charmer, by Grand Duke of Thorndale
(31297), out of Royal Charmer 4th by Barrington Oxford.
—Mr. W. B. Ray, 33 gs.
Royal Cambridge Charmer, by Grand Duke of Thorndale
(31297), out of Royal Charmer by 2nd Duke of Cambridge.
—Mr. J. W. Wilson, 51 gi.
Lady Clarence Bates, by Grand Duke of Thorndale (31297),
out of Lady Thorndale Bates by 4th Duke of Thorndale. —
Mr. J. Eawcett, 250 gs.
BULLS.
Grand Duke of Thorndale (31297), by General Clarence
(28689), out of Grand Duchess 20th by 4th Duke of Thorn-
dale. — Mr. W. Ashburner, 220 gs.
Grand Duke of Waterloo, by Grand Duke of Kent 2nd (28759),
out of Wellingtouia by 3rd Duke of Thorndale. — Mr. K.
Logan, 48 gs.
Dnke of Thorndale, by Grand Duke of Thorndale (31297),
out of Lady Thorndale Bates by 4th Duke of Thorndale. —
Mr. J. G. Bell, 50 gs.
Geneva's Duke, by 9th Duke of Geneva (28391), out of Lady
Bates 3rd by 4th Duke of Oxford. — Earl of Ellesmere,
120 gs.
Fawsley Duke, by Grand Duke of Thorndale (31297), out of
Grand Duchess of Fawsley by Grand Duke of Lancaster. —
Mr. N. Eckersley, 33 gs.
Farnley Grand Duke, by Grand Duke of Thorndale 2nd
(31298), out of Rose of Oxford by Barrington Oxford.—
Mr. Wodehouse, 19 gs.
America's Duke, by Grand Duke of Thorndale 2nd (31298),
out of America's Oxford by 18tli Duke of Oxford. — Mr.
Thomas, 30 gs.
Charming Duke, by Grand Duke of Tiiorndale (31297), out of
Royal Charmer 4th by Barrington Oxford. — Mr. Brackley,
27 gs.
Summary.
16 cows averaged £74 14 11 £1,195 19 0
8 bulls „ 71 15 10 574 7 0
24 head
£73 15 3 £1,770 6 0
SALE OF MR. SENIOR'S DEVONS.— This herd
was sold by Gadsden and Son at Broughton, near Ayles-
bury, on Thursday, April 9. The cows and heifers made
from 12gs. to 31gs. each, but some of the highly-fed beasts
made better prices, one intended for exhibition reaching
to 48 gs., and another to 33 gs. Mr. Farthing, from
Bridgewater, was the only purchaser from beyond the
district.
THE PRICES OF PURE-BRED STOCK IN THE NORTH.
The sales of Shorthora bulls for the season came to a
close last week. It^ most of the Shorthorn herds there
appears to have been a full average of bull-calves. Both
old and young stock benefited greatly by the rich pasture
of last summer, and by an abundance of nutritious tur-
nips during the winter. To these influences may in some
degree be attributed the good condition in which young
bulls were generally able to be brought to the sale ring.
Similar influences, of course, acted in favour of breeders
of stock for the fat market, and in consequence there was
greater ability and readiness to pay full value for the
fresh strains of blood. It is noticeable that the number
of bulls sold by auction during the season just closed is
considerably in excess of the number sold publicly on
former seasons. In some degree this is due to the action
of agricultural associations in promoting joint sales by
breeders of a limited number of animals. It will be
observed that some of the highest prices paid during the
season have been for animals exposed at these sales.
There have been indications of a tendency to take ad-
vantage of these aales for the offer of animals of inferior
quality, but the advantage of breeding only from good
sires is now so generally accepted that a good standard of
quality has been found to be essential to securing a re-
munerative Side. It will be seen, from a tabulated state-
ment given below, that in the season just closed 334
Shorthorn bulls have been publicly disposed of by breed-
ers in the northern counties. That number is 74 more
than the number tabulated as having been disposed of in
the previous season. Prices have also been considerably
higher this season than they were last year, having at-
tained to a somewhat higher rate than was paid for young
bulls in the spring of 1872. In the season just closed,
about £10,720 have been paid for young Shorthorn
bulls ; while last year the sum paid at the sales scarcely
amounted to £7,700, the increased payments this year
being over £3,000. The average price obtained for the
334 bulls sold was about £33 2s. The average price of
260 bulls sold last season was about £29 lis. There is
thus a rise on the average price of about £2 lis. for
each bull disposed of. The average is certainly satisfac-
tory, and must be generally remunerative to breeders.
The following shows the number of bulls disposed of at
the various sales throughout the season, and the highest
and average prices paid for each lot :
l^HE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
46^
SHORTHORN BULLS.
■Rrfft)^!! ^*^« of ^°- Hig''ei>t Average
The Duke of Richmond, £ s. £ s. d.
Gordon Castle Sept.24 12 45 3 28 7 0
Mr Marr, Uppermill... Oct. 23 27 54 12 29 10 0
Mr Cantlie, Keithmore Oct. 32 8 43 1 29 2 0
Mr WooJ, Midtown ... Eeb. 10 13 47 5 25 5 7
Mr Scott, Mains of Towie
(at Turriff) Feb. 24 8 SO 9 24 3 0
Turriff Joint Sale Feb. 24 13 42 0 28 12 0
Mr Scott, Glendronach
(atHuntly) Feb. 26 8 34 13 30 1 0
Mr Cruickshank, Co-
raisty (at Huntly) ... Feb. 26 5 44 2 36 19 0
Hautly Joint Sale Feb. 26 15 36 15 29 7 5
Buchan Agricultural So-
ciety's Joint Sale ... Feb. 28 10 36 15 28 3 0
MrLongmore.Rettie... Feb. 28 11 49 7 35 16 0
Alford Agricultural As-
sociation's Joint Sale Mar. 3 9 34 13 27 10 8
Mr Win. Mackie, Petty,
Fyvie Mar. 5 10 40 19 28 0 0
Mr John Durno, Sun-
nyside, Fyvie Mar. 5 4 25 4 23 2 0
Mr Bruce, Newton of
Struthers (at Forres) Mar.l7 6 43 1 37 19 6
Mr Lawson, Braelossie
(at Forres) Mar.l7 7 37 16 31 7 0
The Duke of Richmond
(at Forres) Mar.l7 5 48 6 35 1 5
Mr Geddes, Orbliston
(at Forres) Mar.l7 12 53 10 39 19 0
Forres Club Sale Mar.l7 10 44 2 31 5 9
MrCochrane,Lit.Haddo Mar.l8 13 50 8 33 6 9
MrCruickshank,Sittyton Mar.l9 45 87 3 38 3 0
Mr Milne, Mill of Alla-
than(atEUon) Mar.20 5 28 7 23 14 7
Mr Thomson, Newseat
of Dumbreck (Ellon) Mar.20 10 47 5 38 9 12
Mr Davidson, Mains of
Cairnbrogle (Ellon) Mar.20 9 39 18 29 3 4
Ythanside Club Joint
Sale at Ellon Mar.20 24 40 19 29 3 7
MrLumsden, Braco... 6 33 12 29 1 0
Mr Campbell, Kinnellar Mar.26 17 69 6 26 7 7
Mr Marr, Cairnbrogie
(atPerth) Mar.ll 7 3110 28 4 0
No Shorthoru herd has beea dispersed during the
season ; but a draft of sixty cows from the Sittyton herd
was disposed of in the autumn. About the usual number
of young females were sold, and brought considerably
higher prices than the lots sold last season. The follow-
ing shows the prices obtained :
SHORTHORN COWS.
Dale of No. Highest Average
Breeder. Sale. Sold. Price. Price.
jg g ■£ s d
The Duke of Richmond Sept.24 4 32 li 28 13 6
MrCruickshank.Sittyton Oct. 9 60 68 5 37 9 0
Mr Cantlie, Keithmore Oct. 22 2 26 5 25 4 0
Mr Wood, Midtown ... Feb. 10 6 42 0 31 13 0
MrCochraue.Lit.Haddo Mar.l8 6 30 9 26 19 0
SHORTHORN TWO-YEAR-OLD HEIFERS.
The Duke of Richmond Sept.24 4 40 19 35 3 6
MrLongmore.Rettie... Feb. 28 8 40 19 35 3 0
MrCochrane,Lit.naddo Miir.18 2 30 9 26 5 0
SHORTHORN ONE-YEAR-OLD IIEIEERS,
The Duke of Richmond Sept.24 5 33 12 29 12 0
Mr Cantlie, Keithmore Oct. 22 3 24 3 20 6 0
Mr Wood, Midtown ... Feb. 10 13 3110 2114 0
MrCochrane,Lit.lladdo Mar.l8 7 31 10 24 13 0
MrCruickshank,SitLyton Mar.l9 13 39 18 28 3 9
Mr Campbell, Kinnellar Mar.26 4 30 9 24 18 9
SHORTHORN HKIFER CALVES.
Mr Cantlie, Keithmore Oct. 22 5 21 0 17 3 7
Sales of Polled stock are, of course, less numerous.
Daring the season there were two sales of surplus stock
and one displenish sale. The prices have been excellent,
the prices for cows and heifers in several instances being
higher thau for Shorthorns, the highest average, indeed,
for cows for the season being for polled animals :
POLLED BULLS.
Date of No.
Sale.
Breeder.
Sold,
Mr Walker, Portletlien Oct, 1 5
Mr Skinner, Drumin... Oct. 16 5
Mr Barclay.Auchlossan,
M.P. (at Allord) ... Mar. 3 5
Alford Agricultural So-
ciety's Joint Sale ... Mar. 3 8
Dispersion of Bognie
Herd Mar.lO 4
POLLED COWS.
Mr Walker, Portletlien Oct. 1 5
Mr Skinner, Drumin... Oct. 16 9
Dispersion of Bognie
Herd Mar.lO 12
POLLED HEIFERS,
Mr Walker, Portletlien
(two-year-olds) Oct. 1 5
Ditto (one-year-olds)... Oct. 1 2
Ditto (calves) Oct. 1 6
Mr Skinner, Drumin
(two-year-olds) Oct. 16 5
Ditto (one-year-olds)... Oct. 16 5
Ditto (calves) Oct. 16 5
Dispersion of Bognie
Herd(3and3-yr-old!.) Mar.lO 3
Ditto (one-year-olds)... Mar.lO 8
— The Banffshire Journal.
Highest
Price.
£ s.
39 18
33 12
Average
Price.
19 13
27 6
31 10 25 13 0
43 0 26 5 0
38 17 29 13 0
37 16
73 10
30 17
43 15
46 4 33 1 6
53
U
41 15
9
29
8
25 14
6
30
9
24 11
9
55
13
41 10
5
43
0
34 13
0
36
15
26 17
7
33
11
28 6
0
28
7
18 8
4
BRAMPTON SPRING FAIR— This fair was held on
Monday, on the sands, in proximity to the town. There was
an unusually large display of botii cattle and sheep, and the
former were generally in poor condition, showing the effects
of a scarcity of food and turnips. For good three-year-old
heifers, with plenty of condition, there was an excellent demand,
and prices showed no abatement compared with the quotations
of last year, but for younger cattle and cows of a doubtful age,
that had little flesh, there were few or no inquiries. In fact,
this department of the fair proved a complete drug. Stirks
especially were very bad to sell, and would be down from 30s.
to 35s. per head. Jobbers seemed to act with great caution,
and we never saw fewer cattle in their hands. The season
being too early yet for grass, and hay and roots being almost
consumed, many were anxious to sell their stock, but few wil-
ling to buy. The same duluess pervaded the sheep department.
Some lots of half-bred lioggs were exhibited, for which from
60s. to 55s. each were demanded, and there were crosses,
Cheviots, and Cheviot ewes and lambs for sale. There were,
however, few bargains reported, and if owners had forced sales
there would have been little or nothing remaining for winter-
ing. Pigs, on the contrary, were in great demand. A large
number was brought to market, and no kinds with any pre-
tensions to size and quality could be obtained under 38s. or
42s. each.
CARLISLE SPRING FAIR.— This annual fair was held
on Wednesday. The supply altogether, in point both of quality
and numbers, was the worst seeu at a spring fair for many
years. There were no Irish to speak of, and supplies of milcli
cows, Shorthorns, Galloways, and Ayresliires were so mi-Kcd
and scattered that it is dillicult to speak of tliem separately.
The main portion were young Galloways and Shorthorns, many
of them were of bad quality, but also including some two-year-
olds that showed very well. There was a large attendance of
buyers, and although business was slow at the beginning, yet
anything of good quality found a ready sale at good prices.
Tiie Shorthorns began to go first, stirks selling at £9 10s. to
£11; two-year-olds 1:13 to £15 ; and a few ihree-year-olds,
fat, at £26 to i'37 10s. Gallovvays took a good deal of pick-
ing up, and it was not until nearly three o'clock that the last
lot was driven off. This class varied much in quality, and
prices ranged from 17 10s. for the youngest and most indif-
ferent up to £14 and £16 for the best two-year-olds. Milch
cows were rather scarce and in demand, selling at .118 to £35,
Ajrshires were so few that they are not worth quoting.
466
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
THE MODERN FARMER.
The civil war now raging so bitterly in the East has
served to revive the old cry or complaint against the
modern farmer. According to the picture drawn by the
True-blue, Conservative Sfanihird, instead of living in
his kitchen, eating fat bacon and smoking a long pipe, the
tenant has now a piano in his drawing-room, has a taste
for champagne or claret, and very possibly has paid a
visit to Paris. And why not ? Has not a similar
change come over almost every class in society ? The
city tradesman, whose father lived over the shop, content
with an occasional voyage to Greenwich or to uttermost
Gravesend, has built his country-hosse as a very necessity,
with a stable of hunters, and a yacht lying at the mouth
of the river. Or to draw the analogy yet closer, if the
farmer lives better than he did, what shall we say of
those who live through him, the implement makers, the
manure dealers, and so on ? And still, with such other
modern instances before us, the world is ever inclined to
resent any improvement in the social condition of the
farmer, as if refinement did not imply education, and
education the first of means towards the due development
of Agriculture. Knowledge must direct capital, as it is
simply by a combination of the two that we have been en-
abled to achieve that improvement in the cultivation of
the land, so noticeable during the last thirty years.
" I have from the beginning held that the landlords of
England have as deep and even a more permanent interest
in the labour question than the tenants." So said Mr.
James Howard at Bedford the other day, and so have we
continued to say from the very time of the first strike.
But this is clearly a mistake, for, as we gather elsewhere,
the main question at issueis whether the farmer,as a farmer,
shall or shall not cease to exist ? Thus, according to the
Pall Mall Gazelle, another of our daily journals, "the
middle man is only a convenience. Somebody must own
the land, and somebody must cultivate it. These are
primary necessities. But the contractor between the two,
as the farmer really is, is a later invention. It does not
signify what system of land tenure you adopt. You must
have ownership in some shape or another, and you
must have either tillage or pasturage. Proprietors,
then, on the one hand, and ploughmen, shepherds, or
herdsmen on the other, are inseparable from the existence
of land in any civilized community. But the tenant
farmer, as we know him in the present day, is a modern
development of agriculture, and decidedly not essential to
it in the sense in which the other two are." This is
tolerably strong, and we give it here in order that our
modern invention may see what the rest of the world
thinks of him. When Mr. Howard said that the labour
was a landlords' question, he probably implied a question
of rent, together with the more regular discharge of
certain duties properly devolving upon ownership. But,
by the Pall Mall Gazelle, it is by no means likely to come
to this ; on the contrary, the modern farmer will in so many
words have to go, and we shall return to the good old
days of long pipes, strong beer and other primitive cus-
toms— " The landowner, if driven to reduce his rents,
will say to himself that, if it must be so, he will have the
advantages of poverty as well as its drawbacks ; and, with
a reduction in his own style of living, he will restore ^the
old race of small farmers who gave him no trouble about
anything. Such a change as that would very soon settle
the game difficulty, which arises not so much from the
destructiveness of game as from the coveted privilege of
shooting it. This and several other rather troublesome
questions would be set at rest for half a century by ex-
chaogmg the present race of farmers for a smaller, poorer,
less ambitious, and more dependent class of occupiers."
This, of course, is but another fling at the fine gentleman
farmer, with his champagne, his piano, and his parlour ;
but the question naturally arising here will be — Is such
a change altogether feasible ? For some reason or
other, very possibly it may be poverty, a great majority
of the lauded estates in this country are not so well pro-
vided with buildings as they should be; but when rents
fall, as fall lliey must, and the landlord " restores the old
race of small farmers," he will simply have to multiply
homesteads as he multiplies occupiers ; while instead of
" in the long run getting the best of the bargain," we
have no hesitation in saying that he would be worse oiF
than ever. Small farming in Great Britain means, as a
rule, low rents badly paid ; small farming implies small
capital and indifferent cultivation ; as where the holdings
are the smallest there the labourers are the worst off. It
is true that if the landlord would wish to keep his tenant
in the condition of a serf, who would not " trouble" him
about game or rights, let him go back to the smaller,
•poorer, less ambilious, and more dependent occupier.
What a terrible, what a shameful picture of a farmer in
this age ! But happily neither the landlord nor the
country can afford to return to such a state of things, and
if the landlord have to bear his share of the burden, this
must be adjusted in some other way.
The labour question is a landlords' question. Some of
those who are now talking the loudest in the Eastern
Counties of duties and sympathies, and so forth, offer a
strange contrast between their words and their acts.
These philanthropists have for years been systemati
cally clearing the labourers off their estates ; while
their rents are screwed up to the very highest
the land will bear, a case occurring even
within the last few days where a kind, considerate
nobleman was asking for something more per acre. And
who makes high rents, or keeps rents as high as they
ever again fairly can be ? Not the small, poor, dependent
occupier, but the educated man of means, to whom we
have no hesitation in saying the marked improvements of
the last thirty years or so are almost altogether due. And
he has accomplished so much not always under encourage-
ment from the landowner, but in the face of such difficul-
ties as old obsolete agreements, or no agreement what-
ever, against game-keepers, lawyers, and stewards, who
would often prefer to ruin than to help him, especially
if he be " ambitious."
There is oue lesson which this dispute should teach the
employer. Come what may of the controversy, the
Labourers' Union will never again be thoroughly stamped
out. It may die away for a time, but all precedent tells
us that these asbociations are imbued with vitality. The
workman, in a word, has been taught to fight his own
battle, as it is pretty evident, from all that is going on
just now, that the landlord knows how to look after his
interest. On the other hand, did the farmer, despite his
capital, education, and energy, ever hold so pitiful a
position in public as he does at this moment ? Look at
the Budget, analyse the Malt-tax division, listen to the
roars of laughter with which his claims are greeted. The
farmer deals resolutely with his servant, but how does
he act towards his " representative" or his landlord ?
One great effect of the Chambers of Agriculture, one
result of thus " bringing the two classes together," has
been to reduce the farmers to a condition of sheer
nonentity. They do just what their representatives tell
them when in council, and their representatives do just
as they please when they go elsewhere. The labourers
have their Unions and the landlords have their Unions,
but, say what they will, the farmers have none.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
467
REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE DURING THE PAST MONTH.
Iq the cattle trade during the past moath nothiag of
interest has transpired. The supplies of stock have been about
the average, and have included some well-conditioned animals.
The Norfolk season has thus far been a very favourable one,
and the graziers of the Eastern Counties have managed to
acquit themselves very creditably- From Scotland the
arrivals of beasts have been again limited, but the quality, as
usual, has been excellent. Ireland has sent a moderate num-
ber of beasts, but their condition has not demanded any
particular notice. As regards our foreign receipts, the show
has been tolerably good as regards number, supplies having
been received from Denmark, Holland, and Spain ; the con-
dition about the average. With reference to the trade, the
tone at the commencement of the month was one of firmness ;
occasionally the best Scots made 6s. per 8 lbs., but since then
much less firmness has prevailed, and a reduction of "id. per
8 Ihs. has taken place.
In the sheep-pens a fair number has been exhibited, and the
quality has been good. As in the case of beasts the demand
has been alternately steady and depressed, and the closing
prices show a decline on the month. At the commencement
the best clipped Downs and Half-breds were making 5s. 8d.,
but the top price at the present moment does not exceed 5s.
4'd. per 8 lbs.
The lamb trade has been tolerably steady, and prices have
ranged pretty evenly from 78. 4d. to 8s. 6d. per 8 lbs.
Calves have been dull, and have fallen from id. to 6d. per
8 lbs. on the month.
Pigs have been a nominal market.
The imports of foreign stock into London daring April of
the current and past year have been as under :
1874-.
3,281
37.216
1,212
5,015
The arrivals of beasts from our own grazing districts, as well
as from Scotland and Ireland, have been as under :
1873.
Beasts 4,480
Sheep and Lambs 48,822
Calves 1,444
Pigs 172
1873,
1874.
Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and
Cambridgeshire 6,800
Lincolnshire 104
Other parts of England 1,250
Scotland 245
Ireland 500
The total supplies of stock exhibited and sold at the
Metropolitan Cattle Market during the month have been sb
under :
1873.
Beasts 16,010
Sheep and Lambs 132,750
Calves 1,970
Pigs 410
COMPAKISON OF PrICFS.
1873.
s. d. s.
6 to 6
10 to 6
0 to 8
7,100
80
1,700
356
200
1874.
15,420
137,760
1,770
355
Beasts 4
Sheep 4
Lambs 8
Calves 4 10 to 6
Pigs 3 8 to 4
d.
0
0
6
0
10
1874.
d. s.
4 to 6
2 to 5
4 to 8
0 to 5
0 to 5
REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE
DURING THE PAST MONTH.
After the previously fine weather, the first fortnigbt In
April was drier thaa usual, as well as cold ; the third
week brought great changes of temperature, with some
roughness, but a good fall of rain ; and, on the fourth
week, summer seemed suddenly to come upon us, the
heat on the 21st being like that of July. Such a change,
after the previous rain, did wonders as regards vegetation.
The hedges became instantly clothed with verdure, the
fruit-trees with blossom, and the meadows immediately
promised an abundant crop of hay, while the wheat and
early-sown spring corn participated equally in the benefit,
suggesting both an early and abundant harvest. The
same splendid weather has taken its course over Europe,
producing the like effects ; but stocks of wheat, as well
as of all sorts of corn, have become so low that prices
have as yet been little shaken, though the gain of 23. to
Ss, on foreign red American has become doubtful ; and
several markets in England, though but scantily supplied,
have yielded to the extent of Is. per qr., after remaining
very firm all through the holidays. At Paris, holders
have given way Is., and in Belgium about as much. In
Germany, the decline has scarcely equalled this, and fine
wheat at Dantzic has become so scarce that it has rather
improved in value, being worth GOs., free on board.
The same state of things has occurred in Hungary, iu
spite of the aversion of millers to pay unusual rates. Till
the last rains drought was threatening Algeria, Spain, and
Italy. But at New York, where monetary matters seem
on au unsettled basis, there has recently been a decline of
about Is, per qr, ; though extensive inundations from the
Mississippi have ruined thousands of people so completely
that they have been compelled to apply to Congress for
temporary relief, and it will take fully two months before
the subsidence of the waters will permit the renewed cul-
tivation of the land. But the fiae /veather, while checking
the trade and producing a temporary depression in prices,
does not multiply the ricks in the country or increase the
imports from abroad, and with the past changes we have
had there may be others less propitious ahead ; and this
so fully impresses the majority of holders of foreign that
the last market, with brilliant sunshine, found very few
disposed to accept Is. less money, and a few hail-storms
or night-frosts might suddenly alter the present aspect.
The following rates were recently paid at the places
named : Native red wheat at Paris 67s., white 70s. ;
native at Bordeaux 68s. 6d., at Louvaia 683. ; red Wol-
gast at Brussels 63s. ; Zealand white at Rotterdam 689. ;
Saale at Hamburg 63s. 6d. ; high mixed at Danzig 61s, ;
red at Berlin 58s,, at Cologne 62s. 6d. ; American spring
at Zurich 68s., Bessarabian 723. ; white at Santander 60s.,
at San Francisco 593. 6d. c. f. i, ; red spring at New
York 48s, 5d. per 4801bs,
As Monday, the 6th April, was a holiday, and Monday,
30th March, was not included in the last review, we
cotninence with the latter day as the first of the present
four weeks. The market in Loadon then opened on
small English supplies, but those from abroad were good.
The show of fresh samples this morning on the Essex
and Kentish stands was very short, and the condition
fair. The best then went off steadily, at the previous
week's currency ; but inferior qualities were dull. The
business iu foreign was limited, though there was to be
only one more market in the week, and red American
with dilficulty maintained its former value. Cargoes
afloat were generally held at Is. per qr. improvement,
with bids at 6d. more, which holders refused. Notwith-
standing the holidays, the country trade, though limited,
was very firm, and many places showed a rise of Is, per
468
THE FAEMiJE'S MAGAZINE.
qr., as Boston, Bristol, Derby, Exeter, Louth, Lincoln,
Market Rasen, &c., while foreign at Liverpool was Id.
per cental higher on Tuesday, and at Manchester 3d.
Leith, Edinburgh, and Glasgow were very firm in the
business done, and Dublin tended upwards for Irish
qualities.
On the second Monday, April 13th, the English sup-
plies were again limited, but the foreign were rather
increased, the market from the absence of business having
double supplies. The show from the near counties re-
mained small, and the better tone noted in the country
enabled factors to realise an improvement of Is. on the
fortnight for all good qualities. All sorts of foreign were
improved to the same extent, and holders of American
red were able to sell at Is. to 2s. per qr. more money
than on Monday, March 30th. Floating cargoes sold
pretty freely, at an improvement of Is. per qr. The
wheat trade in the country still pointed upwards,
generally to the extent of Is. per qr. — as at Ipswich,
Sleaford", Spilsby, ISIelton Mowbray, Market Rasen, Leeds,
Lynn, &c., and the improvement of Is. to 2s. per qr. was
realised at Gainsborough, Hull, iVIanchester, Louth,
Rotherham, Sheffield, Wakefield, &c. Liverpool was 2d.
to 3d. per cental higher on Tuesday, with a further rise on
Friday of 3d. to 4d. per cental. Leith was Is. dearer,
Glasgow Is. to Is. fid., and Ediuhurgh Is. to 2s. per
qr. Foreign was 6d. per brl. higher at Dublin, and
native held at rather more money.
On the third Monday the English arrivals were short,
with a great falliug off from abroad. The quantity on
the Essex and Kentish stands was short, and the condition
fair; but a change to wonderfully fine summer weather
checked the upward tendency of prices, and sales were
only sold slowly at the previous IMonday's rates. The
foreign trade lest its buoyancy, but Is. over the previous
quotations was still made, thoneh sales were neither free
nor extensive. The floating trade, witiiout many cargDCs
unsold, held at the terms of the previous week. The
summer weather had some influence also in the country,
and though some places were dearer, others rather gave
way. Still at some markets supplies were so short
that Is. more was paid, as at Sleaford, Market Rasen,
Sheffield, &c.; while Spilsby, Gainsboro', ,and Thirsk
were Is. to 2s. higher. Liverpool gained 2d. to 3d. on
Tuesday, but it was lost on Friday. Several of Satur-
day's markets gave way Is. per qr. The Scotch markets
were steady, but not dearer. Dublin was lirm at the
commencement of the week, but subsequently rather gave
way.
On the fourth Monday fhe English supplies were very
limited, with much less foreign reported ; tlje weather,
however, having beeu quite summer-like and forcing for
an entire week, business was slack, though but few fresh
samples were exhibited from the near counties. The best
English sold very slowly, at the previous currency, but a
good portion was left over. Though but few cargoes of
foreign were offering, millers seemed resolved to hold
back, and had sales been forced some concession in prices
must have been made.
The arrivals for four weeks into London were 11,995
qrs. English, 99,825 qrs. foreign, against 17,323 qrs.
English, 75,258 qrs. foreign in 1873. The imports into
the kingdom for four weeks ending llth April were
2,711,879 cwts. wheat, 525,434 cwts. flour, against
2,148,081 cwts. wheat, 214,397 cwts. flour for the same
period in 1873. The month's exports from London were
11,C5G qrs. wheat, 1,076 cwts, flour. The London
averages commenced at C2s. and closed at G4s. per qr.
The general averages opened at GOs. lOd. and ended at
60s. 6d. per qr.
The flour trade on the whole has been quiet for the
past month, but on 30th March town millers reduced
their top price from 579. to 54s., at which it has since
stood. Country sorts, however, as well as foreign, have
rather improved, say about Is. per sack, and 6d. to Is.
per barrel ; at New York they have fluctuated, closing
for extra state at 28s. Id., while fine here is worth about
33s. per barrel. The four weeks' imports into London
were 65,625 sacks English, 14,194 sacks 27,492 barrels
foreign, against 73,638 sacks English, 13,484 sacks
6,769 barrels foreign for the same time in 1873.
'ihe supplies of barley, both English and foreign, have
been moderate all through the month, and values have
been tending upwards, but the malting season being near
its close prices cannot now be relied on, though nominally
as high as 56s., and for Saale at Hambro' 54s. free on
board has been paid, while low sorts here, from the scan-
tiness of stocks and high prices of maize, have been very
firm, and advancing, so that foreign grinding has been
worth 34s. to 37s. per qr. Everywhere stores seem to
be pretty well cleared out, and though the demand must
diminis'i as summer advances, prices are likely to rule
high up to harvest. The month's imports into London
have been 17,578 British, 22,650 qrs. foreign, against
5,430 qrs. British 20,029 qrs. for the same period in
1873.
Malt throughout the month has ruled high as the
necessary consequence of the high rates paid for the best
barley, but business of late has been quiet.
The supplies of maize have been moderate, and rates,
after advancing Is. to 2s., finally lost some ground, the
high rates lessening its consumption, but good mixed is
still worth 41s. to 42s. The imports for four weeks were
27,090 qrs. against 21,634 qrs. in 1873.
The oat trade has ruled very firm, with prices further
improved Is. to 2s. from the falling off of foreign supplies.
The, small receips of English, and the constant and in-
creasing demand, 381bs. Swedes have become worth 27s.,
401bs. 29s., and 401bs. Russian 31s. There seems every
prospect that a high range will obtain all through the
season, as prices abroad have very generally increased,
while stocks are universally low. In France, in Belgium,
and Germany, good heavy sweet corn has become worth
30s. free on board. The imports into London for four
weeks were 1,243 qrs. English, 200 Scotch, no Irish,
82,331 qrs. foreign, against 2,222 qrs. English, 87,091
qrs. foreign for the same period in 1873.
Beans, though not largely in demand, have gained
about Is. per qr. from the lightness of the supplies, ticks
being worth 4Us., harrows 45s., small 48s., while Egyp-
tian bring 43s. per qr. The receipts into London for
four weeks were 2,679 qrs. English, 6,784 qrs. foreign,
against 2,296 qrs. English, 3,596 qrs. foreign in 1873.
Peas, from a still greater falling off in the receipts, both
English and foreign, have participated in the improvement
say Is. per qr., though the demand for boilers has become
very limited, and the high price of those for hog feed have
reduced the consumption. Boilers are worth about 47s.,
duns 41s., maples (very scarce) 47s. per qr. The imports
into London have been 422 qrs. English, 740 qrs. foreign,
against 661 qrs. English, 3,828 qrs. foreign in 1873.
The supplies of linseed also continuing small, prices
have rather hardened, with but a small consumption, but
there has been a free demand for cakes at full quotations.
The seed season being nearly over, prices are not to be
depended on. The little still doing being coufined to
fine qualities of home growth, thoush some quautity of
inferior is still left. Tares, too, have been but little in-
quired for, though not dear during the season, and from
the value of beans those left over may be worth as much
as if sold for seed.
Printed by Watson and Hazell, 265, Strand, London, W.C,
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
CONTENTS.
MAY, 1874.
Plate.— THE CUP PEN OF PIGS : At the Smithfield Club Show, 1873.
SSOCIATION
Government
Description of Plate
The Labourers' Home.
The Farmers' Club : The Farm pes' Interest in the New Parlia
The Labourers' Cottage
A Model Farm and a Model Agreement
BOKOUGHBRTDGE AGRICULTURAL SoCIETY : ThE ShORTHORN
The Organic Matters Lost from and Restored to the Soil: By Cuthbert W.
Johnson, F.R.S,
Tenant-Right and the County Members
The Management of Sheep — No. II: By the Northern Farmer
The Improvement of Land
The Hornchurch Sewage Farm Case
The Horrors of War and the Farmer .
York Chamber of Agriculture : A Tenant-Right Agreem
The Census of Bengal.
High-priced Potatoes .
Consular Reports upon Agriculture : The Turkish Dominions
Royal Agricultural Society of England : Monthly Council
Bath and West of England Society and Southern Counties A
Which is Which P .
The Highland and Agricultural Society
Newcastle-on-Tyne Farmers' Club : Local Taxation and Local
Penrith Farmers' Club : The Labour Markft
The 12th Clause
The Grasses and Fodder Plants of Australia
The Law of Farm Buildings .
Dorchester Farmers' Club : Experiments in the Growth of Coi
Highway Legislation.
Game-Laws (Scotland) Bill .
Old Smithfield ....
Arbitration between Farmers and Labourers.
The Lock-out of the Cambridgeshire Labourers
The Proposed Eastern Counties Association .
The Shorthorn in Ireland
Penrith Farmers' Club : Cattle Breeding
The West Cumberland Farmers' Club : Irrigation
Wester Ross Farmers' Club : The Course of Cropping
The Central Chamber of Agriculture .
Maidstone Farmers' Club : The Diseases of Lambs
Cork Farmers' Club ....
Rabbits, Foxes, and Farmers .
The Royal Dublin Society's Spring Cattle Show
Shorthorn Sales :
Lord Exeter's Shorthorns
Mr. J. J. Hetherington's Shorthorns
Mr. Robert Jefferson's Shorthorns
Mr. Wiley's Leicester Flock
The Late Mr, Burgess' Shorthorns
Mr. John Henry Casswell's Herd
Mr. Cruickshank's Shorthorns
Mr. Slye's Shorthorns
Mr. Senior's Devons
The Prices of Pure-bred Stock in the North
The Modern Farmer .
Review of THE Cattlb Trade During the Past Month
JIeview or the Corn Trade During the Past Month
Pa^e.
. 375
. 375
. 376
. 386
. 387
. 388
, 391
. 393
, 394
. 395
. 399
. 401
, 401
. 402
. 403
. 404
. 407
. 410
. 410
. 411
, 412
, 416
. 418
. 419
, 424
, 426
429
, 430
, 432
433
, 434
436
436
439
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DIRECTORS.
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PUBLISHED EVERY MONDAY EVENING, IN TIME FOR POST.
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BRYANT& May's
MATCHES.
IMPORTANT TO FLOCKMASTERS.
THOMAS BIGG, Agricultural and Veterinary
Chemist, by Appointment to his late Royal Highness
The Prince Consort, K.G., Leicester House, Great Dover
Street, Borough, London, begs to call the attention of
Farmers and Graziers to his valuable SHEEP and LAMB
DIPPING COirPOSITION, which requires no Boiling, and
may be used with Warm or Cold Water, for effectually
destroying the Tick, Lice, and all other insects injurious to
the Flock, preventing the alarmmg attacks of Fly and Shab,
and cleansing and purifying the Skin, thereby greatly im-
proving the Wool, both in quantity and quality, and highly
Contributing to the general health of the animal.
Prepared only by Thomas Bigg, Chemist, &c., at his Mann-
ftictory as above, and sold as foUows, although any other
quantity may be had, if required: —
i lb. for 20 sheep, price, jar included £0
61b.
30
81b.
40
101b.
50
201b.
100
301b.
150
401b.
200
601b.
250
601b.
300
801b.
400
1001b.
500
(Caak and measure
included)
0 10
0 15
Should any Flockmaster prefer boiling the Composition, it
will be equally effective.
MOST IMPORTANT CERTIFICATE.
From Mr. Hbbbpath, the celebrated Analytical Chemist :—
Bristol Laboratory, Old Park, January 18th, 1861.
Sir, — I have submitted your Sheep Dipping Composition to
analysis, and find that the ingredients are well blended, and
the mixture neutral. If it is used according to the directions
given, I feel satisfied, that while it effectually destroys vermin,
It will not injure the hair roots (or "yolk '') in the skin, the
fleece, or the carcase. I think it deserves the numerous
testimonials published. I am. Sir, yours respectfully,
William Hbeapath, Sen., F.C.S., 4c., &c.,
_ To Mr. Thomas Bigg Professor of Chemistry.
Leicester House, Great Dover-street, Borough, London.
He would also especially call attention to hia SPECIFIC,
or LOTION, for the SCAB or SHAB, which will be found
a certain remedy for eradicating that loathsome and ruinous
disorder in Sheep, and which may be safely used in all
climates, and at aU seasons of the year, and to all descriptiorm
of sheep, even ewes in lamb. Price FIVE SHILLINGS per
gallon — sufficient on an average for thirty Sheep (according
to the virulence of the disease) ; also in wine quart bottles,
IMPORTANT TESTIMONIAL.
" Scoulton, near Hingham, Norfolk, April 16th, 1866.
" Dear Sir, — In answer to yours ot the 4th inst., which
would have been replied to before this had I been at home, I
have much pleasure in bearing testimony to the efficacy of
your invaluable ' Specific for the cure of Scab in Sheep.' The
600 sheep were aU dressed in August last with 84 gallons of
the ' NoN-poisoN ocs Specific,' that was so highly recom-
mended at the Lincoln Show, and by their own dresser, the
best attention being paid to the flock oy my shepherd after
dressing according to instructions left ; but notwithstanding
the Scab continued getting worse. Being determined to have
the Scab cured if possible, I wrote to you for a supply of your
Specific, which I received the following day ; and although
the weather was most severe in February during the dressing,
your Specipic proved itself an invaluable remedy, for in
three weeks the Sheep were guite cureil ; and I am happy to
say the young lambs are doing remarkably well at present.
In conclusion, I believe it to be the safest and best remedy
now in use. " I remain, dear Sir,
"For JOHN TINGEY, Esq.,
" To Mr. Thomas Bigg. ' "R. RENNEY.
e-i?" Flockmasters would be well to beware of such pre-
parations as " Non-poi3onou3 Compositions :" it is only
necessary to appeal to their good common sense and judg-
ment to be thoroughly convinced that no "Non-poisonous"
article can poison or destroy insect vennin, particularly such
as the Tick, Lice, and Scab Parasites— creatures so tenacious
of life. Such advertised preparations must be wholly useleasi
or they are not what they are represented to be.
DIPPING APPARATUS £14. £5, £4, & £3.
No. 6, Yol. XLV.] JUNE, 1874. -[Third Series.
THE
FARMER'S MAGAZINE
AND
MONTHLY JOURNAL
OF
THE AGRICULTURAL INTEREST.
IBetiuateb
TO THV
FARMERS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
LONDON:
PUBLISHED BY ROGERSON AND TUXFORD, 265, STRAND,
PRICK TWO SHILLINGS.
WATSON AND HAZBLL,] [PRINTERS, 866, STRAND.
THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZIlNiE.
CONTENTS.
JUNE, 1874.
Plate. — LE BON : A Royal Pkize Cart Stallion.
Page.
Description of Plate ^ ..... . 469
The Farmers' Club : Land Laws and Landlords .... 469
Royal Agricultural Society of England ..... 476
The London Cattle Markets ....... 480
The Stowmarket Farmers' Club : Food of Stock and its Impurities . . 481
The Rabbits Bill ........ 484
Sheep Management — No. III.: By the Northern Farmer . . . 485
Local Business and Government Officers ..... 487
Blood Poisoning . ....... 490
The Ayrshire "Derby" ....... 490
The Analysis of Milk ....... 491
Kincardineshire Farmers' Association : The Game-Laws . . . 495
Owners of Land and Heritages in Scotland ..... 496
The Ayrshire Farmer's Club : The Labourer. .... 497
The LABOURTfR's Union ....... 500
The Farmers' Protection Associations ..... 501
The Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland . . . 504
Royal Agricultural Society of England ..... 505
The Central Chamber of Agriculture ..... 508
The Central Chamber and the Budget : By an East Essex Farmer . . 512
Saddlery and Harness ....... 513
A Vote of Censure ........ 515
Agricultural Reports ....... 516
The West Suffolk Farmers' Defence Association .... 517
The Midland Farmers' Club : The Potato ..... 519
Blandford Farmers' Club = Tenant-Right ..... 521
Maidstone Farmers' Club: Nitrogen . . • • . 523
Croydon Farmers' Club : Agricultural Chemistry .... 526
Sheep and Sheep-Breeding in Australia ..... 529
A Mysterious Disease ....... 531
The Condition of a Friendly Society ...... 532
The English Climate ........ 535
The Agricultural Labourer in Parliament ..... 536
The Scotch Game Bill ....... 537
" Some Kent Farming "....... 538
The Rabbit in the Ballot Box. ...... 539
Agricultural Report : The North-East of Scotland . . , . . 539
WiNFRiTH Farmers' Club: Sanfoin and Clover . . , . 540
A Picturesque Cottage ....... 541
The Manchester Horse Show ....... 542
Stock Sales :
Mr. George Garne's Shorthorns ...... 543
Mr. George Bland's Shorthorns ...... 544
Mr. Thomas Purkis' Shorthorns . . . . . .. 545
Mr. J. A. Piggot's Shorthorns ...... 546
Mr. Killick's Shorthorns ....... 546
Mr. Gilbey's Jersey Cattle ...... 547
Messrs. Fowler and Robinson's Shorthorns . , . . 548
Mr. Barclay's Shorthorns and Southdowns .... 550
Mr. Charles Collard's Herd ...... 55)
The Body and its Members ....... 552
The Supplies of Guano . . . . . ' . . 553
The Lock-Out . . . . . . . . 553
Household Suffrage in the Counties : By an East Essex Farmer . . 554
The Diseases of Stock. ...... . 555
The Staindrop Farmers' Club : The Sciences Applied to Agriculture . . 557
Manchester Farmers' Club: The Labour Question .... 659
Morayshire Farmers' Club ....... 560
Carmarthenshire Farmers' Club : Tenant-Right .... 561
The Cottage Homes of England ...... 562
Review of the Corn Trade During ihe Past Month ..... 562
1^
.'I
''I
I-
1^
"I
f*\\V
'H^^^v.
rn
PHE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
JUNE, 1S74.
PLATE.
L E BON: A Royal Pkize Cart Stalliox,
The Property of Mr. C. Sharpley, of Kelstern Hall, LouTit, Lincolnshire.
Le Bon, bred by Mr. Thomas Fullard in 1868, is by
Wiseman's "Wonder, dam by Ilemmant's Thumper, grand
dam by Seward's Major.
Le Bon was broken to ordinary farm work at two years
old upon strong clay land, and was shown ouce during
that summer at the Lincolnshire Society's show, held at
Sleaford, where he took the first prize. After leaving the
show he went back to plough with other borses, and was
sliown again the following year at Wolverhampton Royal,
when, as a thret-year-old, he took the third prize
in the all-aged class to Honest Tom ; as also the
second prize at the Lincolnshire show, held at Brigg, and
second at the Yorkshire, held at York. In 1872 he wag
twice shown, taking the second prize at the Royal show
at Cardiff, to Honest Tom, aud second also of the
Lincolnshire at Spalding. In 1873 he was again
only twice shown, taking first prize at the Royal show at
Hull, and first at the Lincolnshire show at Gainsboro',
thus having fairly succeeded Houest Tom as the champion
horse of his time.
At Cardiff we said, Le Bon is " the nicest sized horse
for agiiculture;" and, again, at Hull, that Le Bon is "a
model of a cart stallion in size and form."
THE FARMERS' CLUB.
LAND LAWS AND LANDLORD S.
Tlic last meeting of the Club for discussion prior to the
usual summer and autumnal recess, was held on Monday,
May 4, iu Salisbury-square. The chair was tskeu by Mr.
James IlowHrd ; and the subject was introduced by Mr. H.
Clark, of Efford Manor, Plymouth.
The Chairman said : Gentlemen, I regret to liave to inform
you that Mr. Major Lucas, the Cliairman of the Club for
th-1 year has been prevented by severe indisposition from
cominj< here this evening, and I am quite sure I express the
feelings of every member of the Club when I say I hope tliat
Mr. Lucas' illness will prove to be only of a temporary char-
acter, and that he will soon be restored to his wonted state of
health (cheers). The subject which was discussed at tiie last
monthly meeting was " The Farmers' Interest in the new Par-
liament," while that appointed for consideration this evening
is " Land Laws and Landlords." It may be thouglit by some
that these two questions are ratiier closely allied, but althouo;h
coguate, it appears to me that their importance is a sufficient
justification for the committee's having chosen both for dis-
cussion in the same year (cheers). I think no more important
questions can occupy the attention of this Club, or of any
other agricultural association of a like character, than the
laws relating to the occupation, ownership, and transfer of
land (Hear, hear). At the present time there is a very wide-
spread interest amon? various classes of the community on
wliat is popularly wiled " the land question," and there appears
to be a very general concurrence of ojiinion that certain
changes in the land laws are necessary for the future well-
being of the community ; indeed, the owners of the great
estates in England have, through the House of Lords
Committee, expressed an opinion that things cannot be
allowed to retrain just as tliey are (Hear, liear). Lord
Cairns lias, as you are aw»re, introduced iu the preseut
Session a bill for facilitating the transfer of land. Ilis lordship
has touched only the mere fringe of the question ; but, per-
haps, we ought not to be surprised that he has not endeavoured
to grapple with the whole question, considering that onr legis-
lators, if not the public, have made up their minds to a
jeason of repose (laughter). No one appears at present to
Oie Srries.]
be in a very great hurry to disturb that repose. Should, how-
ever, the dozing extend to an undue length, perhaps the
slumbers oi our legislators will be disturbed in a ruder fashion
than is anticipated. It may appear a trite remark if I say that
events now-a-days follow eacii other in rapid succession, and
when once public opinion is turned in any particular direction,
the tide rises high aud very rapidly. I have said events occur
rapidly ; for instance, who could have foreseen or foretold
the breaking-up throughout a large part of England of the
ancient relations between employed and employers in agri-
culture— a revolution as unlooked-for as it has been sudden ?
I would ask, may not the very difficulties by which the
farmers in a considerable portion of England now find them-
selves surrounded be the means of hastening legislation on the
land question ? (Uear, hear). With the prospect of dearer
labour, is there not more reason than ever why the capital of
the tenant sunk in the purchase of such labour, and expended
upon or invested in land, should be protected by legislative
enactment? I think this is, and in time it will be generally
felt to be, a very forcible reason for legislation. I will not,
gentlemen, trespass any longer on your attention, nor antici-
pate Mr. Clark. I wish to remark with regard to Mr.
Clark, who is a stranger among you, tliat he is a gentlemen
who is learned in the law, and feels the more interest in this
subject ou account of his being himself a landowner. I will
now introduce bira to your notice (cheers).
Mr. H. Clark said : The Chairman has remarked in intrr-
diicing me that I am " learned iu the law ;" by this I feel Hat-
tered, and I hope I have some knowledge of tliK liw ; but in ap-
pearing before yon tliis evening I do so as a limited landowner
who takes a deep interest in this qnestion. Let me first explain
the circumstances wliicli liave led to my presentingmyself before
you as the introducer of Ibis question. Some time ago your ex-
cellent Secretary Mr. Corbet asked me if I would say souietliing
at a meeting of tiie Farmers' Club- Being a new member, [
naturally hesitated at first. Not knowing what subject I
could introduce, I asked whether a history of the potato dis-
ease would be of any use ; to which Mr, Corbet replied that
be thought that I had better write an essay in competi-
11 H Vol. LXXv]— No. 6.
470
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
tion for tlte premium of tlie Royal Agricultural Society.
I then thought that the law of bankruptcy might have some-
thing to do with farmers (great laughter). But Mr. Corbet
shook his head. It next occurred to me tliat 1 miglit possibly
say something iuteresting about imprisonment for debt
(laughter); when I got the answer tliat that was a drearier
subject than either of the others (renewed laughter). At last
it occurred to me that I would leave the selection to Mr.
Corbet himself ; whereupon he suggested " Land Laws and
Landlords" as the subject for the meeting in the present May
(cheers). Now, this is a very large question indeed, and I
cannot help thinking that at the present time tlie land question
is exciting throughout England the greatest interest (Hear,
hear), not only among landlords, many of wliora do not want
the thin end of the wedge to be got in, but also on the part of
tenant-farmers and the public, who are interested in the land
being made to produce all that it possibly can, on account of
the population being continually on the increase. Now in
dealing with this question I shall touch upon five points, it
being of course impossible that I can enter into each branch of
the subject at any great length. I shall speak first upon land
transfer ; then upon the law of settlement ; then upon tlie ques-
tion of Tenant-Right ; next upon the subject of waste lands ;
an d lastly upon the Game-laws. I might have included the law of
distress in my divisions. I will only say, however, that I
think there can be no doubt that that law ought to be repealed.
I cannot conceive what good it does to the landlord beyond
this — that in consequence of its existence he occasionally
catches a Tartar (laughter)— that is, a tenant who is sharper
than others, and from whose occupation he does not
derive much benefit (Hear, hear). The law of distress
often inflicts great injury on seed merchants and otliers, and I
would have it wiped out. As to the kw of primogeniture,
many persons think that its existence is hardly worth taking
into account, because, if it were done away with, nearly every
landowner would probably make a will which would produce
the same effect. But it does seem rather hard that in the
event of a man owning freehold, and dying without having
made a will, everything should go to his eldest son, while, if
he leaves personality, that will be divided equally among all
his children. I fear, gentlemen, that in opening this subject
1 shall fall very short of your expectations ; but, if I do, I
shall have the consolation of knowing that the people who
read the report of the discussion are apt to say, " It is no
matter what anyone says in introducing subjects at that Club :
a discussion follows in which practical men take part, and
everything comes out right tiien." Now, sir, the land ques-
tion ought, in my judgment, to be most carefully considered,
and opinions with regard to it ought to be most carefully ex-
pressed. It has been truly said that Englishmen are not a
philosophical race, but are rather remarkable for their common
sense and common justice ; and I trust that I shall show com-
mon sense and common justice in opening this question. I
am not going to discuss what has been called by John Stuart
Mill "the unearned increment of land." I wish to deal with
the subject in a practical manner, and, if possible, to find a
prac'ic.il remedy for the evil which prevails. Nor am I going
to enter into the origin and nature of property in land. I
give credit to alt who are present for having paid for their
apparel (laughter), and it is consistently with such assump-
tions that I am going to discuss the laud question. I am not
going to abuse the landowners, nor am I going to abuse the
lawyers. I am a barrister as well as a landowner, and I think
it would be bad taste in me to abuse either. I say that no
one has a right to abuse agriculturists, whether he be a Tory,
whether he be a Liberal, or a Radical. The agricultural
interest is, as everyone knows, one of the largest and
most important interests in this country, and I gay that no
political party in the State can afford to neglect it. Further,
I say that the agricultural interest must depend on three
things — the lut'dlord being secured in his property; the tenant
being secured in the capital, skill, and industry wliicl. he has
invested in tlie soil; and the labourer being adequately
rewarded for liis toil. No doubt, a great deal has been done
for agriculture, but a great deal remains to be done. Jn
saying this, I am not speaking without authority. A select
committee was appointed by the House of Lords for the pur-
pose of inquiring into the facilities afforded by the existing
law to limited owners for the investment of their capital in
the improvement of the land, and to report whether
any alteration is requisite in order further to encourage '
such improvement. That committee made, in its re-
poit, the astounding statement, on Mr. Baily Denton's
authority, that out of twenty millions of acres of land
in England and Wales that required draining only three
millions have been drained. Still, it further appeared from
that statement of Mr. Caird that one-fifth of the land in this
country was in the stale in which it reqoired to be in
order to make it fit for cultivation. [A Voice : " What is the
date of that report ?"] The date is 1873. It is the report of
the Committee of which Lord Salisbury was chairman, and
I repeat that to my mind the statement which I have given,
seems most astounding. A Committee of the House of Lords,
selected for their fitness to deal with tlie question, would never
have made such a statement without positive and reliable evi-
dence. No doubt many limited owners have availed themselves
of the power given them by various Acts of Parliament to make
improvements ; but the expense of applying those acts is very
great ; and considering how the cost of provisions is increas-
ing, because the labouring classes are much better paid than
they were formerly — considering how the demand for meat and
other agricultural produce is continually augmenting, it cannot
be right that so much of the land of the country should re-
main uuimproved, and that capital, energy, and enterprise
should thus be stopped in their free action. I have heard of
cries for free land. Some persons have contended that all the
land of the country ought to be subdivided. But not only
would compulsory subdivision be contrary to freedom — the ex-
pression meaning that a man's land belongs not to him, but to
someone else — but it is manifestly not for the interest of the
country that it should be carried out. I would ask anyone
who advocates subdivision to consider what is the state of
things in France, where subdivion has been carried out. In
that country the amount of ths produce is not half as much as
it is here; and therefore I say the argument for subdivision
falls to the ground. Look at the peasantry of France. I have
it on good authority that the peasantry of France are poor ;
that the farm-buildings are utterly dilapidated. Therefore I
do not think the remedy for the evils connected with land in
England is to be found in subdivision. But can nothing be
done to remedy this state of things? I think a great deal cau
be done. I will, with your permission, gentleman, call your
attention to the Land Transfer Bill now before Parliament.
We are told, and no doubt it is true, that land can be
liauded over more easily and cheaply by the owners in France,
Belgium, and America, and in fact, almost every other coun-
try than in England, and that this is due to the existence of
registration and other laws which have been constantly re-
sisted in England, chiefly in the interest of the lawyers, who
are said to " most obstinately cherish abuses, and most success-
fully resist reform," a soft impeachment, the truth of which
Lord Cairns denies. In fact, landowners are the real oppo-
nents of reform, as was shown by their strenuous opposition
to the measure brought in by Lord Campbell many years since,
having for its object the registration of contracts affecting
land. Now the aim of English land reformers is to make the
transfer of land as safe, quick, inexpensive, and simple in this
country as it is in other countries. England stands now almost
alone among civilised nations as a country in which there is
no public registry of titles to land and in which all transfers
of laud are matter of private arrangement. The title to various
kinds of personalty is, on the other hand, registered, and the
ownership passed by more or less public and simple methods.
Consols pass by transfer in the books of the Governor and
Company of the Bank of England ; shares in joint-stock com-
panies pass by the alteration of a uame in the company's re-
gister. But the transfer of land is still an occult performance,
wliich can only be carried out by skilled persons at a great ex-
pense and after protracted delay. The ordinary course in a sale
of land — that of conveyancing by deed, as distinguished from
conveyancing by registration of title — has been so graphically
described by Lord Cairns, when he was Sir Hugh Cairns, that
1 cannot do better than quote from his speech in the House
of Commons in 1859. I will not stop to argue the necessity
of a cheap and easy mode of transferring land, for on this point
all are agreed. Before doing so, however, I will proceed to
give an outline of wliat has been done with reference to land
transfer. The question of applying to estates and interests in
land the principle of conveyancing by registration of title re-
ceived early attention in the Farmers' Club, and has since been
often discussed in the House of Commons. Besides Lord
Cairns it has been referred to in the lower house by Sir Robert
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
471
Torrens, who explained very fully the system which exists in
Australia ; and I cannot help expressing my regret that that
gentleman has not been returned to the new Parliament, be-
cause I am sure that if he had been he would have rendered
most valuable service there in connection witli this question.
Australia is a new country, and as a nevv country takes the
best means to the end, uutrainmelled by prejudice and tradi-
tion. There no less than 18,233 distiact titles (a considerable
proportion of them complicated or blistered) have been placed
upon the record without practical injury or injustice to any one.
Under the system therein force, the requisitions which the ap-
plicant for registration is required to satisfy are : 1st. That he is
in undisputed possession. 2nd. That in equity and justice he
app?ars to be rightly entitled. 3rd. That he produces such
evidence as leads to the conclusion that no person is in a posi-
tion to succeed in an action of ejectment against him. 4th.
That the description of the parcels of laud is clear and accu-
rate. Tliese being satisfied, advertisement and the service of
notices calling upon all claimant's to show cause against the
applicant's title within reasonable time, are found to be suffi-
cient safeguards against risks arising out of technical defects,
and (in accorr ance with an ancient practice under English
law), in the event of nonclaims within the prescribed periods,
indefeasible title is issued to the applicant. Sir R. Torrens
says, "A few weeks back a friend of mine expressed surprise
at meeting a gentleman whose arrival from Australia was not
expected for some months. ' Yes,' said this gentleman, ' it is
all owing to that admirable Act of your friend Torrens that I
am here so soon. Only two days before the packet sailed I
had an offer for my estate. The intending purchaser went
witli me to the Lands Title Office, and in less than an hour the
business was transacted ; I got a cheque for the purchase
money, and he got an indefeasible title to the land, and as we
did the business ourselves, the cost was onlj three or four
pounds.' Again, a gentleman residing in Launceston, Tas-
mania, writes to me as follows : ' Your Act has proved a great
blessing to us here.'" It may be said that all this is
very well in Australia, a new country, where there are
no complications, but it would not do here. " As to
the argument from the more recent origin of titles in
the colonics," sajs Sir R. Torrens, " it is only ne-
cessary to observe that many of the titles there dealt
with, and those amongst the most valuable, date hack forty
years or upwards, and that, owing in part to un-
skilful conveyancing in the earlier days, and in part to
the frequency of dealings with land iu new countries,
complications and difficulties no less grievous than those
which oppress the landed interest in this country had
been superinduced upon comparatively recent titles."
As this question may be new to some of ray iiearers, I will
commence by endeavouring, in as few words as possible, to
explain the radical distinction between " conveyancing by
deed" and " conveyancing by registration of title." " Title by
deed," we are informed, by probably as high an authority upon
the subject as any in England (Mr. Freshfield), can never be
demonstrated as an ascertained fact; it can only be presented
as an inference more or less probable, deducible from the
documentary and other evidence accessible at the time being."
This condition involves, in the first place, the employment of
highly- skilled and therefore costly professional assistance.
2ndly, An element of uncertainty through the admitted pos-
sibility of a wrong inference being drawn from the evidence
even by the most skilful conveyance, (2) and from the difficulty
of ascertaining beyond doubt that all the evidence is fully and
clearly before him. 3rdly. This examination involves delay,
sometimes such delay as entirely to frustrate the object of the
party dealing ; and lastly. It has the disadvantage of being
cumbrous from the mass of documents that have to be pre-
served. In contrast to this, " title by registration" is a tan-
gible ascertained fact. The entry in the record is conclusive.
Tiiere is nothing to deduce or infer, or, in the conduct of
ordinary dealings, to necessitate professional assistance. The
time occupied in such dealings need not exceed that required
for transacting the like dealings with railway scrip, or with
property in shipping, and the instrument evidencing title would
rarely exceed the size of a sheet of letter paper. As regards
tills Club, I think I cannot do better than commence with the
interesting introduction of the question by Mr. Tisiier llobbs
in 1853. The question was, however, incidentally discussed iu
1861, when the simplification of land transfer was insisted
upon, the subject for discussion being, " Tlie best means of
inducing capital to be more freely invested in the land."
Mr. Ilobbs brought this question before the Club
in an able, lucid address: "The many difficulties
which oppose the Transfer of Land, and the
improvements that would result from facilitating the process."
Among othsr thiugs he said, " If we are to have free trade in
produce we should ha\e free trade in land. To the farmer
land is raw material, and it is only common justice that he
should be able to procure it on the easiest and most advanta-
geous terras." After an interesting debate the following reso-
lutions were adopted — I believe it is not customary now to pass
resolutions in this Club : " 1. Tliat the difficultiss attending
the transfer of land have generally become so many and em-
barrassing as to demand the serious attention of tlie Legis-
lature, with a view to removing them." 2. " That the effect of
these difficulties is in the highest degree injurious — to
the owners of the laud, who, encumbered with
them, can seldom make the most of their pro-
perty ; to the cultivators of it, who are thus too often
denied that aid and encouragement in the way of permanent
improvements — such as buildings and draining— that should
properly come from the landlord ; and to the public at large,
who are consequently deprived of those opportunities for in-
vestment, and the advantages of increased production, thiy
would otherwise enjoy." 3. " That the first and most direct
means for removing these difficulties would be the improve-
ment of the law of real property, the simplification of titles
and forms of conveyance, together with the establishment
of some effective system for the registration of deeds."
No doubt we may take for granted, in 1874, much
of what Mr. Fisher Hobbs had to prove in 1853.
I pass on to 1859, when Sir Hugh Cairns, then Solicitor General,
in a forcible speech graphically described the results of con-
veyancing by deed, and when he introduced a bill to effec-
conveyancing by registration ot title, this bill being founded
on the report of the Royal Commission on registration of title
in 1857. Unfortunately, a dissolution of Parliament prevented
and interrupted the progress of this bill, and it never became
law. In 1862 Lord Wesbury brought in a bill which proved a
complete failure. In 1868 a Commission was appointed to
suggest a workable scheme, and upon the Report of the Com-
missioners was based the bill of Lord Selborne last session
and also that now introduced by Lord Cairns. The Land
Titles and Transfer Bill, which lias been presented to the
House of Lords by Lord Cairns, and has thus far met hardly
a shadow of opposition, has for its attendants the Real Pro-
perty Limitation Bill and the Real Property Vendors and
Purchasers Bill. The two main objects are : (1), the confirming
of the titles of present holders of land, and (2) the simphfica-
tion of future sales ; and in dealing with these measures I
will endeavour to point out how far I think these measures
go to remedy the grievance, and how far they ought to go.
The principle of Lord Cairns' bill is the principle of the
Merchant Shipping Act register, that there should be one
person or an aggregate of persons on the register capable of
selling. The first object of the bill is to obtain a real regis-
tration of titles, that a man should register a title such as it
is, the effect man puts on a title which by degrees clears
itself off. Lord Westbury's Act registered indefeasible titles
only. Besides the title of an estate there were all the charges
on the land, hence it was, as Lord Cairns says, a registration
not so much of titles as of deeds. Another cause of failure
was its mode of dealing with boundaries. Lord Westbury
departed from Lord Cairns' principle, aud made registration
with absolute title the basis of his bill ; but his scheme was
so expensive and cumbrous, partly arising from its making
out indefeasible title only, that it became almost a dead letter.
Lord Cairns' scheme on the contrary is to register merely the
titles ; but as all the titles are not of equal validity he divides
them in three classes : 1, A title absolute or indefeasible ; 2,
A title limited, that is a title certified to be good from a par-
ticular date, but not beyond it ; and 3, A simple title of the
proprietor in possession, and asserting himself to be the owner.
Lord Cairns discards Lord Selborne's phrase, " Good holding
title," as too vague a term ; he will, however, allow tlie
registrar to disregard mere technical imperfections, provided
they are notified in the register itself. No title, as you are
aware, is now considered by the Court of Chancery marl;t said he thought it just as well that the Council
had not attempted to interfere in the dispute between the la-
bourers and their employers (Hear, hear). Such disputes had
arisen in every trade, and were sure to have come in the case
of agriculture. He looked with much more satisfaction than
Sir \Valter Stirling appeared to do ou what was mentioned in
that morning's papers — the close of the strike in Lincolnshire,
and he thought he saw in that the omen that the strike in the
Eastern Counties would soon be over (Hear, hear). He was
satisfied that farmers were wrong in ignoring the Union.
Agricultural labourers had quite as much right to try and
improve their condition as any other class of labourers. Far-
mers had no more power to stamp out unionism than other
classes of employers. At the same time he thought they had
had so much provocation tliat he was not surprised that they
had attempted to do it. Some of the leaders of the agricul-
tural labourers had in their orgau made attacks on the land,
lords, on the clergy, and ou almost all classes of persons
connected with agriculture except the labourers, — attacks
which would perhaps in the end recoil on their own heads ;
and he must say it seemed to him to speak well for the good
sense of the labourers that they had not been misled by the
language used (Hear, hear). He was old enough to remem-
ber a time when incendiary fires were not unfrequent, but now
there was nothing of the kind. When machines began to be
first introduced on a large scale in agricultural operations, the
labourers rose in almost all directions and destroyed them ;
but, notwithstanding the improper suggestions made to the
labourers of the present day, tliere had been no outrages of
that kind. It was the testimony of correspondents of the
London press and of others who had visited the scenes of
strikes, that the labourers had behaved in an exceedingly peace-
able and orderly manner, and he must say that, instead of the
bitterness of hostile feeling, there appeared to have been great
moderation on both sides. He believed that the thing would
soon right itself without any interference on the part of that
Society, and was by no means disposed to take a gloomy view
of the future of agriculture (Hear, hear). As regarded, that
Society, he thought the small diminution of members purely
arose from the increase of large local Societies, such as the
Bath and West of England and the Lincolnshire and York-
shire Societies, and the attempt which was being made to
convert them into a kind of travelling Societies. That move-
ment naturally tended to divert abstract members from the
Royal Agricultural Society, but notwithstanding that, they
held their own. He had always wished that there was a more
popular mode of electing the Council. He had always thought
that it would be a good thing if a ci-rtain number of members
of the Council retired corapulsorily every year ; but, on the
other hand, it was desirable to retain the services of men who
were well acquainted with the important duties to be per-
formed in connection with the exhibition of implements and
other matters (Hear, hear), and it was possible that through
compulsory retirement the Society might be deprived of the
assistance of some its most useful members (Hear, hear). The
Committee of Selection would only be too grateful if gentle-
men were to send up tiie names of men who would be good
represcutatives of agriculture on the Council. It having been
said that Lincolnshire was over-represented, they had struck
off that morning two Lincolnshire men, and put on two Nor-
folk ones. On the other hand, Berkshire had not been repre-
sented at all, and that defect «as now removed. As Chairman
of the Journal Committee, he felt grateful for the laudatory
observations which had been made; but he might remark that
within the last fortnight he had heard the Journal described
as the dullest and stupidest publication that was produced
(laughter). The Journal Committee would be most grateful
for papers from gentlemen who were qualified to write, and
who took interest enougli in agricultural topics to go to the
trouble of writing. Unfortunately, a great many men of that
4S0
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
kind preferred sending vvliat they wrote to the weekly agricul-
tural press, because it was publibhed so mucli earlier there
than it could be iu the Juiinial, aud thus many thiuc;s of great
interest wliich would otherwise reach the Committee were
snapped up by others. With regard to education, it certainly
appeared to him most unsatisfactory that out of eiglit or nine
hundred stuleuts so very few could come to that Society for
examination. As to tlie remark lliat some of the students
who did present tliemselves belonged to the class of land-agents,
he could not regard tliat as any objection (Hear, hear). lie
tliought it very important tliat they should have persons ex-
amiued viho would form an intermediate class between land-
lords and tenants. It' farmers iiad not a skilled agent to deal
with, they would fall into the liauds of the old family solicitor,
who was, generally speaking, disposed to throw impediments
iu the way of all iraprovenients (Hear, liear).
Mr. T. WiLLSO^J thought the Council had very wisely ab-
stained from taking any part with regard to the strike. lie
agreed with previous speakers that the question was in reality
a political one [A. Voice: "It is a question of political
economy"]. At all events all those who were opposed to tiie
farmers were on one side of politics (cries of " No"), lie
did not say tiiat all Radicals were opposed to the farmers, but
he said that nearly all those who were opposed to them were
Radicals, lie was the chairman of a Farmers' Defence Asso-
ciation, aud he must say that he tliought such associjitions
had done a great deal of good, lie did not at all blame the
farmers of the Eastern Counties for what they had done, and
he hoped they would succeed, lie was sorry to find what had
just occurred in Lincolnshire, especially as the settlement came
from men who were enemies of farmers. With regard to the
wages question he might remark that it was only tliree years
and six months ago since lie entered upon his present farm,
aud that the cost of the labour upon it iiad risen 10s. an acre
without the interference of agitators. That appeared to him
quite sufficient. If the owner of the farm had asked him 10s.
an acre more before his occupation commenced he should not
have ti.keu the farm (Hear, hear).
Lord Dexman lioped that the mover of the amendment
would withdraw it. The question was an extremely delicate
one, and he did not think it could be entertained there. The
late Mr. Joseph Hume was the person who proposed the with-
drawal ol the combination laws, and soon after their with-
drawal Lord Jeffrey proposed as a toast at a dinner at Edin-
burgh, " The rights of labour, so long as those rights do not
interfere with the rights of others" (Hear, hear). If labourers
said that all men should be paid at the same rate, that was an
unjustifiable interference with the rights of others. He hoped
to see a thoroughly good feeling established between agricul-
tural labourers and farmers, but there must be freedom of con-
tract. If that society were to interfere in the present quarrel
it might realise the truth of the words —
Those who in quarrels interpose,
Will often wipe a bloody nose.
Dr. Crisp observed that in proposing the amendment he
desired to promote the interest of both farmers aud labourers,
and as he believed that its adoption would tend to do that he
could cot withdraw it.
Tiie amendment was then put and negatived by a large
majority.
On the motion of Mr. M.\.STERiiA2f, a vote of thanks was
given to the auditors.
On the motion of Lord DfiNJiiN, seconded by Dr. Crisp,
thanks were also voted to the chairman.
Tlie CuAiuiiAN, after acknowledging the compliment,
alluding to the suggestion made with a view of increasing the
attendance of members and their interest in the proceedings of
the Society, observed that the holding of the gfii<;ral meeting
ou that day was fixed by the charter, and the Couucil had no
power to alter it. They would be very glad of any arrange-
ment whicli wuu'd secure a better atterdance of members.
He admitted that there should be some amendment in the
mode of electing members of the Council, though having sat
on the Council year after year he must say that he did not
think it would be possible to collect 50 gentlemen together
v^lio would work more heaitily for the advancement of the '
interests of agficulrure, and that was done, too, without the
slightest tinge of political feeling (Hear, hear,) The constitu-
ency of the Council was aheady a large one ; but they would
be glad if it were larger still, and the only impediment to that
was the want of greater communication between the members.
With regard to what Mr. Wells said respecting the labours of
tlie Chemical Committee, he must say tliat though no mention
was made of them in the report, agriculturists as a body were
greatly indebted to them for what tbey had done for the pre-
vention of frauds in feeding-stuffs and manures. He concurred
iu the opinion expressed that tiie Journal had been much
improved under the management of the present Editor, and he
hoped that it would be not merely severely criticised, but also
diligently read (hear, hear), and, perhaps, one tiling which
would conduce to its being read was that the leaves were now
cut. As regarded the ques ion of labour he would observe
that the Council were precluded by the charter from entertain-
ing it. In conclusion, Mr. Ilulland expressed liis concurrence
in the remarks of Mr. Dent with regard to the loss which the
Society had sustained by the dsatli of Sir Harry Stephen
Meyspy-Tliompson.
The meeting then separated.
THE LONDOx\ CATTLE MVRKETS— A statement
has been prepared by the Chamberlain of the total receipts
and expenses in respect of the Metropolitan Cattle Mirket,
for the years 1SG9, 1870, 1871,1872, and 1873, distinguishing
the amount paid for interest on loans ; and a like statement in
respect of the Foreign Cattle Market at Deptford, for the years
1871, 1873, and 1873, and showing tlie amounts (if any) in
hand of moneys borrowed ou account of the said markets. It
appears that llie average annual surplus revenue of the Metro-
politan Cattle Market, exclusive of interest on loans for the
years 1869, 1870, and 1871, being the three years immediately
preceding the opening of the Foreign Cattle Market at Dept-
ford, amounted to £13,970 10s. 3d., and the average annual net
deficiency for those years, after the payment of tlie interest on
loans, amountedto £6,309 10s. 9d. ; and that the average annual
surplus revenue of that maket, exclusive of interests on loans
for the years 1873 and 1873, subsequent to the opening of the
Foreign Cattle Market, amounted to £16,151 16s. 8d., being
an increase of £3,181 6s. 5d , and the average annual net de-
ficiency for those years, after payment of the interest on loans,
amounted to £3,860 4s. 9d., showing a reduction in the defi-
ciency of £2,4!l9 Gs. With respect to the Foreign Cattle
Market, it appears that the surplus revenue for the year 1872,
exclusive of interest on loans, amounted to £9,316 3s. 3d., but
in 1873 there was a deficiency of £1,613 9s. lOd., and that
after payment of the interest on loans, the average annual de-
ficiency amcuuted lo £i,955 6s. Tlie average annual financial
result of the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act, 1869, from
the opening of the Foreign Cattle Market to the end of the
year 1873, appears therelore to be that, excluding the moneys
paid for interest on loans, there has been an increase in the
surplus revenue of tlie Metropolitan Cattle Markets of
£3,181 6s. 5d., which added to the average surplus revenue
iu respect of tue F'oreign Cattle Market of £3,801 6s. 2d.,
makes a balance in lavour of the Corporation since
the opening of the Foreign Cattle Market of £5,982 12s. 7d.
But taking into account the amount paid lor interest on loans,
the average annual deficiency in respect of the Metropolitan
Cattle Market has been reduced by the sum of £2,419 6s., aud
that the average annual deficiency iu respect of the Metro-
politan Cattle Market since the opening of the Foreign Cattle
Market, amounting to £3,860 48. 9d., added to the deficiency
in respect of the latter market, amounting to £4,955 6s.,
making together £8,815 10s. 9d., shows an incre ise in the
annual deficiency in respect of both markets of £2,606,
whilst prior to the opening of the Foreign Cuttle
Market the deficiency in respect of the Metropolitan Cattle
Market alone amounted to the sura of £6,309 10s. Id. The
work done at the Metropolitan Cattle Market during 1873 con-
sisted of the conversion into slaugliter-houes of three of the
sheep lairs, tlie formation of an additional sheep lair, and the
covering in of one of the avenues of the bullock lairs.
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
481
THE STOWMARKET EARMERS' CLUB.
FOOD OF STOCK AND ITS DirURITIES.
At the last meeting tlie subject for discussion was "Food
for stock, and its impurities," introduced by Professor Tuson,
of the Koyal Veterinary College ; the Rev. lleury Hill in the
chair.
Professor Tuson then delivered a lecture of about an hour's
duration. He said the subject he had chosen for an address
was " The food of stock, and its impurities," and in the term
stock he should, to a certain extent, on this occasion introduce
the horse. The subject of food and its impurities had at-
tracted the attention of many chemists and many scientific
men of various denominations. It was a most important one
in a practical sense, one with which every farmer should be
more or less intimately acquainted — the more intimately the
bttter. Tiie subject was so vast that it would be impossible
for anyone to do full justice to it in the course of an hour's
lecture ; so what he proposed doing was to speak of linseed-
cakes, point out the characteristics of good and bad, and
adulterated cakes, and then to pass on, in compliance with a
request from his friend Mr. Sutton, to make a few remarks on
the subject of kiln-dried oats, having understood that there
were many members of the Club who would like to hear some
remarks upon this article of food. The plant from which
linseed was obtained was grown in varions parts of the world,
but we derived our chief supplies from India and from Russia.
This linseed came into the country in various states of purity.
It was generally mixed either with a small or a large amount
of foreign seeds, sucJi seeds as grew in various crops in this
country. Professor Voelcker had made a calculation of tiie
seeds from various parts of the world, and he had found the
impurities, such as wild mustard, dodder, &c.,to amount from
a half to 20 and 25 per cent. Linseed therefore found its
way into the market with 25 per cent, of impurities, and this
large quantity of impurity was sdded by dishonest merchants.
He (Professor Tuson) would first point out what was the com-
position of pure linseed, describing the natute of the sub-
stances found in the pure seed. This he did accordingly,
making frequent reference, by way of explanation, to a state-
ment written in large characters, and hung up in the room.
The following is a copy :
Cakes.
Pure
Seed.
Hi.57
Ash
3.29
6.47
7.31
100-
100-
1(W
100-
There was, he explained, a moisture which naturally adhered
to all substances of the earth, and then there were found in the
seed a number of bo iies called albumenoid.s, white-of-egg-like
substances, highly nutritive, from wliicli the growinj? ox or
the growing sheep made its own muscle and its own meat.
Then there was the oil and mucilage or gum, the digestible
fibre, and the other fibre, a great deal of which would not dis-
solve in an animal's stomach. The kiud of work performed
by these substances was to produce in the living animal beat
and lat. We often found ourselves and farm stock very warm,
as rompared with the atmosphere. This heat was necessary
to the maintenance of lite, and it was kept up by the burning in
the body of the oil, or digestible fibre. Some were burned
away. Others were stored up in the body. Pig were fre-
quently fattened by feeding upon rice-meal. The chief ingre-
dience of rice-meal was starch, and starch was first cousin to
gum. It passed into the intestines, was transformed into fat,
fattened the animal and by-and-by burnt away, and during the
burning away the heat was gone, and directly the burning
process ended death ensued. 'J hen there was an ingredient in
linseed termed ash. If you took a small jiortion of seed and
experimented upon it, it would be found tliat nearly the whole
of it would burn away, but there was a portion left behind that
would not burn, and this was called the ash. This, ash, when
analysed, was I'ouud to contain mineral ingredients, such as
chalk, chalk, carbonate and phosphate of lime, showing that in
linseed there was mineral matter, necessary to the formation of
bone. Professor Tuson explained the figures given above, and
proceeded to remark, that in order to convert linseed into cake,
it was ground to powder, and then put under presses. Some-
times it was heated slowly, and in a kind of copper. At all
events it was ultimately subjected to pressure, which had the
effect ofsqueezingoutsoineof the oil, in all, in putting it roughly,
about one third, when it was subjected to intense pressure by
the seed crusher. IJe produced a sample of cake made from
good seed, in which the albumenoiu properties were high. It
liad been carefully and repeatedly examined by the microscope
and no foreign impurities could be discovered, but jet it was
not of the first quality. In the pure cake of first-rate quality
there was an agreeable odour and flavour, so that wlien you
smell it you almost regret that you are not a cow to jiartake
of it. He warned his hearers never to be deceived by observ-
ing whole linseeds sticking on the outside of the cake. Cakes
were sometimes made of a most inferior quality, and sometimes
mixed with a little linseed which could be seen outside, and in
this way the purchaser was often deceived. The cake should
consist entirely of crushed seed, and having such qualities that
when about an ounce of it was crushed to fine powder and
covered with half or three-quarters of a pint ol water it should
form a glutinous matter, as they would see from the specimen
he had before him. [Professor Tuson had three different spe-
cimens in an ordinary half-pint tumbler.] Cakes when mi.xed
with olh'-r material, did not show the results whicli the good
cake would do. That which became glutinous on being mixed
with water might be used for purposes of food. If a cake was
analysed and it contained twenty-seven to tliirty-two per cent.,
then the oil should be eleven to thirteen per cent., and the ash
should not exceed about 7 per cent. The cake which belonged
to the variety lie held in his hand was delicient in odour, and
it had about 8 per ceut. of ash, and he believed it was made of
Boi/ibay linseed and otiier seeds. Iiipure cake was produced
in a variety of ways. It might be made from unscreened lin-
seed. Many manufacturers did not take the trouble of screen-
ing their seed. They even went so far as to buy sittings from
other persons, and added them to the linseed before it was
crushed iuto the cake. He showed the gentlemen present a
specimen of an impure cake partly made from siftiugs. If
smelt and tasted, it would be found to be different altogether
from the oMier specimen. Tlumgli this cake was kept in a
dry room, it had become mouldy, which was most dangerous
to cattle. In all probability the mould would be productive
of the greatest possible injury, and even death. Very often
the veterinary surgeon was puzzled to account for the death
of animals, and had frequently to attribute the death of
the animals to food given to them. Very often various
kinds of cakes were sent for analysis, and if kept a little
while they it turned mouldy, and he had no doubt but
that it was this kind of linseed cake wli'cli was Oi'teu
productive of injury to tiie stomach of ine animil. In
the specimen he bad before him there was a " P" marked ou
it, indicating that it was of imre make, and yet it was the
dirtiest cake he had seen, and was an instance of the manner
in which the farmers were cheated by the mercbauts and other
liersous. Many of the seeds whicli mixed naturally with the
linseed, and which were added purposely, were perfectly harm-
less. Put sometimes it happened that ihey were exceedingly
poisonous. Cakes bad been met with which had been sold as
pure linseed, in wliich it was easy to detect a quantity of castor
beans, the seed from which castor oil was made. The husks of
tiie seed were intensely poisonous — and was a niisty irritant
poison, diseasing the bowels and the stomach, and ultimately
producing death. It frequently liappened that wild mustard
was mixed with the linseed, but not in such large quanties.
Most of us knew what was the elfect of an application ol a mix-
ture ol mustard and water to the flesh ; and mustard and water
was tiie common plan for makiug people sick. Therefore it
would be easy to understand what would be the effect of an iu-
482
THE FABMER'S MAGAZINE.
gredient of this kind upon the stomach of an animal. If given
in large quantities it would produce death. About 13 months
ago a farmer sent him a cake, stating that it had been
bought for pure linseed cake. On examining it he (Pro-
fessor Tusou) found it to consist largely of mustard husks,
with a small amount of pure mustard added. The farmer
lost a number of sheep, and the death of the animals was to
be attributed to the mustard, of which the cake was composed.
Mustard in cake might be detected by the bitter and biting
which was imparted on tasting it. Another way of detecting
mustard was mixing the cake in a little warm water, and if
mustard was present there would be in a few minutes the
pungent smell with which we were all perfectly familiar.
Another substance which was often mixed with the ground
linseed and connected with the cake was bran. There was
nothing hurtful in bran itself to the animal, but there was
something hurtful to the farmer if he paid the same price for
it as he would for linseed. Linseed-cake should never contain a
particle of bran, inasmuch as linseed-cake should never contain
a parttcle of starch, for the reason that starch was never con-
tained in the linseed itself, and if any was discovered in the
cake it might be concluded that there was bran in it. Bran
was frequently added because of its cheapness. Professor
Tuson gave an illustration by way of experiment of the man-
ner in which the presence of starch in a cake could be dis-
ocvered, and in continuation he said he had been asked by the
chairman if he had ever discovered sawdust in linseed-cake ?
He (t^ie lecturer) might say that sometimes mahogony dust
was applied ; and if he were to stop to give a description of
all the ingredients which were found in some cakes he should
tire the patience of his hearers. However, as he had said, if
starch was found in linseed-cake it might be known that it did
not exist there naturally. Sand and dirt swept up in ware-
houses, and containing nobody knew what, were often mixed
in the cake. These sweepings very often contained poisonous
substances, sometimes saltpetre, salamoniac, and even some-
times arsenic. These sweepings were brought together and
made up into feeding material, and in this way it would be
understood how numberless impurities often found their way
into linseed-cake. A merchant in Essex once told Kim that
he was commissioned by some seed-cake makers to buy up any
seed he could provided they were cheap. There was no doubt
that certain grave evils existed, and had the farmer no remedy
for these evils? His strong advice to farmers was that if they
did not want to be cheated they had better go to the honest
cake maker — there were some, as well as honest chemists,
though there were, he was sorry to say, some dishonest — and
if they did not know a good honest seed crusher, let them take
a liltle pains to find one out, and if they did not do so the
chemist's occupation, so far as the farmers were concerned,
like Othello's, was nearly gone. They must be prepared to
pay the full price for the article. If they attempted to buy
that which appeared to be a bargain, they must examine it or
have it examined first, or nine times out of ten they would be
let in. There was another exposure which he must make, and
that was the difference between the meaning of the terms
"pure" and "genuine" as applied by the trade. The pure
cake was made from sifted linseed, and genuine cake was made
from linseed as it came in. It might contain 20 or 25 per
cent, of impurity. If they bought a cake without a guarantee
as to its quality any action in law afterwards would fall to the
ground. He remembered a case in which a farmer brought
an action against a merchant, the farmer having bought the
article which was called genuine cake. He found it consisted
of one-third of bran, and the action failed because there was no
guarantee, and he had to submit to a nonsuit. It must be
very gratifying to farmers to know that adulteration was not
so extensively employed as it was a year or two ago. He
(Professor Tuson) thought this better state of things was due
to the energy displayed by the Royal Agricultural Society,
which had been instrumental in exposing certain articles
which had been offered to the community. He thought tiie
agricultural community owed the Society a debt of gratitude
for having taken such a bold step. Complying with what he
believed to be the desire of several members of this Club, he
proposed to say something about kiln-dried oats. Most
of those present knew either from their own experience,
or from ,the experience of their friends, that kiln-dried
oats had the effect of producing a good deal of harm
amongst horses. It caused profuse staling and a falling off of
flesh, preceded by indigestion. He thought the explanations
hitherto given of the cause of these effects were only partially
true. He had a pet theory of his own, which was founded, to
a certain extent, on facts. What was meant by kilndrying?
And why were oats kilndried ? Oats were frequently damaged
by water, either on board ship or in some other manner, and
these oats before they were again marketable must have the
water removed from them . They were placed on the floor of
rooms, the floor being perforated , and a quantity of hot air was
passed through the floors. This brought them back to their
original harduess. Very often they became darkened in colour,
and turned mildewy. In order to destroy the fungi kind of
growth, and restore the oats to the proper colour, it was cus-
tomary to doctor them by sulphuring them. He considered
it very probable tliat the outcome of any investigation that
might be tuken upon this subject would be to show that the
sulphuring was at the bottom of tlie mischief. Sulphur or
brimstone had the effect of removing the colouring matter,
and bringing back the white colour of the oat. The oats thus
treated were almost unnaturally white. Many persons would
be able frequently to tell by the eye whether the oats had been
sulphured or not. It would kill the fungus or mould, and for
this purpose also the sulphuring was resorted to. They must
never buy, if they know it, sulphured oats, for if the sulphuring
did not render it obnoxious and injurious, yet they would know
that the oat iiad previously been in a damaged condition ; and
if they would buy it they must be prepared to get an article
which would be injurious to the animal. The mould might be
still lurking in the oats, and when in the stomach of the animal
might grow aud develop itself and do much harm. He had
known many instances of this mould killing animals. He re-
membered that some years ago Professor Varnall was consulted
by a farmer who had lost three horses. The oats and provender
was examiued by other chemists as well as by himself (Professor
Tuson), by the naked eye as well as by the microscope, and they
found a mushroom or mouldy kind of growth on the oats. On
making a closer examination of the oats they found them dis-
eased ; and they came to the conclusion that this mouldy, fusty,
substance was the cause of the death of the animals fed upon
the oats. They gave some of the oats to another horse and that
also died. Tliey also gave some of the minute spores or seeds
and germs of the fungus to a rabbit, and that died. He thought
that in many instances the injuries attributed to kilndried oats
were really due to the vitriol or sulphuric acid adiiering to the
oats. He examined ten samples of sulphured oats and com-
pared them with ten samples of uusulphured, and found no
sulphuric acid adhering to the latter, whereas in the other he
detect ed these poisonous matters. After contending that these
sulphuric acids were the cause of the mischief in most instances,
Professor Tuson quoted Dr. Coplin's remarks upon the subject,
and in conclusion said de should Uke some gentleman present
to try the effect of the use of sulphured oats on an old horse,
and carefully watch the result, in connection with some vete-
rinary surgeon. It would be an exceedingly interesting study,
and might be productive of good results. He described the
manner of detecting sulphured oats, and said if he had proved
sulphured oats to be the cause of much mischief he had
shown them to be dangerous. They might have been mouldy
and might have some of the mould in them, and if so there
might be something poisonous about them. He should be
happy to answer any question that might be put to him by the
meeting. .
Mr. Henry Crosse remarked that a great deal of cotton-
cake was used in the present day. He should like to know if
Professor Tuson had examined any of it, and if he had done so,
also to know the result.
The Chairman said he was sorry to have to own that he
was not a scientific man, and therefore perhaps the less he
said on the subject under consideration the better. But farmers,
as they professed to be, when they were talked to in the
manner they had been this evening, always professed to know
more than thoie who talked to them, and therefore with all
due deference to the large amount of learning which his
friend the lecturer undoubtedly possessed, he (the chairman)
would beg leave to differ from that gentleman, and to say that
although the cake he had examined had been adulterated to a
certain extent, he had not told us what was a good substitute
for it, and he (the rev. gentleman) would remind the meeting
that bean-meal had been much neglected. He wished that the
names of the merchants had been attached to the samples pro-
duced, as having been sold as genuine cake. With the amount
of adulteration that was evidently going on it was idle to look
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
483
upon the elaborate statement with which the lecturer had
famished liimself, going into decimals as it did and was most
accurately calculated, for it seemed difficult to get really good
seedcake and good corn, and if animals died from eating
articles with bad ingredients it was impossible to get a posl-
mortem examination unless it was by a fellow who would be
sure to swear that the animals died of the lung disease. The
farmers were done every way. The Royal Agricultural Society,
howeTer, was, he believed, prepared to publish tiie names of
everyone who were detected of selling unsound articles as pure
or genuine. The Suffolk Chambers of Agriculture had
scientific men who were prepared to make ananlyses through
the Chambers'oQ comparatively easy terms, and if they bought
what might be considered bargains without a guarantee, and
then refused to have them analysed, they had themselves very
much to blame. He was afraid, however, that they were
willing to be made victims of others in more sense than one.
Professor Tuson had announced himself willing to answer any
question that might be put to him. He (tlie Chairman) dare
not, for his own part, ask the Professor anything.
Mr. W. S. Gkimwade said the members of the Club could
not but feel gratified at the able way in which Professor Tubou
had laid bare the impurities of the great compound linseed-
cake, but unless they should separate disappointed that the
subject iiad not been extended so far as they were led to expect,
he would remind Professor Tuson that on the paper calling the
meeting it was stated that the lecture would embrace in its
extended sense the food of stock and its impurities ; and as
Mr. Crosse had called attention to the next most important
subject of cotton-cake, he thought the lecture ought to be
branched out into other substances, such as palm-nut meal and
maize, as compared with beans and other feeding-stufi"s. He
knew that beans were their remedy, or rather, as their Chair-
man had said, when they felt they were so entirely in the
hands of the manufacturer and vendor of cake, both linseed
and cotton, they flew to the diiferent kinds of meal ; therefore
he thought it was important they should hear something from
Professor Tuson concerning all those substanees which came
into competition with linseed-cake. With reference to the
remarks which had been made with regard to many of the
inferior kinds of linseed-cake, he thought the advice given by
the Professor should be borne in mind by all. It was a very
serious thing when cake was sold to them in the adulterated
form he had described.
Mr. Woodward said he did not quite understand that the
lecture was to embrace every description of food they fed their
stock witli. He took it to be more of an explanation or an
openingup of the subject, and showing the easiest and best
way of arriving at a knowledge of the pure cake as against
the impure.
Mr. Grimwade said there was nothing said about cake in
the circular.
Mr. Woodward thought that to go into the whole of the
food-stuff used by a farmer would be more than a lecturer could
do at one time. Undoubtedly it would be to their advantage
to know which was the best and cheapest food to be met with,
but he would confine himself expressly to that article which
they consumed mostly as graziers, namely, linseed-cake. Ue
(Mr. Woodward) was but a small grazier, but he could say
this as a grazier — that he had had some cake of the best quality,
some of the medium, and some of the worst. It did not re-
quire a very scientific man to tell them whether the cake was
pure cake or not, but it did require a scientific man to tell
them of the different ingredients, and show to them in figures
which were the best cakes to use. Some six or seven years
ago he bought a large quantity of cake beforehand, and he felt
convinced in his own mind it was not up to the mark, and his
man told him he thought so too. He directly sent a sample of
it to Professor Simpson for analysis, together with a sample of
another cake. The vendor of whom he bought tiie cake did
not give him a guarantee with it, but lie said it was the best
cake, and he (Mr. Woodward) was proud and happy to say
there were men of whom they could buy the best cake, and
they could rely upon them and get the best article. The re-
sult of the analysis was this — both samples of cake cost the
same money, but one sample was 50s. a ton better than the
other, and that being so, he would leave them to guess what
he would have lost in one year if he went on to use tiiat infe-
rior cake. Tiiey ought to try to understand and know them-
selves whether they were buying the best cake or not. The
farmer should look to it himself, and if he was not satisfied, he
should apply to such scientific men as the Professor. He
could not but say that he had been extremely delighted to
hear the plain and explieit way in which he introduced to
them the various properties of the diiferent qualities of cake,
and he thought they could not be blind to the fact that if a
purchaser weut to buy in the cheapest market he might rest
assured he would not get the best article. He thought tiiere
could be no mistaking the character of the pieces of cake
which the Professor had produced to the meeting ; but of
course they could not tell in detail, without they had a scien-
tific knowledge, which was the best and which the worst.
With regard to the kiln-dried oats, they all knew that the
larger proportion of oats consumed here was foreign.
He had himself found, where kiln-dried oats were put belore
horses, that they refused them, and in cases where they had
eaten them, they weut very badly. With regard to sulphur,
there was no question but that it was used for the purpose
stated by the Professor, namely, for bleaching and getting the
colour up. He had been a hop grower, and he iiad used it to
bleach hops, but he did not know whether it had the same
efi'ect upon the beer as upon the oats. With reference to
cake, he believed there was as good a cake manufactured in
the county of Sufl'olk as they could find anywhere, provided
they would give the best price for it.
Mr. Grimwade trusted it was understood he highly appre-
ciated what the Professor had stated. He thought in making
the remarks he did that the Club should not separate with a
feeling of disappointment with the wording of the circular in
describing the lecture.
Mr. CuARLES Turner (Stonhain) said that, with the
chairman's permission, he should like to ask Professor Tuson
one question. It was this: To what extent did he consider
mouldy hay or stover injurious to stock of various kinds?
He believed that in some places there was a certain process by
which they could make mouldy hay smell sweet and look good.
Now, he should like to know whether hay got to that state
again would be good for stock.
The Chairman said he did not wish to interfere with the
offer Professor Tuson had made to answer any questions, but
he was afraid he was in duty bound to say that the questions
asked should be those connected with the subject upon which
the Professor had spoken. If they went further tliey would
require several nights to exhaust all the questions that might
be asked. If members would contrive to confine their ques-
tions to the cake and oats, he thought they should have quite
enough to do that evening.
Mr. Henry Crosse wished to know the condition the oats
were in where the Professor found sulphurous acid.
Professor TusoN said he would answer that question at
once, by saying that he thought Mr. Crosse had confounded
the terms sulphuric acid and sulphurous acid.
Mr. Oakes asked if the process of kiln-drying was not more
frequently applied to unripe oats than to damp oats.
Professor TusoN said he could not say, from his own know-
ledge, that it was.
Mr. GosTLiNG thought Professor Tuson had not fully ap-
prehended Mr. Crosse's question. He wished to know what
was the condition of the oats previous to the testing.
Professor TusoN said he believed he stated in the body of
his address that the oats had a reddish brown colour from be-
coming heated, and that such oats were bleached and subjected
to sulphurous acid for the purpose of producing their white
colour. It was also used upon such oats as had been mouldy.
Mr. GosTLiNG asked what would be the appearance of the
oat^ after the sulphurous acid had been applied to them.
Professor Tuson said that sulphured oats were much paler
or whiter than oats which had not been sulphured. They were
unhealthily pale, had a bad " nose," and had a kind of fusty
odour about them.
Mr. Sutton said that Professor Tuson had mentioned liis
name in his paper as having suggested tliis subject to him. It
arose from a gentleman, a member of the Club, having brought
him a sample of such oats, which, to all appearance, were
good, and looked exceedingly well. The gentleman told him
that his horses weie evidently unwell from using tiiem, and
he (Mr. Sutton) tiiought that supposing those oats had been
damp and dried, and had been sulphured in order to produce
a good colour, why should the sulphurous acid be injurious?
He could not answer the question, and he therefore asked
Professor Tuson to explain it, and he thankod tiie Professor
very much for the important answer he had given. He (Mr.
484
Sutton) could not nntlerstautl wliy sulpliuric acid could do any
harm, but now lie saw it was tlie action of tlie air vvliii;!) cy\-
VRrted if into sulphurous aciJ, aiid therefore did the mischief.
He thanked Professor Tuson most warmly for his kindness in
bringing this matter forward.
Professor Tuson stated tiiat the oits wliic'i were subjected
to the process of sulphuring were moist.
Mr. GosTLiNG asked is any injury accrusd from sulphurous
Rcid to malt ?
Professor TosoK inquired whether he meant to malt or
hops?
Mr. GosTLlNG : To malt. Would it in any way injure the
malt?
Pro''cssor TusoN replied, that if human beino-s were to eat
the dry malt in the same way as horses did oats, then lie
thought that some amount of injury would happen. But they
must bear in mind that malt was uspd in the production of
beer, and in a pint they would only have a few srains of the
malt itself present. With t!ie quantity of water the acid would
be so diluted as to be unable to do any injury. He sliould s'ly
in the case of sulphured o!its, there was very strong vitriol
present, while in the case of malt it was very weak.
Mr. GosTLiNG : Then even in the ease of a horse, the mis-
chief would be greatly obviated by giving a good draught of
water afterwards.
Professor Tusox : Undoubtedly. He did not, however,
think that the oat vendor often supplied them with entirely
sulphured oats. lie believed he mixed them in many cases
with sound oats, and in (hat case did no liarm. But where
they fed their horses entirely from it, it would do harm.
Tlie CriAiRMAN said he must stop the conversatian. They
begun with the food of cattle and now they had got on to malt,
which there was no doubt was a very good feeding stuff, but
when it came in the shape of beer that was entirely another
qnestion. They could not talk about beer that night. lie
should like them to come back to the subject of the paper.
No one having any remarks to make,
Professor Tuso>f replied to the discussion. In the first in-
stance he should like to say that the subject of this paper was
left to him, and his desire was to deal with the practical sub-
ject, rather than a purely chemical one, introducing, however,
a little chemistry, in order to bring it to bear on practice,
which he hoped he had done. The title he suggested was the
food of stock, and had he been left to that alone, he thovglit
he should have answered the expectations of his hearers ; but
he was told, as he informed them at the outset, that he was
specially requested to speak on oats, and therefore he had been
compelled to curtail the other part of his subject. The sub-
ject they knew was a vast one, and if he were to answer every-
thing, he should have to lecture to them every night for the
next three weeks at all events. He then proceeded to answer
the various questions. First of all with regard to the cot'on-
cake, he knew that it had been extensively employed as a
feeding stuff. There was a cake made from the whole seed,
wliicli seed consisted of a very hard, sharp, and when crushed,
indigestible husk. In the interior, of course, was a kernel
which produced a certain amount of oil. In this cake there
were sharp, angular husks which should never be used on ac-
count of tlie well-known irritating effects it produced. Cases
were oa record of persons swallowing pieces of glass which
killed them, and those husks iu the cottoncake produced the
same effect. The learned professor described tlie mode of
manufacture of " decorticated" cottoncake, wliich, he remarked,
yielded a large amount of albumen, so that, chemically, they
knew it to he superior to linseed, although it had not the some
aroma. He believed that to a certain extent the manufacture
of decorticated cottoncake had entirely ceased in consequence
of the expense incurred in erecting the machinery. But now
tlie cake was produced by crushing the whole of the contents
of the seed, taking the kernel and husk together, and by doing
so they diminished the effect of the husk upon the stomach of
the animals, but they must recollect they must not pay the
same price for that as they did for linseedcake. Witli regard
to beans and peas, rich in flesh powers, they wosld stand in-
termediate between oats and wiieat, or barley and linseedcake,
and they knew they were very useful materials provided they
were used with some heat and fat producers. They knew that
I^HE FAEMllR^S MAGAZmil.
beans and peas were what they called heating foods. The next
question was as to whether mouldy hay was injurious. He had
no practical experience on this subject, and the question was so
very general that it was really impossible for any one to give
a direct reply to it. But that mouldy hay was capable of doing
harm there was no doubt, although there were certain kinds
of mouldy liay which would do no harm. He was not ac-
quainted with the processes for restoring hay, bat he might
say that the remark he made with regard to restoring oats ap-
plied also to hay.
Mr. W00DWA.KD asked permission to make one remark with
regard to bean and pea meal. On one occasion he had twenty
bullocks, and he noticed they begun to go wrong. He was
advised by a practical man to take them off the meal entirely.
He did so, and put them on cake alone, and he had no more
troub'e with the.m.
Mr. OatvEs tendered their hearty thanks to Professor Tusou
for tl'e very able manner iu which he had lectured to them.
Mr. Grimwade seconded the motion, and said he hoped it
viould not be the last time they would hear Professor Tuson
iu Stowraaiket.
THE BABBITS BILL,
[Prepared and brought in by Mr. Pell, Sir Wyndliam
Anstruther, Mr. Walsh, and Mr. Montgomerie, to amend
the Law relating to Trespass in Pursuit of Rabbits.]
The following are the chief provisions of this remarkable
production :
This Act may be cited as " The Rabbits Act, ISTi-." This Act
shall not extend to Ireland. Any person who commits any
trespass by entering or being in the day-time on any land in
search or pursuit of rabbits shall be liable to a penalty not
exceeding five shillings. Where three or more persons to-
gether commit any such trespass, each of such persons shall
be liable to a penalty not exceeding ten shillings. Any
person charged with any such trespass shall be at liberty to
prove by way of defence any matter which would have been
a defence to an action at law for such trespass. Where any
person is found on any land in the day-time in search or
pursuit of rabbits, the occupier of the land, or any person
authorised by him, may require the person so found forthwith
to quit the land wliereon he is so found, and also to tell his
christian name, surname, and place of abode. If such person,
after being so required — (a) wilfully continues or returns on the
land ; or (4) refuses to tell his real name or place of abode ;
or (c) gives such a general description of his place of abode
as to be illusory for the purpose of discovery, he shall be
liable to a penalty not exceeding ten shillings. Tlie occupier
or any person authorised by him, so requiring as aforesaid, or
any person acting by the order and in aid of either of them,
may apprehend an offender under this section, and convey
him or cause him to be conveyed, as soon as conveniently may
be, before a court of summary jurisdiction : Provided that no
person so apprehended shall be detained for a longer period
than twelve hours from the time of his apprehension until he
is brought before a court of summary jurisdiction. Any
person who, being armed with a gun, is found on any land in
the day-time in search or pursuit of rabbits, and by violence,
intimidation, or menace prevents or endeavours to prevent
the occupier of the land or any person authorised by him
from approaching him, or from approaching any person in
company with him, shall be liable, in addition to any other
penalty to which he may be liable under this Act, to a pe-
nalty not exceeding five pounds. All offences and penalties
under tliis Act may be prosecuted and recovered before a
court of summary jurisdiction in raatner provided by the Sum-
mary Jurisdiction Acts ; but no offence shall be prosecuted
and no penalty shall be recoverable under this Act save by
the occupier of the land on which the offence in question is
committed. Nothing in this Act shall in anywise affect or
prejudice the rights or privileges of any lord or owner of any
manor, forest, chase, or free warren.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
485
SHEEP MANAGEMENT.
No. III.
BY THE NORTHERN FARMEH.
la keeping up a permanent stock of ewes the cheapest,
safest, and altogether moat satisfactory mode of renewing,
is to hold over each year a sufficient number of home-
bred ewe-lambs, chosen, as far as it can possibly be done,
from mothers distinguished for soundness of constitution,
weight of fleece, and free and abundant milking quality.
The offspring of a flock bred for generations on the same
land, being accustomed from birth to both soil and climate,
and adapted specially to it by descent, are less subject to
constitutional derangement, are healthier, hardier, and iu
every way more likely to turn out profitable stock than
sheej) purchased and brought in fresh each year. It is
a safe rule to continually abstain from using rams bred
on the farm, as no mistakes can then be made, and
there can be no danger of lowering the standard of
quality, or even the stamina of individual members of the
flock, by an injudicious system of breeding in and in. As
occasion requires, fresh blood should always be imported
into the stock by purchasing rams from breeders who not
only preserve iu their flocks the best strains of blood, but
have also thoroughly sound laud for sheep, so that the
animals they distribute over the country may possess
plenty of bone and substance, as well as constitutional
vigour of the highest class. Unless, of course, with men
of independent means, there is great temptation to sell the
top lambs of each year, or at least to prepare them for
early sale, keeping over those only of secondary quality
and size for breeding purposes. This, unfortunately, is
too often done, and is a prolific source of loss to those
who do so, as instead of gradual improvement, and in-
creasing yearly value in the products of the flock, there
is continual and unavoidable retrogression. When, on
the contrary, the requisite number of store lambs neces-
sary to take the place of the outgoing sheep are picked
from amongst the earliest dropped, and as regcras size
and beauty of contour are the best specimens obtainable
amongst the whole flock, the highest standard of quality
which the land is capable of maintaining is preserved, and
the stock-master has the gratification of knowing that
both land and stock are yielding a return in money,
which in amount can scarcely by any possibility
be exceeded. Ewe lambs held over for breed-
ing purposes should be kept only in fresh,
healthy, and growing condition, run if possible rather
thin on the pasture, so that it may be kept clean, and
during the winter and spring mouths, allowed just as
much cake and cut turnips each day as will keep them in
the same state ol improvement. Hoggets which have been
highly fed, and are put to the ram very fat, are extiemely
apt to miss, thus losing a season ; and, moreover, when
afterwards forced to live on grass only, and at the same time
rear a lamb, they very often break down altogether and be-
come a total loss. If crosses are preferred for feeding off
— and it is bard to find easier fed or weightier sheep when
finished than the cross between the Leicester and Shrop-
shire Down, taking into account the amount of food con-
sumed— the parent streams of blood, sire and dam, should
be carefully kept pure, this course being easily done where a
permanent stock is kept by putting a certain number of
pure ewes each year to a ram of the same breed. Nothing
preserves the flock from deterioration in such an eminent
degree as purity of blood in the breeding class, or tends
more, keep and other arrangements being equal, to pre-
serve the general flock continally up to a high standard of
excellence, good bone, rotundity of carcase, and heavy
fleece. Take a cross-bred shearling ewe and submit
her to a searching examination, and if she has
been treated properly she will be found a mag-
niScent animal, beautifully proportioned, and weighing
probably not less than 2 5 lbs. a quarter, while her pure-
bred Down comrade of the same age, and on the same
keep, scarcely goes beyond 161bs. a quarter. Whea
clipped she would in all likelihood yield 8|lbs. of wool,
although her mother might have been but a tidy little
Down ewe that never clipped more than from 4J to 51bs.
in her very best days. Put to the ram, she might rear a
lamb or pair of lambs, which would make as much as
any others iu the whole flock — possibly the money they
might individually make might be more than the general
average ; and yet with so many points apparently in favour
ol doing so, it is very bad manageineut to breed from
crosses, and if persisted in, time will never fail to show
that it would have been better to have remained satisfied
with having done vsell, without having tried to do better.
Nature herself has laid down a great leading principle
relative to breeding from animals of different habit and
character, although belonging to the same natural family,
from which fixed law there is no power of appeal or pos-
sibility of deviation. Thus while permitting one cross,
as between the ass and horse, the product of which is a
highly useful and valuable animal, possessing in an emi-
nent degree the specially excellent qualities of both parents
— strength, endurance, sure-footedness, and sagacity —
Nature puts a complete stop to further attempts at im-
provement, by interp' sing an unalterable law, which
refuses to this cross the power of reproduction. The
different varieties of sheep now cultivated being simply
modifications of a great natural class, produced in some
cases by change of climate or locality, and in others by
food, and special systems of management as regards the
selection of breeding stock, the comparison here instanced
can only be accepted as applying in a general sense to
the subject now treated of. Yet, as the teachings of
Nature are unerring, it becomes a safe rule to follow her
lead, whenever it shows out clearly distinct and promi-
nent ; and although in this instance there is no natural
hindrance to continue crossing indefinitely, the certain
decline in size, symmetry, and money-value shows un-
mistakeably that the law alluded to is not without a cer-
tain amount of influence even here, and that therefore
indiscriminate crossing should be carefully avoided, the
breeder resting content with the highly-satisfactory
results obtained by a union of pure-blooded parents.
In the management of breeding ewes during the period
of gestation, the general health of the flock is
greatly promoted, its value increased, and the risk
of loss from casualties vastly lessened, by beginning
early in the season to give a little hand-feeding. The
middle of November may appear too soon to think of
doing so, but iu reality it is the most suitable time, as
the quantity given may be only half what would be im-
peratively required if postponed to a later period, and
the pastures are preserved to afford a fair bite of grass
when the ewes are suckling their lambs. Nothing tends
to promote and keep up the flow of milk so much as a
daily run on a field of moderately good grass, the carried
food being given iu suitable quantity at the same time ;
therefore a strong effort should be made to hold over a
486
THE FARMEE'S MAGAZINE.
sufficient breadth for spring-grazing. If the sheep are
in good fresh condition, uo greater quantity should be
given than will just keep them so, a quarter of a pound
of cotton-cake and a little chaffed clover-hay being an
ample daily allowance to begin with. As the season ad-
vances the cake may be gradually increased to half a
pound in the day, which weight need never be exceeded
until the lambs are dropped, unless in exceptionally severe
weather. By the middle of January a few turnips may
be given on the grass, the quantity required being very
small indeed. When cake has been given for two months
previous, the animals having never been permitted to
feel hunger, further than was essentially necessary to
preserve a healthy appetite, and force them to take a fair
amount of exercise, and the kidneys and intestines having
never lost the coating of fat laid on during the plentiful
season, a small feed is really all they will take. A pro-
perly organised system rigidly adhered to, and carried out
to the letter, commands the same amount of success iu
•heep management that it does in commerce, as when the
food is given with regularity the animals are never hungry
or uneasy, spend much of their time in repose, always
look well, and the consumption of food is astonishingly
small by comparison with the extra improvement. There
can be no pleasanter sight to the practised eye than that
presented by a flock of sheep quietly reposing on a sunny
slope, so absorbed in the act of rumination as to have ap-
parently neither time nor inclination to utter a single
bleat, as over and above the beauty and placidity of such a
scene it shows that the owner of the flock understands his
business, and is liberal in supplying food, in quality nou-
rishing and quantity abundant. It does not speak well
for the management, when much of the shepherd's time is
taken up in merely herding his charge, running con-
tinually after them to prevent their breaking through to
growing crops or other prohibited grounds, tearing off the
wool by scrambling through and over fences, and running
imminent risk when in lamb of casting it prema-
turely. Sheep that are fed well and with regularity are
not much given to rambling nor are they at all noisy ;
partially-neglected sheep, on the contrary, keeping up a
continual bleating, and are constantly on their feet, this
restlessness proving a perpetual hindrance to their im-
provement. When a successful financial issue is aimed
at or expected — this of course being the only object that
makes it worth a man's while to breed and feed the do-
mesticated animals of any kind — the shepherd's attention
should be concentrated on attending to their comfort,
supplying them with food, and generally studying their
welfare, rather than in herding, the former duties, when
properly carried out, rendering the latter almost needless.
To ensure a healthy, well-doing flock, its members should
be young, and no broken- mouthed ewe be ever permitted
to pass the yearly scrutiny. As a general rule, three
seasons' lambs are quite enough to take from a ewe, so
many farms having a tendency to gradually render sheep
unsound ; and although a fourth lamb may be nursed suc-
cessfully, and possibly be the best of the whole, yet the
ewe is too often so much shaken by the excessive strain
on the system, as to be scarcely worth trying to fatten for
the butcher. When, on the contrary, they are discarded as
breeders while still in prime health and constitutional
vigour, they fatten quickly, make heavy weights, and
make as much, and possibly more money than would pur-
chase the young sheep which replace them. When the
habits of sheep are carefully studied it will be found that
not only is shelter from the fierce storms and angry
blasts of winter absolutely necessary for their comfort
and safety, but that the animals delight in protection,
availing themselves of it gladly and with unvarying re-
gularity when provided for them. It is not alone on
elevated situations, where probably hundreds of acres must
be planted, and a large number of walled-in circular en-
closures, surrounded with a belting of trees, must be
prepared, to ensure safety, that this stands true ; but it
is equally imperative on the most level land, where every
operation of husbandry can be formed with facility, or in
the park of the nobleman. On well-fenced laud it will
be found that in severe weather the sheep lie during the
night, and most of the day too, when food is supplied
abundantly, within the extreme line of protection which
the fence or screen affords from the cutting wind and
drenching rain, as carefully and quite as effectually as they
keep within its shade in July to protect themselves from
the burning rays of a summer's sun. Lambs more no-
ticeably even, evince an extraordinary desire to escape
from the chilling and withering influence of the pitiless
storm, creeping by the half-score into the oilcake casks
which may have been left about after having been emptied,
or stowing themselves into the shepherd's hut or watch-
box in such numbers as to be in danger of suffocation
from overcrowding. These indications should be suffi-
cient to cause those who have the care of them to make
such preparations as will conduce to the comfort and
shelter of the stock, and more particularly for the spring,
when the ewes from the constant drain on the system
are weaker than usual, and the lambs, being very young,
and Nature's covering not grown, they are peculiarly sus-
ceptible of injury from cold and wet. To put up a range
of lean-to sheds against a wall or bank in suitable parts of
a farm, is neither laborious nor expensive, the height being
so low, and when the timber is kept well tarred, and the
roof well sprinkled with lime and sand as the tar is being
rubbed on, a thoroughly waterproof covering is obtained,
which from the very nature of the substances used to
make it so, becomes almost imperishable. When it is
considered that the annual saving of the lives of four
or five lambs will pay the interest of a comparatively
large sum of money thus expended, not to count anything
on the unspeakable comfort and satisfaction conferred on
the animals and their attendants, it is really a matter
of very great surprise how so many farms, and even
lands dignified by a higher name, are utterly destitute of
conveniences so eminently essential to successful manage-
ment.
WEATHER-WISE — That there is a sensitiveness to at-
mospheric changes in the leech, is generally admitted ; and
the idea of utilising this little creature as a sort of weather-
glass arose long ago, we have evidence, in one of the early
volumes of the Gentlenian^s Magazine^ A correspondent
of that venerable journal stated tliat if a leech be kept in a
phial or bottle, partly filled with water, it will indicate ap-
proaching changes in the weather. He placed on a window-
ledge an eight-ounce phial containing a leech and about six
ounces of water, and watched it daily. According to his
description, when the weather continued serene and beautiful,
the leecli lay motionlesss at the bottom of the phial, rolled in
a spiral form. When it began to rain at noon, or a little
before or after, the leech was found at the top of its lodging,
where it remained until the weather became settled. When
wind was approaching, the leech galloped about its limped
habitation with great liveliness, seldom resting until the wind
became violent. When a thunder-storm was about to appear,
the animal sought a lodgement above the level of the water,
displayed great uneasiness, and moved about in convulsive-like
threads. In clear frost, as in fine summer weather, it lay con-
stantly at the bottom ; wliereas, in snowy weather, like as in
rain, it dwelt at the very mouth of the phial. The observer
covered the moutii of tlie phial with a piece of linen cloth,
and changed the water every week or two. He seems to havs
had faith in the correctness of his own observations and con-
clusions ; but went no further in the attempt at explanation
than to say : " What reasons may be assigned for these move-
ments, I must leave philosophers to determme ; though one
thing is evident to everybody — that the leech must be affected
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
487
in the same way as the mercury and spirit in the weather-
glass ; and has doubtless a very surprising sensation, that
change of weather, even davs before, makes visible alteration
in its manner of living." This leech-pliilosophy appears to
have had many believers in the last century. In a letter to
Lady Uesketh, dated 1789, Cowper wrote in one of his (too-
rare) cheerful moods, and among other gossip said : " Mrs-
Throckmorton carries us to-morrow in lier cliaise to Chichely.
The event must, however, be supposed to depend on tiie
elements, at least on the state of the atmosphere, which is
turbulent beyond measure. Saturday it thundered, last night
it lightened, and at three this morning I saw tlie sky red as a
city in flames could have made it. I have a leech in a bottle
that foretells all these prodigies and convulsions of nature.
Not, as you will naturally conjecture, by articulate utterances
of oracular notices, but by a variety of gesticulations, which
iiere I have not room to give an account of. Suffice it to say
that no change of weather surprises him, and that, in point of
the earliest and most accurate intelligence, he is worth all the
barometers in the world. None of them all, indeed, can make
the least pretence to foretell thunder, a species of capacity of
which he has given the most uueciuivocal evidence. 1 gave
but sixpence for liim, whicli is a groat more than the market-
price ; though he is, ia fact, or rather would be, if leeches
were not found in every ditch, an invaluable acquisition." —
Chambers^ Journal.
LOCAL BUSDTESS AND GOVERNMENT OFFICERS.
At an adjourned general meeting of the Herefordshire
Chamber of Agriculture, tlie President for the year, Mr. J
Pulley, in the chair, thought that it was very desirable that
agriculture should be represented, but it was so novel a subject
that he was not prepared to offer any remarks upon it.
Mr. Fowler, the Secretary, said it was highly desirable to
liave a Minister of Agriculture, or an Agricultural Depart-
ment connected with the Government. j
The Chairman moved a resolution to that effect. ;
Sir Herbert Croft moved an amendment that there should
be a Minister of Agriculture appointed separately from a |
Minister of Commerce. He did not think it was the least
practicable to have a Minister both for agriculture and com- !
merce. A man might be a very good farmer, and yet know j
very little about commerce ; and, on the other hand, he might j
be practically acquainted with commerce, and be unacquainted
with agriculture ; and he (Sir Herbert Croft) did not see why |
agriculturists should not ask for a Minister for themselves, i
What they wanted was some one in the House of Commons to
undertake all questions of agriculture. It was well known [
that in this country Government was carried on with exceeding
cheapness. He even thought that the Prime Minister himself
was a very ill paid man ; £5,000 a year was a very small
salary, and he thought it might be well if they had a few more
Secretaries of State, who generally received £3,000 a year.
For instance, they should have secretaries in departments
separately for matters connected \\\i\\ agriculture, matters
connected with commerce, with education, and with railways.
Of course, he was aware that there were at present
members of the House of Commons whose duty, more
or less, appertained to an oversight of those matters. For
instance, there were the President, Vice-President, and Secre-
tary of the Board of Trade. If they would only call those
gentlemen by different names, and add another secretary or two,
then they might have a representative of each department in
the House of Commons. At present, the Board of Trade had
all sorts of extra work thrown upon them. During the last
generation, since the enormous length of railways in the king-
dom liad been formed, there had been an enormous deal of
extra work, whicii the Board of 'JVade iiad had to see to, and
although there was in connection with that Board a permanent
under- secretary for railways, yet, he tliought, the Board had
too many things included in their duties. They had to attend
to railways and to ship?, besides many other matters ; in point
of fact they were over-worked. It was almost ludicrous, but,
nevertheless, it was true, that they had had tlie same Minister
in the House of Commons, Mr. Foreter, looking after the
education of children and the diseases of cattle. That one and
the same ^linister should have to overlook two such entirely
different and distinct departments gave, he thought, striking
evidence of what he had advanced, namely, that it was necessary
for an alteration to take place in the slate of things. With
the exception of the Home Secretary and Mr. Forster, whose
duties also included many other matters, there really had been
no minister of agriculture in the House of Commons.
Dr. Morris had reminded him just now that in France
there was a Minister of Agriculture, and had
asked liim jnst now whether he knew what tlie
dulies of that Minister wsre ? He did not know, but he could
not conceive that that Minister's duties were less than to
supervise the whole of the agricultural interests of the com-
munity, because he was a Minister with a portfolio, which, he
(Sir Herbert) believed, corresponded with a Cabinet Minister
in this country. He submitted that there was a necessity not
only for a ^Minister of Agriculture, but also for a regular re-
arrangement of the whole of the Government offices of this
country. They should give to their Government otticers less
work to do, and that work should be better apportioned. It
would then be better done. That proposition stood to reason
Who would not rather have two clerks to do their work than
one, if, in the end, it would be done better and as economically ?
He did not know that it was an absolute necessity for them to
have a Minister. They wanted an official under the Govern-
ment, one who would have a seat iu the House of Commons.
It did not so greatly matter whether or not he was in the
Cabinet, as the Prime Minister supervised all the departments ;
but they wanted a Minister of Agriculture to liold a place, not
necessarily the most prominent, in the Government and in the
House of Coramous. They wanted a Minister who should not
have education and cattle-plague to look after, but one whose
duty it would be simply to overlook the agricultural interests
and to give all orders with regard to cattle plague, including
the transport and importation of cattle. He was glad to see
that Government had already had their attention drawn to the
question of importation of cattle from Ireland, which had
been one of the great causes of the disease in this country,
and that steps liad been taken that would prevent
the evil in future. In conclusion, Sir Herbert Croft said
that he thought there should be a separate Minister or Secre-
tary for Agriculture, and if it cost the country another £2,000
a year, that, he thought, was nothing in comparison with the
great interests of agriculture.
The Chairman said he should be glad to see the depart-
ments of agriculture and commerce separated and having each
a minister. He iiad framed his resolution more from what he
saw upon the agenda than from his own ideas. He should be
glad to see separate officers appointed, and, with the permission
of the meeting, he would withdraw his motion and with much
pleasure second Sir Herbert Croft's motion.
The Secretary fully endorsed every word that Sir Herbert
Croft had used, and thought there would besufficieut work for
separate departments — agricultural and commercial — the one
to be connected with the Local GovernmentBoardauQ the other
with the Board of Trade. He knew that when any question had
arisen respecting the cattle traffic of the country or with
respect to the proper means of dealing with diseases specified
under the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act, that deputa-
tions who waited upon Government had had to go searching
through oflice after office, and that it was ouly until after mauy
futile attempts that they found the right spot. Tiiere should
be no mistake ab )ut it, and when the clerk of the peace or any
other ollicial went up to Government requiring information ha
should know without uncertainty where to telegraph or send a
letter to. He had great pleasure in supporting Sir Herbert
Croft's motion.
The ipotion was then adopted unanimously in words at
follows : " That the appointment of separate ministers of
Agriculture and Commerce is desirable."
The Chairman, in introducing the subject of highway
legislation, said: Since turnpike-gates had been done away
with he had noticed, particularly in this district, that a great
alteration had taken place in the roads, he could hardly say
an improvement ; and at the same time there had been a very
large increase in the rates. He believed that but one opinion
I I 2
488
1?HE I^AHMElR'S MAGAZINE.
existed upon the subject, that they were justified in expecting
some relief uuder that head, and that some of the expenses of
the roads should be charged in another way than at present.
He should be glad to receive a motion upon the subject.
The Secretary said that the subject of highway legislation
was one in which the Chamber had taken more interest than
probably any other, and he read several resolutions which they
had passed upon it, the first dating so far back as January,
1867. The Chamber, the secretary said, had all along consi-
dered that turnpike-gates ought to be removed as soon as
some equitable provision had been made for the repairs of
roads, by which assistance should be given to the ratepayers.
Quite in accordance with the resolutions of the Chamber Mr.
KnatchbuU Hugessen had extended from parishes to highway
districts the repairs of the highways. Until that was done
the expense fell, as most of them were aware, excessively
heavy in some parishes, even necessitating a rate of from 28.
6d. to Ss. in the pound. He had himself had to pay on some
property in the suburbs of Hereford a rate of that amount.
He approved therefore of the principle of merging all the
parishes witliin a given area into a highway district from which
a common rate should be collected extending over the whole
of the district. It saved an immense deal of trouble in keep-
ing the accounts, and was, when properly worked, most ad-
vantageous to all parties. The construction of railways
throughout the kingdom had completely diverted much of the
heavy traffic that used to be on the roads ; but parish roads,
that were formerly supported at very little expense were now
entailing an expense equal to that of the turnpike roads. He
knew that the members who had placed this subject of high-
way legislation upon the agenda for discussion were much
opposed to the formation of highway boards and to highway
hoard management, and were anxious, those of them who
lived in highway board districts, to go back to the parish
system, and those in whose districts the change had not taken
place to continue 'under parish management. He, however,
considered that the establishment of highway boards and
highway legislation previous to the passing of the Act for the
abolition of turnpike-gates were amongst the best legislative
enactments of modern times. Being a member of the Ross
Highway Board he had taken much interest in the working
of that Board ever since its formation, and previously he had
acted as surveyor. He therefore knew the state of things,
both under the present system and the old one, and that very
week they had had an estimate presented which was £200 or
£300 below what had been the average expenditure previous
to the establishment of the highwhy board.
Mr. Caepenter asked the secretary whether he was not
grossing the parish roads with the highways ?
The Secretary said no. He was speaking of the old
parish roads. The average annual expenditure previous to
the establishment of the highway board was between £2,300
and £2,400 a-year, whereas in the estimates handed in this
week the sum was about £2,100, although last year the board
had the turnpike roads thrown upon iheir hands in a most
disgraceful state, every efi"ort having been made to economise
the expenditure at the expense of the general public. The
board had voted more than double the expenditure to which
they were limited by Act of Parliament. Tliis year they were
enabled to reduce their estimate by i'400. There were many
things in connection with the rates about which further legis-
lation was required. One was that at present they had no
power to compel the brinkers to remove the scrapings from
the sides of the roads, and if they did it themselves it must
be at their own expense, and the brinkers refused to have those
scrapings placed on their lands.
Mr. Herbert : You must have a depot to take them to.
The Secretary said that it must be most gratifying to the
ratepayers of the Ross district that although the price of
labour, of material, and of cartage, as well as other tilings
connected with the repairs of the roads, had increased some-
thing like 25 per cent, since the establishment of the board,
the expense of such repairs was less than formerly. It showed
that the system was a right one if properly worked.
Rev J. Buckle said that the highway question was one in
which all present were specially interested — it came home to
most of them — and he was therefore not at all surprised to
hear that it had been discussed by that Chamber. Since the
abolition of turnpike gates, the question had pressed heavily
upon the ratepayers, who, he thought, were generally admitted
to have a hardship in the burden placed upon them. Not
only was that fact publicly admitted by the people outside
Parliament, but the Government had admitted it, and promised
that it should receive their consideration, although hitherto,
owing to want either of time or inclination they had not pro-
vided any remedy. All the Chamber desired, and all they had
a riglit to ask, was what their secretary had mentioned,
namely, an equitable system of keeping the highways and
turnpike roads in repair without unnecessarily taxing the rate-
payers. Both highways and turnpike roads must be placed in
the same category. What he thought the Chamber should
ask for in the first place was the admission of the principle
that all those who used the roads should pay their fair pro-
portion towards keeping them in repair, which at present wag
not the case. The repair of the roads now fell upon one par-
ticular interest, and how otherwise it could be provided for was
a difficult question. It seemed to him that a certain amount
of the tax levied on carriages and horses used for pleasure
should he taken from the imperial revenue, and appropriated
for the repair of all public roads. In his (Mr. Buckle's) dis-
trict the extra expense for repairing the roads since the abo-
lition of the turnpike gates had been 6d. in the pound on
the rent; so that whilst a farmer renting land at £300
a-year, and the clergyman paying the same rent, and
having only his one horse and gig, would have to pay
between £7 and £8 a-year towards keeping the roads in
repair, a gentleman renting a house at £150 a year, and
keeping several horses and carriages, would only have to pay
one-half that amount, although he used and damaged the
road perhaps three or four times as much. Therefore he con-
sidered that either a portion of the present duty on carriages
and horses used for pleasure purposes should be appropriated
towards the relief of the rates, or that an additional duty
should be levied and applied for the purpose of the repair of
the roads in the district where it was levied. There was
another point he would like to mention. Much damage to
the roads was caused by the hauling of timber. He spoke
feelingly. The question was how were they to get compen-
sation for that, or how far were owners of timber and those
who carried timber to contribute to the repair of the road ?
The rating of timber was mentioned during the last session
of Parliament, but he did not see how it was to be rated.
They could not get at the rateable value. Wliat he would
suggest was that if there was a considerable falling of timber
a percentage should be paid upon it to assist the district in
repairing the damage done to the roads by the hauling of the
timber. He knew that great damage was done by such
hauling, for in his own parish, in consequence of having
haulage of timber for two years, it had cost the ratepayers
15d. in the £ for the repair of the roads during the last two
years, and now it was estimated that a very considerable sum,
nearly £700, was required for the same purpose. Further, he
thought that the repairs of all highways and turnpikes should
be made a district charge. It seemed only fair that they
should be so. Mr. Buckle concluded by proposing " That
part of the duty on carriages and horses for pleasure, or if
necessary, an additional duty, should be applied to the keeping
up of roads. That a percentage on the value of timber in case
of large faUs should be also applied. That all charges should
be common charges on the district."
Mr. NoRRis said he thought it was very desirable that
they should keep clear from recommending anything that
might have a tendency to restrict trade, as possibly the rating
of timber might have. He knew that in the North of
England, where stone was abundant, it was complained of
heavy waggons laden with that material going along tiie
roads, that they materially damaged the roads. The answer
to that was that if they interfered with the passage of the
waggons over tiie roads, trade would be restricted and the
district ruined. It was for every district to judge of its own
circumstances in that matter ; but the principle of restriction
to trade should always be avoided as much as possible.
Last year there was some little agitation raised upon the
subject of hauling in a district in the North with which
he was connected, and then it was deemed advisable to
recommend that if waggons carried heavier loads than
usual over the roads those waggons should have broader
wheels than ordinary. That would much reduce the injury
done to the roads, and in propo.tion also would diminish the
cost of repairs. Mr. Norris briefly alluded to the common law
liabiUty of parishes to maintain their highways, and to the
great inequality in the present days of railway rating. The
THE FAEMBR'S MAGAZINE.
489
whole question, he said, was one of such immense difficulty
that before they came to any definite resolution upon it, it was
desirable that they should frame four or five propositions, to
be sent round to different Chambers of Agriculture for discus-
sion, and that those resolutions should be discussed seriatim.
It was impossible to propose a single resolution to remedy
the whole evil at once ; but if the subject was divided under
certain heads and referred to a small committee, then some
beneficial result might be obtained, and they would be in a po-
sition to ask Parliament for a rate in aid ; but until then he
doubted if they could come to any specific resolution.
The Secretary said he would submit what he thought
would meet all purposes, namely, the following resolution :
" That the area of rating for the repairs of the whole of the
highways should be co-extensive with the highway district, and
that the transfer of that portion of imperial taxes levied upon
horses and vehicles should be divided pro rata for the main-
tenance of highways." At present there was a tax levied
upon all horses used for trade purposes, upon all saddle horses,
and upon all horses used for pleasure, and the local tax-payer
was called upon to repair and to maintain the permrnent way
for the Government to obtain an imperial revenue. Now,
that, he thought, was rather hard. It was quite enough for
the local tax-payer to be called upon to pay local taxes without
his being compelled to maintain the permanent way for the
Government of the country to obtain an imperial revenue.
He was old enough to remember the city of Hereford when
Sedan chairs were in vogue, when there was no fly, 'bus, or
other vehicle except one old post-chaise ; but now what an ex-
tension of traffic there was upon the roads, and a consequently
increased expense upon the ratepayers for the benefit of the
Government ! He thought all classes, including the timber
carrier, the brewer, and the miller, would be benefited by the
transfer of the taxes levied upon horses and vehicles to the
maintenance of highways, and as at the present time there was
surplus revenue in the hands of the Government if they could
be induced to make that transfer it would be a great act of
justice towards the ratepayers.
Rev. J. Buckle did not think that a tax upon timber would
operate to restrict trade. It was, however, peculiarly situated
compared with other produce of the soil. He thought no
better plan for rating could be devised than putting on an
exceptional percentage when it was felled. That was the
course he would venture to suggest.
The Chairman said he certainly thought that timber
should bear its proportion of the rating, particularly as it was
100 per cent, dearer now than it was 20 years ago.
Sir Herbert Croft asked Mr. Buckle to withdraw that
part of his resolution which related to timber, as the consti-
tution of the present House of Commons upon this question
differed little, he believed, from that of the old House, and, at
all events, the decision arrived at last session was not likely to
be reversed. During the many weeks that the House was
occupied last year in the consideration of the proposal to rate
timber, there was no opposition raised to the proposal in the
abstract. Everybody agreed as to the propriety of it.
Nothing could be said against the maxim of bringing as many
shoulders as possible to bear the burden of taxation. No one
doubted that timber and mines* should be rated. But it was
a very difficult question how the rate should be assessed, and
it was made none the easier because the member of the House
who introduced the bill knew le.-s about the subject than any
other man he ever knew. The result arrived at was, that land
on which timber stood should be rated at the agricultural
value of adjoining land. That suggestion was not adopted by
the House of Lords. Tiiat House thought the bill not a good
one, and they declared that they had no time to entertain it.
The House of Commons was, however, plainly in favour of
rating timber, and, as the subject was almost certain to come
before the House again when the question of local taxation
was discussed, lie thougiit it was better they should drop it
from their resolutions at present, and devote their attention
at that meeting more to the other matters about wliicli the
resolutions proposed by Mr. Buckle, and those proposed by
Mr. Duckliura agreed. One thing they must all concur in,
and that was that the roads were at present in a very bad
state, and that tiie repairs were very badly managed. There
was a great deal of iron and other metal used upon the roads,
but it was not properly distributed. There was a want of
E roper supervision. He was told that the surveyors were
ard-working men, that they did their duty well, and he made
no representations against them, but if he was correctly in-
formed, it seemed to him that each surveyor had too mnch
allotted to him, a great deal more tluin he was able to attend
to, and he (Sir Herbert) did not think the material used on
the road was good. In some cases it was extremely bad. Sir
Herbert Croft, in quaintly humorous style, told of a conversa-
tion he had had lately with a man who was putting material
on the road near Hereford. He asked the man what it was,
and the reply he received was that it was taken off the fields ;
but, " Lor' bless ye, sir (said the man) it ain't a mossle of
use." So long as the year 1867, he (Sir Herbert) had ob-
tained information upon the subject of road repair, and from
what he then learned, he believed the wliole system of turn-
pike gates was an expensive one, and undesirable to be con-
tinued. In the Isle of Man there was carried out the system
of a tax on wheels according to the breadth of the wheels and
the injury likely to be done to the roads. He thought a
small tax might properly be levied on timber hauliers. It
would no doubt fall upon owners of timber, but they would
not feel it because it would be infinitesimal. He agreed with
previous speakers that the tax now levied on horses and car-
riages, which amounted in the aggregate to a million or a
million and ahalf of money, would be a fair contribution from
the imperial revenue to the repairs of the roads, and one that
might fairly be applied, for as the maintaining and keeping in
repair of the highways was a national matter, it was only fair
therefore that the nation should contribute towards that ob-
ject. Sir Herbert again urged on Mr. Buckle to withdraw
that part of his resolutions which related to the rating of
timber.
Rev. J. Buckle consented to do so.
The Secretary said they had a precedent for the transfer of
a portion of local taxation to the imperial revenue in Mr.
Goschen having introduced a bill some time ago to transfer
the house tax to the national exchequer, only in that case the
ratepayers who would have been relieved were rich people
instead of poor ones.
Mr. Pinches said he was only sorry that Mr. Buckle's
motion as to the rating of timber had not been pressed, as
having sat on a highway board himself some years he had
seen the damage that was done to roads by the passing of
heavy loads of timber over them. In his district (Weobly)
there were very heavy falls of timber, and for four or five
years consecutively as much as £3,000 worth of timber
annually was carted over tho roads, causing immense damage
to those roads, and the owner had paid nothing for the repair
of the damage done except in the rate charged upon his
residence. He generally found that gentlemen who wore out
the roads most were those most anxious to have the roads kept
in the best possible condition. His Board had done the best
they could to repair the roads without incurring any ruinous
expenditure, and put on to them a fair amount of material.
Since then there had been immense timber carriages and
weights over them and yet the greai owners of timber expected
the roads to be in the same excellent condition as their own
carriage-drives over, which they would not allow a single stick
of timber to be carried. Tlie result had been that a road
rate of Is. in the S, had been necessary. He thought that
there should be a per centage charged on all timber sales, and
that that would be a fair and equitable proceeding. If any gen-
tleman would move a resolution that timber should be rated
he should be most happy to second it.
Sir Herbert Croft said he had no desire to say anything
against getting timber rated. All that he argued was that
inasmuch as the House of Commons had decided that it was
rigiit for timber to be rated, and as they were likely to have
the question again before them shortly, it woula be better to
postpune tiiat i)art of the question until after they had heard
what was proposed to be done about it in Parliament. As he
had said in tlie discussion wli !ch took place in the House of
Commons last session there was not a single division against
timber being rated, all were unanimous upon that point.
The difficulty was to determine how the rate was to be levied.
Mr. Carpenter suggested that as almost all the timber
was removed to othfir parts of the country by railway and
charged for by tho several companies at so much per tou, the
tax might be levied upon the tonnage, and that would assist in
relieving the present taxpayers more than the small amounts
of duty (lOs.) at jiresent levied upon horses and carriage
would do. Up in Monmouthshire he believed the agricultural
m
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
value of land adjoining that on which most of the timber was
was 7s. 6d. per acre. That was nothing like a fair proportion of
what timber should be rated at. Mr. Carpenter instanced a case
that some yeats ago occurred in this neighbourhood where
£10,000 worth of timber was hauled through parishes into
Hereford doing extensive injury to the roads. The owner of
the timber was benefited largely by tlie abolition of tlie turn-
pike gates, at the expense both of the haulier and the ratepayer,
who really suffered from the turnpike gates being removed.
He thought that until the Government had increased the area
of local taxation one-third of the expense of the repairs of the
road would be paid from the Consolidated I'und. That would
simplify matters much more then was proposed in tlie resolu-
tion at present before the Chamber.
Mr. Hebert pointed out that at present there was a duty
paid on underwood.
The following resolutions as proposed by the Secretary,
seconded by Rev. J. Buckle (who withdrew his resolution in
their favour) were unanimously adopted, " That the removal
of turnpike gates has materially increased the local burdens
upon the tax-payers to the relief of a large portion of the
community. That the area of rating for the repairs of the
whole of the highways should be co-extensive with tlie
highway districts. That the transference of that portion of
imperial taxation levied upon horses and vehicles should
be divided j>ro rata for the maintenance of the high-
ways."
BLOOD POISONING.
The chief occurrence of importance which has taken place
since my last Report, in relation to diseases of the animals of
the farm, has been the outbreak of some remark-
able cases of blood-poisoning, on three farms in parti-
cular, in the "Western Couraties of England. The first of these
to which the attention of the College was called, and subse-
quftntly published in The Veterinarian, occurred at Stoke-
under-Ham. Somerset. It appears that, as far back as August
last, several sheep which exhibited symptoms of blood-poison-
ing died, in rapid succession, after a very short illness, on a
farm in the occupation of Mr. Darby. The animals are said
to have become suddenly prostrated, and to be unable to walk
with a steady gait. Their throats rapidly swelled, and their
breathing became much impeded ; death took place in the
course of a few hours, even in those which survived the
longest. The carcases of these sheep were skinned and
opened in the " Home Field" — a meadow adjacent to tlie
premises — and a considerable portion of the flesh, which had
been preserved for the dogs, was subsequently eaten on this
same meadow. In close proximity to this field, and also to the
farmstead, is a pond of stagnant water, which receives the
drainage of the stables and straw-yards, as well as the surface-
water from the meadow in question. At this time Mr. Darby
had eleven horses on the farm, which were daily used more or
less for agricultural work. On August 23rd, a four-year.old
horse at pasture in the Home Field was taken suddenly ill,
and died in about twenty-four hours from the attack. He was
opened in the straw-yard, about thirty feet only from the pond,
and the intestines and other viscera were buried close by, and
on a higher level, thus favouring the gravitatiou of the animal
matter towards the pond. On October 3rd, a five-year-old
horse was attacked, and died in about three hours. The viscera
of this animal were dealt with in a similar manner to that of
horse No. 1. This death was quickly followed by others, so
that by October 27th, the day ou which the matter was
brought to the notice of the College, four horses were already
dead, and others were reported by the veterinary surgeon, Mr.
Wan , of Martlock — who came to town, bringing with liim
some of the diseased viscera — to be rapidly sinking. Mr Ware
also reported that two pigs, a dog, a cat, and two ferrets,
which had eaten of the raw flesh of this horse, were dead ;
and that a labourer, who had removed the carcase of the horse
whicli died on October 3rd tn an adjacent village to be boiled
down for pigs' food, had died, under circumstances so peculiar
as to lead his medical attendant to believe that his death was
a consequence of this proceeding. The visit of Mr. Ware led
to Assistant-Professor Axe being at once despatched to the
place, and to his investigation I am indebted for the chief facts
of the case. By November 1st, seven horses had died,
and on this day Mr. Axe was enabled to make a post mortem
examination ot one of them, the last which died, the result of
which showed unmistakably that death had resulted from
blood-poisoning. All the horses which had died had drunk re-
gularly of the pond water ; but only one of those which
escaped. The pond water was stagnant, black in colour,
inofl'eusive, and largely impregnated with animal and vegetable
matter. The other sources of water supply to the premises
were tlie home-pump and a small running stream. Their waters
were clear, tasteless, and free from smell. Their supply was
constant, and free from any source of pollution. The facts
of the case all pointed to the pond water as the source of the
mischief. Steps were therefore at once taken to prevent any
further injury being done, and it is hoped successfully, as up
to the date of this report no more cases have occurred.—
Professor Simonds in The Royal Agricultural Society s
Journal,
THE AYRSHIRE "DERBY."
Regarding the general considerations which have led to
the improvement of the Ayrshire breed of cattle, we are
glad to learn, from the leading breeders in the country, that
the desideratum of an official herd-book is in great part over-
come by eacli of ttiem carefully keeping a record of their stock
and their numerous intercrossings. The class of Ayrshire stock
which secured and merited the largest share of attention was
the " Derby," the good of which competition is now beginning
to be felt in the herds of the ordinary breeders of the county.
This is the third "Derby," and of the 137 entries made two
years ago, when the animals were yearlings, 75 were forward.
The selection of the prize-winners out of such a large number
was consequently a matter of considerable difficulty. The first
prize of £20 was awarded to Mr. J. N. Fleming, of Knockdon,
for a nice dark red crummie, a daughter of the little black cow
with which Mr. Fleming secured such a large number of prizes
a couple of years ago. Mr. J. Parker, Broomlands, in the
Kilmarnock district, won the second prize with a red and
white silken-haired cow, her neck and head being dark brown.
Mr. A. Allan, Munnock, was awarded the third premium for
a red and white, which was sold for £50, to go to Dumfries-
shire. The fourth came from the Ayr district, and is a useful
dairy animal, but with no exceedingly striking traits. The aged
cows in milk were another grand class. Mr. W. Duncan,
Brockwellmuir, came first with his beautiful white aud red,
which has carried off eleven first prizes at previous shows ;
and Mr. J. N. Fleming took the second prize with a well-
favoured red, which was first in her class at Ayr last year.
Of the aged cows in calf, the Duke of Bnccleuch took the
leading award with a largS red, which was first at Thornhill.
His Grace also came to the front in the three-year-old class in
milk, with the beautiful white quey which was first at Kilmar-
nock, and Mr. Parker's Derby second occupied a similar posi-
tion here. Mr. J. Howie, Burnhouses, carried off the second ■
premium for three-year-old cows in calf, with a brown and
white, having a sweet head and broad straight body. The
queys and quey stirks were excellent classes. Of aged bulls
there was a capital display, no less than fourteen being stalled.
The red ticket was given to the black and white bull belonging
to Mr. W. Smith, Chanlcckfoot, which was second at the
Dumfries Union Show, and third as a two-year-old at the
Highland Society's Show at Kelso. He was sold for America
at £85. There were no fewer than twenty-eight two-year-old
bulls forward, and a finer display never came under the eyes of
any judges. Eventually the red bull belonging to the Duke of
Buccleuch, with Highland characteristics, which was placed
first at Kilmarnock a fortnight ago, was again reserved for the
red ticket. The second prize went to Mr. Bryce Nairn, High
Walton, Manchester — a charming little red. There were 47
fine bnll-stirks in the yard. Than the three first-prize animals
it would be impossible to find better in the country. The first
place was given to George Alston, London-lull, for the red and
white stirk which was placed first at Kilmarnock. Tiie dis-
play of Clydesdale liorses was of great excellence. There
was a larger entry of brood mares than last year, and the
quality was also superior, Mr. G. Knox, Polnoon Lodge, se-
curing the first prize. The sheep were also an excellent show.
Blackfaces held the chief place, and their numbers were as
large as their quality was good. Few Cheviots were forward,
but these were a fair quality. The Leicesters as a class were
especially notewortliy, though none even of the prize pens
came up to, say, the East Lothian standard. There were
fourteen lots of old cheese, and they showed good condition
and excellently-kept colour.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
491
THE ANALYSIS OF MILK.
At a meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society, N.B. branch,
the following paper on the Quality of the Milk Supplied to
Towns, was read by Dr. Stevenson Macadam, F.R.S.E.,
Lecturer on Chemistry :
The recent prosecutions in Edinburgh and otiier cities and
towns, in reference to the adulteration of milk, have proved
that there is great necessity for more full information regard-
ing the chemical composition of genuine or normal milk.
Consequently, having been professionally engaged in some of
the cases of alleged adulteration, and having acquired a mass
of results regarding the analysis of milk, I have thought it
right to give publicity to these researches, in the hope that
they may tend to afford greater certainty to future analysis of
milk, and thus be of public service.
In carrying on the analysis of milk, the special points which
may be determined are —
(1). Speciflc gravity of the milk.
(2). Percentage of cream by volume.
(3). „ total solids by weight.
(4). „ sohds not fat „
(5). „ fat or butter „
(6). „ ash in solids „
Where it is possible, all these points should be determined.
Some chemists attempt to despise the speciftc gravity and
cream tests, and stand by the solids and fat only ; whilst others
hold, and correctly so, that the specific gravity and cream
determinations are excellent guides when they are properly
carried out. Necessarily where all the points are determined —
the specific gravity as well as the solids, and the cream as well
as the fat — both parties must be satisfied, as tlie one affords
a check to the otiier, and double certainty and accuracy of
results are obtained. The specific gravity is best taken in the
ordinary specific gravity bottle, holding 1,000 grains of water
at 60 degs. F. The milk should be agitated previously so as
to mix the fat or cream thoroughly throughout, but care must
be taken that the agitation is not so violent as to incorporate
air bells with the milk. The temperature of the milk at the
time should be 60 degs. h\ if possible, but if slightly above
or below that temperature then an allowance of two tenths
may be made for every degree y.bove or below, being added to
the weight when the temperature is above 60 degs. ¥., and
being abstracted from the weight when the temperature is
below 60 degs. ¥■ The hydrometers which are supplied with
the ordinary lactometers are seldom correct; and, moreover,
there is greater uncertainty in reading oif the exact figure on
the stem indicative of tlie specific gravity. I always employ
the specific gravity bottle. Taking genuine milk derived direct
from the udders of the cows belonging to tliree large dairies in
the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, I find the specific gravity to
range from 1028.4 to 1035.7 — the average of forty-four trials
with different milks being 1033.20 (water=1000.00). The
variations in the specific gravity of the milks ranging over 7
degs. undoubtedly indicate a diiference in the composition of
the milks, and in the quantities of the respective components.
The cream is determined in an elongated vessel of uniform
width, and graduated at the upper part so as to indicate
accurately from 1 to 25 per cent, of the whole capacity. The
precautions necessary for the uniform and accurate estimation
of the proportion of cream obtainable in milk by this cream-
ometerare — (1) that the vessels should be of similarsizesoas to
admit of the fat globules rising to the surface with equal
facility ; (3) that the milk should be taken as fresh from the
cow as possible ; or that in contrasting the relative qualities
of samples of milk that they should be taken about th? same
length of time from the cow ; (3) that tlie milk should be well
agitated before being placed in the graduated vessel ; (4) that
the temperature of the milk should be about 60 degs. Eah. ;
(5) that the temperature of the room be kept about 60 degs. ;
and (6) that the respective milks be allowed to remain in the
creamoraeters for tiie same length of time — say twenty-four
hours. Working in this manner, I find that genuine milk
throws up a proportion of cream ranging from 5.^ to ll;f per
cent, by volume, whilst the average of forty-four trials gave
7-8 per cent. The total solids in milk may be readily esti-
mated by evaporating a given weight of the milk in platinum
vessels lieated on a water-bath. A convenient and excellent
batii may be constructed from a common iron pot, about eight
inches wide and four inches deep, covered with a sheet of
copper plate about ten inches square, which can be kept in its
place by a band being cut out at each side and bent down to
pmbrace [the pot. Four circular openings are cut in the
copper cover, which admit of four flat platinum basins about
two inches in diameter being set in the bath. The square
corners of the copper cover form a hot-plate when the bath is
in working order. The milk to be tested having been agitated,
a portion is poured into one of the platinum basins and weighed.
The amount sliould run from 80 to 100 grains. The basin and
contents are then placed on the water-bath, and the water kept
briskly boiling for at least two hours — probably to ensure the
thorough drying of the residue, three hours should be taken
in all trials so as to have uniformity in mode of working and
greater accuracy in result. The basin and contents are thea
re-weighed, and' the total solids from the given amount of
milk are obtained. A calculation then gives the per-centage
of total solids by weight; and I find that genuine milk gives
from 10.57 to 14.54 per cent.— the average of 44 trials
being 12.04. There is thus a difference of 4 per cent, in the
amount of solids obtainable from samples of genuine or
normal milk. The solids not fat are estimated by taking the
total solids contained in the platinum basin and extracting the
fat by ether, at the same time heating gently over a vessel con-
taining hot water. On settling for a minute, the ether may then
be decanted off into a small weighed beaker. The ether treatment
of the total solids should be repeated other three times, so that
the solids are acted upon four times by the ether. On drying up
the residue in the plantinum basin and reweighing, the pro-
portion of so/ids not fat in the amount of milk employed is
obtained and a calculation will give the per centage. Genuine
milk gives from 8-74 to 11-23 per cent, of the solids not fat —
the average of 44 trials being 9'62 per cent. The fat may be
determined in two ways, either by the loss in weight of the
total solids as compared with the solids not fat, or by the
evaporation of the etherial solution and weighing the fatty
residue. I do not find the evaporation method so accurate as
the estimation by loss. There is apparently some of the fatty
matter which escapes over the side of the vessel even when
the evaportion is conducted in glass beakers. The difference
in weight between the total solids and the solids not fat gives
always a higher result, and one which I consider is more
accurate. Taking, therefore, the loss in weight due to the
extraction of the fat from the total solids by the ether, T find
that genuine milk gives a per centage of fat ranging from
1-56 to 3-32— the average of 44 trials being 2-4k The ash
in the solids is estimated by burning off the organic consti-
tuents and weighing the residue. In genuine milk the ash
ranges from 0-63 to 0-76 per cent., the average being 0-69 per
cent. In carrying on these researches genuine milk was
obtained in every instance direct from the udder of the cow.
My assistant, Mr. William Jack, went to three large dairies
and personally took the samples, lie inspected the pails
before the milking was commenced, saw all the cows milked,
and sampled every milk himself.
From dairy A there were altogether 16 samples taken from
14, cows— 13 of the samples were from the entire runnings of
milk from 12 cows, whilst 2 of the samples were the first of
the runnings, and the remaining 2 samples were the last of the
runnings from the remaining 2 cows. The first 5 and the last
5 of the 16 samples were fully analysed, and the results are
given in the following table :
No. of Cow.
1. A, first of run-
nings
1. B, last of run-
nings
2. Whole run-
nings
3. A, fli-stof run-
nings
3. B, last of run-
nings
10. Whoto run-
nings
n. do.
12. do.
13. do.
14. do.
Avoragc of tho 10
samples
492
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
From the above table it will be observed that, taking the
whole runnings, the specific gravity of the railk ranged from
1028-4 to 1033-4, the cream from 5 to 10, the total solids
from 10 57 to 12-62, the solids not fat from 8-74 to 10-4, the
fat from 1-72 to 2-78, and the ash from 0-67 to 074, whilst
the average of the ten experiments gave specific gravity
1031-46, cream, 7i ; total solids 11-827; solids not fat,
9-395 ; fat, 2-432 ; and ash 0-70. Tlie samples of first
runnings were markedly inferior in quality, whilst the samples
of last runnings were as markedly superior in quality — in No.
1 cow the proportions of cream being 7 to 10, and fat 2-25 to
3-02, whilst in cow No. 3 the variation in cream was 5 to 11^,
and the percentage of fat 1-97 to 4-34. It may be stated that
the cows Nos. 1, 2, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 were of the cross
breed, whilst No. 3 was an Ayrshire ; that Nos. 1 and 2
had calved in January, No. 3 in November, Nos. 10 and 11 in
June, No. 12 in December, and Nos. 13 aud 14 in July ; and
that the cows were fed three times a day, viz., at 7 a.m., mash
of drafi", oilcake, and boiled turnips ; at 12 noon, draff and
raw potatoes ; and 7 p.m., mash, raw turnips, and hay.
From dairy B there were 22 samples of milk taken,
18 of which were from the whole runnings of 18 cows ;
whilst two samples were the first runnings, and 2
samples were the last runnings of milk from other 2 cows. All
of these samples were fully analysed, and the following results
were obtained :
No. of Cow.
run-
1 A, first of run-
nings
1 B, last of run
nings
2 Whole
nings
3 do.
4 do.
5 do.
6 A, first of run-
nings
6 B, last of run-
nings
7 Whole
nings ,
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
20 do.
Average of. the 22
samples
0) cs a
1030-5
1032.5
1033.7
1031.4
1031-8
1033-4
1029.0
1032-9
1032-5
1031-6
1032-8
1032-8
1030-8
1030-6
1033-5
1031
1033-4
1032-7
1029-6
1034-0
1031-3
1032-14
S ffl 3
ill
1 .«
a o a>
2 .«•
10-47
915
1-32
0-67
12-94
9-17
3-77
0-73
12-57
9-88
2-69
0-74
11-75
10-19
1-66
0-71
11-91
9-32
2-59
0-68
12-18
9-24
2-94
0-65
10-57
9-03
1-54
0-62
14-09
8-99
5-10
0-59
12-17
9.93
2-24
0-65
11-97
9-70
2-27
0.67
11.5-i
9-23
2-29
0-62
11-24
9-55
1-69
0-71
11-84
9-73
2-Jl
0-72
11-66
8-94
2-72
0-64
11-98
937
2-61
0-68
12-33
9-95
2-38
0-72
11-48
9-52
1-96
0-73
11-37
9-73
1-64
0-70
11-29
9-54
1-75
0-75
11-41
8-85
2-56
0-69
13-85
in -7.9
3.06
0-76
12-48
9-16
3-32
0-68
11.95
9-60
2-453
0-69
Taking the above analyses, and leaving out the special ex.
periments in the first and last of the runnings of the two
cows Nos. 1 and 6, it will be found that over the whole run-
nings given by each cow, the specific gravity ranged from
1029-6 to 1034 0, the cream from 6 to 11, the total solids
Irom 11-24 to 13-85, the solids not fat from 8-85 to 10-79,
the fat from 1-56 to 3-32, and the ash from 0-62 to 0-76 ;
whilst the average of the whole 22 analyses gave specific
gravity 1032-14, cream 80, total solids 11-95, solids not fat
9-50, fat 2-453, and ash 0.69. The samples of first runnings
were again much inferior in cream and fat to the last runnings .
Thus, in cow No. 1 the difference was in cream 5 to 12, and
fat 1-32 to 3-77, whilst in cow No. 6 the variation in cream
was 5 to 14, and in fat 1-54 to 5*10. In this dairy the cows
Nos. 1, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 ^ere English ; Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 20 were Ayreshire ; and No. 19
was a cross ; and the calving of the cows had taken place in
January for Nos. 1, 8, and 9 ; October for Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, and
6 ; December for Nos. 7, 10, 11, 12, and 13 ; August for
Nos. 14, 15, and 18 ; September for Nos. 16 aud 17 ; Jane
for No. 19, whose milk was nearly out; and February for No.
20, whose milk was only two weeks' old. All the cows were
fed three times a day on draff and raw turnips.
From dairy C twelve samples of milk were taken from
twelve different cows, and gave the foUowing analytical
results :
&-I
i^
-tJ .-tJ
No. of Co-w.
111
aji
SgS|Ǥg
— , >-\ m ^ >
1. Whole runnings .
1031-6
9
12-92
9-94
2-98
0-72
2.
1031-6
10
12-73
9-71
3-02
0-69
3. „ ,.
1032-6
9
12-94
10-15
2-79
0-73
4. ,, „
1031-8
6
11-96
10-22
1-74
0-65
5. „ „
1034-4
6
11-88
10-04
1-84
0^68
6.
1031-9
6
10-92
9-16
1-76
0-62
7.
1032-9
6
11-04
9-34
1-70
0-64
8. „ „
1035-7
11
14-54
11-23
3-31
0-73
9. „ „
1030-4
8
11-93
9-37
2-56
0-69
10.
1031-8
8
12-22
9-69
2-53
0-70
Il-
1031-4
10
13-33
10-02
3-31
0-71
ia.
1034-3
6
11-93
10-07
1-86
0-69
Average of the twelve
samples
1033.0
8
12-36 1 9-91
2-45
0-69
The above results show that in dairy C the milk also varied
much in all the testing qualities. Thus the specific gravity
ranged from 1030-4 to 1035-7; cream from 6 to 11; total
solids from 10 92 to 14-54 ; solids not fat from 9-16 to 11-23 ;
fat from 1-74 to 3-31, and ash from 062 to 0-73; vihilst the
average of the whole 12 samples give specific gravity 10-33;
cream 8 ; total solids 12-36 ; solids not fat 991 ; fat 2-45, and
ash 069. In this dairy the cows Nos. 1, 2, and 9, were Ayr-
shire; Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 12 were cross, and Nos. 10
and 11 were English, and the food consisted of draff, turnips,
aud oilcake at 5.30 a.m. ; draff and turnips at 12 noon, and
draff, turnips, and oilcake at 6 p.m.
The average quality of the railk supplied to Edinburgh by
the three dairies may be better observed by placing the aver-
ages side by side and then striking an average of the whole
samples derived from the 40 different cows. This average of the
whole trials may then be contrasted with the lowest and highest
results obtained from the whole samples in specific gravity,
cream, total solids, solids not fat, fat and ash. The following
table exhibits these points :
^1
.Q
lis
01
p.
1^.
=^ p.
a a bo
Hi
cs a so
p.
.S§-S
1^
Dairy A average
„ B
„ C „
1031-46
1032-14
1033-
74
8
8
11-827
11-95
12-36
9-395
9-50
9-01
2-432
2-453
2-45
0-70
0-69
0-69
Average of 3 dairies,
representing forty
cows' milk
1032-2
1028-4
1035-7
7-8
12-04
9-60
2-44
0-69
In all trials —
5
Hi
10-67
14-64
8-74
11-23
1-56
3-32
0-62
0-76
These latter figures show that the specific gravity of milk
— of undoubted genuine quality — may range from 1028-4 to
1035-7, or more than 7 degrees ; the cream from 5 to 11^, or
more than double ; the total solids from 10-57 to 14-54, or
4 per cent. ; the solids, not fat, from 8-74 to 11-23, or 2^ per
cent. ; the fat from 1-56 to 3-32, or more than double, and
the ash, from 0-62 to 0-76. These results prove conclnsively
that milk taken from different dairies varies in chemical
composition, and that milk taken from different cows in the
same dairy varies still more in chemical properties, notwith-
standing that the cows are housed in the same way, fed at the
same time and manner, and milked at the same hours. No
doubt the quality of the milk must be influenced not ouly by
the food but by the water in the food, the temperature of the
byre, the season of the year — whether summer or winter— as
well as probably the breed of cow, age, time of calving,
and exact state of health of each cow at the time of milking.
The beneficial effects of improved feeding are apparent in
several trials which I have made since the foregoing results
were tabulated on the milk of four of the cows belonging to
dairy C. The milk was taken from the cows during the day,
THE FAEMBR'S MAGAZINE.
493
when it is generally supposed that the railk is richer, but, be-
sides that, the dairyman stated that he had commenced to give
his cows more nutritious food. The analytical results of the
testing of these latter samples of milk was as follows :
No, of Cows.
bo
§4
ill
3 -^
3 "■"'
^ O O)
1. Whole runnings.
3.
Average of the four
1032-5
1033-G
1033-3
1030
12
7i
10
10
11-41
12-64
14-21
12-91
10-47
10-41
11-05
9-70
3.94
2-23
3Ui
3-21
3-13
0-73
0-71
0-75
0-74
1032-3
10
13-54
10-41
0-73
These results show a decided increase in llie proportion of
the chemical iugredients iu the milk, due apparently to the
better feeding ol the cows.
An important point regarding the time and mode of sam-
pling milk requires now to be considered. When the milk is
brought;iuto the sale shop it is generally placedjin a large sale-
can, from which portions are removed by a measure now and
again as demand requires. During the sale of the milk the
process of creaming is going on slowly, and as the fat rises to
the surface, and the sale measure is being dipped in, the milk
which is thus removed becomes richer iu cream or tat, so that
in course of time the milk whicli is left behind becomes poorer,
owing to the floating up and removal of part of the cream or
fat originally diffused through it. Milk begins to cream im-
mediately on being set at rest, and the mere disburbance of the
upper half of the contents of a vessel will not reintermiiigle
the cream with the whole milk, and thus keep up the original
composition.
I have made special trials to determine the effects of the sale
"ladling" process on the quality of the remaining milk. In
the first experiment the original milk gave 10 (ler ceut. of
cream, after a process of sale removals lor one hour the re-
maining milk only showed 9 per cent, of cream when allowed
to stand, and after sale removals for three hours the remaining
milk only gave 7 per cent, of cream. A second trial was made
with a mixture ol 22 samples of milk, and a portion of the
mixture of the original milk was analysed side by side with
another portion which had been subjected to the ladling pro-
cess for three hours. The results were as follows:
Remainder of milk
Original in sale-can in
miitur
Specific gravity 1032
Cream per cent., by volume ....
Total solids per cent., by weight
Solids not fat do.
Fat do.
Ash iu solids do.
It was thus apparent that during the period milk is retained
in a sale-can, and successive quantities ladled out Irom time to
time, the remaining milk becomes poorer in quality through loss
of cream or fat, and in the space ot three hours the proportion
of fat is reduced by 2.0 per cint., or one-fourth of the whole.
In endeavouring to fix on a standard for genuine milk, and
which might be fairly deducible from the foregoing experimental
results, I am of opinion that, taking large dairies, where the
runnings of a number of cows can be thrown together so as to
equalize the rich and the poor milk, and yield an average, the
following proportions may be taken as a standard lor genuine
or normal milk :
Specific gravity about 1030
Cream not under 6 per cent.
Totalsolids „ 11
Solids, not fat „ 9
Fat „ 2
Ashinsolids , „ 0.G5 „
But we must be prepared for even lower results in individual
cases as iu dairies where only one, or two, or three cows are
kept, and where they are probably not very well fed. Even in
the larger dairies, where the milk of the cows is not mixed
together, or where probably the milk of every two or three
cows is simply placed in a can by itself, there might occasion-
ally be found a sample having a lower composition than the
standard given above, and yet the milk be undoubtedly of
ture.
three hours.
32
1033-1
9
6
12-0(5
11-39
9-67
9-58
2-39
1-81
0-70
0-67
genuine quality. Any difliculty in this respect, however, would
be avoided by the whole milkings of the dairy being placed in
a large comtnou vessel, and thereafter the sale or town cans
filled from this mixture of the whole runnings of tlie dairy.
The foregoiuK experimental results of the analyses of the
samples of milk taken direct from the udders of 40 cows belong-
iug to three large dairies, prove thnl the standard for genuine
or normal milk which has recently been put forward for the
guidance of city analysts is far loo high. The assumed stan-
dard declares that normal milk must have 12-5 per cent, of
total solid-i, of which 93 p^r cent, are solids not (at, and 3-3
per cent, must be fat. This s^o-called standard has been assumed
ill the lace of an analysis of average country milk, which is
also quoted, and which average milk contains actually less than
the assumed standard which ought to indicate minimum, and
not average quality of genuine milk. According to this so-
called standard, adopted in so arbitrary a manner, and blindly
fcdlowed by town analysis, by far tlie greater number of the
.samples of milk taken direct from the udders of the 40 cows
in the dailies A B and 0 would be held to be adulterated either
with water or with skimmed milk, or with both, and taking ti.e
average of the whole of tlie samples of milk which shows only
2'44 per cent, of fat, we find that it contains about 25 percent,
less fat than the assumed standard, so that the entire bulk of
the genuine milk yielded Ijy the 40 cows, if mixed together in
equal quantities, would be held to be adulterated with about 25
per cent, of skimmed milk. The results obtainable from the
assumed high standard should not therefore be depended upon,
and yet, by calculation from mch data, carried out to the tenths
and hundredths of a grain, we find prosecutions taking place,
and convictions attempted to be obtained and enforced.
The assumption of a definite high standard for milk, and the
further assumption that all milk is of equal or nearly equal
quality, is even directly contrary to all previous researches on
thesut'ject, as shown by the great diversity in the composition
of milk as given in analyses published iu dilferent chemical
treatises. Even the amount of fat in cows' milk, in which
the proportion of adulteration with skimmed milk is based, is
authoritatively stated to be sometimes as low as 1-25, 1-4, 2-03,
though ranging up to o-42,4-56, &c., showing great variations
iu the amount of this iugredient. Probably the best evidence
on this point is given in a Government report written by Prof.
John Wilson in 1806, where the Danish d.^iry farms are refer-
red to, and where the variations in the amount of fat in milk
are observable in the amount of milk required to yield a pound
of butter at different seasons of the year. The proportions
range iu the same dairy larin from 19^ to 331bs. of milk, and in
another dairy farm from 21| to Sl^lbs. of milk, which must
be employed to yield a pound of butter.
Since the analyses of the samples of railk were made by mo,
and I was called upon to give evidence iu two cases of alleged
adulteration, there has been published in the Pharmaceutical
Jonnuil an excellent paper by Professor Voelcker, " on milk —
its supply and adulteration," in which he gives the results of
the analyses of the milk yielded by the herd of cows at the
Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, during eleven months
of the jear, and shows the great variations which occur in the
quality of the milk obtainea from the whole herd. The total
solids'range from 9-3 to 14 per cent., and the fat from 1-79 to
4- 12 per cent., and judging from the assumed high standard
adopted by some town analysts, the whole runnings of this
lierd of cows would have been declared to be adulterated for
two-thirds of the year.
The Adulteration Act was framed for the protection of the
public, and if properly worked out, would undoubtedly lead to
the suppression of adulteration in food, drink, and medicine,
and would at the same lime be of national service, and a pro-
tection to the honest merchant against the dishonest and frau-
dulent dealer. But if anything is calculated more than another
to render the Act inoperative and untrustworthy it is the
framing and setting up of % standard of genuineness which can
seldom be reached by the genuine article itself, and by blind
adherence to which the in;ijurit.y of the samples of the genuine
and unadulterated material must be declared to be mixed and
adulterated.
Considering the great variations in the quality of genuine
milk, and the beneficial effects of good feeding of the cows upon
the milk, it is worthy tiie attention of dairymen whether they
would not sell their milk under a guarantee of quality — say 11
per cent, of total solids, of which 9 are solids not fat, and 2 are
fat. In large dairies this could be ensured by mixing the whole
494
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
roaniugs of the milking of the herd in a common tank, and
thereafter filling tiie sale or town cans from this mixture of
the whole milking. l\Iilk could thus be sold with a guarantee
which would give certainty to the purchaser tliat he was ob-
taining not only genuine milk, but genuine milk of good
quality.
At an ordinary meeting of the Royal Physical Society, held
on Wednesday in Edinburgh, Mr. R. Scot-Skirving, president,
in the chair, Mr. J. Falconer King, City Analyst, read
the following paper on Recent Modes of Milk Analysis :
Within the last twelve months the subject of milk analysis
has assumed an amount of importance which liitherto has not
been attached to it ; and in consequence of the nefarious prac-
tices of certain milk vendors, which before were matters rather
of suspicion than certainty, having been fully and satisfactorily
proved and made known, a large share of public attention has
been attracted to this subject. This is, of course, just as it
should be, for people certainly should interest themselves in
what concerns them ; and what concerns or should concern
the community more than the purity of food, especially tlie
purity of such an important article of food as milk ? My
object in submitting this note to tlie Society to-night is to ex-
plain the new mode of milk analysis I have adopted, and to
show wherein that differs from the old method of testing milk,
which is still, I am almost ashamed to say, employed in some
instances for the purpose of ascertaining the purity of this
substance. It will perhaps be advisable for me, before pro-
ceeding to explain the method of analysis I employ, to remind
the meeting of the plans in general use, I suppose, in the days
of our grandfathers for determining this point ; and I do this
not because I consider that they are of value for dertermining
the amount of adulteration in milk, but rather for the purpose
of showing the great necessity there existed for having some
more reliable mode of examination. Tliis old plan, which was
certainly an easy and a simple one, and cheap certainly, and
no less nasty, consists of two operations — 1st, the determina-
tion of the specific gravity of the milk ; and 2nd, the estima-
tion of the amount of cream which it will throw up on being
allowed to repose. Other tests, equally scientific and reliable,
were occasionally made use of — as, for instance, observing the
shape assumed by a drop of milk on being placed on the thumb
nail, and the degree of opacity possessed by a known depth of
milk. These, however, with others, have given place to the
two tests I have already mentioned, which are usually carried
out by making use of a common hydrometer and ot a gra-
duated glass tube, known by the high-sounding name lac-
tometer. Of these two fallacious and misleading tests the
former is tlie worse, as it positively shows bad milk to be good,
and vice versa. When a man employs his thumb for ascer-
taining either the temperature of water, as I have heard of
people'.doing, or for determining the purity of milk, the chances
are that he neither does much good nor harm by giving pub-
licity to results so obtained, but by making statements in an
authoritative manner based on such a test as specific gravity
is for milk he may do an immense amount of mischief. In
some parts of Trance tliis test was once, and is perhaps still,
used extensively for testing milk. Ollicers paraded tlie streets
armed with hydrometers, and every milkman they met they
popped the hydrometer into his can, and if the milk was very
ricli of course it did not show h'gh by this most unjust test,
and it was accordingly forfhwitli run into the gutter. No
further trial was needed. The indication of tliis instrument
was all-sullicient to condemn ; sentence was passed and exe-
cuted without any more inquiry, and in tliis way many a gallon
of good milk was wasted. Lately, in some London mik con-
tracts, it was specified that the article supplid must be up to
a certain standard by this specific gravity test. This standard
was pitched so high that it was with difficulty reached by pure
milk. One man, however, of a slightly inquiring turn, disco-
vered that hy partially skimming his milk, or what amounted
to the same thing, by adding skimmed milk to it, he easily
brought it up to the required standard, and so by his own in-
genuily, or by the stupidity of those intrusted with the milk
supply, lie passed off and sold for, and at the price of the
genuine article, that which had been very much lowered in
value. The fallacy of this test (which is quite the same sub-
stantially, whether taken by means of a hydrometer or a specific
gravity bottle) is easily understood when we come to know upon
what it is dependent for its action. By taking the specific gravity
of a liquid, we simply determine the weight of a certain bulk
of it. The higher the specific gravity — or, in other words, the
heavier the milk is, the better |it is shown to be by this mode
of testing. Now, every one knows that cream or the rich
part of milk is the lightest part of it, and therefore the less
cream the heavier or higher specific gravity will it possess. So
that skimmed milk by this test will be better than really
genuine milk. As one result of the employment of this in-
strument, milkmen, I believe, in certain parts of England,
carry out a very ingenious and withal highly profitable species
of adulteration. They first of all cream the milk, or denude
it of its lightest portion ; the resulting residue then, of course,
shows very high by the specific gravity test, and it is brought
back to the normal gravity by the lucrative operation of
watering. In this way a compound is produced which has
little in common with milk hut the name, and yet it i$ passed
as all correct by those who rely upon the specific gravity test.
The other so-called test is performed by means ot an instru-
ment known by the high-sounding name creamometer or lac-
tometer, a very Irish name indeed. The lactometer is essen-
tially a glass tube, graduated into a certain number of divisions.
The operation of testing with this apparatus consists in filling
it with the milk to be examined, allowing the cream to rise to
the surface and reading off t'le number of measures which
that occupies. This test, you will perceive, is about as simple
and, as I will demonstrate, as fallacious or even more so than
thespecific gravity one, and it is so in many ways. In the first
place, I am by no means sure tliut the amount of cream thrown
up in this way is at all a measure of the purity of the milk ;
but even supposing it to be so, there are other things which
prevent the rising of the cream in an equal degree. Tempera-
ture, for instance, exerts a peculiar influence on the ascent of
the cream. The shape and character of the vessel also has an
influence ; and also, as might be expected, the thinner the milk
is the more readily will the cream rise. So that actually poor
or adulterated milk may show a better result by this much-
belauded test than milk rich and good. To settle this point,
however, once for all, I have made a very accurate and
careful experiment to ascertain the behaviour of adul-
terated milk with this test; and the result showed, what
indeed I had thought all along, that this test is
perfectly useless. In my experiment made upon milk
got from five different cows, I put some pure milk, and also
some of the same milk adulterated with water, to repose ; the
cream rose in the Udual way, and the adulterated sample
showed more cream than the pure. And T am almost ashamed
to say that upon the indications of these tests was based in
great part evidence giveu in certain milk cases where an ana-
lyst had found milk to be adulterated, and where this species
of testimony was brought forward to show him to be wrong.
The fallacious nature of these and all other tests in common
use for determining the impurity of milk, led me in ray exa-
minations to discard these, and employ what I believe is the
only proper mode of testing milk — a proper chemical analysis.
The performance of this, of course, infers the possession of a
considerable amount of apparatus, and also that commodity
not so easily attainable — manipulative skill and knowledge
sufficient to carry out the different operations with an amount
of delicacy necessary for obtaining very accurate results. The
ingredients of normal milk may he stated as water, fat, nitro-
genous matter, saccharine matter, aud mineral matter or ash.
The water is best determined by evaporating a known quantity
of the milk to perfect dryness in a water bath. The fat is
readily estimated by digesting the residue in six or seven
successive quantities of ether, boiling off the ether and weighing
the residua. The nitrogenous matter is very conveniently
estimated by means of Chapman's process, viz., converting the
nitrogenous compounds into ammonia. The sugar can readily
be estimated by extracting the residue after treatment with
ether, with diluted alcohol evaporating to dryness, and noting
loss by ignition. Or it can be estimated by means of a stan.
dard copper solution in the usual way after separating the ca-
seine. Mineral matter is found by carefully igniting in a pla-
tinum capsule a portion of the dried residue. iVom results
obtained by a careful and conscientious analysis performed in
this way, the purity or impurity of a sample of milk can be
readily ascertained. This, I know, has been denied, but always,
I think, by people who had not tried the process, aud therefore
knew little or nothing of that concerning which they so autho-
ritatively laid down the law. It has been objected that there
is no standard of pure milk, that milk varies in strength, &c.,
all of which no doubt is true, but still that does not prsvent us
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
495
(as we have beea told it does) telling when a specimen of milk
is adulterated. If we find the total amount of fat, caseine,
sugar, &c., much below what it has ever been known to be, or
in other words, if we find much more water present than has
ever been found in genuine normal milk, are we not warranted
in saying that water lias been added P For instance, a man
we'll suppose lias been poisoned by hydrochloric acid, and the
stomach on being examined is found to contain, say an ounce
of that substance. Would this not be proof positive that
hydrochloric acid had been introduced into the stomach? "No,"
says some of our fault-finders, " it is no proof at all, because
hydrochloric acid is present naturally in the gastric juice."
JSow, such a statement as that is, I think, it will at once be
admitted, absurdly ridiculous, and yet it is not a bit more so
than what we have been told in regard to milk adulteration :
"You can't detect water in milk because that substance is a con-
stituent of the genuine article ! " But again, even if we find the
amount of water to be what it should, but the natural ratio
which is found to exist between the quantities of the other
ingredients destroyed, are we not justified in coming to the
conclusion that the milk has been tampered with ? For
example, in normal milk we find that the amount of fat is
pretty nearly one-fourth of that of tlie total solid matter. If
then we discover in a specimen of milk only an eighth or a
tenth of fat instead of a fourth, are we not right in saying
that, in some way or other, the proportion of fat has been
reduced? I hold that we are perfectly justified iu so doing;
and my opinion on this point, in common with a number of
men capable of forming a sound opinion on that, remains un-
changed, notwithstanding the many inflated and frothy speeches
which have been made and papers which have been read de-
nouncing analysts in the disagreeable but necessary duty of
arresting adulteration, as " following blindly arbitrary stand-
ards," causing innocent men to be convicted, and generally
doing all that is wrong and nothing that is right. And all
this has fallen on our devoted heads because, forsooth, we had
the presumption to think for ourselves and be guided by the
results^^of our own experiments and |iuvestigations, instead of
allowing ourselves to be led and shown how to do our work
by those talentsd men who are so anxious to take us in hand,
whose chief powers, though, surely must be latent, as the
only one they show tliemselves to be possessed of is that very
old, easily-accjuired, and withal common accomplishment, in
which, however, it must be allowed they peculiarly excel, of
picking boles in their neiglibours' garments. It is very grati-
fying however for me to learu that, in spite of all my failures
and shortcomings, the end for which I am working is rapidly
being attained. I was appointed by the magistrate for the
purpose of arresting the sale of adulterated articles of food —
milk among the rest ; and I know, no less from tlie results of
my own analysis than from the testimony of numerous in-
habitants of the city, that the sale of adulterated lots of milk
is now much less common than before I commenced opera-
tions. With a certain class of milkmen I must say I have a
great deal of sympathy. I mean those members of the trade
who do not themselves keep cows, but receive their supply of
milk from others. It is quite a common thing, I believe, for
those men to be supplied with milk which has been largely
adulterated with skim-milk. It does not pay to bring in milk
three times per day to town. So the eveuiag milk is skimmed
and mixed with the morning supply. One milkman tells me
he knows perfectly well when his milk has been adulterated.
One word iu regard to what is novv well known as the ladling
operation. It has been asserted, and the assertion has re-
ceived credence in some quarters, that the ladling or dealing
out the milk in small quantities has a tendency to take a'.yay
the rich part of the milk and leave the poorer portion behind.
This, however, is a fallacy, the ladling has no such effect, and
it is difficult to see how it could. The milk is not skimmed
off the top iu serving customers, but is taken from the middle
or bottom of the disli or can ; so that if this ladling produces
any change at all, one would be inclined to think that that
would be rather of taking away the lower and poorer part
first and leaving the riclier part behind. My own opiuion is
that it does not produce much change either way, and experi-
ments I have made on this subject bear out this view.
A lively discussion ensued, in which Messrs. Brow.n, Taylor,
Durham, Gibson, Scot-Skirving, and others joined.
KINCARDINESHIRE FARMERS' ASSOCIATION.
THE GAME-LAWS.
At the late dinner, Mr. Alexander gave his
opinions npon the present position of Garae-law
legislation. Mr. M'Lagan's bill had been before them
for a good many years past, and it now came up
again professedly improved, but he thought that if
there was any improvement upon it, it was all on the wrong
side. Indeed, as the bill now stood, compared with what it
formerly was, it might be said to have gone from " the deil to
the deep sea." The Kincardineshire Association should dis-
pense with it altogether, and have nothing whatever to do
with it. Mr. Barclay had introduced what was on the whole
a very fair bill, and a bill that perhaps might be the means,
in the course of time, of bringing about what he (Mr. Alex-
ander) earnestly hoped to see — the total abolition of the
Game-laws. But he was quite sure that Mr. Barclay's bill
would not pass, and that Mr. M'Lagan's bill would not pass
as Parliament was at present constituted, and therefore the
best bill, so far as the farmers were concerned, before Parlia-
ment, was that of Mr. P. Taylor for total abolition. Farmers
could never get rid of the enormous grievances to which they
were subjected — having their crops destroyed by wild animals
— unless they received the power proposed to be given by Mr.
Taylor to protect their crops from all wild animals whatsoever.
He therefore moved that they should petition Parliament in
favour of Mr. Taylor's bill.
Mr. Bremner (Scotston) considered that the law of entail
affected the farmers far more prejudicially than the Game-laws
did. If they got the law of entail abolished, the abolition of
the Game-laws and Uypothec would soon follow. They all
knew the dilliculties in the way of the disposal of entailed
property ; but if these difficulties were removed, land would
be got by the farmers on much easier terms, aud without those
stringent lease clauses of which they so much complained.
The farmers had been blamed for taking land under such con-
ditions, but they could not help it. They lived by the laud,
and they must get land, be the conditions what they might.
If the bill introduced by Mr. Gregory and others piissed into
law, much good would be done.
Mr. Taylor (Cushnie) would not approve of going in for
total abolition of the Game-laws. He would prefer a modifi-
cation rather.
Mr. Alexander said they could first try abolition, and if
that did not work well, they could get another Game-law bill.
Mr. Taylor pointed out that one grand feature of l\lr.
Barclay's bill was tliat he proposed to repeal all the old Garae-
law Acts — some forty in number — and re-enact a new Act.
That of itself would be an improvement on the old system,
because there are at present so many Acts partially in existence
and partially repealed, that no oue kuows how the Game-laws
stand.
Mr. DuRiE thought that the only relief farmers could gst
from the Game-laws would be by their total abolition. They
were being told that if this were brought about the country
would be overrun by poacliers, but in the meantime the far-
mers looked upon the poachers as their best friends. For
himself he never saw any of them, but he knew very well that
poachers came and visited him occasionally, and he was very
much obliged to them for it. He would go in for total aboli-
tion, and lake his chance of the poachers. Tlipy could not
do half the amount of damage that was at present done any
day by a band of ordinary sportsmen. With the pre.«eiit Par-
liament, however, there was no cliance for any Game-law
legislation. J\lr. M'Lagan's bill was a great sliam. Mr.
Barclay's bill might give great relief if it was passed in its
present shape, but there was no chance of its iiaving that
good luck. They might if they chose petition in favour of
Mr. Peter Taylor's bill, but that was all they could do, for
nothing could be obtained frou Government until the Scotch
496
THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE.
and English counties returned a very different class of men
from those they presently sent up, both Liberals and Tories.
He would be inclined to accept Mr. Barclay's bill in the
meantime, but such a bill could only be temporary. One ob-
jection to that bill was, that freedom of contract was violated.
But at present freedom of contract was all oa one side. He
was safe to say that not a single lease that lie knew of would
b3 signed by a tenant if freedom of contract existed.
Mr. BuRNESS (Redford) thought that the bill by the
worthy member for Forfarshire was all that tliey required at
the present time. It was a very suitable bill, and he thought
they should adhere a little more to it.
Mr. Taylor, wishing to give honour where honour was
due, said that Major Gammel had conceded the right of shoot-
ing hares and rabbits to his tenantry.
Mr. Aleiajjder had no doubt that as the Game-law ques-
tion approached a settlement proprietors would steadily come
forward with such concessions, in order to stave off as far as
possible the day of total abolition.
Mr. Falconer (Candy) thought it was all very well for
farmers not troubled with game to go in for total abolition,
but what in the meantime was to become of those farmers
who were over-run and eaten up by game P He iiad a day or
two ago counted about fifty rabbits on a single acre on a farm
on the estate and in the parish of Fetteresso, and tiie farmer
had not the power to lift a gun to kill even one of these ani-
mals. Was the farmer of such land as that to be eaten up,
while they went on fighting for what it was at present im-
possible to obtain ?
Mr. Aiken (Fettercairn) pointed out that the Aberdeenshire
Commissioners of Supply objected to Mr. Barclay's bill be-
cause it interfered with freedom of contract.
Mr. Durie had no doubt that a bill for the abolition of the
Game-laws would be as easily passed as Mr. Barclay's bill
would.
Mr. Ritchie (Boroughmuirhills) thought they should do
nothing in the matter at all, but tell the present Parliament
that they would be glad to take anything from them in the
direction of total repeal that they thought proper to give, on
the principle that a half-loaf was better than no bread.
Mr. Largie suggested that the matter should be left over
to the Commissioners.
Mr. Bremner recommended that they should go in for
total repeal. They should liave the power to shoot every-
thing that destroyed their crops.
After some further discussion, Mr. Tatlor moved, seconded
by Mr. Falconer, that the Association should petition in
favour of Mr. Barclay's bill, and this was put against Mr.
Alexander's motion in favour of Mr. Taylor's bill, when the
latter was carried by 15 votes to 9.
OWNERS OF LAND AND HERITAGES IN SCOTLAND.
A return has been issued " of the name and address of every
owner of one acre and upwards in extent (outside the muni-
cipal boundaries of boroughs containing more than 20,000 in-
habitants), with the estimated acreage, and the annual value
of the lands and heritages of individual owners ; and of the
number of owners of less than one acre, with the estimated ag-
gregate acreage and annual value of the lands and heritages of
such owners in each county. Also a similar return for muni-
cipal boroughs containing more than 20,000 inhabitants."
The return has been prepared under the direction of Mr.
Angus Fletcher, Comptroller-General ot Inland lleveuue for
Scotland, who, in some prefatory remarks, explains the means
adopted for obtaining tlie statistics furnished. He says : " The
estimated acreage has been obtained by the surveyors of stamps
and taxes from inquiry on the spot, and from the best resources
at their command. Early in January, 1873, a circular was
addressed by me to the known agents of landed proprietors,
setting forth the nature and particulars ot the return sought,
and requesting such iLformation as could be conveniently
furnished as to the areas of estates under their charge.
In many cases prompt and satisfactory replies were received,
but not unfrequeutly my correspondents referred me to local
factors, occupying tenants, and other persons, with an occa-
sional intimation that there was no survey on the estate or
estates of their constituents, who could not be reasonably ex-
pected to incur the trouble and cost of obtaining the informa-
tion sought by the officers of the Government. On the 10th
of February, the surveyors were instructed, where no satisfac-
tory information could be obtained from owners, factors,
farmers, and others, to select persons of local knowledge and
skill to aid them in ascertaining the acreage of properties. ' A
scientific survey,' it was intimated, ' is of course out of the
question ; but persons may no doubt be found wlio, for a mo-
derate fee, will visit the lands and make tolerably accurate
estimates of the acreage of the several properties that will fall
to be dealt with in that way. As such process, however, of
survey and estimate will be an expensive one, it must not be
resorted to until all other efforts to obtain information shall
have failed, or until the estimated cost shall have been sub-
mitted to me through the inspector of the division and shall
have been formally sanctioned.' Shortly thereafter schedules
were furnislied by each surveyor, to be addressed by him to
owners, occupiers, and other persons in his district, soliciting
the requisite information. Schedules were at the same time
furnished to all parlies so addressed, on which answers to cer-
tain queries were to be returned, so as to give the least pos-
sible trouble to the public in filling up and posting the sche-
dules to the officers by whom they had been issued. Besides
the difficulty, in the absence of authentic data, of estimating
the extent of lands and heritages, the labour (largely shared
by the indoor officers) of ascertaining correctly the names and
addresses of owners of an acre and upwards was very great ;
but it is believed that the general accuracy of the result will be
found to justify the care and attention bestowed on that branch
of the return." Mr. Fletcher preceeds to explain that with
regard to annual values, the valuation rolls of counties and
burghs, made up towards the close ot 1872, have been fol-
lowed. In the category of owners, he further explains, are
included feuars, leaseholders of ninety-nine years and up-
wards, and life-renters, whether in virtue of office of other-
wise. The extcLt of lands has been estimated in
imperial acres. It has not been considered necessary to give
fractional parts of an acre ; and in stating the annual value
it has been deemed sufficient to give the result in pounds and
shillings, la the Return the counties are taken in alphabetical
order, with the burghs of over 20,000 population in each fol-
lowing the county in which they are situate. For the present,
we summarise the statistics supplied as to the county of Edin-
burgh. The number of landowners holding an acre and up-
wards in the county is 696, the total of the acreage they hold
226,223, and the annual value £535,200. Of owners of lands
less than an acre in extent there are 2,541, the numbet of
acres they own is 555, and the annual value £4'6,403 5s. The
total of owners is 3,237, of acres 226,778, and the annual
value £581,603 6s. In the municipal burgh of Edinburgh
there are 240 owners of upwards of an acre, possessing in all
2,558 acres, of the annual value of £252,967 ; and there are
11,306 owners of less than an acre, holding 1,180 acres, of
the annual value of £1,041,364. The total of owners is
11,546, dividing among them 3,738 acres, of which the annual
value is £1,294,331. In Leith there are 127 owners of au
acre and upwards, holding 956 acres, of the annual value of
iglll,658 ; and 2,062 owners of less than an acre, owning
270 acres, of tlie annual value of £141,446. The total of
owners is 2,189, of acres 1,226, and the annual value
^253,104. Among the large owners in the county, the Duke
of Abercorn figures for 1,5U0 acres, of the annual value of
£7,400 10s. Lord Aberdour owns 1,467 acres, of the annual
value of £5,411 10s. Sir D. Baird, of Newbyth, has 751
acres, of tiie annual value of £3,456 123. Mr. J. Borthwick,
of Crookston, owns 5,239 acres, of the annual value of £4,366
16s. The Duke of Buccleuch holds 3,541 acres, of the total
annual value of £28,296, of which Granton harbour (9 acres)
contributes £10,601 ; and mines, with no surface acreage,
stand for £1,479. Sir G. D. Clerk, of Penicuik, holds 12,696
acres, of the annual value of £8,919. Sir W. Gibson Craig,
of Riccarton, owns 1,882 acres, of the annual value of
£6,087. The Earl of Dalhousie owns 1,419 acres, of
the annual value of £3,002 2s. Mr. Robert Dundas, of
Arniston, holds 10,184 acres, of the annual value of
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
497
£9,549 14s. The Marquis of Lothiaa has 4,547 acres,
of the annual value of £11,918 5s. Sir Alexander Gibson
Maitlaud holds 4,505 acres, of the annual value of £14,246 9s.
The heirs of Mr. A. Mitchell, of Stow, own 9,038 acres, of
the annual value of £6,308. The Earl of Morton owns
8,944 acres, of the annual value of £9,041. The Earl
of Rosebery owns 15,568 acres, of the annual value of
£8,973 16s. The trustees of the eighth Earl of Stair iiold
8,384 acres, of the annual value of £4,488. Mr. R. Trotter,
of Morton Hall, owns 2,490 acres, of the annual value of
ifi6,759. In the municipal burgh of Ediubnrgh, the Crown
figures as owning 437 acres, of the annual value of £25,261.
The Lord Provost, magistrates, and town council are returned
as owning 167 acres, of the annual value of £6,983. The
governors of Heriot's Hospital have 180 acres, of the annual
value of £4,770. The Senatus Academicus of the Edinburgh
University owns 4 acres, of which the annual value is returned
at £3,506. lu Leith the Crown owns 10 acres, of which
the annual value is £3,530 ; and the commissioners of Leith
docks and harbour hold 68 acres, with an annual value of
£39,630. At the close of the return a summary is presented
which shows that the total number of landowners in Scotland
is 131,530, the total acreage 18,946,694, and the total annual
value £18,698,804.— r/i^ Scotsman.
THE AYESHIRE FARMER S' CLUB.
THE LABOURER.
At the annual general meeting of this Club, Mr.
Robertson (Haplaud), President of the Society, iu the chair,
Mr. Bruce (Auchengate, Irvine), read the following paper on
Agricultural Labour .-
The question of the scarcity of labour is at present of great
importance to the agriculturist, and one requiring to be fairly
met and fully discussed in all its bearings, and tlie discussion
of it by the members of this club may not be witliout advan-
tage. Upon this subject, therefore, I propose to offer a few
remarks. In doing so, I crave your kind indulgence, and
would express the hope that these remarks will lead to a
general discussion upon the several points adverted to.
Gentlemen, I am sure that tiie present scarcity in the labour
market is not only known but felt by many of you to be a
great and increasing difficulty. A sufficiency of hands is of
the utmost importance to the farmer. It constantly happens,
especially in seed time and harvest, that unless the work re-
quired can be completed at once, the opportunity, or at least
the most advantageous opportunity, is past. Seeds have to be
deposited and crops have to be secured with the utmost des-
patch, during an often too short " tid." Tlie failure to seize
the opportunity in spring prevents, or at least damages, the
growth of the crop. The failure to secure the favourable
harvest weather sacrifices the crops already grown, as the
harvest weather in our uncertain climate is most precarious.
The existence of the present scarcity of the supply of labour is
80 apparent as to render any evidence of the fact unnecessary.
Mr. C. S. Read, M.P., in speaking at the Farmers' Club in
London not long since, dwelt very strongly upon the scarcity
of labour, and even suggests as a remedy the omission of a
good deal of work at present deemed essential. He says :
" There are a number of little things done on a farm which
never really pay the farmer. You liave been accustomed to
like neatness and order, and I believe, as far as regards neat-
ness, you must forget this in future. There are many fiddling,
finicking operations of husbandry which really never do pay,
and you cannot now afford to do them. As far as regards
noxious roots and weeds, I am not in a worse position than
formerly ; but I cannot say the same as to neatness, as there
are untrimraed fences, unscraped roads, unpicked stones, and a
lot of weeds growing up in the autumn among the turnips,
which weeds are so young that they cannot seed ; and though
it is painful to me to see the farm in this condition, yet I
believe in the end I will be a gainer by it." This recommen-
dation of Mr. Read's I am not prepared to endorse ; but that
he should have made it, shows how keenly the scarcity of
labour has been felt in his neighbourhood. The knowledge
of the cause of any evil is often the best part of the cure. It
may be well, therefore, to consider some of the causes which
have led to this scarcity. Various causes have operated to
bring about the present state of matters, but it appears to rae
that there are two or three in especial to wliicli the evil may
be traced. Emigration has been an active agency in with-
drawing large numbers — more especially of the agricultural
hands — from this country. The agents employed liave been
most assiduous in endeavouring to secure by tempting induce-
ments men of character and ability. From the immense ex-
tent of unsettled territory in the United States and tiie
Colonies, terms and facilities can be offered by the authorities
there to parties about to emigrate, which at all events appear
enormously more advantageous than anything masters can
offer here. Free grants of land, assisted passages, and loans
of capital are among the inducements which are being offered
— and in very many cases successfully offered — by the different
Colonial Governments to induce our farm servants to leave
the old country for the new. It is quite true that this exodus
has not been confined to the rural districts, but that large
numbers have also left the towns. Still it is evident from the
nature of the countries to which emigration is going on that it
is agricultural labourers, and not artisans, who are mainly
wished to go out, and who do go out, in largest, or at least
in proportionately largest [numbers. The number of hands
engaged in agricultural pursuits used to be by a long way
greater than in all other branches put together ; but now this
is reversed entirely, and while the number of hands is not
increasing yet, as we have seen, it is to this class more than to
the others that invitations to emigrate are addressed. Hence
it is that emigration has told so severely against the farmer in
withdrawing the best hands, shortening ttie supply, and at
the same time increasing very much tlie rate of wages requir-
ing to be given. While I say this, I am far from failing to
recognise the existence of not a small class of most deserving
men among our farm servants. I am wishful to accord that
just meed of praise (which is their due) to the better class of
agricultural labourers, whose earnest endeavour after their
masters' interest and careful execution of the several duties
imposed are well worthy of commendation. A good hand is
deserving of good remuneration, whilst an inferior or careless
hand may be worth little or even less than no wages at all.
In fact, there are many instances of farmers' property having
been destroyed by self-willed or thoughtless individuals to an
extent far beyond their wage. Another cause of scarcity of
labour which operates with scarcely less force than that already
mentioned, is the high wages offered in the mining and manu-
facturing industries, and the consequently strong temptation
to farm-servants to betake themselves to those more lucrative,
if less healthy, occupations. Manufacturers and others have
larger profits than farmers, and are enabled with ease to re-
place from the country men who formerly filled the situations,
and who have emigrated. The unexampled run of prosperity
with which this nation has been so singularly favoured, has
done much to increase this scarcity, by immensely increasing
the demand for labour of all sorts, and thus bringing into
requisition the services of the agricultural labourers to meet
the pressing requirements of general trade. There is a third
cause, which I will here only mention, as I shall afterwards
have occasion to refer to it more at length, in discussing the
remedies which I would suggest in the present state of matters
— I mean the difliculty lying in the way of the marriage of
our farm servants, and the defective accommodation afforded
to those who are married. Whether or not I have been suc-
cessful in my endeavours to point out the causes of this
scarcity of labour, of the greatness of this scarcity, and the
importance of finding some rem. dy, there can be no question.
I doubt not all of you experience its effects in the difliculty
of obtaining good hands, and the very high wages necessary
to secure even inferior workers. This experience is not con-
fined to us here, for in the South there is at present a wide-
spread and keenly-fought contest between the employer and
employed in the agricultural districts, the end of which it is
difficult to foresee. Granting, then, the evil, it were well to
endeavour to seek out, and, if possible, to find a remedy. In
498
THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE.
trying to do so, I would suggest one or two possible means
towards tliis end. A careful consideration of the whole ques-
tion has suggested to roe one or two steps which it appears to
me would at least greatly alleviate the evil complained of. It
might be supposed that the natural and simple remedy fortius
state of matters was to be foutid in an enlianced wage, wliich
course, adopted by manufacturers in their case, has had the
desired effect of securing a sufficiency of hands. But these
high wages liave only been obtained from the employers in the
mercantile world through a system of trades unions and
strilses, the prevalence of which among farm servants would
be ruination to the farmer, and a cause of unparalleled dis-
tress to the farm servant. Besides, though these very high
wages have been wrung out of the master, the result has beeu
that he has been in many cases compellea to conduct his busi-
ness with little or no profit — in some cases even at a loss.
Indeed, I know myself of sundry firms which during the past
year have done a large business, but at a positive loss. Now,
as no man is willing to spend his strengtii or his means for
naught, the result is that industry in at present receiving a
check through the successful competition of foreign countries,
and it will be well for our artisans if they do not require to
pay for their recent inflated wages by a period of half-time,
or even want of work. If the present difficulty iu securing
farm labour is to be left to be adjusted merely by increase of
wage, it is to be feared that the same series of contests between
master and servant and the same disastrous result to both will
ensue. Is there no remedy whisli will meet the case without
involving these evils ? Gentlemen, I fear we arable farmers
are not warranted by our narrow profits in a furtlier increase
of wages, for the advance that has taken place already during
the last year or two is, I believe, being considerably felt by
arable farmers in Ayrshire, and to contemplate a further rise
seems to me, as an arable farmer, to be a very serious matter.
"Wages have, as nearly as I can ascertain, risen during the last
ten years in the following ratios : Ploughmen, from 65 to 70
per cent. ; female servants, from 70 to 77 per cent. ; day's
wages, from 60 to 65 per cent. Any further increase would, I
fear, be the last straw which would break the back of the
camel, and land many in the gazette. I would offer, then, one
or two other suggestions which have occurred to me as likely
to lead to an alleviation of this evil ; and I am glad to see
that one of the Glasgow daily papers — The North British
Daily Mail — in an able leader the other day, strongly advo-
cated at least one of these points which I had noticed for
suggestion.
1st. The adoption, whenever practicable, of payment by
piece-work.
2nd. The increased use of machinery.
3rd. The increased use of artificial manure.
4th. Increased attention to the physical comfort and moral
well-being of our employes in the way specially of providing
better house accommodation. Sundry other remedies have
occurred to me, and have been suggested by others, which,
however, I have not sufficiently considered to enable me to
pronounce confidently in regard to them ; such as —
5th. Giving a bonus upon profits in addition to wages.
Gth. Giving an allotment of land to each servant for his
own use.
7th. Adoption of the co-operative system.
1 have sometimes been struck in observing the different manu-
facturing processes to notice the great extent to which the
practice of piece-work has been adopted ; and, as this practice
has been found profitable in manufactures, I am inclined to
think that we have erred in not ere this adopting it more
extensively in agricultural matters. It is quite true that in
many parts of farming operations this is impracticable, but in
many cases a little attention and management would overcome
the difficulty of applying the system. I know that some
object to piece-work as leading to scamping; but I would
much rather lifve work done quickly, even though not
done with absolute thoroughness, rather than tlowly,
and-, as is too often the case, not one whit
better notwithstanding. The system leads to constant
diligence on the part of the employes by the most
powerful of all motives, an appeal to self-interest. As men-
tioned already. The Glasyow Daily Mail had last week a
leader upon this subject, in which the Editor decidedly recom-
mends and cogently argues for the adoption of this system.
The increased use of machinery is another and important
source to which we must look for an alleviation of the present
difficulty. Witliin recent years great advances have been
made in this direction, but there still remains a good deal to
be done. There are a good many of the smaller farms where
hand labour is still used, where machine labour would be
both better aud cheaper ; and even on some of the larger
farms its use is not so extensive as it might be. Might it not
be a proper thing for such a Club as this to promote tlie
extended use of machinery by acquiring such machinery itself
for the benefit of its members ? A more extended use of
artificial manures, by producing on tiie farm a larger bulk of
fodder and food, and, as a consequence, allowiug a greater
head of stock to be kept, furnishes to the farmer a propor-
tionately larger supply of home-made manure, thus saving the
expense of carting from a distance. The fourth remedy
which I suggested was increased attention to the physical
and moral well-being of our servants, especially in the direc-
tion of providing better house accommodation. In most of
the arable farms the majority of the servants are either lodged
at the farm-house or in a bothy upon the farm. la either
case a number of men and women are living in familiar inter-
course at an early age, and in circumstances not the most to
be desired. One great attraction of the higher wage offered
to the town operative is the facility which it affords for early
marriage. We are not able to offer the same wages, but an
equally effective and at the same time a much less expensive
help would be s;iveii in the supply of cottage accommodation
for a considerably larger number of hands than at present.
This would besides have various other indirect advantages to
the farmer. A man is much less likely to shift about from
farm to farm when he is living with wife and family in a
cottage of his own, than as a single man without attachment
or encumbrance. The wives and families, too, of such cottages
would form a field from which to draw labour for extra
seasons, such as weeding, harvest work, &c., as used to be
largely done in the then more widely extended use of the
cottage system. In the land of Burns, and the town of Ayr,
no apology is necessary for quoting from the " Cottar's
Saturday Night " a description of scenes which can only
exist under such a system as that I am advocating:
The toil-worn cottar frae his labour goes.
This night his weekly moil is at an end.
Collects his spades, his mattocks, and his hoes,
Hoping the morn in ease and rest to spend,
And weary o'er the moor his course does homeward bend.
At length his lonely cot appears in view.
Beneath the shelter of an aged tree ;
The expectant wee things toddlin', stacher through.
To meet their dad, wi' flichterin' noise and glee ;
His wee bit ingle blLukin' bonnilie.
His clean hearthstane, his thriftie vrifie's smile,
His lisping infant prattling on his knee,
Does a' his weary carking cares beguile.
And makes him quite forget his labour and his toil.
From scenes like these old Scotia's grandeur springs.
That makes her loved at home, revered abroad.
With this advantage of a cottage home, a very much smaller
wage will suffice to enable a man to keep his wife and bring
up his family iu comfort than would be necessary in a town.
In fact, the wage we can afford to give would really be a
greater boon to the men than that they can command in a
town, if we take into account that they would iiave fewer taxes,
less danger of infectious diseases, and fewer doctors' bills to
pay. Your time and patience alike forbid that I siiould speak
further of the other remedies to whieh I have alluded, and at
any rate I am not prepared to express a decided opinion in
regard to them. Only, as to an allotment of land to each
workman as proposed by some, I think that the very nature
of the agricultural labourer's work renders the employment of
his spare time in work of the same kind in his allotment un-
suitable. After a day's active work on a farm bodily relaxa-
tion is necessary, and may be found with advantage both men-
tally aud physically in the companionship of his family and
his books, or even in the culture of a flower plot. The adop-
tion of the allotment system would be injurious alike to the
labourer and tlie farmer. The question before us is one of
importance and difficulty, and I trust that in the discussion
to Ibllow we will have the benefit of suggestions from the riper
experience of some of the older members.
The Chaikman said they were much indebted to Mr. Bruce
for his very able paper. It was a difficult and delicate subject
to deal with; but amongst the many things that had appeared
in the newspapers ou the question lately, he did not think' he
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
499
had seen a more sensible production than that which they had
just listened to. He hoped the members would express their
minds freely on the subject.
Mr. A. YouNU (Kilhenzie) thought Mr. Bruce had shown
great good sense and discrimination in dealing with the sub-
ject. He had laid more stress on the effects of emigration
tlian he would be disposed to do. The great cause of tlie
scarcity of agricultural labour, to his mind, was the extraor-
dinary development of the iron and coal trades, which had
created an unexampled demand for labour, and that demand
had been chiefly supplied from the country districts, and from
amongst farm servants. As Scotch farmers, tliey might con-
gratulate themselves on holding a more favourable position in
regard to servants than some of their brethren in England.
At present there was a strike on the one hand, and a lock-out
on the other, which, in the very nature of the case, must be a
serious loss to both employer and employed. Some two years
ago the farmers in the South-west of England, with the sanc-
tion of many of the proprietors, saw fit to lock out their
labourers because they asked for 12s. per week, and would not
accept Os. He had al ways thought that was a great mistake on
the part of the farmers, and he believed they themselves were
of that opinion to-day, because they would be glad to pay
much higher wages now for worse men. The Scotch farmers
had gone on increasing the wages of their servants in accord-
ance with the enhanced value of labour, which was a more
satisfactory way than locking out men who asked what was
really a low wage. He was of opinion that the habit of giving
a very low wage, as was done in the South of England, was
very bad for all parties concerned. He happened to live for
some time in the South of England, where the wages were 9s.
or 10s. per week, and the work accomplished was so small that
it was dear enough at the price. A man who had to live and
bring up a family on such a wage, had neither the physical nor
the spiritual energy to do much work. Such labourers as
were to be found in the North of England and in Scotland
would be of more profit to the farmer, though they got a half
more wage. He believed that in the end good would come
out of this strike and lock-out. With reference to the allot-
ment system, he did not think it would do .to give every man
an acre of land, as was proposed in some parts of England ;
but it might serve a good purpose to give a piece of ground to
their best men, as giving them an inducement to stay on the
farm.
Mr. LmDSAY (^Irvine), said that from the increased facili-
ties for travelling by means of railways, and the increase of
intelhgence by means of newspapers, it was inevitable that
there should be an equalisation of the wages of labourers
throughout the country ; and the tendency to equalise was
rather a tendency to level up than to level down. Different
methods of meeting and overcoming the diiliculty had been
pointed out in the paper which had been read, and in addition
to these he might suggest the greater necessity that there was
now than hitherto of a more complete working of the land —
that was, making the breaks less, and doing them more
thoroughly. The general adoption of that practice, he
thought, was of special importance in a county like Ayrshire,
where a great proportion of the land was comparatively poor.
The amount of work involved in a large break with a small
produce was certainly not desirable now with the high price
of labour, when with half the labour and generous dealing
with the land an equal produce might result Irom a smaller
area.
Mr. Cardwell (Knockshoggle) was disposed to agree with
Mr. Young, that the high price that labour now commanded
ia the iron and coal districts, had more to do with the scarcity
of agricultural labourers than any other cause. Emigration
for many years had not been much on the increase in propor-
tion to the increase of the population ; but speculation in the
mining districts had drawn away many of their farm labourers.
He was situated in the very midst of coal pits. About a
twelvemonth ago, miners were making every day considerably
more than double what an agriculiural labourer was getting,
and coming out from his work at one o'clock when the farm
labourer was going out with his horses at mid-day. Now the
wages of farm servants had risen, and they were as well off as
miners who were getting only three day's work in the week,
and 3s. a-day less than they were getting a year since. Al-
though he was no prophet, he thouglit they had reached the
turning point in regard to labourer's wages. He knew some
labourers and ploughmen who had betaken themselves to the
pits, who were attending the fair to-day looking for fees. They
were getting only three day's work per week in the pits, and
with the offtakes lor coals, &c., a comparatively small margin
was left for their maintenance. Moreover, a colliery ma-
nager had informed him that machinery was certain soon to be
introduced into the pits, by means of which a larger quantity
of coal would be produced with fewer hands.
Mr. D. CUNINGIIAME said he was very much pleased with
the paper that liad been read ; and in the main points of it he
entirely agreed. He did not think the allotment system was
at all suited for Ayrshire, where the farms as a rule were so
small. The question of the dissatisfaction of servants was one
that was very difficult to grapple with. It would be a great
matter if anything could be done to induce them to remain
more permanently on the land. Whether it was the fault of
the farmers in not taking safficieut interest in the labourers, or
the fault of the ploughmen themselves, he could not say ; but
the fact was, they were always ready to go and seek for new
quarters. He was afraid there was something wrong on both
sides. Mr. Young had referred to what was going on in the
South of England. He was afraid the English farmers had
not given a very good example of prudence. He did not think
the Scotch farmers had the least intention of creating unions,
far less of locking out undor-paid servants. It would be mucli
better if these men would come north hem, rather than wuit
amongst Southern farmers, who would starve them out.
Mr. Reid (Clune) thought they must study to abridge labour
as much as possible. He would be glad to see more machinery
introduced — as for instance in the way of steam cultivation.
He was an old man, but he was for going a-head, and would
like to see steam cultivation introduced. He did not approve
of allotments to ploughmen, for he thought it would be a
great waste of land. He would give them a good garden and
a comfortable cottage ; but allotments of land were out of
the question. They were fortunate in this district in not being
troubled with unions. They were comparatively well served.
Wages had about doubled since he first began to employ labour,
but the prices of everything had risen in proportion. So long
as the prosperity of the country continued, they must lay their
account for high wages.
Mr. Brown (Ardneil) said he was scarcely prepared to en-
dorse his friend Mr. Cuninghame's remarks in regard to the
English farmers. He was not satisfied that tliey were to blame.
He had been told just this morning of the hard usage these
farmers had received. It was not so much their labourers they
were contending against, as agitators of the M'Donald type,
who were stirring up the men and setting them against the
masters. The farmers said, " We do not object to give our
labourers fair compensation ; but we do object to them being
under the influence of men who are stirring them up, and
doing both them and us harm." That was the reason of the
lock-out. He did not know any farmers or employers of
labour who would give money to men that tliey could
withhold from them ; they all took their labourers at the
market rate if they could get them. It would be the interest
of both parties in England to come to terms with each others ;
and no doubt they would have done so, if the men had not
been led, as the miners had been here, to their own hurt.
Labourers would naturally take the best price they could get
for their labour, and farmers would just as naturally take it
at the cheapest rate they could get. As to allotments of land,
he did not see how labourers could get time to cultivate it ; many
of thein could not get time to cultivate a garden, and it had to
be done for thein. One thing that was needed was that servants
should be properly educated to know when they were well
used and well off, and to see the evils of that mode of chang-
ing about, which was so injurious to all concerned.
The Chairman said it iiad been admitted that there was an
indefinable something which affected the friendly relations
between masters and men. He thought if farmers, who,
in the ordinary way of speaking, were considered the
superiors of the labourers, would take a greater interest in
their servants, speak kindly to them, and make it manifest to
them tliat they iiad their interest temporally and spiritually at
heart, tliey would find tiiat tiiey would not be so ready to leave
them. In liis own experience, he had had some servants who
had stayed with him for years, and the eiiief reason was that a
bond of sympathy had grown up between them that was not
easily broken. It was not gold or silver that made it, neither
did gold or silver sever it. Servants must be looked upon as
something more than mere slaves of the field, otherwise the
500
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
present difficulty in connection with the laliour question would
never be got over.
Mr. Wallace (Braeliead) expressed his cordial concurrence
with the remarks of the Ciiairruan. He then went on to say
that he approved of piece-work where it could be employed in
the work of the farm. He hnd tried it lately in the cleaning
of mangold. It was well known how much time a ))arty of
women could spend over that to very little purpose. Well the
other day he offered to pay them at the rate of Is. 6d. per ton ;
and there were three or four put to it, and made 3s. a day each
for four or five days ; and he was satisfied he was no loser.
He looked for much benefit yet also from improved machinery.
He thought with Mr. Caldwell that the worst of their difficulty
was past. Men who had left him six months since to work in
the coal pits were now heartily sick of it, and desirous of get-
ting back to their old employment. Perhaps they would now
get back their good men, the want of whom for farm work had
been much felt for tha last eighteen mouths or two years.
They would have to pay for their labour just according to what
it was worth ; but landlords must be prepared to take rents in
proportion, for they could not expect that farmers would be
able to give as much for the land, when paying so much more
for their labour.
Mr. Cu^'XiNGHAME (Shields) thought the more general
adoption of piece-work would be beneficial to all concerned. It
would benefit deserving parties most ; for what they had chiefly
to contend with during this scarcity of labour was, that the
most efiicient hands had been drafted off to other employments,
and they had been left witii second-rate workers. He tried the
piece-work system last autumn in the taking up of turnips.
Some strangers came to him and engaged to lift them by the
acre, and made very good wages. One of his own regular
hands came to him and said, if there was a shilling a day more
to be gained in this way, she thought she should have it as
well. He agreed ; but after working a week, he found she
had only made l^d. a day more than she had been getting,
whereas the others were making double her wage. This
showed the advantage that might be got from the system.
Mr. Bruce's remarks in regard to their endeavouring to in-
crease the quantity of the crops by being more judicious and
liberal in the treatment of the land, were also most important.
If they were able to raise a greater amount of produce from
tile same breadth it would enable them to meet the additional
expenditure. He also agreed with Mr. Lindsay as to the de-
sirability of curtailing ihe extent of their break. If they were
to spread their farmyard manure over a less breadth, they
migho have the same amount of crop with less labour. He
quite agreed with the chairman's remarks as to the treatment
of servants. Still they had a great difficulty to face in the un-
settled state into which servants had got, chiefly by the en-
hanced wages now being obtained at other employments.
They had got into a wandering state, especially young people,
and they had not well got settled down anywhere till they
began to look about for a change. They could scarcely
hope that this difficulty would be overcome until land-
lords provided better acecommodation. The Assistant-
Commissioners sent down fome years ago to report on the
employment of women and cliildren in agriculture, had put on
record in the blue-book that the county stood very far down in
the scale in regard to its cottage accommodation. The report
was anything but complimentary to Ayrshire proprietors, and
he thought they should not cease knocking at their doors to
remind them of their duty in reference to this matter.
Mr. Bruce having briefly replied, the discussion closed ;
but on the motion of Mr. R. M. Cunninghame, the club agreed
to petition as formerly in favour of Mr. Fordyce's Labourers'
Cottages (Scotland) Bill.
THE
LABOURER S'
UNION.
A public meeting in support of Ihe National Agricultural
Labourers' Union was held in Exeter Hall, under the
presidency of Mr. S. Morley, M.P. The hall was crowded.
The Chairman, in opening the proceedings, said that he
had consented to take the chair with a deep sense of responsi-
bility, but he did so because he believed that tiie question at
issue was a just one, and was of vital importance to a large
and interesting body of our fellow-countrymen. The tacts of
the case lay m a small compass. At the village of Exning, in
Cambridgeshire, some 300 or 400 men hud demanded a rise of
wage from 13s. to 14s. a week, and in consequence of its not
))eing conceded they struck, as they had a perfect right to do.
However, they were not present tliat night on account of the
strike, but because the farmers had locked out some 2 000
men because they belonged to the Union. Now, he had
always believed in a trades union. At tiie same time trades
unionists had no right to coerce non-unionists. Tiiese agri-
cultural labourers had wisely joined tlie Union, the distinct
effect of which in very many tiiousands of cases had been to
add half-a-crown a week to tlieir wages. The men occupied a
better and more independent position than formerly. He re-
garded the lock-out as an act of tyranny, and was there that
night to state his readiness to help the agricultural labourers
to the best of his ability.
Mr. Ball (delegate for the Newmarket district) thought
that they had attempted — perhaps sometimes they had failed,
for it was not always easy for men like himself — to control
themselves under tiie influence of exasjerated feelings. It had
been said that the labourers were ungratelnl, but if that was
so it was because tiiey had caught the infection from others
who were afflicted with the same disease. It liad also been
asserted by writers in the jjress that the labourers were a
drunken set, and that increase of wages only meant increased
drunkenness. His answer to tiiat was, that if they spent all
their wages in drink it would not make them feuch very great
drunkards, lleferririg to the strike, he regretted that any
employers could be so inliuman as to refuse the extra Is. per
week asked for. He wished to correct the chairman in a
alight error which he had made. Only GO men asked lor the
increased wage at Exning, and the employers never allowed
ihem a chance to strike. At Aluerton, in East Suffolk, 180
men asked for the increase, and at the end of the week, when it
was not granted, they simply stayed away from their work. It
was not the increase of wages alone which the farmers resisted.
They felt that the rod of oppression was being broken, and
they were animated by the desire to crush any attempts at in-
dependence in their infancy. A few men on every farm were
paid extra wages, but in many cases they worked time equiva-
lent to nine days per week. As a Warwickshire shepherd he
had for three months together never changed his clothes but
once a week, and during that time the ordinary wages of the
district were never more than I3s. per week. There had lately
appeared in print letters from a lady depicting a rural paradise
enjoyed by tlie labourers there employed. But he could tell
them a different story. He could tell them of an old man and
his wife who had laboured on that estate for scores of years,
who were now receiving one shilling and a stone of flour per
week from the parish, and the old man worked on fine days
on the carriage drive of the Earl of Stradbroke at sixpence per
day. In conclusion, he said that labourers on strike were dis-
playing a spirit of heroism which nothing but years of oppres-
sion could have enabled them to do, and he trusted that the
result of this meeting would be the bringing the present state
of affairs to au amicable conclusion.
Mr. CiiARLls KERRiDCiE, farm labourer, East Suffolk,
nearly sixty years of age, said he had come to tell the story of
his life. When first able to toddle he was turned out to
frighten birds, to get a few pence to help to buy bread. That
went on 'jntil he got into his " teens," and from 18 until 22
he worked as a ploughman and tended the horses for 5s. a
week. At 22 he got married, and was advanced to 7s. per week,
and subsequently advanced to 8s. per week. In 1847 flour
was at a iiigh price, as much as 2s. lOd. per stone, and his
master raised liira to 10s. per week. At that period he had
seven cliildren, and when he took home his 10s. his wife said,
" It will take 9s. lid. to get fk»ur enough to last us five days."
He replied, " I cannot help it, it is all I have got." During
the summer of 1847 flour advanced to 43. per stone, and his
wages were raised to 123. per week. They used to say if a
man could get a stone of flour a day he could get on, but in
those days he used to work two days for one stone. Now that
the wages were I3s. per week the labourer's wage was de-
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
501
ducted i" lie lost liilf a day from inclemency of weather, and
on the average for tim year the wage would not be more
than 10s. per week. Wheu the news of the Union reached
his part of the country he took the lead, and in consec^uence
his employer decided to discharge him and turn him out of
house and home.
Mr. Joseph Arch s;)id that so long as the farm labourers
combined in a lawful manner he should do his best to lead
tliem boldly and determinedly in the future as he had done iu
the past. The farmers had refused arbitration. The demands
ef tlie labourers had not been exorbitant, and be said that if
the present system of land cultivation could not he carried on
witliout sacrificing the comforts of the labourers' home and
bringing to a premature grave thousands of honest toilers, then
let that system die. Was it Euslish in the farmers to try and
crush out the Union ? ("Wo, no"). It was fur the people of
England to say whether it should exist or whether it should
be annihilated. If it was crushed they would have no farm
labourers left in England. If labour was simply to be treated
as inanimate material, as so much coal and iron, then let not
England boast of her superior Christianity. The rise of wages
which had been obtained in some districts had greatly amelio-
rated the condition of the labourers, and a justice of the peace
for Somersetshire recently stated that since that result had
been attained crime and drunkenness had been diminished. [Je
complained that the labourer.^ who belonged to the Union
were harshly treated, and instanced the case of a man wlio
applied to a board of guardians for a coffin in which to bury
liis dead child. The man was asked if he belonged to the
Union, and upon replying in the affirmative, he was told,
" Then go to Arch for a coffin." Well, his fellow-workmen
subscribed, bought the raan a coffin, and followed his child to
the grave. All the labourers wanted was a fair day's wa^e
for a fair day's work, and if they could obtain that they would
then be able to obtain and to experience that good feeling
which there had been so much twaddle talked about. Did the
upper classes want the labourers to be virtuous ? then make
them happy. Did they want them to be criminals ? then
make them miserable, for misery was the high road to crime.
He rejoiced that the class to which he had the honour to
belong had, since the commencement of this agitation, be-
li.aved themselves so well amid so many storms of uncalled-for
abuse, lie thought he could indicate how this difficulty might
be settled. Whilst the cultivation of the land was the only
occupation taught the labourer, let him have some land to
cultivate. It was said that he had no capital. Well, money
liad been lent by the Government at a fair per-centage to drain
and improve impoverished landed estates. Why should not
that which liad been done iu one case be done in the other ?
Let the Government lend the money. Wliy not give back to
the farm labourers the 7,000,000 acres of common lands which
had been taken from them ? Why not bring tlie 10,000,0uO
acres which were lying waste into cultivation ? Talk about
surplus labour, why, he would never admit that there was any
surplus labour iu tlie country whilst there was an acre of laud
untilled. If the farm labourers of this country could have a
fair field and no favour they would not have many agricultural
paupers left. Let the labourer liave his two or three, or four
or five acres each, they would make the present barren land
smile with beauty, and instead of the bone and sinew being
driven from the laud, every honest mau would be a guard of
honour to the throne and to the nation. Open up the laud tj
the labourers, and they would not flood the towns. Open up
the laud to them on fair and I'.onest principles — they wanted
no confiscation — and the towns would not have their back
slums, and would not need tliem. He appealed to the meeting
and to the metropolis for practic.il help, and he believed that
iu the future history of this struggle it would be told how tlie
meeting at Exeter Hall in April, lS7i, had given such an
impetus to the movement that made it too strong for farmers'
tyranny to put down.
At this stage of the proceedings a collection, which v.-as
freely responded to, was made throughout tlie iiall. Mr.
Dixon, M.F., annnoueed a subscription of £100 from the
chairman, £100 from Mr. P. A. Taylor, M.P., £50 from Mr.
Dixon, M.P., £10 from Mr. Jenkius, and a number of other
sums from other gentlemen in aid of the Union.
Mr. Dixon, M.P., moved a formal resolution, to the effect
that the meeting deeply regretted that the moderate and rea-
sonable demands of the labourers liad been met by a general
lock-out of all unionists in certain districts, expressive of sym-
pathy with the labourers in their lawful right of combination,
and pledging the meeting to heartily support the Union.
Mr. W. II.\LL said he was nut the only landowner in Suffolk
who disapproved of the lock-out. But he begged that the
meeting would not judge all the farmers harshly, for there
were among them some very kind-hearted men. The farmers
were liable to make mistakes, and just now they were more
puzzled than angry, for they did not know which Union to
attack.
The Rev. Llewelyn Davies seconded the resolution, which
was supported by Mr. Jenkins, M.P., and Mr. Mundella,
M.P., and carried with acclamation.
THE FARMERS' PROTECTION ASSOCIATIONS.
A meeting of the owners and occupiers of land in West
Suffolk was held at the Town Hall, Bury St. Edmund's, for
the purpose of forming a Farmers' Association, with the
object of protecting farmers against the demands of the
Labourers' Unions. Col. F. M. Wilson was in the chair.
The Chairman said that of all the meetings he had ever
presided over this gave him the least satisfaction, and the
cause of it tliey must all deeply regret. The interests of
agriculture were split asunder : the employers of capital and
brains were opposed to those who find the muscles and do the
work ot the farm. In consequence of a strike in the parish
of Exning, the employers of the adjoiniug parish determined
to lock out. It was for the meeting to discuss whether or
not such a step was not advisable. It must be admitted that
the organisation of the labourers was not contrary to law
The farmers had no riglit to lock men out because they formed
an association for the advancement of their interests. The
question with the farmers was to what rules they pledged
their observance. In the first place, there were three rules
which every man of reasonable sense must agree were ob-
objectionable. The first was that no labourer should receivs
less than 18s. per week ; the second, that an executive com-
iniltee sitting at Leamington may send down an order for a
strike at a week's notice ; and tlie third, that no larger
number of men should be allowed to strike at one time than
could be supported by the Union. The object of the Uii'on
was clearly to lay down terms to the farmers, district by dis-
trict; but the labourers must be made to understand distinctly
that it was impossible for the farmers to submit to such terms.
They were not going to be frighteued at the B shop of Man-
chester or by Mr. Arch using the most dangerous and mis-
chievous language, or to use such language themselves, yet
they fully intended to maiutain their rights, and to admit,
those of their men. Whilst they had an organisation of the
labouring classes, it seemed to liiia (Col. Wilson) to be abso-
lutety necessary that there should be an organisation of far-
mers to oppose tliein. He wished it to be understood, ho'.v-
ever, tliat his view of organisation was simply and purely
defensive. They did not want to dictate t ) the men, but at
the same time they would not allow the men to dictate their
own terms. The best thing that could iiappen would be that
the men should be induced to leave the Union, and he could not
help thinking that a good deal might be doue, as he liad
already suggested in the newspapers, by friendly meetings iu
tlie different parishes. As far as he could make out, a great
many men, and old men especially, liad been induced to join
the Union with the idea that it is a friendly society. They
had forgotten that friendly societies were simply based upon
calculations as to the average length of life, and were the
results of practical experience ; and any organisation professing
to be a friendly society, and to give relief with.out iirevious
adequate payment, was only a delusion. Old men of about
seventy years seemed to think that by paying 3d. for three or
four weeks they were making provision for old age, and be
thought it desirable that the true state of the case sliould be
pointed out to them. At a future time it might perhaps be a
K K
602
THE FARMEE'S MAGAZINE.
question for Government consideration whether a benefit
society' in connection vvitli the Government could not be
established, so tliat workinff men putting their money into it
vfould have the same security as in the case of deposits in the
Post-office. At present, however, he had only to suggest the
formation of tbis association, and steps could be arranged for
the future. He was of opinion that the lock-out was justifi-
able as a last resource if these rules were persisted in, but the
farmers should hold out the hand of friendship as long as pos-
sible. It must be remembered that the men had behaved ex-
ceedingly well. Let them as masters do the same ; let them
meet the men fairly if resolutely ; let them keep their tempers
and keep the peace. The Chairman then read the following
resolution, which he had drawn up in anticipation :
Whereas, certain of the agricultural labourers have formed
themselves into an association called the Labourers' (Juion,
and whereas by the rules of that Union, which they have
pledged themselves to obey, it is provided —
1st. That no labourer shall receive less than 18s. a-week ;
2nd. That a strike may be ordered by the executive com-
mittee at a week's notice ;
3rd. That only so many are at any time to cease work as
can be supported from the funds of the Union, thereby
evidently intending to dictate terms in detail district by
district;
That in the opinion of this meeting it is necessary that an
association be formed, to be called the West Suffolk Farmers'
Defence Association, the object of the Association to be to
resist by the united action of the employers any unfair de-
mands from the united action of the men'
Membership shall consist of a subscription of 2s. 6d. If
further funds are necessary, it is proposed to raise them
according to the assessment of each member's holding. That
landowners and employers of labour are invited to join the
Association, and that a committee be appointed with power to
add to their number to carry oat the objects of the Association.
The Marquis of Bristol proposed that the resolution be
carried. There was a difficulty in the matter because there
were two bodies belonging to different Unions, and it would be
very advisable to know which Union tliey were combating.
The rules embodied in the resolution were those, he believed,
of tJie Lincolnshire Union, which had nothing to do with the
Leamington Union.
The Rev. C. W. Jones asked if it could be ascertained by
the farmers whether their men had pledged themselves to
these rules, as he was informed that there were various Asso-
ciations not connected either with the Leamington or the Lin-
colnshire Union.
The Chairman said, so far a& he understood, the Lincoln-
shire Association was that which the men round Thetford,
Ickworth, Pakenham, and Norton had joined.
Mr. B. J. M. Praed seconded the motion.
The Kev. C. W. Jones said lie thought they ought to pause
before they assumed that all labourers belonged to the Lin-
colnshire Union. Originally, they joined that Union, but now
there were many smaller ones confined to districts which had
rules of tiieir own. lie agreed that employers must combine,
but he objected to the word "combat" that had been used.
He would rather that it was an organisation to treat with the
men (" No, no"). As the Union existed, it Would perhaps be
better that it should be recognised ("No, no," and hisses)
Unions exist now in other branches, and farmers could not
expect to escape. He spoke as an employer of labour, which
he was not (" IIoo," and hisses). As a small owner of land
in the county, he had a standing here according to the terms
of the advertisement calling the meeting. He did not believe
that a lock-out would crush the Union (" Nonsense" ; " That
is the only step to take"). The Committee that met last Wed-
nesday proposed that step, but it would do no good to the men
to strike, or to the master to lock-out. Wages would find
tiieir own level. The most probable result of any extensive
exclusion of workmen would be their removal to another part
of the country, wiiere wages are obtained at a higher rate.
Mr. George Gayford (Barrow) recorded it as his experi-
ence that wages would find their level, and expressed himself
in favour of the combination both of employers and employed.
He once subscribed to send nine men away, and of these eight
came back, and the other man stayed away because there was
a warrant against him. Though they earned 4s. a day in the
North of England, the work, they said, was too much for
them. He was also in favour of attempts to reason with the
labourer, and objected to the interference of a third party.
He did not like the term " lock-out." The masters did not
lock the men out ; they locked themselves out, and if they
liked to, let them (" Bravo"). By all means let them belong
to the Unions, but they must be told that their employers had
come to the determination to employ no Union men.
The Chairman then put the resolution, which was carried
unanimously.
Mr. J. Gardiner (Acton) said that last year the plan of
combination was adopted with Sudbury for head-quarters, and
was eminently successful. After the lock-out, a number of
men brought their tickets back, and continued to serve their
own masters, and they were serving them to this day. Others
were drafted away to the North, but there they found they
were compelled to undergo such hardships as they had never
experienced before ; but when they returned they were better
men, and there was now no grumbling or complaint of their
masters, because they had been obliged to lock out the year
before. Mr. Gardiner then related this story of Union dele-
gates which he had from one of his men. After collecting
the coppers from the unfortunate labourers after a meeting in
a parish, they went to the village inn, and fared sumptuously,
and in a short time they had spent more money than they had
been able to collect. How was it to be expected by the la-
bourers that they would be benefited by a class of men who
simply traded upon the agitation, and who had no character,
no position, or influence, but that of demagoguism ? Being an
Essex man, he did not like to propose a resolution, thougli he
had a great inclination to do so.
Mr. Stanley (Bury), Secretary to the Association, said
that the action to be taken must be regulated by the number
of members who could be got to join the Association. He
was badly treated last year. About three weeks before har-
vest he asked his baiUff what the men wanted for harvest, and
the reply was that they could not say until they had consulted
the Union. He directed that they should send in their terms
in a week's time, and they did so, asking £9 5s. for the eight
weeks, as against £8 the previous year. On consultation with
his brother-farmers, he decided that the utmost he would give
should be £8 15s., and informed the men of his decision.
In consequence, they gave notice to leave the following pay-
night (Friday), and they did so without staying to see him
(Mr. Stanley), although he left word that he would be over
the following Saturday, and this treatment he felt to he the
most unkind. He was advised to give them £10 to come
back, but instead, he got other men, and managed as best he
could. He forgave his men after harvest, and had never
heard any more of the Union. He agreed with the idea of
trying to reason with the men. (A voice : " It is no use
trying that.") That he must leave to the meeting, but they
could not carry their farms on with such rules hanging over
their heads. Mr. Stanley suggested that the farmers should
individually meet their labourers, and try to see what could be
done by reasoning.
Capt. HoRTON said he did not think they should dissolve
without coming to a practical resolution. His opinion was
that the agitation among the labourers was a very important
political agitation, and was by no means confined to the ad-
justment of wages, which would adjust themselves. In addi-
».\on to their idea that by joining this Union they were enrolling
themse'ves m a Friendly Society, they had the idea that hereafter
theywoild become the possessors i .ithe land. Landed pro-
perty ^as -'^"' included in the war tf.i twas being carried en
against all p i v,rty. The men were really ignorant of what
their wroig swere. In one district 17s. a-week. Is. less than
was asked by the Union, had been offered to the men and
declined, he believed because they were convinced that they
were earning more before the strike. He had spoken to a
cottager into whose cottage flowed £170 yearly, and the rent
he paid for this lodging for his family, which numbered eight
or nine, was £3. Tliat man could not be considered badly off,
and when this was pointed out to him he considered himself
not badly off. And so with many others. The unity between
master and man was much greater formerly. The farmer was
generally only a smaU capitalist, but that system was now ex-
ploded. Now, the farmers had larger properties, and did not
see their men so much as they were wont. Believing that the
men had been induced to join the Unions owing to false im-
pressions and reports spread by delegates, he moved " That
efforts be made in every parish to induce the men to leave the
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
503
Uuion, by poioting out the fallacies uuder vvliich tliey may
have joined it, especially as to its being a Friendly Society."
Mr. King (Barton), agreed with the observations of tlic
previous speaker. He made aome further almost inaudible
remarks on the delegates, whom he styled " itinerant spouters,
with Communistic feelings in their hearts."
The Chairman supported the resolution, observing that it
would not debar the meeting from any subseiiuent action.
Mr. G. G.vvroPD gaid that he was afraid that any attempt
of the kind to dissever the men from the Union would tend to
make them adhere closer to it.
The CiiAiioiAN said, in liis own parish he had offered all
men who did not join the Union a rise of Is. They had the
alternative of accepting this, of remaining where they were or
of leaving for better wages. He had not found any had left.
Mr. Byfoud (,Glemsford),aivised the farmers' organisation
to altotfethcr ignore the Union, for if they acknowledged it it
would be their masters, and there would be no peace till tbey
had gaiued the object expressed in the rules they had heard,
and a great deal more besides. He held that every farmer
who only tried to persuade his men to leave the Union aud did
not lock-out was just as big an advocate of the Union as Joseph
Arch. The Union advocates might exterminate, as they said
they would, the present class of farmers, and it therefore be-
came a publi-j question, for the supplies of home-growu corn
would fail. He advocated an immediate lock-out. What
though they had heard that one man would give the L'uiou
£500 another £300 and so on. Let them strike and the sooner
that money was exliausted the sooner the Union would
be beaten. He recommended that the Farmers'
Association should communicate for the purpose of
amalgamation with similar societies, and if possible tiiere should
be a national association of the kind. They might then defy
the Union. In his opinion by locking out the Unionists the
arraers were showing themselves to be the true friend of the
labouring classes It was not at bottom a question of wages.
An advance of one or two sliillings would not satisfy the
Union. There would be no rest until the farmers Vrere en-
tirely under their finger and thumb. Mr. Byford also alluded
to the hardships the labourers found they had to undergo in
the North, which place many were glad to leave, and concluded
by recommending the immediate resort to strong measures.
The Makquis of Bristol reminded the meeting that it
was advisable never to abuse one's enemies. Grave as was
the present state of affairs, he hoped it was not so grave as
Mr. Byford had represented. A large employer of labour in
the neighbourhaod of Lynn had written to him as follows:
" I have spoken to several large employers in this pait of the
country, and they are all much interested in the Suflolk lock-
out. They all say that it is the only way to counteract the
agitation, and intimidate all the Union agitators, though I am
glad to say in every instance about this district where men
liave struck by order of the Union, the farmers, by working
themselves, and Ly neighbours helping, and by a few men
sticking to them, have had the men back on their own terms,
and they have very luckily drafted off a lot of worthless ones."
Mr. Harrison (Wordvvell) moved the adjournment of the
meeting for a week, as he did not think they were quite in
order to pass resolutions until the Association had been
properly formed.
Mr. Stanley was also of opinion that nothing could be
done until the Committee knew who were to be their sup-
porters.
A Voice : " Take a show of hands."
Mr. Stanley said the people most wanted were not present,
He had had lots of letters from farmers, who said tbey were
not troubled witii Union men, and they were \indficided.
Some of these gentlemen had been troubled with the Union
last year, but then the delegates bolted with tlie money and
no more was heard of the matter. That was what he called
milk-aud-vvater action.
Several gentlemen from the back of the hall proposed that
names should be entered at once, but
The CuAiR.Mi\ii pointed out that great confusion would be
created by the adoption of such a course. A show of hands
was at last taken, nearly every gentleman (the exceptions were
strangers) holding up his baud. The Chairm: n then asked
what was to be done.
Mr. Hawxins (Milden) having addressed a few words to
the meeting expressing sympathy with the farmers in the
di^ricts infested by Unionists, and with the proposed Associa-
tion.
The Chairman said it was manifestly the opinion of the
bulk of those present that some strong measures should be
resorted fo, and he called upon some gentleman to move a
resolution.
Mr. Payne (Mildeuhall) proposed that a paper should be
draviii up, to be signed by the members present, to the effect
that they would not employ Uuion men. He admitted, how-
ever, that bis own men did not belong to the Uuion.
Capt. HoRTON again urged his resolution.
The Marquis of Bristol, on being appealed to, said he
would undertake not to employ Union men so long as the
tliree rules mentioned were coutiuued.
The Rev. C.W. Jones again appealed against these terms,
which would ensure a lock-out. (A Voice : "The right thing
too.") He put strongly before the meeting the unfair position
of the employer of labour who had unfortunately Union men,
for such would be left w ithout labour entirely whilst their
neighbours had their usual complement of men at work. (A
Voice : " Our next door neighbour will help us.") They
must recollect, too, that such a step was useless unless
national.
Jlr. King (Gazeley) said his Union men had left him, and
he had now only four men at work ; whereas he was a short
time ago paying £20 for wages he now only paid £5 weekly.
Tiic corn had been got in by the aid of his friends, aud he did,
not think he was worse off than before, but he had to work
harder himself.
Mr. Matthew (Knettishall) said he had an interview
with his men. Some of them got over 18s. a week, and others
not so much, and he asked those who received more than 18s.
if they would be willing to make up out of their wages the
wages of the other men to 18s. Of course, to this they would
not .igree. He told them if they continued in the Uuion he
should join the Farmers' Defence Association. The men told
him that if they could renounce the Union and still belong to
the Benefit Society they would do so, but they were not allowed
in the latter without also joining the former. One of his men
said he believed that paying money to support men on strike
was not the way to lay up money for a future day, and he
would cross his name from the Union. Five others did the
same. Three had since said they would do so, and the re-
mainder said they would take a week to consider.
Mr. Maneield (Ickworth-Thorpe) said when ha had
pointed out to his men the ridiculous smallness of the pay-
ments as compared with largeness of the promises, they pro-
mised to leave the Uuion, which had been described to him by
Mr. Hodwell as a sham and a fraud.
Mr. Stanley said he had received a letter from Mr. Rod-
well regetting that he could not preside. He believed that
the rate of wages asked by the Uniou was lower than what
the men were receiving before they joined the League.
The Chairman, in summing up, said it was very clear that
the meeting took a stroug view with regard to +he Labourers*
Union question. The bulk of the meeting were for refusing
to recognise the Union in any shape. He urged that Captain
Horton's resolution should be passed, and pointed to the suc-
cess of such a measure spoken of by Mr. Manfield and Mr.
Matthews.
Mr. Byford : Delays are dangerous.
The Chairman said he did not propose delay. He wished
first to show a bold front, and then try and treat with the
men.
Mr. Harrison said he intended to employ no Union men,
though he would be second to none in receiving them back
and treating them well if they left it.
The CiiAiR.MAN then put a resolution to the effect that the
farmers should refuse to recognise tiie Union, which was car-
ried unanimously.
Mr. GooucHiLi) said if he had to pay more wages he must
pay less rent.
Mr. Burt said he found where Union men and non-
Unionists were employed together, the latter were subject to
frequent annoyance.
Mr. Harrison said the Farmers' Association ought, as far
as possible, to protect the men.
The Chairman, after again advocating Captain Horton's
resolution, put it to the meeting, and it was declared lost, and
the Chairman remarked that it was still open to every gentle-
K K 2
504
THE FAEMii:R'S MAGAZINE.
man to take such a step. He suggested that no further steps
be taken for the present.
Mr. Byford pointed out lliat though tliey had had a great
deal of talk nothing had really been done.
Mr. Harrison proposed, as the meeting was about to
break up, that on Friday the men be given a week's notice,
that if they still belonged to the Union at the expiration of
that time they would be locked out.
This resolution, having been put to tlie meeting, was carried
unanimously amid manifest signs of approbation.
On the motion of Mr. Harrison a vote of thanks was given
to the Chairman, aud to the landowners present for their
attendance, and the meeting separated.
At a meeting at Ipswich for the formation of a Labourers'
Benefit Society, convened by tlie Earl of Stradbroke, the Lord
Lieutenant, who presided, the following resolutions were
passed :
Proposed by Lord Rendlesham, and seconded by Mr. Deck :
"That it is expedient to establish in this county on a sound
basis a Benefit Society, for the purpose of assisting the labour-
ing classes to provide for themselves a comfortable maintenance
in sickness and a provision for old age, to be called the Suffolk
Benefit Society."
Proposed by Archdeacon Groorae, and seconded by Mr.
Sherwood, " That this Society shall consist of honorary
and insuring members, aud that owners and occupiers of land,
and others interested in the welfare of the working classes, be
iavitcd to subscribe towards a capital fund, in order that the
advantages to be derived therefrom may be participated in at
once by those insuring therein."
Proposed by Mr. F, S. Corrance, and seconded by Mr. E.
Packard : " That a Council be appointed to draw up the rules
and take such other proceedings as tliey may deem necessary
for carrying out these resolutions. The Council to consist oi
the following gentlemen : The Earl of Stradbroke, chairman ;
Loid Gwydyr, Ven. Archdeacon Groome, Rev. E. Hollond,
Sir G. N. Broke-l\liddleton, J. G. Sheppard, Esq., H. A. S.
Bence, Esq., T. Lomax, Esq., Rev. H. E. KnatchbuU, J. \V.
Brooke, Esq., Rev. T. L. French, Mr. E. Deck, Mr. John
Sberivood, J. P. Cobbold, Esq., M.P., E. Packard, sen., Esq.,
Mr. Ciiarles White, and ]lev. G. A. Whittaker." Mr. H.
Biddell's name was also proposed, but he requested that it
might be withdrawn.
Proposed by Rear-Admiral Sir G. N. Broke-Middletou,
Bart., and seconded by Mr. C. White : "That all gentlemen
wishing to become honorary members of the Society be re-
quested to give tlicir names to the Council, with the amount
of their subscriptions."
A preliminary meeting of landlords and tenants resident
within the Stow Hundred was held at the Assembly Rooir>
Stowmarket, to consider what steps they should take
with regard to the labour question, Mr. R. J. Pettiward
in the chair, when Mr. Oakes moved, " That under the ex-
isting rules this Association refuses to employ Union men, and
that on Friday the men in the empby of the members of this
Association should receive a week's notice unless they cease to
belong to the Union." Mr. Matthews seconded the motion,
which was carried. It was requested that those present should
join the West Suffolk Defence Association, and it was an-
nounced that Mr. Betts would take the names of those wishing
to do so.
THE HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND.
At the monthly meeting of the directors on Wednesday,
May 4, in Edinburgh, Captain Tod, of Howden, in the chair,
Tiie Secretary read reports of meetings of the committee
on the Chemical Department, held on the 15th and 29th
April, which embodied recommendations from the Marquis of
Huntly's Committee, and suggestions from several members of
the committee. He also read a memorial by the West Lo-
thian Agricultural Association and a resolution by the East
Lothian Agricultural Club on the subject, as well as modified
suggestions for the reconstruction o the Chemical Depart-
ment by Professor Wilson.
The board, after considerable discussion, resolved — 1st, To
remit back to the Chemistry Committee to consider and re-
port on the present position of the Chemical Department, and
suggest to the board what alterations they would propose,
keeping in view the proposals made by Lord Huntly's Com-
mittee with reference to the appointment of a chemist. 2nd,
To remit to the Council on Education to consider what steps
the Society should take regarding agricultural educatior, with
reference to the discussion which took place at the general
meeting in January. The recommendations from the Marquis
of lluntlj's Committee on Agricultural Education and a letter
from Colonel Innes, of Learney, were remitted for the consi-
deration of the Council. Captain Tod of Howden, Mr.
Mackenzie of Portmore, Mr. Pettigrew Wilson of Polquhairn,
Mr. Milne Home of Wedderburn, and Mr. Walker of Bow-
land were appointed to assist the Council iu their delibera-
tions.
The report of the examinations for the Society's veterinary
certificate, which took place on the 13th, 14tli, and 15th of
April, was submitted, from which it appeared that 42 students
presented themselves for examination, and that 33 passed ;
tiiat 17 silver medals had been presented to the students of
the three colleges in Scotland lor the best class examinations ;
and that, two medium gold and two silver medals had been
awarded at the Society's public examination for the best
general and for the best practical examination. On a report
by the Board of Examiners, the directors resolved that in
future the first or preliminary examination should consist of
two tables — namely, anatomy and chemistry and botany
combined; and that a materia medica be placed in the final
examination. It was further resolved to recommend students
to attend a longer curriculum, but the board did not in the
meantime alter the rule on this point so as to make it com-
pulsory.
A FLOURISHING CHAMBER.— A meeting of the
Herts Chamber of Agriculture was called, by notice sent to
every member, for Saturday, May 2nd, at the Shire Hall,
Hertford, at 3.30, "to discuss the questions in connection
with the charge* of keeping the highways and turnpike roads
in repair." Mr. Brandram first made his appearance and was
followed at intervals by the Hon. Baron Dimsdale (who pre-
sided), Mr W. Anthony, Mr. Bettinson (Secretary), and Mr.
Phillips, of Mardley Bury. These were all that were present
at twenty minutes to four, when Mr. Phillips said he moved
that the meeting be adjourned . and walked out ; and the Rev.
L. Deedes, followed by Mr. Halsey, M.P., walked is.— Mr.
Bettinson tlien read the minutes of the last meeting, which
were signed by the chairman ; and, no others having entered,
Mr. VV. Anthony said he was sorry to see such an attendance.
He thought they could only move that the meeting be
adjourned to some future occasion. Baron Dimsdale : Until
the next dissolution of Parliament. — lleHs Guardian.
AN INFLUENTIAL OPINION.— At a meeting of the
Herefordshire Chamber of Agriculture, on Saturday, May 2nd,
the subjects down for discussion included the financial proposals
of the Government, Tenant-Right, and the diseases of stock,
" but there was a very meagre attendance," as will be seen by
the following division: Mr. Rankin proposed "That tlie
financial proposals of the Government are, as a whole, satis-
factory to the public at large" (applause). Mr. Taylor
(Showie) had muc!i pleasure in seconding the motion. Mr.
Pulley, the President, proposed as an amendment, that the
words " with the exception of the repeal of the horse-tax," be
added to the resolution. Mr. Duckham seconded the amend-
ment. " The sense of the meeting " was then taken by a
show of hands, and the original proposition was carried by a
majority of 4 against 3. Prodigious ! Would not " the sense
of the meeting" have read better if the "illustrious five,"
putting out the chairman and secretary, had stopped at home ?
THE FAllMER'S MAGAZINE.
5C5
EOYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.
Monthly Council, Wedncsdau, Ma//,' 6. — Present :
Mr. Holland, President, inth;cba;r; tlicDukeofDevonsliire
K.G.; LordChcsham,LordEslinL;tou,M.P.; LordKesteven,
Lord Vernon, the Hon. W.Eijerton, M.P. ; Mr. Amos, Mr.
Earthropp, Mr. Booth, Mr. Bowly,Mr.Cantrell,Mr. Dent,
Mr.Druce, Mr.BrandrethGibbs,Mr. Horley.Mr. Hornsby,
Mr. Hoskvns, ]\Ir. Bowen Jones, Colonel Kingscote,
M.P. ; Mr." Leeds, Mr. Masfen, Mr. Milward, Mr. Pain,
Mr. Raudell, Mr. llawlence, Mr. Ridley, M.P.; Mr. Kig-
den, Mr. Shuttlcworth, Mr. Statter, Mr. G. Turner, Mr.
Jabez Tnrner, Mr. Wakefield, Mr. Welby, M.P. ; Mr. W.
Wells, Mr. Whitehead, and Dr. Voclcker.
The Marquis of Ailesbury, Savernake Forest, Marl-
borough, was elected a Governor of the Society.
The followiag members were elected :
Affleck, William, Swindou.
Armstronpr, Samuel, Shingay, Royston.
Asliton, William, Horncastle.
Bayly, T. Harvey D., Edwinstone House, OUertou.
Crawshay, Charles, n Higham, Attleborousb.
Dent, Edward, Eernacres, Eulmer, Slough.
Donne, Henry, Leek, Woolton, Warwick.
EUia, Charles, Meldreth, Royston.
Faulks, Michael, Colston Bassett, Bingham, Notts.
Fern, Henry, Taunton.
Finch, William Corbin, Bemerton Lodge, Salisbury.
Fisher, George, Bute Villa, Cardiff.
Frankham, John, Little Caufield Hall, Chelmsford.
Gardner, William Lancaster, Newland Hall, Galgate.
Gibson, Thomas, Stamford, Lincolashire.
Gillitt, James, Rothersthorpe, Northampton,
Grier, William Magee, Rugely, Staffordshire,
Jillingg, John, Great Chesterford, Saffron Walden.
Key, William Henry, Euderby Grange, Narboro', Leicester.
Lee, Sea., Trevor, Broughton House, Aylesbury.
Marsters, Charles, Saddlebow, King's Lynn.
Morris, Thomas William. Bedgrove, Aylesbury.
Moultou, Edward Lavender, Higli-street, Bedford.
Ogilvy, Lieut.-Col , R.H.A., MiUhill, luchture, Perth,
Palmer, Leonard J., Snetterton, Thetford.
Palmer, Ralph Charlton Hubbards, Nazing, Waltham Cross.
Plowright, J. Thomas, The Hall, Pinchbeck, Spalding.
Potter, Samuel, Ilkeston Park, Nottiugham.
Reid, George, Guild-street, Aberdeen.
Richardson, Charles Trusted, Monkton Lodge, Jarrow-on-Tyne.
Sainsbury, John B., Overton Farm, Ross.
Scott, Arthur Jervoise, Rotherlield Park, Alton, Hants.
Silvester, Francis William Hedges, St. Albans.
Smith, Edward, Cauldwell-street, Bedford.
Smith, Thomas, 34, London-street, Fitzroy- square, W.
Toller, William Gedgrave, Wickham Market.
Tweedie, Ricliard, The Forest, Catterick, Yorkshire.
Tysoe, Samuel, Rumer Hall, Stratford-on-Avon.
Webster, George Peter 0.\croft, Bolsover, Chesterfield.
Wlialley, Robert, Mill Green, Bold, Warrington.
Wiiitehead, William, WoUaston, Welliugboro'.
Wilson, The Rev. Hugh Owen, Church Stretton, Salop.
Woodroffe, David, Chase View, Rugeley.
Finances. — Col. Kingscote, M.P., presented the re-
port, from which it appeared that the Secretary's receipts
during the ])asl month had been examined, and foimd cor-
rect. The balance in the hands of the bankers on April
30th was £3,G82 I'Js. 2d., £2,000 remaining on deposit at
interest.
JouRN.VL. — M. J. Dent Dent (chairman) reported that
the President of Harvard University, Cambridge, U.S.,
had informed the committee that a department of agri-
culture had been established at that university, and had
requested that the Juunial be presented lo that depart-
mcut. The committee thereupon recommended that the
second series of the Journal be presented to that institu-
tion. The committee also recommended the payment of
the accounts for printing, illustrating, and binding the
last number of the Journal. This report was adopted.
Gexeral Bedford. — Mr. B. T. Brandreth Gibbs
reported the opinion of the committee that General Rule
No. 14 in the stock prize sheet does not apply to wether
sheep shown to compete for the prizes otYered by the
Local Committee ; also that the Loudon and North-
western Railway Company had undertaken to construct
a passenger platform near the showyard. The committee
recommended the repair of the indices to the turnstiles, and
the sanction of instructions to the Secretary with refer-
ence to the printing of the stock and implement cata-
logues, and the awards of the prizes at the Bedford meet-
ing. They also submitted for approval a draft of the pro-
gramme of the Bedford meeting. This report was adopted.
Judges' Selection. — Mr. Milward (chairman) re-
ported that the list of judges of stock and implements for
the Bedford meeting had been filled up in accordance with
the invitations authorised by the Council at their last
meeting. This report was adopted.
Showyard Contracts.— Mr. T.C. Booth reported that
the Surveyor had certified that the arrangements for the
forthcoming country meeting were in a forward state,
and that the contractor was entitled to his first payment
ou account of the showyard works. This report was
adopted.
Education. — Ou behalf of the Duke of Bedford
(chairman) Mr. J. Dent Dent presented the following
report : " Ten candidates out of twelve who had entered
presented themselves for examination on April 14 and
following days. jMr. R. Rich, of the Royal Agricultural
College, Cirencester, obtained a first-class certificate, the
life m'embership of the Society, and a prize of £25. All
the other candidates failed to satisfy the Examiners in
Chemistry, and, with one exception, each candidate also
failed in at least one other necessary subject. The
Examiner in Agriculture reported very favourably of the
papers written, and the answers given in the viva voce
examination, by the majority of the candidates, and con-
sidered that great credit was due to them for their pro-
ficiency in Practical Agriculture. The Examiners in
Chemistry regarded the results of the examination in
that science as very disappointing, and much below the
standard attained by the candidates last year ; they added
that the knowledge of general principles and common
facts of general chemistry shown by the candidates was
very imperfect, and that this deficiency was not compen-
sated by practical acquaintance with analysis or technical
details, while the papers ou agricultural chemistry were
particularly unsatisfactory. The results of the examina-
tion in book-keeping were beyond the average of former
years. The examiner in mechanics and natural philosophy
and in mensuration and land surveying reported unfa-
vourably of the results of this year's examination in those
subjects, and called attention to the fact that those who
fail in mechanics fail in the most elementary questions.
With regard to the optional subjects, it was sutlicient to
state that one candidate passed in geology with 53 marks,
one in botany with 50, and one in anatomy and phy-
siology with 50, fifty being the minimum pass-number in
each of those subjects.
The committee recommended that the thanks of the
Council and the usual honorarium be presented to the
examiucrs in recognition of their valuable services in
506
THE FARMEE'S MAGAZINE.
connection with these examinations, the detailed results of
which they reported in the following tabular form :
Tabular Statement of the Sesults of the Examinations, 1871.
1
b
1
■ ti
g
^'
!>>
^0
d
9
a
o S.
1
to
o
o
o
1
3|'
O C3
"043
so
<
1
<0
O
Hg
-^g
0
Maximuna ~^
Number of >•
200
200
200
200
100
100
100
100
Marks. )
Bich, E
152
144
115
t
180
110
133
t
71
t
-
60
~
:ci
19
18
t
t
170
150
51
50
f
21
126
t
160
t
t
21
t
+
t
119
t
—
24
101
t
t
110
57
— .
21
107
t
190
t
t
53
t
t
;i;3
1
t
t
t
t
20
+
120
t
t
t
18
147
t
100
145
76
—
—
19
t Failed. — Did not attempts
The committee had also drawn up the following scheme
for a more elementary examination, which they recom-
mended for adoption by the Council :
I. That, in addition to the present examinations of
advanced students, a more elementary examination be held
annually by the Royal Agricultural Society.
II. That 10 scholarships of £20 each shall be given on
condition that the scholar spend the ensuing year at a
school, or with a practical agriculturist, to be approved
by the Education Committee, or at one of the Agricul-
tural Colleges, such as Cirencester, Glasnevin, or the
Agricultural Department at Edinburgh.
[NoTB. — In tlie event of the scholar proceedinj? to Cirences-
ter he will be entitled to compete for one of the six Middle
Class Scholarships given by the Council of the Royal Agri-
cultural College, of the value of £40 per annum, tenable for
two years.]
III. That the scholarship be not paid for any year
until after a testimonial as to good conduct and industry
be produced after the expiration of that year from the
head-master of the school, principal of the college, or the
practical farmer under whom the scholar has studied.
IV. That candidates for the scholarships be not less
than 15 years of age.
V. That the candidates shall be members of one of tha
following schools, viz. : Ardlingley College, Bedford
Middle Class School, Bloxham (All Saints' School),
Devon County School, Dorset County School, Hurst-
pierpoint College, Norfolk County School, Framliug-
ham (Albert College), ^Middle Class Corporation Schools,
Surrey County School, Trent College, Whitgift School
(Croydon) ; or of schools hereafter to be approved by the
Council of the Royal Agricultural Society.
VI. That annual examinations shall be held simul-
taneously in the mouth of November at such schools as
have candidates, and that to the boys who stand highest
the scholarships shall be awarded.
VII. That the subjects for examinatiou for the scholar-
ships be : 1, Land Surveying ; 2, Elementary Mechanics,
as applied to Agriculture ; 3, Chemistry, as applied to
Agriculture ; 4, The Principles of Agriculture, especially
with reference to the rotation of Crops, the nutrition of
Plants and Animals, and the Mechanical Cultivation of
the Soil.
VIII. That for the conduct of the examination a local
secretary be appointed by the Royal Agricultural Society.
That to the local secretary sealed packets of the
examination papers shall be sent; that these packets shall
be opened and distributed to the candidates in his pre-
sence, or in the presence of some one specially deputed
by him.
That during the time the papers are being answered
there shall be present the local secretary or his deputy,
who shall, at the end of the time appointed by the
examiner for answering, collect the papers, seal them in
packets, and forward them to the Secretary of the Royal
Agricultural Society.
IX. That this scheme do not interfere with the Royal
Agricultural Society's senior examinations, already in
operation.
In reference to this scheme, it was reported that of the
candidates at the recent examination two had come from
the Surrey County School ; and that one of them, though
not fully qualified in practical agriculture, had passed a
very good examination.
The Committee finally gave notice that at the next
Council meeting they will make application for a grant
not exceeding £500 for carrying out the foregoing scheme.
This report was adopted
Selection. — Colonel Kingscote, C.B., M.P. (chair-
man), reported the recommendation of the committee,
that Lieutenant-Gencral Viscount Bridport be recom-
mended to the annual general meeting of members, on
the 22ud inst., as President of the Society for the ensuing
year. This report having been adopted, it was moved
by Colonel Kingscote, seconded by ]Mr. G. Turner, and
carried unanimously, that Lord Bridport be recommended
to the annual meeting as President of the Society for the
ensuing year.
Implement. — Mr. T. C. Booth (chairman) reported
the recommendation of the Committee that the dynano-
meter proposed for the trials of drills, carts, waggons,
&c., this year, and which will be required for the trials
of mowing and reaping machines, &c., in future years, te
constructed according to the estimate of the consulting
engineers. It was also recommended that the stewards
be empowered to order refreshments for the drivers of
the horses employed by the Society in the trial- fields.
The Committee had also considered JMessrs. Howard's
letter suggesting the provision of a ring in the show-
yard for the exhibition of automatic implements worked
by horse-power ; and they suggested that while the
thanks of the Council were due to Messrs. Howard for
their suggestion, those gentlemen should be informed
that the arrangements for this year's show are complete,
and that the Council regret, therefore, their inability to
deal with the suggestion t' is year. They also recom-
mended that the question be j further considered, and the
opinion of the implement mA'ers requested on the sub-
ject, with a view to carrying out the suggestion in future
years. This report was adopted ; but Mr. Shuttlcworth
subsequently gave notice that at the next council-meeting
he would move a resolution in reference to the last para-
graph with a view to its being rescinded.
Potato Disease. — Mr. Whitehead (chairman) re-
ported the arrangements that had been made by the
Committee for the supervision of the experimental potato
plots, and for the further investigation of the influence
of diflferent systems of cultivation of the potato on
the incidence of the potato-disease. This report was
adopted.
the report of the Special Committee appointed to
inspect the accommodation offered by the authorities of
Taunton for the Country Meeting of 1875 having been
received, it was moved by Mr. Rigdeu, seconded by Mr.
G. Turner, and earned unanimously, that the Country
Meeting for 1875 be held at Taunton.
It was also resolved that the Country Meeting for 1876
be held in the district comprising the counties of Derby,
Leicester, Lincoln, Northampton, Nottingham, Rutland,
and Warwick.
In accordance with the Bye-laws, the Council arranged
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
507
by ballot the following house-list for recommendatioa to
the Annual General Meeting.
Atiendance, from the Rising or the Cardiff Meeting
IN 1872, TO THE PeESENT TiME.
Names.
Amos, Charles Edwards, 5, Cedar's Road,
Clapham Common, Surrey
Barthropp, Nathaniel George, Hacheston,
Wickham ilarket, Suffolk
Bedford, Duke of (elected June 4, 1873),
Wobuni Abbey, Bedfordshire
Booth, Thomas' Christopher, Warlaby,
Northa'lerton, Yorkshire ^..
Bowly, Edward, Siddington House, Ciren-
cester, Gloucestershire
Davies,UavidReynolds,AgdenHall,Lymm,
Cheshire
Drucc, Joseph, Ejnisham, Oxford
Edmonds, William John, Southrope House,
Lechladc, Gloucestershire
Egcrton, the Hon. Wilbraham, M.P., Ros
theme Manor, Knutsford, Cheshire
Hemsley, John, Shelton, Newark, Notts...
Horley, Thomas, jun. (elected Nov. 5, 1873),
The Fosse, Leamington, Warwickshire
Homsby, Richard, Spittlegate, Grantham,
Lincolnshire
Hoskyns, ChandosWren, Harewood, Ross,
Herefordshire
Lawes, John Bennett, Rothamsted, St,
Alban's, Herts ■■
Leicester, Earl of, Holkham Hall, Wells,
Norfolk ...
Lichfield, Earl of, Shugborough, Stafford
shire
Lindsay, Colonel Loyd, V.C, M.P., Loch-
inge, Wantage, Berkshire
Masfen, R. Hanbury, Pendeford, Wolver-
hampton, Staffordshire
Randell, Charles, Chadbury, Evesham,
Worcestershire
Rawlence, James, Bulbridge Wilton, Salis-
bury, Wiltshh-e
Sanday, George Henry, Holmppierrepont,
Notts
Shuttleworth, Joseph, Hartsholme Hall,
Lincoln
Welby, William Earle,M. P., Newton House,
Kolkingham, Lincohishire
Wells, William Holmewood, Peterborough,
Northamptonshire
Whitehead, Charles, Barming House,
Maidstone, Kent
I Com-
S mittees.
O CO
I
26
7
20
64
24
67
30
55
14
2
43
52
16
39
40
69
4
43
49
80
79
The Hon. WiLBKAHAM Egerton, M.P., called atten-
tion to the recent outbreak of the foot-and-mouth disease,
and to the withdrawal of the orders in Council which in
previous years had tended to keep it in check. In his
opinion these orders had been of great benefit ; and he
considered that efforts made to prevent the spread of the
disease in the early stages of an outbreak, when the
disease appeared to be communicated chiefly by contact,
were much more efficacious than those resorted to at a
later period, when the disease was extensively spread by
atmospheric influences.
Lord Chesham quoted his experience in reference to
an outbreak amonsst his own .Shorthorns, and ex-
pressed his conviction that the best thing to do is to
let tlie disease take its course.
Mr. BowEN JoxES referred to the action of the Council,
previous to the appointment of the Select Committee of the
House of Commons on the Contagious Diseases of Animals
and to the investigation which had been made by the
Secretaiy into the trade in auituals with special reference
to this matter; and he suggested that as a change of
Government had taken place, the recommendations of the
Council should be laid before the Government again.
Mr. Jabez Turner stated that the foot-and-mouth
disease was at present very virulent near Peterborough; it
had been introduced by cattle which came from Ireland
through Bristol. He considered that the ravages of the
disease had been very much understated, and that the disease
was now much more virulent than it used to be. What he
desired was to be prevented from carrying infection to
his neighbours, and at the same time that his neighbours
should be prevented from bringing infection to him.
Lord EsiiiNGTON also supported INIr. Egerton. He
thought that great weight would be attached by the Go-
vernment to representatives from the (Jouncil, and he
considered that restrictions should be placed upon the
movement of diseased cattle.
Mr. Dent Dent having been a member of the Select
Committee already referred to, expressed the opinion
which he had formed in attending the meetings of that
Committee, and had dednced from the evidence brought
before it, that it was necessary only to keep up the
machinery of the veterinary department sufTicient to deal
with cattle-plague. He had therefore concluded that
with this exception it was better to do away with vete-
rinary restrictions altogether, for to deal with foot-and-
mouth disease eflfectnally the regulations would require to
be as stringent as those which were in force during the
prevalence of cattUcplague. With regard to the compul-
sory order as toslaughterincasesof pieuro-pneuraonia. Mr.
Dent thought that it entailed a great expense on the rate-
payers, and did not restrict the progress of the disease. Mr.
MiLi.vARD was entirely opposed to Mr. Dent in reference
to the order as to compulsory slaughter in pleuro-pneu-
monia, as under this order in this county they had
restricted it to a radius of live or six miles, whereas
otherwise he was convinced that it would have spread
over the whole county.
Colonel KiNGScOTE, C.B., M.P., expressed himself as
entirely opposed to Lord Chesham in reference to foot-and-
mouth disease ; and he thought that a deputation of ths
Council should go to the Lord President of tiie Council
with as little delay as possible.
Mr. Matthew White Ridley, M.P., supported Mr.
Dent in reference to the opinion arrived at by the Select
Committee to which reference had been made, and of
which he had also been a member. It had been proved
that foot-and-mouth disease was highly contagious, and
therefore required such stringent regulations for its con-
trol as would not be tolerated by the farmer. He quoted
the stoppage of importation from Ireland, and the prohi-
bition of fairs and markets, as examples of the restrictions
that would be necessary. Therefore he did not consider
it desirable for the Council to make any representations to
the Government.
Mr. T. C. Booth differed entirely from Mr. Dent and
Mr. Ridley, and quoted the experience of the Australian
authorities in preventing the spread of foot-and-mouth
disease brought into those colonies by stock imported
from England.
Mr. W. Wells hoped that if the Council made a repre-
sentation to Government they would draw attention to
the state of the law relating to pleuro-pncumonia, as well
as to foot-and-mouth disease.
After some further observations by Mr. Leeds, Mr. G.
Turner, Mr. lirandcth Gibbs, and other members of the
Council, the Hon. W. Egcrton, j\l.P., slated that he still
thought it desirable to draw the attention of the Govern-
ment to the necessity of preventing the circulation of
diseased animals, of reporting infected farms, and of giving
pov.er of entry into infecled farms; and he fnrtlier con-
sidered that the report of the Select Con^mitlee which
tad been referred to did not represent the opinion of
508
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
agriculturists. He therefore movcJ, " That a deputation
be appointed to wait upon the Lord President of the
Privy Council, and call bis attention to the recent out-
break of foot-and-mouth disease, and to the withdrawal
of the Orders in Council, which previously related to this
disease. This resolution having been seconded by Lord
Eslington, was put to the vote, and carried by fifteen votes
against eleven.
The following deputation was then appointed : The
President, Lord Eslington, the Hon. W. Egerton, M.P.,
Colonel Kingscote, C.B., M.P., Mr. Jabez Turner, Mr.
Bowen Jone.s, Mr. T. C. Booth, and Mr. Rawlence.
Mr. J. Dent Dent gave notice that at the next meeting
of the Council he would move a resolution in reference to
farm prizes.
THE CENTRAL CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE.
The monthly meeting of the Council was held at the Salis-
bury Hotel, Salisbury-square, on Tuesday, May 5, under
the presidency of Mr. G. F. Muutz, and there was a numer-
ous attendance of members.
Mr. Pell, M.P., the chairman of the Local Taxation Com-
mittee, presented and moved the adoption of the following re-
port from that body :
Tho Local Taxation Committee are now able for (he first
time to report that the exceptional charges imposed upon
ratepayers have beau taken into consideration by the Chan-
cellor ol' tho Exchequer in the financial statement for the
year. This evidence of the desire of the Government to
modify and rearrange Imperial wiih some regard to Local
Taxation will, your Committee believe, give satisfaction to
those who have long striven for a readjustment of this nature.
To the unwearied and judicious leadership of their late
Chairman, Sir Massey Lopes, must be ascribed a very large
share of the success which has so far attended yom- Com-
mittee's policy. A deot of gratitude is due also from rate-
payers, alike in town and country, to the Chambers of
Agriculture for the hearty support they have given to the
cause. Your Committee's sustained and temperate efforts to
remove this question from the conflict of class interests, and
to claim for it the position it now holds, have been rewarded
by the concurrence of all parties in the State in the proposal
of the Government to extend to local finance that attention
and consideration which ParUament has hitherto almost ex-
clusively reserved for imperial taxation. In addressing them-
selves to this intricate question we are assured that Her
Majesty's Government are not merely yielding to the emphatic
decision of the late House of Commons. Nor do they simply
retiect the anxiety for redress which a recent general election
proved to be so widely felt by ratepayers. Nor even— although
the Chancellor of the Excheciuer pointedly alluded to the fact
—are they solely inlluenced by that resistance which your
Committee felt compelled to offer to all rate-imposing
measures. But we are now, at last, informed that Local
Taxation is in the view of the Government "upon the whole
the object of the highest national interest at the present time."
The Chancellor of tho Exchequer acknowledges the truth of
three distinct grievances. He indicates as the first of these
the employment of local rates in Imperial services. He men-
tioned secondly the exemption enjoyed by many classes of
property from " burdens which are borne for the benefit of
all kinds of property." Lastly he notes the complaint so
justly made "that our system of local taxation is bad and
uneconomical because we have a bad system of management,
a bad sj'stem of administration, and an improper division of
the country into local districts." Reserving for future action,
as your Committee anticipated, all portions of this great
question nvoilving reconstructive legislation, with which in
the present political juncture it would be impossible at once
to deal, Her Majesty's Government have proceeded in the
direction suggested by your Deputation to the Premier on
March 23rd. They propose in the meantime to roiieve rate-
payers from their exclusive liability for the maintenance of
pauper lunatics in asylums by a grant from imperial sources
of 4s. per head per week. They consent also at once to
double the existing subvention paid by the Treasury towards
the cost of the police. Further special concessions are made
to particular localities which suffer from the withdrawal from
local assessment of property occupied by the Central Govern-
ment; while mines, woods, and game are to Ijo brought
within the rateable area. The principles so long advocated
by your Committee are thus it will be seen endorsed by the
propositions of the Government so far as these go ; though
ratepayers doubtless feel that no more than justice would be
done by a larger development of the policy now entered upon.
Your Committee cannot forget that the heavy liability to
which coimties and boroughs are subjected in having to pro-
vide and keep up asylums remains unalleviated. The future
question of the assumption by the State of the entire police
on grounds alike of efficient and economic administration
remains open. While the anomaly of retarning on the rates
so large a portion of the cost of adm'inistering i ustico, although
not now dealt with, will necessarily claim very early attention.
The Chairman of your Committee has given notice of a
question to the Chancellor of the Exchequer with reference
to the provision of loans to local authorites by the Public
Works Loan Commissioners at 3g percent, for their expenses
in providing and keeping up such buildings as Lunatic
Asylums, Gaols, and Police Stations. The large proportion
of the relief now given which will fall to the share of Borough
and Metropolitan ratepayers deserves to be carefully noted.
Yom' Committee have invariably insisted on the prepondera-
ting interest really possessed by urban populations in this
matter. Tho selection — most just in itself and uniformly
advocated by your Committee — of the charge for police,
which presses so heavily upon towns, as one of the fli'sii
objects of relief, affords the most conclusive answer to those
who in their desire to shield exempted and favoured classes
have not scrupled to repre-sent the efforts of your Committee
as solely directed to enrich the landowners of England at
the expense of the urban ratepayer. The Prison Ministers'
Bill alluded to by your Committee in their last report having
been again introcluced, notice of opposition has been given by
Mr. Spencer Stanhope — a member of your Committee. It is
hooed that the jiroposal to create a charge on the rates for
the payment of a prison official appointed not at the discre-
tion of tho local authority, but by order of the Secretary of
State, will bo again defeated. A measure has also been intro-
ducetl similar to that successfully opposed hy your Committee
in previous sessions, making the registration of births and
deaths compulsory, and increasing i-atepayer' liabihties for
an imperial object entirely under central control. It appears
to your Committee that the progress of this bill shoiild be
opposed. Your Committee have obsurved with great satisfac-
tion that the ChanceUor of the Exchequer has explicitly
declared the reform of our local administration to be one of
the objects to which the Government certainly propose to direct
attention. This assurance ought to stimulate, in local Cham-
bers of Agi'iculture, a thorough inquiry into, and an exhaus-
tive discussion of the various points involved. Such questions
as the best form and unit of local government, the best means
of amalgamating existingauthorities, of inti'oducing simplicity
and uniformity into the present chaos of conflicting areas
and jurisdictions, and of providing an efficient audit of ac-
counts, are eminently fitted for local consideration, and their
ultimate settlement will thus be very greatly facilitated.
While continuing to devote their special attention to these
difficult points, your Committee trust that the result of their
offer of a prize for the best essay on the subject may ulti-
mately place them in a position to offer practical and valuable
suggestions for the consideration of the Legislature. They
would remind ratepayers that the further question of sur-
rendering to local authorities locally collected imperial taxes,
which was specially reserved by the Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer to a future occasion, is inseparably connected with a
rc-arrangemeut of areas and reconstruction of existing
authorities. All such proposals as have been made for the
employment of licence-duties for road maintenance or other
local purjjoses, and the whole (jucstiou of general highway
legislation, are necessarily suspended and postponed till some
agreement be arrived at on the complex administrative pro-
Ijlems to which your Committee deem it their duty now to
direct the serious attention of the Council.
Mr. Caldecott, in seconding tlie motion, observed that
the proposed relief per head for the maintenance of lunatics
was considerable, though it did not include tlie very large
yearly expenditure incurred for the building and maintenance
of the asylums. The cliarge on that account was, in liis
county, Warwickshire, £6,800 a-year merely for the interest
on the debt and keeping the buildings in order. Then, as to
the police, nominally tiie allowance was one quarter, but the
expenditure was £1(5,000 odd a-year, but the nominal quarter
was £3,300 only. The difference would be about a half-penny
in tlie £ on the police, and somethiog like tliree farthiugs in
the £ to the Union for the maintenance of lunatics.
Tlie motion was then put and agreed to.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
509
Lord Hampton next proposed :
That tliis Council views with satisfaction the financial pro-
posals of the Government upon the question of Local Taxa-
tion, believing that such proposals wUl prove to be an in-
troduction to still fiu'ther measiu'cs to be brought before Par-
liament next session for the complete and satisfactory revision
of Local Taxation and administration.
The noble lord said tliat, in making tliis proposition, lie de-
tired to express the satisfaction which they must all feel at
the first appearance of his lion, friend (Mr. TeU) as chairman
of the committee, and to congratulate him on his good fortune
at the conunencement ot his duties in being able to make such
an agreeable communication to the Chniuber. He wished
also to touch for a moment upon a subject adverted to in the
report, namely, the unsatisfactory manner in wliich for a great
number of years, ever since tlie Government of the day pro-
fessed to give to counties one-fourth of the cost of the police,
that undertaking had been fulfilled. The promise of the
Government was one-quarter ; the realisation was one-fifth
(Hear, liear). Taking into consideratiou those portions of
the police expenses which the Government did not practically
repay, he did not think that the actual allowance liad
ever exceeded one-fiftli, instead of one-fourth ; and to that
extent, therefore, the professed relief had never been given.
Now the present Government had announced, and the an-
nouncement was very satisfactory, that they were willing to
increase the allowance heretofore granted, and make it one-
half, in place ot one-fourth ; and one of his objects in rising
was to suggest that it might be well if some member of the
House of Commons were to test the intentions of the Govern-
ment on the subject by inquiring whetlier it was to be a real
half or a diminished ratio of one-half, as had been the case
when only one quarter was allowed. It would be advisable
to draw attention to the fact that previous promises had not
been fulfilled ; and he should like to test the fact, whether
this new promise was to be fulfilled, or only to the extent that
the previous offer had been.
Mr. Browne (Lincolnshire) seconded the motion, and re-
marked that he hoped the proposal of the Government was
but the beginning of a complete and satiilaotory settlement
of the questions both of local taxation and local adminis-
tration.
Mr. CoRRAiN'CE (East Suffolk) said it would cause him very
considerable surprise if the financial proposals of the Govern-
ment were looked upon by the agricultural interest v^ith any
feeling that approached to satisfaction (Hear, liear). Even
taking the question of local taxation, how did they stand ?
Why they VAcre given the least possible sum in the least satis-
factory manner. The noble lord had congratulated tiiem upon
the report ; but he had lately read a speech delivered in tiie
House of Commons pointing out how little good the proposed
remission would do to the agricultural interest, seeing tliat
two-thirds of it would go to the towns. It might seem to the
Government necessary to purchase tiie support of the boroughs ;
but to those wiio had worked arduously in the cause it ap-
peared a lame ajd impotent conclusion. The utmost that
could posibly be received frjm the Government subvention
would not be much more than two millions, and of that two-
tliirds would be for the benefit of the borougiis. Now, he had
constantly opposed Government subventions as dangerous in
principle and yielding very little useful results; and Lord
Hampton had liimself thrown out a doubt whetlier half of this
magnificent promise would reach the agricultural interest.
When he heard that, lie felt that it mif/iit even be doubtful
wlietlur it would realise the expectations of the seconder
of the motion that the measure was a prelude to further
reforms.
Mr. H. BiDDELL (East Sufi'olk) saw with satisfaction that a
beginning had been made; but that was all the satisfaction he
had; for the amount voted was a mere bagatelle, and if that
was all they had heen fighting for, then whilst their labour
had been great the results were small (Hear, hear). He him-
self should save about 2d. in tlie pound, and that as a remission
of taxation was a very small matter to be satisfied with.
On the resolution being put from the chair, it was passed
with eight or ten dissentients.
Mr. LiDDELL then proceeded to move —
That this Council has seen with surprise and disappoint-
ment a surplus of six millions distributed by the Govern-
ment without any attempt to reduce or repeal the Malt-tax.
This resolution, he said, was much the same as the one which
had been adopted by the Eatt Suffolk Chamber, but in the
latter the word " bitter " was inserted before " disappoint-
ment;" and he could assure them that "bitter" was not an
exaggerated description of the feelings which prevailed in Suf-
folk at the omission of the Malt-tax from the financial scheme
of the Government. He had been a Conservative all his li'e,
and had seconded the uominatiou of a Conservative candidate
at five difi'erent elections in his county ; and he deeply grieved
to find that the Cunservative party and the Government they
luid placed in power, and whom he regarded as having earned
the title of the " larmers' frifuds," had acted as if tlitir sup-
porters would submit to anything they might propose (Hear,
hear). In 1S53, Mr. Disraeli proposed to abolish one-half
the Malt-tax, and at that ti'ne there was no surplus of six
millions ; but, to enable iiim to do that, lie meant to impose a
house-tax, or something of that sort, which made his Budget
unpopular. When, therefore, the present Government found
themselves in possession of a surplus of ^ix millions, with no
claim upon it except that whicii Sir Mussey Lopes pressed, he
contended that they were bound in consistency to apply a por-
tion of it to the Malt-tax (cheers). Moreover, he should like
to ask some of the Conservative members this question : If
they had declared at the late election that they were in favour
of a budget which, with so large a surplus, did not give a
single shilling for the reduction of the duty, would not many
of their sup'porters, feeling that tlieir claim was rejected
almost with contempt, have availed themselves of the ballot-
box, if not to give their votes against tliem, at least not to
record them in their favour ? He was sorry to speak in this
way of tiie party to whom lie had looked for relief, and who
were committed by their own words to deal with the
Malt-tax. From the Whigs he had expected nothing ; but
he would do them the credit of saying that they had always
spoken out plainly on this subject, and had not encouraged
expectations nevei intended to be realised-
Mr. E- Heneage (Lincolnshire) in seconding the resolution,
wished to know whether the Chamber was prepared to see its
prestige destroyed, by blowiug hot at one time and cold at
another — at one time the instrument of attacking a govern-
ment, and at anot'.ier muzzled, because some of its members
belonged to a government. If that were the case, he thought
they might turn their attention to other things, and spare
themselves the trouble of ctming there. Last year, when the
question o( the Mall-tax was before tlie Chamber, it was asked
who was to lead ; and everybody felt that, if Col. Barttelot
did not, Air. Clare Read was the proper person to bring it on
in the House of Commons. Well, he saw that hon. gentle-
man now present. He did not know whether he was muzzled
or not ; but if not perluips he would let loose his tongue and
explain (laughter). [A discussion then took place, in the course
of which Mr. Head decHned, in deterence to the etiquette of
the House of Commons, to take precedence of Colonel Burtte-
lot.] After the present rarli;iment met Mr. I'lelden introduced
the subject of the Mnlt-tax in the House of Commons, and
then Colonel Barttelot called him over the coals for it.
Therefore the Chauiber ouglit to express its satisfaction at Mr.
I'lelden having led " a forlorn hope," and show tliat it was not
willing to be let down as its leaders had let it down to suit
their own convenience. It was the duty of the Chamber to be
consistent, no matter what political party might chance to be
iu ollice (cheers). As to the Malt. tax, he did not see how they
cold hope that anything was to be done with it if not this
year, when there was surplus revenue of six millions for dis-
tribution. Calculations had been made to show that tlie Malt-
tax might be reduced one-half without serious detriment to
the Exchequer, provided the drav\ back on beer sent abroad
were done away with. He should like, before the Chamber
separated, to see a vote of thanks passed to Mr. Eielden and
the seventeen gcnllenn-n who gave him their support in tlie
House of Commons the other night on this question, and a
resolution carried, pledging the Chamber to continue its efforts
to get a reduction of the duty, whoever might be in power
(chcfr^).
Professor Bu.Ni) (Worci'slcrshire) complained of the Budget
that it did not give relief to agriculturists where they were
exclusively burdened.
Mr. S. Staxiiote, M.P., said the question they ought to
put to themselves was whetlier tiiey had managed the agitation
for the repeal of the Malt-tax well ? In his opinion they had
uot, and that all parties connected with the producliou of beer
510
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
should liave acted in concert, by whicli means they would
have brought an influence to bear so powerful that the
Government must have taken the question into coniideration.
But what happened ? When the deputations from the brewing
interest went to the Cliancellor of the Exchequer they threw
over tlie growers of malt ; thus a serious division at once
appeared in the camp, and it became easy for the Minister to
play off one section against another, it also appeared that
the farming interests were not unanimous as to the advantage
which would accrue from the repeal or diminution of tlie tax.
Further, there was a pretty general feeling throughout the
country that a great deal too much beer was drunk by the
public at large, that a vast sura of money was wasted on beer
and spirituous liquors, and that therefore this tax, being paid
in great part by the consumers, it was not desirable to relieve
them of the burden. With regard to Mr. Eielden's motion, he
thought that hon. gentlemen wise in bringing it forward ; but
he questioned whether he was wise in dividing the House upon
it. Supposing it to have been carried, of course the Govern-
ment could not take back tiieir Budget ; they would therefore
have had to resign. (Cries of No.)
Mr. Stoker : They did not resign on the Irish Fishery
question the other night when they were defeated (laughter).
Mr. Stanhope : But on such a matter as the Budget, they
could nut have accepted an adverse decision. As a repealer of
the Malt-tax himself, lie could not join Col. Barttelot against
the motion, and therefore withdrew and did not vote at all
(" Oh !").
Mr. C. S. Read, M.P., said: Having been so pointedly
alluded to by Mr. Heneage, 1 will now let him know whether
I am muzzled or uumuzzled. Wiien I am in the House of
Commons it may be that 1 have a padlock on my lips ; but
here I speak as a farmer, and a representative of tlie Norfolk
Chamber of Agriculture, and I would say that, so far as this
resolution goes, I certainly was very disappointed at the
Budget of the Government; but I cannot say tliat I was in
any degree surprised. Budgets in these days are something
like Clieap John's razors, which were made to sell and not to
cut, so Budgets are made to pass (cries of " Oh !") ; and I
contend that if a Government ten times stronger than the
present had proposed to repeal the Malt-tax, it would not
liave been in existence another day ("Oh! oh!"). Nay
more, I believe that if the present Government had proposed
to remit half the tax, it would not have been in existence
another week (' Oh !"). Yes, I say tliat advisedly (A Voice :
"Bosh!"). Because, if you look at the results of the late
elections, what do you find ? Do you find that the repealers
made any headway at all ? Was the Malt-tax made a ques-
tion on any hustings? (A Voice: "There was no time.")
No time ! Why, if it had been a new question I should have
thougiit there had been no time ; but the Malt-tax is older
than that by a good deal. It is as old as t am ; and I believe
that I shall die before it is repealed. Besides, at the last
election the farmers tliemselves were not united on the subject.
Take my own great barley-growing county as an exmple. I
can assure you tiiat I never had a question asked me about it,
or lieard even a wish expressed on the subject. I will take
the county of the gentleman wiio seconded tiiis resolution, and
1 believe that if he polled tlie farmers there he would find a
majority in favour of continuing the tax (" No, no"). There-
fore, I say, wlien we come to consider that out of 489 mem-
bers for England and Wales, there are only 187 couuty mem-
bers, and that tlie majority of tliat 187 do not care about the
tax, while some of them are in favour of its continuance, I do
not think thab the Government would have been justified in
proposing the repeal of half the tax, and unless yon reduce it
by one-half you will do very little good. (A Voice : "You
don't think them justified ?") I do not think they would
have been justified, because, in my opinion, tliey could not
have carried it. A gentleman near me says, " Transfer it to
heer." Then see what a kettle of fish you get into ! Look
at all the brewers !
Mr. Arkeil : Look at all the farmers.
Mr. Read : What is the good of talking about the farmers ?
Look at your representatives iu Parliament. Wiio are your
representatives ?
Sir G. jENKtNSON : As one of Mr. Arkell's, I beg to say
that I voted for Mr. Eielden's motion (cheers).
Mr. Read : I am speaking generally ; and I say that the
brewers are better represented than the farmers. I know
there are individual members who support Mr. Arkeil. Sir
George Jenkinson was one of the immortal seventeen who
went into the lobby with Mr. Fielden, and he was very right
in so doing, because I am sure the majority of his constituents
are of opinion that the Malt-tax should be repealed. But if
he will go to the West or North of England, to Scotland, or
Ireland, he will find that the question ot the Malt-tax has no
interest for them at all, and tliat they are rather favourable to
its continuance. I said last year in the House of Commons
that the man who had done most to prevent the repeal or re-
duction of the tax was Mr. Lowe. Four years ago he took
off half the sugar duties, and said that it was to be finality ;
but last year he halved tliera again, and then I felt sure that,
once reduced so low, it was impossible for any Government
long to retain them. Even the most ardent lover of t:.e Malt-
tax, it it had been reduced from 2s. 8^i. to 8|d. a bushel,
would have said, " Don't hamper and restrict the trade of all
who deal in malt or beer in the manner in which this 8^i,
will do," and I am equally certain that it was just aid rea-
sonable not to hamper the sugur trade by keeping on a small
duty which caused great inconvenience to the trade, and in-
volved considerable trouble and cost in the collection. The
proper time to bring forward an abstract motion like this is
before the Budget. When it is brought forward after, you
must run it against something. If it had been malt against
sugar, anyone could have understood it ; but here was a
regular filt against the Budget, which, if successful, I am quite
sure must have sent the Government to the right-about (Hear,
hear). My friend here, though a good Conservative himself,
says, " So much the better" (laughter). Again, I concur with
Mr. Stanhope that there is a strong, growing feeling through-
out the country that, so long as the working classes indulge
so immoderately in the use of beer, so long ought they to
contribute towards the public revenue in the shape of a beer-
tax. In the very first speech I made when I went to Parlia-
ment in 1865, I suggested that there should be a beer-tax ;
and, although I know that that is an unpopular thing to say
in this room, i know that it is a more unpopular thing to say
in the country that you are going to throw the entire burden
on those who drink beer. Still, I say that you will never get
the Malt-tax repealed in these days ("Oh !") A.nd as to put-
ting it on beer, when once it is shifted in that way, you would
fiud that the working classes, who are now supposed to govern
the country, would iu a very little time get it off. What is
more, if the county franchise is extended to the agricultural
labourers, not a session will pass before the obnoxiou5 tas is
repealed (Hear, hear). As to what Mr. Heneage says about
the etiquette of the House of Commons, I thought that, as
Colonel Barttelot had taken the lead on the question, he
ought to have been requested to undertake the duty of bring-
ing it forward again, and if he declined that, then it would
be open to some other private member to make any proposi-
tion he pleased on the subject.
Mr. Storer, M.P., though the seconder of Mr. Eielden's
motion, had very little to do with the tactics pursued by the
hon. gentleman ; and was certainly not accountable for the
division. Having throughout his life advocated the repeal of
the Malt-lax, he thought that on the first occasion that it
came before the new Parliament, with a Government that had
ridden into power on the backs of the agricultural interest,
and many of whom had for years pledged themselves to repeal,
it was not for him to desert Mr. Fielden, and he did not sup-
pose that they would be deserted by the Government. Of
course, the question of policy was an important consideration ;
but the country did not expect when a new ministry came into
oftice that it would begin by pursuing a policy diametrically
opposed to that which it had previously followed. He gave
the Government |the highest praise for the manner in which
they proposed to deal with the subject of Local Taxation.
Still, he thought they might also have given some distinct
utterance to show they were disposed to do justice on the score
of this particular tax, and he believed that, if Ministers had
announced a decided policy on the subject, Mr. Fielden would
not have pressed his motion to a division.
Lord Hampton extremely regretted the abandonment of
two millions of revenue by the repeal of the sugar duties,
without any adequate relief, so far as he could make out, to
the consnraers. At the same time, if it were an uuwise step,
the blame of it must rest not on the present Government, but
on their predecessors. With regard to the Budget, he was
much more inclined to express surprise at the Government
having grappled so promptly with the question of Loc:il Taxa-
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
511
tion to the extent they had done than dissatisfaction at their
not doing more ; especially when he remembered that the Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer liad distinctly stated that the whole
subject was to be dealt with next session. As to the Malt-tax,
he must say that he had heard with regret the terras of severe
censure applied to the Government, and the imputation that
tiiey had acted in bad faith. Witli Mr. Read he must say that
he could not join in expressing surprise that they had not made
some proposal respecting that tax. He held that, in dealing
with taxation, the Government, whatever their party, were
bound to consider how they could do the most general good ;
and Local Taxation touched the whole country, while the
Malt-tax did not. At the same time lie sliould be glad to see
some arrangement, as to that tax, whicii would be satisfactory
to the country at large.
Mr. Whitakek (Worcestershire), though not satisfied witli
the Budget, regarded it as a step in the right direction. In
his opinion tlie only argument in favour of repealing the
Malt-tax was that farmers would then be able to feed their
cattle with an excellent food. The remission of half the duty
would be of no good at all.
Mr. HoDSOL (West Kent) had for years been a Malt-tax
repealer ; but his views on tlie question were greatly modified,
by observing the manner in which the labouring classes, par-
ticularly in the Northern and Midland counties, had spent
their money on beer and other intoxicating liquors, instead
of making provision for a rainy day. l*or tliat reason he had
declined to accompany the deputation to the Ciiancellor of the
Exchequer ; and he held that it was not fair in the Conserva-
tive party to fire this old rusty gun when they were in opposi-
tion, and throw it away when they were in power (tlear,
hear). That, however, the Conservatives had done twice;
and he now considered the question to be dead and buried
(cries of " No"). Mr. Gladstone came forward at the begin-
ning of the year with a proposition that was noble. He pro-
posed to sweep away the Income-tax ; and there was some-
thing grand about that ; but the Budget of the Conservative
Government was an old woman's budget (Hear, liear, and
laughter).
Mr. Piiirrs, M.P., spoke briefly in approval of the main
features of the budget.
Sir G. Jekkinson, M.P., remarked that if there was a
padlock on Mr. Head's lips in the House of Commons, that
was a matter which concerned Mr. Head, who might ask him-
self whether his constituents had sent him to Parliament for
any such purpose. In short, the lion, gentleman had thrown
so much cold water upon the question of tlie Malt-tax, that
he (Sir G. Jenkiuson) was utterly surprised. He (Sir George)
was one of the "immortal seventeen" wiio went into the
lobby with Mr. Fielden (cheers). He had been told pre-
viously to doing so, " if you support tlie resolution, you will
place the Government in such a diflieult.y that they will be
forced to resign"; but his answer to tiiat was simply —
" Bosh" ; for he held that, pledged as he was on tiie question,
he was bound to vote for the reduction of the tax ; and what
Mr. Eieldeu's motion affirmed was that the time had arrived
when it ought to be reduced. When Mr. Lowe, in 1873,
proposed a I'urther reduction of the sugar duties, Mr. Head
asked him why he did not ''try his hand at mall" (Hear,
hear). The time had, therefore, arrived for dealing with the
subject. And then, on the 4th March last, the Chamber
agreed to 14> reasons, which were subiuilted to the Chancellor
of the Exchequer, in favour of repealing the tax ; yet now, in
two short months after, they were told it was nonsense to
talk of repeal 1 What was the cause of this cliange ?
(cheers and laughter). If tlie tax was to be considered a good
tax, let the Government say so. Don't let members of Par-
liament be misled into agitating for its repeal when in opposi-
tion, and dropping it as soon as their jjarty got into power.
For his part he did not mean to be made a fool of in that
way (cheers).
Col. KuGGi.ES-BiiiSE, M.P., was also one of tlie minority
who voted for Mr. Fieldeu's motion ; and as an old repealer lie
regretted that the minority was so insignificant, for he feared
that it would tend to injure a good cause. But he did not look
with so much " surprise and disappointment" at the action of
the Government on the question, as he did at the variety of
opinions he had heard in the Chamber that day. He did not
think the Government could have give i them any substantial
assistance ; and if blame rested anywlicre, it was witii those
county members wiio had always pledged tliemselves to repeal
reduction. Instead of seventeen, seventy or eighty members
ought to have gone to the lobby that night; and had they
done so, ground would have been gained instead of lost.
Mr.GAKDi'::posite policy, they
acted in a manner that was not creditable to them either in
their collective or individual capacity. Oh ! but, said Mr.
Head, " Malt-tax was not mentioned at least to me at the late
election." Perhaps not : but why? Simply because everybody
believed him to be a staunch repealer. He did not mean to
say that the (iovernineut ought to have proposed repeal. If
they had admitted the claim of the farmer, that would have
been so far satisfactory; but not having done so they had lost
caste in the country.
JMr. 1). Lo^'G believing that ministers would do something
at the earliest possible op|)ortuiiiiy with a tax, proposed that
the discussion be adjourned for six months (ThI and laughter).
Mr. CiLvri.uN, M.l'., seconded the amendment, and said he
was not surprised at. the variety of opinions expressed in the
course of the discussion, fo rit accurately represented the di-
versity of views which prevailee in every constituency on the
question. He eould not admit that tlu! Budget was the pro-
duction of an old woman, as one gentleman had described it,
and tli'jught the Chancellor of the Exchequer sharp enough to
know that there Was tiiis great divergence of opinion. On
512
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
that ground, therefore, he had declined to deal with the Malt-
tax, and turned his attention to others upon wjiich the commu-
nity at large were more unanimous. A very unfair view had
been taken of what had occurred in the House ot Commons the
other night. iS'or were the Government treated very fairly ; and
when lie lieard such tilings said about them, he called to mind
that it was owing to Mr. Disraeli tliat the first important vote
he gave in the House of Commons was in favour of tlie repeal-
ing the Malt-tax ; and no man could have carried out the views
he then enunciated in a fairer or more straightforward manner
than the riglit lion, gentleman had done. Let tliem remember
that the Government were at this moment in a peculiar posi-
tion ; that they had only just come into office, and had had but
a short lime to consider and mature their financial proposals.
Therefore, the charges made against them that day were unfair
and inopportune (No, no, ani Hear, hear). It was not for
liim to defend Mr. Read [who had just before retired from the
room]; but when gentlemen taxed him with holding different
views in and out of office, lie thought they might have done so
when the lion, gentleman was present to answer for himself
(Hear, hear).
Mr» J. Turner described the Chamber as in the position
of an individual who, having entered two horses for a race,
declared to win with both, and gentlemen from the barley-
Rrowing counties were sorely annoyed that both horses —
Local Taxation and the Malt-tax — had not run a dead heat
and divided the stakes. Still, they had something to congra-
tulate themselves upon ; for one of their horses had won, and
they would toucli some of the money. As to tiie resolution,
he did not see there was anything in it to alarm the most
sensitive member of Parliament.
Col. Pagkt, M.P., could not say that he was either sur-
prised or disappointed at the Budget ; for the simple reason
that he thought Local Taxation the right liorse to win.
Mr. Stoker, alluding to the remark of Mr. Chaplin, that
the Government had not had suflicient time for consideration,
reminded him that the question of the Malt-tax was a much
older one than local taxation.
After some further discussion, Mr. Biddell replied, and in
doing so said he was " vexed to the heart" at hearing Mr.
Head, with his cool head and sound judgment, talking so dif-
ferently after coming into office from what he did before. [A
Voice: "Muzzled."] He always thought Mr. Read a staunch,
able, and earnest repealer ; but the first speech he made to the
Chamber after joining the Government was to throw cold
water upon the cause. Well, Mr. Read was member for
Norfolk, and there were two members for Essex and one for
Suffolk, who were also in the Government ; but it instead of
Mr. Read telling the farmers that they were not unanimous,
he and his three colleagues representing the principal barley-
growing districts had said to the Government wlien asked to
join it, " We will do so on the understanding that some notice
shall be taken of the Malt-tax," there was no doubt that such
a simple recommendation would have been attended to.
The resolution was then put from the chair, and carried by
a considerable nilled
uranium, a yellow precipitate was formed, so they would see
that ammonia was very u-eful in the laboratory, as by its use
chemists could tell by the colour of the precipitates what the
substance was. When tliey wished to obtain ammonia gas
there were many ways of doing it, the simplest being that of
distillation from any of the salts of ammonia by means of
lime, when the gas ammonia would be given otf in abunilunce.
Ammonia may likewise be obtained by the dry distilhition of
animal substances, rich in nitrogen, such as wool, leather,
blood, bones, &c. These materials were mixed with dry lime,
and heated in iron retorts, when the nitrogen would be distilled
in union with liydrogen as ammonia. Aramonia salts were
now obtained mostly from coal tar, which was very rich in
nitrogen. Shoddy took a long time to decompose iu the soil ;
two years or more would elapse before it began to act upon
vegetation. Leather cuttings took still longer, but blood,
although it contained no ammonia, decomposed at once.
Having exhibited a fample of the blood used in blood manures,
the lecturer proceeded by saying that Faraday succeeded in
liquifying ammonia gas by distilling it under pressure of about
97 lbs. to the square inch. He also discovered that aramonia
under other conditions could be formed into a white crystalline
solid. Nitrogenous substances, when heated in close vessels,
produced another class of compounds besides ammonia, accord-
ing to the way in which they were heated. Under certain
circumstances tliey proJuced a series of salts called cyanides ;
and ferro-cyauides when iron was present. Let tliem take for
example leather cuttings, and put tl em into au iron put, with
iron filings, and a little carbonate of potasli, closing the
vessel, and subjecting it to heat. When sullicieutly heated, It-t
the pot be taken from the fire, and allowed to cool, the mass
emptied out, and treated with water, and a beautiful salt,
called fcrro-cyanide of potassium or yellow prussiate of potash
would be produced. This was one of the ingredients of Prus-
sian blue, wiiicli lie would now proceed to make in their
presence. By the addition of chloride of iron in certain pro-
portions to a solution of ferro-cyauide of potassium the Prus-
sian blue was tlien precipitated in the form of a solid. It was
a singular fact that plants, such as the cereals, should take
up nitrogen from the soil, and convert it into gluten, while
another plant, such as the deadly night-shade, should take it
up and convert it into belladonna ; and what plants ciuld do,
chemists were enabled to imitate in an inferior degree.
Nitrogenous substances might be either distilled into aramonia,
oor converted into cyanides. The cyanides and ferr-
cyanides contained the elements of Prussic acid, and
it was in that way in fact that the dreadful poison was made.
The almond tree {Am)/f/dah(S commwiis) took up nitrogen and
formed a substance called araygdalin, which could be converted
into pruss'.c acid by fermentation. Nitrogen united they would
thus see with oilier elements, forming many substances of great
dissimilarity. They could not study them all in one, or even
a dozen lectures, so the'y would pass on to the consideration of
another group of substances of much interest to agriculturists,
viz, the oxides of nitrogen. The first of these was called
nitrous oxide, or laughing gas, now mucli used by dentists, and
very useful for the purpose. The next, oxide of nitrogen, was
called nitric oxide, or dentoxide of nitrogen, containing twice
as much oxide as the laughing gas. Taking ajar of the dent-
oxide of nitrogen, and placing a piece of white paper behind,
showing it to be entirely free from colour, (lie lecturer ex-
plained that this gas possessed a peculiar affinity for oxygen
and when exposed to the air it became oxydised and converted
into per-oxide of nitrogen. This was a gas liaving an orange
colour ; it contained four times as much oxygen as laughing gas,
and possessed an acid reaction. When he removed the stopper of
the jar now exhibited, and admitted the air, they would at once
see the cliange in colour, the acid reaction at ouce turning
the blue tinted water red. The next oxide of nitrogen
was the well-known nitric acid or aqualortis, one of the con-
stituents of nitrogen. It contained five times as much oxygen
as laughing gas, and was one of the raost important acids in
commence, if they wished to obtain the lower oxides of
nitrogen they must make thera frora nitric acid ; and in order
to make the nitric acid of which he had spoken, if lie mixed
copper filings in a retort with nitric oxide, and applied heat,
abundance of the gas would be given off. Having successlully
performed the experiment, the lecturer went on to state that
this nitric acid was usually obtained from the native nitrate of
soda by distilling it with sulphuric acid. Nitrate of eoda was
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
i-25
aa imjiortaiit agr:cviUur;il suit, being of great service as a
manure, both on account of its nitrogen and soda. Nitric acid
dissolved copper, iron, and some other ractals, but not gold.
If he dipped a discoloured peony in nitric acid they would
perceive the action of the acid upon the metal, the portion
brougiit into contact immediately becoming bright. The penny
was handed round, the lecturer reraarki)ig that an immersion
of a few raiuutes, would iiave completely dissolved it. The other
nitrogenous substances of agricultural interest were blood,
shoddy, and leather. These must uudergo prolonged fermen-
tation or rotting in the soil, before tlieir nitrogen could be
assimilated by plants. This was notably the case with shoddy,
wliich usually took about two years to rot, and was tlicrefore
only fitted for land where immediate production was not im-
portant. He now came to manures and would first of all take
a sample of guano. This, lie knew, contained ammonia, as he
liad analysed samples, and by applying tlie test of a su;all
solution of potash, he at once obtained tlie smell of ammonia.
If he took some of Odams' blood manure, he would get no
smell of ammonia, and yet it was strange that OJaras' blood
manure was rich in the element of nitrogen. He used this
experiment in order tliat they might not be deceived in a
sample of manure, simply because it did not smell. He pro-
duced a sample of OJams' blood manure, containing 6:j per
cent, of nitrogen which would produce about 7 per ceut. of
ammonia by decomposition in the soil. In order to distiuguish
between nitrogen existing in the form of animouia, and as
simply animal matter, sucli as blood or flesh, they could not
have a better agent tlian potasli and lime. Dried olood formed
one of the most useful manures known to agriculture. If he
took some of this and put a little potash into it there was still
no smell, but it he took a sample coutainiug sulpliate of
ammonia, and put potash into that there was no mistake
about tlie smell. The nitrogen which blood manure contained
must be converted into ammonia by deco;nposition, and tliis
was why animal matter was so valuable as a fertiliser. The
agricultural salts such as those ot ammonia and the nitrates
were seldom pure. Here was a sample of red muriate of
ammonia, the red appearance of which was due to the presence
of cyanide of ammonia, a product ot the distillaliou of coal, and
poisonous to plants, lied sulphate ot ammonia sometimes
contained small quantities of this poison, but a small propor-
tion would not have any elfect upon the plant. He should warn
them against tliis sulpho-cyanide of ammonia which was
poisionous to plants and unfitted for manure. They must not
suppose that a small quautity had a bad effect; it had really no
efi'ect at all. lie had here a solution of red sulphate of ammonia
with which by means of chloride of iron, he could detect the
presence of the sulpho-cyanidc of ammonia — a most striking
experiment. [Taking a plate in his hand the lecturer imme-
diately produced, in the way mentioned, a subst-ince closely
resembliug human blood.] They had seen that nitrogen en-
tered into the composition of food and poison ; it was also an
element of explosives. Gunpowder was explosive on account
of the action of the nitre upon the other ingredients, sulphur
and charcoal. I'ulminate of silver was a variety of cyanide,
or, in other words, a nitrogen compound. Iodide of nitrogen
was most explosive, and if dissolved in ammonia and water
for about half-an-hour, and then placed upon an iron tray,
with a light beneath, would go off with a bang. The nitrogen
compounds of manures possessed an additional interest to the
agriculturist iu their relations to the soil. He would consider
in tiie first place ammonia. This formed what men called
" double salts." With sulphate of potash it formed ammonia
alum, and with clay which was a silicate of alumina it formed
silicate of alumina and ammonia. When, therefore,ssul|)hate
or muriate of ammoDia was applied to land, this double silicate
was first formed, and that was probably the reason why a
good clay soil was best adapted for the growth of wheat, and
of the. cereals generally, the ammonia being retained by the
clay, and every grain of it utilised. Clay had a strong affinity
for organic matter generally and for water. They must all
have noticed how a clay pipe would adhere to the lips unless
provided at the end wiih a coaling ot sealing-wax. French
chalk, as it was called, which really was only clay, was used
for cleansing cloth from dirt and greasy matters. This pro-
perty of clay depended upon its alliiiity for greasy matters ; it
would not be at all uselul to the cleanser except for this
chemical affinity. The base of clay, the alumina, was used to
precipitate colouring matters in the manufacture of "lakes ;"
and clay was one of the ingredients, he believed, in the
" A B C" f.rocess for tiie precipitation of the constituents of
sewage. Nitrogen existed then in tlie following conditions :
In tlie atmosphere as a constituent, although of its potency in
that condition as a manure they had no proof; in nitrate of
potash and soda as nitric acid, acting in the soil as an oxydiser
of organic matter, and also in the formation of ammonia.
Next, nitrogen existed as organic matter — a loose terra applied
to complex auiaial matter ; and, lastly, it existed as ammonia.
In each of these conditions it was taken up by plants, and i's
elements made to assimilate with other elements, forming tie
various principles of which plants were composed, both food
for man and cattle, and baneful poisons or substances of me-
dicinal virtue. The nitrogen compounds were interesting to
the farmers on account of tiieir conversion one into the other.
Sulphate of ammonia, for example, was placed upon the laud.
Wheat converted it into gluten, and gluten supplied man with
nitrogen for his flesh and blood. Man died, his flesh and
blood decomposed into many substances, chiefly ammonia
compounds and nitrates. Again, the bullock took nitrogen
from the grass and other vegetable food, converting it into
muscular fibre. This was given for man's support, as he was
unable to eat grass, and the bullock thus acted as the inter-
mediate agent for the conversion of grass into human muscle-
Man lived upon animal and vegetable food, and returned to
the earth when life was over, giving back his ch'ments for tlie
building up of future plants and animals, for " dust we are,
and unto dust we must return." He had now said all he con-
sidered agriculturally interesting upon ui;rogen and its com-
pounds, and on the next occasion he nould address them
upon the subject of phosphates aud the other mineral portions
of manures. Tor the present he trusted that his remarks upon
the chief organic elements of manures had been rendered suf-
ficiently interesting to his audience.
Mr. Catcueside said that so much depended upon the
chemical examination of materials used for food and manure,
that it became more or less an essential part of a farmer's
education th^t he should be acquainted with the science of
c'lemistry. He thought Mr. Jones must have raised the fears
of some of their shoddy Iriends if that material remained in
the ground two years before it became assimilated to the
plaut. Perhaps the lecturer thought that all the shoddy us(d
iu Kent was pure. They all recognised shoddy as refuse
wool, and he had seen Iiundreds of tons of it before it came
into the hands of the manufacturer. Shoddy was made from
shoddy by sulphuric acid. He had riot met wirh a pure sample
of shoddy since he had been in Kent, although he had ex-
amiued several specimens. Pure shoddy was £i per ton, but
there was shoddy which could be bought at 50s. and 60s.
'I'he material which was bought at the lower price
iiad been treated with sulphuric acid, and prob; -
bly it was better for instantaneous action than
pure shoddy. If, however, pure wool refuse was applied, it
would take two years or even longer before it was assimilated
to the plant, lie thought the lecturer shoiJd have called at-
tention to the fact that nitrogen should be present in manure
ill a soluble condition. He was glad to hear Mr. Jones speak
about the smell of ammonia, and the fallacious idea that in
proportion to the badness of the smell, the manure «a3 con-
sidered better in quality. A great many farmers thought ttrat
unless sprats smelt as abominable as they sometimes did,
they were no good ; and sometimes to deceive farmers, guano
was by artificial means made to smell of ammonia, but it
must be remembered that the smell of manures was no test
of quality. The best superphosphate had not the slightest
smell at all, yet it was quite as valuable as if it possessed the
bad smell of sprats. Some samples of shoddy had no smell ;
others smelt very bad. lie thought it was only due to those
interested in shoddy to refute the ideas that that material
will lie in land two years without having an effect. As a
brother chemist, he could testify to the fact that what Mr.
Jones had said was of the utmost importance to farmers. The
science of chemistry had been neglected by farmers, but they
should devote more time to the rudimentary study of it. He
was pleased to see the members of the Mainstone Parraers'
Club inviting men of the position of the present lecturer who
would come down and lecture to them, not only because the
suliject was new aud strange to some, but because it was use-
ful. T'lie rough testa mentioned by Mr. Jones were of
great use to them, and lie iiad great pleasure in testifying
to the ability displayed iu the lecture they had heard that
526
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
Mr. Baelixg though that if people were willing to pay a
fair price for i-hoddy they could obtain an article worth the
enhanced price they paid. They all knew that feathers were
valuable to hop growers. Teatliers contained a larger quan-
tity of nitrogen than any material obtained from the land.
There was also a large number of other things containing
nitrogen more or less. With regard to wool waste or shoddy
it contained a large proportion of nitrogen, and if they looked
down a list of articles showing the per-centage of nitrogen con-
tained iu manures shoddy would be found to stand three or four
from the top. Kitrogenous material was extremely valuable,
and wherever farmers could obtain it they should do so, and
they should also avoid its loss. Bullock's hair also contained
nitrogen, and fish, and the blood of aniraah more or less. It
was true the smell vi as not a criterion of tlie quality of manures.
They might say they did not smell ammonia in a certain
sample of manure, but it would be a pity if they did, for where
there was smell, waste was going on. Mr. Barling concluded
by pointing out tliat in applying manure containing nitrogen
to crops farmers must use judgment, because tlie amount sup-
plied might exceed the right quantity required and the plant
would be injured.
Mr. F. Pi.\E said that if farmers would give the price for-
merly paid (8O3. or 90s.) for wool waste they would get it ;
but if they only gave 50s. or 60s. they would get an adultera-
ted article. A pure wool waste could be obtained if au ade-
quate price was paid, but as to whether it was to lie in the
ground for two years before it had any effect on the plant,
that was another point. He believed it acted quicker than
that, although it might not wear out under a period of two
ears.
Mr. Sto:vhaii said he did not see why shoddy should be
rejected because it was combined with sulphuric acid ; it had
been stated that sulphuric acid was manure itself. The field
which had been thrown open by the lecture was so wide that
it was almost bewildering. The science of chemistry was in
its infancy. Liebig announced to the world that providing
they put mineral manures into the soil the atmosphere would
give them ammonia. Experiments made by Mr. Lawes had
proved that to be a fallacy. He (Mr. Stonhani) believed from
practical experience that the smell of ammonia was a general
test ; but he did not say that they could not have manures
with ammonia unless they possessed a smell. He thought the
lessou they ought to learn was not to rely so much as they did
on artificial manures, but to make their own manures. How-
ever valuable they might hold artificial manures as auxiliaries,
they ought to consider as their sheet-anchor the manwes they
made in the farmyard.
Mr. Elgak explained that all shoddy sold at 50s. or 60s.
was not adulterated. After the oil had been taken from
shoddy sold at 80s. to 90s. it was resold at 50s. or 6O3., and
after the oil had been removed it was better for agricultural
purposes than it would have been if the oil had been allowed
to remain.
Mr. J DUES, in reply, said when he spoke of shoddy taking
from two to three years to decompose, he meant that the whole
of the shoddy would not be thoroughly decomposed until that
period had elapsed. He had analysed a great number of
samples of shoddy and he very seldom found it adulterated.
Oil of vitriol was not applied to shoddy to fix ammonia, but
this oil was put into it to make it more favourable for intro-
duction to the soil. If shoddy was placed on land in bulk it
would not decompose so soon as if it were broken up, and the
best way to break it up was to mix some oil of vitriol with it.
Smell was no criterion, but it might be regarded as an auxili-
ary test in the analysis of manure. The smell of decomposed
fish was not due to ammonia, but to the change which was
taking place in the tissue of fish. Eermentation brought about
results which chemists had never been able to unravel. Bul-
lock's hair did not decompose so soon as shoddy. Ammonia
would always reveal its presence in a free state, although
every rule had its exception ; il it combined with clay they
could not smell it.
A vote of thanks having been passed to Mr. Jones, the
meeting terminated.
CROYDON FARMER S' CLUB.
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.
At the last meeting, Mr. Robert W. Fuller, the president of
the Club, in the chair, Mr. J. R. P. Goold delivered a lecture
on agricultural chemistry.
Mr. Goold said : I have the honour of appearing here this
evening for the purpose of bringing before you certain infor-
mation in regard to the chemistry of agriculture and I must
commence by introducing some elementary facts which I am
afraid you will find rather dry. The principal simple chemicals
influencing tlie growth of vegetation are carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, and nitrogen. The organic constituents of plants
are starch, gum, sugar, gluten, and albumen. They are the
products of plants endowed with life, and cannot be produced
without the operation of life ; hence they are termed
organic, being the products of living organs. The inorganic
constituents of plants are silica, alumioa, potash, soda, lime,
magnesia, phoshate of lime, common salt, sulphate of lime,
&c., varying according to the soil in which the plants grow ;
a certain number of them, however, are indispensable to their
healthy nutrition and full development. These inorganic
constituents are all compounded of two elementary bodies.
Starch is a substance of a mealy nature, found in the seeds of
onr various kinds of grain. Gum is a juice exuding from
cherry and plum trees. That which gives mechanical support
to plants, forming, as it were, their bones and blood vessels, is
called " vegetable fibre," or, when it has become tough, inso-
luble, or indigestible, " woody fibre." Vegetable albumen is a
substance which we meet with iu the sap of plants ; it
coagulates by boiling like the white of au egg. Vegetable
caseine is a substance which we meet with in peas and other
leguminous fruits ; it is extremely like cowmilk cheese. Gluten
is a substance which we meet with in the seeds of oats, wheat,
rye, and other kinds of grain. The beet, turnips, mangold
wurtzel, maize, S:c., are termed potash plants. The tobacco.
Beans, peas and clover are termed lime plants. Barley, oats,
rye, and wheat are termed silica plants. So far as the ingre-
dients of its leaves are concerned the potato may be classified
with the lime plants, but its tubers, containing only a trace of
lime, belong to the class of potash plants. By the term alkali
we mean potash, soda, and ammonia. Potash is the alkali of
land plants, soda of sea plants, and ammonia of animal
substances. Not being easily raised in vapour by fire, potash
and soda are fixed. Unless fixed by something else, ammonia
always exists as vapour. By the combination of alkalies with
acids, compounds are formed, termed salts. Acids occur in all
the kingdoms of nature ; they constitute a very large class of
chemical bodies. Phosphoric acid is of animal origin, being
found in bones. Oxalic acid is ot vegetable origin, found in
sorrel. Sulphuric and carbonic acids are common in mineral
bodies. Vegetable fibre, starch, vegetable mucus, gum and
destrine, sugar, fat and oil, resin, and vegetable acids, are
substances destitute of nitrogen. Albumen, caseine, gluten,
chlorophyle, and vegetable bases are nitrogenous substances.
By qualitative analysis we convert the unknown constituents
of a given compound into certain forms or combinations with
the properties of which we are acquainted ; and we are thus
enabled to draw correct inferences respecting the nature of
every individual constituent of the compound in question.
Quantitative analysis, by weight, has for its object to convert
the known constituents of a given compound into such forms
or combinations as will admit of the most exact determination
of their weight, and of whicli, moreover, the retative and
combining proportions are accurately known. The physical
properties, such as porosity, colour, attraction for moisture, or
state of disintegration, have great influence upon the fertility
of a soil. Those alkalies, earths, and phosphates, constituting
the ashes of plants, are perfectly indispensable for their
nutrition and development ; iu fact, no plant can flourish on
any soil whicli does not contain these compounds. Almost all
the different families of plants are distinguished by their
containing certain acids ; therefore the necessity of alkalies
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
527
for the vital processes of plants will be obvious. Wlien we ob-
serve that the proper acids of eaeli family of plants are never
absent from it, we must admit that the plants belonging to
that family could not possibly attain perfection if the genera-
tion of their peculiar acids were prevented ; hence, if the
production of tartaric acid in the vine were rendered impossi-
ble, it could not produce grapes, or in, oilier words, it would
not fructify. Now the genera'ion of organic acids is
prevented in the vine, and, indeed, in all plants which yield
nourishment to men and animals, when alkalies are absent
from the soil in which they grow. The organic acids in
plants are very rarely found in a free state. In general they
are in combination with potash, soda, lime, or magnesia ; thus,
silicic acid is found as silicate of potash, acetic acid as acetate
of potash or soda, and oxalic acid as oxalate of potash, soda, or
lime. The potash, soda, lime, and magnesia in tliese plants
are, therefore, as indispensable for their existence as the
carbon from which their organic acids are produced. In order
not to form an erroneous conclusion regarding the processes of
vegetable nutrition, it must be admitted that plants require
certain salts for the sustenance of their vital functions, the
acids of which salts exist either in the soil (such as silicic or
phosphoric acid), or are generated from nutriment derived
from the atmosphere. Hence, it these salts are not con-
tained in the soil, or if the bases necessary for their produc-
tion be absent, they cannot be formed. The juice, fruit,
and leaves of a plant cannot attain maturity if the consti-
tuents necessary for their formation are wanting, and salts
must be viewed as such. These salts do not, however, occur
simultaneously in all plants. Thus, in saline plants, lime soda
is the only alkali found ; in corn plants, lime and potash form
constituents ; several contain both soda and potash, some both
potash and lime, whilst others contain potash and magnesia.
The acids vary in a similar manner. Thus one plant may con-
tain phosphate of lime, a second phosphate of magnesia, a third
an akali combined with silicic acid, and a fourth an alkali in
combination with a vegetable acid. The respective quantities
of the salts required by plants are very unequal. The aptitude
of the soil to produce one but not another kind of plant is due
to the presence of a base which the former repuires, and the
absence of that indispensable for the development of the latter.
Upon the correct knowledge of the bases and salts requisite for
the sustenance of each plant, and of the composition of the soil
upon which it grows, depends the wliole system of a rational
theory of agriculture. The development of the stem, leaves,
blossom, and fruit of plants is dependent on certain conditions,
the knowledge of which enables us to exercise some influence
on their internal constituents, as well as on their size ; it is
the duty of the chemist to discover what these conditions are,
for the fundamental principles of agriculture must be based on
a knowledge of them. There is no profession which can be
compared in importance with that of agriculture, for to it be-
longs the production of food for man and animals ; on it de-
pends the welfare and development of the whole liuman species,
the riclies of states, and all commerce. There is no other pro-
fession in which the application of correct principles is produc-
tive of more beneficial effects, or is of greater or more decided
influence. Hence, it appears quite unaccountable that we may
vainly search for one leading principle in the writings of
agriculturists and vegetable physiologists. The methods
employed in the cultivation of land are different in every
country and in every district ; and when we inquire the causes
of these differences we receive the answer that they depend
upon circumstances. No one, however, lias yet devoted liim-
self to ascertain what these circumstances are. Thus also when
we inquire in what manner manure acts we are answered by the
most intelligent men that its action is covered in mystery ; and
when we demand further what this means, we discover merely
that manure is supposed to contain an incomprehensible some-
thing, which assists in the nutrition of plants and increases
their size. This opinion is embraced without even an attempt
being made to discover the component parts of manure, or to
become acquainted with its nature. Mr. Goold then read a
table showing in what proportions the inorganic constiluenfs of
plants are contained in the ashes of the various crops. He next
gave a full analysis of farm-yard manure, produced from iiorses,
cows, and pigs, and then proceeded : The composition of farm-
yard manure of course varies according to the auinials yielding
it, and again according to the varieties of food upon which they
have been fed. From the analysis it will be seen that yard manure
contains every single constituent that is necessary for the growth
of plants. It has, however, this serious drawback — the fearful
amount of waste in its application, caused by the large quantity
of water it contains. What farmer, therefore, can calculate the
expense lie is pat to in its use. Inasmuch as very few, if any,
farms which produce an amount of farm-yard manure sufficient
for their requirements, recourse must be had to artificial
manures. In a good many districts, if not in all, the mere
mention of the artificial manures creates an amount of disgust
in the minds of many farmers. They complain that they have
been so miserably duped, that they have lost such sums of
money not only in worthless manures, but from losing their
crops consequent upon their use, that they very frequently term
manure manufacturers rascals, robbers, people devoid of prin-
cipal, &c. Now, as every effect has its cause, let us inquire
into one or two of the many reasons for the existance of such
a state of things as this intensely antagonistic feeling of farmers
towards those who manufacture manure. In the first place let
me inform you that it takes a very large capital to embark in
the business of manufacturing manure — at least from such
materials as manures ought only to be made from; and the
scientific knowledge requisite for the chemical manipulation of
the various materials is anything but trivial Now, admitting
these two points, what has happened ? farmers, finding they
have not sufficient yard manure for their manurial requirements,
are led to purchase artificial, and how do they proceed about
it ? They themselves, witli very few exceptions, know nothing
whatever about chemistry, although in reality little chemical
knowledge is requisite, as 1 shall hereafter show. The
farmer goes to market, bent upon purchasing so many
tons of manure, and in his own mind he considers
manure simply as the compounding of so many substances,
hoping that its results may be beneficial to his crop. His
invariable cry is for cheap manure. The materials that ought
to enter into its composition trouble him very little. He
wants manure, and he wants it deep. His only idea is that a
ton of manure is but a ton of manure, and his reasoning
powers trouble themselves no farther. Unfortunately, most
unfortunately, there are people in the world who are scrupu-
lous to an extent, but to a very small extent. Their princi-
ples are of a slightly loose kind ; their reasoning mind is not
too stringent upon the moral obligations affecting their inter-
course with their fellowmen, even in point of business ; they
live, perhaps, with a tolerably fair idea that the chief aim of
life is to make money — how, is a totally dift'erent matter; this
affects their calculations but little; they embaik in business,
and some may possibly choose the manure trade. Witii little
capital, totally ignorant of the chemistry of their profession,
all that they believe it requisite to know is that certain mate-
rials, although, perhaps perfectly worthless in themselves, and
perfectly worthless in their ultimate compounding into ma-
nures, yet that those certain materials, added together, form
— well, wliat shall we call it ? Manure ? No, hardly such a
term as thsit, for remember, gentlemen, there are even honest
manure manufacturers, and to give such a compound as I am
picturing the name of manure is an insult to those who carry
out fair and legitimate trading. To carry out my picture to
the end : The unscrupulous man, with, say £10,000 capital,
has made his compound. The farmer at market wants a cheap
manure ; ho can have it at any price. The sequal you all
know. The worthless stufl", costing little to make, yielding
therefore (say at £4 per ton) a handsome profit, nefariously
gained, for its producer, and a large commission for the agent,
is sold. 'J'iie consequences perhaps many of you have ixpe-
rieuced. I do not wish it to be misunderstood. It is possible,
nay it is more than probable, because it is an absolute fact,
that some manure manufacturers with a small capital, go in
simply lor a local trade, and supply an honest article, always,
however, at a fair price — a price consistent with its composi-
tion, and the materials used in its manufacture. Now, gen-
tlemen, having giving you the principal reason why you all
are a little prone to regard manure manufacturers in a scarcely
fair light, considering that you are yourselves not free from
blame in purchasing popular so-called manures at a price
which it is perfectly impossible an article worthy of the name
of manure can be made at, and without troubling yourselves
to inquire into its composition, I will proceed to explain to
you how it is absolutely impossible, if you will follow my advice,
that in future you need throw your money and your crops away
in buying trash. JUy serious advice to you wlio liave sons is,
if they are to become farmers, let chemistry be one of the
studies of their education. It is a grand noble science ; it
528
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
embraces everytliiug this world contains ; its range is immea-
surable • its study and contemplation ennobling to the miud.
Anyone'witli a spark of reasoning jjower and iutellect cannot
fail to be engrossed with its fascination, for fascination it crr-
tainly has, when you come to consider of wliat it is capable.
A perfect master of your profession, independent of everbody,
the study of this science will enable you to carry on your
farming operations with such a degree of skill, ensuring perfec-
tion in cultivation ; for, believe me, farming will ere long be
conducted simply and solely on scientific principles, and
with the exacting competition of the present day in all
articles of produce, the farmer of the future will need
the aid of scieace more tiian ever, Sliould circumstances be
such that either you have no sons to study chemistry, or tiiat
you yourselves feel more inclined to follow in the old track of
those who have preceded you, for your own sakes consider the
importance of the following means by wliich you may secure
yourselves against imposition. There really is no occasion
whatever, for any degree, however slight, of mystery, or any-
thing to be concealed, in the manufacture of manures, and I
venture to say, as there are several large firms of undoubted
honesty of purpose and integrity, if when you are in want of
manures you apply to a respectable well-known lirra direct, or
their agent, you can always, if you choose, know from wlmt
materials the manures they sell are made. Tliis does not in
any way affect the question of trade secrets, for there are
certain materials requisite for the plant, and which ought to
form a part of each compounded concentrated manure. Their
manipulation alone, as affecting the various chemical reactions
produced in their manufacture into manure, are secrets wiiich
obviously undoubtedly belong to each manufacture. With tliese
you have nothing to do, further than knowing the materials
your manures are made from. It becomes a question for you
to test their ultimate value by tiie results they severally yield
your crops. It is always open to you to knaw the market
value of raw materials, and knowing the m-aterials supplied to
you as manure, you liave a true safeguard against dishonesty.
JS^o adulteration would be possible, honesty would be ensured,
crops increased in their ultimate value to the farmer, if he
would but use ordinary discretion, and then manufacturers
would not get into disrepute, if the means were taken from
dishonest men of vilely and systematically being able to
defraud. The analysis of soils unquestionably is a source of
very material benefit to th^ agriculturist, inasmuch as by
analysing a soil, it points out to him the elements of which it
is composed, and, to a great extent, the state in which they
exist. It is quite possible for a soil to contain rich fertilising
matter, and yet that tliis matter may not be assimilated by, and
available, to the plant ; and why ? Because the elements com-
posing certain compounds may exist in a stale in which the
plant cannot take them up as food. Chemical analysis in such
a case as this may, by a few simple tests, be able to point out
the method by which these compounds may be readily acted
upon and decomposed, and thus rendered valuable food to the
plant. Again, analysing a soil shows a farmer at once the
reason of his land being foul, and supplies him with informa-
tion as to the means of making it again fertile. Some farmers,
growing certain crops requiring the presence of an abundance
of lime in the soil, are surprised to find, notwithstanding that
they may have put large quantities of farm-yard manure on
the land, and consequently, as they suppose, have done every-
thing to ensure a heavy and healthy crop, that the crop does
not reach maturity, is anything but full and heavy, and, as a
sequence, their money-return is anything but remunerative.
A case ia point came under niy notice some time
since, where a large farmer, and a man decidedly in-
telligent, lost, to a great extent, a root crop, simply
becauic his land required liming. Now, had a very simple
lest been applied lo a small portion of his soil, prior to the
seed being sown, it would have at once indicated what was
necessary to have secured a healthy and invigorated plant.
There are certain conditions in which many organic com-
pounds existing in a soil are a source favourable to developing
disease in plants. Chemical analysis, again, rescues the far-
mer to a very considerable extent, from tlie ravages of disease
which otherwise would have become certain. I have now,
therefore, given you one or two reasons why you should al-
ways avail yourselves of the benefit of soil analysis, especially
if, as in some cases, it is possible for you to get it done free
of expense. Epitomising ray remarks again on this head ;
Soil analysis shows you the compounds present in the soil, the
state in which they exist, whether you have symptoms of
organic compounds so coublituted as to favour disease, whether
your land requires liming, and wliut compounds arc requisite
for you to replace, so as to secure successful resulls. So far
chemif.try is able to help you. It ciinr.ot, of course, control
the seasons which may, under adverse eircunii,tanccs, be
against you. The way properly to take samples of your soils
is to take, say, a dozen dilfcreul lots from various portions of
your field, well mix them togetlier, and from the aggregate
send two or tiiree pounds for analysis. I do not make a single
statement I am not pvep^red to subs'anliate, consequently I
will now give you the. list of Uiatenal nianures ought to be
composed, of and which embrace all the elements it is possible
for a jilant to require. Thry are bone-dust, bone-aih, sul-
phate of ammonia, sulpli;ite of potash, sulphate of magnesia,
concentrated acid, muriate of anunoiiia, precipitated plios-
phate, and bones. These materials are all costly, but they are
the cheapest in the end to the farmer. Tiie lower class of
raw materials are : Ccprolites, 52s. to 73s. ; animal cliarcoal,
95s. to 110s.; kainit, 60s.; Carman pliosphate, Carolina
phosphate, tstremadura phosphate, shoddy, greases, leather,
scutch. The sole value of a manure depending upon the
materials from vvhicli it is made, it is easy for you now to
form a pretty good idea of what sort of materials a manure
selling at £-i per ton can be made from, considering tiiat a
mixture of coproliles and acid could not even be sold retail
for the money. The analysing of manures is a matter of very
great importance. Tlie very great annoyance, however, to
manufacturers of finding the leading scientific chemists of the
day analysing their manures, and if a sample taken from the
same bulk is sent to four dilferent chemists, yielding, according
to their analyses, four entirely dilferent results, it certainly
either shows considerable carelessness on the part of the
clieniists, or their assistants who do the analyses, or else it
plainly sliows that from the want of union amongst scientific
men, commerce is to be the victim of the errors necessitated
Ijy each chemist following his own peculiar process for the de-
termination cither of the ammonia or phosphute ; whereas, if
a standard process were to be tlelerniiued upon by a council of
scientific men, this source of serious inconvenience both to
buyers and consumers would be done away with. The valua-
tion of manures, again, is a matter our friends, the scientific
chemists, are very fond of meddling with, when
they really do not know anything whatever about
it. It is, in fact, a purely commercial question, and
according as the markets vary so also do the commercial
values of the compounds found in and constituting
manures. Again, there are some materials which yield
an exceptionally liigh analysis so far as the ammonia,
calculated from the nitrogen found, is concerned, but
this ammonia is not available to, nor capable of being
assimilated by the plant- A noticeable instance is the fact of
two different manures, both prepared with the greatest care,
and highly concentrated, yielding, on cliemical analysis, the
same quantity of nitrogen, which in llie element determined
to calculate the quantity of ammonia contained in a manure.
The source of the ammonia in the one case may have been
guano, wliilst in the other case sulphate of ammonia may have
been used. Now, in guano there is a large amount of a com-
pound called uric acid, wiiich is not ammonia, and which is
not available to the plant. This uric acid contains one of the
elements composing ammonia, namely, nitrogen ; and conse-
quently, when a manure made from guano is analysed, the
whole of the nitrogen is determined, and from the whole an
equivalent amount of ammonia is calculated, thereby giving
tlie farmer a perfectly erroneous impression, because the
quantity of ammonia as calculated in this case is not real, and
is not available to the plan^. On the other hand, you will see
that if sulphate of ammonia is alone the source of ammonia in
the other manure, the whole exists as pure available ammonia,
capable of being assimilated by the plant, and the total nitrogen
found is correctly the index of tlie quantity of ammonia contained
in such a manure. This manure certainly is far more valuable
intrinsically than that compounded of guano. Now, these are
points no scientific chemist troubles himself about, and when
he is asked by a farmer to estimate the value and analyse
a manure, the first thing he does is to supply a wrong analysis,
or, at least, if three others are analysing tlie same manure, and
have to estimate its value too, you may generally depend upon
getting four different sets of results, and four different values
set upon the manure. Consequently, who is right ? Again,
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
529
when scientific clieraists undertake the valu:;tioa of manures, they
not only attacli what value thf y tliink proper to the compouads
constitutintc tlie manure, perfectly independent of their real
comraereirtl value, v^liich, to say the least, is a most unfair
state of things and much to he coudemued, but they also
leave out entirely the business expenses of a mimuracturer,
which naturally should have some recognition from them, aud
some place in tlieir calculations. These expenses, which they
ignore, are cost of manufacture, coals, wages, salaries, bags,
cartage, carriage, discount, commission, interest of money,
rent, rates, and taxes, and insurance, and certainly to my mind
they merit some little consideration.
Vote of thanks were accorded to Mr. Goold and the
chairinaa.
SHEEP AND SHEEP-BREEDING IN AUSTRALIA.
The following paper was read by the Hon. G. II. Cox at a
monthly meeting of the Sydney Agricultural Socii^ty :
It is now somewhat more than two years since I gave a lec-
ture upon sheep auJ sheep breeding, befoie the members of
this society. I then endeavoured to show the enormous
national gain that would accrue were sheepowners to bestow
more care aud attention in the breeding and culling of their
flocks, comprised in the 15 or l*) million sheep the colony of
New South Wales contained. I also dwelt upon the in-ane
attempt of those gentlemen to try and breed the same class of
slieep in every portion of tliis large territory, and also the
disastrous effects of indiscriminate crossing. "1 tried to point
out how the characteristies of our Australian merino were
ruined by the introduction of ilimbouillet, Negretti, Snxon,
and other fine-woolied rams, undoing all that our fine climate
had effected for generations past, in establishing the qualities
for which onr wool was so renowned, as long ago as 1828,
before a committee of the House of Lords. Mr. Henry
HughbS, wool broker, London, says : "Tbe Australia and Van
Diemen's Land wools have been of varied qualities, but all
possessing an extraordinary softness, which the mauufgcturers
here so much admire, that they are sought for more thau any
other description of wools, from that peculiar quality which
is supposed to arise from tbe climate alone. They are known
to require less of the milling or fulling power than any other
description of wools. They are better adapted than the Ger-
man wools to mix with British wools, because the superior
softness which I have stated gives a ciiaracrer when mixed
with English wool, that the other does not, from the hardness
of the fibre." Mr Stuart Donaldson, merchant, Loudon,
says : " I have no hesitation in pronouncing that tlie wools of
New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land ars decidedly pre-
ferred to the apparently similar descriptions of German wool.
They have a softness and silkiness about them which, when
worked up into cloth, shows itself more distinctly than in the
raw material. I conceive that it is dependent on the climate
alone. I am of opinion that wool of that quality could not
be produced in any part of Europe." Mr. Thomas Lezz,
wool-stapler, Bermondsey, and Mr. Tiioinas Ebsworth, wool-
broker, Lonoon, gave evidence to the same effect. Notwith-
standing the great care taken with sheep-breeding in Germany
compared with the loose and careless system pursued in New
South Wales, how astonishing must be the effect of climate
to produce s-ucli results in so short a time ! Almost every
sheep-breeder of note in the colony now admits that the use
of imported sheep latteily was a mistake; for not five per
cent, of tlieir progeny proved of any value. Tbe only excep-
tion 1 would make is with tlie Silesian merino, the wool of
wiiich, in all its natural points, is very similar to that of our
0*n sheep. But I contend that wliere we iiave all the advan-
tage of climate and pasture, and pure merino blood to start
with, there must be something radically wrong in our manage-
ment if we cannot now dispense with fresh importations. 1
would ask. Do tbe sheep-breeders of Germany or France go
t) Spain, the parent country of all fine-woollcd sheep, to
obtain animals to cross with the flocks they have established
and proved to be suited to the condition of the countries they
iuhabit ? No ; they are aware that tiiey would undo all that
lias been done lor generations past in perfecting the animals
they iiave obtained with so raucii care and attention. While
we continue to follow the rule of thumb plan of putting (say)
a numbsr of rams indiscriminately with a certain number of
ewes, without any attempt at previously proving the merits
of the sires and keep no record of tlie progeny, we can never
attain perfection, except, of course, by chance. It is sheep-
breeding certainly, and which requires a certain amount of
knowledge aud judgment, but it ia not scientific breeding, and
the results must always be uncertain aud unsatisfactory. It
is not always that the finest-looking ram proves to be the best
sire. One of the finest and heaviest-wcolled rams I ever bred
never produced a lamb viorthy of himself; and I have known a
somewhat ordinary ram beget lambs that were almost all unex-
ceptionable, sheep that you could pick out anywhere by tlieir
style and even appearance. The first animal I allude to was
the first cross by an imported German ram. This experience
could never be gained by the slipshod method usually adopted.
Again, the only scientific or rational system is in-and-in
breeding, instead of out-and-out breeding, by constant change
of blood. I shall quote from an excellent and well-known
author (Mr. Henry S. llandall) bearing upon this subject.
(Pago 115 of llandall's Sheep Husbandry): "It is probable
that tbe Creator — who organised all animals into either
families, flocks, or herds, which strongly incline to remain to-
gether, and implanted in none of them butnian a disinclination
to incest — at the same time established a physical law which
rendered incestuous coanecVion, jjer se, an element of deterio-
ration and final destruction. Amongst wild brutes,
broibers and sisters must convtautly pair together. Some kinds
of birds are hatci.'ed in pairs, as if for the express purpose of
remaining together and inter-breeding, and the connection of
brothers and sisters is the closest possible inter-breeding. Has
any one discovered, or even conjectured, a decay of the wild
denizens of earth or air on this account? Does any one
imagine that the elephant is smaller or weaker than he was
when he trampled down inarmed squadrons on old barbaric
battlefields, ages aud ages ago ? or that the African lion is a
less formidable animal than when his angry roar shook tbe
Roman coliseum. It may be said that inasmuch as the strong
males destroy or banish from the herd the weak animals, and
that in times of scarcity and hardships the weaker animals
of both sexes perish, a natural provision has been made to
guard against deterioration, whether arising from in-and-in
breeding or any other cause. In respect to animals which
herd together in large numbers, and which are periodically
exposed to severe vicissitudes of climate and periods of scarcity
of food, this would be in a great measure tru". ; but there are
portions of the earth where some classes of animals, particu-
larly those of the lower organisation and solitary habits, cannot
be supposed to be subject to wide casualties, or to any which
would have the effect of regularly weeding out those possessed
ot less than the average of strength and hardiness. And I
apprehend we shall find no natural laws necessary for the pro-
tection of animal life and vigour enforced in respect to the
higher and not the lower organizations, or which require a
special aud local set of circumstances to bring their benevolent
effects into oi/cration. Interbreeding between near relatives
becomes fatal to physical imperfections, but the drift of testi-
mony goes to sliow that it is innocuous to perfection. I do
not recommend \X. per sc, for who shall decide what perfection
is? There comes a time generally when close in-and-in
breeding between the artificial species, which have been partly
moulded by man, produces loss of vigour and degeneracy, and
sometimes tliis fatal overthrow is but one step away from the
pinnacle of apparent success. But I would quite as sedulously
abstain from running round from fimily to family and indi-
vidual to individual to obtain a perpetual recurrence of dis-
turbing aud unnecessary crosses. And wiien crossing is re-
sorted to, let it be in a uniform way and direction. Let every
breeder establish his own standard, and breed steadily to it.
The French do this ; Mr. Jarvisdid this ; both therefore suc-
ceeded in establishing a new variety, not as uniform as an old
variety, yet far more so thau if either had pursued a deviating
and ciiangcable course. The sheep-owner who changes the
family and style of his rams every two or three years — now,
for example, getting short thick fleeced, and now long open
fleeced ones — now golden and dark, tmd now dry and light
coloured ones — now low broad-carcased, and now tall ones,
&c., &c. — will never obtain that degree of uniformity which is
530
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
essential to a decent-bred flock." I quite endorse the concluding
remarks of tiie writer, but then every wool-grower should not
try to become a breeder of stud sheep ; let him rather con-
tinue to purchase year after year rams from some good stud-
breeder, and not change at all, unless he finds that the progeny
of these sheep do not stamp his flocks with the character he
desires. But if indiscriminate crossing with sheep of the same
class is to be deprecated, T am at a loss for words to deaounce
the insane folly of those who are endeavouring to establish a
cross between the merino and the English coarse-wooiled
breeds. If persisted in the results will be most disastrous to
the owner, and detrimental to the interests of the colony. My
theme does not include the breeding of coarse-wool sheep,
some kinds of which I think very suitable for parts of our
enormous territory, and I should hail with mucli satisfaction
the introduction of small flocks of this breed of sheep upon
the holdings of our free selectors and tenant farmers, uot
only as a means of adding to their wealth and providing them
with food, but chiefly that they would enable the cultivators
to renew the fertility of the soil, which must inevitably be
impoverished by the present rotation of crops without manure
— wheat, corn, and hay, until the land is thoroughly worn out.
The most astonishing thing to me is that people will not learn
from the experience of others. The crossing of the merino
with the English breeds, ostensibly to obtain a heavier fleece
with larger carcase, was tried thirty years ago, and resulted
in a most miserable failure. Anyone gifted with the most
ordinary common sense, and knowing the extreme vicissitudes
of the climate in tlie interior of this great continent, cannot
but be aware that the inactive heavy-framed Lincoln (which
appears to be the favourite breed) could not travel the distance
under a scorching sun to find the wherewithal to support life
during a season of drought. The first cross, I will admit, is
generally a handsome sheep, and covered with a useful fleece ;
but continue the cross, and in two or three generations you
will have a wretched long-legged mis-shapen animal, with a
worthless fleece, and having lost all aptitude to fatten. It
would be amusing were it not so lamentable to hear the absurd
ideas of some sheep-breeders in the colony. I heard, only the
other day, that a squatter who was very anxious to obtain
some imported rams, attended a sale in Sydney at which some
English aud Tasraauiau sheep were submitted to auction ; he
endeavoured to purchase the former, failing which he bid for
the latter. What his object was, except to get imported sheep,
it would be hard to fathom. We know that there are many
parts of the world where coarse wool can be grown, and we
also know that the range for the growth of such flne wool as
we possess is limited. Let us, then, adhere to the breed we
have proved to be so profitable for the last fifty or sixty years,
and not ruin our flocks by the attempt to attain the itnattain-
able. Reverting to the previous portion of ray paper as to the
inutility of, if not actual damage resulting from, theintroduction
of foreign sheep, I shall endeavour to analyse the properties
of the recognised breeds of fine-wooUed sheep, and show that
we have nothing to gain by their use. To commence with
the Spanish merino, I believe the old and world-renowned
breed of sheep, the Transhumantes, or migratory flocks, are
fast deteriorating. They consisted of four or five distinct
breeds, which may thus be summarised. Tlie Escurial cabana
belonged to the king, but latterly to the friars of a convent
attached to the Escurial place; they were supposed to possess
the finest wool. The Guadaloupe, having the most perfect
form, and celebrated for the quantity and quality of their wool.
The Paulars also bear heavy fleeces of a good quality, but
have a greater degree of throatiness, and the lambs have a
coarse hairy appearance which is, however, succeeded by good
wool. The Negretti, which is the largest of all the Spanish
travelling sheep, have the same throatiness or loose skin, and
the lambs the same hairy coat when young ; and one or two
other breeds of lesser note. The characteristics of the merino
were thus described at the beginning of the present century.
" The body compact, the legs short, the head long, and forehead
arched. The rams generally have very large spiral horns,
iiave a fine eye and bold step. The ewes have generally no
horns. The wool is quite difierent to English wool, and can-
not be compared with it. It is twisted and drawn together
like a corkscrew ; its length does not exceed two inches, but
when drawn out will stretch to nearly double that length.
The wool outside has a very dark look, owing to the excess of
yolk, and opens in strips or squares. The wool completely
covers great part of the head, and descends to the hoof of
the hind leg, particularly in young sheep. Many of them
have kemp, or white hairs in the wool. The fleeces of the
ram weighed about 81bs,, of the ewe 5lbs., but would lose
half in washing." The fibre taken from a picked Negretti
fleece had the diameter of l-750th part of an inch. Next
comes the Hambouillet, or French merino, a flock which has
not been crossed since first established. These sheep are
much larger than their ancestors, and cut a heavier fleece,
bat which runs short on the belly. They are chiefly remark-
able for the quantity of loose pendulous skin which hangs
about their neck, and lies iu folds about their bodies. It is
supposed that this extra skin gives so much more space for
the growth of wool, but it is scarcely possible to cut it off.
A very wrinkled ram would occupy an hour in shearing it
properly. The wool is hard and inelastic. The Saxon merino,
although originated from the same flocks, and about the same
time as the Erench merino, nearly one hundred years ago,
have assumed a totally difi'erent type ; the size of carcase and
weight of fleece have diminished, but have developed an ex-
treme fineness of wool with softness of touch. The staple is
not more than three-quarters of an inch to one aud a-half
inches in length, but so pliant and elastic that it will stretch
to more than double its length. The fleeces do not average
over 21bs. washed. More than 40,000 fibres have been counted
in the square inch. The Silesian merino (the best known
breeders of which are Prince Lichnowsky and Mr. Eischer)
have many points in common with [our Australian merino,
and I need not therefore describe them here. Besides these
there is the American merino, an animal which by careful
breeding and good tending has inherited not only all the good
qualities of the original Spanish race, but with a much heavier
fleece, some of the best flocks averaging from 41bs. to 51bs. of
clean washed wool. The Saxon merino was tried in America ;
but as there was little or no demand for such fine wool by the
American cloth manufacturers, its culture has been abandoned.
I shall now attempt to describe the true Australian merino.
The body should be symmetrical ; the carcase of the wether,
when fat, weighing 601bs., the ewe from 4Slbs. to 501bs.,
covered with wool having a staple of not less than 2 inches
in length, so dense that it stands at right angles to the skin,
nowhere drooping or falling over like emu's feathers. The
forehead and cheeks well covered with wool of moderate length,
the nose having a soft velvety feel, without any admixture of
white hairs (many highly-bred sheep have brown spots on the
nostrils, which I do not object to) ; ears coated with short
mossy hair (a naked ear is objectionable as indicating a light
fleece) ; the hind legs well covered with wool to the iioofs, as
well as inside the thighs on no account to be mixed up with
kemp or hairs (this by-the-bye is a fault which few imported
sheep are without). The wool on the foreleg to run full to
the knee, the armpits only should be bare. The whole fleece
should present a uniform even surface of a dark colour, and
the masses of wool between the cracks or divisions which are
always seen on the surface should be of medium size ; if too
small they denote lightness of fleece — notably some Germans
— if too large, they indicate a harsh wool, as the Negrettis.
When opened, the skin should show a streak only of a rich
pink colour, the wool parting without intermixture of fibre,
showing a curve uniform from bottom to top and soft to the
touch. All these qualities, with fineness, clearness of colour
and lustre, in combination give to the fleece what is called
character or style, a word of well-known meaning but not
easily described. Yolk is a necessary ingredient in wool ;
without it the growth is checked aud the staple becomes un-
sound, or it mats or felts, from the absence of the lubricating
properties of tins natural oil; the continual friction of the
fibres agaiust each other caused by the motion of the animal
makes the wool mat or cling together, owing to its milling or
felting properties. This is often caused by fever after lambing,
or by grass seed, the skin from these causes failing to secrete
the yolk necessary for the proper nourishment of the wool.
Again in a very dry season dust accumulates upon the back of
sheep, preventing the rising of yolk, aud the wool deprived of
its nourishment dies and becomes rotten just as a tree rung
dies from want of sap. There is much diversity of opinion
with regard to the colour and quantity of yolk desirable iu a
fleece — as a rule the Spanish and Erench aud German merinocs
have a yellow thick yolk, while the Tasmauian and Skiptou
(Victorian) sheep have a white oily yolk. Our New South
Wales merinocs are between the two, not so yellow and clammy
as the first or so white and oily as the last. Too great a
THE FARMEE'S MAGAZINE.
531
secretion of yolk is, I tliink, very objectionable. I have
known a ram's fleece weighing nearly 201bs., and when washed,
a difficult process with such sheep, reduced to 41bs. I think
I have now shown that if we cross witli Spanish we lose
elasticity and quality ; with Saxon we have weight ; and if
with French softness and quality without any corresponding
benefit. I must again impress upon the attention of sheep-
breeders the importance of studying the capabilities of the
country in which they reside, to enable them to breed that
class of sheep which will best adapt ilself to the nature of the
soil and climate. You connot fight against nature, but assist
her, and she will reward yuu abundantly. With the wide
range of soil and climate in this island-continent, many parts
of which are quite unknown to me, I am unable to give any
opiaion to guide the sheepbreeder as to the type of animal
best fitted to thrive in any particular locality ; but it requires
no great amount of intelligence to discover that the sheep
which will flourish on the saltbush plains of the interior may
be very unfitted to withstand the bleak and humid mountains
of Monera or New England ; as well expect the delicate
Leicester or the heavy Lincoln to live in Northern Highlands
of Scotland. The prevalence of catarrh, footrot, fluke, and
other diseases in many parts of the country, the last five years,
must make it very evident that the merino which delights in
a warm climate and dry soil, is not suited to the cold and
spongy mountain runs that have proved so fatal in the locali-
ties suggested. Having now touched upon the principles that
should guide the sheep-breeder, I cannot conclude this paper
without a short statement with respect to the getting up of
the article produced for the market. My experience goes to
prove that however carefully you may breed your siieep, and
however superior the wool may be which they grow, your
returns will be disappointing without the greatest attention is
bestowed upon the washing of your clip. Every gentleman
who has judiciously expended money upon the necessary plant
and appliances for spout-washing his wool, will freely admit
that the returns are one hundred-fold. Some three or four
years ago the sheep-owners of the Mudgee district were
anxious to obtain the opinion of manufacturers as to tbe
general getting up of their wool and the sorting of their
fleeces. We used to get periodically the brokers' stereotyped
report that " so many bales of wool were sold — that tlie at-
tendance of buyers was limited or otherwise — that some bales
were seedy and moity, and others rather tender" — all of which
we knew, and, knowing, could not remedy ; but we could never
learn what the manufacturer said about it, whether it con-
tained too much or too little yolk ; too dry from over-washing
or too heavy from under-washing ; was the sorting satisfac-
tory, &c.,&c. Well, we engaged the services of a gentleman
who went through the cloth manufacturing districts, and who
supplied us with much valuable information, which we utilised,
and which I shall now be happy to impart to others. Our
directions were never to use water for the soak beyond 110
degs. Fahrenheit ; never to use alkalis, such as potash, soda, or
hard soap, but that any quantity of soft soap might be used ;
in fact, using it to any extent was merely a matter of £ s. d. ;
but that all alkalis destroyed the fibre of the wool, making it
harsh and dry, and, what tbe manufacturers say, making it work
unkindly. We use spouts with a quarter-inch opening, and
with a pressure of eight feet. The great object to be obtained
in washing wool is not only to make it white, but to make it
bright. After leaving the spout, the fleece when squeezed by
the hand should putt" out again, not feeling sticky, and should
glisten in the sun with a peculiar brilliancy ; ii too little yolk
is left in the wool it will be wanting in softness ; if too much,
it will become sticky, and after a time turn yellow. The
number of days that should intervene between washing and
shearing must depend partly upon the state of the weather as
well as upon the condition of the sheep. Yolk will rise quicker
in fat sheep than in poor ones, but from two to three clear
days is generally sufficient. In sorting we skirt very heavily,
taking about one-half from the fleece and making it into what
we call broken fleece or pieces and locks. The remainder is
sorted into combing and clothing sorts. Time would forbid
my entering into the merits or demerits of paddocking, had I
even sufficient experience to enable me to give an opinion
upon this debatable topic. But I believe that those who have
pronounced against the system have failed from want of care,
either in having the paddocks too large, or else in allowing
the sheep to get too wild from want of tending. In conclu-
sion, I can only say that unless some measure is passed to
limit the number of useless curs that swarm through the now
thickly populated parts of the country, paddocks will be of
little benefit to their owners. In almost every other colony
and country there is a dog-tax, while here we are every day
losing numbers of valuable animals by dogs that owners do not
want, and do not feed, but are fed at the expense of their
neighbour's sheep, and find amusement by worrying their
neighbour's cattle.
A vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. Cos for iiis valuable
paper.
MYSTERIOUS DISEASE.
At the last meeting of the Cornwall Agricultural
Association, Mr. Edmund Tucker, of St. Germans,
called attention to a disease in cattle which had
recently broken out in his neighbourhood. The subject, he
said, had recently been referred to by the chairman of quarter
sessions, who stated that because of its sudden fatality it had
been considered infectious ; but an inspector from London had
been brought down, and had decided that the disease was not
infectious ; and, so far as the law was concerned, there the
matter ended. He (Mr. Tucker), however, regretted to state
that on the 30th of March he was requested by Mr. William
Coryton, of Pentillie Castle, to examine tlie carcases of three
cows which had died that morning. One of them was Mr.
Coryton's and the other two belonged to a neighbouring
farmer — Mr. George Snell. He saw the carcases at Colonel
Coryton's kennel, and on examination found that they had
died from a similar cause as others, which, from time to time
in years past, he had been called on to inspect in that neigh-
bourhood ; and, judging from those former cases, he autici.
pated that the fatality would be serious. He suggested that
Professor Symonds, as veterinary inspector for the Royal
Agricultural Society, should be requested to come down and in.
vestigate the matter, not with a view of deciding as to the in-
fectious nature of the disease, but in order to ascertain its
cause. Professor Symonds was preveutcd from coming, and
his deputy. Professor Axe, came down, and after examination
of the carcases and of animals that were ill, he pronounced
that tlie disease was a blood-poison, and what was termed (in
Mr. Tucker's opinion improperly) by the Professor " splenic
apoplexy." But the cause of the disease, and how it was to
be successfully treated, still remained a mystery ; and it ap-
peared to hun that steps ought to be taken, either through
this society or the Cliainber of Agriculture, to call the special
attention of the scientific world to the subject, with the view
of ascertaining the cause of this disease and means for its
prevention. In a few days seventeen very valualile animals,
chiefly cows, and most of them Shorthorns, had died, and
several otliers had narrowly escaped. In the course of a few
days, however, the disease passed away, and no more was
heard of it ; but similar outbreaks had occurred from time to
time in years past, and he suggested that efforts sliould be
made towards ascertiiniug its cause. Mr. Tyacke asked
whether the cattle had been drinking stagnant water. Mr.
Tucker said he believed not ; and Mr. Snell said his brother
lost ten cattle from one yard, wher« tliey drank clear spring-
water, such as the family used for drinking purposes. J\lr.
Snell couftrmi'd Mr. Tucker's statement as to the deaths of
seventeen cattle, and stated that four subsequent cases were
of a slighter cliaractcr. He was sorry to say, however, that
two days aiiO a lior.sc died at Pentillie, apparently from the
same disease ; and when Mr. Axe came down he gave warning
as to both horses and pigs. Mr. Axe called the disease
splenic apoplexy ; the spleen was invariably alfected, and the
blood was in a fearful state, full of either animalculir or fungi.
But how the disease was produced, or how it was to be cured,
scientific men were at a loss to say. Mr. Tucker stated that
in years past there had been a general impression in his
neighbourhood that animals had been maliciously poisoned ;
532
THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.
and in some cases he was induced to bslieve it. In one case
he requested that portions of the viscera should be sent to Mr.
Herapath, the analytical chemist, and his answer was that the
cow died from a large dose of stryclmine. But he (Mr.
Tucker) was satisfied that the disease was the same as that of
which he had now spoken. In another instance he was called
to Stoke, where fifteen bullocks died. Professor Symonds
came down, and stated that the disease was certainly taken in
at the mouth, but in what manner he couHnotsay. _ In
another case an analytical chemist reported that the animal
died from a lead poison, perhaps taken in with paint ; but he
(Mr. Tucker) was now satisfied that in those cases tiie cause
was neither lead nor strychnine, but a disease similar to that
to which he now called attention. It was, he considered, the
duty of agriculturists to call the attention of men to tiie
subject ; and he had mentioned it now in order that perhaps
the press might direct attention to it. Possibly tiiis society,
or the Chamber of A'^riculture, might take action in the
matter with a view to discovery of the cause and nature of
the disease, together with remedy and means of prevention.
Colonel Tremayae said the subject was one of great im-
portance, and they were very much indebted to Mr. Tucker
for briuging it before the council.
THE CONDITION OF A FEIENDLY SOCIETY.
At the 27th annual general meeting of the Dorset County
Friendly Society held at Milborne Port, Sir W. C. Medlycott,
Bart, D.C.L., in the chair,
The Rev. C. W. Bingh aji read the following report : " The
number of members on the hooks at tiie close of the year was —
males, 2,599 ; females, 1G5 ; total 2,76i being an increase of
25 males and 7 females, and a total increase of 32 members.
The total uunnber of members enrolled during the year has
been 194. Six endowments, amounting to £56 Ids. 2d., have
been paid off, and £55 has been paid on ten deaths. Contri-
butions of members, 1873, £3,207 7s. SJd. ; ditto, 1872,
£3,139 178. 4^d. ; increase in 1873, £67 10s OJJ. Honorary
subscriptions 1872, £213 10s. 6d. ; ditto 1873, £231 5s.;
decrease in 1873, £12 5s. 6d. Capital in the year 1873,
£12,392 5s. e^d. ; ditto 1872, £11,755 ISs. 8|d.; increase in
1873, £636 lis. 9Jd. Sick pay has been allowed to 639 males
for 6,059 weeks and four days, amounting to £2,14-2 18s. lO^d. ;
and to 27 females for 437 weeks and one day, amounting to
£95 4s. 9J., making a total period of sickness of 6,496 weeks
and five days, and the total amount of sick pay £2,238 3s. 7id.,
being a decrease of sickness, as compared with 1872, of 93
weeks and one day, and a decrease of sick pay of £116 13s. Id.
The summary of results is as follows : Four new branches,
increase of members 32, increase in members' contributions
£67 IDs. Ofd., decrease in honorary subscriptions £12 5s. 6d.,
increase in capital £636 lis. Q^d., decrease in sick pay
£116 13s. Id. In many important respects, with the .single
exception of the decrease in the honorary subscriptions, we
believe that this must be deemed a more satisfactory report
than we have been enabled to make for several years. No
decisive action has been taken with reference to the proposed
revision of the rules and tables, principally because it was tiiought
advisable to wait for the quinquennial valuation, which was
not received till very recently from the eminent actuary by
whom it has been made. The results which he presents
appear to the Committee of Trustees to be worthy of such
immediate and serious attention that they have ordered Mr.
Samuel Brown's letter to be printed, so that at least every
Branch Committee and medical officer should be in possession
of a copy. It will be seen that, according to his calculations,
the estimated assets of the society fall short of the possible
claims upon it by upwards of £2,000, attributable, in his
opinion, mainly to the facts that the average proportion of
sickness to the number of members, and the average duration
of sickness, have been greatly in excess of what might be, in
either case, e.\pectcd from the tables on which the amount of
contribution is based. The investigation which he suggested
before, and again suggests, is doubtless difficult to institute ;
but still it is obviously necessary that we should ascertain the
causes why certain branches weigh much more heavily than
others on the funds. In the meantime, we earnestly unite
in the recommendation that increased vigilance should be
exercised by the Branch Committees and surgeons both in
the administration of sick pay and the admission of members.
On that vigilance, fully but not harshly carried out, we feel
that the prosperity, if not the very existence, of the society
depends ; and the members may congratulate themselves that
they have— what is wanting in too many clubs— the grand
safeguard of a periodical valuation to inform them of their
true position, and to stimulate them to greater carefulness in
the management of the institution." Mr. Bingham also read
the actuary's report. In moving tlie adoption of the annual
report, Mr. Bingham said there were a few remarks which he
thought it would be advisable for him to make. First of all,
in order to explain why they considered this report to be more
satisfactory than those of several previous years, he was glad
to state that the number of enrolments had been greater.
And he was instructed by Mr. Davis that tiie number of
enrolments scarcely representad the whole increase of members,
because it often iiappened that stewards did not forward
applications for admission until the end of the quarter, and
consequently some members who were not actually enrolled
until this year ought to have come into 1873. Another
satisfiictory point was tlie establishment of four new branches.
For some little time they stagnated, and it seemed as if the
society was not going to spread. One of the four was Bland-
lord, which was an off"sho.)t from the Pimperue branch, and,
therefore, could hardly be called quite a new branch ; but
their experience had shown that wherever a branch bifurcated
tiiey got a good many new members. Cranborue had also
applied for admission, and that branch, although showing not
a very large sum in tlie broadsheet this year, commenced under
very good auspices, because there were no better friends of
the society in this county than some in the neighbourhood.
Lord Ashley took a great interest in the society, and would
no doubt help on the Cranborne branch as he had done that
at St. Giles. There was a flourishing little branch at Tarrant
Gunville, and one had also been commenced at Kimmeiidge
under the auspices of Colonel George Mansel. So that he
thougiit in that respct the report was satisfactory ; certainly,
they had not for many years had so many as four new
branches in one year. On the other liand, they had some
little points to discourage them to a certiin extent. He was
sorry to say they had to report two defaulting stewards in the
course of last year. There was no reason why he should not
mention where they had defaulted — viz., at Pimperne and
Church Knowle. lie believed their guarantees were all in
order, and he trusted they should obtain the amounts of their
delalcations, if not from themselves from their guarantors.
He would say in passing that wherever there were honorary
stewards — and it was very desirable there should be one in
every branch — the honorary stewards should not satisfy them-
selves merely with a guarantee on the part of the actual stew-
ards, but should themselves take some little interest in the
account'^, and so perhaps save their own pockets, as well as a
lot of trouble to the management. Well, he was sorry to say
the sick pay of the past year, though sliglitly less than '72,
was still very far above the amount which, according to the
actuary and according to their own tables, had been expected.
The slight improvement on the previous year was not sufficient
to give them much comfort. The most satisfactory point was
the increase of capital. He knew some of the trustees — one
of them particularly — did not care at all about that. That
trustee thought the having more money did not secure them a
safer position ; but it seemed to him (Mr. Bingham) that the
more money he had in his pocket the safer he was from his
creditors. He saw that gentleman shaking his head ; but he
hoped there were no other members present who agreed with
the idea that the club would be in a safer position for having
less money. If they had £50,000 in the bank they should be
able to meet all their liabilities to a perfect certainty, even if
they paid in no more contributions. With respect generally
to the report of the actuary, it certainly seemed to him to be a
very instructive document, and a document they ought to pay
earnest attention to. It ought to make tliem more cautious
and watchful; at the same time he did not tliink it should
THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE.
533
alarm or discourage them. It certainly ought not to drive
any of their members to other societies, where they had no
valuation. He believed if they were to have sucli a Taluation
of the general run of clubs throughout tlie county they would
fiud that something like 99 per cent, were in a worse state
than tlipy (the Dorset County) were. And let them not forget
that after all, whilst they endeavoured to get all the good and
instruction they could out of the actuary's report, it was really
only an estimate. They must not confound facts vfith estimates.
A fact was something done, and could not be retriered ; but
an estimate was simply a valuation ; it was founded, no doubt,
on very good tables and principles, but it might be mistaken
to a certain extent ; it was a mere probability at the utmost.
In the present case, they hoped that by giving increased atten-
tion to the administration of sick pay they should be able to
falsify tliat calculation and show that their assets were after
all greater than their liabilities. He heartily trusted such
might be the case, and he now concluded by moving the adop-
tion of the report, and its printing and circulation in the usual
manner.
The Rev. Talbot Baker, chairman of the trustees, said
they had met twice at Dorchester since Mr. Brown's report
was received, and that report had caused a good deal of — he
would not say uneasiness, but anxiety and discussion. He
could not understand the principle upon which it was based,
the actuary's office being a science he had not studied ; but
when a doctor was called in the best thing was to take his
advice and act upon it. M'-. Brown seemed to consider that
their constitution was faulty — he did not say it was actually
faulty in its inception, but that it was at this moment faulty ;
and the faultiness arose from the amount of sickness which
prevailed in many of the branches of the society. Mr.
Brown spoke generally of the society at large, but
Mr. Davis would tell them it arose from two or three of
the branches being constant drains upon the funds. One of
two or three things that were discussed at the trustees' meet-
ing was wiiether they could thoroughly investigate the causes
ol those branches being drains upon the body politic of the
society. It was suggested that more care might have been
used in the admission of members, and he should like to ask
the stewards whether they had tlioroughly brought the position
of the society (especially lately) before the surgeons ? So much
depended upon the surgeons with regard to stopping this evil
in the constitution of the society, that he tliought it would be
well at once to communicate with them and say, " Gentlemen,
you must exercise a little closer supervision than you do, or
the society will not be able to hold its head above water." He
had spoken to Dr. Rhodes, the surgeon to the Weymouth
branch, and Dr. Rhodes thought it would be a very good plan
if a fee were given to the surgeon (laughter) for the examina-
tion of every candidate. For the little the surgeons were paid
by the club they could not give the necessary time and care
required in a strict medical examination. They received a
fee of a guinea for examining a candidate for life assurance,
and Dr. Rhodes thought 5s. would not be too much for a similar
examination in connection with the club. Not that it
would be of any consequence to hiin (Dr. Rhodes), with
his large practice and little club of iO members ; but
there were surgeons to whom 53. would be a consi-
deration, which would make them more attentive in
that important matter. With regard to checking the too free
flow of sick pay, something might be done by asking the offi-
cers to be very careful in exercising strict supervision and not
allowing members to go too suddenly on the club, or to remain
too pertinaciously on the books. Another idea that struck
him was that in every case they should ask the clergyman to
kindly work with them. In most cases the clergyman wat
already helping them, as an hou. steward or a subscriber; buf
in one important case, a defaulting branch, he was not. Is
Ihej could always enlist the clergyman's sympathy and active
interference it might do a great deal towards checking the
evil, because the clergyman often knew more about a sick
member than the doctor could know, and was able to judge
better whether he was imposing on tlie society or not. They
(the clergymen) were thought to be very easy and soft. He
was told by a lawyer in Weymoutti the other day that he did
not understand human nature. But he believed if this were
put before certain clergymen, and shown to tlicHi ae a business
thing, it might do good. Again, in order to check the deple-
tion of the funds by those ulcerous branches, he would suggest
that a committee of two or three trustees should go down
occasionally to those brandies, and meet the stewards and sur-
geons, and look into the sick pay list, and just ask some par-
ticular questions. It would be a bit of a check, and would
make those branches sensible that they were a source of weak-
ness instead of strength to the society. Certainly it was an
ugly fact that in Dorsetshire, with no outburst of illness,
there should be nearly double the amount of sick pay that
was calculated upon ; there was " something rotten in the
state of Denmark" which ought to be met by some means or
other, and he had ventured to contribute hia little quota of
ideas on the subject.
The Rev. 11. E. R.WENiriLL said tliere was one point of
great importance which had not been yet mentioned, and that
was that they should stick thoroughly to their rules. Their
excellent secretary came to Bucklaud Newton a few years ago,
and the one piece of advice he gave to tliem was to stick to
the rules. Now there was one rule which he believed was
generally broken throughout the county — viz., the rule as to
committee meetings. Rule 7 said the committee of each
branch should meet at least twice every quarter ; but from
what he heard he believed they did not meet. Even if they
had no business they ought to meet, and indeed if there was no
business — no sick pay cases— so much the better; they could
talk over their affairs and see how they were getting on. He
thought it should go forth that the committee meetings should
be regularly held, and he had no doubt they would have a
good effect in checking the sick cases. In his own parisli
they certainly had that tendency. At the two last meetings
they had had cases before them which, but for those meetings,
would have had no special attention directed to them. A
man's wife complained bitterly that the doctor had refused
him sick pay. The case came befjre the committee, and the
doctor said the man was able to be at work. That man wanted
to change his doctor. Another ease was that of a man who
was always ill in the spring, about the time his garden wanted
planting. Well, for all such cases there was nothing like a
full investigation; and he. would urge them to keep up their
committee meetings, and he had great hope that iu that way
they might decrease their expenses.
The Rev. C. W. Bingham remarked " the proof of the
pudding is iu the eating." A proof of the successful working
of the Buckland Newton branch was that last year they paid
in upwards of £23, exclusive of £3 5s. honorary subscriptions,
and the sick pay was only 7s.
Mr. Eltot said he was one of the members just now re-
ferred to by Mr. Bingham, for he shook his head as to a big
balance being a criterion of the satisfactory state of the
society. They must remember that an increasing balance
meant increasing liabilities. Six years ago, previous to the
quinquennial valuation, although they had a smaller balance
than at present they were ri :her by £3,000. What T want
to point out is this— that if Mr. Bingham had £100 in his
pocket and owed £100 to his tradesman, he would be no richer
tlian if he had £5 in his pocket and only owed £5. Therefore
they must remember (continued the speaker) that an increasin g
balance in the case of an insurance company like this almost
invariably meant increased liabilities. They had heard the
actuary's report, and he must say Mr. Bingliam had disguised
nothing. It was a great safeguard to the society that the
committee disguised nothiug, and that fact would always
recommend itself to the public. They were sure that if the
society was unprosperous they would know it; nothing was
concealed, they understood the working of the society, and
there was no chance of their being taken in. Jlr. Bingham
had placed the position of affairs very fairly before them ; he
had' shown them the disagreeable part, and he had also shown
them the satisfactory part. Now he (Mr. Kliot) wanted to
impress upon them the importance of the disagreeable part
and the necessity for .serious considiration of Mr. Brown's
report, and to try and point out to them what course they
should take upon such a report as th.it. The deficiency
which existed at the present time, according to the report,
mu.st arise from one of two causes — either from the tables
on which the society was b;\scd being faulty, or from spme
extraordinary excess of sickness. Au excess of sickness might
arise, eitlier from an unheallhy season, some temporary cause
which was present this year and passed away the next, or
from some laxity on the part of those who admitted members.
Now he thought he could satisfactorily shovv them it did iidt
arise from any extraordinary or exceptional sickness ; because
Mr. Brown stated in his previous report, six years ago, that
]M M
534
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
there vras then an excess of sickness over what it ought to be.
He remembered that at that time they thought " Well, per-
haps it is an exceptional case ;" bat now thi-y found the same
thing going on, and therefore they must come to the conclu-
sion that it was a steady and permanent sickness. Then came
the question, " Is there any fault to be laid at anybody's
door?" Were the medical men too lax? Did unhealthy
lives get into the society ? Did they now begin to feel the
burden of lives admitted years ago that ought not to have
been admitted? Those were the thiugs they ought to talk
about to-day. Very proper remarks had been made about
sticking to the rules aud holding committee meetings. Every-
thing should be done by every member to see that only
striclly liealthy lives were admitted into the society, and that
medical men were really spurred up to the mark in striking
men off the sick list the moment they ought to be. Medical
men and clergymen, wlio really had the power of keeping a
man on the list, must now allow themselves to be led away by
any charitable thoughts. Mr. Ravenhill had told tliem of a
woman who pleaded for her husband to be allowed to " go on
the club ;" that of course would be done, and if a man found
lie could stay a fortnight longer, that of course would be done.
But medical men must take a caution from this meeting, and
remember that every week a man stayed on the club he was
taking money out of poor neighbours' pockets. A member
of the committee (Mr. Pearson), who would have been here
to-day, but was telegraphed for to a distant part of the county,
asked him to mention one or two points '., hich he would him-
self have suggested. One was a hint to honorary members
who subscribed less than £1 or £1 Is., or whatever the full
subscription was, to increase their subscriptions, and so bring
up the amount to that which they were supposed to meet.
Another suggestion was that they should not he satisfied with
a quinquennial valuation. Not tiiat it would be necessary to
ay the figures of the society so fully before an actnary every
year ; but Mr. Pearson thought, and he certainly agreed with
Jiim, tiiat it would be desirable to get a report every year, at
any rate until they were in smoother water. It would not
cost very much, and it would be satisfactory to the members
to know year by year how the society was progressing. They
must remember that already more than a year had passed since
Mr. Brown's report was drawn. The ship had a leak then,
and he did not know that anything had been done to stop that
leak yet. Therefore they miglit suppose it was still going on,
i.e., the sickness of the society was in excess of wliat it ought
to be according to the tables. Now, supposing they were
assured that every care was taken in tlis admission of lives,
and in the administration of sick pay, and so od, there was
one otlier alternative ; and that was to make some alteration
in the tables That they would find was also suggested by Mr.
Brown. That was the last alternative, to which they would
be driven, supposing the otlier means tlioy were proposing to
take should fail.
Mr. Williams Bell thought the affairs of the society cer-
tainly deserved very serious atten'ion, and the valuable and
useful observations which had been mads should be put into
some practical form. With tliat view he was about to pro-
pose a resolution. He had carefully analysed the accounts
of the society from the beginning, aud the result of the analysis
was to convince him that the causes which had led to an ex-
cess of expenditure over receipts in different branches were
not temporary ; but that there was some permanent cause at
the root of the matter which was deserving of inquiry. He
found, as a rule, that those branches which were bad had been
systematically bad from the commencement of the society, and
the good ones had been systematically good. It was not the
fact, except in very few, that a club got into ditticulties for a
few years aud then righted itself. He was very much disposed
to tliink that tlie evil arose from great kindness or great laxity
in the management of the branch by the steward or the sur-
geon, or both combined. In illustration he would give the
particulars of three branches with which he was acquainted,
lu one branch he knew the manager and the surgeon inti-
mately ; they were both prudent, careful, painstaking men ;
aud in that branch tiie per-centage of surplus over receipts
was 38, which, as compared with other branches, was extremely
good. In another branch, the manager of which he knew
equally well, the surplus was still better — 52 per cent. There
was another branch, particulars of which had been under the
management of two stewards since he had known it. In the
one case the steward was an easy, kindhearted, lax man, and
during his holding of the office the payments gradually grew
larger than the receipts, until in the last year they were as
i'll to £6. Then a new man came, and under his manage-
ment the payments decreased to £1 5s. 3d. against £7 receipts.
(.Mr. Bell read a list of the figures for several years in each
ease). That made him believe that serious results were pro-
duced in some branches by careless management. Mr. Bell then
read a draft of his resolution, the eft'ect of which was to appoint
a committee of investigation, a,nd went on to remark that
there were many of the society's rules which required revision.
Certain rules had always appeared to him inequitable
and unfair, and the result of one of those rules was that a mem-
ber who had only paid in for sick pay when the infirmities of
old age incapitated him from work received the same pay as
one who had paid a much higher rate in order to secure that
annuity. On those points many of the local stewards could
give valuable information, and there was no one better able to
collate it than the senior steward, Mr. Shephard, of Gilling-
ham. A great many local clubs were breaking up, and he
(Mr. Bell) was very anxious indeed that this county club
should succeed and flourish. Tlie valuation before them sug-
gested very serious considerations, which must be met. With-
out giving the names of the branches whose affairs required
the most careful attention, he could tell them there was one
branch which had spent £127 for every £100 it had received,
another £112, and another £165, and there were others in
the same category. As to an alteration in the scale of pay-
ments, he thought if they had to resort to that the society would
collapse. It was very difficult to make it grow and increase
now as it ought to do. After aome further remarks Mr. Bell
(at the request of the meeting) read the names of those
branches to which he had referred, and it appeared that
Buckland Newton was one of those which showjd a bad valu-
ation. His resolution, in a somewhat modified form, was as
follows : " That in the present state of the society, as disclosed
by the actuary's valuation, the trustees be requested to appoint
forthwith a sub-committee to investigate and report to the
trustees the causes which have led to such a result, and that
the trustees be requested to take such action thereupon as they
may consider desirable and proper."
Mr. E. L. KiNDERSLEY seconded t..-^ motion, and observed
that a society of this nature was essentially on a very danger-
ous footing. It was to the interest of tue members themselves,
to a very considerable extent, to be on the sick list ; it was not
contrary to the interest of the doctor that they should be so ;
and therefore they naturally had a state of things which prima
facie ought to tend to insolvency. On the one side they had
anxiety to go upon the club, and on the other side the person
who had the power of saying " you shan't go" being lax, there
was nothing beyond high principle to prevent, his signing the
paper. He felt, therefore, it was essential to find the means of
checking this necessarily downward teudency. It was quite
true other societies did go on without getting into this mess —
and they (the Dorset County) were in a big mess — it was also
quite true they were not going to break, but they must look to
it in tlie sharpest possible way to avoid breaking. It was
only because lie had such full confidence in the centre of ma-
nagement, Mr. Bingham himself, that he ventured to say they
should not break. This deficiency of £2,000 or £3,000 was a
very serious matter indeed, and if they only discussed it to-day
as a thing that was to be lamented they should not do
much good, and they should come to harm. He would go
farther than Mr. Bell, for he would get full particulars of the
bad branches and publish them throughout the county. Pub-
licity was the best check they liad for many things, and by put-
ting forth an account of what local branches were doing their
duty, and what were mis-appropriating funds, they might
save the society. He was going to great lengths, he knew,
but he felt strongly that great reprobation was due to
those who had so mismanaged the funds. They did not
seem to care how the thing was going on, as long as members
could go upon the sick list and get their sick pay as they
pleased. What were the stewards doing ? Had they got com-
mittees, and if so, what were they doing ? What were the
medical men doing? It seemed they were all playing into each
other's hands, and to what result ? Tnat in five years they
got a deficiency of £3,000! It was a monstrous state of
things. The speaker next quoted the actuary's remarks as to
the per-centage of sickness, and said the state of things on the
female side was frightful ; but that was natural, as the doctors,
being men, were of course more easily affected in their case.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
^35
However, the thing must be looked to in the very closest and
fiercest way, aud he proposed, in extension of Mr. Bell's
motion, that the results be published.
The Eev. C. W. Bingham thought Mr. Kindersley need
not have spoken quite so fiercely. They must remember that
the great value of a county society was in the fact that it was
an insurance, not merely of member against member (as in a
small society), but also of branch against branch. Perhaps
for a series of years a branch might be in default from circum-
stances which were quite unavoidable. He knew a small
branch in which there was a sick member, a man who had
been sick for years and would be so as long as he lived. That
man swallowed up at least half the contributions of that parti-
cular branch, but it could not be helped ; it was God's provi-
dence that he should be so. He was admitted as a healthy
life, but shortly afterwards his lungs became affected, which
brought on asthma, and threw him permanently upon the club.
It seemed to him (Mr. Bingham) that the great advantage of
belonging to a county society was in helping to meet such a
case as that. He wished that to be recollected, as perhaps it
might a little cool his friend's fierceness. But he quite under-
stood Mr. Kindersley's strong sympathy and hereditary affec-
tion for the society, in spite of his fierceness. He could only
say that at head-quarters they would do everything they pos-
sibly could to promote the investigation that was proposed,
and that they were only thankful to havs it set about in a
practical form.
Mr. Kindersley said he ought to have guarded himself
against doing wrong to branches which had been simply un-
fortunate. His owu branch was one of those ; they had two
sick men, and they always drew more than they paid. They
spoke for themselves, and it could only be very small branches
that were put in that position.
Mr. Davis instanced Langton Matravers as a case in point.
During many years that branch was drawing from the society
£30 or £iO a year. The Rev. Mr. Trotman found that
branch in that state, and zealously set to work to place it on
a better footing. He left no stone unturned, and last year he
had a tea which realised £7 towards the funds. Tlie branch
was now in an excellent state, and paid in a surplus last year
of £51. Swauage and Worth Matravers were also recovered
branches, and tlie only conclusion he could come to was that
of late they had been better managed.
The report was adopted.
Mr. Bell's motion for a sub-committee of investigation was
carried ne?n. con,, as also was the foUowiug motion, proposed
by Mr. Bell and seconded by the Rev. C. W. I3ingham :
" That, in consideration of the present state of the Society,
and in the liglit of 27 } ears' experience, it is desirable to have
a careful revision of its rales and tables ; and in order that
the views of those practically acquainted with its working may
be ascertained aud duly consiaered, it is desirable that the
stewards of the several branches should communicate their
suggestions to one of their number who will undertake to
collate, arrange, and digest the same, and submit the results
for the consideration of the trustees ; and that Mr. Shephard,
of Gillingham, bfiug the senior steward of the Society, be re-
quested to undertake this duty."
Mr. Kindersley bricfiy proposed the re-appointraent of
the Rev. C. W. Bingham as lion, secretary, and Mr. Davis as
assistant secretary, and the proposition was carried.
The Rev. C. W. Bingham said one point he should like to
refer to, which had been mooted by Mr. Baker, respecting the
demand of one of the surgeons for a fee of live shillings on
examination of a candidate. It seemed to him that when
they had doctors fighting for the post of medical officer to one
of their branches they need not propitiate them any further
with additional fees. And, indeed, it was immeusely to tlie
doctor's own interest that he should admit only healthy
members, seeing that lie had to visit and find medicine for the
sick. He (Mr. Bingham) 1 oped that, please God, he might
be able during the coming year to give as much attention to
the affairs of the Society as he felt at this crisis they would
require.
Mr. Shephard eaid he was quite sure no member who
knew anything of the working of the club would for one
moment impute any laxity at head-quarters. But after what
the hon. secretary had said he felt bound to stand up and bear
witness tiiat both Mr. Bingham and Mr. Davis were always
ready to do their utmost to prevent any harm coming to the
Society, and he was quite sure no one could be more careful
with the figures and accounts than Mr. Davis was. He spoke
from long experience, as he happened to be senior steward.
About the doctors he felt very strongly they had nothing to
complain of. They were the first cause of any disturbance in
the Society by striking for a higher rate of payment ; it might
be gathered from Mr. Brown's report that the surgeons of
this Society were paid above the average, and that was a point
which he thought should be put to them.
The treasurer of the Soci-^ty, Mr. Herbert Williams, was
unanimously re-elected, and Mr. Cross and Mr. Lush, of Dor-
chester, were appointed auditors. Mr. Lush was elected ia
the place of Mr. Shorto, who has left the county.
THE ENGLISH CLIMATE.— From whatever cause, tlie
climate of Great Britain is changing. The most noticeable
fact is that, while the winters are less severe, and the
summers not so intensely hot, as formerly, there has crept in
what may be called a jumble of weather throughout the year.
We have cold when we should expect heat, and warmth when
we had every reason to look for snow. Meteorologists, who
profess to speak scientifically, fail to enlighten us on the cause
or causes of these phenomena. It cannot he said that, as
regards the culture of grain crops, or the rearing of cattle,
sheep, and other marketable animals, there has been any
falling off. In these departments of affairs, aud we may add
in the forest culture, there has rather been an improvement
than otherwise. Change of climate has been more specially
demonstrated in the case of fruit, the crops of which are
exceedingly liable to be damaged by unseasonable frost.
Chance frosts in the later spring months are the terror of
gardeners ; and unfortunately the destruction so caused is
becoming so serious in many places that some kinds of well-
known fruit are no longer worth cultivating. Better, it is
thought, to import fruit than try to rear it. A paragraph
has been going the rouud of the newspapers regarding this
mysterious change of climate as concerns Scotland. At a
recent meeting of the Botanical Society Mr. M'Nab read a
paper on Further Evidences .of Cliraatal Changes in Scot-
land, and mentioned that several old Scotch gardeners, as
well as amateur cultivators, concurred with his opinion, that
many varieties of fruit now cultivated in that country were
by no means equal to what they were about ten years ago.
Ribston pippins and Nonpareil apples are alleged to be in-
ferior in size and flavour as well as uumber to the specimens
formerly seen. The Jargonelle pear, once extensively grown
and tiioroughly ripened on standard trees in various districts
of Scotland, is now exceedingly scarce. The famous Carse
of Gowrie orchards, vvfliich half-a-century ago were so remu-
nerative, and in which seventy varieties of apples and thirty-
six varieties of pears were cultivated as standards, still exist,
but with a sadly diminished production of fruit. The Clydes-
dale orchards are in the sam.e fading condition. The damson
shows signs of becoming extinct, and the common black sloe
and brambleberries are in like manner on the decline. From
the old minute-books of the Caledonian Horticultural Society
it appears that from 1810 they offered prizes for peaches
grown on open walls witliout the aid of fire-flues ; but after
1837 these were discontinued, and the generality sent are
grown on flued walls or in peach-houses. Similar painful
evidence was given with regard to cherries, gooseberries, and
Scotch-grown American cranberries ; and even the filberts and
liazel-nuts are, it is stated, not by any means so flourishing
now us formerly. From 1812 to 182G tlie large white poppy
was cultivated in the field in various parts of Scotland, for the
making of opium ; and about fifty years ago tobacco was fre-
quently grown in certain districts. All is changed or cliang-
ing now, although several winters of late years have been
remarkalilc for their mildness, and proved most favourable for
flowering plants. The Scotcli, liowever, cannot feed on
flowers, and are much to be pitied under the cahunity with
which they arc threatened of being dependent on our English
greengrocers and fruiterers for their supplies of fruit. —
ClMtnbers^ Journal,
JVI M 2
6:J6
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
THE AGRICULTURAL LABOURER IN PARLIAMENT.
The agricultural labourer has got into the House
of Commons. At any other time this would not
be a matter of much moment, but just at present
the fact of the farm-servant taking, as he did,
possession of the floor must necessarily command some
attention. The occasion was the second reading of Mr.
Trevelyan's Household Franchise (Counties) Bill ; and
although Jlr. Disraeli declared that the persons who
would be benefited by such a measure must be of "' a
very various character," the chief speakers during the
debate, including the Premier himself, dwelt almost en-
tirely on the case of the labourer — as so distinguished
from other classes. In the very outset the introducer of
the bill raised a somewhat startling point when he said
it might be urged that " the agricultural labourers were
represented by the farmers;" although such an argument
might be more readily disposed of than Mr. Trevelyau
seemed to see by the now pretty general admission that
the farmers themselves have really no representation in
Parliament. Mr. Forster went further, and maintained
it would be " a mockery" to say that the farmers could
represent the labourers, remembering the antagonism of
interest which prevailed. lu truth, the discussion turned
more especially on the lock-out and its collateral
issues.
The Bill was rejected by 287 against the second read-
ing, and 173 for it, there being for a Wednesday a very
full House. It is not our purpose here, however, to
attach much weight to the mere division, seeing that the
proposal, like that for the ballot is pretty certain to
come on again and again. Nothing, the rather,
would threaten to be more dangerous than, on
the strength of a composite majority burying our heads
in the sand and refusing to see all which is going on.
Comparatively, the agricultural labourer has a large or,
as Mr. Disraeli says, a small interest in any extension of
the County Franchise — " that is as it may be" — but it
is very clear that the framers and supporters of such
household pri\aleges have "the ploughman and the
shepherd" in view. "The artisan was represented, and
measures were proposed for the improvement of the
dwellings of artisans in towns, but they would look in
vain for measures to improve the cottages of the agricul-
tural labourers." Again, we must not shut our eyes to
this charge, putting aside for the time all reference to
strikes and lock-outs. Has there been any necessity for
any measure to amend the country-man's cottage ? Mr.
Disraeli, in answer, says that these " abodes" are infinitely
better, although he is careful to add " there is room for
improvement, which he hopes to see accomplished."
And to this every thinking man will say Amen. The
" infinitely better abodes" are only the exception on
well-managed properties, and the wretched hovels still
too often the rule. Even further, putting aside the
question of a vote, it is clearly one of money-value to
the employer— as we have continually had to show — that
the labourer should be decently housed, the contingency
being that he will be a better or worse workman and a
better or worse citizen almost proportionately as his
home comforts are cared for. Beyond this, the more
respectable an appearance a voter ii able to make, the
more likely he will be to vote the right way ; whereas
if on his own threshold he encounters only neglect, the
extension of the franchise may, as Mr. Newdegate
fears, lead to a Republic, to despotism or to Dr.
Manning.
Following in something the same line, Mr. Trevelyau
says " Session after session has passed away without any
attempt to deal with that most deleterious and de-
moralising truck which enforced the payment of agricul-
tural wages iu spirituous liquors ;" while Mr. Forster, as
a means for putting down professed agitators, would have
the representatives of the agricultural labourer in
the House when Parliament " could deliberate more
thoroughly on the Master and Servant question, on the
Liquor Laws, on the subject of Laud Tenure, ou
Elementary Education, and on possible Reforms iu the
Church." And here came " a laugh," although Mr
Forster has shown himself not only an able but a careful
Minister, as never distinguished for his support of
Quixotic or visionary schemes.
With the difficulty only increasing in iutensity, it must
be surely useful to hear, if not to heed, how the question
is spoken to in the most important assembly in the
world. Much which was said here was not very palat-
able, as still more not warranted ; bat it is good to
watch what is going on, and to take action or council
thereby. When the strike first broke out, two
or three years back, it was regarded with indif-
ference, as a moTcment which would die out again
iu a few weeks or months ; as, indeed, the chairman
of the Farmer's Association admitted at Bury St.
Edmonds on Wednesday. At this time, however, the
struggle promises to be as obstinate and protracted as any
ever fought by a trades uuion. Some men here and there
have gone back to work, and a few masters have given way,
but the lock-out, like a fever, is spreading with little hope
so far of checking its course. The Lincolnshire Farm
Labourers' League, as we previously intimated, have
erased their three objectionable rules, while they are
ready to add a clause providing that there shall be no
strike without a previous notice of two or three months
to employers. The sudden notice was regarded as an
especial grievance, but even these concessions have had no
influence whatever on the Farmers' Associations in the
Eastern Counties, where the feelings against the Unions
only increase in intensity, and the lock-out is running from
parish to parish like wild-fire.
" I cannot understand," said a North-Country man to
us during the past week, " how it is there is so much
outside sympathy with the men, as a strike is not often a
popular movement." One of the chief causes for any
such feeling is no question the most ostensible cause —
the condition of the cottage in many places ; and it cer-
tainly does seem to us that the landlords could not be
better employed than in " looking at home" over the
business. For many years the farmers have been com-
plaining of a want of proper accommodation in this
way ; while The Times of only this morning, in speaking
of some of the better sort of housing, says : " The agri-
cultural labourer is not so foolish as he is sometimes
represented, and the garden, the cottage, the allotment,
and the fresh air and healthy occupation of village life,
help to explain the reason why it is so hard to get him
to leave the village, and why the National Union Execu-
tive have been forced to warn locked-out members that
such of them as have had work provided for them at
higher vrages in the North of England will forfeit the
Union allowance unless they leave the villages and take
this work." We have said this over and over again, both
before and during the present contest, as no question one
of the best •f means for fighting the emigrant agent or
the professed agitator is that improvement in the la-
bourer's cottage which Mr. Disraeli " hopes to see
accomplished."
THE FARMER'S MAGAZlNfi.
>37
THE SCO T C H GAME BILL.
That faint border line, over which people now travel
by train wilhont knowing it, serves nevertheless to still
maintain a strong distinction between the habits and cus-
toms of E'U'laud and Scotland. In fact, our Northern
territory is yet as peculiar in some of its practices as when
a gentleman took a wife simply on the strength of saying
so much, or by virtue of having got a few miles' start of
his impending father-in-law. The observance of the
Sabbath continues to require the laying in of a good
supply of liquor over night ; and although betting lists
and circulars hare long been regarded as immoral agencies
in England they have just up to this time been encouraged
as developing a highly respectable business in Scotland.
Again, perhaps no country under the sun, so far as the
farmer and ihe labourer be concerned, has suffered so
much from the game evil ; though the right to the game
remains in the outset as the privilege of the owner,
whereas in England it is the property of the occupier. '
This, in proof, does not amount to much, but still on the |
face of it there is something strange in tipsters and black- j
legs and hares and rabbits having, as it were, the sanction 1
of the Legislature to eat up the people in Scotland, j
whereas such petty larcenies are, if somewhat mildly,
discountenanced in England.
It was only the other day that a bill was passed which
will put down the betting-list houses in Glasgow and
Edinburgh, as these have already been suppressed in
Loudon and Liverpool ; and on Wednesday another bill
came on for a second reading, by which the Scotch farmer
would have the prior claim to the game, from which it
was further proposed to strike off the hares and rabbits.
^Ir. M'Lagau's measure, however, goes too far for an
English House of Commons and not far enough for a
Scotch Agricultural Association ; it was thrown out in
Westminster on Wednesday, and denounced as " a sham"
at Kincardine on Monday. The truth is that they feel
the game grievance far more on the other side of that
invisible border than we do here, as was demonstrated
before the recent Commons Committee ; and while we
should be content with the abolition of hares and rabbits,
they will be satisfied with nothing less than total aboli-
tion, and petition accordingly in favour of Mr. Peter
Taylor's bill. But then the Southron knows little or
nothing of grouse and deer.
Still, on one point the more moderate reformers from
either side would look to be pretty well agreed : j\Ir.
M'Lagan goes against ground game in Scotland just as
Mr. Sewell Read has done in England, and any movement
in this way would be certain to receive the very general
approval of the farmers of the United Kingdom. We
regret to say that we dc not see the slightest chance of
anything being attempted in this direction on behalf of
the English farmer, unless Mr. Albert Pell should carry
out his threat and bring in a bill on his own account to
sweep the rabbit off the face of the earth as a nuisance,
alike in the field, on the table, or as " a political engine."
Should the honourable member ever succeed in stamping
out such vermiu, this will be the best political agent which
he ever could employ at election or any other time.
As it was, nothing could be more unsatisfactory thar.
the spirit in which any proposal for amending the game
abuse was received on the part of the Government by the
new Secretary, Mr. Cross. After dwelling with some
force on the inconvenience of making one law for Scotland
and another for England, he proceeded to touch on a
point which, as we have just shown, is common to either
country. In fact, it is already clear enough that, let the
proposal come from where or whom it will, the Conser-
vative Government has no intention of dealing with the
fearful damages done by ground game : " if this passed
into law the persons first to cry out against it when it
came into operation would not be the landlords, but the
tenants, if it should open the land to anybody that chose
to shoot hares and rabbits. You cannot expect but that
people will go and shoot them when they know that
they cannot be punished if they do so. The damage to
the" crops that would then take place would really be due
to our action in passing this bill. That would be the
effect of passing this bill.^' So said Mr. Secretary Cross,
as to this tiie House of Commons said /lear ! hear ! And
yet we have here something like an utter ignorance of the
very rudiments of the case. If hares and rabbits be
struck out of the game list, it must of course be with the
object of lessening the numbers of such animals ; whereas
Mr. Cross seems to assume there will be as many pre-
served as ever, with, however, more people to kill them —
a self-evident absurdity. Mr. Cross is evidently much
concerned lest under such a state of circumstances the
trespasser, or, as now called, the poacher, should damage,
the farmers' crops far more than the hares and rabbits.
But this fear is altogether groundless ; for where game
is not heavily preserved poaching does not pay ; and
where the farmer has the right to deal with his own
rermin he must be a fool if he leaves much for the tres-
passers, as, in any case, this must be his own look out,
and thus -Mr. Cross' sympathy is scarcely needed.
" At the late election one tenant-farmer was returned
to Parliament who was able to represent them in a proper
manner, but that farmer 'was now placed quietly on the
Treasury benches, and they had not a single representative
to bring forward the i-epeal of the Malt-tax, or any other
farmers' question." We quote so much from the last
discussion meeting at the Farmers' Club, while during
the week there have been continual inquiries as to what
the tenant-farmer member thinks of tlie aspect of ^lalt-
tax, hares and rabbits, and Tenant-Right, now that we
have arrived at a strong Conservative majority ? Two
of these questions have already come on, and over these
Mr. Sewell Read has made no sign, as he has been
careful neither to speak nor vote, and yet over such
questions he is the farmers' great or only representative
authority. It has always been a matter of some surprise
to us that the lead over the Malt-tax was transferred by
the Chamber of Agriculture from Mr. Read, who was
returned in the first instance to look after it, to a gentleman
who for some time past has shown himself so suspiciously
shy of the subject as Colonel Barttclot. However lliat
may be, by what curious ruling the matter was taken
out of good hands, we must still bear in mind that Mr.
Read in his own words accepted odlce " untrammelled"
as to farmers' politics, and over these we still ask his
aid. Mr. Eielden's measure might not have been quite
opportune, and Mr. IM'Lagau's bill not be just wlial vvu
want in England, but over the discussion of such
matters we do not care to note the absence of ^Ir. Read.
It is surely the duty of one member of a Governmtnt.to
correct the mistakes or to extend the knowledge o
another ; as it would have been quite within Mv. Read's
province, especially when "untrammelled," to show Mr.
Secretary Cross and the House of Commons how
uncalled for was the apprehension of "damage" to the
I farmer from placing the hares and rabbits under his
indisputable control.
638
THE FARMEE'S MAGAZINE.
SOME
KENT
F A R M I N G."
As a wiiid-up to the spriug session of The Parmei's'
Club, ^Messrs. Robert and Joba Russell, of Hoiton Kirby,
by Dartford, gave an iuvitation to the members of the
Committee, together with some other of their friends, to
pay them a visit, in order to see "some Kent
farming." It was, in fact, one of those delightful
outings, ever to be marked with a white sfcone, where
enjoyment and instruction go Iiand-in-hand, as of which
The Farmers' Club has already had some experience in
Bedfordshire, Sussex, Surrey, Berkshire, Norfolk, and else-
where. By the bank of the Ouse, or in Baronial hall, on the
edge of the Southdowns, under the welcome shade of
the home woodlands, or overlooking the far-famed Castle-
acres, have " the London farmers" passed the loving
cup, as they do here with the cry of harriers acting
as ready chorus, and the " waters clean " of the " still
Darent" glittering through the shallows at their very
feet.
The Russells have farmed these lands, stretching away
iuto quite a morning's ride, for generations, or we might say
centuries, having settled here within just a hundred years
or so of the old key of the gate, which, with the accom-
panying coat of arms, now hangs in the billiard-room and
carries us back to the days of good Queen Bess, anno
Domiui 1589. The farm or farms, partly freehold, as
at present held by the brothers Robert and' John, extend
to some 2,000 acres, chiefly arable, with a little pasture,
and about 300 acres of woodlands, where Kent farmers
grow their hop-poles. And there are critical people
here to note how all this is done— Owen Wallis, late of
Overstone iu the Shires, but now gone due North for
a settlement by the coaly Tjne; Charles Howard,
of Biddenham, according to the last quotations first
favourite for the Royal hundred; Frank Sherborn,
that mighty hunter with " The Queen's," and good farmer,
like his father before Mm, down Windsor way; Mr. Stone-
ham, from close by, apt to tell how money mav be made
by "some Kent farming"; or the worshipful Mayor Marsh,
from Sandwich, learned in the worth,for mutton or fleece,
of his long-coated namesakes, who range o'er Romuey's
lengthening plain. Verily, Messrs. Robert and John,
backed though you be by other brothers, like Richard, who
farms another 2,000 acres for himself at Sevenoaks ;
George, with 1,000 acres well done by at Plumstead, and
James, if there be a flaw in the system these folks will
find it out, and let you know of it, too. And as we ride
on we cross great reaching growths of wheats, so
blooming, level, and strong, that the only thing to
be urged against them is that they are here and
there too thick ; much of this being Spring or Nursery
wheat, autumn sown. The grasses are as luxuriant, trifo-
lium and tares sown after harvest, to be fed off with
cake, corn, and hay by the Hampshire Downs, and
then ploughed and fresh planted with turnips. The peas,
again, are a really pretty crop, save where iu some of the
valleys or hollows they have been sadly nipped by the
frost. And there is not a bit of naked fallow to be seen,
and there is not a bit of twitch nor a dock to be seen,
but it is altogether about the cleanest farming, as the
chairman, Mr. Wallis, says at the dinner, which he has
ever been over. But the chairman's admiration does not
stop here, for during the earlier part of that delightful
drive there was no telling how it was done. Saving a
shepherd or two there was not a labourer to be seen
about, and, for all the strangers fouad to the contrary, there
might have been a strike or lock-out hereabouts. Beyond
the Italian bull, uncouth of form but " good to eat," who
shares the hound paddock with a Swiss or two, there are
no cattle ; and Mr. Wallis sighs as he thinks of his
Northamptonshire pastures and his ripening steers. The
only weed about is that bit of. Wild Dayrell which the
Squire picked up at Tattersall's, and has fashioned into a
farm " nag," as there are of course more smart hacks upon
which to mount " the Recorder" and others ; but of cart-
horses we see no more than we do of ploughmen or cattle.
We shall find them further on, no doubt ; but so far the sheep
clearly do all the work — those grand (locks we draw
up alongside, of Hampshire Down ewes and lambs, all so
thriving and all so sorty, bred up clearly to a certain
stamp, and that surely an improved stamp, for we miss
something of the good old-fashioned Hampshire's sour
visage and coarse character. There was one lot of quite
handsome, beautifully-matched ewes, alone worth travel-
ling a long way to see ; and now that Mr. Rawlence is
getting out, the Horton Kirby flocks, numbering in
this day's march to over 2,300, should stand in
for some of these premiums, always the most tell-
ing class in a sheep show. But if the
Messrs. Russell have essayed to improve tlie Hamp-
shires, they have also tried their hand on the
native Kents ; and, what with a double cross of the
Cotswold and Lincoln, have reached to a particularly
bloodlike long-wool, which they are establishing as a breed
of their own. Further on and we do cross the furrow of
some capital teams at plough; as, on the hill-side pasture,
a red Duchess-looking Shorthorn, another red Sussex cow
or two, and a few Alderneys ; but sheep farming from
first to last is clearly the secret of success here, and the
bull from Mentone,thebroad-h)pped beauty from Watering-
bury, and the dainty Jersey from over the water, just as
much a matter of "fancy" as Ruin, Roguish, and Lawless,
in whose society these gentlemen go a-farming. Indeed, as
Mr. Robert explains to you, if they did not have a little en-
joyment they could never do it " at the money;" while Mr,
Richard, a more public man now as secretary to the West
Kent Foxhounds, reminds his little brother how he was
once manager here, as he is glad to see how closely they
follow iuhis footsteps. The home business is now chiefly
in the hands of Master John, while his elder brother
Robert runs over to Vienna or follows the fortunes of the
Hampshires through the ever varying routes of the Royal,
the Bath and other Societies.
The toast-list, brief as it should be, included " the
Russell family," with the five brothers scattered amongst
the party ; " the Men of Kent ;" the health of a very
happily-chosen Chairman, and " Success to the Farmers'
Club ;" in answering for which jMr. Corbet drew atten-
tion to that which should be the point of the day's
story : There was then under decision a premium for the
best cultivated farm in Bedfordshire, as it was just possi-
ble that the winner of that prize might be sitting amongst
them. In any case, considering how strongly the sporting
element prevailed in that tent, he would like to see a
match made of which he had heard a whisper, viz., that
Horton Kirby would show against the Royal's best man.
The other speakers, Mr. Charles Howard, in response
for his brother James, who was unable to be present ;
Mr. Stoneham, the representative man of Kent, and Mr.
Sherborn, all "followed the Chairman" as to the remark-
able cleanliness of the land and the general excellence
of the system carried out in its cultivation.
THE PARM1']R'S MAGAZINE.
THE RABBIT IN THE BALLOT BOX.
The hearing of the Launceston election petition was
opened before Mr. Justice Mellor. Messrs. Leresche and
Eompas appeared fur Mr. Driukwater, the petitioner ; Mr.
Serjeant Parry and Mr. Edwards for Colonel Deakin, the
sitting member. In opening the case Mr. Leresche referred
to the political history of the borough and the purchase of
the Warrington estate by the defendant, who is a brevverin Man-
chester, and Honorary Colonel of the Lancashire Militia ; his
claim, as landlord, to the rabbits on the estate, and his sudden
resolution when he became a candidate to permit his farmers
to destroy them — a corrupt act in the opinion of the petitioners.
Evidence having been given that Colonel Deakin had an-
nounced his intention of permitting his tenants to kill rabbits
on his estate, and had paid for the publication of hand-bills
containing a report of his speech granting the concession, he
was himself examined. He said the Warrington estate con-
sists of about ifiOO acres. He had about 201 tenants, 175 of
whom were voters for the borough, but he believed that only
about 30 were touched by the rabbit question. Ht had told
his keepers constantly since 1873 to keep down the rabbits ;
by which he was not a gainer. Before the 28th of December
he had not given permission to the tenants to destroy rabbits,
and up to the Friday night they were not allowed to appro-
priate them. He could conscientiously swear that he did not
intend to influence a vote by the concession he made. Mr.
John Lethbridge Cowlard produced letters to show that Col.
Deakin was aware that some tenants had expressed consider-
able dissatisfaction about rabbits at the last audit held on the
3rd of December. Emile Pavey, who has the control of the
game on the Warrington estate, gave evidence that Colonel
Deakin had frequently spoken to him about complaints made
by the tenants about the rabbits and expressed a desire that
they should be kept down. After the examination of a game-
keeper and tenant tlie proceedings were adjourned. On the
proceedings being resumed Serjeant Parry said he
thought everything possible had been laid before the
Court. It had been assumed that rabbits were the
source of money revenue (o Colonel Deakin, but that
was not the case. He had, on tiie contrary, sustained
loss from tliem. What he had said at the public meet-
ing referred to was but the concluding act of a long
series of directions to kill the rabbits. He held that Colonel
Deakin's permission to kill the rabbits was not bribery, but
merely the utterance of his political sentiments witli re-
spect to the Game-lavis. Colonel Deakin had been pestered
about the rabbits, and he said, "Confound the rabbits, you
may do what jou like with them." The tenants did not wish
lor the rabbits, for since the election they have asked Colonel
Deakin's trappers to kill them lor them. Serjeant Parry con-
cluded by contending that language hastily uttered by Colonel
Deakin must not be taken seriously. Alter luncheon Mr.
Justice Mellor delivered judgment. After reviewing the
history of the election, and the circumstances of the disputed
concessions, his lordship concluded by declaring his opinion
that it was of a valuable nature. Having determined that it
came within the statutory definition of bribery, the petitioner's
claim to the seat was then gone into. Mr. Leresche, in his
case, proved that the following notice was served on the
electors, whereby he contended that the votes given for
Colonel Deakin were ttirown away, and that therefore Mr.
Drinkwater was elected by the majority of valid votes. The
notice in question was as follows : " Colonel Deakin having,
for the purpose of influencing voters at the election, given to
all his tenants on the W^erriugtou estate and voters in the
borough a right to trap and shoot rabbits, has, I believe, been
guilty of a corrupt practice ; and, as agent of Herbert Charles
Drinkwater, Esq., a candidate at this election, I hereby give
you, and each of you, notice tiiat, under these circumstances,
the said Colonel Deakin is disqualified from being a candidate,
and that all votes given for him will be thrown away." Mr.
Serjeant Parry contended that at that time Colonel Deakin
had not lost his status as a candidate, as there must have been
conviction by a regular tribunal before such a status could be
destroyed. Here merely a slight notice had been given, and
it was, he believed, tlie first instance in this country of such a
claim by a candidate. His Lordship, after hearing the argu-
ments, said he was prepared to grant cases on both these
points, to be heard before tlie Court of Common Pleas, the
whole costs to be determined by the result of the case. He
shsiild not certify to the House of Commons until after the
case had been heard.
AGRICULTURAL REPORT
THE NOUTH-EAST OF SCOTLAND.
[original.]
After a winter of unusual mildness, spring opened favour-
bly, with comparatively dry weather in March and April. The
latter month was, indeed, one of the finest and driest months
of April tiiat v,e have experienced for many years. A slight
snowstorm (which was the only one we had in the season)
about the middle of March delayed sowing till the 25th of
that month ; but though the commencement of the work was
thus not early, the weather continued so steadily fine that
nearly the whole of the seed was committed to the ground
within ten days from that date. Braird appeared favourably,
and during the month of April we had promise of early grass.
But in both these respects matters liave been very much re-
versed during the present month. V\'e seldom escape a cold
northern blast for some days lu May, and this season it has
been of unusual duration and severity. IN'either gras-s nor corn
can be said to have made any progress during nearly two
Tfeeks. The supply of turnips was abundant throughout the
season, but the supply of fodder in many cases ran short ; and,
mainly for that reason, cattle iiave had to be put afield in very
inclement weather. The abundance of turnips, however,
renders it probable that there is still some supply of fatted
cattle to be brought to market during tliis mouth. Grain
commanded a fair price during the winter, and it is not
likely that there is yery much of it now remaining in this
part of the country. Stack-yards are everywhere unusually
bare, and comparatively few farmers store up grain after it is
thrashed out. The price of cattle has varied a little from time
to time, but it has on the whole been lair througliout the
season. For the last two years or so t!'e price of horses has
been at least double of what it was some six or eight years
ago. Farmers were very much hampered in buying and selling
horses by the vigorous way in which the Horse-dealers'
Licence duty has been exacted of late years. Its abolition
will be a great relief. Nor will the relief from the Horse-tax
be less acceptable to many who were ill able to pay. In former
times the duty was not exacted except for horses actually used
for riding or driving; but so stringent was the law made
through alterations introduced by Mr. Lowe.that if a farmer
took one of his " work horses " to ride on a hasty errand, or to
church on a stormy day, tlie " Ganger "—now ycleprd Inland
Revenue officer — was down upon him for a fine of £4 or £o.
The heavy charges for labour are now felt by farmers as a great
drawback on the previously slender profits of cultivation. In
consequence of this partly, and also of other circumstances,
farms arc in mucii less' demand than they had wont to be. Sosoe
good farms liave of late, it seems, been slow in finding tenants
at former rents. The wages of farm labourers, or " farm
servants" as they are called here, have doubled within the last
61.0
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
twenty years, and within the period of our own recollection
tlicy liave tripled. Neither tlie character nor the efficiency of
servants has improved with the increase of wages, but very
inucli the contrary. We have heard of Labourers' Unions,
or seen advertisements about tliem for t!ie last year
or £0, in this part of the country ; but no farmer
pays any attention to them. Our unmarried servants
are engaged half-yearly at the hiring fairs, or " Feeing Mar-
kets" as they are called, iniraediatety before the terms of
Whitsunday and Martinmas, and they cannot, without breach
of contract, leave in harvest, or at any time before the termina-
tion of the half-year. The wages, moreover, are not paid till
the end of the period of engagement. In point of fact, most
of them, or certainly a large proportion of them, do change
from one farm to another at the "terms" above stated. For
this we are of cour-e prepared. Both master and man go to
the open market, and the latter of course endeavours to get the
highest wages he can. The whole thing is directly regulated
as everything of the kind must ultimately be, by "supplyand
demand." Wages for horsemen may be said now to be from
£13 to £li or £15, with board and lodging, fur the half-year.
On most of the larger farms there are two or three hinds, or
cottiers ; these are engaged at Whitsunday for the ytar. Tur-
nip sowing has been generally commenced within the present
week. Only 0-867 inch in depth of rain having fallen last
month, the ground is getting very dry, and our greatest danger
for the season now seems to be excess of drought. But noiu
verrons; we cannot tell what a day may bring forth. — May lb.
WINFRITH FARMER S' CLUB.
SANFOIN AND CLOVER.
At the last meeting of the season at Wool, Mr. J. J. Bates
in the chair,
The Chairman stated that Mr. Robert Fowler, of White-
church, had sent him a copy of the rules of the Blandford Far-
mers' Club on unexhausted manures and improvements. It ap-
peared the Central Chamber were about to consider some Code
of Tenaut-Right, and lie (Mr. Bates) supposed the chamber
representatives in the different counties were working up in
their respective districts the requirements of the tenant farmers.
The president then read the rules of the Blandford Club,
remarking, hovrever, the subject was too Coraprehensive to
have full ju.tice done to it this eTening. Mr. Waller, the
Secretary of the Home Cattle Defence Association, was
anxious to come amongst them and introduce a subject for
discussion. With the concurrence of their worthy secretary,
Mr. Randall, he had given him the opportunity of taking his
chance at the present meeting or coming down on some vacant
evening. It was agreed Mr. Waller should give his lecture
at the October meeting, Mr. Longman postponing his until
that in November.
Mr. ScuTT said, the subject given me to introduce for your
discussion this evening is. The Growth and Management
of Sanfoin and Clover. It is not my intention to enter fully
into it. My wish is rather to learn from the opinions expressed
by others on this interesting topic. I say interesting, because
it is so to me in a practical point of view, and must be so to
every thinking man concerned in agriculture, especially in such
times as the present when our attention is turned to the growth
of those plants upon which our animals have to rely for their
supplies of food. I will first make a few remarks on the
cultivation and treatment of sanfoin. This I consider
one of the principal of our forage crops, being a perennial
deep-rooting- plant. It was in cultivation ou the Continent
long before it was introduced as a field crop into this country.
About the middle of the seventeenth century it was brought
from France, and was first called " French Finger Grass,"
hence the term " French Grass." On lands suitable for its
cultivation no farmer can grow too much of it ; it will grow
on any soil where lime is present, but more especially on
lands of light dry calcareous formation ; on such it will, I
tiiink, give a greater return than could be obtained Irom any
other of our cultivated plants. Soils which contain a large
proportion of clay are unsuitable to its cultivation. There
are two varieties — the giant and common sanfoin. The latter
is preferred where the land is intended to be kept down some
years to its cultivation, but if only for two or three years, I
think the former variety preferable, as a much larger produce
is obtained, and the seed is generally cheaper. The seed is
grown after a crop of hay lias been obtained, which is not the
case with the common variety. Tiiere is a very great advan-
tage in ((rowing sanfoin on thin soils, in consequence of its
being such a deeji-rooting plant. When soils have been
found too close to the rock to carry the ordinary crops they
have been brought into beneficial cultivation by being laid
do.m to sanfoin for a course of years. The roots of the
plant ramify through the clefts of the rocks anJ carry down
with them the air and rain-water from above, and thus they
bring to the surface large supplies of mineral food. In the
preparation of the land for sanfoin great care should be taken
to clean it of weeds. This is an important consideration, and
cannot be too strictly attended to. Tlie principal districts in
which sanfoin is grown are Hampshire, Wiltshire, and some
parts of our own country, on the chalk soils. The usual
practice is to sow down the sanfoin with the barley after
turnips ; but in so doing we should be very particular as to the
hay fed with the turnips, as seeds of the hay, if too ripe when
cut, as well as those of weeds, will germinate and soon produce
a foul piece of sanfoin. The yield of the crop mainly depends
on the condition in which it is sustained. If mown and
carried off year by year, as is too commonly the case, the plant
soon becomes weaker, the indigenous plants increase and
rapidly displace the others, and the land becomes a mass of
weeds. If, however, it be kept regularly pastured down or
mown with hay, and fed upon afterwards with corn or cake,
the condition of the land will be kept up and the plants
maintain a vigorous growth. I think it is important not to
feed from the first year's growth, but to let the plants root
themselves well in the soil. In order to protect the crops
as much as possible from the natural grasses it is a good
practice to harrow the young plant in early spring, thus dis-
placing the shallow-rooted weeds, and then, by adding
manure, you encourage the growth of the sanfoin. The time
of cutting for hay should be immediately it shows flower, for
its nutritive value decreases as the flowering proceeds. It takes
three years to arrive at its maximum of production, and if the
soil be sustained by proper treatment and the crop kept clear
of weeds it will keep up its rate of production for about five
years, when the increase of the natural grasses generally tells
on the crop and shows that it is time to plough it up. The
other part of my subject is the growth and management of
clover. This plant, as well as sanfoin, we are told, was not
known in this country until the 17th century. Before that
time many of the clovers were known as common weeds, and
no doubt in the natural pastures had furnished food for the
wandering herds. There are many species of the clover plant
which are cultivated in this country for forage and feeding
purposes, wiiile many of the others are met with in the
natural pastures. The common red clover is the most
important to us, it being a very vigorous and productive
grower in suitable soils, furnishing a large amount of nutri-
tious and s*ect herbage. Clovers enter so generally into the
rotation of the present system of farming that we meet
with them in cultivation on every description of soil. They
form large roots, which have a tendency to penetrate deep
into the soil and to seek supplies of food from the lower
stratum ; thus they secure the power of obtaining moisture
while the more surface-rooted plants are suffering from the
effects of the summer sun and drought. I consider in all
cases we must endeavour to secure for clover a deep, well-
tilled soil, and free from stagnant water. The proper place
for clover is between two straw crops, which place it iuvariably
occupies, and if, instead of sowing ryegrass «ith the clover,
a mixture of clover with sanfoin and white Dutch could be
relied on, it would be much more beneficial to the soil, for
the ryegrass partakes of the same food and belongs to the same
order as both the preceding and succeeding straw crops. The
evils resulting from the continuous cultivation of the same
crops on the same ground are known practically to every one.
THE FAhlMER*S MAGAZINE.
Ui
Tlie usu:il time for sofllilg is from the luidJle of March to
the end of April ; if it t-.ikes place too early, the danger is in
losing the young plant by frost ; and if too late, and tlie
season be dry, the danger lies in the seed vegetating and get-
ting a firm hold of the soil before the heat of summer. I
think it best to sow part at the time of sowing the corn and
part after the corn is up, before the land is finished off with
the roller. After the harvest, when the young clover covers
the land, pigs are turned into it for the purpose of picking up
the corn left on the land, and they will sometimes take a
fancy to the clover and tear up tlte phut, materially injuring
it. Then, perhaps, some will turn the sheep on, wliich are
apt to eat the clover down to the crown of the root, which, if
left exposed to the winter's frost, is sure to die away bsforethe
spring comes. In its early growth the clover is a very tender
plant, and the less it is touched after the straw crop is cleared
off the ground the better ; the great object is to get it well rooted
before the winter. In the following summer when the crop is
mown for hay, it is desirable to wait until the plant has begun
to form its flower-heads, when it should be at once cut, and
the less it is handled after the better, so that the leaf is pre-
served. Therefore, cutting with the scythe is preferable to
the grass-cutting machine; when the crop is intended for seed
the best plan to adopt, I believe, is to feed off the first crop
before it arrives at maturity, and then lay up the field until
the seed is matured ; whereas the general practice is to take
the hay crop first and then let tiie second growth stand for
seed. Our climate is certainly far more favourable to the
growth of clover than to its full maturity aud seed produce,
and consequently the seed crop is rarely satisfactory. It is
important that the seed be fully matured at the time of cutting,
and that it be left out in the field until it becomes quite dry
and hardened. The diseases to wliich our cultivated plants
are liable are very imperfectly understood ; the crop now
before us affords a marked instance of tliis great deficiency in
our agricultural knowledge. The clover pluut is frequently
greatly injured by a form of disease called " clover sickness,"
but the real cause of such has never, I think, been really
ascertained. These are mysteries far beyond the reach of tiie
highest human knowledge, but the veil is sometimes capable
of being withdrawn, yet only when people do not rest
satisfied wi'.h a foregone conclusion, but are content to keep
their minds open to fresh suggestions without indolently
making up their bundle of faggots and wrapping themselves
up in their own prejudices.
Mr. BuDDEN said he had put down his sanfoia with wheat
and also with barley. In the former case he had a good plant
and a good crop of hay, but in the latter the state of things was
just as unsatislactory, although the land formed part of the
same field. He had been told he ought to have used milled
hops. Mr. Scutt had informed him that maiden seed would
not grow — which was worth knowing. Whether his (Mr.
Budden's) was maiden seed he did not know. Mr. Scutt had
told him his customers said maiden seed would not stand in the
ground. Mr. Budden mentioned he was going to put into some
strong and troublesome ground a mixture of two bushels
of sanfoin with other seeds, Italian and clover, in propor-
tion.
Mr. Besant quite agreed with Mr. Scutt as to the advan-
tage of growing French grass, observing that through his
window he looked on the poorest hills in the county of IJorset
and saw a good crop of hay from this LVench grass. (Mr.
Scutt : And not much put on the land, either.) Willi regard
to sowing rjegrass with clover, they often disagreed one with
the other ; ryegrass was an interruption to the growth of
clover. He thought it would be a benefit to mix their seed more,
and that they were not sufficiently particular as to tiie sowing
of the best seeds. He considered it better to sow sanfoin on
their land than get a crop of poor corn, particularly in these
days, as by the former they could save tiie labour of a man and
a pair of horses. He mentioned lie had grown extraordinary
clover with wheat stubble ; he turned his pigs to gras', and he
did not tiiiuk ihey injured tiie clover. Tlie .^ubjcct, introduced
by Mr. Sc itt, concerned one of the principal branches of
agricultural pursuits, and was, he (Mr. Besant) considered,
very interesting.
Mr. Lo:<(.MAN (Belhuish) thouglit Mr. Scutt had introduced
the suijjcct in a very able manner ; the cultivation of sanfoins
and clovers was next in importance to corn -growing. Regard-
ing I'rencli grass, he answered a question wiiich had been
previously put, by remarking Mr. Buddeu drilled too deep ;
Frencli grass, lie said, should not be put very deep in the
ground. He (Mr. Longman) had drilled on a light piece of
land, and on no other occasion had he a better lot of French
grass. With a reduced depth he had an extraordinary good
piece of sanfoin. Foreign seeds were, as a rule, of bad quality ;
he thought tiiey did not stand so well as those that were home-
grown. Sanfoin, where there were chalky thin soils, was, he
considered, most essential; notliing could be better for tiie
lambs, after cutting the hay off, than a change of sanfoin. He
recommended the earlier cutting ot sanfoin.
The Chairman was sure they were much obliged to Mr.
Scutt for having brougiit forward the subject in such an able
manner. The great oljject now-a-days was to economise labour,
and produce as much food for stock as possible. Italian and
green rye came early for feeding sheep, but tbey were sjme-
thing between corn and grass, and the question was how far
they depreciated the clover crop when sown witli it. Tliere
could be no question as to the value of the early feed for sheep.
The great question was as to the best mode of putting down
their green crops — whether clover and sainfoin or whether
mixed with Italian aud other grasses — putting them down in
the best manner so as to last the longest. Tiiey were crops
wiiicli did not pay for breaking up too often. Regarding san-
foin, there could be no question that wiieretiie land was suitable
it was one of the most advantageous of crops. How to plant
and when to break up were important questions. One ^;reat
secret was to get the plant well established before it got poi-
soned with a number of weeds and plants which tiiey did not de-
sire to cultivate. They should do everything possible to
strengthen and invigorate tiie plant. Early mowing did the
land injury and weakened the plant ; feeding the first year aud
mowing tiie second were, he thought, advantageous rtitii re-
spect to sanfoins as well as clovers. They siiould be carel'ui to
avoid degeneratiug and weakening the plant. In coiiclusiun,
he said the suliject had been introduced in a practical manner
by Mr. Scutt, to wiiom he (Mr. Bates) was sure would be given
a cordial vote of thanks.
Mr. Scutt was sorry the attendance was so small, but he con-
sidered there had been a good discussion. Mr. Buddeu had
said lie sowed sanfoin with wheat, wliile he (Mr. Scutt) recom-
mended barley. Whichever it was seemed to be quite immate-
rial. I'ossibly Mr. Budden might have put down the sanfoin too
deep in the case of the barley. He concurred with Mr. Longman
as to the avoidance of French common sanfoin seed, wliicli he
(Mr. Sjult) never touched, always getting Euglisii common
sanfoin. He had customers who would never buy tlie former.
Tiie giant French was used more than formerly ; but French seed,
as a rule, ouglit to be avoided as far as common sanfoin went.
With regard to cutting sanfoin early, Mr. Longman agreed with
him; early cutting was better for the hay and better for tlie plant.
Mr. Longman had spokeu of harrowing in the grasses and roll-
ing in the small seeds. He (Mr. Scutt) thouglit tlie sliallower
tliey put all the seeds the better ; by liarrovving in many, got too
far below tlie surface ever to come above. Care should be taken
not to sow saufoin too often on tlie same land ; that would be
sure to fail. Mr. Scutt maintained sanfoin should be left the
first year rather than be fed, as the latter course weakened it.
The better heart the laud was in, the better for the sanfoin.
He believeditwasdisadvantageousin this county to save sanfoin
for seed.
A PICTURESQUE COTTAGE.— You may fall in love
with tlie spot at first night, but on closer examination
a good many drawbacks would suggest themselves, if you
had any idea of quartering yourself in one of these dwellings
— say lor a week or two of an artist's iioliday in the summer-
time. Although the walls could never have been extraor-
dinarily substantial, they may have stood as tliey are for a
couple of hundred years. In all that time they have been
patched, and jdastered, and cobbled, but not once have tliey
bceu put in thorough repair. The»ite is damp, for tlie cottage
stands low in a lioUow near the water, like most buildings ot
our earlier architectural periods, from the manor-house down-
wards. Tlie foundations have been settling dowu and the
walls splittiug into cracks aud rifts tiiat liave been rouglily
stopped witii clay or mortar. Tiie beams have warped ;ind
mouldered, and left gaping interstices between the roofs aud caves.
Tiie leaden framework of the casement has bent, and the
small diamond panes are cracked and broken, and stopped
542
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
with rags from the family wardrobe. The mud floor has
gradually worn away below the threshold tillffie water trickles
in when there is heavy rain, to collect in odoriferous pools in
the middle of the kitchen. The rotten ceiling is tumbling to
pieces, and eitiier from the under or the upper room you may
hear and see all that goes on iu the other. The staircase that
communicates between them is a rude ladder, with half the
lungs long ago gone lor firewood. Outside things are as bad
as they well can be from a sanitary point of view, considering
that the cottage is in the country, and in one of the healthiest
districts of England. Drains there are none ; but an open
gutter meanders towards the little weed-covered pool, and the
two together generate the foulest miasma when the sun is hot
and the atmosphere close. The untrained sprays of the ivy,
and the struggling boughs of the apple-trees, shut out air and
light from the little casements. When the weather is wet the
drip from the trees overhead is perpetual, and in autumn the
place is half buried in fallen leaves that are left to rot in
masses in the garden. The inmates do nothing to help them-
selves, cliiefly because their landlord has done so little to help
them. The cottage is an object of general admiration to
visitors with any perception of the beautiful, and, so long as he
can keep it standing and roughly weather-tight, the proprietor
is content. But his peasant tenants, having no sense of the
beautiful, fail to appreciate the sole recommendation of their
dwelling They know that the rifts rudely held together by
iron, which look so picturesque from the outside, let in those
little streams of wet which are fatal to paper, or even to
whitewashing. They know that the ivy that holds the damp
cracks the mortar, making the interior of the cottage all
through the rainy season feel like the inside of a streaming
umbrella. They may have become habituated to sitting with
their feet in the mud on the kitchen floor, but the presence of
the mud discourages any attempts at scrupulous clean-
liness elsewhere. And the darkness and damp and
discomfort in which they live breed physical as well as
moral listlessness. It is not worth while to be up and
doing where the work to be done would be perpetually
recommencing. When the walls are mildewed and the
ceiliug is in holes and tatters ; when the windows cannot
open, and the only means of ventilation is by tbe door ; when
the smoke circulates round the room before it escapes up the
chimney ; when all shortcomings are covered by the prevailing
gloom, it is worth no one's while to scour and polish and
brighten. There is overcrowding of course. Probably the
occupant has a large and growing family, and if he has not,
he fills up his room with lodgers ; for on properties where
these picturesque cottages have stood from time immemorial
there has been but very little new building going forward.
There can be no great privacy where the floors and partitions
are more sham than real, and decency stands but a poor
chance. The family struggles up somehow, herding together,
and accustomed to rough it, and almost forgets its increasing
years till it is time for its members to take wing or to marry.
Naturally the domestic virtues languish in such a place, and,
should the daughters turn out to be tolerable wives and
mothers, it is very much to their credit. Even when they go
out of doors, in their dirty dress and ungainly manners, they
reflect very much the character of their miserable home.—
The Saturday Review.
THE MANCHESTER HORSE SHOW.
This experiment was inaugurated with a very
comprehensive prize-list, which was made up in
this way : Thoroughbred stallions 7 ; agricultural
di'ay horses 3, ditto mares and foals, 10 ; stallion
ponies, 7 ; hunters equal to 15 stone, four years old and up-
wards, 9 ; hunters, without conditions as to weight, four
years old and upwards, 20 ; three-year-old colts or fillies for
hunting purposes, 19 ; two-year-old ditto, 8 ; mares fit
to breed chargers, 13 entries ; chargers, or horses likely
to make chargers, 16 ; Government artillery horses, 2 ;
park hacks or roadsters exceeding 13 hands high, 24 ;
not exceeding 15 hands, 27 ; ladies' horses, 13 ; ponies
in saddle not exceeding 14 hands, 35 ; ponies in harness
not exceeding 14 bauds, 11 ; ponies in harness not ex-
ceeding 12 hands, 13 ; ponies not exceeding 13 hands, to
carry children, 14 ; pairs of ponies in harness not ex-
ceeding 14 hands, 8 ; tandem of ponies not exceeding 14
hands, 1 ; harness horses not exceeding 15 hands, 20 ;
ditto exceeding 14 and not exceeding 15 hands, 10 ; pairs
in harness 15 hands and upwards, 5 ; best appointed
tandems of horses exceeding 14 hands, 2 ; harness horse,
four years off, 15 hands 3 inches and not exceeding 16
hands, bay with black points, and not bred in the Fylde,
4 ; agricultural horses (pairs), 4 ; single gelding or mare,
6 entries ; dray horses (pairs), 3 ; van horses, 2 ; coal-
cart horses, 9 ; seven entries of mules, six of foreign
donkeys, two English donkey stallions, and two mares,
and twelve donkeys used by the owners in getting a living.
In the chief classes nearly all the first prizes were taken
by horses already well known in the show ring. Thus
the best thorough-bred stallion was the flashy, false-
framed Laughing Stock, a double fii-st at "the Royal," with
Citadel, fii'st long since at Islington, now second, and the
steeplechaser, Alcibiade, whose owner died on the day of
the opening, third. The prize pony stallion. Sir George,
is as well known, while King Tom, a son of Honest Tom
has already made his mark, and Young Champion has
figured as a second or third-rate cart-horse over and over
again. The champion hunter of last season, the West
Country Palmerstou, is still so far the best about ; while
the neat Banker is still taking his revenge over the Royal
judges (!) at Hull, who so strangely put him aside in a
moderate class ; and Loiterer, actually once more in the
prize list ; but Mr. Harvey Bayly's pair. The Chief
Constable and Newsmonger were not noticed, beyond a
commendation to the latter. Other well known names
will be found on the record, the competition pretty generally
being more remarkable for numbers than merit. A strong
feature in the show was the entry of troop horses, and
there were premiums for jumping, in which, as usual,
the best horses took no part, backed by some cockneyfied
trotting matches, which threaten now to disgrace some of
these outside horse shows. We question whether even in
the days of " The Squire" and Rattler a trotting match
was ever more really respectable than a dog fight.
PRIZE LIST.
JUDGES.— Colonel the Hon. T. G. Cholmondeley, W. Cap-
per, J. H. Wood, W. Lort, J. Bromley, T. Dodds, and W.
J. iJarwick.
Thoroughbred stallions. — First prize, £50, J. Moffatt, Kirk-
linton Park, Carlisle (Laughing Stock) ; second, £20, Major
F. Barlow, Hasketon, Woodbridge (Citadel). Highly com-
mended : B. J. Angell (Alcibiade).
Agricultural or dray horses. — First prize, £50, T. Statter
(King Tom) ; second, T. Statter (Young Champion). Highly
commended : J. F. Crowther, Knowl Grove, Mirfleld (Sir
Roger).
Cart mares and foals. — First and second prizes, T. Statter.
Pony stallion, not exceeding fourteen hands. — First prize,
C. W. Wilson, High Park, Kendal (Sir George) ; second, J.
Renwick, Strangewajs (Tain Glen).
Mares calculated to breed chargers. — Prize, S. Kirby, Man-
chester.
Agricultural horses, — First and second prizes, W. Brierley,
Rhodes House, Middleton. Higlily commended : T. Stutter.
Heavy-weighted hunters. — First prize, £50, H. Jewison,
Raistiiorp, York (Palmerstou) ; second, W. Armstrong
(Cashier) ; third, J. S. Dayrell (Taurus).
Hunters, without condition as to weight. — First prize, W.
Armstrong (Banker) ; second, A. R. Gladstone, Court Hey,
Liverpool (Loiterer) ; third, Major-Geaeral Irwin, Leixlip,
THE FARMBE'S MAGAZINE.
543
Ireland (Firefly). Very higlily commendeJ, J. Goodiff
(Marsliall MacMalion).
Chargers, mouuted by troopers iu full marcliing order. —
Prize, Major Vincent, Hulmc Barracks.
Ladies' horses. — First prize, Sir G. Wombwell ; second, J.
Johnson, Lutterworth ; tliird, F. G. Matthews, Driifield.
Mules. — First prize, S. Lang, Bristol (bred at Poictou) ;
second, E. Pease, Darlington ; third, J. Wood, Upper Brook-
street.
Foreign donkeys. — First and second prizes, E. Pease'; third,
S. Lang.
English donkeys (stallions). — First prize, R. Simpson ;
second, B. Gill, Strangeways, Manchester. Mares: Prize, Mrs.
Ogdeu, Failsworth.
Three-year-old colts and fillies for hunting purposes — First
prize, T. F'. Jackson, Tattonhall, Chester (Huntsman) ; second,
J. Lett, Scampston, York (The Aristocrat) ; third, G. Lan-
caster, Morton Grange, Northallerton. Higlily commended :
S. Rigg, Grange Hotel, Carnforth. Commended : 6. Lan-
caster ; J. Armstrong, Stubb, Kirklinton, Carlisle ; T.
Graham, [rthington, Carlisle.
Tvvo-year-old colts and fillies for country purposes. — First
prize, £. Griffith, Chick; second, J. Moffatt ; third, Mr.
Crovvther, Mirfield. Commended : E. Griffiths.
Hacks or roadsters not exceeding 15 hands high. — First
prize, R. Nelson, Barton Hill, York (Corisande) ; second.
Sir Humphrey de Trafford (Latakia) ; third, G. Braithwaite
(Rufus).
Roadsters, not exceeding 15 hands high. — First prize, W.
Stephenson, Cottingham, Hull (Princess) ; second, Master A.
Mitchell, Bowling Park, Bradford (Bell) ; third, W. and J.
Brown, Stone House, Perry Bar, Birmingham.
Pony in saddle, not exceeding 1-t hands high. — First prize,
C. "W. Wilson, Light Park, Kendal ; second, W. Johnson,
Orange Court, Liverpool; third, W. Ingham, Thornliill,
Armley, Leeds.
Horses in harness.— First prize, T. Statter, Whitefield,
Manchester ; second, J. Dickinson, Burlington-street, Man-
chester.
STOCK
SALES.
MR. QEORGE GARNE'S SHORTHORNS.
At Chukchill Heath, Chipping Norton, Oxon, on
Tuesday, Apkil 28, 1874.
BY MR. THORNTON.
Of late years the name of Game has come very promi-
nently before the public as exhibitors, and very successful
exhibitors too, of Shorthorn cattle. Moreover, last year the
late Mr. Thomas Game's herd at Broadmoor, one of the
oldest stocks iu the county, was scattered far and wide iu
two auctions, one in the spring aud the other iu the autumn.
The cattle, brought from their bleak aud out-of-the-way
home in the cold valley of the Windrush, were sold at
Bo urton-on-the- Water, aud the superiority as well as the
general excellence of the stock not only surprised the
scores of Gloucestershire farmers who dabbled iu a " bit of
blood," but astonished even those who came a distance
from more northern counties. There vv'as something
better than the thick neck, upright shoulders, big bag
and wedge-like shape of what is called amoug Yorkshire-
meu the " West country Shorthorn ;" aud those who
hought them found that they had useful qualities for
milking aud feeding, besides symmetrical proportions aud
hard, robust constitutions. Mr. George Game, when he
left the paternal roof, got a few of his father's cows to
stock his miserably poor common farm on Churchill
Heath. In those days fashion was less domiuant than
now, and he, like his father, used bulls in which few-
folks could pick holes, going for good blood from good
herds. From Fawkes' bulls, which had such good reputa-
tion in oldeu days, he went to Knowlmere, aud there got
the "combination" of Booth and Bates blood, that doubt-
less stamped the stock,not only with style, but gave the im-
mense substance iu the bargain. Towneley, unncglccted,
supplied Duke of Towneley, which Sir Tattou Sykcs after-
wards purchased at a long price; then Royal Butterlly 20th,
who was shown ou Tuesday fresh aud vigorous iu his
eighth year. He had brought a few guineas to the coffers
in prizes, and begot others equally as successful as himself.
Carrying a great amount of lean, good llesh, he is long
and low, and very muscular, though some might object to
his light, mealy roan, but a good nag " was never
of a bad colour." For the heifers, Mr. Game had pur-
chased, conjointly with his kinsman, ^Ir. Mace, Grand
Duke of Geneva 2nd from i\lr. Lency, and he was reported
more iu favour with one owner than the other. His
pedigree is undeniable, being out of that grand white cow,
always admired at Wateringbury, the Seventh Duchess of
Geneva, whoso veins are contaminated, iu the purists'
opinion, by the Rotneo cross, but whose merit condones
any little strains of new blood ; and, if further evidence be
wanting, let.the critics sojourn a day at delightful Uuder-
ley, aud there see Tenth Duchess of Geneva. His
sire, Grand Duke 15th, is well known to most
breeders. The bull certainly is a taking animal, and im-
proves upon looking at : he has nice character, deep, good
colour, aud is well done, but his big hips aud the pecu-
liar movement of his fore-quarters will always detract
fi'om his appearance. The heifers were nearly all iu-calf
to him, and doubtless the knowledge that he had cost
several hundreds brought many a oue to look at him.
Another circumstance tended to swell that very
large gathering which assembled round the ring.
Two yearling bulls were sent to the large bull-
show at Birmingham last March, when oue of them took
the 100 gs. prize, aud the other, although H.C., was
thought much of by the company, for he made 140gs. at
auction. The catalogue of sale contained 38 lots, six ol
which only w^ere young bulls. The heifers were mostly
either forward in calf or served, and the cows came iuto
the ring, not unduly dried aud made-up for sale, but milk-
ing, with calves running beside them, aud still in nice
healthy condition. The fact was they had been done well
as calves and yearlings, and never having lost their calf
flesh, would always be iu presentable condition with
good keep,be the season or the "milk" whatever it might.
There were no doubtful lots, perhaps bar oue, and the
heifers were so healthy and cleau, aud nice-looking, that
you would hear as you moved about, " The lieefcrs look
well," "The heefers be a nice lot," aud similar ob-~ ;va-
tions. The subjoined prices give the result of the sale,
which was considerably beyoud Mr. Game's expectatious.
It led to great satisfaction and much congratulatiou,
as no man, as the auctioneer remarked at the
close of the business, deserved a better sale. Mr. J. Wil-
son Wilson haviug taken a new farm of three hundred
acres, was a rare customer. He bought a dozen lots, perhaps
the pick of the sale ; lie also bougiit the prize bull. Third
Earl of Warwickshire, fi'om Mr. Game last season. Mr.
Larkworthy's purchases were for New Zealand, aud some
nice heifers will soon leave the country. It gave general
pleasure to the compauy to liud Mr. Albert Erassey
among the buyers, for iu due time a good herd wiU be
established at Heythrop. Mr. R. Atlenboro', of Read-
ing, also secured two or tiirec nice animals, as well as
Mr. Blandy Jenkins, Theprizecow, Priucess Alexandra,
bU
THE FARMER'S MAGAZIISfE.
looked exceedingly well, and her capital bull-calf helped
her along ; she is in-calf to Grand Duke of Geneva, and
will be a formidable opponent at the shows this year if
exhibited, as she still preserved all her sweetness of cha-
racter and evenness of flesh without any patchiness, and
has bred three calves. Tlie Knightley cow (lot 4), Alice
Knightley, had lost her last calf prematurely, but had
been kept over for service ; she is a broad, good cow,
disfigured somewhat by upright horns. Magic 7th was a
very grand animal and cheap, though several of the lots
were certainly dear- Another cheap lot was lot 13,
Gaiety, a fine red hairy heifer, with a beautiful head and
massive frame on short legs ; she goes to ilr. Cochrane,
of Canada, for 70 gs. Coming in she caught her tail and
pulled part of it off: and this somewhat detracted from her
appearance although of little detriment. Lot 26 was a
good specimen of the P tribe, a trifle small, but very
compact; Mr. Wilson got her at 90 gs., as well as most of
the others of that capital P family. The bulls were
cheap. Lot 33, Lord Barrington, goes to the celebrated
herd of F. Von. Homeyer, in Pomerania ; he is a fiue roan,
full of hair, and very heavy fleshed, but having been run
with some heifers looked a little thin. This is the second
auction that has taken place at Churchill, and the average
of £66 123. for thirty-seven head shows great improve-
ment on £36 4s. for fifty-seven head in 1870, and th'zt
good stock, though bred from mixed strains of blood, will
if good in themselves, be appreciated by the public, and,
command a capital average, even in these days of fancy,
fashion, and cool thousands.
COWS AND HEIFERS.
Lerity, br CambridKe Prince Royal (19380), out of Lovely by
Progression (16770).— Mr. R. Attenborough, 40 gs.
Jemima, by Duke of Towneley (21615), out of Jennet by
Harelock (14676).— Mr. J. Wilson Wilson, 60 ps.
Plymouth Beauty, by Plymouth Candidate (22531), out of
Beatrice by Gondomar (179S5). — Mr. J. Game, 57 gs.
Alice Knightley, by Duke of Darlington (21586), out of
Alberta by Marraaduke (14897).— Mr. J. Wilson Wilson,
70 gs.
Pansy 3rd, by Noble Duke (24661), out of Pansy 2nd by Cam-
bridge Prince Royal (19380).— Mr. J. Houlton, 56 gs.
Magic 7tb, by Prince Consort (22583), out of Magic 3rd by
Royal Oak (16870).— R. A.ttenborough, 60 gs.
Princesis Alexandra, by Rex (24946), out of Princess of Wales
by Programme (20608).— Mr. J. Wilson Wilson, 160 gs.
Rose Bud, by Due D'Aumale (23713), out of Attingliam Miss
by May Duke (13320).— Mr. J. Cook, 36 gs.
Susan Star, by RoUriglit (22750), out of Star by Dusty Miller
(17765).— Mr. J. Wilson Wilson, 50 gs.
Verity 3rd, by Paragon (24722), out of Verity 2ud by Lord
Hardinge (13193).— Mr. J. vVilson Wilson, 70 gs.
Countess, bv Prince of Airdrie (27159), out of Cutteslowe
Pride by 'Prince of Thorndale (24884).— Mr. F. Lark-
worthy, 51 gs.
Juvenile, by Prince of Airdrie (27159), out of Jelly by Duke
of Towneley (21616).— Mr. J. Wilson Wilson, 85 gs.
Gaiety, by Royal Benedict (27348), out of Garland by Duke
of Towneley (21615). — Mr. M. II. Cochrane, 70 gs.
Fame, by Mr. Peabody (24603), out of Fairy Flower by the
Druid (20948).— Mr. T. Mace 56 gs.
Gezina, by Buccaneer (25693), out of Gentility by Duke of
Towneley (21615). — Mr. R. Attenborough, 46 gs.
Jemima 2nd, by Royal Butterfly 20th (25007), out of Jemima
by Duke of Towneley (21615).— Mr. J.Wilson Wilson, 80 gs.
Berrington Rose, by Knight of Brailes, out of Rose Bud
by Due D'Aumale (23713).— Mr. A. Brassey, 51 gs.
Naomi, by Baccaneer (25693), out of Nettle by Monk (24616).
— Mr. J. B. Jenkins, 75 gs.
PrimulH,by Earl of Warwickshire 3rd (28524), out of Prima
Donna by Royal Butterfly 20th (25007).— Mr. J. Wilson
Wilson, 85 gs.
Lady Butterfly, by Royal Butterfly 20th (25007), out of Levity
lot 1 by Cambridge Prince Royal (19380).— Mr. J. Wilson
Wilson, 90 gs.
Lady of Scar Hill 4tli, by Dnicof Fawsley (2S387), out of
Wallflower lltli by Second Earl of Walton (19672).— Mr.
F. Larkworthy, 60 gs.
Pageant, by Riyal Butterfly 20th (25007), out of Passive by
British Oak (19353).— Mr J. AVilsou Wilson, 80 g^.
Hope, by Siitellile (59930), out of F.iith by British Hope
(21321).— Mr. A. i5ra-s?v, 60 gs.
Spring Flovrrr, bv Dike of Fawsley (28387), out of Wall-
floivpr 17th by Blcidiug Heart 5th (25639).— Mr. F. Lark-
wortliy, 80 gs.
Rliotla Niblett, by Earl of Warwickshire 3rd (28524), out of
Rebecca Niblett by Cynric (19542).— Mr. J. Wilson Wilson,
75 gs.
Pales 2ud, by Royil Bulteifly 20th (25007), out of Pales by
Plymouth Caudidiite (22531).— Mr. J. Wilson Wilson,
90^3.
Victoria Srd, by St. Swithin (22833), out of Victoria by Duke
of Towneley (21615).— Mr. T. Handy, 66 gs.
Berrington Rose 2nd, by Soprano, out of Rose Bud by Due
D'Aumale (23713).— Mr. F. Lirkworthy, 36 gs.
Silvei Star, by Walter 2nd (30253), out of Susan Star by Roll-
right (22750).— Mr. J. Wilson Wilson, 6J gs.
Verity 5lli, by Seclusion (22914), out of Verity 3rd by Para-
gon (24722).— Mr. F. Larkworthy, 62 gs.
Magic 12t!i, by Buccaneer (25693), out of Magic 7tii by Prince
Consort (22583).— Mr. F. Larkwortliy, 33 gs.
BULLS.
Lord Barrington, by Royal Prerogative (27383), out of Rosa
by Jeopardy (21985). — F. Vun llomeger, 51 gs.
Cromwell, by Pretender (29577), out of Cream by President
Linjoln. — Rev. G. Warrener, 38 gs.
Silvertop, by Pretender (29577), out of Silver 5th by Archer
^ (17317).— Mr. A. W. Hall, M.P., 33 gs.
Exciseman, by Ranger, out of Epitaph 23rd by Executor
(26117).— Mr. J. Speed, 52 gs.
Paul Pry, by Plebian (29556), out of Pansy 4th by Lord
Farnham (26644).— Capt. J. T. Arkwriglit, 42 gs.
Cambridge Royal Prince, by Royal Cambridge 2nd (25010),
out of Princess Alexandra by Rex (24946). — Mr. T. Mace,
81 gs.
SUMMAKT.
31 cows averaged J;69 8 8 £2,152 10 0
6 bulls ,, 51 19 6 311 17 0
37 head
66 12 1 £2,464 7 0
MR. GEORGE BLAND'S SHORTHORNS.
At CoLEBy Hall, Lincoln, on Thursday, April 30.
By Mr. Thornton.
Like the phcenii this herd arose from the ashes of that
dispersed — save a few old cows — in 1867; but we failed
to see those massive cows which were so noticeable at
the last auction, neither was the herd so large as that
oiFered before; indeed, it seemed that the new stock had
hardly received quite so much attention as the
last. Perhaps it was that the line of bulls being
changed resulted in that difference, which was
remarked by several old breeders present. The
original herd has been obtained from Mr. W. Smith, of
West Rasen, Mr. Budding, Mr. Fawkes, Mr. Adkins, and
other eminent breeders, a few of late being purchased
from Mr. J. G. Dixon and Mr. Packe. To these cows
Mr. Smith's Lord Raglan (14849) and Victor (21025)
were put, and then Knight Errant, Lord of the Hills, and
Lord Red Rose were hired from the late Mr. Richard Booth.
After them a change took place : Grand Duke 6th was
bought at the Willis' Rooms sale ; he was sold with the
herd in 1867, and big son Macbeth reigned in his stead.
At the Gaddesby sale a neighbour joined Mr. Bland in
the purchase of Waterloo Prince — a good roan bull, by
General Napier out of Mr. Singleton's fine red cow Lady
Waterloo 12th. He left some fair stock, rather dark in
their reds. One of the heifers, Priscilla 4th, was very
handsome, and commanded 60 gs. from Colonel Reeve.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
545
Her (lam by Grand Duke 6th was a large-framed, fine
animal, from a Knight Errant cow, and she went to Mr.
P. Brown for 51 gs. Mr. Patterson took Waterloo
Prince for a time, and in his absence Mr. Bland bought
Duke of Liverpool at Mr. Barnard's sale, where his good
stock were as admirable as the bull's temper was wicirst half-dozen lots. No. 7, a fine cow
of Mr. Biamston's old blood from Essex, created
even more bidding, and finally Hugh Gorringe got
her for his farm at Kingston by-the-Sea for 45 gs.
Lot 9, Patchouli, a level, fine red cow, full of
hair, and nice form, aud a breeder, having pioduceJ
three calves before five years old, and nearly due again,
went cheap enough at 58 gs. to Mr. Mountfort, iu the
North of England. A good in-calf heifer (lot 23) also
accompanied her. Mr. Christy took one of his old sort
back again, Patcheuli 6th, at 52 gs.; aud Chaplet, lot
13, a red four-year-old of the old Ducie blood, goes to
Canada at 49 gs. The Chairman got a nice white heifer
in lot 14, cheap at 35 gs. Lot 15, Royalty,
in very good condition, said to be a capital
breeder, was bought by Mr. Green, Colchester, for 5U gs.
It was gratifying, however, to see such good competition
among local breeders. Mr. Kingsnorth, Mr. Abbot.
Messis. Butcher, and :Mr. F'itch Spicer bid well, Mr,
Kingsnorth takiug the best heifer, lot 22, Margery, at
65 gs., the top female price. Mr. Biakcnidge bought a
few lots to go iuto Somersetshire, aud Captain Hilton and
Captain Smith were both among the local buyers. The
calves sold right well, Mr. Tulloch, of Crawley, giving
30 gs. for lot 34, INlaid of Kent. He also bought several
others. The bull Bloomfield, a dark good roan, with a
fine bead aud hiudijuarters, and capital middle, was
greatly admired ; moreover, he appeared of a good temper.
N n2
552
THE FARMiSR'S MAGAZINE.
Putinat thelOO gs. reserve, ten vvasqnioldy given for Essei,
anil another live secureil liim for ^Ir. Stavelev Mill, IM.l'.
The competiliou for the litifer calves was exceeded by
the demand for the jounj{ bulls, all of which were nure
calvis. 40 guineas was the highest, and 20 guineas the
lowest price, and they showed with Bloorafield an average
of 40 guineas for the eight. The cows made just over
£40 a piece, giving a general average of £40 13s. 9d. for
the 48 head. ' '
THE BLISWOKTH SALE.— The average was close
upou £60, but that several of the lots being doubtful re-
duced the prices. In the words of a Yorkshireman
present, it was " nowt to grumble at and little to swagger
on." We shall give a report in our next number.
THE BODY AND ITS MEMBEES.
The Report from the Council to the May Meeting of
the Royal Agricultural Society runs to a great length ;
as it is, indeed, something of a question whether much
of the matter embodied here does not detract from the
dignity of such a document. The education section of
the Society's proceedings has always been a difficult
feature to develope, and the small facts and petty details
now put together do not say much for the result of the
experiment. We give to this elaborate story all the
benefit of an advertisement, although we feel very sure
that the Report would have read far better h;ul this branch
of the busiucss been cut down to a paragraph or two.
It is curious, in fact, to see how mucli quasi-importauce
is attached to the examination of a dozen or so moderate
lads, especially when a movement made by the Council of
bite to gather information as to the cultivation of the
soil is passed over without a word. There is, it appears,
just at present a series of questions being put into circu-
lation, mainly through the local societies, bearing more
directly on t: e policy of laying down land into pasture
as an alteration consequent on " the high price of farm
stock and the increased cost of agricultural labour."
These points are further impressed by such pertiuent inqui-
ries as " Have you a Teuant-Right ?" and, again : " What
aid, if any, have you received from your landlord in
laying down permanent pasture, and what conditions, if
any, accompanied by that aid ?" It will be noticed that
the Council thus fairly broach in their address to the
country really weighty topics like Tenant-Right and the
Labour Diflicnlty ; as it is not easy to understand why
the general body of members should not have received
some official advice through the Report as to all that is
going on. Dr. Crisp, in truth, was only following the
direction's own lead when he ventured to talk of Strikes
and Lock-outs.
It is, on the other hand, very satisfactory to find how
strongly I lie Council can afford to speak as to the uses of the
prize-system when applied to a comparison of the farming
of a district, and that an amended scheme of conditions
is year by year to be adapted to tiie locality visited. At
the same lime one regrets to see that the attempt to keep
the award a secret will be repeated at Bedford : " the
judges have already made two inspections of the compet-
ing farms, and they are instructed to pay their final visit
in time to report their award at the general meeting in
the show-yard." And in answer to this we say, as we
did at Hull, that we have gone beyond the age of secrets ;
as, moreover, that before now the secret has not been
kept, but divulged as a matter of favour to some par-
ticular member of the Society ; and the thing thus be-
comes partial, rotten, and indefensible. The rather, let
the judges be instructed to make their final visit — if a
third tour be really required— as soon as possible, so that
all the representatives of the press, and others who desire
to do so, may have something to say about the competition
previous to the busy show week. This, of course, would
in no way interfere with " the more complete descrip-
tion" to be published " in the Journal of the Society"
in a year or so's time, But it would almost seem from the
stealthy way in which the examination papers on grass
lands have been issued that this also is a matter which
must, so far as is possible, be reserved for the Society's
Journal ; although if everything is to be bottled up after
this fashion, it becomes a nice question whether the
Journal will not ripen into an instrument rather for
retarding than spreading intelligence. As everybody
knows, there have been occasionally of late years some
capital papers published under the auspices of the Society ;
but we have still to deal with the awkward question,
whether at six or twelve months after date everybody
reads them ? At the meeting on Friday there were
people actually weak enough to talk again about that
dreadful i barter and its " how-not-to-do-it" enactments.
The effort to deal with the potato disease is a com-
mendable one, as well put in the report ; while the
coming Bedford Meeting promises to be a remarkable
success, the entry of implements being very large, and
the racecourse plans already well covered. Nevertheless,
the Report opens unfavourably for " the balance on the
half-year is a reduction of the list by 2 governors and
143 members." This loss, it will be found, was ac-
counted for in different ways by the several speakers at
the meeting ; but we are inclined to question whether the
members' " privileges" are as much studied as they
might be. The Journal may or may not be worth all
the money ; but as bearing on the actual strength of the
subscribers' list we give again here a letter which ap-
peared in our columns somewhere about a year since :
"Sir, — At the Manchester Show of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society members of the Society had to pay an extra
charge to see the horse-show, and the consequence was
that the Society was very nearly losing some hundreds
of subscribers ; but a promise was given that this should
not occur again. Now, I wish to know whether mem-
bers of the Society will at Hull be charged extra for
admission to the stand adjoining the horse-ring? I
imagine that a very small percentage of the members of
the Society will be present, and I contend that these
should have an equal right to go in and out of the stand
on showing their member's tickets, as the members of
the Council enjoy by displaying their badges. Instead of
being always so anxious to save up money which they do
not Wrtut, the Council could afford to lose a few pounds
in ministering more to the comfort and convenience of
the members not in office. It would answer in the end
to do so, and be fully appreciated by others, as well as,
yours obediently — A Member of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England."
The only visible sign of this protest at Hull was the
reduplication of a very conspicuous placard, which went
to say that " Members' tickets do not admit to these
stands." There was, as we well remember, a time when
any suggestion from outside was regarded as an im-
pertinence, and resisted accordmgly ; but we had hoped
that era in the history of the national Society had passed
away. The mere members suffer enough at these July
meetings, without being called on to " stand and deliver"
by their own guardians.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
553
THE SUPPLIES OF GUANO.
Aaotlier report has been received froiu CommaQiler
Cooksou, whic'i coafirins or corrects the amouuts of the
estimates made by the Peruvian Committee appoiated by
the native Goverumeut to test by boring the said estimates.
Commander Cookson confirms the estimates previously given
by the Committee, which were considered approximately
correct so far as those of Iluanillas 900,000 tons and
Punta de Lobos 3,000,000 tons were conceraed ; whilst
that of Pabillou de Pica is reduced by Commander
Cookson's estimate from 6,000,000 to 4,500,000 tons,
making an aggregate of 7,400,000 tons. It appears, how-
ever, by his report, that after all this estimate is not to be
depended upon, on accouutol tiie great ineqnalily of the sur-
faceof the rock forming the base of the deposits. Moreover,
thetime occupied by the Petreliuthe investigation wasonly
four days, a large portion of which was taken up in moving
from island to island. Commander Cookson suggests ;
that in order to obtain the most correct estimate possible, I
it would be necessary to divide the large deposits into |
minute squares, and taking a boring of each square, which
would be a work of great labour and occupying much
time, the ravines being in some places 200 and 300 feet
deep, and widening or narrowing to a great extent in a
length of only 300 or 400 yards. Even this minute plan
would be liable to great error, which is illustrated in the
report by a figure or plan of one of the workings, show-
ing a mass of rock found detached and embedded in the
midst of the guauo deposit. This mass is very properly
ascribed to an earthquake, as it leads to the conclusion
that many such masses will be found in the deposits of
ciubedded guano.
From the observations Commander Cookson has been
enabled to make, he has come to the conclusion (which,
however, remains subject to further and more minute
investigation) that the formation of the deposits of guano
has uot necessarily required the length of time generally
allowed to them; that sea-lions and seals have largely
contributed to them, as is proved by the immense quantity
of their bones mingled with the guano proper ; that other
birds than what arc called by the natives the Guano have
contributed to the masses, as the pelican, and gannet ;
that twenty-six years ago a plague visited them, destroy-
ing millions of the birds of every description, and that
since the live ones have almost deserted the islands ; and
that from the appearance of parts of the islands it is pro-
bable that further discoveries of guauo will be made in the
rainle9s regions of the coasts of Peru.
THE
LOCK - OUT.
" We hear there is a promise of the difficulty between the
farmers and the labourers being adjusted. The objection-
able rules of the Lincolnshire League are to be struck out
and the lock-out to be abandoned." It was thus that we
wrote three weeks since, the announcement being some
days in advance of any similar statement from our eon-
temporaries, by some of which it was discredited.
During the last week, however, the objectionable
rules have been struck out, the difficulty has been
adjusted, and the men have returned to work. This ar-
rangement, however, only applies to Lincolnshire, as in
Suffolk, Norfolk, and Cambridgeshire there are no signs
at present of master and man coming together, as the
farmers rather resent the action taken by their brethren in
Lincolnshire. — Mark Lane Express:
On the 12th of May, tlie central committee of the Lincoln-
shire farmers' Association passed tlie IbUowiug resolu-
tions :
1. That whilst the committee are anxious to settle the
dispute between the employers and employed, tiiey cannot see
the necessity or the justice of submitting the question to arbi-
tration, especially as it is fully acknowleJ,^ed by all parties tiiat
the wages paid ii> Lincolnshire are the maximum wages paid
for any agricultural labour, and equal to lliose paid for any
other unskilled labour, and the strike has been deprecated by
the public and attempted to be disowned by the executive of
tlie Federal and National Unions.
2. That the committee believe that there are cases of dispute
in which arbitration would be advantageous, but in tlie
present care that they are so satisfied if the justice of
their position that arbitration is altogether out of the ques-
tion.
3. That the committee are willing, and most desirable, if
possible, to find a solution of the present difficulty ; and to this
end, seeing that tlie strike is generally considered to be a mis-
lake, they offer immediately to withdraw the lock-out upon a
cessation of the strike.
4. That the committee express their readiness to come to
any equitable arrangement by which the two can be withdrawn
simultaneously.
These resolutions «ere forwarded to Mr. Morley, an invita-
tion was sent to him, Mr. Hu> r tot tlie slangbtering of iiome cattle, wliicll
} were aflectel so long as foreign cattle were left perlectly free.
Again, lie submitted to bis grace with confidence Hint the
1 tlaugh.er of foreign animals at the port of debark:iiiou would
not lessen the supply of meat for the consumer. It had been
said that the offil wiiuUl in that case be lost to the public ;
but in opposition to what was urged on that subject by the
Hon. Evelyn Asliley, lie maintained that there was a mass of
evidence sliowing that ev?u iu the hottest weather offal might
be couveved a considerable distance without rectiving any
556
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
injury during transit. In the case of his own county (Wilt-
shire) it was the practice to send the offal of cattle, calves,
and pigs, without any previous process of cleansing, a distance
of 100 miles, and so little injury did it receive, that even iu
the hottest months butchers refused to sell the offal to the
labourers of the locality, preferring to send it to their regular
customers in London.
Mr. T. DucKHAM (Herefordshire) said he believed
the farmers of England had been very grossly misrepresented
on that subject. It had been said by the press they
wished for the restoration of protection, but all they really
desired was their flocks and herds might be protected against
the infection of foreign diseases, and that was an object in
which tlie community at large was interested as well as them
selves. For severel years they liad suffered from imported
disease, and they must continue to do unless Ireland was
treated in the same manner as England. After describing the
manner in which foot-and-mouth disease had been recently
spread in his own county by some store pigs, which v. ere sent to
Hereford market and sold to farmers and cottagers, these
animals havingbeen consigned to Hereford from Peterborough
Mr. Duckham went on to speak of tiie pecuniary loss sus-
tained by this through foot-and-moutii disease. Some years ago
he sent some cattle to Australia. The greatest care was taken to
avoid infection, but unfortunately there were on board the vessel
some slieep which came from the Metropolitan market, and
which infected his animals witli foot-and-mouth disease.
Tliree out of four of his cattle died during the voyage, the
fourth was slaughtered on its arrival at Sydney, and what had
happened caused such a panic in the colony, that the importa-
tion of live stock from England was prohibited for two years.
Mr. T. WiLLSON (Leicestershire ) said the agricul-
turists of his county were quite willing to submit to any
restrictions as regarded home cattle, provided corresponding
restrictions were imposed in regard to imported cattle. In
1872 the loss arising from foot-and-mouth disease in Leices-
tershire was upwards of £200,000. His own loss in that year
was £700. That loss was traceable in a great degree to Irish
cattle, and he was quite satisfied thet unless further restrictions
were imposed in relation to Ireland it would be useless to con-
tinue the restrictions imposed in the ease of England.
Mr. John Yalland (West Gloucestershire) said
that Gloucestersnire and Somersetshire were very much de-
pendent on Irish stock for the supply of grazing farms. They
were anxious to g.-?t Irish stock without disease, the importa-
tion of which would but injure the consumer as well as the
farmer. He then alluded to tiie over-crowding of the ships
in which stock is imported from Ireland, and insisted that re-
medial measures were imperatively demanded.
Mr. James Odams said, iiaving liad considerable
experience with regard to the importation of foreign
animals, he had asked himself what diirerpncc tiiere could
be between the blood of live stock and that of human
beings, and be iiad arrived at the conclusion that so far as the
spread ol disease was concerned there was no difference. The
oijject of all the sanitary arrangements of societv was to
prevent noxious gases from getting into the huniau system ;
and so long as foreigra animals were crowded togetlier as they
were now in the hoLls of vessels, and proper provision was not
made for keeping them in a healthy condition, so long it
woiild be impossible to prevent tlieni from spreading disease
among our liome cattle if they wen^ al'owed to be moved about
the country. As regarded store stock, he should be sorry to
see a hoof prevented from coming into this cjuntry if proper
regulations were made and enlbrced for preventing the intro-
duction of disease, and even on the grounds of common sense
and iimnanity such regulations were manifestly desirable.
Mr. iJTORER, M.P., said the agr'cuilurists of liis county
(Notts) were willing to submit to any restrictions which the
Privy Council might think fit to impose, but they asked that
those restrjc'ions shouid be made uniform throughout the
country.
The Duke of Hiciimond said: I cannot disguise from
you that the views which you entert;:in on" this sub-
ject are lot entertained by everybody in the couatry. I
have rereivcd other deputations, and it is clear that
the country is very much divided on tiie subject; but
still it does not follow that the Government should not
look into the question carefully, and sre how far it is pos-
sible that diseasf may be prevented. With regard to Ireland,
1 may remark thit the puwt r of compensating persons for
the compulsory slaughter of animals affected with pleuro-
pneumonia exists at the present moment, and therefore I
don't see what the Legislature could do or what I
could do further in reference to that matter. As to foot-
and-mouth disease, the report of the committee which sat
last year goes rather further than Mr. Stratton assumed.
Mr. Stratton observed that farmers would be prepared to
undergo any amount of inconvenience in order that foot-and-
mouth disease might be got rid of. The Committee said ia
their report : " Your Committee have come to the conclusion
that it is hopeless to attempt to extirpate, or even materially
to check, this disease, unless the above-mentioned stringent
measures are strictly enforced ; and they also believe that such
enforcement would require a costly and numerous staff of
inspectors, an amount of supervision by the local authorities,
and would excite much local opposition, at any rate in Great
Britain, and," the report goes on to say, " such an interference
with the home trade in animals as would much affect prices,
and induce not only the consumer, but the producer to con-
sider the remedy worse than the disease." That is an entirely
different view from that of Mr. Stratton, speaking as he did
as a representative of farmers. I think tlie opinion of the
Committee on this subject is entitled to some consideration.
The Committe-i sat for a considerable period last year ; it
took a great deal of evidence, and that the members had been
carefully selected was sufficiently proved by the attention
which they devoted to the subject. Now with regard to
another point, I know it is the opinion of a great number of
agriculturists that all foreign cattle ought to be slaughtered
at the ports of debarkation. Two or three years ago that
question was discussed at a meeting of the Royal Agricultural
Society, and both in that Society and in the Smithfield Club the
opinion has been expressed that it is necessary that foreign cattle
should be slaughtered at the place of landing. But before the
Committee there was a difference of opinion. On this point the
Conrmittee say in their report : " Some of the witnesses repre-
senting the agricultural interest have urged that all fat animals
imported from abroad should be slaughtered, or subject to a
long quarantine. On the other hand strong representations
have been made by butchers and dealers (ironical cries of
Hear, hear) that such an enactment would discourage im-
portation, and tend to raise the price of meat, especially in
inland towns. Your Committee have como to the conclusion
that no change should be made in the Act so far as it regards
foreign animals ; but they recommend that the Privy Council
should continue to order the slaughter at the landing-place
all animals imported from countries iu which the cattle-plague
exists, or from which there is reason to fear it might be intro-
duced." Well, now, that is exactly what has been done ;
that is the law at the present moment. There are
scheduled countries and there are unscheduled countries, and
what is there suggested is carried out. Don't
let it be supposed, gentlemen, that I have any foregone con-
clusion in reference to this matter, or thdt 1 do not consider
what has been said deserving of consideration. I am quite
aware of the importance of having one's flocks and herds kept
free iroin disease. Personally I should suffer probably as much
as anyone in tliis room could do, if unfortunately disease were
to get among my stock ; and both in a departmental point of
view, and because I am deeply interested in agriculture, it is
not likely that I shall do or seek to do anything in this matter
which will not, in my opinion, be beneficial at once to tlie
public and to the agriculturists of tiiis country.
His Grace added that ho was mistaken in assuming that the
Order in Council in Ireland, with regard to the slaughtering
of diseased cattle, enabled owners to obtain compensation, and
that there was now a bill for that purpose uwaitiiig the royal
assent.
The deputation then withdrew.
A COACH HOUSE.— A Uoad Club has been taken up by
some of our leading CJachiug men, including the Duke of
Beaufort, Sir Henry de Bithe, Capt. VV. H, Cooper, Colonel
\\ itiiington, and Major Eiiruivall. A teniporary sbode has
b, en secured iu Piccadilly, directly opposite Hatchett's and the
idea is that the chib sliould be a j-eiidezvous for all interested
in the road, nut only coachmen but passengers, where tliry can
meet and have some subject of thought and conversation in
comraoB. It is proposed that the economy of the club should
be simple, and a grill its only lu.\ury. Tl;e club has already
an existence, and a responsible proprietor has been found.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
5S7
THE STAINDROP FARMERS' CLUB.
THE SCIENCES APPLICABLE TO AGRICULTUHE.
At the last meeting Mr, J. Brodie read a paper as fol-
lows :
The art of agriculturn ranks above every science in point
of utility, and its antiquity beyoad that of all others, for we
are iuformcd by scripture that Adam, after being expelled
from the Garden of Eden was sent forth to till the ground ;
but it would be absurd, however, to suppose that he was ac-
quainted witii all tiie methods of ploughing, harrowing, sowing,
&c., tiiat we are conversant witii at the present day. Agri-
culture, as a practice, has been carried on from tiie earliest ages
of mankind ; for from the earliest accounts of the eastern
nations we have reason to think that agriculture has at all
times been understood by them in considerable perfection, as
they were always supplied not only with the necessaries but
the greatest luxuries of life. As soon as the descendants of
Abraham were settled in Palestine, they generally became
husbandmen, from the chiefs of the tribe of Judali to the
lowest branch of the family of Benjamin, iligh birth did not
then make any distinction, for agriculture was considered as
the most honourable.'of all employments : take for instance the
illustrious examples of Gideon, Saul, and David. The Ciial-
deans, who inhabited the country where agriculture has its
birth, carried tiiat valuable art to a degree of excellence un-
known in former times. We read of the Egyptians being well
versed in agriculture ; also the Greeks, who used bones and
horns as a manure, as we are told by llesiod, the earliest
Greek writer on the subject, who wrote in poetry and embel-
lished his poem with luxuriant description and sublime imagery.
Xeuophon also remarks that " agriculture is the nursing
mother of the arts." The ancient Romans esteemed agriculture
as a most honourable employment, as we find the most illus-
trious senators of the empire, wlien not engaged in the public
concerns, applied themselves to tliis profession, and Cincin-
natus, one of Rome's greatest dictators, was at the plough
when chosen by the senate. At what time agriculture was in-
troduced into Great Jkitain is uncertain, but when Julius
Caesar invaded the island it was not wholly unknown, for it
appears, however, that they were not unacquainted with the
use of manures, particularly mail, for we are told by Pliny in
his natural history that the use of mail was peculiar to the
people of Great Britain, and tiiat its effects continued eighty
years ; but centuries have passed since then ; the races of man-
kind iiaving so greatly increased, tlie earth is now required to
produce so much more than it did in those days of antiquity,
that agriculture is now no longer an art of labour, but one of
the important sciences, for I think there is no profession in
which there is so much scope for scientific researches ; and the
object of my paper to-night is to enumerate the different
sciences I consider needful to modern agriculture. You must
not for a moment suppose that I shall dive into the minutiie of
the various subjects that 1 shall mention(for you have neither
a Leibig, a Voelcker, or a Lawes in me), but I will merely give
you my opinion why the following sciences are applicable to
agriculture. As the great object of every farmer is to raise
from his land the greatest quantity of the most valuable pro-
duce in the shortest space of time, without deterioration to
the soil, I think a knowledge of geology, chemistry, and
chemical physiology will aid him considerably in this object.
Let us take the soil, from which everytiiing the I'armer has to
sell is produced, and f;eology will eiili;.'h'eri us on the inorganic
parts of that soil, tlien il we turn to chemistry we shall learn
its organic parts, and having ascertained both its mineral and
vegetable pr>)pertifS, let us consider the crops to be raised, tlie
organic and inorganic matter needful for their maintenance, and
we shall thru understand the proper kinds of manure, rich
in what the land is deficient and which is indispensably neces-
sary for maturing the crop to be grown. Then let us consult
chemical jiiiysiology, and we shall know the habits and com-
position of ll;e various animals we have to deal with, the kinds
of food requisite for faltciiing, or the foods most beneficial to
the production of milk. As all ^oils (!erive their inorganic or
mineral matter from tlie strata of rock on which they arc situ-
ated, and their organic from the decayed vegetable matter,
such as the roots of decayed plants, &c., it will be easy for the
farmer to find out the nature of the soil he has to cultivate
when he knows the basis on which it his situated. Many soils
being rich in mineral and deficient in vegetable matter, while
others are quite the reverse, it behoves us to apply to the
former manures rich in vegetable and to the latter those rich
in mineral matter. Botany I consider the sister science to
agricultural geology, for having ascertained by the latter the
nature and properties of the particular soils we have to
cultivate, a knowledge of the former will not only empower
us to recognise any plant we may meet with in the fields, but
botanical physiology will make us conversant with the enter-
nal structure and functions of plants, thereby enabling us to
select the plants most suited for the soil they liave to be grown
upon. Mathematics I think a science very necessary in
agriculture, for in the present days of the high-priced labour,
everything that is practicable is let by piece, and the farmer
is enabled by this science to measure off work, whether it be
surface work, such as lioeing, draining, &c., or the more com-
plicated work of either mason or joiner, without calling in the
aid (as is so often done) of the services of the village school-
m.aster. Mechanics I regard as one of the principal sciences
in agriculture, for the implements that are in use at the present
day are constructed so systematically, and whose adjustment is
so mathematical, when compared with those used some years
ago. True is it that a farm-labourer may be able to work any
machine that is put into bis hands constructed for a certain
purpose ; but without the aid of mechanics he cannot under-
stand the principles upon which it is made ; in fact, to under-
stand the manipulation of tlie implements that are at present
used, a fanner requires to be a mechanical engineer, and I think
if farmers were to make themselves adepts m this particular
science, we should not have so many useless implements lying
dormant in our implement houses, nor should we find so many
flourishing agricultural-implement agents in every market
town we go to : we should endeavour to select the most simple
and useful ones and make as lev/ do as possible. Hydraulics —
to have a knowledge of this science, I fancy, is beneficial to
the farmer, for even in this advanced age of steam, vrater power,
ivhen it can be brought to bear, is so much cheaper ; and how
many farms are so badly watered that water has to be broutrht
from a great distance, perhaps over elevated ground, when the
requisition of the water-ram is called into office ! Then,
should anything go wrong, the I'armer, should he uuderstand
the motive power of water, would be enabled to rectily it with
the aid of his local smith, witliout having to send to the near-
est town for some experienced hand, thereby not only saving
time and expense, but perhaps having to move a great portion
of his stock Irom that part of the farm wiierethe water supply
was cut off. Meteorology — 1 cannot pass this science over
without alluding to it as a science not only useful to the agricul-
turist but interesting to all classes of the community, for who
is there in this country, let his pursuits be rural or in the town,
that docs not fancy he is somewhat weather wise ? In fact,
when two Englishmen meet, after havin.j passed the ordinary
compliments, they talk about the v/eather, and the different
opinions expressed on this topic are often somwhat amusing.
But, perhaps, I have made an unlucky allusion in the presence
of so many agriculturists, for was there ever weatlier that
suited all farmers ? Nevertlieless, I think a knowledge of
meteorology is of advantage to the farmer, for then he will be
able to read iiis barometer scientifically, and by observing at-
mospherical pheiionnna will be in a position to a certain extoit
of jirognosticating the coming weather, whether it suits him or
not. As the farmer of the present day is not only an agri-
culturist proper but bucolical, (hat is having the management
ot cattle, a knowledge of zoology will be an advantage to him,
for he will be enabled to understand the habits of the different
animals he may have on his farm, and comprehend the relation
one class of animal lias to another. Then, should lie study
entomology, he will be conversant with the myriads of insects
(hat inhabit this globe, and be able to discriminate between
those that are of advantage to those that arc detriiuental to the
great animal and vegetable econoiiiy of tbc universe. V'eteri-
uary Science — Doubtless when liamkt in his soliloquy on
>5S
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
sleep speaks of " the thousand natural shocks that flesh is heir
to," meant human flesh ; but I am rather inclined to think
that the flesh of tlie lower animals has participated in a great
many more lefjacies than that of man ; and I think it is the
duty of the farmer, under whose care and management his
stock is, as long as it remains on his premises, to acquaint
himself, to a certain extent, with tlie veterinary art, in order
that he may not only alleviate the sulTerings of an animal, but
perhaps save its life. As most farmers live a consi.ierable way
from a town, where only a veterinary surgeon can be procured,
and that often after a considerable delay, it behoves him
to keep drugs in his possession that will meet the emergency
in any ordinary case, and I tliiuk tliat wlicn we have such firms
as Day, Son, and Hewitt, wlio are able to supply us witli anti-
dotes for so many diseases, with instructions how to use them,
we should not have so olten to send for a veterinary surgeon,
nor should we liave so many of liis bills to pay. There are a
great many more sienees equally applicable to agriculture
than tlie few I have mentioned, but being particularly requested
by our worthy secretary, when asked to bring a paper before
club, not to ascend to the moon or stars, I have endeavoured
to stick to the planet that we inhabit ; for had I attempted to
soar so high, I sliould have had to have gone deep into pneu-
matics and the oilier sciences that relate to the air ; but being
ueitlier a Glaislier nor a Coxwell, I felt some considerable
timidity in ascending b<^yond the earth's attraction, for then I
might have been drawn iuto some other sphere to have passed
the remainder of my days ; perhaps in the service of Jupiter,
tlie director of thunder, lightning, and rain, or possibly to have
assisted the man in the moon to gather sticks on Sundays.
Mr. Sc.vRTii, the President, endorsed what had been
said with regard to the application of science to agriculture.
The acquisition of so many branches (jf science, however, would,
he thought, be out of tlie way of ordinary education ; but,
still, the more scientific knowledge they possessed the better
would it be for them. An acquaintance with geology was of
paramount importance as a correct knowledge of the soils and
their caiiabilites was often dependent upon an intelligent ap-
preciation of the strata on which they lay. In some cases
soils were thus influenced, as in many parts of England there
were immense alluvial deposits — carboniferous and otherwise
— which, doubtless, in a great measure, as be had already ob-
served, influenced the character of the soil. In their own
immediate district they had a glacial deposit or drift, which,
of course, came a distance of many miles, in some cases, and
ill it traces of Cumberland granites and slates were apparent ;
and in bis opinion the soil would, in its nature of drift, be in-
fluenced, lie was glad that the Geological Society was about
t) publish a map of surface survey, which v^ould be of great
service to the agriculturist. With regard to chemistry he be-
lieved that if a man had no knowledge of the properties of
what he was applying to Ins land he might often be induced to
spend a vast amount of money uselessly. Therefore a knowledge
of chemistry was an undoubted advantage, and lie saw no rea-
son why a man who had the opportunity to do so should not
collect tlie constituents of manure and save the expense of
buying artificial compositions ready for use. They would then
find that what they might have paid £12 for they could manu-
facture themselves for something like £8. A knowledge of
clie.nistry, then, was clearly a saving to the farmer. The more
they knew of nature, too, the more readily would they appre-
ciate the things which were given them for their benefit, for
instance, they were perpetually condemning many birds and
many insects which were all for their good. He believed it
was on the estate of Sir George Wombwell, or contiguous to
it, that the farmers took a dislike to rooks, because, they said,
these birds did so much harm. After the rooks were destroyed,
liowever, a kind of red grass commenced growing in the old
pastures, and it increased to such an extent that it became at
length a very serious thing, and in that particular district
they had to lireak up ihe land. He (the President) was told
that it was all owing to the destruction of the rooks. In that
they saw the importance of knowing something of the habits
of birds, and it was certainly suggestive that au acquaintance
with the habits of anircals and insects was desirable. He did
not altogether agree with Mr 13rodie in what he had advanced
respecting the veterinary art. It was impos-iihle to know too
much about the ailments incidental to cattle, and their mode
r inducing good men to emigrate.
After several members of the Club iiad declined the invita-
tion of the chairman to enter into a discussion of the question,
expressing themselves quite satisfied with what he had said,
jyir. Osborne, a visitor, said that he had formerly been a
firmer in the South. He disputed the superiority of Lanca-
s'lire farming, and could not find here barley equal to that
which he obtained from Oxfordshire for his own private brew-
ing. He had travelled in many parts, and had never seen
farmhouses equal to those around Binbury and in many vil-
lages in the South of England. He referred them to Sir Henry
Dashwood's estate or Earl IJueie's, where, he said, they had a
regular Paradise at once, which put them in mind of Mr.
Mechi's model farm at Tiptree. In his opinion, strikes oc-
curred only where there was excessive game preserving, which
produced poachers, and had generally a demoralising effect
upon the neighbourhood, where there were dilapidated cot-
tages, or where the owner took to horse-racing and betting
away his ca))ital. But he knew many places in tlie South
where the labourers were very well olf, and he instanced
Merton, in Oxfordshire, where he said the men had cottages
at sixpence a week, with good garden ground attached.
Mr. Gardiner said he kuew Oxfordshire and the Duke of
Marlborough's estate, and he kuew also the (arm on which
Mr. Osborne had been. He could not listen to the statements
which that gentleman had made without saying that to talk
of cottages and gardens at Gd. a week at Blenheim was all
bcsh. He knew Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire as well
8S Mr. Osborne did, and he told them that it was iu vain for
him to come to Manchester and endeavour to lead either the
farmers or the labourers wrong.
Mr. Osborne otfered to forfeit £20 to the Club if, at that
moment, there were not cottages at Merton rtnted to labourers
at sixpence a week, and was preparing to stake the money
when he was called to order by the chairman
M " " - - -
qnestions alone. Supp'y and demand would rule the price of
labour.
Other members expressed tlieir concurrence in this opinion,
and there appeared to be a reluctance to discuss the question, at
the same time the chairman's opinions were generally endorsed.
Mr. Hutchison evoked the sympathy and approbation of
the meeting by statin'^ his own rule of conduct which ha
said was " to keep iu with his landlord and please his
labourers," and that, he ihoniiht, was the real point to work at.
Rlr. Perkins, Norliienden, complained of ihe difliculty of
obtaining good cottages. He said that in his p irish out of
126 cottages for farm labourers only 25 were used (or the
purpose for which they were originHlly built. The rest were
taken up by gardeners and others vvlio were employed by the
eentlemen who had lately built houses in the neighbourhood.
Cottages were much wanted.
Mr. Nkwton expressed his sympathy with the labourers in
the locked-ont districts. He said that to pay a Iwbjurer with
12s. a week was a piece of perfect nonsense. Even if a man
had a bit of gurden ground, a wage like that was nothing upon
which tobringup a wife and family. To .'peak o' that as a high
wage was scandalous, and it was time thit the men should try
to look alter their interests and im|T )ve their position. He
deplored the scarcity of cottager, which he said made it diffi-
cult for a labourer to bring up his family, and impossible to
keep them with him after they had grown up. He believed
that cultivation would be generally very much better if farms
were of a moderate size, and said that in his opinion 200 or
300 acres were as much land as a farmer could manage
thorouirbly well.
The Chairman said he agreed with Mr. Newton in his
last remark. JIany farmers would realise more net profit a
Kood deal it they had smaller farms and developed them
thoroughly.
This clo:ed the discussion.
THE AVERAGE PRICE 0£ HORSES.— I have had an
average taken out from our books for the last ten years. I
can give you the numbers of each kind of horse in each year
from 1868, I have left the thoroughbred horse out altogether
in this statement, and I have divid»d the rest of the horses into
two classes. I have takeu, first, the early part of our sales, in
which we consider that the horses are not of the highest value ;
and then I have taken the later stables, wliere I consider that
they are of the highest value. I have taken one average day
in each month throughout the ten years, and I can give the
number of each kind of horse, and the amounts obtained for
them from the year 1S63. I cannot give you the number sold
throughout each of those years, but only the numbers from
which this averau'C is taken. I do not think that that would be
of much value if I could give it you ; but I can tell yon about
the number that we sold iri each year. We sell, upon the
average, between 5,000 and 6,000 horses in the year, but that
would include the thoroughbred horses. This is an average of
about 40 or 50 horses sold on one day in each month through-
out the year ; there are about 40 horses in each class ; for the
year lS6t the average was, for the first-class, £21 Us.; fur
the second-class, £40 19s. For the year 1865 the average
was £21 13s, for inferior horses, and £44 10s. for the superior
lior-ses. In the year 1866 the averages were £24 7s. and
£45 18s, In 1867 the average, for the first class, was £24
'Js., and £57 5i'. for the second class. In 1868 the average
was 126 lOs. for the inferior horses, and £52 17s. for tlie
superior horses. In 1869 the average was £29 18s. the first
class, and £78 15s. for the second class. ]n the year 1870 it
was £29 12s. the first class, and £80 14s. for the second class.
In the year 1871 the average was £3t 7s. for the first class*
and £91 73. for the second class. Iu 1872, the last year for
whicli I have taken any figures, it was £36 10s. for the inferior
horses, and £90 for the better ones. Comparing hist year,
1872, with 1864, it appears that there was an increase of
price between tliose years of 70 per cent, on the general
liorses, and of more than 100 per cent, on the hunters, &c.
The rise has been very great in the last three years,-
. Mr.
Gardiner sa'd that the^ had better let the labour P. Tnitersall before the Lordi Commiifee
560
THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE.
MOEAYSHIEE FAEMEES' CLUB.
At tlic quarterly meeting, Mr. Gedbes, Orbliston, the
chairman, said tliat the question to be discussed was a most
important one at tlie present moment, namely : " Whether,
under existing circumstancts, it is more profitable for the
Morayshire farmer to breed or to pnrchase the horses required
for the cultivation of his farm." Under existing circrastances,
I understand tliat question was raised by the liigh price of
horses as compared with some years ago, when we debated
the question. It is now for the members to give their
opinion
Mr. Walker, Altyre, said the question was certainly an
important one, as the Chairman had remarked, and the high
price of horses had doubtless forced the matter ou their notice
again. Altliouj;h the question iiad been disposed ol' in 1870, it
was quite possiMc that a different conclusion might now be
arrived at with propriety. What suited oue far.uer might not
suit another, and in summing up the evidence it would doubt-
less be a ticklish matter to arrive at a definite conclusion. It
was of tlie utmost importance, he believeJ, to select both good
sires and dams to breed from. In Morayshire they liad not
had the facility for selecting sires in breeding horses they
could have wished. Another very necessary tiling in rearing
stock was to have good accommodation for the mares and foals,
and after the young stock had been weaned, suitable and en-
closed pasturage was very desirable for their successful up-
bringing. The most important feature in the successful breed-
ing of young stock was the selection of good sires and dams,
and he feared the Morayshire farmers had not given that
attention to this fact that they should have done. Had they
done so, as they evidently had been doing in regard to the
breeding of Shorthorn cattle, the chances were that they would
liave had a very different class of horses in the country than
they have had. The farmer grudged no expense in getting
a good sire to his breeding stock, and it was to be regretted
that so many would take an inferior horse, simply because
they got him cheap. A Clydesdale horse should have a pedigree
as good as a Shorthorn or Polled bull. Along with a great
many of his acquaintances and friends, he was at one time
under the impression that Morayshire was not very well suited
for breeding horses, the soil not being adapted for rearing
animals of superior bone and sinew. Latterly, however, he
had been very much inclined to change his mind, and from
personal experience and observation, he had found that horses
picked up in Morayshire, when ser.t to the South, and exhibited
at some of the shows there, came well to the front. Now, if
the same attention were paid to the breeding horses, tlie
chances were tiiat the results would be as favourable here as in
the South. He regretted that the subject had not been brought
up earlier, when steps could have beeu taken to secure
the services of a first-class entire horse for the locality, but he
must say thc-y had some really very good ones this season.
With regard to the question under discussion, he had not the
least hesitation in saying that where circumstances would
admit of it, and a good sire could be selected, horses could be
as profitably bred in Morayshire as any place he knew.
Mr. MuNRO said he had always looked upon Mr. Walker
as an authority in regard to the rearing and breeding of horses,
and he quite agreed with the remarks mctde by him. It had
always been his opinion since he was a farmer — some 30 years
ago — that, if a person were to set himself up as a breeder, it was
necessary to have every facility in the way of accomniodation.
He thought that every farmer, if he had any " smeddum" at
all, should always rear a horse annually, or two every season, in
case of emergency, such as any of the horses dying or meeting
with accident. It this had bc?n the case, the price for horses
would not lerhaps have been so high as at present. He would
impress en every farmer the necessity of studying the subject
fully for himself, and if he wanted to get matters economically
managed in regard to the horses needed for his farm, just have
a foal or two every year, after a good sire if possible.
Mr. Walker wished to add to his remarks that he did not
think sulTicient encouragement had been offered to the owners of
good sires to send them down to Morayshire. He had observed
from the newspapers that llrst-class premiums were offered in
different districts for this purpose. He was satisfied that, as it
was really a money speculation, no one would send his horse
for a small sum, unless perhaps a premium of £70 or £80 was
guaranteed.
Mr. Williamson pointed out that if a good three-year-old
colt or filly could be purchased some time ago for £30, it would
now cost perhaps from £90 to £100 for the same class of
animal. He knew, for one thing, that if he bred the animals
himself on his farm they were generally better, stronger, and
more tractable for work than those purchased from a dealer.
If a good horse could be reared for £50, the farmer, he thought,
was a great profiter, because a good horse could not be bought
just now for much less than £70, and often a great deal more,
he did not know anything that would pay a farmer better than
to bring up two or three foals every year, which, if not re-
quired for the farm, could be disposed of at lucrative prices.
Another thing to keep in view was the fact that a well bred
animal was just as easy to rear as an inferior one. It was his
opinion that it was mure profitable to breed than to purchase
horses.
Mr. Lawrence did not altogether agree with Mr. William-
son's remarks as to farmers managing to rear young stock with
as great ease as formerly. I'or one thing, a good dam was not
so easy to be got at present, and if any accident overtook her,
it detracted considerably from the profits of the farmer. He
thought good dams were of great importance to the successful
rearing of superior young stock, and they were, on the whole,
well supplied with sires this year in Morayshire. He was very
much in favour of rearing, if at all possible, heavy weli-bred
animals, even supposing they were not required for farm work.
In large cities there was always a great demand for such
a class of animals to draw lorries, and it was worthy of note
that persons in want of such horses hardly grudged any price
for them.
Mr. Bruce, Newton of Struthers, agreed witli Mr. William-
son's remarks, but would like to see a better class of horses in
the county than there were at present. He was of opinion
that it was the most profitable course, in the present circum-
stances, to breed agricultural horses.
Mr. YoOL was in favour of breeding horses rather than pur-
chasing them. As compared with a lew years ago, horses had
risen from 100 to 150 and even 200 per cent. Although
prices were never so very extreme as at present, he tiiought it
might be a wise plan on the part of farmers to breed as many
horses as they required for tliemselves. As a rule, horses
brought up on a farm always turned out more satisfactory than
the ones bought at a market. Care in the selection of sires and
of dams, as had been mentioned, was very necessary, as also
the careful upbringing of the young stock. He would be in
favour of rearing a few horses to sell or keep.
Mr. Cruickshank had always found that horses reared
upon a farm paid best. It was not always easy, he believed, to
get foals, althought he was of opinion that it was more profit-
able to breed than to purchase them.
Eailie Black said that his experience had extended over some
twenty years, when prices were very much lower tlianthey are
now. About that time lie was not much in favour of breeding
horses, but he had no doubt the turn of prices had made it
clearly more profitable to go into the breeding ol horses for
agricultural purposes.
Mr. Smith believed the question to have practically arisen
from the scarceness of horses and the h'gh prices paid for them.
Farmers, as had been said, paid more attention to the breeding
of cattle than horses, but he held that every farmer ought to be
equally careful in the breeding and upbringing of young
horses. At any rate, a farmer should keep up his own stock,
and be able now and again to dispose of a few animals at a
good price. He was not prepared to say how many he would
recommend a farmer to rear every year, as a great deal
depended on the size of the farm and convenience for the up-
bringing of the young animals.
Tlie Chairman tiiought every farm, in regard to
the breeding of horses, should supply its own wants. Some
yeiirs ago farmers were in the habit ot telling a pair of two-
year-old stots, perhaps for £17 or £18 a-head, to pnrchase a
liorse for £35, but now, although a good iiorse would fetch
perhaps £60 or £70, it was still just the price of a pair of first-
class two-year-old stots. Mares, he knew, were about £15
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
561
cheaper at Carlisle than in the North here. They would all
agree with him Ihat the scarcity of horses arose, to a great
extent, from the fact that cattle had engrossed the, attention of
the farmer so much of late. A good two-year old bullock
brought just now about £35, but a well-bred Iwo-year-old colt
would bring often much more, while tlie keej) would perhaps be
less. He had no hesitation iu snying that horses bred on a
farm generally turned out better than bought ones. As had
been truly remarked, good sires and dams had much influence
on the quality of the stock, so that it was of the greatest im-
portance to make a proper selection in this respect, as it was as
easy to bring up a good animal as a bad one. lie thought it
was a great mistake to breed from any kind of a liorse but what
we would term an " All" animal. Allusion had been made to
the fact that it was often dilllcult to get proper mares to breed
from, vviiieh he could endorse. Lavt season he had six mares
served, and had only two foals, which he thought was very
lucky, as the year before he had an equal number served with-
out any foals. In summing up, be would say iu direct answer
to tlie question, that it was his opinion that, under existing
circumstances, it was more profitable for the Morayshire farmer
to breed his own horses, than to purchase tiiem tor the culti-
vation of his farm. He believed that this was also the
unanimous opinion of the meeting. And he might add that
every one seemed to desiderate the breeding of first-class
horses.
CARM ARTHENSHIEE FAEMERS' CLUB.
TENANT-KIGUT.
At the last quarterly meeting in Carmartiien, there was a
large attendance of members ; Mr. W. E. B. Gwyu in the
chair.
Mr. Brodie (Ty'rdail) opened the subject for discussion.
The Landlord and Tenant Compensation Bill, continued
from the last meeting. He said : When I desired to have the
discussion on this sut)ject continued, I was solely animated hy
a wish to further ventilate the principles of this bill, which
if adopted by the legislature would, in ray opinion, promote
the advancement of agriculture all over the country, but par-
ticularly in this district, where, as you know, improvement is
much wanted. When we last met there was every reason to
hope that by this time there would have been some advance-
ment made, and that tliere would have been something fresli
to talk upon. At the late elections even Mr. Disraeli made
one bold proposition, and if he were only to turn his great
mind to the subject, be would soon see that only another step
is wanted to settle tlie matter. But I fear some of his old
friends are holding him back, and so preventing him from
making this second step. At any rate the bill and its pro-
moters are, in the meantime, laid on the shelf. As to the
previous discussions, I will only say that it is very cheering to
find those noblemen and large owners who iiave honoured us
with their presence so very favourable to the tenant having
full security for any capital he may lay out in the improve-
ment of the land. There has not been much direct opposition
— to only a few of our friends I would like to send a bill for
" eompensaliou" for exliausliug my temper. It was only
fragments that I promised, and I am sorry to say that I have
only bone-pickiugs for you. As I get upon some dangerous
ground allow mc to say that I have no grievance of my own,
and no feeling against any man, but for tiie love of agriculture
I must risk the wrath of some. We will first take a look
fairly around the country. South Wales is m a very high
position with regard to mines and minerals and all work con-
nected with tliem — unrivalled in copper smt Iting, and in iron
and tin-plate manufacture. But its agrieulture appears to
make but little progress, and I believe it is considerably below
the average of the kingdom, and much of the land is at the
lowest point of fertility. Acts of Parliament and loan com-
panies have failed to over-take a tenth part of what should be
done in tiie way of improvement. Even cattle and sheep are
little improved. One generation succeeds another, content to
follow in the footsteps of their forefatiiers — the same small
fields remain, and water percolates to a lower level just as it
did centuries ago. I will now endeavour to take a glance at
the effects which such a bill as this would have on the owners
and occupiers, and see how far they would be benefited.
There can be no harm in saying that many landowners are
not wealthy — some succeed with burdens on their estates,
some succeed in burdening lliemselves, and others have only a
life interest. In such cases, as matters now stand, and as
water cannot be drawn out of empty wells, there is no alterna-
tive but to leave the improvement undone, or apply to loan
companies, who do not appear to be popular in this part, and,
for reasons that we need not go into just now, have elTected
but little. I believe the proposed bill would, in a measure,
supply a remedy for this state of things. Sometimes tenants
have saved small sums by industry and hard living, or tiiey
may have been left it. Now when the landlord ia unable or
disinclined to expend on improvements, I want the tenant to
be put into a position in laying out his little hoard on the
land— in fact, as safe as if it were in the Bank of England,
and with a good prospect that it will yield a better interest.
As things now stand it is unreasonable to expect that this
will iu general be done, but I am convinced that in
many cases, were security given, the tenants would often
find the means to make many improvements ; it would
soften the hearts of friends, and even bankers would be more
pleasant. Although the owner, from his circumstances, was
disinclined or unable to play at land-improving, that was no
reason why the tenant should be prevented. He was afraid
that improvements would in riiany cases not be attended to by
the landowners because many of them knew little of their
properties, and did not look personally after the affairs of their
estates ; iu general they were perhaps more dependent on
others than any other class ; and their representatives were
often not practically acquainted with agriculture. For this
reason the tenant farmers ought to be assisted in works of im-
provement, and this could only be doue by compensation. In
addition to a compensation bill, he hoped the legislature would
shortly offer a State prize for the best managed property in
each county, or perhaps the tenants might have to do it.
Numerous plausible objections having been raised as to any
interference between land owner and tenant, he went on to
show that iu no other country does there exist any such system
of land tenancy as there is generally in England and Wales.
In Prance the terms are G, 9, and IS years; Belgium, 3, 6,
and 9 years ; Austria, 9 to 18 years ; Germany, 6, 9, and IS
years ; all State lands IS years. In England it is six months
with the expressive phrase " Good understanding," or " good
feeling." Eor the advancement of agriculture and the re-
quirements of the age, something more was required than
these kindly feelings, they were but poor substitutes for a lease
or an extended notice with compensation. It was estimated
that on the average tenants change every 20 years, taking all
that they can out of the land — Carmarthenshire is certainly
not exempt from this rule. Certainly there was, by this, a
deterioration of the owners' property, and a loss to the com-
munity, a farm " worked up to a quitting" could not be again
brought u\) to proper condition under five or six years, or
more. And besides the expense of keeping up a high state of
cultivation was small in comparison to restoring it after being
worked out. Therefore rather than alliw a farm to be ex-
hausted ia this manner, it would surely be better for the owner
at the end of the term to say, " Now, sir, there is the money,
and more than you would have made although you had scourged
the farm for tlic last two or three years." The tenant's side
of the question was next. Farmers multiplied, but farms did
not. There were few baby farms, for should a small one
appear, the big one was not satisfied till the little hopeful was
swallowed up. Therefore the demand for farms had been in-
creasing and the supply diminishing ; hence, rather than lose
a desirable farm, or it may be a home of any sort, many a
many a man would agree to what he knew to be unfair terms,
and offer too much rent, hoping, when once in possession, to
come to some better arrangement. A good deal had been said
about the tenant being able to contract for himself, and cer-
tainly it is very pleasing to feel that some people think so ;
but in the reutiug of land he believed the farmer the most
562
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
anguine and dupeable mnn alive. With, say a cute lawyer i
or agent, anil a dozen or more applicants, it was oiiviuiis lie ;
had the worst end of tlie stick. Manures an 1 teedini; stiiH's ;
were easily olitaineJ from rcsiiectable firms f^"d exjienditiire in
the purchase of tlieni was Ijolli necessary and protitable ; still |
many tenants in this couutry were now living' (he cjul 1 hardly
call it farming; under ea^y rents, not i uproving the land,
knowing full well that they had by t'lat means a better chance
of reraaiuing undisturbed. Wliy should a tenant, he asked,
not be in a position to do justice to his farm, liimself, and
the couutry ? He was not an advocate for hereditary
farming, for they were apt to have liereditary fashions
along with it, but he believed some amendment was
necessary. Why should a good tenant not have a
better place than a bad one P Whatever deterred a
tenant from laying out his money in improving a farm tiiereby
obtaining more produce should, he held, be swept away.
Having always farmed under leases he did not pretend to enter
into the feelings of those who hold under such precarious tenure
as was shown by some cases he cited to exist in Wales ; but lie
must admit that such cases as those would not be likely to en-
gender k'udly feelings in his Highland heart, altliough he sup-
posed tenants get used to it as, it was said, eels do to skinning.
It had bien well said that no man will farm well unless he take
pleasure in it. There was little here to encourage one to do so,
or to sweeten the path of life. The " well enougli as we are"
and t le " leave well alone" policies sliould he gi%eu up. They
were daily becoming more dependentou the artilicial rather than
the natural fertilily of the soil. It was admitted that the land
in this country is not producing so mucli as it might do, and
many people say tliat it can produce double; yllhongh lie be-
lieved tills an over-estimate. But seeing that tiirce millions
are sent away to jiurchase food from other eountrirs, and that
a considerable increase can be obtained at home, the question
aroee on whom sliould devolve tin; duty of obtaining it. To
lielp to supply the wants of this thickly peojilrd country the
legislature must move fiisl, then the owners and occupiers
would assuredly follow. The occupation of land if properly
regulated would give a field hir men of ability, lor there was
room fur brain work as well as sinew and nioi.ey. He
hoped that the time was not far distant wlien owners and
occui;iers would join heartily haud iu hand in the improve-
ment of land, that there would be emulation whether the one
shall be more liberal or the other more industrious.
Viscount Emlvn said the subject was one of such importance
he should have been sorry to have missed it. lie considered
they were much indebted to JNIr. Brodie for the way iu which
he had brought the discussion forward. Many of them were
rather afraid of the sulject, of the interests which might be
brought against each other, but the kindly tone the discussion
had taken, was due to the healthy way lu which it had been
introduced. Ue thought it was a matter of great iniportauce
for landlords and tenants to meet together and consider these
subjects, or other people might tske them up and argue them
on false grounds. One thing they should endeavour to do was
to get more capital invested in the lanil, and the question
arose in his mind whether there was not more capital being
invested iu land than there was a fewlyears ago. In Wales the
lioldiugs were generally smaller than in England, and the
tenants were not men of such capital ; but would this bill give
the tenants capital? Certainly not; and if they were intend-
ing to transplant tlie small farmers of this country and bring
iu men of capital, they had a very difficult task. However,
the difficulties in the way of obtaining labour and the in-
creased employment of machinery seemed to have a tendency
to merge small holdings into large ones. It was only a ques-
tion of time, perhaps, but there was a great deal to be said in
favour of a number of small holdings. There were two points
connected with the bill, one was that leases should be granted,
and the other that compensation should be given for
unexhausted improvements. He, himself thought there
was not the slightest doubt that the tenant ought to
have compensation for unexhausted improvements. Then,
again, the 12tli clause of the bill did away with the right of
contract, and that seemed to be the stumbling-block of the
whole measure. His lordship then referred to the custom of
the county observed in Gloucestershire, and in concluding
said it had been suggested that the tenant should only be able
to claim compensation for improvements which had been made
with the sanction of the landlord. The whole subject, how-
ever, wa» of such great importance that he felt it was pre-
sumptuous on his part to offer any opinion on it. lie hoped
t lat iscnssions would b« held in inany parts of the country,
and that they would be conducted in the sane healthy tone
as had idiaracterised this one.
Mr. W. de G. Warren, in reference to the small tenants,
believed that the principal thin^ they required was fixity of
tenure. Unexhausted improvements, &c., were matters with
which they had little to do. Wliat they wanted was fixity of
tenure, iu order that tliey and their cliildren might not be
liable to be thrown out of home and have nothing to depend
upon.
Mr. Norton believed that by the proper expenditure of
ea|)ital on the land of this country the produce of it might be
doubled or trebled.
Mr. Lewis (Gurrey) advocated the provision of some
security for the tenant, saying a man could not be expected to
lay out a large sum of money on a farm while he was under
a six months' notice to quit.
Mr. Hauhils (I'enllyue) followed, quoting cases of tenants
who had been evicted after spending large amounts on im-
provements.
Mr. D. T. Morris highly approved of the bill, saying he
knew a case of a man who, after spending £3,000 on his
farm, had to leave, and did not receive a penny for his ex-
pendituie.
Mr. BoARDMAN expressed his approval of the bill.
Mr. J. L. I'liiLLiPS (l5olahaul) expressed his disapproval of
the bill, saying it was put on the shelf, and he hoped it would
never be revived. He did not agree with Mr. Norton as to
trebling the produce of this country. There was a certain
limit beyond which it was impossible to go. A great deal had
been said about bad landlords, but a man who had a good
tenant would be exceedingly foolish to give him notice to quit.
The Chairman said it was generally conceded that the
tenant should have compensation, and the question was what
means should be adopted to meet the views of both landlord
and tenant. He had always held that the tenant should have
a lease, for a man was not justified in investing money without
security, and one result of leases becoming general would be
increa,sed drainage. He was not an advocate of large farms ;
he did not believe that they could be worked satisfactorily in
this district, and there would be some difficulty in getting
men to occupy them.
Mr. Brouie briefly thanked the company, and touched
upon the various points which had been raised in the course
of the discussion.
THE COTTAGE HOMES OF ENGLAND.
" The Prince of Wales began, immediately after his marriage,
by building the Alexandra Cottages, a row of twelve dwellings,
built of Carr stone found on the estate, faced by white stone,
and each entered througli a pretty porch, with gardens in front
and rear. Eor these a rent of £i per year is paid by the
tenant. The cost of the erection of each was £195. The
Louise Cottages, built on the West Newton portion of the
estate, are only inferior to the Alexandra Cottages in outward
appearance; but they are also inferior in rent, and even their
outside is attractive tnough. They cost less than the Alexan-
dra Cottages, the money laidont for the erection of each being
only £14'0. For these the tenants pay a yearly rental of £3
10s. each. On the whole, the Sandringham Cottages produce
only about one and a half per cent, on the capital invested."
—ne Hour, May 13.
" The Cottage-homes of England,
How beautiful they stand ! "
(So once Felicia Hemanssang)
Throughout the lovely land !
By many a shining river-side
These happy homes are seen.
And clustering round the commons wide,
And 'neath the woodlands green.
The Cottage-homes of England — •
Alas, how strong they jmell !
There's fever in the cesspool.
And sewage in the well.
With ruddy cheeks and flaxen curls,
Though their tots shout and play,
The health of thase gay boys and girls
Too soon will pass away.
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
603
Tlie Cott ijje-lioiics of England !
Where e-icli crammed slepping-p!a:e
i!'oul air distils whose poison kills
Health, moQes'.) and grace.
'Wlio siahles horse, or liouselh kine,
As lliese poo.' peasants lie,
More thickly in their straw than swine
Are herded in a sty ?
Tiie Cottage-homes of England ! —
But may tiiey not be made
What Poetess Eelicia
In graceful verse portrayed ?
With chambers where a purer air
Tlie sleepers' lungs may bless.
And pretty porches, gardens fair ? —
The Prince of Wales says, " Yes."
The Cottage-homes of England,
Whose aspect makes men wince,
May turn to happy dwellings yet,
Witl\ landlords like the Prince :
Tlieu (luicker brain and readier arm,
And more strength better spent,
May add an economic charm
To less than two per cent.
The Cottage-homes of Eu^lau.l !
The toiler gay and blithe,
Wiio drinks his ale, and plies his llail,
And swings his sweeping scythe,
His sons and daughters, braced anew
Witii strength that nothing ails,
Will bless each Prince of landlords who
Does like the Prince of Wales.
— Punch
REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE
DURING THE PAST MONTH.
The month of May is oftea cold ia Eaglaad, with a
prevailing east wind ; but this year it has outdone its
predecessors in severity, with a frost so intense imme-
diately after the outbreak of summer on the third week of
April, that the early potatoes were quite cut down, the
young shoots of the trees and shrubs being blackened,
and much of the fruit, lately so full of promise, materially
thinued. The almost total absence of rain prevented a
good deal more mischief ; but this alone has become a
serious evil to the young spring corn and grass, neither of
which can be bountiful without genial showers in their
season. But we have now a change, and hope it will last.
Even the wheat on light, as well as poor heavy soils,
seems shaken, and our general prospects have become
materially changed. The fact is, we have had 5 degrees
more cold than for fifty years, and the fall of rain has I
been very scanty, and below our wants. It may, how-
ever, yet come steadily, and in [ilenty, and save the spring
crops and grass, though a sudden influx of wet and
warmth might send the wheat plant too much into straw.
Other countries, however, have not suffered to the same
exteut as England and France, for over Europe there has
been a fair distribution of showers welcomed by every
land. Prices during the four weeks have not materially
changed as regards wheat, as shown by the averages, both
in country and town fluctuating slightly v.ith the weather
and aspect of foreign markets, more especially those of
America, where changes have most occurred. But the
feature of the period has been the steady falling oiY of
native as vi-ell as foreign supplies, till we tind the latter
materially below our calculated necessities of one million
quarters per month. It is generally admitted there is now
little of native produce left in the country ; but the line
weather oveihcad has acted as a warning to millers, who
prefer taking hopeful views to paying too dear ; but
when we find two countries like France and England
with little of home-growth on hand, it is better to watch
events than he certain we are to have plenty up to next
harvest, when wheat is not in ear yet, even in the South
of the former country, and we know not how many
morning frosts are yet in store for vegetation. Foreign
stocks in London at the end of April were not equal to a
month of the vast city's consumption, which has been
estimated at over 5(3,000 qrs. in wheat weekly, and
though we are told there is a great falling olf in con-
sumption during the summer months, and with but a small
supply we shall ho'd out, it strikes us there will be but
little abatement of the appetite if frosty mornings
return. The following rates recently ruled at the places
named : Best native wheat, at Paris TOs. Gd., at Bordeaux
6S3. ; Berdianski at Maiseilles 681.; Ghirka at
same place C^s., top price in Belgium GOs. ; wheat at
Maestricht Cos., white Zealand at Rotterdam Gis., fine
at Hamburg G4s., Danish GGs. per qr., free on board. ;
red at Stettin SGs. Gd., at Berlin 58s. Gd., at Cologne 623. ;
at Konigsberg, high mixed, 59s., at Danzic GOs. ; best at
Pesth Gis. Gd. ; Ghirka at Odessa 52j.GJ.,; foreign red
at Zurich 73s., soft at Algiers G3s., hard at 57s., white in
Santandcr GOs., ditto at San Francisco, 57s. Gs., cost,
freight, and insurance per 500 lbs. Spring red at New
York 47s. 2d. per 480 lbs.
The first of these four weeks coinmcnces on ilonday,
27th of April. The Loudon market then o])ened with the
supplies of English wheat so short that they were ex-
ceeded by the exports, the foreign arrivals being at the
same time only moderate, and nearly half from the East
Indies. There was then very little wheat exhibited on
the Essex stands, aud almost nothing from Kent ;
yet, the morning being bright, millers were very shy
buyers, at the previous rates. Notwithstanding the falling
off of foreign, the demand for it was very slack, and it
would have been impossible to sell freely without accept-
ing some reduction in price. The arrivals olf the coast
being limited, there was no change in values. The wheat
trade in the ccnntry beiug first inlluencey by a sudden
outburst of summer, though speedily followed by cold,
generally evinced a retrograde movement, aud several
places gave way Is. per qr. — as Lynn, Melton Mowbray,
Kotherham, Sleaford, St. Ives, &c. ; while some weie
down la. to 2s. per qr. — as Spilsby and Shellield. Liver-
pool on T'uesday gave way Id. to 3d. per cental ; but re-
covered Id. on Friday, and several of the later markets
became firm, through the return of severe frost, and
some were dearer. Edinburgh and Leith gii\u way Is. pe •
qr., but Glasgow made no change. At Dublin the sale of
native wheat was slow, and foreign could not be placed
freely without some concession in prices.
The second Monday again opened on small native sup-
plies, with but a light increase on the foreign, a fair por-
tion beiug from Japan. The additional samples of the
morning on the Essex stands were limited, and the condi-
tion much improved by the drying winds and sun.
Factors commenced by asking higher rates; but soon
fouud this was lirmly resisted by millers, so they were
content to place their samples steadily at previous rates.
Foreign sorts had, however, a firmer aspect, prices being
dearer at New York, and red American made Is. per qr.
more money, but not very rcad:ly. There were few car-
goes olf the coast, and rates were maintained. The
change to severe cold and better toue of the Loudou
564
THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.
trade had its influence in the couutiy, and thoiv^h the
advance was not genera), there was au iniprovcir.cnt of
Is. per qr. at Birmingham, Gainsborough, Leeds, Eother-
ham, &c. Liverpool showed an upward movement of Id.
to 2d. per cental on Tuesday, but this was lost on Friday.
Glasgow was firm for wheat, and Edinburgh 6d. to Is. per
qr. dearer. Native wheat at Dublin tended upwards, as
well as foreign.
On the third Monday there was again a small supply
of native wheat, aud moderate arrivals from abroad,
chiefly from Danzig aud India. There were but few
fresh samples exhibited during the morning on the Essex
stands, but the condition was fair, yet only the previous
cm-rency could be realised, and that slowly. In foreign
less was doing than during the previous week, but prices
were nevertheless maintained. With increased arrivals
off the coast prices gave way Is. per qr. Though
cold weather ruled through the week, aud sup-
plies of native wheat at the country markets were
limited, prices generally remained about the same,
farmers steadily resisting a* decline where demanded ; but
at Liverpool prices were 3d. per cental down on Tuesday,
with a further reduction of Id. to 3J. on Friday. At
Edinburgh a reduction of Is. was accepted, and the ten-
dency was that way at Glasgow ; but no alteration was
noted at Aberdeen. At Dublin the prices of Irish wheat
were little more than nominal, and foreign pointed down-
wards, and was dull.
On the fourth Monday English supplies continued
small, but foreign were rather increased. But few fresh
samples appeared this morning on the Essex stands, but
business was very dull, it being the day of the Czar's
visit, and few people in attendance ; the quantity showing
was too small, however, to induce factors to accept
any reduction, so the little done was at previous rates.
The country markets this week made little change, but a
few were Is. cheaper. Liverpool on Tuesday was un-
altered for white wheat, but 2d. per cental cheaper for
red American.
The arrivals for four weeks into London were 15,856
qrs. English, 84.206 qrs. foreign, ag;iiiist 27,693 qrs.
English, 97,782 qrs. foreign in 1873. Exports from
Loudon 9,159 qrs. against 12,842 qrs. in 1873.
The London averages commenced at 64s., closing
at 65s. 2d. per qr. The imports into the kingdom for
four weeks ending 9th May were 2,106,992 cwts.
wheat, 436,439 cwts, flour, against 1,983,287 cwts.
wheat, 371,515 cwts. flour in 1873. The general
averages commenced at 60s. 6d., closing at 62s. 2d.
per qr.
The flour trade throughout the month has scarcely
changed the value of either country or foreign sorts, sim-
ply varying in firmness or briskness of demand with the
aspect of the wheat trade. Millers have made uo dif-
ference in the top price of town qualities, which has con-
tinued at 543., while the best country households have
been fetching 46s. to 47s. per sack. Extra fine barrels
have been worth about 333., extra State at New York
closing at 24s. 5d. per brl., and the best marks D at
Paris 82f., equal to 523. 8d. per 2801bs. The imports
into London for four weeks were 61,922 sacks
English, 25,389 sacks 10,884 barrels foreign, against
88,487 sacks English, 12,333 sacks 11,355 barrels
foreign, for the same period in 1873.
The barley trade has been better supplied in foreign
sorts, but English has been much reduced, aud very little
now appears to be left in farmers' hands; but the malting
season being closed it has mattered little. Foreign
grinding sorts have given way during the month about
Is. per qr., very fair quality being procurable at 343. to
to 35s., and those for distillation at 40s. to 443. Prices
have materially risen on the Continent, and have kept
high in France, where the best has been worth 443. per
qr. The imports for four weeks into London were
6,327 qrs. British, 57,575 qrs. foreign, against 1,293 qrs.
British, 28,088 qrs. foreign in 1873.
The malt trade has been firm through the month, and
gained about Is. in value, extra fine being very scarce,
aud worth 80s. to 82s. per qr. Stocks generally are very
limited.
Of maize there have been more free supplies, and a
reduction of Is. to 2s. has been the consequence in mixed
American ; but round sorts for poultry have still been
high prif^ed, say 41s. to 43s., though American has sold
with difficulty, at 383. to 39s. per qr. The London im-
ports in four weeks were 39,000 qrs., against 21,146 qrs.
for the same period in 1873.
Of English oats the supplies have been very limited, of
Scotch still more so, and of Irish nothing has come for-
ward, but the foreign arrivals have materially increased
since the opening of the Baltic. Fine sweet heavy old
as well as new corn has become very scarce and dear,
381bs. being worth 25s. 6d. to 26s., but inferior Russian
and damp new Swedes have given way in value 6d. to 9d.
per qr., the same weight not being worth over 24s.
There is, however, such a large demand, and prices have
so generally risen on the Continent, that there is little
chance of their receding materially before harvest : 41 to
421bs. at Paris are worth 30s. 6d., and several other Con-
tinental ports. The imports into London for four weeks
were 1,808 qrs. English, 170 qrs. Scotch, 180,564 qrs.
foreign, against 1,958 qrs. English, 195,257 qrs. foreign
for the same time in 1873.
Of beans the entire supplies have been limited, both
English and foreign, and as the long continuance of dry
weather is considered to be very much against the crop
prices have risen about 2s. to Ss., with a brisk demand,
there seeming to be but little left in the country, foreign
supplies being short. Fine han-ows have become worth
48s. to 49s., small to 523., Egyptian to 45s., French 453.
to 463., and Barbary 45s. to 46s. The rise in maize is
calculated to keep up this pulse, it being so much heavier
and more nutritious for cattle. The imports into London
for four weeks were 1,920 qrs. English, 1,829 qrs. foreign,
against 1,694 qrs. English, 4,229 qrs. foreign in 1873.
English peas have become still more scarce, and had
they been equally in demand would have advanced still
more, but the high rates for hog- feeding sorts limit the
trade, 45s. to 463. being asked for common dun, and 47s.
for maples, while white have only been worth 45s. to
46s. The London imports for four weeks were 439 qrs.
English, 2,252 qrs. foreign, nearly all white, against 400
qrs. English, 4,022 qrs. foreign in 1873.
Of linseed the supplies have been moderate, and prices
very steaay, with a continued demand for cake at full
rates. Receipts 33,687 qrs., against 13,395 qrs. in 1873.
A small full-priced ti'ade has been going on in
cloversced, from the inclemency of the weather and au
opinion against a future crop, but stocks are very light
and below the attention of large speculators.
END OF VOLUME.
Prhited by Watson and Hazbli, 265, Strand, London,
LONDON AND COUNTY BAiNKING COMPANY.
ESTABLISHED 1836.
SUBSCRIBED CAPITAL... £3,000,000, in 60,000 SHARES of £50 EACH.
PAID-UP CAPITAL... £1,196,880; INSTALMENTS UNPAID, £3,120 (£1,200,000).
RESERVE FUND (paid up)... £598,440; INSTALMENTS UNPAID, £1,560 (£600,000).
NATHANIEL ALEXANDER, Esq.
T. TYRINGHAM BERNARD, Esq.
THOMAS STOCK COWIE, Esq.
FREDERICK FRANCIS, Esq.
Joint General Manageks-
CHIEP INSPECTOR.
W. J. NORFOLK, Esq.
DIRECTORS.
FREDERICK HARRISON, Esq.
WM. CHAMPION JONES, Esq.
E. HARBORD LUSHINGTON, Esq.
JAMES MORLEY, Esq.
WILLIAM McKEWAN, Esq. and WHITBREAD TOMSON, Esq
CHIEF ACCOUNTANT. SECRETARY.
WILLIAM NICOL, Esq.
A. HODGSON PHILLFOTTS, Esq.
JAMES DUNCAN THOMSON, Esq.
FREDERICK YOULE, Esq.
JAMES GRAY, Esq.
GEORGE GOUGH, Esq.
HEAD OFFICE, 21,
Manager— WHITBREAD TOMSON, Esq. |
LOMBARD STREET.
Assistant Manager— WILLIAM HOWARD, Esq.
THE LONDON AND COUNTY BANK opens—
DRAWING ACCOUNTS with Commercial Houses and Private Individuals, either upon the plan usually adopted by
other Bankers, or by charging a small Commission to those persons to whom it may not be convenient to sustain an agreed
Permanent Balance.
DEPOSIT ACCOUNTS. — Deposit Receipts are issued for sums of Money placed upon these Accounts, and Interest is
allowed for such periids and at such rates as may be asjree i upon, reference being had to the state of the Money Market.
CIRCULAR NOTES AND LETTERS OF ORBDIT are issued, payable in the principal Cities and Towns of the Con«
tinent, in Australia, Canada, India, and China, the United States, and elsewhere.
The Agency of Foreign and Country Banks is undertaken.
The PuBCHASB and Sale of Government and other Stocks, ot Enghsh or Foreign Shares eflTected, and Divij>bhd8,
AwiruiTiBS, &c , received for Customers of the Bank.
Great facilities are also aflforded to the Customers of the Bank fcr the receipt of Money from the Towns where the Coai-
pamy has Branches.
The Officers of the Bank are bound not to disclose the transactions of any of its Customers.
By Order ol the Directors, WM. McKEWAN, ") Joint General
WHITBREAD TOMSON, i Managers.
rn HOMAS BIGG, Agricultural and Veteriuary
I Chemist, by Appointment to his late Royal Highness
The Prince Consort, K.G., Leicester House, Great Dover
Street, Borough, London, begs to call the attention of
Farmers and Graziers to his valuable SHEEP and LAMB
DIPPING COMPOSITION, which requires no Boiling, and
may be used with Warm or Cold Water, for effectually
destroying the Tick, Lice, and all other insects injurious to
the Flock, preventing the alarmmg attacks of Fly and Shab,
and cleansing and purifying the Skin, thereby greatly im-
proving the Wool, both in quantity and quality, and highly
Oontribnting to the general health of the animal.
Prepared only by Thomas Bigg, Chemist, &c., at his Manu-
factory as above, and sold as lollows, although any other
quantity may be bad, if required: —
1 lb. for 20 sheep, price. Jar included £0
IMPORTANT TO FLOCKMASTERS.
He would also especially call attention to his SPECIFIC,
or LOTION, for the SCAB or SHAB, which will be found
a certain remedy for eradicating that loathsome and ruinous
disorder in Sheep, and which may be safely used in aU
climates, and at all seasons of the year, and to all descriptions
of sheep, even ewes in lamb.' Price FIVE SHILLINGS per
gallon — sufficient on an average for thirty Sheep (according
to the virulence of the disease) ; also in wine qiiart bottles,
IMPORTANT TESTIMONIAL.
" Scoulton, near Hingham, Norfolk, April 16th, 1865.
"Dear Sir, — In answer to yours ot the ith inst., which
would have been replied to before this had I been at home, I
have much pleasure in bearing testimony to the efficacy of
your invaluable ' Specific for the cure of Scab in Sheep.' The
600 sheep were all dressed in August last with 84 gallons of
the ' NoN-poisoNous Specific,' that was so highly recom-
mended at the Lincoln Show, and by their own dresser, the
best attention being paid to the flock oy my shepherd after
dressing according to instructions left ; but notwithstanding
the Scab continued getting worse. Being determined to have
the Scab cured if possible, I wrote to you for a supply of your
Specific, which I received the followuig day; and although
the weather was most severe in Februai y during the dressing,
your S-PECiFic proved itself an invaluable remedy, for in
three weeks the Sheep were cjuite cure I ; and I am happy to
say the young lambs are doing remarkably well at present.
Ill conclusion, I believe it to be the safest and best remedy
now in use. " I remain, dear Hir,
"For JOHN TINGEY, Esq.,
" To Mr. Thomas Bigg. ' " R. RENNEY.
8-)?" Flockmasters would be well to beware of such pre-
parations as "Non-poisonous Compositions:" it is only
necessarj- to appeal to their good common sense and judg-
ment to be thoroughly convinced that no "Non-poisonous"
article can poison or destroy insect vennin, particularly such
as the Tick, Lice, and Scab Parasites— creatures so tenacious
of life. Such advertised preparations must be wholly useless,
or they are not what they are lepreseuled to be.
DIPPING APPARATUS £14, £5, £i, &. £3.
61b.
30 ,
81b.
40 ,
101b.
50 ,
201b.
100 ,
301b.
150 .
401b.
200 ,
501b.
250 ,
601b,
300 ,
801b.
400 ,
100 lb.
600 ,
(Cask and measure
included)
0 10
0 15
0
Should any Flockmaster prefer bnUing the Composition, it
will be equally effective.
MOST IMPORTANT CERTIFICATE.
From Mr. Hebepath, the celebrated Analytical Chemist :—
Bristol Laboratory, Old Park, January 18th, 1861.
Sir, — I have submitted your Sheep Dipping (Composition to
analysis, and find that the ingredients are well blended, and
the mixture neutral. If it is used according to the directions
^ven, I feel satisfied, that while it effectually destroys vermin.
It will not injure the hair roots (or "yolk ") in the skin, the
fleece, or the carcase. I think it deserves the numerous
testimonials published. I am, Sir, yours respectfully,
William Hkbapath, Sen., P.C.S., &c., Ac,
To Mr. Thomas Bigg Professor of Chemistry.
Leicester House, Great i/over-strect. Borough, London.
MArGHES.
HAIL STORMS.
THE ROYAL FARMERS' COMPANY,
No. 3, NORFOLK STREET, STRAND, LONDON,
INSURES
WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, BEANS, PEAS, & OTHER CROPS,
AGAINST
LOSS BY HAIL STORMS AT
EIVEPENCE PER ACRE.
SEEDS and GLASS are also Insured.
FIRE Insurances at rates as low as other well-established Offices.
UFE Assurances of any description at equitable rates* Four-fiftns of the profits divided
every Fifth Year.
LOSSES. — Piompt and Liberal settlement of claims.
Further particulars may be had ut the Chief Office, or of the Agents.
JOHN SHARP, Secretary.
\
Mli